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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Christology of the Old Testament: And a
+Commentary on the Messianic Predictions, by Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Christology of the Old Testament: And a Commentary on the Messianic Predictions, v. 1
+
+Author: Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg
+
+Translator: Theodore Meyer
+
+Release Date: November 6, 2009 [EBook #30410]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRISTOLOGY OF OLD TESTAMENT, V.1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Bowen (produced from scanned images
+of public domain material from Google Books)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: Images taken from the 1868 edition, found at
+Books.Google.com., is the source of the text used for this ebook.
+
+Unclear or missing punctuation marks were corrected by reference
+to the 1854 edition of this work.
+
+Superscripts are preceded by a caret (^), e.g. 2^a, 2(superscript "a").
+
+Greek and Hebrew words are transcribed using the Unicode format.]
+
+
+
+[Pg 1]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                                CLARK'S
+
+
+                                FOREIGN
+
+
+                          THEOLOGICAL LIBRARY
+
+
+
+                             SECOND SERIES.
+                                 VOL. I.
+
+
+
+            Hengstenberg's Christology of the Old Testament.
+                                 VOL. I.
+
+
+
+                               EDINBURGH:
+                    T. & T. CLARK, 38, GEORGE STREET.
+            LONDON: J. GLADDING. DUBLIN: JOHN ROBERTSON & CO.
+
+                              MDCCCLXVIII.
+
+
+[Pg 2]
+
+
+
+
+                       MURRAY AND GIBB, EDINBURGH,
+              PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE.
+
+[Pg 3]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHRISTOLOGY
+
+                                   OF
+
+                           THE OLD TESTAMENT,
+
+                                  AND A
+
+                  COMMENTARY ON THE MESSIANIC PREDICTIONS
+
+
+
+                                   BY
+                           E. W. HENGSTENBERG,
+                   DR. AND PROF. OF THEOL. IN BERLIN.
+
+
+
+                    SECOND EDITION, GREATLY IMPROVED.
+
+
+
+                       Translated from the German,
+                                 BY THE
+                          REV. THEODORE MEYER.
+
+
+                                VOLUME I.
+
+
+                               EDINBURGH:
+                   T. AND T. CLARK, 38, GEORGE STREET.
+        LONDON: HAMILTON, ADAMS, & CO. DUBLIN: JOHN ROBERTSON & CO.
+
+                              MDCCCLXVIII.
+
+[Pg 4]
+[Blank page]
+
+[Pg 5]
+
+
+
+
+                            LIST OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                Page
+
+Translator's Preface,                                              7
+Author's Preface,                                                  9
+The Messianic Prophecies in the Pentateuch,                       11
+The Protevangelium,                                               14
+The Blessing of Noah upon Shem and Japheth, Gen. ix. 18-27,       30
+The Promise to the Patriarchs, Gen. xii. 1-3,                     46
+The Blessing of Jacob upon Judah, Gen. xlix. 8-10,                57
+Balaam's Prophecy, Num. xxiv. 17-19,                              98
+Moses' Promise of the Prophet, Deut. xviii. 15-19,               104
+The Angel of the Lord in the Pentateuch and Book of Joshua,      115
+    Gen. xvi. 13,                                                117
+    Gen. xviii. and xix.,                                        119
+    Gen. xxxi. 11 seqq.,                                         122
+    Gen. xxxii. 24,                                              123
+    Gen. xlviii. 15, 16,                                         125
+    Exod. xxiii. 20, 21,                                         126
+    Exod. xxxii. and xxxiii.,                                    127
+    Joshua v. and vi.,                                           128
+The Promise in 2 Sam. vii.,                                      130
+Messianic Psalms,                                                149
+2 Sam. xxiii. 1-7,                                               152
+The Song of Solomon,                                             159
+Messianic Predictions in the Prophets,                           162
+  The Prophet Hosea.
+    General Preliminary Remarks,                                 165
+    The Section, Chap. i.-iii.,                                  184
+    Chap. i.-ii. 3,                                              197
+    Chap. ii. 4-25,                                              230
+    Chap. iii.,                                                  273
+  The Prophet Joel.
+    General Preliminary Remarks,                                 291
+    Chap. i.-ii. 17,                                             302
+    On chap. ii. 23,                                             325
+    Chap. iii.,                                                  331
+  The Prophet Amos.
+    General Preliminary Remarks,                                 352
+    Chap. ix.,                                                   363
+  The Prophecy of Obadiah,                                       399
+  The Prophet Jonah,                                             407
+[Pg 6]
+  The Prophet Micah.
+    General Preliminary Remarks,                                 413
+    Chap. i. and ii.,                                            424
+    Chap. iii. and iv.,                                          440
+    Chap. v. 1,                                                  479
+  History of the Interpretation.
+    1. Among the Jews,                                           490
+    2. Among the Christians,                                     499
+    The Quotation in Matt. ii. 6,                                504
+    Chap. v. 2-14,                                               513
+    Chap. vi. and vii.,                                          521
+
+[Pg 7]
+
+
+
+
+                          TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
+
+
+The Translator avails himself of his privilege of offering a few
+prefatory words, chiefly in order to express the deep obligation under
+which he lies to the Rev. John Laing, Librarian in the New College,
+Edinburgh, for the valuable assistance which he afforded to him in the
+translation of this work. Any observation on the work itself or its
+Author would be superfluous, if not presumptuous, considering the high
+position which Dr Hengstenberg holds as a Biblical Scholar. High,
+however, as this position is, the Translator feels confident that it
+will be raised by the present work, the Author's _latest_ and _first_;
+and not only revering Dr Hengstenberg as a beloved Teacher, but being
+under many obligations to him for proofs of personal kindness and
+friendship, the Translator sincerely rejoices in this prospect.
+
+As regards the translation itself, it was the Translator's aim to bring
+out fully the Author's meaning. This object, which ought to be the
+first in every translation, has been kept steadily in view, and
+preferred to all others. In rendering Dr Hengstenberg's translation of
+Scripture-passages, the expressions in our Authorized Version have, as
+far as possible, been retained. Wherever the division of the text in
+the latter differed from that of the original text, it has been added
+in a parenthesis; an exception in this respect having been made in
+quotations from the Psalms only, in which this difference is almost
+constant, the inscriptions not being counted in our English Version,
+while they are in the Hebrew Text.
+
+     Edinburgh, January 1854.
+
+[Pg 8]
+
+[Blank page]
+
+[Pg 9]
+
+
+
+
+                          THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
+
+
+The first edition of the Christology, although the impression was
+unusually large, had been for years out of print. It was impossible
+that the work could appear a second time in its original form. The
+first volume of it--written twenty-five years ago--was a juvenile
+performance, to which the Author himself had become rather a stranger;
+and the succeeding volumes required references to, and comparisons
+with, a large number of publications which subsequently appeared. But
+for the remodelling and revising which these circumstances rendered
+necessary, the Author could not find leisure, because new tasks were
+ever and anon presenting themselves to him; and these he felt himself,
+as it were, involuntarily impelled to undertake. But now he is led to
+believe that he could no longer delay. A powerful inclination urges him
+to comment on the Gospel of St John; but he thinks that the right to
+gratify this inclination must first be purchased by him by answering a
+call which proceeds from the more immediate sphere of his vocation, and
+which he is the less at liberty to disregard, as manifold facts give
+indication that the Christology has not yet completed its course. The
+Author dislikes to return to regions which have been already visited by
+him. He prefers the opening up to himself of paths which are new. It
+cost him therefore, at first, no little struggle to devote himself for
+years to the work of mere revision and emendation; but very soon, even
+here, he learned the truth of the proverb: "If there be obedience in
+the heart, love will soon enter."
+
+The arrangement in the present edition differs from that which was
+adopted in the former. It bears a closer resemblance to that which has
+been followed in the Commentaries on the Psalms, Revelation, and the
+Song of Solomon. The work opens with a discussion and commentary on
+the particular Messianic prophecies, in their historical order and
+connection. The general investigations with which, in the first
+edition, the work commenced, are, in the present edition, to appear in
+the form [Pg 10]of comprehensive treatises, at the close. The latter
+have thus obtained a more solid foundation; while the objections which
+might be raised against this arrangement will have force only until the
+completion of the whole, which, if it please the Lord, will not be very
+long delayed. The reader will then, of course, be at liberty, before he
+enters upon the particular portions, to go over, cursorily in the
+meantime, the closing treatises,--the proper study of which will be
+appropriate, however, only after he has made himself acquainted with
+the particular portions of the main body of the work.
+
+The matter of the two sections of the first part has been entirely
+rewritten. That of the two last parts appears more as a revisal
+only,--so executed, however, that not a single line has been reprinted
+without a renewed and careful examination.
+
+The Author shall take care that the new edition shall not exceed the
+former one in size. The space intended to be occupied by the enlarged
+discussions, and by the new investigations, will be gained by
+omissions. These, however, will be limited to such matters as now
+clearly appear to be superfluous; _so that the old will not retain any
+value when compared with the new edition._ The Author, had he pursued
+his usual method of representation, would have curtailed many points,
+particularly the history of the interpretation. But the mode of
+treating the subject which he had previously adopted, is not without
+its advantages, and has a certain right to be retained. The former
+character of the work, in so far as the avoidance of everything
+properly ascetic is concerned, has been, in the present edition, also
+retained.
+
+Scientific Theology is at present threatened by serious dangers in our
+Church. Works of an immediately practical interest more and more
+exclusively occupy the noblest minds, since the problems which present
+themselves in this field are indeed unfathomable. But the Lord of the
+Church will take care that an excellent gift, which He has bestowed
+upon German Christendom especially, shall not, for any length of time,
+continue to be neglected. If such were to be the case, a more general
+decay would be gradually brought on; and even those interests would be
+injured to which at present, with a zeal, noble indeed, but little
+thoughtful, solid theological learning is sacrificed.
+
+"Not unto us, O Lord, not unto us, but to Thy name give glory."
+
+[Pg 11]
+
+
+
+
+               THE MESSIANIC PROPHECIES IN THE PENTATEUCH.
+
+
+In the Messianic prophecies contained in Genesis we cannot fail to
+perceive a remarkable progress in clearness and definiteness.
+
+The first Messianic prediction, which was uttered immediately after the
+fall of Adam, is also the most indefinite. Opposed to the awful
+threatening there stands the consolatory promise, that the dominion of
+sin, and of the evil arising from sin, shall not last for ever, but
+that the seed of the woman shall, at some future time, overthrow their
+dreaded conqueror. With the exception of the victory itself, everything
+is here left undetermined. We are told neither the mode in which it is
+to be achieved, nor whether it shall be accomplished by some peculiarly
+gifted race, or family of the progeny of the woman, or by some single
+individual from among her descendants. There is nothing more than a
+very slight hint that the latter will be the case.
+
+After the destruction of a whole sinful world, when only Noah with his
+three sons had been left, the _general_ promise is, to a certain
+extent, defined. Deliverance is to come from the descendants of Shem;
+Japhet shall become a partaker of this deliverance; Ham is passed over
+in silence.
+
+The prophecy becomes still more definite when the Lord begins to
+prepare the way for the appearance of this deliverance, by separating
+from the corrupt mass a single individual--Abraham--in order to make
+him the depositary of His revelations. The Lord, moreover, according to
+the good pleasure of His will, further specifies which of the
+descendants of Abraham, to the exclusion of all the rest, is to inherit
+this dignity, with all its accompanying blessings. From among the
+posterity of Shem, the Lord sets apart first the family of Abraham,
+then that of [12] Isaac, and lastly that of Jacob, as the family from
+which salvation is to come. Yet even these predictions, distinct though
+they be when compared with those previously uttered, are still very
+indefinite when compared with those subsequently given, and when seen
+in the light of the actual fulfilment. Even in these, the blessing only
+is foretold, but not its author. It still remained a matter of
+uncertainty whether salvation should be extended to all the other
+nations of the earth through a single individual, or through an entire
+people descended from the Patriarchs. The former is obscurely
+indicated; but the mode in which the blessing was to be imparted was
+left in darkness.
+
+This obscurity is partially removed by the last Messianic prophecy
+contained in Gen. xlix. 10. After what had previously taken place, we
+might well expect that the question as to which of Jacob's twelve sons
+should have the privilege of becoming the source of deliverance to the
+whole earth, would not be left undetermined; nor could we imagine that
+Jacob, when, just before his death, and with the spirit of a prophet,
+he transferred to his sons the promises which had been given to his
+ancestors and himself, should have passed over in silence the most
+important part of them. On the contrary, by being transferred to Judah,
+the promise of the Messiah acquires not only the expected limitation,
+but an unexpected increase of clearness and precision. Here, for the
+first time, the _person_ of the Messiah is brought before us; here also
+the _nature_ of His kingdom is more distinctly pointed out by His being
+represented as the peaceful one, and the peacemaker who will unite,
+under His mild sceptre, all the nations of the whole earth. Judah is,
+in this passage, placed in the centre of the world's history; he shall
+obtain dominion, and not lose it until it has been realized to its
+fullest extent by means of the _Shiloh_ descending from him, to whom
+all the nations of the earth shall render a willing obedience.
+
+The subject-matter of the last four books of the Pentateuch would
+naturally prevent us from expecting that the Messianic prophecies
+should occupy so prominent a place in them as they do in Genesis. The
+object contemplated in these books is rather to prepare effectually the
+way for the Messiah, by laying the theocratic institutions on a firm
+foundation, and by establishing the law which is intended to produce
+the knowledge of sin, and [Pg 13]to settle discipline, and by means of
+which the image of God is to be impressed on the whole national life.
+If the hope of the Messiah was to be realized in a proper manner, and
+to produce its legitimate effect, it was necessary that the people
+should first be accustomed to this new order of life; that, for the
+present, their regards should not be too much drawn away from this
+their proximate and immediate vocation. Yet, even in the last four
+books there are not wanting allusions to Him who, as the end of the
+law, was, from the very beginning, to be set before the eyes of the
+people.
+
+In Num. xxiv. 17-19, Balaam beholds an Israelitish kingdom raised
+absolutely above the kingdoms of the world, extending over the whole
+earth, and all-powerful; and he sees it in the form of an _ideal_ king,
+with reference to Jacob's prophecy contained in Gen. xlix. 10,
+according to which the kingdom rising in Judah shall find its full and
+final realization in the person of one king--the Messiah.
+
+We have here the future King of the Jews saluted from the midst of the
+heathen world, corresponding to the salutation of the manifested one by
+the wise men from the East: compare Matt. ii. 1, 2.
+
+From the whole position of Moses in the economy of the revelations of
+God, it is, _a priori_, scarcely conceivable that he should have
+contented himself with communicating a prophecy of the Messiah uttered
+by a non-Israelite. We expect that, as a prefiguration of the testimony
+which, in the presence of the chief among the apostles, he bore to the
+Messiah after He had appeared (compare Matt. xvii. 3), he should, on
+his own behalf, testify his faith in Him, and direct the people to Him.
+This testimony we have in Deut. xviii. 15-19. It is natural that Moses'
+attestation should have reference to Christ in so far as He is his
+antitype. He bears witness to Christ as the true Prophet, as the
+Mediator of the divine revelation--thus enlarging the slender
+indications of Christ's prophetical office given in Gen. xlix. 10. A
+new and important feature of Messianic prophecy is here, for the first
+time, brought forward; and because of this, the character of the
+prophecy is that of a germ. Behind the person of the future Prophet,
+which is as yet _ideal_, the _real_ person of Him who is the Prophet in
+an absolute sense, is, in the meantime, concealed. It is reserved for
+the future development [Pg 14]of the prophetic prediction to separate
+that which is here beheld as still blended in a single picture.
+
+_Finally_, the doctrine of the Divine Mediator of the unseen God, of
+the Angel of the Lord, or of the Logos, which forms the theological
+foundation for the Christology, is already found pervading the Books of
+Moses.
+
+After this survey, we now proceed to an exposition of the particular
+passages.
+
+
+                          THE PROTEVANGELIUM.
+
+As the mission of Christ was rendered necessary by the fall of man, so
+the first dark intimation of Him was given immediately after the fall.
+It is found in the sentence of punishment which was passed upon the
+tempter. Gen. iii. 14, 15. A correct understanding of it, however, can
+be obtained only after we have ascertained who the tempter was.
+
+It is, in the first place, unquestionable that a real serpent was
+engaged in the temptation; so that the opinion of those who maintain
+that the serpent is only a symbolical signification of the evil spirit,
+cannot be admitted.[1] There must be unity and uniformity in the
+interpretation of a connected passage. But the allegorical
+interpretation of the _whole_ is rendered impossible by the following
+considerations:--The passage stands in a book of a strictly historical
+character; it is connected with what follows, where the history of the
+same pair who, in this section appear as actors, is carried forward;
+the condition of mankind announced to them in this passage as a
+punishment, actually exists; there is the absence of every indication
+from which it might be inferred that the author intended to write an
+allegory, and not a history; there exist various passages of the New
+Testament (_e.g._, 2 Cor. xi. 3; 1 Tim. ii. 13, 14; Rom. v. 12), in
+which the context of the passage before us is referred to as a real
+historical fact;--and there are the embarrassment, ambiguity, and
+arbitrariness shown by the allegorical interpreters whenever they
+attempt to exhibit the truth intended to be conveyed; whereas
+perspicuity is a characteristic essential to an allegory.--The subtlety
+of the [Pg 15] serpent, pointed out in chap. iii. 1, is a natural
+attribute of that animal; and the comparison, in this respect, of the
+serpent with the other beasts, clearly indicates that a real serpent is
+spoken of. To such an one the denunciation of the punishment must
+necessarily, in the first instance, be referred. The last two reasons
+also exclude the opinion that Satan assumed merely the semblance of a
+serpent.
+
+The serpent itself cannot, however, have acted independently; it can
+only have served as an instrument to the evil spirit. The position
+which the serpent would occupy, in the event of our considering it as
+the self-acting, independent seducer, would be in direct contradiction
+to the position assigned to the animal creation throughout Holy
+Scripture--especially in the history of the creation--and would break
+down the limits which, according to it, separate man and beast. By
+such an assumption we should be transferred from the Israelitish
+territory--which is distinguished by the most sharply defined
+limitations of the respective spheres of God, angels, men, and
+beasts--to the heathenish, were these are all mixed up together, and
+where all the distinctions disappear in the confusion. Such a fact
+would be altogether isolated and without a parallel in Holy Scripture.
+Nor is it legitimate to adduce the argument, that the conditions and
+circumstances of the paradisaic period were different from those of
+subsequent times. It is indeed true, according to the statements
+contained in the Mosaic account itself, that the animal world of that
+time was different from that of the present; but whatever, and how
+great soever, this difference may have been, it had no reference to the
+fundamental relation of the beasts; and hence we cannot, from it,
+explain the high intellectual powers with which the serpent appears
+endowed, and by the abuse of which it succeeded in seducing men. Man,
+as the only being on earth created in the likeness and image of God,
+is, in Gen. i., strictly distinguished from all other living beings,
+and invested with the dominion over them. Into man alone did God
+breathe the breath of life (ii. 7); and, according to ii. 19, 20, man
+recognises the great gulf which is fixed betwixt him and the world of
+beasts. This gulf would be entirely filled up, the serpent would
+altogether step beyond the sphere appointed by the Creator to the world
+of beasts, if there were no _background_ in Gen. iii. 1-5. _Further_,
+The words [Pg 16] of the serpent are an effect of wickedness: they
+raise in man doubts as to the love of God, in order thereby to seduce
+him to apostasy, and bring about the execution upon him of the fearful
+threatening, "On the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely
+die." The serpent does not stand in the truth; it speaks lies; it
+represents to man as the highest good, that which in truth is the
+highest evil. Such language cannot proceed spontaneously from a being,
+the creation of which falls within the work of the six days during
+which the whole animal creation was made. For everything created within
+this space of time was _good_, according to the remark constantly
+repeated in the history of creation. To this we must add the nature of
+the curse itself, in which a higher reference to an invisible author of
+the temptation shines clearly through the lower reference to the
+visible one; and, further, the remark in iii. 1, "Now the serpent was
+more subtle," etc., evidently points to something beyond the natural
+subtlety of the serpent, as the result of which the subsequent words
+cannot be understood, but behind which we may discover the intimation:
+let him who reads, understand.
+
+The view, that the serpent was the sole independent agent in this
+transaction, is thus refuted by internal reasons. It is set aside by
+the testimony of tradition also. It was an opinion universally
+prevalent among the Jews, that Satan himself had been active in the
+temptation of the first man. It is found in _Philo_; and in the Book of
+Wisdom, ii. 24, it is said, "By the envy of _Satan_, death came into
+the world." In the later Jewish writings, _Sammael_, the head of the
+evil spirits, is called הנחש הקדמוני "the old serpent," or simply נחש
+"serpent," because in the form of a serpent he tempted Eve. (See the
+passage in _Eisenmenger's entdecktes Judenthum_ i. S. 822.) In the
+sacred books of the Persians also, the agency of Satan in the fall of
+our first parents is taught. According to the _Zendavesta_ (ed. by
+_Kleuker_, Th. 3, S. 84, 85), the first men, Meshia and Meshianeh, were
+created by God in a state of purity and goodness, and destined for
+happiness, on condition of humility of heart, obedience to the
+requirements of the law, and purity in thoughts, words, and actions.
+But they were deceived by Ahriman, "this mischievous one who from the
+beginning sought only to deceive, were induced to rebel against God,
+and forfeited their happiness by the eating of fruits." According to
+the same book (Th. iii. [Pg 17] S. 62), Ahriman in the form of a
+serpent springs down from heaven to earth; and another evil spirit is
+called (Th. ii. S. 217) the serpent--_Dew._ (Compare _Rhode_, _die
+heilige Sage des Zendvolkes_, S. 392.) These facts prove that at the
+time when the Persian religion received Jewish elements (compare
+_Stuhr_, _die Religionssysteme des Orientes_, S. 373), and hence, soon
+after the captivity, the doctrine of Satan's agency in the temptation
+of our first parents was prevalent among the Jews.
+
+But of decisive weight upon this point is the evidence furnished by the
+New Testament. We must here above all consider the important testimony
+supplied by the fact of the history of the first and second Adam being
+parallel (Rom. v. 12 sqq.; 1 Cor. xv. 45 sqq.),--a testimony, the
+weight and importance of which have, in modern times, been again
+pointed out by _Hahn_ in his _Dogmatik_. The necessity of Christ's
+temptation by the prince of this world, in order that He, by His firm
+resistance, might deprive him of his dominion over mankind, indicates
+that Adam was assailed by the same tempter, and, by being overcome,
+laid the foundation of that dominion.
+
+Among the express verbal testimonies of the New Testament, we must
+first consider the declarations of the Lord Himself; and among these
+the passage John viii. 44 requires, above all, to be examined. In that
+passage the Lord says: ὑμεῖς ἐκ τοῦ πατρὸς τοῦ διαβόλου ἐστὲ, καὶ τὰς
+ἐπιθυμίας τοῦ πατρὸς ὑμῶν θέλετε ποιεῖν. Ἑκεῖνος ἀνθρωποκτόνος ἦν ἀπ᾽
+ἀρχῆς, καὶ ἐν τῆ ἀληθείᾳ οὐχ ἕστηκεν· ὅτι οὐκ ἔστιν ἀλήθεια ἐν αὐτῷ. Ὅταν
+λαλῇ τὸ ψεῦδος, ἐκ τῶν ἰδίων λαλεῖ· ὅτι ψεύστης ἐστὶ καὶ ὁ πατὴρ αὐτοῦ.
+There is, indeed, an element of truth in the opinion, that Satan is in
+this passage called the murderer of men from the beginning, with
+reference to the murder by Cain--an opinion lately brought forward
+again by _Nitzsch_, _Lücke_, and others. This is evident from a
+comparison of 1 John iii. 12, 15, and of Rev. xii. 3. (See my
+commentary on this passage.) Moreover, the words in ver. 40, "Ye seek
+to kill Me," have a more direct parallelism in Cain's murder of his
+brother, than in the death which Satan brought upon our first parents;
+although it is altogether wrong to maintain, as _Lücke_ does, that
+Satan at that time committed only a _spiritual_ murder, which could not
+have come under notice. Bodily death also came upon mankind through the
+[Pg 18] temptation. (Compare Gen. ii. 17, iii. 19; Wisd. ii. 24; Rom.
+v. 12.) But when the reference to Cain's slaying his brother is brought
+forward as the sole, or even as the principal one, we must absolutely
+reject it. Cain's murder of his brother comes into consideration only
+as an effect of the evil principle which was introduced into human
+nature by the first temptation; as, indeed, it appears in the book of
+Genesis itself as the fruit of the poisonous tree, the planting of
+which is detailed in chap. iii. The same murderous spirit which
+impelled Satan to bring man under the dominion of death by the lie, "Ye
+shall not surely die," was busy in Cain also, and seduced him to slay
+his pious brother. The following reasons forbid an exclusive reference
+to the deed of Cain:--1. The murdering of man by Satan is brought into
+the closest connection with his _lie_. In connection with Cain's deed,
+however, there was not even the appearance of falsehood; while, in the
+case before us, lies, false and deceitful promises of high blessings to
+be attained, and the raising of suspicions against God, were the very
+means by which he seduced man, and brought him under the power of sin.
+The words of Jesus, when they are understood according to their
+simple meaning, carry us back to an event in the primitive times,
+in which murder and the spirit of falsehood went hand in hand. 2. The
+co-operation of Satan in Cain's deed is not expressly mentioned in
+Genesis. That there was any such we can with certainty infer, only if
+this event be viewed in close connection with what Satan did against
+our first parents,--if, behind the serpent, Satan be concealed.
+Whensoever Jesus has to deal with Jews, He does not teach any
+mysterious doctrines, but makes an open appeal to the events narrated
+in Scripture. 3. The words, "Ye are of your father the devil," point to
+the seed of the serpent spoken of in Gen. iii. 15. 4. The words, "From
+the beginning," direct to an event which happened at the first
+beginnings of mankind, and in which our first parents took a part.
+Whatever this may be, the event in question must be the first in which
+the devil manifested himself as the murderer of man. Now, as by the
+Jews of that time the temptation of the first man, in consequence of
+which death entered the world, was attributed to sin--and this appears
+not only from what has been already said, but also from a passage in
+the _Sohar Chadash_, referred to by _Tholuck_, in which the wicked are
+[Pg 19] called "The children of the old serpent which has slain Adam
+and all who are descended from him"--it is evident that, by "the
+murderer of men from the beginning," Jesus can mean only the first
+tempter of men. That the words, "from the beginning," refer to the fall
+of the first man, is also clearly shown by the parallel passages 1 John
+iii. 8, and Rev. xii. 9, xx. 2. 5. Jesus says: Satan stands not in the
+truth, does not move in its element, because there is no truth in him.
+This points to a well-known event, in which Satan displayed his lying
+nature; and such is found only in the account of man's fall. 6. Jesus
+calls Satan not only a liar, but, by way of emphasis, He designates him
+as the father of lies. But Satan can be designated thus, only with
+reference to a lie of his which is charged against him by Scripture,
+and which preceded all lies on earth. Now that is the lie of which we
+have an account in Gen. iii. 4, 5. The words, "and the father of it,"
+correspond with the words, "from the beginning."
+
+Another declaration of our Lord is found in St Matthew xiii. 38: τὰ δὲ
+ζιζάνιά εἰσιν οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ πονηροῦ (_i.e._, _mali_, _masculinum_, according
+to _Bengel_), compared with ver. 39: ὁ δὲ ἐχθρὸς ὁ σπείρας αὐτά ἐστιν ὁ
+διάβολος. The children of the wicked one, or of the devil, who are
+spoken of in this passage, are the seed of the serpent who is mentioned
+in Gen. iii. 15, and to whom allusion is made in the words ὁ σπείρας
+αὐτα also. Less incontrovertible is the passage in St Matthew xxiii. 33,
+where the Lord addressed the Pharisees as ὄφεις, γεννήματα ἐχιδνῶν.
+(Compare Matt. xii. 34, iii. 7.) _Olshausen_, in his commentary on
+Matt. iii. 7, gives it as his opinion that the serpent designates the
+_diabolic nature_. But, according to Matt. xii. 34, the point of
+comparison is only the wickedness (πονηροὶ ὄντες), and it is quite
+sufficient to refer it to Ps. cxl. 4, where David says of the future
+enemies of his dynasty and family foreseen by him, "They have sharpened
+their tongues like a serpent; adders' poison is under their lips"
+(compare also Ps. lviii. 5; Deut. xxxii. 33; Isa. lix. 5),--a passage
+to which special allusion is made in the words, πῶς δύνασθε ἀγαθὰ
+λαλεῖν, Matt. xii. 34, and in the connection of serpents with vipers,
+which would be strange when referred to the history of the fall of the
+first man.
+
+Let us now turn from the Lord to His disciples. Just as is done in the
+account of the transaction itself, Paul, in 2 Cor. [Pg 20] xi. 3 (ὡς ὁ
+ὄφις Εὔαν ἐξηπάτησεν ἐν τῇ πανουργίᾳ αὐτοῦ), places the invisible cause
+of the temptation in the background, and speaks of the visible one
+only. But that behind the serpent he beholds Satan, appears immediately
+from ver. 14 and 15: Καὶ οὐ θαυμαστόν· αὐτὸς γὰρ ὁ Σατανᾶς
+μετασχηματίζεται εἰς ἄγγελον φωτός. Οὐ μέγα οὖν εἰ καὶ οἱ διάκονοι αὐτοῦ
+μετασχηματίζονται ὡς διάκονοι δικαιοσύνης, where the μετασχηματίζεται is
+explained by _Bengel_: "_Transformat se: Præsens, i.e., solet se
+transformare. Fecit id jam in Paradiso._" The Apostle alludes to an
+event narrated in Scripture, where Satan shows himself in this
+character. But such an occurrence is not found anywhere else than in
+Gen. iii. 4, 5, the only passage where Satan represents himself as the
+friend and saviour of men. We have here the explanation of the
+ἐξηπάτησεν in ver. 3.--In Rom. xvi. 20, the words, Ὁ δὲ Θεὸς τῆς εἰρήνης
+συντρίψει τὸν Σατανᾶν ὑπὸ τοὺς πόδας ὑμῶν, contain an allusion to Gen.
+iii. 15, too plain to be mistaken. The Apostle recognises, in the
+promise of the victory over the serpent given there, a pledge of the
+victory over Satan. The words of Paul to Elymas in Acts xiii. 10, "O
+thou child of the devil," likewise contain a distinct reference to that
+which, in the history of man's fall, is written concerning the serpent.
+In the charge of subtlety, mischief, and enmity to all righteousness
+which he brings against him, there is an evident allusion to Genesis.
+
+In 1 John iii. 8, Ὁ ποιῶν τὴν ἁμαρτίαν, ἐκ τοῦ διαβόλου ἐστίν· ὅτι ἀπ᾽
+ἀρχῆς ὁ διάβολος ἁμαρτάνει, allusion is made to a most heinous sin
+committed by Satan at the first beginnings of the human race. But of
+such a sin there is no account, unless Satan be concealed behind the
+serpent.--In Rev. xii. 9 (comp. xx. 2), Satan is called the great
+dragon, and the _old serpent_; the last of which designations refers to
+the passage now under consideration.
+
+The agency of Satan in the fall of man has been controverted, on the
+plea that, had such been in operation, it ought to have been mentioned.
+But the absence of any such mention may be explained on the ground that
+it is not the intention of the holy writers to give any information
+respecting the existence of the devil, but rather to give an account of
+his _real_ manifestation, to which, afterwards, the doctrine connected
+itself. The judgment of the reader should not, as it were, be [Pg 21]
+anticipated. The simple fact is communicated to him, in order that,
+from it, he may form his own opinion.
+
+_Further_,--It has been asserted that, in the entire Old Testament, and
+until the time of the Babylonian captivity, no trace of an evil spirit
+is to be found, and that, hence, it cannot be conceived that his
+existence is here presupposed. But this assertion may now be regarded
+as obsolete and without foundation. Closely connected with the
+affirmation, to which allusion has just been made, is the opinion which
+assigns the Book of Job to the time of the captivity, an opinion which
+is now almost universally abandoned. This book must necessarily have
+been written before the time of the captivity, because Jeremiah refers
+to it, both in his Prophecies (_e.g._, Jer. xx. 15 sq., which passage
+evidently rests on Job iii.) and in his Lamentations. (Compare, for a
+fuller discussion of this subject, _Küper's_ "_Jeremias libror.
+Sacrorum interpres atque Vindex_") The reference in Amos iv. 3 to Job
+ix. 8, and several allusions occurring in the Prophecies of Isaiah
+(_e.g._, chap. xl. 2 and lxi. 7, which refer to the issue of Job's
+history, which is here viewed as a prophecy of the future fate of the
+Church; the peculiar use of צבא in xl. 2, which alludes to Job vii. 1;
+chap. li. 9, which rests on Job xxvi. 13), lead us still farther back.
+The assertion of those also who feel themselves compelled to
+acknowledge the pre-exilic origin of the book, but who maintain, at the
+same time, that the Satan of this book is not the Satan of the later
+books of the Old Testament, but rather a good angel who only holds an
+odious office, is more and more admitted to be futile; so that we must
+indeed wonder how even _Beck_ (_Lehrwissenschaft_ i. S. 249) could be
+carried away by it, and could make the attempt to support this
+pretended fact by the supposition, that the apostasy of part of the
+angels from God, and their kingdom of darkness, are ever advancing and
+progressing. The principal evil spirit is, in Zech. iii. 1, introduced
+as the adversary of the holy ones of God; and this very name is
+sufficient to contradict such a supposition, for the name is
+descriptive of the wickedness of the character. He who, under all
+circumstances, is an "adversary," must certainly carry the principle of
+hatred in his heart. He moves about on the earth for the purpose of
+finding materials for his accusations, and grounds on which he may
+raise suspicions. It is a characteristic [Pg 22] feature, that he whose
+darkness does not comprehend the light, knows of no other piety but
+that which has its origin in the hope of reward. It is quite evident
+that it is the desire of his heart to destroy Job by sufferings. The
+only circumstance which seems to give any countenance to the
+supposition is, that he appears in the midst of the angels, before the
+throne of God. But this circumstance is deprived of all its
+significancy, if the fact be kept in view--which, indeed, is most
+evident--that the book is, from beginning to end, of a purely poetical
+character. The form of it is easily accounted for by the intention to
+impress this most important thought: that Satan stands in absolute
+dependence upon God; that, with all his hatred to the children of God,
+he can do nothing against them, but must, on the contrary, rather
+subserve the accomplishment of the thoughts of God's love regarding
+them.--Isaiah likewise points to evil spirits in chap. xiii. 21, xxxiv.
+14. (Compare my Comment. on Rev. xviii. 2.)--But even in some passages
+of the Pentateuch itself, the doctrine regarding Satan is brought
+before us. It is true that it has been erroneously supposed to be
+contained in Deut. xxxii. 17 (compare on this opinion, my Comment. on
+Ps. cvi. 37); but only bigotry and prejudice can refuse to admit that,
+under the _Asael_, to whom, according to Lev. xvi., a goat was sent
+into the wilderness, Satan is to be understood. (The arguments in
+support of this view will be found in the author's "_Egypt and the
+Books of Moses_," p. 168 ff.)[2]
+
+But we must advert to two additional considerations. _First_,--To
+every one who is in the least familiar with the territory [Pg 23]
+of divine revelation, and who has any conception of the relation in
+which the Books of Moses stand to the whole succeeding revelation, it
+will, _a priori_, be inconceivable, that a doctrine which afterwards
+occupies so prominent a position in the revealed books should not have
+already existed, in the germ at least, in the Books of Moses.
+_Secondly_,--We should altogether lose the origin and foundation of the
+doctrine concerning Satan, if he be removed from, or explained away in,
+the history of the fall. That the first indication of this doctrine
+cannot by any means be found in the Book of Job, has already been
+pointed out by _Hofmann_, who remarks in the _Schriftbeweis_ i. S. 378,
+that Satan appears in this book as a well-known being, as much so as
+are the sons of God. Nor is Lev. xvi. an appropriate place for
+introducing, for the first time, this doctrine into the knowledge of
+the people. The doctrinal essence of the symbolical action there
+prescribed is this:--that Satan, the enemy of the Congregation of God,
+has no power over those who are reconciled to God; that, with their
+sins forgiven by God, they may joyfully appear before, and mock and
+triumph over, him. The whole ritual must have had in it something
+altogether strange for the Congregation of the Lord, if they had not
+already known of Satan from some other source. The questions: Who is
+Asael? What have we to do with him? must have forced themselves upon
+every one's mind. It is not the custom of Scripture to introduce its
+doctrines so abruptly, to prescribe any duty which is destitute of the
+solid foundation of previous instruction.
+
+If thus we may consider it as proved, (1) that the serpent was an agent
+in the temptation, and (2) that it served only as an instrument to
+Satan, the real tempter,--then we have also thereby proved that the
+curse denounced against the tempter must have a double sense. It must,
+in the first place, refer to the instrument; but, in its chief import,
+it must bear upon the real tempter, for it was properly he alone who
+had done that which merited the punishment and the curse. Let us now,
+upon this principle, proceed to the interpretation of our passage.
+
+It is said in ver. 14: "_And Jehovah Elohim said unto the serpent,
+Because thou hast done this, thou shalt be cursed above all cattle
+and above every beast of the field; upon thy belly shalt thou go,
+and dust thou shalt eat all the days of thy life._"--If we do not [Pg
+24] look beyond the serpent, these words have in them something
+incomprehensible, inasmuch as the serpent is destitute of that
+responsibility which alone could justify so severe a sentence. There is
+no difficulty attached to the idea that the serpent must suffer. It
+shares this fate along with all the other irrational earthly creation,
+which is made subject to vanity (Rom. viii. 20), and which must
+accompany man, for whose sake it was created, through all the stages of
+his existence. But the question here at issue is not about mere
+suffering, but about well-merited punishment. The serpent is not, like
+the whole remaining earth, cursed for the sake of man (Gen. iii. 17),
+but it is cursed because "it has done this." Punishment presupposes
+being created in the image of God, and, according to chap. i., such
+a creation is peculiar only to man. But as soon as we assume the
+co-operation of an invisible author of the temptation, by whom the
+serpent was animated, everything which is here threatened against the
+visible instrument acquires a symbolical meaning. The degradation
+inflicted upon the latter,--the announcement of the defeat which it is
+to sustain in the warfare with man,--represent in a figure the fate of
+the real tempter only. The instrument used by him in the temptation is
+at the same time the symbol of the punishment which he is destined to
+endure.
+
+Although it be said that the serpent should be "cursed above all
+cattle," etc., this does not necessarily imply that the other animals
+are also cursed, any more than the words, "subtle above all the
+beasts," imply that all other beasts are subtle. It is certainly not
+always necessary that the whole existing difference should be pointed
+out. The sense is simply: Thou shalt be more cursed than all cattle. In
+a similar manner it is said, in the song of Deborah, concerning Jael,
+"Blessed above women shall Jael be," Judges v. 24; for this does not
+imply that all other women are blessed, but means only that, whether
+they be blessed or not, Jael, at all events, is the most blessed.
+
+The _eating of dust_ must not be interpreted literally, as if the
+serpent were to feed upon dust; but, since it is to creep on the
+ground, it cannot be but that it swallow dust along with its food. Thus
+we find in Ps. cii., in "the prayer of the afflicted," ver. 10, "For I
+have eaten ashes like bread," used of occasional swallowing of ashes.
+As an expression of deepest humiliation, the [Pg 25] licking of dust is
+used in Mic. vii. 17, where it is said of the enemies of the Church,
+"They shall lick dust like the serpent." In Is. xlix. 23, compared with
+Ps. lii. 9, the licking up the dust of the feet is likewise inflicted
+upon the humbled enemies. If, undoubtedly, there be, even in these
+passages, a slight reference to the one before us, the allusion to it
+is still plainer in Is. lxv. 25, where it is said, "And dust shall be
+the serpent's meat." Of the denunciation in Gen. iii. 14, 15, the
+eating of dust alone shall remain, while the bruising of the heel shall
+come to an end. And while all other creatures shall escape from the
+doom which has come upon them in consequence of the fall of man, the
+serpent--the instrument used in the temptation--shall, agreeably to the
+words in the sentence of punishment, "All the days of thy life," remain
+condemned to a perpetual abasement, thus prefiguring the fate of the
+real tempter, for whom there is no share in the redemption.
+
+The opinion which has been again of late defended by _Hofmann_ and
+_Baumgarten_, that the serpent had before the fall the same shape as
+after it, only that after the fall it possesses as a punishment what
+before the fall was its nature, stands plainly opposed to the context.
+Even _a priori_, and in accordance with Satan's usual mode of
+proceeding, it is probable that he, who loves to transform himself into
+an angel of light, should have chosen an attractive and charming
+instrument of temptation. This view loses all that is strange in it, if
+only we consider the change of the serpent, not as an isolated thing,
+but in connection with the great change which, after the fall of man,
+affected the whole nature (comp. Gen. i. 31, according to which the
+entire animal creation had, previously to the fall, impressed upon it
+the image of man's innocence and peace, and the law of destruction did
+not pervade it, Gen. iii. 17; Rom. viii. 20); and if only we keep in
+mind that, before the fall, the whole animal world was essentially
+different from what it is now, so that we cannot by any means think of
+forming to ourselves a distinct Image of the serpent, as _Luther_ and
+others have done.
+
+The serpent is thus, by its disgusting form, and by the degradation of
+its whole being, doomed to be the visible representative of the kingdom
+of darkness, and of its head, to whom it had served as an instrument.
+But the words, when applied to the head himself, give expression to the
+idea: "extreme contempt, [Pg 26] shame, and abasement shall be thy
+lot." Thus _Calmet_ remarks on this passage: "This enemy of mankind
+crawls, as it were, on his belly, on account of the shame and disgrace
+to which he is reduced." Satan imagined that, by means of the fall of
+man, he would enlarge his kingdom and extend his power. But to the eye
+of God the matter appeared in a totally different light, because, along
+with the fall, He beheld the redemption.
+
+Ver. 15. "_And I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and
+between thy seed and her seed; and it shall bruise thy head, and thou
+shalt bruise its heel._" In the two other passages where the word שוף
+occurs (Ps. cxxxix. 11 [compare my commentary on that passage] and Job
+ix. 17), it undeniably signifies: "to crush," "to bruise." This
+signification, therefore, which is confirmed by the Chaldee Paraphrast,
+and which Paul also follows in Rom. xvi. 20 (συντρίψει, whilst the LXX.
+have τηρήσει), must here also be retained. It is only in appearance
+that, in the second passage referred to, the signification "to crush"
+seems to be inappropriate; for there, "to crush" is used in the sense
+of "to destroy," "to annihilate," just as in Jonah iv. 7, "to strike"
+is used of the sting of an insect, because its effect is similar to
+that produced by a stroke. The words ראש and עקב are a second
+accusative governed by the verb, whereby the place of the action is
+more distinctly marked out. That by "head" and "heel"--a _majus_ and a
+_minus_--a victory of mankind over the seed of the serpent should be
+signified, was seen by _Calvin_, who says, "Meanwhile we see how
+graciously the Lord deals even in the punishment of men, inasmuch as He
+does not give the serpent power to do more than wound the heel, while
+to man is given the power of wounding its head. For the words 'head'
+and 'heel' point out only what is superior and what is inferior." That
+these words are by no means intended to describe the mutual antipathy
+between men and serpents, is rendered evident by the consideration,
+that, if such were the intention, no special punishment would be
+denounced against the serpent, while, according to the context, such
+denunciation is certainly designed by the writer. The words treat of
+the punishment of the serpent; it is only in ver. 16 that the sentence
+against man is proclaimed. It is true that the bite of a serpent is
+dangerous when it is applied even to the heel, for the poison thence
+penetrates the whole body; but to this fact in natural history there is
+here [Pg 27] no allusion, nor is the _biting_ of the serpent at all the
+point here in question. The contrast between head and heel is simply
+that which exists between the noble and less noble parts,--those parts
+of which the injury is commonly curable or incurable. The objection:
+"The serpent creeps, man walks upright; if then an enmity exists
+between them, how can it be otherwise than that man wounds its head,
+and that it wounds his heel?" entirely overlooks the consideration,
+that, according to ver. 14, it is in consequence of the divine curse
+that the serpent creeps in the dust. In this degraded condition--a
+condition which is not natural, but inflicted as a punishment--it is
+implied that the serpent can attack man at his heel only. This plain
+connection between ver. 15 and 14 is evidently overlooked by those who
+hold the opinion, that this mutual enmity is pernicious equally to man
+and serpent. The very circumstance that the serpent is condemned to go
+on its belly, and to eat dust, whilst man retains that erect walk in
+which the image of God is reflected, paves the way for the announcement
+of the victory in ver. 16.
+
+Experience bears ample witness to the truth of the divine sentence,
+that there shall, in future, be enmity between the seed of the serpent
+and mankind, in so far as this sentence refers to the instrument of the
+temptation; for abhorrence of the serpent is natural to man. Thus
+_Calvin_ remarks: "It is in consequence of a secret natural instinct
+that man abhors them; and as often as the sight of a serpent fills us
+with horror, the recollection of our apostasy is renewed."
+
+But, in the fate of the serpent which is here announced, there is an
+indication of the doom of the spiritual author of the temptation. It
+has been objected that any reference to Satan is inadmissible, because
+the "seed of the serpent" here spoken of cannot designate wicked men,
+who are "children of the devil;" for these, too, belong to the seed of
+the woman, and cannot, therefore, be put in opposition to it. But
+against this objection _Storr_, in his treatise, _de Protevangelio_,
+remarks: "We easily see that many of the seed of the woman likewise
+belong to the seed of the serpent; but they have become unworthy of
+that name, since they apostatized to the common enemy of their race."
+It is quite true that, by the seed of the woman, her whole progeny is
+designated; but they who enter into communion [Pg 28] with the
+hereditary enemy of the human race are viewed as having excommunicated
+themselves. Compare Gen. xxi. 12, where Isaac alone is declared to be
+the true descendant of Abraham, and his other sons are, as false
+descendants, excluded. Moreover, not only wicked men, but also the
+angels of Satan (Matt. xxv. 41; Rev. xii. 7-9), belong to the seed of
+the serpent.
+
+The greater number of the earlier Christian interpreters were of
+opinion that, by the seed of the woman, the Messiah is directly pointed
+at. But to this opinion it may be objected, that it does violence to
+the language to understand, by the seed of the woman, any single
+individual; and the more so, since we are compelled to understand, by
+the seed of the serpent, a plurality of individuals, viz., the
+spiritual children of Satan, the heads and members of the kingdom of
+darkness. _Further_,--As far as the sentence has reference to the
+serpent, the human race alone can be understood by the seed of the
+woman; and to this, therefore, the victory over the invisible author of
+the temptation must also be adjudged. The reference to the human race
+is also indicated by the connection between "her seed" in this
+verse, and the words, "Thou shalt bring forth sons," in ver. 16.
+_Finally_,--As the person of the Messiah does not yet distinctly appear
+even in the promises to the Patriarchs, this passage cannot well be
+explained of a personal Messiah; inasmuch as, by such an explanation,
+the progressive expansion of the Messianic prophecy in Genesis would be
+destroyed.
+
+If, however, by the seed of the woman we understand the entire progeny
+of the woman, we obtain the following sense: "It is true that thou hast
+now inflicted upon the woman a severe wound, and that thou and thine
+associates will continue to assail her: but, notwithstanding thine
+eager desire to injure, thou shalt be able to inflict on mankind only
+such wounds as are curable; while, on the contrary, the posterity of
+the woman shall, at some future period, vanquish thee, and make thee
+feel all thy weakness."
+
+This interpretation is found as early as in the Targum of Jonathan, and
+in that of Jerusalem, where, by the seed of the woman, are understood
+the Jews, who, at the time of the Messiah, shall overcome Sammael.
+Thus, too, does Paul explain it in Rom. xvi. 20, where the promise is
+regarded as referring to Christians as a body. It has found,
+subsequently, an able defender [Pg 29] in _Calvin_[3] and, in modern
+times, in _Herder_.[4] The treatise of _Storr_, too (in the _Opusc._
+ii.), is devoted to its defence.
+
+Even according to this interpretation, the passage justly bears the
+name of the _Protevangelium_, which has been given to it by the Church.
+It is only in general terms, indeed, that the future victory of the
+kingdom of light over that of darkness is foretold, and not the person
+of the Redeemer who should lead in the warfare, and bestow the strength
+which should be necessary for maintaining it. Anything beyond this we
+are not even entitled to expect at the first beginnings of the human
+race; a gradual progress is observable in the kingdom of grace, as well
+as in that of nature.
+
+It is certainly, however, not a matter of chance that the posterity of
+the woman is not broken up into a plurality, but that, in order to
+designate it, expressions in the singular (זרע and הוא) are chosen.
+This unity, which, in the meanwhile, it is true, is only _ideal_, was
+chosen with regard to the person of the Redeemer, who comprehends
+within Himself the whole human race. And it is not less significant,
+and has certainly a deeper ground, that the victory over the serpent is
+assigned to the seed of the woman, not to the posterity of Adam; and
+though, indeed, [Pg 30] the circumstance that the woman was first
+deceived may have been the proximate cause of it, yet it cannot be
+exclusively referred to, and derived from, it. By these remarks we come
+still nearer to the view of the ancient Church.
+
+
+Footnote 1: So, _e.g._ _Cramer_ in the _Nebenarbeiten zur Theologischen
+Literatur_, St. 2.
+
+Footnote 2: The positive reasons by which I there proved the reference
+to Satan, have not been invalidated by the objections of _Hofmann_ in
+his _Schriftbeweis_ i. 379. He says: As an adjective formed in a manner
+similar to קלקל (Num. xxi. 6) must have an intransitive signification,
+it cannot mean "separated," but according to its derivation from עזל =
+אזל, it means: "altogether gone away." But this argument has no force.
+The real import of the form of the word is gradation, and frequent
+repetition. Instances of a passive signification are given in _Ewald's
+Lehrbuch der Hebr. Sprache_, § 157 c.: compare, _e.g._, Deut. xxxii. 5.
+There is so much the stronger reason for adopting the passive
+signification, that in Arabic also,--which alone can be consulted, as
+the comparison with the Hebrew אזל has no sure foundation on which to
+rest,--the root has the signification: _remotus, sepositus fuit_, and
+the participle: _a ceteris se sejungens_. Compare _Egypt and the B.
+M._, p. 169.
+
+Footnote 3: He says,--This, therefore, is the sense of the passage:
+"The human race, whom Satan had endeavoured to destroy, shall at length
+be victorious. But, meanwhile, we must bear in mind the mode in which,
+according to Scripture, that victory is to be achieved. According to
+his own pleasure, Satan has, through all centuries, led captive the
+sons of men, and even to this day he continues that sad victory. But,
+since a stronger one has come down from heaven to subdue him, the whole
+Church of God shall, under her Head, and like Him, be victorious."
+
+Footnote 4: _Briefe das Studium der Theologie betr._ ii. S. 225 (Tüb.
+1808): "The serpent had injured them; it had become to them a symbol of
+evil, of seduction, and at the same time of God's curse, of contempt
+and punishment. To men the encouraging prospect was held out, that
+they, the seed of the woman, were stronger and nobler than the serpent,
+and all evil. They should tread upon the head of the serpent, while the
+latter should be able to avenge itself only by a slight wound in their
+heel. In short, the good should gain the ascendancy over the evil. Such
+was the prospect. How clear or how obscure it was to the first human
+pair, it is not our present purpose to inquire. It is enough that the
+noblest warrior against evil, the most valiant bruiser of the serpent's
+head from among the descendants of Eve, was comprehended in this
+prospect, and indeed pre-eminently referred to. Thus, then, only an
+outline, as it were, was given to them in a figure, the import of which
+only future times saw more clearly developed."
+
+
+
+
+              THE BLESSINGS OF NOAH UPON SHEM AND JAPHETH.
+                           (Gen. ix. 18-27.)
+
+Ver. 20. "_And Noah began and became an husbandman, and planted
+vineyards._"--This does not imply that Noah was the first who began to
+till the ground, and, more especially, to cultivate the vine; for Cain,
+too, was a tiller of the ground, Gen. iv. 2. The sense rather is, that
+Noah, after the flood, again took up this calling. Moreover, the remark
+has not an independent import; it serves only to prepare the way for
+the communication of the subsequent account of Noah's drunkenness. By
+this remark, a defence of Noah on account of his drunkenness is
+entirely cut off. Against such a defence _Luther_ expressed himself in
+very strong terms: "They," says he, "who would defend the Patriarch in
+this, wantonly reject the consolation which the Holy Ghost considered
+to be necessary to the Church--the consolation, namely, that even the
+greatest saints may, at times, stumble and fall."[1]
+
+Ver. 21. "_And he drank of the wine, and was drunken; and he was
+uncovered within his tent._"
+
+Ver. 22. "_And Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his
+father, and told his two brethren without._"--David is reproved in 2
+Sam. xii. 14, for having given occasion to the enemies of God to
+blaspheme. The same reproof might justly be administered to Noah also.
+Ham rejoiced to find a nakedness in him whose reproving earnestness had
+often been a burden to his sinful soul. _Luther_ remarks: "There is no
+doubt [Pg 31] that he (Noah) must have done much which was offensive to
+his proud, high-minded, and presumptuous son.... For this reason we
+must not regard this deed of Ham as mere child's play, as an action
+destitute of all significance; but as the result of the bitterest
+hatred and resentment of Satan, by which he prepares and excites his
+members against the true Church, and specially against those who are in
+the ministry. Let them, therefore, give earnest heed as to whether,
+either in their persons or in their offices, they give any occasion for
+blasphemy. We have in this history an example of divine terrors and
+judgment, that we may take warning from the danger of Ham, and not
+venture to be rash in judging, though we should see that a secular or
+ecclesiastical authority, or even our parents, do err and fall."
+
+Ver. 23. "_And Shem and Japheth took the garment._"--_Luther_ says:
+"Such an outward and lovely reverence they could not have shown to
+their father, if they had not, inwardly and in their hearts, been
+rightly disposed towards God, and had not considered their father as a
+high priest and king set over them by divine appointment." The mode of
+expression indicates that the real impulse proceeded from Shem, and
+that, as a prefiguration of what was to take place, Japheth only showed
+susceptibility for the good, and a willingness to join with him. It is
+true that the singular ויקח is not, by itself, decisive. When the verb
+precedes, it is not absolutely necessary that it should agree with the
+_subject_ in gender and number; but the use of the singular is,
+nevertheless, remarkable. If Shem and Japheth had been equally active,
+the latter also would, at once, have been present to the mind of the
+writer. Under these circumstances, there is the less reason for
+supposing that the use of the singular can be merely accidental,
+especially as the words, "and he told his _two brethren_ without,"
+immediately precede. But all doubt is removed by a second allusion,
+which goes hand in hand with the first, and which is contained in the
+following verse.
+
+Ver. 24. "_And Noah awoke from his wine, and knew what his younger
+son had done unto him._"--That Ham was older than Japheth, appears
+from the circumstance that the order in which the sons of Noah are
+introduced is uniformly thus: Shem, Ham, Japheth; or, beginning, as
+in chap. x., from the youngest, [Pg 32] Japheth, Ham, Shem,--where,
+however, in ver. 21, the words added immediately after Shem--"the
+elder brother of Japheth," expressly indicate that, for a certain
+purpose, the writer has proceeded in order from the youngest to the
+oldest. It is altogether in vain that some have attempted to prove
+from chap. xi. 10 (according to which Shem was, two years after the
+flood, only a hundred years old), compared with chap. v. 32 (according
+to which Noah began to beget when he was five hundred years old), that
+Shem was not the first-born. The words in chap. v. 32 are: "And Noah
+was five hundred years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth."
+That the chronology can here be determined in a way which only
+approximates to the truth, is implied, as a matter of course, in the
+statement, that all the three sons were begotten when Noah was five
+hundred years of age; nothing more is meant than that Noah begat them
+after he had finished his fifth, or at the beginning of his sixth,
+century. (Compare _Ranke's Untersuchungen_.) It is just an indefinite
+statement of time which points forward to another genealogy, in which
+the details will be given with greater precision. Ham everywhere stands
+between the two; but that, nevertheless, he is, in this passage, called
+the younger son, can be explained only on the ground that, in the case
+before us, Shem and Ham are the two more especially noticed--Shem as
+positively good, and Ham as positively evil, while Japheth only takes
+part with Shem. We have thus laid an excellent foundation for the right
+understanding of the subsequent prophetic utterance of Noah--for the
+announcement, namely, of Japheth's dwelling in the tents of Shem.
+
+Ver. 25. "_And he said, Cursed be Canaan; a servant of servants shall
+he be to his brethren._"--_Luther_ says: "Good old Noah, who is
+regarded by his son as a foolish and stupid old man, deserving only of
+mockery, appears here in truly prophetic majesty, and announces to his
+sons a divine revelation of what shall come to pass in future days;
+thus verifying what Paul says in 2 Cor. xii., that God's strength is
+made perfect in weakness."
+
+According to the opinion now current, Canaan is said to mean "lowland,"
+and to be transferred from the land to the people, and from the people
+to the pretended ancestor. But this opinion is shown to be untenable by
+the considerations, that, according to historical tradition, Canaan
+appears first as [Pg 33] the name of the ancestor;--that the verb כנע
+is never used of natural lowness, but always of humiliation;--that in
+our passage, where the name first occurs, it stands in connection with
+servitude;--that the masculine form of the noun (on the adjective
+termination _an_, compare _Ewald's Lehrb. d. Heb. Spr._ § 163, b.) is
+not applicable to the country;--that the country Canaan is so far from
+being a lowland, that it appears, everywhere in the Pentateuch, as a
+land of hills (see Deut. xi. 2, iii. 25, where the land itself is even
+called, "that goodly mountain");[2]--and, finally, that, from all
+appearance, Canaan is primarily the name, not of the country, but of
+the people--the former being called ארור כנען, the land of Canaan.
+The real etymology of the name is almost expressly given in Judges iv.
+23; ויכנע, "and God bowed down, or _humbled_, on that day Jabin the
+king of _Canaan_." Compare also Deut. ix. 3, where, in reference to the
+Canaanites, it is said, הוא יכניעם, "He will humble or subdue them;"
+and Nehem. ix. 24: "Thou bowedest down before them the inhabitants of
+the land--the Canaanites." Our passage also proceeds upon this
+interpretation of the name. We are the rather induced to assume a
+connection betwixt the name "Canaan," and the words, "a servant of
+servants shall he be," as in the case of Japheth also there is
+certainly an allusion to the signification of the name, and probably in
+the case of Shem also. Perhaps even the name Ham, _i.e._, "the blackish
+one," may be connected with the character which he here displays--a
+suggestion which we do not here follow up. We refer, however, for an
+analogy, to what has been remarked in our Commentary on the Psalms, in
+the Introduction of Ps. vii.
+
+Canaan means: "the submissive one." It is a name which the people
+themselves, on whose monuments it appears, would never have
+appropriated to themselves (just as in the case of the Egyptians also,
+on which point _Gesenius_ in the _Thesaurus_, and my work _Egypt_,
+etc., p. 210, may be compared), unless it had been proper to them from
+their very origin. Ham gave this name to his son from the obedience
+which he demanded, but [Pg 34] did not himself yield. The son was to be
+the servant of the father (for the name suggests servile obedience),
+who was as despotical to his inferiors as he was rebellious against his
+superiors. When the father gave that name to his son, he thought only
+of submissiveness to _his_ orders; but God, who, in His mysterious
+providence, disposes of all these matters, had another submissiveness
+in view.
+
+But why is Canaan cursed and not Ham? For an answer to this question,
+we are at liberty neither to fall back upon the sovereign decree of
+God, as _Calvin_ does, nor to say with _Hofmann_: "Canaan is the
+youngest son of Ham (Gen. x. 6); and because Ham, the youngest son of
+Noah, had caused so much grief to the father, he, in return, is to
+experience great grief from his youngest son." This latter view rests
+upon false historical suppositions. We have already proved that Ham was
+not the youngest son of Noah; and it by no means follows from Gen. x.
+6, that Canaan was the youngest son of Ham. Canaan's name is mentioned
+last among the sons of Ham, because the whole account of Ham's family
+was to be combined with the detailed enumeration of Canaan's
+descendants, who stood in so important a relation to Israel. The
+boundary line as regards Shem is formed, quite naturally, by that
+branch of Ham's family which stood in so important a relation to the
+main branch of the family of Shem. But, as little reliance can be
+placed upon the theological grounds of that conjecture; for the
+question at issue is not the withdrawal of outward advantages. Canaan
+is _cursed_, and it is just the sting of his servitude that it is the
+consequence of the curse. It would indeed sadly affect the biblical
+doctrine of recompense, if cursing and blessing were dependent upon
+such external reasons as, in the case before us, upon the circumstance
+that Canaan was so unfortunate as to be the youngest son.
+
+The right answer to the question is without doubt this:--Ham is
+punished in his son, just as he himself had sinned against his father.
+He is punished in _this_ son, because he followed most decidedly the
+example of his father's impiety and wickedness. To this view we are led
+by the whole doctrine of Holy Scripture concerning the visitation of
+the guilt of the fathers upon the children. (Compare the author's
+"_Dissertations on the Genuineness of the Pentateuch_," vol. ii. p.
+373.) [Pg 35] To this view we are also led by the passage in Gen. xv.
+16: "But in the fourth generation they shall come hither again, for the
+iniquity of the Amorites is not yet full." According to this passage,
+the curse on Canaan can be realized upon him, only when his own
+iniquity has been fully matured. This his iniquity is presupposed by
+his curse. If he were to be punished on account of the guilt of the
+father,--a guilt in which he had no share,--then indeed no delay would
+have been necessary. To this view we are farther led by what is
+reported in Genesis concerning the moral depravity of Sodom and
+Gomorrah, which, in the development of the sinful germ inherent in the
+race, had outrun all others, and were, therefore, before all others,
+overtaken by punishment. (To this view we are further led by what is
+reported in Genesis concerning the moral depravity of Sodom and
+Gomorrah, which, in the development of the sinful germ inherent in the
+race, had outrun all others, and were therefore, before all others,
+overtaken by punishment) To this view we are led, _further_, by Lev.
+xviii. and the parallel passages, where the Canaanites appear as a
+nation of abominations which the land spues out; and, _finally_, by
+what ancient heathen writers report regarding the deep corruption of
+the Phœnicians and Carthaginians.
+
+The remainder of Ham's posterity are passed over in silence; it is only
+in the sequel that we expect information regarding them. But the
+foreboding arises, that their deliverance will be more difficult of
+accomplishment than that of Japheth, although the circumstance that
+Canaan is singled out from among them affords us decided hope for the
+rest.
+
+But not even the exclusion of Ham is to be considered as an unavoidable
+fate resting upon him. Heathenism alone knows such a curse. The
+subjective conditions of the curse imply the possibility of becoming
+free from it. To this, there is an express testimony in the
+circumstance, that the promise to the Patriarchs is not limited. David
+received the remnant of the Canaanitish Jebusites into the congregation
+of the Lord. (Compare remarks on Zech. ix. 7.) And, in the Gospels, the
+Canaanitish woman appears as a representative of her nation, and as a
+proof the possibility, granted to them, of breaking through the fetters
+of the curse. (Compare also the remarkable passage, Ezek. xvi. 46.)
+
+[Pg 36]
+
+"The curse is contrasted with the blessing pronounced on Shem and
+Japheth, and the second member of ver. 25 is, in vers. 26, 27, used as
+a repetition in reference to each of the two brethren, who were, in it,
+viewed together."--(_Tuch._)
+
+Ver. 26. "_And he said: Blessed be Jehovah, the God of Shem; and Canaan
+shall be a servant to them._"--The Patriarch Noah,--a just man, and one
+who walked before God (Gen. vi. 9),--a man raised on high, as David
+says of himself in 2 Sam. xxiii. 1,--a man whose utterances are not
+mere individual wishes, but, at the same time, prophecies,--sees such
+rich blessings in store for his son, that, instead of announcing them
+to him, he immediately breaks out into the praise of God, who is the
+Author of them, and from whom the piety of Shem,[3] the foundation of
+this salvation, was derived, just as Moses, in Deut. xxx. 20, instead
+of blessing Gad, blesses him by whom Gad is enlarged. The manner in
+which God is here spoken of indicates, _indirectly_, what that is in
+which the blessing consists. _First_,--God is not called by the name
+_Elohim_ (which is expressive of merely the most general outlines of
+His nature), but by the name _Jehovah_, which has reference to His
+manifested personality, to His revelations, and to His institutions for
+salvation.[4] _Secondly_,--Jehovah is called the God of Shem,--the
+first passage of Holy Scripture in which God is called the God of some
+person. Both these circumstances indicate that God is to enter into an
+altogether peculiar relation to the descendants of Shem; that He will
+reveal Himself to them; establish His kingdom among them, and make them
+partakers of both His earthly and His heavenly blessings. Thus _Luther_
+says: "This is indeed perceptible and clear, that he thus binds closely
+together God and his son Shem, and, as it were, commits the one to the
+other. In this, he indeed indicates the mystery of which Paul treats in
+Rom. xi. 11 sq., and Christ, in John iv. 22, that salvation cometh from
+the Jews, but that, nevertheless, the heathen shall become partakers of
+it. For [Pg 37] although Shem alone be the real root and trunk, yet
+into this tree the Gentiles are, as a strange branch, graffed, and
+enjoy the fatness and sap which are in the elect tree. This light Noah,
+through the Holy Spirit, sees, and although he speaks dark words, he
+yet prophesies very plainly, that the kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ
+shall be planted in the world, and shall grow up among the race of
+Shem, and not among that of Japheth." As yet Shem and Japheth were on
+an equal footing. In the preceding part of the narrative, nothing
+had been communicated by which God had, in His relation to Shem,
+given up His nature as Elohim, and had become his God. It is only
+by anticipation, then, that God can, in His relation to Shem, be
+designated as Jehovah, and as the God of Shem. The thought can, when
+fully brought out, be this alone: "Blessed be God, who will, in future,
+reveal Himself as Jehovah, and as the God of Shem."
+
+If it be overlooked that, in this appellation of God, there is implied
+the indirect designation of the blessings which are to be conferred on
+Shem (just as in Gen. xxiv. 27 the words, "Blessed be Jehovah, the God
+of my master Abraham," imply the thought: because He has manifested
+Himself as Jehovah, and as the God of my master; which thought is then
+further carried out in the subsequent words: "And who hath not left
+destitute my master of His mercy and His truth;"--and just as it is
+also in the utterance of Zacharias in Luke i. 68, where the words,
+"Blessed be the Lord [κύριος], the God of Israel," imply the thought:
+because He has manifested Himself as the Lord [in the New Testament,
+κύριος is used where the Old has Jehovah], the God of Israel),--if this
+be overlooked, we obtain only a weak and inadequate thought, very
+unsuitable to the context, the purport of which evidently is to
+celebrate Shem, and to mark him out as worthy of his name. So it is
+according to _Hofmann_, who, in the words, "Blessed--Shem," finds only
+an expression of gratitude for the gift of this good son, and who
+limits the announcement of blessings to the single one--that Canaan
+shall be Shem's servant. Against this feeble interpretation we must
+adduce these considerations also: that nowhere does the gift of the
+good son form, even indirectly, the subject in question;--that thus we
+should lose the opposition of the curse and the blessing (which
+requires that, under [Pg 38] the "Blessed be Jehovah," we should have
+concealed the "Blessed be Shem"), just as we should, the contrast
+between Jehovah here and Elohim in the following verse;--and, lastly,
+that what, in the following verse, is said of Japheth's dwelling in the
+tents of Shem, would thus be deprived of its necessary foundation.
+
+It is said: "Canaan shall be a servant to _them_." The suffix ־־ָ־מוֹ,
+which cannot be used for the singular, any more than can the suffix
+־־ָ־ם, for which it is only the fuller poetical form (the instances of a
+different use, adduced by _Ewald_, § 247, d., can easily be explained
+in accordance with the rule), indicates that the announcement has no
+reference to the personal relation of Shem and Ham, but that they come
+into view solely as the heads of families.
+
+Ver. 27. "_May God enlarge Japheth, and may he dwell in the tents of
+Shem; and Canaan shall be a servant to them._"--These words, in the
+first instance, contain the blessing pronounced upon Japheth; but they
+entitle us to infer from them, at the same time, a glorious blessing
+destined for Shem, which is the source of blessing to Japheth also.
+They thus complete the promise of the preceding verse, which directly
+refers to Shem.
+
+The first clause of this verse has received a great variety of
+interpretations. The word יַפְתְּ, which refers to, and is explanatory of,
+the name יֶפֶת (_i.e._ Japheth), is the future apoc. _Hiphil_ of פָּתָה. The
+_Piel_ of this verb has in Hebrew commonly the signification: "to
+persuade, or prevail upon any one to do anything." Hence many
+interpreters translate with _Calvin_: "May God allure Japheth that he
+may dwell in the tents of Shem." _Luther_ also, in his Commentary, thus
+explains it: "God will kindly speak to Japheth;" while, in his
+translation, he has: "May God enlarge Japheth."--But to this
+interpretation it has been rightly objected, that the verb פתה is found
+only in Piel, not in Hiphil, with the signification "to persuade;"
+that, commonly, it signifies "to persuade" only in a bad sense; and
+that, in this sense, it is never construed with ל, but always with the
+accusative.--All interpreters now agree that (in conformity with the
+LXX. [πλατύναι ὁ Θεὸς τῷ Ἰάφεθ], the _Vulgate_ [_dilatet Deus Japhet_],
+and _Onkelos_) יַפְתְּ must be derived from פתה in its primary
+signification, "to be wide, large," in which it is found in Prov. xx.
+19 (where שפתיו [Pg 39] is accusative denoting the place), and which
+signification is the common one in Aramaic. But they then again
+disagree, inasmuch as some think of a local extension: God shall give
+to Japheth a numerous posterity, which shall take possession of
+extended territories; while others find here expressed the idea of
+general prosperity: God shall prosper Japheth, shall bring him into a
+free and unstraitened position.
+
+Both of these views partake of alike mistake from regarding the words
+_per se_, and as disconnected from the following announcement of
+Japheth's dwelling in the tents of Shem. It must also be objected to
+them, that in the case of Shem, only one feature of the blessing is
+pointed out, viz., that God will be to him Jehovah, _his_ God; and so,
+likewise, only one feature of the curse in the case of Ham. When those
+words are isolated, separated from what follows, and understood of
+extension, this difficulty arises, that Ham enjoys this extension in
+common with Japheth, as is shown by a glance at Gen. x. If, on the
+other hand, we understand them as expressive of prosperity (according
+to _Hofmann_: "general prosperity in the affairs of outward life"),
+this explanation is destitute of a sufficient foundation, and there is
+nothing reported in the sequel regarding the fulfilment of such a
+promise. To this we must further add, that the verb יפת is, on account
+of its immediate nearness to the proper name, too little expressive,
+and that, hence, we must expect to find its meaning more fully brought
+out in what follows.
+
+But if it be acknowledged that the extension appears here as a
+blessing, in so far only as it leads to the dwelling in the tents of
+Shem, mentioned in the subsequent clause of the verse, and that the
+blessing can consist in nothing else, there is then no essential
+difference betwixt the two interpretations. But we decide in favour of
+the _latter_ view, because the corresponding verb הרחיב, "to make wide,
+to enlarge," when construed with ל, is always used in the
+signification: "to bring into a free, unstraitened, easy, happy
+position." (See, _e.g._, Gen. xxvi. 22; Ps. iv. 2; Prov. xviii. 16; 2
+Sam. xxii. 20.) Even when followed by an accusative, the verb is found
+with this signification in Deut. xxxiii. 20: "Blessed be He that
+enlargeth Gad." (In this passage, too, the word has been understood as
+denoting extension; and Deut. xii. 20, xix. 8, have been appealed to in
+support of the opinion; but this appeal is inadmissible, because [Pg
+40] extension of the borders is the thing which is there spoken of. The
+allusion to the signification of the name _Gad_ = good luck [Gen. xxx.
+11: "And Leah said, For good luck;[5] and she called his name Gad"], is
+favourable to our view, as well as the circumstance, that in this case
+the subsequent words are only an expansion of the general thought, and
+more closely determine the happiness. Jehovah, who enlarges Gad,
+according to the words which follow, "He dwelleth like a lion, and
+teareth the arm with the crown of the head," is contrasted with the
+enemies who wish to drive him into a strait. If room be made for him,
+he becomes happy, as it were, by enlargement.) To understand יַפְתְּ of
+prosperity and happiness, is countenanced also by the consideration
+that, in such circumstances, the name Japheth appears much more
+appropriate in the mouth of Noah, by whom it was uttered at a time when
+extension could be but little thought of, and that it corresponds much
+better with the name Shem.
+
+Elohim is to enlarge Japheth. Elohim here stands in strict contrast
+with Jehovah, the God of Shem. It is only by dwelling in the tents of
+Shem, that Japheth passes over into the territory of Jehovah,--up to
+that time, he belongs to the territory of Elohim. But Elohim leads him
+to Jehovah. It is a contrast in all respects similar to that which we
+have in Gen. xiv., where, in verse 19, Melchizedek speaks of "the most
+high God," whose priest he is, according to verse 20; while Abraham, on
+the contrary, speaks, in verse 22, of "Jehovah the most high God."
+
+There is a difference of opinion regarding the determination of the
+subject in the second clause of the verse: "and he shall dwell in the
+tents of Shem." According to a very ancient interpretation, Elohim is
+to be supplied as such; from which the following sense would be
+obtained: "God shall indeed enlarge and prosper Japheth, but He shall
+dwell in the tents of Shem." [Pg 41] The inferior blessing of Japheth
+would thus be contrasted with the superior one of Shem, among whose
+posterity God should, by His gracious presence, glorify Himself,--first
+in the tabernacle, then in the temple, and lastly, should, in the
+highest sense, dwell by the incarnation of His Son. Thus _Onkelos_:
+"God shall extend Japheth, and His Shechinah shall dwell in the tents
+of Shem." The ancient book _Breshith Rabba_ remarks on this passage:
+"The Shechinah dwells only in the tents of Shem." (See _Schöttgen_, _de
+Messia_, p. 441.) _Theodoret_ also (Interrog. 58 in Genesin) advances
+this explanation, and ably brings out this sense. It has of late been
+again defended by _Hofmann_ and _Baumgarten_. But against this view
+there are decisive arguments, which show that Japheth alone can be the
+subject. To mention only a few:--It cannot be doubted that it is on
+purpose that Noah, when speaking of Shem, has chosen the name Jehovah,
+and that, as soon as he comes to Japheth, he makes use of the name
+Elohim. We cannot, therefore, suppose that here, where, according to
+this interpretation, he would just touch upon the essential point in
+the peculiar relation of Jehovah to the descendants of Shem--the
+Israelites, he should have made use of the general name of Elohim, as
+in the case of Japheth. The subject--Jehovah--could not in this case
+have been omitted before ישכן. _Further_,--By such an interpretation we
+are involved in inextricable difficulties as regards the last clause of
+the verse. The words, "And Canaan shall be a servant to them," can
+neither be referred to Shem alone--for, in that case, they would be an
+useless repetition, as in ver. 25 Canaan had been doomed to be a
+servant to _his brethren_--nor can they be referred to Shem and Japheth
+at the same time; the analogy of the למו in the preceding verse, where
+the plural referred to the plurality represented by the one Shem,
+forbids this. If, then, the last clause can refer to Japheth only, the
+clause in which the dwelling in the tents of Shem is spoken of, must
+likewise be referred to Japheth. To these arguments we may _further_
+add, that there is something altogether strange in the expression: "God
+shall dwell in the tents of Shem." There is, in Holy Scripture,
+frequent mention of God's dwelling in His tabernacle, on His holy hill,
+in Zion, in the midst of the children of Israel. Believers also are
+said to dwell in the tabernacle or temple of God; but nowhere is [Pg
+42] God spoken of as dwelling in the tents of Israel. _Further_,--If we
+refer the second clause to Shem, the first, in its detached position,
+would be too general, too indefinite, and too loose to admit of the
+blessing of Japheth being concluded with it. We must not, moreover,
+lose sight of the consideration, that when we refer the second clause
+also to Japheth, there springs up a beautiful connection between the
+relation of Shem and Japheth to each other in the present, and during
+their future progress. As the reaction against the corruption of
+Ham had originated with Shem, and Japheth had only joined him in it;
+so in future also, the real home of piety and salvation will be with
+Shem, to whom Japheth, in the felt need of salvation, shall come near.
+_Finally_,--The analogy of the promise made to the Patriarch, according
+to which all the nations of the earth shall be blessed by the seed of
+Abraham, is in favour of our referring the second clause to Japheth.
+And if the Lord, alluding to our passage, says, in Luke xvi. 9, "Make
+to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness, that when ye
+fail they may receive you into everlasting habitations" (σκηνή = אהל),
+He expresses the view which we are now defending. For, in that passage,
+it is not God who receives, but man: they who, by their prayers, are
+more advanced, come to the help of those who have made less progress;
+those who have already attained to the enjoyment of salvation, make
+them partakers who stand in need of salvation.
+
+Of those who correctly consider Japheth to be the subject, several (_J.
+D. Michaelis_, _Vater_, _Gesenius_, _Winer_, _Knobel_) give the
+translation: "and he shall dwell in renowned habitations." But it is
+quite evident that this sense is admissible only as a secondary one: as
+such, we must indeed admit it in a context in which the appellative
+signification of the proper names is never lost sight of. That שם is
+here, however, primarily a proper name, is shown by the preceding
+verse.
+
+The translation, "Japheth shall dwell in the tents of Shem," is, then,
+the correct one. But now the question is,--How are these words to be
+understood? According to the views of many interpreters, it is
+intimated by Japheth's dwelling in the tents of Shem, that the true
+religion would be preserved among the posterity of Shem, and would pass
+over from them to the descendants of Japheth, who should be received
+into the community [Pg 43] of the worshippers of the true God. So
+_Jonathan_ explained its meaning: "The Lord shall make glorious the end
+of Japheth; his sons shall be proselytes, and shall dwell in the
+schools of Shem." So also _Jerome_: "Since it is said, And he shall
+dwell in the tents of _Shem_, this is a prophecy concerning us, who,
+after the rejection of Israel, enjoy the instruction and knowledge of
+the Scriptures." _Augustine_ also (_c. Faustum_ xii. 24) understands by
+the tents of Shem, "the churches which the apostles, the sons of the
+prophets, have built up."
+
+But although this explanation be, in the main, correct, it cannot, per
+se, satisfy us. It must be reconciled with that other explanation given
+by _Bochart_ (_Phaleg._ iii. 1 c. 147 sqq.), _Calmet_, _Clericus_, and
+others, according to which the passage is to be understood literally,
+as foretelling that the posterity of Japheth should, at some future
+time, gain possession of the country belonging to the descendants of
+Shem, and should reduce them to subjection.
+
+The phrase, "and they dwelt in their tents," is, in 1 Chron. v. 10,
+used to express the relation of conquerors and conquered. There is no
+parallel passage which could indubitably prove that "dwelling in the
+tents of some one" could ever, by itself, denote spiritual communion
+with him. If Shem had come to Japheth with the announcement of
+salvation only, it is not likely that a dwelling of Japheth in the
+tents of Shem would have been spoken of. Even the last clause of the
+verse--"and Canaan shall be a servant to them"--when compared with the
+preceding verse, according to which Canaan is, in the first place, to
+be Shem's servant only, supposes that Japheth will step beyond his
+borders, and will invade the territory naturally belonging to Shem. If
+Japheth assume the dominion of Shem over Canaan, he must then dwell in
+the tents of Shem in a sense different from the merely spiritual one.
+_Finally_--Even in other passages of the Pentateuch, an invasion of
+Shem's territory by Japheth is foretold. In Num. xxiv. 24, Balaam says:
+"And ships shall come from the coast of Chittim and shall afflict
+Asshur, and shall afflict Eber, and he also shall perish." "We have
+here (compare my monography on Balaam) the announcement of a future
+conquest of the Asiatic kingdoms by nations from Europe, such as was
+historically realized in the Asiatic dominion of the Greeks and
+Romans."
+
+[Pg 44]
+
+On the other hand, however, it must not by any means be supposed that
+Noah should, in favour of Japheth, have weakened the power of the
+brilliant promise given to Shem by the announcement of such a sad
+event; for it is evidently his intention to exalt Shem above his
+brethren, as highly as he had excelled them both in his piety towards
+his father.
+
+The difficulties which stand in the way of either explanation are
+easily removed by the following consideration. The occupation of the
+land of Shem by Japheth is the condition of Japheth's dwelling in the
+tents of Shem. Why this dwelling is a blessing to Japheth--"God shall
+enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell," etc.--appears from what precedes,
+according to which, God reveals Himself to Shem as Jehovah, and becomes
+_his_ God. To be received into the fellowship of Jehovah--to find Him
+in the tents of Shem--constitutes the blessing promised to Japheth. But
+if such be the case, there can be no more room for speaking of an
+announcement of any event adverse to Shem. Underneath the adversity,
+joy is hidden. It will here be fulfilled in its highest sense, that the
+conquered give laws to the conquerors.
+
+"And Canaan shall be a servant to them." The servitude of Canaan was
+completed by Japheth, among whose sons (Gen. x. 2) Madai also appears;
+so that even the Medo-Persian kingdom is one of Japheth's. Phœnicia was
+completely overthrown by him. Haughty Tyrus fell to the ground. Zech.
+ix. 3, 4, when announcing the Greek dominion (compare ver. 13), says:
+"And Tyrus did build herself a stronghold, and heaped up silver like
+dust, and fine gold as the mire of the streets. Behold, the Lord will
+cast her out, and He will smite her power in the sea, and she shall be
+devoured with fire."
+
+The objection raised by _Tuch_ and _Hofmann_, that the Greeks and
+Romans made Shem also their servant, is, after what has been remarked,
+destitute of all weight, inasmuch as the servitude then had reference
+only to the lower territory. Shem and Judah were not injured in that
+which, in ver. 26, had been pointed at as their chief and peculiar
+good. On the contrary, it shone out, on that occasion, in its highest
+glory. Canaan, however, lost that upon which he set the highest value.
+In the case of Canaan, the servitude was the consequence of the curse;
+but in the case of Shem, the outward servitude was a consequence of [Pg
+45] the blessing, the most emphatic verification of the words: "Blessed
+be Jehovah, the God of Shem."
+
+It must indeed fill us with adoring wonder when we see how clearly and
+distinctly the outlines of the world's history, as well as of the
+history of Salvation, are here traced. "This," says _Calvin_, "is
+indeed a support to our faith of no common strength, that the calling
+of the Gentiles was not only predestined in God's eternal decree, but
+also publicly proclaimed by the mouth of the Patriarch; so that we are
+not required to believe that by a sudden and fortuitous event merely,
+the inheritance of eternal life was proclaimed to all men in common."
+
+It is not a matter of _chance_ that this prophecy was given immediately
+after the deluge, which stands out as so great an event in the history
+of the fallen human race,--the first event, indeed, subsequent to the
+fall, with which the _Protevangelium_ was connected. A new period
+begins with the calling of Abraham, and in it we obtain another
+link in the chain of the prophecies,--a link which fits as exactly
+into that which is now under consideration, as did this into the
+_Protevangelium_. The import of this prophecy is: "The kingdom of God
+shall be established in Shem, and Japheth shall be received into its
+community."--The meaning of the prophecy which is now to engage our
+attention is: "By the posterity of the Patriarchs all the nations of
+the earth shall be blessed." The promise to the Patriarchs differs,
+however, from the prophecy upon which we have just commented, not only
+in the natural progress--that from among the descendants of Shem a
+narrower circle is separated--but in this circumstance also, that in
+the former the blessing is extended to all the nations of the earth,
+while in the latter Ham is passed over in silence. This difference,
+however, has its main foundation in the historical circumstances of the
+latter prophecy; although, it is true, the complete silence which is
+observed regarding him, calls forth apprehensions about his being less
+susceptible of salvation, or, at least, of his not occupying any
+prominent position in the development of the kingdom of God. Here,
+where the object was to punish Ham for his wickedness, not the
+prosperous, but the adverse events impending upon him in his posterity,
+are brought prominently out; while, on the other hand, to Shem and
+Japheth blessings alone are foretold.
+
+
+Footnote 1: The object of this event, as pointed out by _Calvin_, viz.,
+that God intended to give to all coming ages, in the person of Noah, a
+warning and an exhortation to temperance, would likewise be frustrated
+by this unwarrantable apology.
+
+Footnote 2: The reverse is the case with reference to Aram, which is
+essentially a lowland, while these critics would have us to believe
+that it means "highland." (Compare _Baur_ on Amos, S. 229.)
+
+Footnote 3: _Bochart_ remarks: "He cursed the guilty one in his own
+person, because the source and nourishment of evil is in man himself.
+But, rejoiced at Shem's piety, he rather blessed the Lord, because he
+knew that God is the Author of everything which is good."
+
+Footnote 4: With reference to the difference between these two names,
+compare the disquisitions in the author's "_Genuineness of the Pent._,"
+vol. i. p. 213 ff.
+
+Footnote 5: Our English authorized version translates the first clause
+of this verse thus: "And Leah said, A troop cometh,"--a rendering which
+cannot be objected to on etymological grounds, and which receives some
+support from Gen. xlix. 19. The ancient versions, however, are quite
+unanimous in assigning to the גד in בגד the signification of "fortune,"
+"good luck;" and render it either: "in or for good luck;" "luckily,"
+"happily" (so the LXX. et Vulg.), or, following _Onkelos_ and the
+Mazorets: "good luck has come."--(Tr.)
+
+
+[Pg 46]
+
+
+                     THE PROMISE TO THE PATRIARCHS.
+
+A great epoch is, in Genesis, ushered in with the history of the time
+of the Patriarchs. _Luther_ says: "This is the third period in which
+Holy Scripture begins the history of the Church with a new family." In
+a befitting manner, the representation is opened in Gen. xii. 1-3 by an
+account of the first revelation of God, given to Abraham at Haran, in
+which the way is opened up for all that follows, and in which the
+dispensations of God are brought before us in a rapid survey. Abraham
+is to forsake everything, and then God will give him everything.
+
+Gen. xii. 1. "_And the Lord said unto Abraham, Get thee out of thy
+country, and from thy hone, and from thy father's house, into a land
+that I will show thee._ Ver. 2. _And I will make of thee a great
+nation, and I will bless thee, and make thy name great; and thou shalt
+be a blessing._ Ver. 3. _And I will bless them that bless thee, and him
+who curseth thee I will curse: and in thee all the families of the
+earth shall be blessed._"
+
+"_Into a land that I will show thee._" From what follows, it appears
+that, in the very same revelation, the country was afterwards _more
+definitely_ pointed out; for Abraham, without having received any new
+revelation, goes to Canaan, For the sake of brevity, the writer gives
+the details only afterwards, when he has occasion to report how they
+were carried out. The land which God will show to Abraham, stands
+contrasted with that in which he is at home,--in which he and his whole
+being had taken root. This contrast points out the greatness of the
+sacrifice which God demands of Abraham. With a like intent we have the
+accumulation of expressions--"out of thy land," etc.--corresponding to
+a similar one when the command was given to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. xxii.
+2), and forming the condition of the promise which follows. This
+promise is intended to make the sacrifice a light thing to Abraham, by
+pointing out what he is to receive if he give up everything which
+stands in the way of his living to God. A similar call comes to all who
+feel impelled to renounce the world in order to serve God. This call to
+Abraham is peculiar only as to its form; as to its essence, it is ever
+repeating itself. This will appear the more distinctly, when we inquire
+into the true reason of the _outward_ separation here demanded of [Pg
+47] Abraham. It can be Intended only as a means of the internal
+separation. In the circle in which he lived, sin had already made a
+mighty progress, as appears from Josh. xxiv. 2,--a passage which shows
+us that idolatry had already made its way into the family of Abraham.
+In order to withdraw him from the influences of this corruption,
+Abraham is removed from the circle in which he had grown up, and in
+which he had hitherto moved. That the special thing here demanded is
+only the result of the general duty of renunciation and self-denial,
+which is here, in Abraham, laid upon the whole Church, appears from the
+circumstance, that the promise was renewed at a subsequent period,
+when, with a willing heart, he had offered up his son Isaac as a
+spiritual sacrifice to his God. The carnal, ungodly love to Isaac is
+thus placed on a level with the attachment to the land, etc., which
+came betwixt him and his God. The general idea, that self-renunciation
+lies at the foundation, is brought out in Psalm xlv. 11.
+
+The words, "_And thou shalt be a blessing_," imply more than the
+words, "I will bless thee:" they are intentionally placed in the centre
+of the whole promise. Abraham shall, as it were, be an embodied
+blessing--himself blessed, and the cause of blessing to all those who
+bless him--to all the generations of the earth who shall, at some
+future period, enter into this loving and grateful relation to him. On
+the ground of Abraham's self-denial, and unreserved surrender, blessing
+is poured out _upon him_, blessing also _on his account_ and _through
+him_. The blessing connected with him begins with himself, and extends
+over all the families of the earth.
+
+"_And I will bless them that bless thee, and him that curseth thee I
+will curse._ The blessing is based upon the turning to Him who has
+appointed Abraham for a blessing, as we may learn from the example of
+Melchizedek, Gen. xiv. 19. They who bless are themselves not far from
+the kingdom of God; blessing, therefore, is the preparatory step
+towards being blessed. (Compare Matt. x. 40-42.)
+
+"_And in thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed._"
+_Luther_ says: "Now there follows the right promise, which ought to be
+written in golden letters, and proclaimed in all lands, and for which
+we ought to praise and glorify."
+
+The promise stands here in close connection with the Mosaic [Pg 48]
+history of the creation. According to that, man, as such, bears upon
+him the impress of the divine image. Gen. i. 26, and is the depository
+of the divine breath. Gen. ii. 7. From such a beginning, we cannot
+conceive of any limitation of salvation which is not, at the same time,
+a means of its universal extension. It must therefore be in entire
+accordance with the nature of the thing, that even here, where the
+setting apart of a particular chosen race takes its rise, there should
+be an intimation of its universally comprehensive object. There is, in
+the circumstance of _families_ being spoken of, a distinct reference to
+the history of creation; משפחה everywhere corresponds exactly with our
+word "family." It is everywhere used only of the subdivisions in the
+greater body of the nation or tribe. The expression, then, points to
+the higher unity of the whole human race, as it has its foundation in
+the fact that all partake in common of the divine image.
+
+The announcement of the blessing in this passage leads us back to the
+curse pronounced in consequence of sin, Gen. iii. 17: "Cursed is the
+ground (_Adamah_) for thy sake." (Compare Gen. v. 29.) This curse is,
+at some future time, to be abolished by Abraham. We can account for the
+mention of the families of the "Adamah" only by supposing that a
+reference to this passage was fully intended; for it was just the
+"Adamah" (primarily, "land") which had there been designated as the
+object of the curse.
+
+In announcing that all the families shall be blessed in Abraham, the
+writer refers also to the judgment described in Gen. xi., by which
+the family of mankind,--which, according to the intention of God, ought
+to have been united,--was dispersed and separated. When viewed in
+this connection, we expect that the blessing will manifest itself
+in the healing of the deep wound inflicted upon mankind, in the
+re-establishment of the lost unity, and in the gathering again of the
+scattered human race around Abraham as their centre.
+
+Beyond this, no other disclosure about the nature of this salvation is
+given. But that it consisted essentially in the union with God
+accomplished through the medium of Abraham, and that everything else
+could be viewed as emanating only from this source, was implied simply
+in the circumstance, that all the blessing which Abraham enjoyed for
+himself had its origin in [Pg 49] this, that he could call God _his
+God_; just as, in Gen. ix., it had been declared as the blessing of
+Shem, that Jehovah should be his God, and as the blessing of Japheth,
+that he was called to become a partaker of this blessing. The blessings
+which were either bestowed upon or promised to the Patriarchs and their
+descendants, had for their object the advancement of knowledge and the
+practice of true religion, and had been bestowed or promised only under
+this condition (compare Gen. xvii. 1, xvii. 17-19, xxii. 16-18, xxvi.
+5); they could not hence expect anything else than that their posterity
+would, in so far, be the cause of the salvation of the heathen nations,
+that the latter should, by means of the former, be made partakers of
+the blessings of true religion.
+
+With regard to the manner in which this blessing was to come to the
+Gentiles, no intimation was given by the words themselves. The person
+of the Redeemer is not yet brought before us in them; the indication of
+that was reserved for a later stage in the progress of revelation.[1]
+
+The last clause of ver. 3 cannot, by any means, take away from the
+import of the preceding one; the announcement of the blessing which,
+through Abraham, is to come upon all the families of the earth, does
+not repeal the foregoing one, according to which all shall be cursed
+who curse him. This view is confirmed by an allusion to this
+announcement in Zech. xiv. 16-19, where the words, "the families of the
+earth," must be regarded as a quotation. In ver. 16, the prophet says
+that _all the Gentiles_ shall go up to Jerusalem to celebrate the Feast
+of Tabernacles; but then, in vers. 17-19, he intimates the punishment
+of those who should refuse to go up. _Luther_ says: "If you wish to [Pg
+50] comprehend in a few words the history of the Church from the time
+of Abraham down to our days, then consider diligently these four
+verses. For in them you will find the blessing; but you will see also,
+that those who curse the Church are cursed, in turn, by God; so that
+they must perish, while the eternal seed of the Church stands unmoved
+and unshaken. For which reason, this text agrees with the first promise
+given in Paradise, concerning the seed which is to bruise the serpent's
+head. For the Church is not without enemies, but is assailed and
+harassed so that she groans under it; but yet, by this seed, she is
+invincible, and shall at length be victorious, and triumphant over all
+her enemies, in eternity."
+
+References to this fundamental prophecy are found in other parts of the
+Old Testament, besides the passage just quoted from Zechariah. In the
+28th verse of Ps. xxii., which was written by David, it is said: "All
+the ends of the world shall remember, and turn unto the Lord; and all
+the _families_ of the Gentiles shall worship before Thee." The
+realization of the blessing announced in Genesis, to all the families
+of the earth, appears in this psalm as being connected with the
+wonderful deliverance of the just. Another reference is in Ps. lxxii.,
+which was written by Solomon. In ver. 17 of this psalm it is said of
+Solomon's great Antitype: "And they shall bless themselves in Him, all
+nations shall bless Him." In these words the realization of the
+Abrahamitic blessing is distinctly connected with the person of the
+Redeemer.
+
+Among the New Testament references, the most remarkable is in John
+viii. There, in ver. 53, the Jews say to Christ: "Art thou greater than
+our father Abraham, which is dead? Whom makest thou thyself?" Jesus, in
+ver. 56, answers: "Your father Abraham rejoiced to see My day; and he
+saw it, and was glad," In ver. 57 the Jews reply: "Thou art not yet
+fifty years old, and hast thou seen Abraham?" In ver. 58 Jesus thus
+says to them: "Verily, verily, I say unto you, Before Abraham was, I
+am."
+
+Let us here, in the first place, consider only the declaration of
+Jesus, that Abraham rejoiced to see His day, and was glad. It is
+altogether out of the question to think of any such explanation of this
+as the one given by _Lücke_, after the example of _Lampe_ namely: "that
+Abraham, in the heavenly life, as a blessed [Pg 51] spirit with God,
+saw the day of the Lord, and in heaven rejoiced in the fulfilment." For
+it is the custom of Jesus to argue with the Jews from _Scripture_; and
+He cannot, therefore, here be appealing to an assumed fact which could
+not be proved from it. The answer of the Jews, in ver. 57, is likewise
+opposed to such an explanation, inasmuch as it proceeds from a
+supposition which Jesus had acknowledged to be true, namely, that the
+question at issue was a meeting of Christ with Abraham not mentioned in
+history; and in ver. 58 Christ sets aside their argument, "Thou art not
+yet fifty years old." But _Lücke_ must himself bear testimony against
+his own interpretation, inasmuch as, according to it, he is obliged to
+speak of "the very foolish question of the adversaries."[2]
+
+Jesus saw Abraham, and Abraham saw Jesus. Not the person, but the day
+of Christ, was future to Abraham. And this can be explained only by
+Jesus' being concealed behind Jehovah who appeared to him, and gave him
+the promise, that in him and his seed all the nations of the earth
+should be blessed. This blessing of all the families of the earth is
+the day of Jehovah,--the day when He will be glorified on the earth.
+
+The key to the right understanding of this is furnished by the doctrine
+of the Angel of the Lord, which meets us as early as in Genesis. From
+the passages in which, at the appearances and revelations of Jehovah,
+the mediation of the Angel is expressly mentioned, we infer that it
+(the mediation) took place even when Jehovah by Himself is spoken of;
+and the more so, since, even in the former series of passages, the
+simple name of Jehovah is commonly varied by that of the Angel of
+Jehovah. The Evangelist John's whole doctrine of the _Logos_ points to
+the personal identity of Jesus with the Angel of the Lord. Not less so
+does the passage, John xii. 41; and there is unquestionably a purpose
+which cannot be misunderstood in the fact, that, throughout the
+discourses of Jesus, as reported by John, the declaration that God
+_sent_ Him occurs with such frequency and regularity. But we can
+scarcely conceive of any other purpose than that of marking out Jesus
+as the Angel or Messenger of Jehovah spoken of in the writings of the
+Old Testament. Compare, _e.g._, xii. 44, [Pg 52] 45: "Jesus cried and
+said, He that believeth on Me, believeth not on Me, but on Him that
+_sent_ Me; and he that seeth Me, seeth Him that _sent_ Me." So also iv.
+34, v. 23, 24, 30, 37, vi. 38-40, vii. 16, 28, 33, viii. 16, 18, 26,
+29, ix. 4, xii. 49, xiii. 20, xiv. 24, xv. 21, xvi. 5.
+
+Let us now, in addition, turn to the words, "Abraham rejoiced to see
+(literally, that he might see) My day." It cannot be liable to any
+doubt, that these words express the heartfelt, joyful desire of Abraham
+to see that day, and that _Bengel_ correctly explains it by the words:
+_gestivit cum desiderio_. It is true, ἀγαλλιάομαι signifies, by itself,
+only "to rejoice;" but it has added to it the idea of joyful desire by
+its being connected with ἵνα. The words now under consideration are
+expressive of Abraham's joy and longing in the spirit for the
+manifestation of the day of Jehovah and of Christ, while those in the
+last clause of the verse express the gratification of this longing,
+which was produced by his receiving the promise that all the families
+of the earth should be blessed.
+
+The ardent desire of Abraham to see the day of Christ implies that he
+already _knew_ Christ, which can be the case only on the supposition of
+Christ's concealment in Jehovah. This longing desire is not expressly
+mentioned in Genesis, but it is most intimately connected with all
+living faith, and must necessarily precede such divine communications.
+The seed of the divine promises is everywhere sown only in a well
+prepared soil. That the promise in 2 Sam. vii. was to David, in like
+manner, a gratification of his anxious desire--an answer to prayer--we
+are not, it is true, expressly told in the historical record; and yet,
+that it was so, is evident from the words of Ps. xxi. 3: "Thou hast
+given him his heart's desire, and hast not withholden the request of
+his lips." There is here, then, express mention made of that which is a
+matter of course, and which forms the necessary condition of that which
+was reported in Genesis.
+
+We are furnished by the Book of Genesis itself with the right
+explanation of what is meant by the day of Christ, about which
+interpreters have so frequently erred. It is not the time of His first
+appearing, but, in accordance with the New Testament mode of expression
+(_e.g._, Phil. i. 10), the time of His glorification. The day of Christ
+is the time when the promise, "In thee shall all the families of the
+earth be blessed," shall be fulfilled.
+
+[Pg 53]
+
+Peter quotes this promise in Acts iii. 25, 26. Among the
+families of the earth he enumerates, first and chiefly, the people of
+the Old Testament dispensation; and he does so with perfect propriety,
+since there is no warrant whatever for limiting it to the Gentiles.
+
+Paul probably refers to this promise when, in Rom. iv. 13, he speaks of
+a promise given to Abraham and his seed that he should be the heir of
+the world. A blessing imparted to the whole world is a spiritual
+victory obtained over the world. The world is, in a spiritual sense,
+conquered by Abraham and his seed. Express references are found in Gal.
+iii. 8, 14, 16.
+
+The same promise is repeated to Abraham in Gen. xviii. 18. Instead of
+the משפחות האדמה (the families of the earth), the גויי הארץ (the
+nations of the earth) are there mentioned; the family-connection is
+lost sight of, and the comprehensiveness only--the catholic character
+of the blessing--is prominently brought out. This promise is a third
+time repeated to Abraham in chap. xxii. 18, on a very appropriate
+occasion, even that on which, by his endurance of the greatest trial,
+and by his willingness to sacrifice to God even what was dearest to
+him, he had proved himself a worthy heir of it. It is certainly not a
+matter of mere accident that this promise is just three times given to
+Abraham. There is in this a correspondence with the three individuals
+to whom the same promise is addressed. Abraham, however, as the first
+of them, and as the father of the faithful, could not be put on the
+same footing with the others. Instead of "in thee," or "by thee" (בך),
+we read in xxii. 18, "in" or "by thy seed" (בזרעך). The same promise is
+confirmed to Isaac in chap. xxvi. 14, and it is transferred to Jacob in
+chap. xxviii. 14. But while, in the first and second passages, it is
+said, "by thee," and in the third and fourth, "by thy seed," we read,
+in the passage last mentioned, "by thee and thy seed." This evidently
+shows that, in those passages where we find "by thee" standing alone,
+we are not at liberty to explain it as meaning simply: "by thy seed."
+It is not only the seed of Abraham, but Abraham himself also, who is to
+be the medium of blessing to the nations, as the foundation-stone of
+the large building of the Church of God, as the father of our Lord
+Jesus Christ according to the flesh, and as the father of all
+believers.
+
+There is a deep reason for the fact that, wherever the posterity [Pg
+54] of the Patriarchs are spoken of as the instruments of blessing, the
+singular is always used. This circumstance is pointed out by Paul in
+Gal. iii. 16. The Apostle does not in the least think of maintaining
+that, by זרע "seed," only a single individual could be signified. Such
+an opinion, no one who understood Hebrew could for a moment entertain;
+and Rom. iv. 13 shows that Paul was indeed very far from doing so. The
+further development of the promise (which took place within the limits
+of Genesis itself, in chap. xlix. 10), as well as its fulfilment (it
+is, indeed, with reference to the promise now under consideration that
+the lineal descent of Christ from Abraham is established at the
+commencement of Matthew's Gospel), showed that the real cause of the
+salvation bestowed upon the Gentiles was not the seed of Abraham as a
+whole, but one from among them, or rather He, in whom this whole
+posterity was comprehended and concentrated. Now, all to which Paul
+intends to draw our attention is the fact, that the Lord, who, when He
+gave the promise, had already in view its fulfilment which He had
+Himself to accomplish, did not unintentionally choose an expression
+which, besides the comprehensive meaning which would most naturally
+suggest itself to the Patriarchs, admitted also of the more restricted
+one which was confirmed by the fulfilment. In the _Protevangelium_, and
+in the promise of the Prophet in Deut. xviii., we have a case quite
+analogous to this; and in 2 Sam. vii. there is likewise a case which
+is, to a certain extent, parallel.
+
+In two passages out of the five--in chap. xxii. 18 and xxvi. 4--the
+Hithpael of the verb ברך instead of the Niphal is found. We meet with
+it also again in the derived passage in Ps. lxxii. 17, where it is said
+of the great King to come, "And they shall bless themselves in Him, all
+nations shall bless Him." In xxii. 18 and xxvi. 4, we shall be allowed
+to translate only thus: "They shall bless themselves in thy seed." For
+the Hithpael of ברך always signifies "to bless oneself;" and the person
+from whom the blessing is derived (Isa. lxv. 16; Jer. iv. 2), or whose
+blessing is desired, is connected with it by means of the preposition
+ב. (Compare Gen. xlviii. 20: "In thee shall Israel bless, saying, God
+make thee as Ephraim and as Manasseh.") From the nature of the case, it
+is evident that only the latter can be meant here. This is shown also
+by the derived passage [Pg 55] in Ps. lxxii. 17, where the words, "they
+shall bless themselves in Him," are explained by the subsequent
+expression, "they shall bless Him."
+
+But it is certainly not accidental that the Hithpael is on both sides
+inclosed by the Niphal, and that the latter stands not only twice at
+the beginning, but also at the end. Hence we are not at liberty to
+force upon the Hithpael the signification of the Niphal; but the
+passages in which the Hithpael occurs must be supplemented from the
+real fundamental passages. "To bless oneself _in_" is the preparatory
+step to being "blessed _by_." The acknowledgment of the blessing calls
+forth the wish to be a partaker of it. (Compare Isa. xlv. 14, where, in
+consequence of the rich blessings poured out upon Israel, the nations
+make the request to be received among them.) Oftentimes in the Psalms
+utterance is given to the expectation that, through the blessing
+resting on the people of God, the Gentiles will be allowed to seek
+communion in it. (See my Commentary on Ps. vol. iii. p. lxxvii.) But
+especially in Ps. lxxii. does it clearly appear how "blessing oneself
+in" is connected with "being blessed by." The very same people who
+bless themselves in the glorious King to come, hasten to Him to partake
+in the fulness of the blessings which He dispenses. He has dominion
+from sea to sea; they that dwell in the wilderness bow before Him; all
+kings worship Him; all nations serve Him.
+
+Several commentators (_Clericus_, _Gesenius_, _de Wette_, _Maurer_,
+_Knobel_, and, in substance, _Hofmann_ also) attempt to explain the
+fundamental passage by the derived ones, and force upon Niphal the
+signification of Hithpael; so that the sense would be only that a great
+and, as it were, proverbial happiness and prosperity belonged to
+Abraham: "Holding up this name as a pattern, most of the eastern
+nations will comprehend all blessings in these or similar words: 'God
+bless thee as He blessed Abraham.'" But this explanation is, according
+to the _usus loquendi_, incorrect, inasmuch as the Niphal is used only
+in the signification "to be blessed," and never means "to bless
+oneself," or "to have or find one's blessing in something." To a
+difference in the significations of the Niphal and the Hithpael, we are
+led also by the circumstance that the Hithpael is connected only with
+the seed--"they shall bless themselves in thy seed,"--and the Niphal
+only with the person of the Patriarch: [Pg 56] "they shall be blessed
+in thee," and "in thee and thy seed." The Patriarchs themselves are the
+source of blessing, but, if these nations _blessed themselves_, they
+wish for themselves the blessing of their descendants exhibited before
+their eyes. The reference in Zech. xiv. 17, 18 to the promise made to
+the Patriarchs presupposes the Messianic character, and the passive
+signification of נברכו. In like manner, all the quotations of it in the
+New Testament rest on the passive signification. It is from this view
+of it that the Lord says that Abraham saw His day; that, in Rom. iv.
+13, Paul finds, in this promise, the prophecy of His conquering the
+world; and that, in Gal. iii. 14, he speaks of the blessing of Abraham
+upon the Gentiles through Christ Jesus. Gal. iii. 8 and Acts iii. 25
+render נברכו by ἐνευλογηθήσονται. The explanation, "they shall wish
+prosperity or happiness to each other," is destructive of the
+gradation, so evident in the fundamental passage,--blessing _for_, _on
+account of_, and _by_ Abraham; it cannot account for the constant,
+solemn repetition of this proclamation which everywhere appears as the
+_acme_ of the promises given to the Patriarch; it destroys the
+correspondence existing between this blessing upon all the families of
+the earth, and the curse which, after the fall, was inflicted upon the
+earth; it does away with the contrast, so clearly marked, between the
+union of the families of the earth effected by the blessing, and their
+dispersion, narrated in chap. xi.; it demolishes the connection
+existing between the prophecy of Japheth's dwelling in the tents of
+Shem (ix. 27), on the one hand, and the Ruler proceeding from Judah, to
+whom shall be the obedience of the nations (xlix. 10), on the other;
+and it severs all the necessary connecting links which unite these
+prophecies with one another.
+
+Another attempt to deprive this promise of its Messianic
+character--that, namely, made by _Bertholdt_ (_de ortu theol. Vet.
+Hebr._ p. 102) and others, who would have us to understand, by the
+families and nations of the earth, the Canaanitish nations--does not
+require any minute examination, as the weakness of these productions of
+rationalistic tendency are so glaringly manifest.
+
+
+Footnote 1: _Herder_ says, in his _Briefe das Studium der Theol._ betr.
+ii. S. 278: "If, in Abraham's descendants, all the nations of the earth
+were to be blessed, Abraham might and should have conceived of this
+blessing in all its generality, so that everything whereby his nation
+deserved well of the nations of the earth, was implied in it. If, then,
+Christ also belongs to the number of those noble individuals who
+deserved so well, the blessing refers to Him, not _indirectly_, but
+_directly_; and if Christ be the chief of all this number, it then most
+directly, and in preference to all others, refers to Him;--although, in
+this germ, Abraham did not distinctly perceive His person, did not, nor
+could, except by special revelation, in this bud, so plainly discover
+the full growth of His merits."
+
+Footnote 2: Even in this he was preceded by _Lampe_, who remarks:
+"Christ had spoken of seeing the day; the Jews speak about seeing the
+person. He had spoken of Abraham's seeing; they speak of Christ's
+seeing."
+
+
+[Pg 57]
+
+
+                    THE BLESSING OF JACOB UPON JUDAH.
+                           (Gen. xlix. 8-10.)
+
+Ver. 8. "_Judah, thou, thy brethren shall praise thee; thy hand shall
+be on the neck of thine enemies; before thee shall bow down the sons of
+thy father._ Ver. 9. _A lion's whelp is Judah; from the prey, my
+son, thou goest up; he stoopeth down, he coucheth as a lion, and as a
+full-grown lion, who shall rouse him up?_ Ver. 10. _The sceptre shall
+not depart from Judah, nor lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh
+come, and unto Him the people shall adhere._"
+
+Thus does dying Jacob, in announcing "what shall befall his sons in the
+end of the days" (ver. 1), speak to Judah, after having dismissed
+those of his sons to whom, in the name of the Lord, he must tell hard
+things--things which did not, however, exclude them from the salvation
+common to all of them (ver. 28), although their shadow made the light
+of Judah shine so much the more brightly.[1]
+
+In ver. 8 everything depends upon a right determination of the meaning
+of the name Judah. Being formed from the Future in Hophal, it
+signifies: "He (viz., God) shall be praised." This explanation rests
+upon Gen. xxix. 35, where Leah, after the birth of Judah, says, "Now
+will I praise the Lord;" and then follow the words: "therefore she
+called his name Judah." It rests likewise on the common use of the verb
+ידה, the Hiphil of which is, according to _Maurer_, almost constantly
+used of "praising God," and is, as it were, set apart and sanctified
+for that purpose. After having enumerated a multitude of passages,
+_Gesenius_ says, in his _Thesaurus_: "In all these passages it refers
+[Pg 58] to the praise of God, and it is only rarely (Gen. xlix. 8
+compared with Job xl. 14) that it refers to the praise of men." Even
+these few exceptions are such only in appearance. In Job xl. 14, he
+whom God will praise is not an ordinary man, but a _god-man_. By the
+subsequent words in Gen. xlix. 8, "Before thee shall bow down,"
+something divine is ascribed to Judah; we need not therefore be
+astonished that, by the word יודוך, he is raised above the merely human
+standing. They only who do not know the Lion of the tribe of Judah,
+have any reason to explain away, by a forced exposition, the slight
+allusion to a superhuman dignity of the tribe of Judah. The greater
+number of expositors, referring to the subsequent words, "thy brethren
+shall praise thee," explain the name by the expression, "blessed one."
+But, even though we should retain the sure explanation which has been
+given above, the idea now mentioned falls very naturally in with it. He
+who, in the fullest sense, is a "God's-praise" (_Gottlob_), whose very
+existence becomes the cause of exclaiming, δόξα τῷ Θεῷ, praise be to
+God, will assuredly receive praise from the brethren.--"Judah thou"
+stands (according to Gen. xxvii. 36; Matt. xvi. 18) either for, "Thou
+art Judah," _i.e._, thou art rightly called so, or, according to Gen.
+xxiv. 60, for, "Thou Judah," _i.e._, I have something particular to
+tell thee (compare the emphatic "I" in Gen. xxiv. 27).--On the
+expression, "Thine hand shall be in the neck of thine enemies," _i.e._,
+thou shalt put to flight all thine enemies, and press them hard while
+they are fleeing, compare Exod. xxiii. 27, "I will make all thine
+enemies (turn their) backs unto thee," and Ps. xviii. 41, where David
+says, in the name of his family, in which Judah centred, as did Israel
+in Judah, "Thou hast given me mine enemies (to be) a back." If,
+however, we inquire how this prophecy was fulfilled, we must not
+overlook the circumstance that the subjects of it are sinful men, and
+that, for this reason, God could never give up the right of visiting
+their iniquity,--a right which has its foundation in His very nature.
+Three sentences of condemnation precede the blessing upon Judah, and
+this indicates that Judah too will be weighed in the balance of
+justice. "The excellency of dignity and the excellency of power,"
+which, in ver. 3, were taken from Reuben, are here adjudged to Judah.
+The circumstance of his being the first-born could not protect the
+former against the loss of his privileges; [Pg 59] and just as little
+will the divine election deliver Judah from a visitation for his sins,
+although, by that election, the total loss of his privileges is
+rendered impossible. These two ordinations--the election and the
+visitation of sin in the elect--stand by the side of each other; and
+the latter could not be stayed, even at the time when Judah had reached
+its height in the Lion from out of his tribe; for although the Shepherd
+was blameless, yet the flock was not so. The ordination of election is,
+however, far from being thereby darkened; it only shines by a brighter
+light. Often painful indeed were the defeats which Judah had to
+sustain; often enough--as during the centuries which elapsed between
+the destruction of David's kingdom and the coming of Christ--was the
+promise, "Thy hand shall be in the necks of thine enemies," reversed.
+But when we behold Judah ever and anon returning and rising to the
+dignity here bestowed upon him,--when the advance then always keeps
+equal pace with the preceding depths of humiliation (we need think only
+of David's time, and compare it with the period of the Judges),--then
+indeed it appears all the more clearly, that the hand of God is ever
+active in bringing this promise to a sure and firm fulfilment. In the
+history of the world there is only one power--that of Judah--in which,
+notwithstanding all defeats, the promise, "Thy hand shall be in the
+necks of thine enemies," is ever, after all, fulfilled anew; only one
+power, the victorious energy of which may indeed be overcome by sleep,
+but never by death; only one power which can speak as does David in the
+name of his family in Ps. xviii. 38-40: "I pursue mine enemies and
+overtake them, I do not return till they are consumed; I crush them,
+and they cannot rise: they fall under my feet. And Thou girdest me
+with strength for the war, Thou bowest down those that rise against
+me."--Luther remarks on this passage: "These promises must be
+understood in spirit and faith. This may be seen from the history of
+David, where it often appears as if God had altogether forgotten him,
+and what He had promised to him. After he had already been elected, he
+was, for ten years, not able to obtain a fixed place, or residence in
+the whole kingdom; and when at last he took hold of the reins of
+government, he fell into great, grievous, heinous sin, and was sore
+vexed when he had to bear the punishment of it. Therefore these two
+things--promise and [Pg 60] faith--must always be combined; and it is
+necessary that a man who has a divine promise know well the art which
+Paul teaches in Rom. iv. 18, to believe in hope even against hope.--The
+kingdom of Israel, too, was assailed by so great weakness, and pressed
+down by so many burdens, that it appeared as if every moment it would
+fall; and this was especially the case when sin, and punishment in
+consequence of sin, broke in upon them, as, for instance, after David's
+adultery with Bathsheba, and oftentimes besides. Yet, even in all such
+temptations, it always remains, on account of the promise."--It must be
+carefully observed that the words, "Thy hand shall be in the neck of
+thine enemies," are placed between, "Thy brethren shall praise thee,"
+and "Before thee shall bow down the sons of thy father," and that,
+immediately after this, Judah's victorious power against the enemies of
+God's people is again pointed out. This teaches us that the exalted
+position which Judah, when compared with his brethren, occupies, rests
+mainly on this:--that he is their fore-champion in the warfare against
+the world, and that God has endowed him with conquering power against
+the enemies of His kingdom. The history of David is best calculated to
+show and convince us, how closely these two things are connected with
+each other. That he was called to verify the truth of the promise given
+to Judah, "Thy hand shall be in the neck of thine enemies," was first
+seen in his victory over Goliath the Philistine, fore-champion of the
+world's power. After David's word had been fulfilled, "The Lord who
+delivered me out of the paw of the lion, and out of the paw of the
+bear. He will deliver me out of the hand of this Philistine," and the
+Philistines had fled, seeing that their champion was dead (1 Sam. xvii.
+37-51), then also were fulfilled the other words: "Thy brethren shall
+praise thee, the sons of thy father shall bow before thee." "And it
+came to pass as they came, when David was returned from the slaughter
+of the Philistine, that the women came out of all the cities of Israel,
+singing and dancing, to meet King Saul, with tabrets, with joy, and
+with instruments of music. And the women answered one another as
+they played, and said, Saul has slain his thousands, and David his
+ten thousands."--And in Sam. xviii. 16, it is said: "But all Israel
+and Judah _loved_ David, _because_ he went out and came in before
+them;"--and in 2 Sam. v. 2, when the ten tribes acknowledged [Pg 61]
+David as their king, they said: "Also in time past, when Saul was king
+over us, thou wast he that leddest out and broughtest in Israel." David
+would never have succeeded in overcoming the jealousy and envy of the
+other tribes, unless the promise, "Thy hand shall be in the neck of
+thine enemies," had been fulfilled in him.--_Before Judah shall how
+down the sons of his father._ I have already remarked, in my commentary
+on Rev. xix. 10, that there is very little ground for the common
+distinction between religious and civil προσκύνησις (bowing down,
+worship). The true distinction is between that προσκύνησις which is
+given to God, either directly or indirectly, in those who bear His
+image, in the representatives of His gifts and offices,--and that
+προσκύνησις which is exacted apart from, and against God. "The God of
+Scripture demands to be honoured in those who bear His image, who hold
+His offices,--in father and mother and old men (Lev. xix. 32), in
+princes (Exod. xxii. 28), in the office of the judge (Deut. i. 17;
+Exod. xxi. 6, xxii. 7, 8). It is wicked to refuse this honour, and its
+natural expression in the bowing of the body, under the pretext, that
+it is due to _God_ alone. It is to be refused only where there is some
+danger that, thereby, any independent honour would be ascribed to the
+mere vessel of the divine glory." In what the προσκύνησις consists,
+which Judah is to receive from his brethren, we see distinctly from
+Isa. xlv. 14, where the heathen, at the time of the salvation, fall
+down before Israel: "Thus saith the Lord, The labour of Egypt and
+merchandise of Ethiopia, and the Sabeans, men of stature, shall come
+over unto thee, and be thine: they shall go behind thee; in chains they
+shall walk; _and they shall fall down before thee, and they shall make
+supplication unto thee_ (saying). _Only in thee is God, and there is no
+God else._" The ground of Judah's adoration on the part of his brethren
+is this:--that God's glory is visibly upon him, that by glorious deeds
+and victories the seal is impressed upon him: "with us is God"
+(_Immanuel_). And this found its most glorious fulfilment in the Lion
+of the tribe of Judah, in Christ, of whom it is said in Phil. ii. 9-11:
+"Wherefore God has highly exalted Him, and given Him a name which is
+above every name; that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of
+all those who are in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth; and
+that every tongue should [Pg 62] confess that Jesus Christ is the Lord,
+to the glory of God the Father." That, in its final accomplishment,
+this prophecy referred to Christ, was known to Jacob as certainly as he
+makes Judah centre in the Shiloh. This Solomon also knew, when, in Ps.
+lxxii. 11 (compare Ps. xlv. 12), he ascribes to his great Antitype what
+is here ascribed to Judah: "All kings shall worship Him, and all
+nations shall serve Him." The consequence of the worship "by kings and
+nations" is the worshipping "by the sons of the father." Jacob thus
+transfers to Judah that which Isaac had promised to _him_: "People
+shall serve thee, and nations shall worship thee: be lord over thy
+brethren, and thy mother's sons shall worship before thee:" Gen. xxvii.
+29.
+
+In ver. 9 Judah is first designated a young lion,--a name which is
+intended to indicate, that the victorious power ascribed to Judah
+exists, as yet, only in the _germ_. It required that centuries should
+pass away before he grew up to be a lion, a full-grown lion. By the
+long period which thus intervened between the promise and its
+fulfilment, the divine election is the more strikingly manifested.
+(Several interpreters have been of opinion that there is no difference
+between the young lion, the lion, and the full-grown lion. But it is
+shown by Ezek. xix. 3--"And she brought up one of her גורים, and it
+became a כפיר, and it learnt to tear prey,"--that גור אריה is a young
+lion not yet able to catch prey.[2]) In the words, "From the prey, my
+son, thou art gone up," the _prey_ is the _terminus a quo_: for עלה
+with מן is always used of the place from which it is gone up (see Josh.
+iv. 17, x. 9; Song of Sol. iv. 2): the _terminus ad quem_ is the usual
+abode, as is shown by what follows. The residence of the conqueror and
+ruler is conceived of as being _elevated_. Joseph, according to Gen.
+xlvi. 31, goes up to Pharaoh, and in ver. 29 of the same chapter he
+goes up to meet his father. The expression "to go up" is commonly used
+of those who come from [Pg 63] other countries to Canaan. But the
+"going up" in the passage under review implies also the "going down"
+into the lower regions to seek for prey, just as in Ps. lxviii. 19,
+where it is said of the Lord, after He had fought for His people, and
+had been victorious, "Thou hast ascended on high, Thou hast led
+captivity captive: Thou hast received gifts for men; yea, for the
+rebellious also, that the Lord God might dwell among them." "_To
+dwell_" means there, that, after having accomplished all this, thou
+mayest dwell gloriously, and be inaccessible to the vengeance of the
+conquered, in thy usual place of abode. The sense is the same in the
+passage before us. Luther is therefore wrong in explaining it thus:
+"Thou hast risen high, my son, by great victories,"--as are others also
+who translate it, "From the prey thou growest up." Such a view of this
+clause would, moreover, break up the connection, and all that follows
+would appear without preparation.[3]
+
+The words, "He stoopeth down, he croucheth as a lion, and as a
+full-grown lion; who shall rouse him up?" contain a transition and
+allusion to what we are subsequently told concerning Shiloh. Even here
+we are presented with a picture of peace,--a peace, however, which is
+not to the prejudice of victorious power, as in the case of Issachar
+(vers. 14, 15), but which, on the contrary, preserves it undiminished.
+If the promise, "From the prey, my son, thou art gone up," found its
+first glorious, although only preliminary, fulfilment in the reign of
+David (compare the enumeration of his victories in 2 Sam. viii.), the
+words, "He stoopeth down, he coucheth," etc., are the most appropriate
+inscription for the portal of Solomon's reign. But, in Christ, the
+pre-eminence in the reign both of war and peace is united.--That לביא
+is not "the lioness," but only the poetical designation of the lion,
+appears from just the very passage which is so commonly adduced in
+support of the former signification, viz., Job iv. 11; for the sons of
+the lion spoken of in that passage are the sons of the wicked (compare
+Job xxvii. 14).
+
+A parallel to the words in ver. 10, "The sceptre shall not depart from
+Judah," is formed by the departing of the sceptre from Egypt, in Zech.
+x. 11: "And the pride of Assyria shall [Pg 64] be brought down, and the
+sceptre of Egypt shall depart away." All dominion of the world over the
+people of God is only temporary; and so also, the dominion of the
+people of God over the world, as it centres in Judah, can sustain only
+a temporary _interruption_: its departure is everywhere in appearance
+only; and when it departs, it is only that it may return with enhanced
+weight.--The _sceptre_ is the emblem of dominion. The words, "A sceptre
+rises out of Israel" (Num. xxiv. 17), are explained in chap. xxiv. 19
+by the words, "_Dominion_ shall come out of Jacob." The question as to
+the subjects of this dominion must be determined from the preceding
+words; for there shall not depart from Judah what Judah, according to
+these words, possesses. Hence they are (1) the brethren of Judah, and
+(2) the enemies of Israel. The latter can the less properly be
+excluded, because of these alone the whole of the preceding verse
+treated. In the words of Balaam, in Num. xxiv. 17 (which refer to the
+passage under consideration), "There cometh a star out of Jacob, and a
+sceptre riseth out of Israel, and smiteth the territories of Moab, and
+destroyeth all the sons of the tumult," there is viewed, in the
+sceptre, only the victorious and destructive power which he shall
+display in his relation to the _world_; but the subjects of dominion
+are, in that passage, according to ver. 19, the heathens also. The
+sceptre is pre-eminently an ensign of kings. Hence, to the sceptre and
+star out of Israel (Num. xxiv. 17) corresponds, in ver. 7, his _king_:
+"And his king shall be higher than Agag, and his kingdom shall be
+exalted,"--_i.e._, not merely a single royal person, but the
+Israelitish kingdom. But we can here the less legitimately separate
+sceptre and kingdom from each other, because, even in the earlier
+promises made to the Patriarch, there is the prophecy of the rising of
+a kingdom among their descendants,--of a kingdom, too, that shall
+extend beyond the boundary of that posterity itself. (Compare Gen.
+xvii. 6, "Kings shall come out of thee;" ver. 16, "And she shall become
+nations. Icings of nations shall be of her." See also Gen. xxxv. 11.)
+In vol. ii. of the _Dissertations on the Genuineness of the
+Pentateuch_, p. 166 f., we detailed the natural foundations which there
+existed for foreseeing the establishment of a kingdom in Israel. It is
+evident that the promise which was formally given to the whole
+posterity of the Patriarchs, is here appropriated specially to Judah,
+who, for [Pg 65] the benefit of the whole people, is to have the
+sceptre.[4] From what has been remarked, it appears that the fulfilment
+of this prophecy began first with David; up to that time Judah had been
+only "a lion's whelp." "In the person of Saul," as Calvin remarks,
+"there was an abortive effort; but there came out at length in David,
+under the authority and legitimate arrangement of God, the sovereignty
+of Judah, according to the prophecy of Jacob." It also appears, from
+what has been observed, that _Reinke_, S. 45 of his Monography, _Die
+Weissagung Jacobs über Schilo_, Münster 1849 (a work written with great
+diligence), is mistaken in determining the sense to be,[5] that Judah
+as a tribe would not perish, and his superiority not cease, until out
+of him Shiloh, etc.; and that he is wrong, too, in maintaining, S. 133,
+that the continuance of the royal dignity, and the superiority over all
+the tribes until the time of Christ, were not required by these words.
+From the remarks which we have made, even more than that is
+required,--the _continuance_, namely, _of Judah's dominion over the
+Gentiles_; for otherwise it would be necessary to make a violent
+separation of these words from the preceding ones. That which has given
+rise to such interpretations and assertions, viz., the apparent
+difficulty encountered in pointing out the fulfilment,[6] is by no
+means removed by such an explanation. For, if we look to the surface
+only, what had been left of the superiority of the tribe of Judah, at
+the time when Christ appeared? But if we look deeper, we shall find no
+reason for such feeble interpretations. The fulness of strength which,
+notwithstanding the deepest humiliation, still dwelt in the sceptre of
+Judah at the time when Christ appeared, is made manifest by the
+very appearance of Christ--the Lion of the tribe of Judah. Although
+faint-heartedness, perceiving only what is immediately before the eyes,
+might have said, "The sceptre has departed from [Pg 66] Judah," to
+every one who was not blinded it must have been evident, at the very
+moment when Christ appeared, that the sceptre had not departed from
+Judah. We must not allow ourselves to be perplexed by any events and
+arguments adduced to prove that the sceptre _has departed_ from Judah;
+for the very same events and arguments would militate against the
+eternal dominion of his house which had been promised to David, and
+would therefore make us doubtful of that also. All these events and
+arguments lose their significancy, when we remark, that this departing
+is only an _apparent_, not a _definitive_ one;--that God never, by His
+promises, binds the hands of His punitive justice;--that His election
+goes always hand-in-hand with the visitation of the sins of the
+elected; but that, in the end, the election will stand in all its
+validity.[1] To Judah applies exactly what in Ps. lxxxix. 31-35 is said
+of David: "If his children forsake My law, and walk not in My
+judgments; if they break My statutes, and keep not My commandments;
+then will I visit their transgression with the rod, and their iniquity
+with stripes. Nevertheless, My loving-kindness will I not utterly take
+from him, nor suffer My faithfulness to fail. My covenant will I not
+break, nor alter the thing that is gone out of My lips." But the
+greater the degradation that had come upon Judah, the more consoling is
+this promise. If we see that neither the decline of David's and Judah's
+dominion after Solomon, nor the apparently total disappearance of
+David's kingdom which took place after the Chaldee catastrophe, and
+continued for centuries; nor the altogether comfortless condition (when
+[Pg 67] looking only at what Is visible) which Jeremiah describes in
+the words: "Judah is captive in affliction and great servitude: she
+dwelleth among the heathen, and findeth no rest. The anointed of the
+Lord, who was our consolation, is taken in their pits, he of whom we
+said, Under his shadow we shall live among the heathen. Slaves are
+ruling over us, and there is none to deliver us from their hand;"--if
+we see that all these things did not prevent the fulfilment of the
+words, "The sceptre shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh
+come;"--that, notwithstanding all these things, it most gloriously
+manifested itself in the appearance of Christ, that the dominion
+remained still with Judah;--why should we be dismayed though the river
+of the kingdom of God should sometimes lose itself in the sand? Why
+should we not be firmly confident that in due time it shall spring
+forth again with its clear and powerful waters?--But the _Jews_ are not
+benefited by this distinction betwixt the _definitive_ departing of the
+sceptre, and one which is merely _temporary_. The latter must
+necessarily be distinguished from the former by this:--that even in the
+times of abasement, there must be single symptoms which still indicate
+the continuance of the sceptre; and this was evidently the case in the
+times before Christ. In Jehoshaphat, Uzziah, and Hezekiah, the sceptre
+of Judah brought forth new leaves; after their return from the
+captivity, the place, at least, was pointed out by Zerubbabel, which
+the Davidic kingdom would, at some future period, again occupy. The
+victories of the times of the Maccabees, though they themselves were
+not of the tribe of Judah, served to manifest clearly that the lion's
+strength and the lion's courage had not yet departed from Judah. It is
+not without significance that _Judas Maccabeus_ had his name thus. And
+under all these events the family of David always remained distinct,
+and capable of being traced out. But nothing of all this is to be found
+with the Jews during the 1800 years after Christ; and hence the vanity
+of their hope that, in some future time, it will be made evident by the
+appearance of Shiloh, that the supremacy and dominion of Judah are not
+lost.
+
+Along with the _sceptre_ which shall not depart from Judah, the
+_lawgiver_ is mentioned, for whom many would, quite arbitrarily,
+substitute the _commander's staff_. Is. xxxiii. 22 is explanatory of
+this passage; "For the Lord our Judge, the [Pg 68] Lord our Lawgiver,
+the Lord our King, He will save us"--where the _lawgiver_ is put on a
+level with the _judge_ and _king_. Gesenius translates it by: our
+_commander_.
+
+The lawgiver shall not depart "from between his feet." This is a
+poetical expression for "from him." He is, as it were, to have the
+lawgiver wherever he moves or stands. Explanatory of this is the
+passage in Judges v. 27, where, in the Song of Deborah, it is said of
+Jael, "He bowed between her feet, he fell, he lay down." That which any
+one has between his feet, is accordingly his territory on which he
+moves, that within his reach. In the latter passage the prose
+expression would have been, "beside her," and in the passage under
+consideration, "from him."[8]
+
+Sceptre and lawgiver shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh come.
+Here everything depends upon fixing the derivation and signification of
+this word. There cannot be any doubt, and, indeed, it is now almost
+universally admitted, that it is derived from שלה, "to rest." In the
+first edition of this work, the author gave it as his opinion, that its
+formation was analogous to that of כידור, "tumult of war," from כדר,
+"to be troubled," קיטר, "smoke," from שִׁלֹחַ ,קטר from שלח; and many
+(_Hofmann_, _Kurtz_, _Reinke_) have stedfastly maintained this opinion
+even until now. But the author must confess that the objections raised
+against this derivation by _Tuch_ are well-founded. "In the first
+place," _Tuch_ remarks, "it is well known that forms like קיטר do not
+constitute any special class in the etymology, but have originated from
+_Piel_ forms (_Ewald_, Lehrb. d. Hebr. Spr. § 156 b), as is very
+clearly shown by קימוש, being found by the side of קִמּוֹשׁ. But the _o_ in
+the final syllable of these words is not an o unchangeable, according
+to the rules of etymology, and could, therefore, not remain in a root
+לח; _and there is not found, in general, any form of a root_ לח
+_analogous to_ קיטר." But far more decisive is another reason. "The
+_nomina Gentilia_ גילני (2 Sam. xv. 12), שילני (1 Kings [Pg 69] xi. 29,
+xii. 15), lead us from the supposed form to the substantive termination
+־וֹן which a _liquida_ may drop, and express the remaining vowel ו by
+ה." (Compare _Ewald_, § 163.) Now that _Shiloh_ is an abbreviation of
+_Shilon_ is proved, not only by the _nomen gentile_, but also by the
+fact, that the ruins of the town which received its name from the
+Shiloh in our passage, are, up to the present moment, called _Seilun_,
+and that Josephus writes _Silo_ as well as _Silun_, Σιλοῦν (compare
+_Robinson_, Travels iii. 1, p. 305); and, _finally_, by the analogy of
+the name שלמה, which is formed after the manner of שילה, and likewise
+shortened from שלמון. We must confess that _Tuch_ is right also when he
+asserts: "That it is quite impossible to give the word the
+signification of an appellative noun, since it is only in proper names,
+in which the signification of the suffix of derivation is of less
+consequence, that _on_ is shortened into _o_." The only exception is
+that of אבדה, "hell," in Prov. xxvii. 20; but even this is only an
+_apparent_ exception, and is quite in accordance with the rule laid
+down, inasmuch as "hell" is, in this passage, personified,--as is
+frequently the case in other passages. (Compare Rev. ix. 11.) But this
+case very plainly shows that we are not at liberty to apply, as _Tuch_
+does, the measure of our proper names to those of Scripture, which are
+used in a more comprehensive sense. The Samaritan translation is,
+therefore, right in retaining the "Shiloh." As the passage under review
+is the first in which the person of the Redeemer meets us, so Shiloh is
+also the first _name_ of the Redeemer,--a name expressive of His
+nature, and quite in correspondence with the names in Is. ix. 5, and
+with the name Immanuel in Is. vii. 14. With respect to the
+_signification_ of the name, the termination _on_, according to
+_Ewald_, § 163, forms adjectives and abstract nouns. The analogy of the
+name שלמה, which is formed after the manner of שילה, indicates that it
+has here _an adjective_ signification, and, like Solomon, Shiloh
+denotes "the man of rest," corresponds to the "Prince of Peace" in Is.
+ix. 5, and, viewed in its character of a proper name, is like the
+German "_Friedrich_" = Frederick, _i.e._, "rich in peace," "the
+Peaceful one."
+
+To Shiloh the nations shall adhere. The word יקהה is commonly
+understood as meaning "obedience."[9] But it does not [Pg 70] denote
+every kind of obedience, but only that which is spontaneous, and has
+its root in piety. This is clearly shown by the only passage in which,
+besides the one under consideration, the word יקהה is found, Prov. xxx.
+17: "An eye that mocketh at his father, and despises the יקהה of his
+mother."[10] To this view we are led also by the Arabic, where the word
+[Arabic: **], does not denote obedience in general, but willing
+obedience, docility, in the viii. sq. ל _dicto audientem se præbuit
+more discipuli_. (Compare _Camus_ in _Schulten_, on Prov. l. c.)
+Cognate is [Arabic: **], "to take care," "to guard oneself," specially
+of the conflict with the higher powers of life, in the viii. _semet
+custodivit ah aliqua re, et absolute timuit coluitque Deum, pius fuit._
+From it is derived יקה _pius_ in Prov. xxx. 1, where the son of Jakeh
+speaks to "With me is God, and I prevail" (_Heb._ Itheal and Ucal.)
+
+Luther, although he has misunderstood the right meaning of Shiloh, has
+yet beautifully comprehended the sense of the whole passage. "This is a
+golden text," he says, "and well worthy of remembrance, namely: that
+the kingdom of Christ will not be such a kingdom as that of David was,
+of whom it is said, 1 Chron. xxviii. 3, that he was a man of war and
+had shed much blood. The kingdom of Shiloh, which succeeded it, is not
+a kingdom so powerful and bloody, but consists in this,--that the word,
+by which it is ruled or administered, is heard, believed, and obeyed.
+All will be done by means of preaching; and this will just be the sign
+by which the kingdom of Christ is distinguished from the other kingdoms
+of this world, which are governed by the sword and by physical power."
+To this point also Luther draws attention, that our prophecy affords a
+powerful support to the ministers of the Word: "It will be done by the
+proclamation of the promise, and Shiloh will be [Pg 71] present with
+it, and will be efficient and powerful through our tongue and mouth."
+
+That by the _nations_ are not meant either the Canaanites in
+particular, or the tribes of Israel, but the nations in general,
+appears, partly, from the connection with what precedes--those who now
+willingly obey are evidently the enemies spoken of in vers. 8, 9,--and,
+partly, from the reference to the earlier promises of Genesis, all of
+which refer to nations in general. If a limitation had been intended,
+an express indication of it would have been necessary. The analogy of
+the parallel Messianic passages likewise militates against such a
+limitation; _e.g._, Ps. lxxii. 8: "He shall have dominion from sea to
+sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth." (Compare also Is.
+xi. 10.)
+
+In the Shiloh, the whole dignity of Judah as Lord and Ruler is to be
+concentrated. It hence follows, that the nations who will not willingly
+obey Him as Shiloh, must experience the destructive power of His
+sceptre (Num. xxiv. 17; Ps. ii. 9), and that behind the attractive
+kingdom of peace, there is concealed the destructive dominion of the
+lion.
+
+Several interpreters have determined the sense as follows:--The
+dominion of Judah should continue until the appearing of Shiloh; but
+that then he should lose it.[11] We, on the contrary, conceive the
+sense to be this: "That the tribe of Judah should not lose the dominion
+until he attain to its highest realization by Shiloh, who should be
+descended from him, and to whom all the nations of the earth should
+render obedience."
+
+Against this interpretation no difficulty can be raised from the עד כי.
+It is true that this term has always a reference to the _terminus ad
+quem_ only, and includes it; but it is as certain that, very
+frequently, a _terminus ad quem_ is mentioned which is not intended to
+be the last, but only one of special importance; so that what lies
+beyond it is lost sight of. (Compare the author's _Dissert. on the
+Genuin. of Daniel_, pp. 55-56.) If [Pg 72] only sceptre and lawgiver
+were secured to Judah up to the time of Shiloh's coming, then, as a
+matter of course, they were so afterwards. That, previous to the coming
+of Shiloh, great dangers would threaten the sceptre of Judah, is
+indicated by Jacob, since he lays so much stress upon the sceptre's not
+departing until that time. _Hence we expect circumstances that will
+almost amount to a departing of the sceptre._
+
+But the positive reason for this interpretation is, that if, according
+to the other opinion, Judah were told that the dominion of his tribe
+were, at some future period, to cease, this would not be in harmony
+with the tone of the remainder of the address to Judah, which is
+altogether of a cheerful character. And _then_,--Jacob would, in
+that case, not have allowed the Messianic promise to remain in
+its indefinite state; from former analogies, we should have been
+induced to expect that he would transfer it to one of his sons. And
+_finally_,--from the analogy of the other Messianic prophecies, as well
+as from history, it seems not to be admissible to contrast the dominion
+of Judah with the kingdom of the Messiah. The dominion of Judah does
+not by any means _terminate_ in Christ; it rather _centres_ in Him.
+
+We are not expressly told that the Shiloh will be descended from Judah;
+but this is supposed to be self-evident, and is not, therefore,
+expressly mentioned. If it were otherwise, the Shiloh would not have
+been alluded to in connection with Judah at all. A restriction of the
+promise to Judah, such as would take place if the Shiloh did not belong
+to him, is the less legitimate, inasmuch as, in vers. 8, 9, victory and
+dominion, without any limitation, are promised to Judah.
+
+Having thus adduced the positive arguments in support of our view of
+this passage, let us now further examine the opinions of those who
+differ from us. Here, then, we must first of all consider those which
+are at one with us in the acknowledgment that this passage contains the
+promise of a personal Messiah.
+
+1. Some interpreters (_Jonathan_, _Luther_, _Calvin_, _Knapp_, _Dogm._)
+are of opinion that שילה is compounded of the noun שיל, "child," and
+the suffix of the third person: "Until his (_i.e._, Judah's) son or
+descendant, the Messiah, shall come." (Luther, somewhat differently.)
+But this supposed signification of שיל [Pg 73] is destitute of any
+tenable foundation. That by such an explanation, moreover, there is a
+dissolution of the connection betwixt the Shiloh in this passage, and
+Shiloh the name of a place, which is written in precisely the same
+manner, is decisive against both the view just given forth and that
+which follows.
+
+2. Others (the last of them. _Sack_ in the second edition of his
+_Apolog._) suppose the word to be erroneously pointed. They propose to
+read שֶׁלֹּה, compounded of ש for אשר, and the suffix ה for ו. They
+suppose the language to be elliptical: "Until He come to whom the
+dominion or sceptre belongs, or is due." The principal argument in
+support of this exposition is, that most of the ancient translators
+seem to have followed this punctuation. It is true that this is
+doubtful as regards _Onkelos_ and the _Targum_ of Jerusalem, which
+translate, "_Donec veniat Messias, cujus est regnum_;" for we may well
+suppose that here שילה is simply rendered by משיחא, while the following
+clause adds a complement from Ezek. xxi. 32, which is founded upon the
+passage now under review. But it is certain that the LXX. supposed the
+punctuation to be שֶׁלֹּה. They translate: ἕως ἂν ἔλθῃ τὰ ἀποκείμενα αὐτῷ
+(Thus read the two oldest manuscripts--the Vatican and Alexandrian. The
+other reading, ᾧ ἀπόκειται, has no doubt crept in from the later Greek
+translations, notwithstanding the charge which _Justinus_ [_Dial. c.
+Tryph._ § 120] raises against the Jews, that they had substituted the τὰ
+ἀποκείμενα αὐτῷ for the earlier ᾧ ἀπόκειται. Comp. _Stroth_ in
+_Eichhorn's_ Repert. ii. 95; _Hohne's_ edition of the LXX.) _Aquila_
+and _Symmachus_, who translate, ᾧ ἀπόκειται, as well as the Syriac and
+Saadias, who translate, _Ille cujus est_, follow the same reading. But
+the defenders of this exposition are wrong in inferring, from the
+circumstance of the ancient translations having followed this
+punctuation, that it was generally received. Had such been the case,
+how could it be explained that it should no more be found in any of our
+manuscripts? For the circumstance that forty manuscripts collected by
+_de Rossi_ have שלה written without a י, cannot be considered as of
+great weight; since it is merely a defective way of writing, occurring
+frequently in similar words. But if we consider the fact, which may be
+established upon historical grounds, that the Jews watched with most
+anxious care the uncorrupted preservation of the received [Pg 74] text
+of Holy Scripture, according to its consonants and pronunciation; that
+they did not even venture to receive into the text any emendation,
+though it should have recommended itself as in the highest degree
+probable; while, on the other hand, the ancient Jewish and Christian
+translators took great liberties in this respect, and, in the manifold
+perplexities into which, owing to their insufficient resources and
+knowledge, they fell, helped themselves as best they could;--it will
+certainly appear to us most probable, that even the ancient translators
+found our vocalization of the word as the received one, but felt
+themselves obliged to depart from it, because they could, in accordance
+with it, give no suitable derivation; whilst the punctuation adopted by
+them agreed perfectly with the traditional reference of the passage to
+the Messiah. But if this be the case, the authority of the ancient
+translations can here be of no greater weight than that of any modern
+interpreter; and, in the case under review, we are at liberty to urge
+all those considerations which are, in general, advanced against any
+change in the vocalization, unless there be most urgent reasons for it.
+The ancient translators, moreover, can have less weight with us,
+because we can distinctly perceive that a misapprehension of Ezek. xxi.
+32 (27)--on which passage we shall afterwards comment--gave rise to
+their error. Against this explanation it may be further urged, not only
+that the ש _prefix_ occurs nowhere else in the Pentateuch--an objection
+which is not in itself sufficient, since it occurs so early as in the
+song of Deborah, Judges v. 7--but also, that the supposed ellipsis
+would be exceedingly hard. (Compare _Stange_, _Theol. Symm._ i. S. 238
+ff.)
+
+Before we pass on to a consideration of the non-Messianic
+interpretation, we shall first state the reasons which bear us out in
+assuming that the passage under review contains a prophecy of a
+personal Messiah.
+
+It is certainly, with respect to this, a matter of no slight importance
+that, with a rare agreement, exegetical tradition finds a promise to
+this effect here expressed; and this circumstance has a significance so
+much the greater, the less that this agreement extends to the
+interpretation of the particulars, especially as regards the Shiloh.
+How manifold soever these differences may be, _all antiquity agrees in
+interpreting this passage of a personal Messiah_; and we could scarcely
+conceive of such an agreement, [Pg 75] unless there had been some
+objective foundation for it. As regards, first, the exegetical
+tradition of the Jews,--how far soever we may follow it, it finds, in
+ver. 10, the Messiah. Thus the LXX. explained it; for, that by "what is
+destined to Judah" (ἕως ἂν ἔλθῃ τὰ ἀποκείμενα αὐτῷ) they understood
+nothing else than the sending of the Messiah, is shown by the words
+following--καὶ αὐτὸς προσδοκία ἐθνῶν,--which can refer only to the
+Messiah. (Compare Is. xlii. 4 according to the LXX.) In the same manner
+the passage was understood by _Aquila_, the Chaldee Paraphrasts, the
+_Targum_ of _Onkelos_, of _Jonathan_, and of _Jerusalem_, the _Talmud_,
+the _Sohar_, and the ancient book of _Breshith Rabba_. Several even of
+the modern commentators, _e.g._, _Jarchi_, have retained this
+explanation, although a strong doctrinal interest, to which others
+yielded, tempted them to give another interpretation to this passage,
+which occupied so prominent a place in the polemics of the Christians.
+(Compare the passage in _Raim. Martini Pug. Fid._ ed. _Carpzov_; _Jac.
+Alting's_ Shiloh, Franc. 1660, 4to [also in the opp. t. v.];
+_Schöttgen_, _hor. Hebr._ ii. p. 146; and, most completely, in "_Jac.
+Patriarch. de Schiloh vatic. a depravatione Clerici assertum_, op.
+_Seb. Edzardi_, Londini 1698, p. 103 sq.") The Samaritans, too,
+understood the passage as referring to the Messiah. (Compare _Samarit.
+Briefwechsel_, communicated by _Schnurrer_ in _Eichhorn's Repert._ ix.
+S. 27.) It is true that from other passages ("_Epist. Samarit. ad Jobum
+Ludolfum_," in _Eichhorn's Repert._ xiii. S. 281-9, compared with _de
+Sacy_ "_de Vers. Samarit. Arab. Pentateuchi_ in _Eichhorn's Biblioth._"
+x. S. 54) it appears that, in accordance with their doctrine of a
+double Messiah--one who had already appeared, and one who was still to
+come--they referred our passage, partly to the former, and denied its
+reference to the real Messiah. But this is of no importance. For, as
+Gesenius also has remarked (_Carmina Samaritana_, p. 75), the doctrine
+of a double Messiah is of recent origin with the Samaritans as well as
+with the Jews; and hence, it is very probable that the reference to the
+real Messiah was, formerly, the generally prevailing one, which was,
+even afterwards, to a large extent retained, as is shown by the passage
+first quoted.--_Finally_, In the Christian Church the Messianic
+interpretation has been the prevailing one ever since the earliest
+times. We find it as early as _Justin Martyr_. [Pg 76] The Greek and
+Latin Fathers agree in it. (Compare the statements in _Reinke_.) Even
+_Grotius_ could not but admit that this passage referred to the
+Messiah; and _Clericus_ stands quite alone and isolated, in his
+time, as an objector against the Messianic interpretation of it.
+
+But even in the Canon itself, this passage is understood of a personal
+Messiah. David, Solomon, Isaiah, Ezekiel, look upon it in this light.
+(Concerning this point, compare the inquiries in the subsequent
+portions of this work.)
+
+The entire relation of the Pentateuch to the succeeding sacred
+literature, and the circumstance that the former constitutes the
+foundation of the latter, and contains, in the germ, all that is
+afterwards more fully developed, entitle us to expect, that the
+Messianic idea has also found its expression in those books. The more
+prominent the place occupied, in the later books, by the announcement
+of a personal Messiah, the more unlikely it will be to him who has
+acquired right fundamental views regarding the Pentateuch, to conceive
+that this announcement should be wanting in it--the announcement,
+especially, of the Messiah in His kingly office; for it is this office
+of the Messiah which, in the Old Testament, generally takes a prominent
+place, and is, before all others, represented in the subsequent books.
+But there cannot be any doubt, that the promise of a personal Messiah
+in His kingly office, if it be found in the Old Testament at all, must
+exist in the passage which we are now considering.
+
+The promises which first were given to Jacob's parents, and thereafter
+transferred to him, included two things:--_first_, a numerous progeny,
+and the possession of Canaan for them;--and _secondly_, the blessing
+which, through them, was to come upon all nations. How, then, could it
+be expected that Jacob, in transferring these blessings to his sons,
+and while in spirit seeing them already in possession of the promised
+land, and describing the places of abode which they would occupy, and
+what should befall them, should have entirely lost sight of the second
+object, which was much the more important, and as often repeated? Is it
+not, on the contrary, probable that, as formerly, from among the sons
+of Abraham and Isaac, so now, from among the sons of Jacob, _he_ should
+be pointed out who should, according to the will of God, become the
+depositary of this [Pg 77] promise, which was acquiring more and more
+of a definite shape? The contrary of this we can the less imagine,
+because, according to ver. 2, Jacob is to tell his sons that which
+shall befall them "at the end of the days." The expression, "the end of
+the days," is always used of that only which lies at the end of the
+course which is seen by the speaker. (Compare my work on Balaam,[12]
+p. 465 f.) Accordingly, it indicates, in this passage, that Jacob's
+announcement must comprehend the whole of the future sphere which
+was accessible to him. But if we do not admit the reference, in
+this passage, to the Messiah, then a whole territory of future
+time, notoriously accessible to Jacob, is left untouched by his
+announcement.--From the beginning of Genesis, we find the expectation
+of an universal salvation; and at every new separation, the depositary
+of this salvation, and its mediator for the whole remaining world, are
+regularly pointed out. At first, salvation is promised to the whole
+human race, then to the family of Shem, then to Abraham, then to Isaac,
+then to Jacob. "Now that the patriarchal _trias_, since Jacob, has
+extended into a _dodekas_ forming the historical transition from the
+family of the promise to the nation of the promise, the question
+arises, from which of the twelve tribes salvation, _i.e._, the victory
+of mankind, and the blessing of the nations, is to come." (_Delitzsch_,
+_Prophetische Theologie_, S. 293.) Should Genesis become to such a
+degree inconsistent with itself as not to answer a question which
+itself has called forth? But that answer is contained in the passage
+under consideration, only if Shiloh be taken for the personal name of
+the Redeemer. Unless we have recourse to artificial explanations, the
+announcement of Judah's being the bearer of salvation is to be found in
+our passage, only when, at the same time, the first indication of the
+person of the Messiah is perceived in it.
+
+If the reference of the passage to a personal Messiah be explained
+away, we should certainly be at a loss to discover where the
+fundamental prophecy of such an one could possibly be found. We should
+then, in the first place, be thrown upon the Messianic Psalms,
+especially Ps. ii. and cx. But as it is the office of prophecy only to
+introduce to the knowledge of the congregation [Pg 78] truths
+absolutely new, it would subvert the whole relation of psalm-poetry to
+prophecy, if in these psalms we were to seek for the origin of the
+expectations of a personal Messiah. These psalms become intelligible,
+only if in Shiloh we recognise the first name of the Messiah. The
+passage in question, in combination with the prophetical announcement
+of the eternal dominion of the house of David, afforded the complete
+objective foundation for the subjective poetry of the Psalms. The
+eternity of dominion here promised to Judah was, as we learn from 2
+Sam. vii., transferred to David. The exalted person in whom, according
+to our passage, the dominion of Judah was to culminate, must then
+necessarily belong to the house of David. _Further_,--If the passage
+under review be understood of the Messiah, we have an excellent
+fountainhead for all the prophecies of a personal Messiah; in its
+significant, enigmatical, and expressive brevity, it is most suitable
+for such a purpose. But if its reference to the Messiah be explained
+away, we are deprived altogether of a suitable starting-point. In the
+Davidic psalms, the Messianic prophecy already more strongly resembles
+a stream than a fountain.
+
+So great is the weight of these reasons for the Messianic
+interpretation, that we might reasonably have expected that such
+expositors at least as stand on the ground of positive Christianity
+should abandon it only from overwhelming reasons, or, at least, from
+such only as are in the highest degree probable. But in this
+expectation we have been disappointed. The most superficial objections
+have been considered sufficient by _Hofmann_, _Kurtz_, and others, to
+induce them to disregard the consensus of the whole Christian Church.
+We cannot, indeed, but be astonished at this.
+
+_Kurtz_, following the example of _Hofmann_, says: "The organic
+progress of prophecy, and its correlative connection with history,
+which must be maintained in all its stages, forbid us, most decidedly,
+to assign to the expectation of a personal Messiah, a period so early
+as that of the Patriarchs. The clearly expressed aim of the whole
+history of this period is the expansion into a great nation; its whole
+tendency is directed towards the growth of the multiplicity of a people
+from the unity of the Patriarchs. As long as the subject of the history
+was the increase into a nation, the idea of a single personal Saviour
+[Pg 79] could not, by any means, take root. Such could occur only after
+they had actually expanded into a great nation in history, and the
+necessity had been felt of concentrating the multiplicity of the
+expanded, into the unity of a single, individual, _i.e._, after one had
+appeared as the deliverer and saviour, as the leader and ruler of the
+whole nation. It is therefore only after Moses, Joshua, and David, that
+the expectation of a personal Messiah could arise."--Do you mean to
+teach God wisdom? we might ask, in answer to such argumentation. To
+chain prophecy to history in such a manner, is in reality nothing short
+of destroying it. How much soever people may choose to varnish it, this
+is but another form of Naturalism, against the influence of which no
+one is secure, because it is in the atmosphere of our day. Men who
+occupy a ground of argumentation so narrow-minded and trifling,--who
+would rather shape history than heartily surrender themselves to it,
+and find out, meditate upon, and follow the footsteps of God in
+it,--will be compelled to erase even the promise in Gen. xii. 3, "In
+thee all the families of the earth shall be blessed," yea, even the
+words, "I will make of thee a great nation," with which the promise
+begins; for even _that_ violates the natural order. But the historical
+point of connection for the announcement of a personal Messiah, which
+here at once, like a flash of lightning, illuminates the darkness, is
+not at all wanting to such a degree as is commonly asserted. On the
+contrary, if the blessing upon the heathen be allowed to stand, the
+expectation of a personal Saviour must necessarily arise from a
+consideration of the known events of history, and meet the immediate
+revelation of such an one by God. The whole history of the time of the
+Patriarchs bears a _biographical_ character. Single individuals are,
+in it, the depositaries of the divine promises, the channels of the
+divine life. All the blessings of salvation which the congregation
+possessed at the time when Jacob's blessing was uttered, had come to
+them through single individuals. Why, then, should the highest
+Salvation come to them in any other way? Why should not Abraham be as
+fit a type of the Messiah as Moses, Joshua, and David,--Abraham, of
+whom God, in Gen. xx. 7, says to Abimelech, the heathen king, "Now
+therefore restore the man his wife, for he is a prophet; and if he
+prays for thee, thou shalt live?" Or why not Joseph, who, according to
+Gen. xlvii. 12, "nourished [Pg 80] his father and his brethren, and all
+his father's household," and whom the grateful Egyptians called "the
+Saviour of the World?"
+
+Just as untenable is a second argument against the Messianic
+explanation,--namely, that there is no parallelism between the two
+clauses, "until Shiloh comes," "and to Him shall be the obedience of
+the nations," but only a pure progress of thought. The laws of
+parallelism are not iron fetters; and, moreover, the parallelism in
+substance fully exists here, if only it be acknowledged that יקהה does
+not signify any kind of obedience, but only a willing surrender. The
+words, "until Shiloh comes, and to Him shall be the obedience of the
+nations," are identical in meaning with, "until He cometh, who bringeth
+rest, and whom the nations shall willingly obey." The second member
+thus serves to explain the first; the sense would be substantially
+preserved although one of the members were wanting. The parallelism is
+slightly concealed only by the circumstance that the words run, "to Him
+the obedience of the nations,"--instead of, "He to whom shall be the
+obedience of the nations."
+
+Let us now take a survey of the principal non-Messianic
+interpretations. A suspicion as to their having any foundation at all
+in the subject itself must surely be raised by their variety and
+multiplicity, as well as by the circumstance, that they who object to
+the Messianic explanation can never, in any way, succeed in uniting
+with each other, but that, with them, one interpretation is sure to be
+overthrown by another. Such is, in every case, a sure indication of
+error.
+
+Moreover, it is possible, in every case, to trace out some interest,
+apart from the merits of the question, which has led to the objections
+against the Messianic interpretation. With the Jews, it was because
+they were driven to a strait by the argumentation of the Christians,
+that the Messiah must long ago have come, since sceptre and lawgiver
+had long ago departed from Judah. The rationalistic interpreters have
+evidently been determined by their antipathy to any Messianic
+prophecies in the Old Testament. _Hofmann_ and his followers do not in
+the least conceal that they are guided by their principle of a
+concatenation of prophecy with history.
+
+The opinion, according to which it is maintained that Shiloh is the
+name of the well-known locality in Ephraim, has found not a few
+defenders. Among these, several, and last of all [Pg 81] _Bleek_, in
+the _Observ._; _Hitzig_, on Ps. li. 2; _Diestel_, "der Segen Jacobs,"
+translate: "Until he or they come to Shiloh." The sense is thus
+supposed to be: "Judah will be the leader of the tribes, in the journey
+to Canaan, until they come to Shiloh." There, in consequence of the
+tribes being dispersed to the boundaries assigned to them, he would
+then lose his leadership.[13] But such an explanation is, in every
+point of view, inadmissible. It is very probable that the town Shiloh
+did not exist at all, under this name, at the time of Jacob. The name
+nowhere occurs in the Pentateuch; and the Book of Joshua (as we shall
+show at a subsequent time) contains traces, far from indistinct, that
+it arose only after the occupation of the land by the Israelites. But
+even supposing that the town of Shiloh already existed tit the time of
+Jacob, yet the abrupt mention of a place so little known would
+be something strange and unaccountable. It would be out of the
+range of Jacob's visions, which nowhere regard mere details, but have
+everywhere for their object only the future in its general outlines.
+_Further_,--The temporary limitation thus put to the superiority of
+Judah would be in glaring contradiction to vers. 8 and 9, where Judah
+is exalted to be the Lion of God without any limitation as to time.
+And, _finally_,--Up to the time of their arrival in Shiloh, Judah was
+never in possession of the sceptre and lawgiver;--and this reason
+would alone be sufficient to overthrow the opinion which we are now
+combating. We have already proved that, by these terms, royal power and
+dominion are designated, and that, for this reason, the _beginning_ of
+the fulfilment cannot be sought for in any period previous to the time
+of David. But even if we were to come down to the mere _leadership_ of
+Judah, we could demonstrate that even this did not belong to him. His
+marching in front of the others cannot, even in the remotest degree,
+be considered as a leadership. Moses, who belonged to another tribe,
+had been solemnly called by God to the chief command. Nor was Joshua
+[Pg 82] of the tribe of Judah. In him, on the contrary, there appeared
+the germ of Ephraim's superiority, which continued through the whole
+period of the Judges, and which came to an end only by David's having
+been raised to the royal dignity. (Compare my commentary on Ps.
+lxxviii.)
+
+Others (_Tuch_, _Maurer_) give the explanation: "As long as they come
+to Shiloh." This, according to them, the "poet" meant to be identical
+with: "in all eternity." They think that his (the "poet's") meaning
+was, that the holy tabernacle, which at his time (_Tuch_ assigns the
+composition of Jacob's blessing to the period of Samuel) was at Shiloh,
+would remain there to all eternity. To this exposition it would be
+alone sufficient to object that, according to it, the phrase עד כי,
+which uniformly means only "until," is taken in the signification "as
+long as." _Further_,--History plainly enough shows how little the
+sanctuary was considered to be bound to Shiloh; to which place it had
+been brought, not in consequence of an express divine declaration, but
+only in accordance with Joshua's own views. When the ark of the
+covenant was carried away by the Philistines, this was considered as an
+express declaration of God, that He would no longer dwell in Shiloh.
+How different was the case as regards Jerusalem! Notwithstanding the
+destruction by the Chaldees, the city continued to be the seat of the
+sanctuary. _Further_,--This view implies a strange blending of gross
+error--viz., the supposition that the sanctuary would remain for ever
+in Shiloh--and of true prophecy, viz., the announcement, uttered at the
+time of Ephraim's leadership, of the dominion of the tribe of Judah,
+which was first realized in David's royalty. The only ground in support
+of the Ephraimitic Shiloh--the fact, namely, that Shiloh, wherever else
+it occurs in the Old Testament, always signifies the name of the
+place--we hope to invalidate by and by; when it will be seen that the
+town received its name only on the ground of the passage now under
+consideration.
+
+Other opponents of the Messianic interpretation take Shiloh as a _nomen
+appellativum_, in the signification of _rest_. They translate either,
+"Until rest cometh and people obey him" (thus _Vater_, _Gesenius_,
+_Knobel_), or, "Until he comes (or, they come) to rest" (thus
+_Hofmann_, _Kurtz_, and others). By "rest," they understand either the
+political rest enjoyed under David and Solomon, or they find here
+expressed the idea of eternal rest in [Pg 83] the expected Messianic
+time. Thus do _Gesenius_, _Hofmann_, and _Kurtz_ understand it. The
+last-named determines the sense thus: "Judah shall remain in the
+uninterrupted possession of a princely position among his brethren,
+until through warfare and by victory he shall have realized the aim,
+object, and consummation of his sovereignty in the attained enjoyment
+of happy rest and undisturbed peace, and in the willing and joyful
+obedience of the nations." But this explanation is to be suspected,
+simply from the circumstance, that, in whatever other place Shiloh
+occurs, it is used as a _nomen proprium_; while it is entirely
+overthrown by the circumstance, that, according to its form, as already
+deduced, Shiloh can be nothing else than a _nomen proprium_.[14] We
+here only remark, by way of anticipation, that David, Solomon,
+Isaiah, and Ezekiel bear testimony against this explanation. An
+interpretation which dissevers the connection betwixt Shiloh and
+Shiloh, betwixt Shiloh and Solomon, betwixt Shiloh and the Prince of
+Peace, betwixt Shiloh and Him "whose is the judgment," must be,
+thereby, self-condemned. Against the explanation, "Until he comes to
+rest," it may also be urged, that the Accusative could not here stand
+after a verb of motion; it was too natural to consider Shiloh as the
+subject. If it had been intended in any other sense, a preposition
+would have been absolutely requisite.
+
+We further remark, that vers. 11 and 12, which ancient and modern
+interpreters, _e.g._, _Kurtz_, have attempted to bring into artificial
+connection with ver. 10, simply "finish the picture of Judah's
+happiness by a description of the luxurious fulness of his rich
+territory" (_Tuch_). Their tenor is quite different from that which
+precedes, where a pre-eminence was assigned to Judah; for they contain
+nothing beyond a simple, positive declaration. What is in them assigned
+to Judah, belongs to him only as a part of the whole, as a fellow-heir
+of the country flowing with milk and honey, and corresponds entirely
+with the blessings upon the other sons, which are, almost all of them,
+only individual applications of the general blessing. It is evidently
+parallel to what, in vers. 25, 26, is said of Joseph, and in ver 20 of
+Asher. That which Jacob here assigns to Judah, was [Pg 84] formerly, in
+Gen. xxvii. 28, assigned by Isaac to Jacob, and in him to the whole
+people: "God give thee of the dew of heaven, and the fatness of the
+earth, and plenty of corn and wine." Hence, it is not at all necessary
+to examine history for the purpose of ascertaining whether Judah was
+distinguished above the other tribes, by plenty of wine and milk.
+
+We need not lose much time in discussing the attempts which have been
+made to assign the blessing of Jacob to a later period. The futility of
+all of them is proved by the circumstance, that we have not here before
+us any special predictions, such as are peculiar to _vaticinia post
+eventum_, but general prophetical outlines, individual applications
+of the general blessings, exemplifications. Whatever seems, at first
+sight, to be different, melts away while handling it. Thus, for
+example, the blessings which Israel enjoyed by his dwelling on the
+sea-side, are pointed out in the blessing upon Zebulun, because he had
+his name from the _dwelling_, Gen. xxi. 20. That Zebulun is here viewed
+only as a part of the whole, appears from the fact that, afterwards, he
+did not live by the sea at all. In the case of Issachar, it was the
+individuality of the ancestor Jacob which gave him occasion to
+describe, from his own example, the dangers of an indolent rest.
+History does not say anything of Issachar alone having yielded to these
+dangers in a peculiar degree. In the case of Joseph, the events
+personal to the son are transferred to the tribe, and in the tribe, to
+the whole nation. In an inimitable manner the tender love of the father
+towards his son and provider meets us here. The only thing which goes
+beyond the human sphere of Jacob, is the prediction by which Judah is
+placed in the centre of the world's history. But it is just this which,
+even in its beginnings, goes beyond the time at which this pretended
+_vaticinium post eventum_ is placed by _Tuch_, _Bleek_, and _Ewald_;
+for, by this assumption of theirs, they are necessarily limited to the
+time before David, if they wish to avoid the insurmountable
+difficulties which arise from what is said of Levi and of Joseph. But
+to the man who looks deeper, vers. 8-10 are just the seal of the
+divinity, and hence of the genuineness also, of this prophecy, and,
+with all his heart, he will hate such miserable conjectures.[15]
+
+[Pg 85]
+
+Let us now follow through history Jacob's blessing upon Judah. From
+this inquiry it will appear how deep has been the impression made by it
+upon the people of the covenant. On this occasion also, it will be seen
+still more distinctly what the right is which rationalistic criticism
+has to declare this _fundamental prophecy_ to be the recent production
+of an obscure poet. The chain-like character of Holy Scripture will be
+seen in a very striking light.
+
+In Num. ii. regulations are laid down respecting the order in which the
+tribes are to encamp about the tabernacle, and in which they are to set
+forth. "On the east side, towards which the entrance of the sanctuary
+is directed, and hence in the front, Judah, as the principal tribe, is
+encamped; and the two sons of his mother--Issachar and Zebulun--who
+were born immediately after him, pitch next to him. On the south side
+there is the camp, with the standard, of Reuben; and next to him are
+his brother Simeon, who was born immediately after him, and Gad, one of
+the sons of his mother's maid. The west side is assigned to the sons of
+Rachel, with Ephraim at their head. And, _finally_, on the north side,
+the three other sons of the maids, viz., Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, have
+their position. In the same order as they encamp they are also to set
+forth." (_Baumgarten_.)
+
+Judah is the chief tribe on the chief side. This distinction [Pg 86] is
+not based on the deeds hitherto performed by Judah, nor is it the
+result of any revelation which Moses received upon the subject. It is
+regarded as a matter of course. And yet, there must necessarily have
+been some foundation for such a distinction, because, otherwise, it
+would have called forth the opposition of the other tribes, especially
+of that of Ephraim. Such a foundation, however, is afforded only by the
+blessing of Jacob, in which the tribe of Judah appears as the leading
+one. The complete realization of this prediction is left, indeed, in
+the hand of God; but the bearer of honours so great, even although
+future, must, in the prospect of that future, enjoy, even in the
+present, a certain distinction; such distinction, however, as does not
+at all imply sovereignty.
+
+But we are compelled to have recourse to Genesis, and especially to
+chap. xlix., the more because the whole arrangement of the camp has
+evidently its foundation in Genesis, and the key to a whole series of
+facts in it can be found only in chap. xlix. If we ask why it is that
+the tribes of Issachar and Zebulun are subordinate to Judah; that
+Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, that Ephraim and Benjamin, that Dan, Asher,
+and Naphtali are encamped by each other; it is in Genesis alone that we
+are furnished with the answer.
+
+The position which Reuben occupies specially points to Gen. xlix. As
+the first-born, he ought to stand at the head; but here we find him
+occupying the second place. In Gen. xlix. Jacob says to him, on account
+of his guilt, "Thou shalt not excel;" and "the excellency of dignity,
+and the excellency of power," which up to that time he had possessed,
+are transferred to Judah. Yet Moses has so much regard to his original
+dignity, that he places him immediately after Judah; the utterance of
+Jacob did not entitle him to assign to him a lower position.
+_Further_,--The reason why Dan stands at the head of the sons of the
+maids is explained only in Gen. xlix. 16-18, where Dan is specially
+distinguished among them, and where it is specially said of him, "Dan
+shall judge his people."
+
+If the blessing of Jacob be the production of a later time, then the
+order of the encampment, which rests upon it, must necessarily be so
+also; but such an idea will at once be discarded by every man of sound
+judgment. Even they who refuse to acknowledge Moses as the author of
+the Pentateuch, admit that [Pg 87] those regulations which bear
+reference only to the condition of things in the wilderness must have
+originated from him.
+
+But exactly the same order which Moses in Num. ii. prescribes for the
+encampment and setting forth of the tribes, is found again in chap.
+vii., where there is described the offerings which the princes of the
+tribes offered at the dedication of the altar. Every prince has here a
+day to himself, and here also does Judah occupy the first place: "And
+he that offered his offering the first day was Nahshon, the son of
+Amminadab, of the tribe of Judah."--If any one should venture to set
+down this chapter also, with all its details, as a fabrication of later
+times, he would only betray an utter absence of all scientific
+judgment.
+
+According to Num. x. 14, Judah led the march when they set forth from
+Sinai.
+
+Balaam's prophecies, the genuineness of which is proved by so many
+weighty arguments (compare the enumeration of them in my work on
+Balaam), rest, in general, on the fundamental prophecies of Genesis,
+but especially on the blessing of Jacob upon Judah.
+
+In Num. xxiii. 24, Balaam says: "Behold, a people, like a full-grown
+lion he rises, and like a lion he lifts himself up. Not shall he lie
+down until he eat of the prey, and drink the blood of the slain." This
+conclusion of Balaam's second prophecy, which at once demolishes
+Balak's vain hopes of victory, by pointing out the dreadful power of
+Israel, unconquerable by all his enemies, and crushing them all, has an
+intentional reference to Gen. xlix. 9,--a reference specially suitable
+for such a conclusion. What was there ascribed to Judah is here
+transferred to Israel, whose fore-champion Judah is. "Dost thou think,"
+says Balaam to Balak, "of being able to overcome them, to stop them in
+their course towards the mark held out to them? Behold, according to an
+old revelation of their God, they are a people destroying their enemies
+with the lion's strength. Therefore, get thee out of their way, lest
+such a fate befall thee."
+
+In Num. xxiv. 9, Balaam says, "He couches, he lies as a lion, and as a
+great lion, who shall stir him up?" As in the preceding prophecy he had
+pointed out Israel's dreadful power which secures to him victory in the
+battle, so here he shows how, even after having finished the battle,
+this power so intimidates his enemies, that they do not venture to
+disturb his peace. [Pg 88] That which Jacob had said of Judah, is, with
+intended literality, here transferred to Israel.
+
+In Num. xxiv. 17, we read: "I see him, but not now; I behold him, but
+not nigh: a star goeth out of Jacob, and a sceptre riseth out of
+Israel, and smiteth the borders of Moab, and destroyeth all the sons of
+the tumult."--As the two preceding utterances carry us back to Gen.
+xlix. 9, so this one refers to ver. 10, where the sceptre, the emblem
+of dominion, denotes, just as it does in this passage, dominion itself,
+and where to Judah, and in him to all Israel, the kingdom is promised
+which shall at last be consummated in the Shiloh. The meaning of the
+words, "A sceptre riseth out of Israel," is explained in ver. 19 by the
+words, "Dominion shall come out of Jacob." Jacob has in view the
+internal relations among his descendants, and hence he speaks specially
+of Judah; but Balaam, in accordance with his object, speaks of Israel
+only. Jacob points, at the close, to Shiloh's just and peaceful
+dominion; but Balaam, who has to do with the enraged and obstinate
+enemies of Israel, points out, from among the effects produced by the
+star and sceptre, only the victorious might, and destructive power
+which these will display in the conflict with the enemies of Israel.
+
+In the blessing of Moses, Deut. xxxii. 7, it is said of Judah: "Hear,
+Lord, the voice of Judah, and bring him unto his people; with his hands
+he fights for himself, and be Thou an help to him from his enemies."
+Even the remarkable brevity of this utterance points back to the
+blessing of Jacob. With this brevity, the length of the blessing upon
+Levi, who had been treated too summarily by Jacob, forms a striking
+contrast. In the case of Reuben also, the attempt to pour oil into the
+wounds then inflicted is visible. The whole announcement is based upon
+the supposition that Judah is the fore-champion of Israel; and this
+supposition refers us back to Gen. xlix. This appears especially in the
+words, "Bring him to his people," on which light is thrown only by Gen.
+xlix. It is for his people that Judah engages in foreign wars, and the
+Lord, fulfilling the words, "From the prey, my son, thou goest up,"
+brings him safely to his people.[16]
+
+[Pg 89]
+
+There can be no doubt that in Shiloh, as the name of a place, there is
+a reference to Gen. xlix. 10. They who rightly denied that Shiloh
+could, in that passage, be understood as the name of the place, could,
+nevertheless, not feel satisfied as long as they allowed a twofold
+Shiloh to exist unconnected with each other. The agreement in the very
+rare and peculiar form, which nowhere else occurs, cannot well be a
+matter of accident.
+
+In the Pentateuch, Shiloh does not occur at all as the name of
+a place. In the passage where Shiloh is first mentioned--in Josh.
+xvi. 6--another name is beside it, and prefixed to it. According to
+that passage, the former name was Taanah. (They who are of opinion that
+this place was different from Shiloh, can find no support from the
+authority of _Eusebius_; it is not said Taanah by Shiloh, but
+Taanath-Shiloh.) After that place had become the seat of the Sanctuary,
+the holy name _Shiloh_ took the place of the former natural one. The
+reason why this name was given to it is indicated in Josh. xviii. 1:
+"And the whole congregation of the children of Israel assembled
+together at Shiloh, and set up the tabernacle of the congregation
+there; _and the land was subdued before them_." Compare also xxi. 44,
+xxii. 4, where it is remarked that at that time "the Lord gave them
+rest round about." (See _Bachiene_, _Palestina_ ii. 3, S. 409 ff.) In
+the subjection of the country,--in the rest which the Lord had given
+them from all round about, they saw an earnest of, and a prelude to,
+the obedience of the nations in general, and to the state of perfect
+rest which should take place at some future time with the appearing of
+Shiloh. Victory, peace! (_Siegfried!_) such was the watchword
+corresponding to the elevated consciousness of the people. It is an
+elevation quite similar to that which we so often perceive in the
+Psalms. "Sometimes there rises the hope that the Gentiles shall, at
+some future period, be received among the people of God--a hope based
+upon the experience of the Lord's victorious power in the present, in
+which faith perceives a pledge of the future subjection of the world's
+power under His sceptre. Thus, in vers. 29-32 of Ps. lxviii., which was
+composed by David on the occasion of his having, by the help of the
+Lord, conquered his most dangerous enemies, the Aramites and Ammonites;
+in Ps. xlvii., written on the occasion of Jehoshaphat's victory over
+several heathen nations; and in Ps. lxxxvii., composed on the [Pg 90]
+ground of the joyful events under Hezekiah, the germ of the hope for
+the conversion of the heathen, which had all along lain dormant in the
+people, was developed."[17]
+
+After the main power of the Canaanites had been broken by the
+expeditions of all Israel under Joshua, Judah begins, at the command of
+God, to expel the Canaanites from the territory assigned to him. In
+Judges i. 1, 2, we read: "And the children of Israel asked the Lord,
+Who shall go up for us against the Canaanites at the beginning to fight
+against them? And the Lord said, Judah shall go up; behold, I deliver
+the land into his hands." They were concerned to find out the tribe
+who, by the decree of God, had been destined to be the fore-champion
+for his brethren, and with whom they might be sure of a happy
+commencement of the war. The short answer, "Judah shall go up," would
+scarcely have been justified, had it not had a foundation in a previous
+declaration of God's will. It indicates that Jacob's blessing upon
+Judah still possessed its power.
+
+In like manner, in the war against Benjamin, according to divine
+direction, Judah goes up first to the battle, forms the vanguard.
+Judges xx. 18. The intentional identity of the expression used here and
+in chap. i., leads us to the supposition that the words, "Judah shall
+go up," have, in both passages, the same foundation.
+
+From both of these events, we are led to expect that Judah may be
+called to occupy a still more important position. The announcement of
+Jacob regarding Judah, to which the words, "Judah shall go up," refer,
+finds, in these events, evidently but a poor beginning of its complete
+fulfilment. All, however, which was required in the meantime, was the
+indication, by gentle touches, of the position which Judah was called
+to occupy in future times. It is just God's way to take time in
+carrying out [Pg 91] His elections; all human conditions must first
+disappear. After these two intimations, at the end of the time of
+Joshua (for Judges i. 1, 2, belongs to that period; the words, "And it
+came to pass after the death of Joshua," do not refer to what follows
+immediately after, but only to the contents of the book as a whole),
+and at the beginning of the time of the Judges, Judah retires out of
+view. During the whole period of the Judges, Ephraim held the
+supremacy. Under David, the validity of the election suddenly appeared,
+and the announcement of Jacob found a glorious fulfilment; but again,
+such an one only as pointed to a still more glorious fulfilment in the
+future. Before this took place, however,--before Shiloh came, to whom
+the obedience of the people was promised, the lamp of Judah was once
+more to be extinguished, so that, to human eyes, it should be invisible
+for many centuries.
+
+In 1 Chron. xxviii. 4, David says: "And the Lord God of Israel chose me
+out of all the house of my father to be king over Israel for ever; for
+He hath chosen Judah to be the ruler, and in the house of Judah, the
+house of my father, and in the house of my father. He liked me to make
+me king over all Israel." David here points to an event by which Judah
+was raised to be the ruling tribe; and such an election is nowhere else
+to be found than in Gen. xlix. We cannot for a moment suppose that
+Judah was elected only in, and with, the election of David. Against
+such a supposition militates the fact, that even the election of
+David's house is represented in history as being distinct from the
+election of David himself; for in 1 Sam. xvi. the decree of God is
+first made known, that one of Jesse's sons is to be king; and it is
+only afterwards that we are told which of them is to be chosen. The
+expression too, "He hath chosen Judah to be the _ruler_," is decisive
+against it; for this expression has an evident reference to the sceptre
+and lawgiver in Gen. xlix. But if any doubt should still remain, it
+would be entirely removed by the parallel passage in 1 Chron. v. 2,
+where, in the words, "For Judah was mighty among his brethren, and of
+him the prince was to come," there is an allusion, which cannot be
+mistaken, to Gen. xlix.
+
+There cannot be a doubt that David gave to his son the name Solomon,
+because he hoped that, in his just and peaceful reign, he would be a
+type of the Shiloh whom the nation should willingly [Pg 92] obey, just
+as, in his own reign, there had been the first grand fulfilment of what
+Jacob had prophesied of Judah's lion-courage, and lion-strength,--of
+Judah's sceptre and lawgiver. We have here the counterpart of the fact,
+that the children of Israel, after the first occupation of the country,
+gave to the seat of the sanctuary the name of Shiloh. In the case of
+Solomon, both the name and the substance point to Shiloh. With regard
+to the _name_, three out of the four letters of which the name שלמה
+consists, are common to it with Shiloh. The signification is precisely
+the same; so also is the form. In שלמה as well as in שילה we meet with
+the very rare case of the ן at the end being thrown off. In _Ewald's_
+Grammar, § 163, these two names are, for this reason, pointed out and
+placed immediately beside each other. And, with regard to the agreement
+in the _substance_, we refer to 1 Chron. xxii. 9, where Nathan says to
+David: "Behold, a son shall be born to thee, who shall be a man of
+_rest_, and I will give him _rest_ from all his enemies round about;
+for his name shall be Solomon, and I will give peace and quietness unto
+Israel in his days." We refer, _further_, to 1 Kings v. 4, where
+Solomon says to Hiram: "And now the Lord my God hath given me _rest_
+round about; there is neither adversary nor evil obstacle." We refer,
+_finally_, to 1 Kings v. 4, 5 (iv. 24, 25): "He had dominion over all
+the region on the other side of the river, from Tiphsah even to Gaza,
+over all the kings on the other side of the river, and he had peace
+from all his servants round about. And Judah and Israel dwelt safely,
+every man under his vine and fig-tree, from Dan even to Beersheba, all
+the days of Solomon."[18]
+
+But if any further doubt should remain as regards the typical relation
+in which Solomon stands to Shiloh, it would be removed by Ps. lxxii.,
+which discards the very idea that Solomon could be anything more than a
+type,--that any hope had ever been entertained of his being himself the
+Shiloh. Even David's Messianic Psalms bear witness against such an
+opinion. In harmony with the words of our Lord in Matt. xii. 42, "A [Pg
+93] greater than Solomon is here," Solomon In this Psalm points beyond
+himself. In his own just and peaceful dominion, he beholds a type of
+the kingdom of the Prince of Peace, who, by His justice and love, shall
+obtain dominion over the world, and whom all kings shall worship, and
+all the heathen shall serve. How closely this Psalm is connected with
+Gen. xlix. is pointed out by Ezekiel, in a passage of which we shall
+immediately treat.
+
+In ver. 9 of Ps. lx., which was composed by David, the words, "Judah
+is my lawgiver"--equivalent to, Judah is my, _i.e._, Israel's ruling
+tribe--point to Gen. xlix. 10, according to which the lawgiver shall
+not depart from Judah; just as ver. 13, "Give us help from the enemy,"
+alludes to Deut. xxxiii. 7, where it is said of Judah, "Be thou a help
+to him from his enemies," and ver. 14, to Num. xxiv. 18.
+
+That the Prince of Peace spoken of in Is. ix. 5, under whom there is
+"no end to the increase of government and of peace," refers to the
+Peaceful One, to whom the nations render obedience, will not be doubted
+by those who have recognised the connection in which Solomon and Ps.
+lxxii. stand to the Shiloh. Nor will such fail to recognise an allusion
+to the Shiloh in all the other passages of the Prophets, in which the
+Messiah is described as the Author of rest and peace; _e.g._, Mic. iv.
+1-4; Is. ii. 2-4; Zech. ix. 10; and the less so, the more clearly it
+appears, from passages of Ezekiel, what influence Gen. xlix. exercised
+over the prophetic consciousness. Isaiah significantly alludes to it in
+other passages also. In chap. xxix. 1, 2, he says: "Woe to Ariel,
+(_i.e._, Lion of God), the city where David encamped! Add ye year to
+year, let the feasts revolve. And I distress Ariel, and there shall be
+heaviness and affliction, but it shall be unto me as Ariel;"--the
+meaning of which is: Jerusalem will, in times to come, endure heavy
+affliction (through Asshur), but the world-conquering power of the
+kingdom of God will manifest itself in her deliverance. The name Ariel
+is emphatically placed at the beginning, and, in it, the Prophet gives
+to the congregation of God a guarantee for her deliverance. That which
+Jacob had said of Judah, who, to him, appeared as the invincible lion
+of God, is here applied to Zion, the city where David encamped, the
+centre of the kingdom of Judah.
+
+Ezekiel, in his lamentation over the princes of Israel who, [Pg 94] in
+his time, were standing just at the brink of the abyss, says in chap.
+xix. 2: "Thy mother was a lioness, who lay down among lionesses, and
+brought up her whelps among young lions." The mother is the
+congregation of Judah. The image of the lion points to the blessing of
+Jacob, and its fulfilment in history. "Judah once couched in a
+threatening position, endangering his adversaries,[19] in the midst of
+lions, _i.e._, among the other powerful kingdoms fond of conquests."
+(_Hävernick_.)
+
+In Ezek. xxi. 15, 18 (10-15), the Lord, with an evident allusion to
+Gen. xlix. 10, announces the (temporary) destruction of the sceptre of
+His son (_i.e._, Israel or Judah), a sceptre which despises all other
+sceptres.
+
+In vers. 30-32 (25-27) of the same chapter, Ezekiel foretells, in the
+name of the Lord, a complete overturning of all relations, a total
+revolution, in which the Davidic kingdom especially is brought down, a
+condition of affairs in which rest and safety will not anywhere be
+found. This state of things is to continue "until He comes to whom is
+the judgment; to Him I will give it."
+
+The reference of this passage to Gen. xlix. cannot be mistaken. It was
+recognised, indeed, by the ancient translators; only that most of them
+erroneously found in it an explanation instead of an allusion.
+
+Instead of the words, "to whom is the judgment," we should, from the
+expression used in Gen. xlix. 10, "Until Shiloh cometh," have expected,
+"to whom is peace;" but Ezekiel has filled up Gen. xlix. 10 from Ps.
+lxxii. 1-5, where judgment and righteousness appear as the basis of the
+peace which the Anointed One shall bring. And _peace_ occupies the
+background in Ezekiel also. The advent of Him to whom is the judgment,
+in contrast with the injustice and wickedness of those who were
+hitherto the bearers of the sceptre, puts an end to strife, confusion,
+and destruction. That, in like manner, in Gen. xlix., the _judgment_
+occupies the background, we see plainly, from the commentary upon that
+passage furnished by Ps. lxxii., as well as from Is. ix. and ii. In Ps.
+lxxii., peace comes into consideration, only in so far as it is a
+product and consequence of justice, which is an attribute of the King,
+and is by him [Pg 95] infused into the life of the nation. In vers.
+1-50, the thought is: "God gives righteousness to His King, and in
+consequence of it, righteousness and the fear of God become indigenous
+to the people, and these again bring peace in their train."
+
+Every word in Ezekiel is taken from Gen. xlix. and Ps. lxxii. From the
+latter are taken the words, "judgment," and "I will give it." (Compare
+Ps. lxxii. 1: "Give the King thy judgments.") The combination of these
+two passages points out their close connection, and indicates that Ps.
+lxxii. is to be viewed as a comment. _Onkelos_, who thus translates the
+passage in Gen. xlix., "Until Messiah comes, to whom the kingdom is
+due, and Him the people shall obey," has very properly only
+supplemented the declaration of Jacob from Ezekiel, or, at least, has
+taken thence the explanation of Shiloh.
+
+But, at the same time, the words אשר לי המשפט, which, on the basis of
+Ps. lxxii., Ezekiel puts in the place of שילה, allude to the letters of
+the latter word which forms the initials of the words in Ezekiel. That
+ש is the main letter in אשר, is shown by the common abbreviation of it
+into ש; and that the י in שילה is unessential, is proved by the
+circumstance that the name of the place is often written שלה, and that
+even in Gen. xlix. 10, a number of manuscripts have this orthography.
+
+"From the allusion to a prophecy so well known, and so frequently used,
+the brevity of the prophecy in Ezekiel is to be explained. It forms a
+most powerful conclusion and resting-point for the prophetic
+discourse." (_Hävernick_.)
+
+There cannot be any doubt that Ezekiel found in Gen. xlix. 10, the
+prophecy of a personal Messiah. They, therefore, who assert that no
+such prophecy is contained in our passage, must, at the same time,
+assert that Ezekiel misunderstood it; yea, even more, that, even as
+early as at that period, a false view of that passage was generally
+prevalent. For, the manner in which Ezekiel alludes to it presupposes
+that, at that time, the view which found in it a personal Messiah was
+generally held. If we observe still further, that Ezekiel connected the
+allusion to Ps. lxxii. with that to Gen. xlix., we cannot hesitate for
+a moment to admit that he understood the name Shiloh to be Rest-maker,
+Peace-maker; only, that on the ground of Ps. lxxii., he mentions the
+cause instead of the effect. He had, moreover, the stronger reason for
+designating the bearer of peace as the bearer of judgment, [Pg 96]
+because, in his time, the want of judgment had evidently produced the
+absence of peace, and the general confusion, misery, and destruction.
+
+"As in Gen. xlix. the Patriarch sees a light rising at a far distance,
+and spreading its brightness over the darkness of centuries, so in
+Ezekiel also, the same ray of glorious hope lightens through the dark
+night of confusion and unutterable misery in which he sees himself
+enveloped."
+
+_Kurtz_, S. 266, has altogether denied the connection of the passage in
+Ezekiel with Gen. xlix. These two passages are, as he thinks,
+altogether different, inasmuch as Ezekiel announces destruction and
+desolation which shall continue until He comes to whom is the judgment,
+while Gen. xlix., when understood of a personal Messiah, announces
+dominion which shall continue until Shiloh comes. But Ezekiel does not
+contradict Gen. xlix. 10. He gives only the supplement necessary for
+preventing this passage from being considered as a permission to sin,
+and from becoming a support of false security. Ezekiel, too, assumes a
+continuation of the dominion. If that were not concealed behind the
+destruction, how could "the coming of Him to whom is the judgment" be
+pointed out as the limit of that destruction? The tree indeed is cut
+down, but the root remains in its full vigour.
+
+When Jacob announces that the sceptre shall not depart until Shiloh,
+the prince of peace, cometh, he can thereby mean only that it would not
+depart _definitively_; for, otherwise, he would have belied his own
+experience. From the way by which the Lord had led him, he had
+sufficiently learnt that God's promises to sinful men must be taken
+_cum grano salis_; that they never exclude the visitation of the elect
+on account of their sins, and that it is only in the end that God will
+bring all to a glorious fulfilment. When he went to Mesopotamia, God
+had said to him, "I am with thee, and I will keep thee in all places
+whither thou goest," Gen. xxviii. 15; and yet the deceit which he had
+practised upon his father and brother was recompensed to him there by
+the deceit of Laban, and he was obliged to say, "In the day the drought
+consumed me, and the frost by night, and my sleep departed from mine
+eyes," Gen. xxxi. 40. When he came from the land of the two rivers, God
+blessed him and gave him the honourable name of Israel, Gen. xxxii.;
+and yet [Pg 97] he had soon thereafter to experience grievous distress
+on account of Dinah and Joseph; and in chap. xxxvii. 34, 35, we are
+told concerning him: "And Jacob rent his clothes, and put sackcloth
+upon his loins, and mourned for his son many days. And all his sons and
+all his daughters rose up to comfort him; but he refused to be
+comforted, and he said, I shall go down into the grave unto my son in
+sorrow." In the kingdom of God there are no other promises than such as
+resemble those rivers which flow alternately above and below ground,
+since it is certain that all the subjects of the promises are affected
+by sin.
+
+Ezekiel xliii. 15 likewise refers to the blessing of Jacob upon Judah.
+The altar for the burnt-offerings in the new temple is first called
+_Harel_ = the mountain of God, and afterwards _Ariel_ = the Lion of
+God,--indicating that what had been promised to Judah in Gen. xlix.,
+viz., the Lion's nature and invincible power, victorious over all
+enemies, has its root in the altar,--in the circumstance that the
+people of God are a people whose sins are forgiven, who dedicate
+themselves to God, and give Him thanks and praise.
+
+A very remarkable reference to Gen. xlix. meets us at the very
+threshold of the New Testament. In Luke ii. 13, 14, the heavenly host
+praise God, saying: "Glory be to God in the highest, and on earth
+peace." The words, "glory" or "praise be to God," are an allusion to
+Judah, and to the glorious things foretold in Gen. xlix. of him who
+centres in Christ. Christ is the true Judah,--He by whom God is
+glorified, John xiv. 13. The words, "on earth peace," contain the
+explanation of the name Shiloh, the first name under which the Saviour
+is celebrated in the Old Testament.
+
+As the words with which the Saviour is first introduced into the world
+allude to Gen. xlix., so the Lord Himself, before His departure,
+alludes to this fundamental Messianic prophecy in John xiv. 27: "Peace
+I leave with you. My peace I give unto you;" and in xvi. 33: "These
+things I have spoken unto you, that in Me ye might have peace." So
+also, after His resurrection, Christ says, in the circle of His
+disciples, "Peace be unto you," John xx. 19, 21, 26.
+
+The last book of the entire Holy Scripture--the Apocalypse [Pg
+98]--likewise points back to the remarkable prophecy of Christ at the
+close of its first book. In Rev. v. 5, we read: "And one of the elders
+saith unto me, Weep not: behold, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the
+Root of David, hath prevailed." "The designation of Christ as the Lion
+of the tribe of Judah, rests on Gen. xlix. 9. Judah appears there as a
+lion, in order to denote his warlike and victorious powers. But Judah
+himself, according to the blessing of dying Jacob, is at some future
+period to centre in the Messiah. As a type, he had formerly centred
+already in David, in whom the lion-nature of the tribe of Judah was
+manifested." This allusion shows that even what Is said in vers. 8, 9,
+found its complete fulfilment only in Christ, and that vers. 8, 9, are
+parallel to the entire ver. 10, and not to its first half only.
+
+_Bengel_ remarks on Rev. v. 6: "The elder had pointed John to a Lion,
+and yet John beheld a Lamb. The Lord Jesus is called a Lion only once
+in this prophecy, and that, at the very beginning, before the
+appellation Lamb appears. This indicates that as often as the Lamb is
+remembered, we should also remember Him as the Lion of the tribe of
+Judah."
+
+As the designation of Christ as the Lion refers to what, in the
+blessing of Jacob, is said of the lion-nature of the tribe of Judah,
+so, in the "Lamb"--the emblem of innocence, justice, silent patience
+and gentleness--the name Shiloh is embodied.
+
+
+Footnote 1: _Luther_ says: "No doubt the sons of Jacob will have waited
+with anxious desire, and with weeping and groaning, for what their
+father had yet to say; for, after having heard curses so hard and
+severe, they were very much confounded and afraid. And Judah, too, will
+certainly not have been able to refrain from weeping, and will have
+been afraid, when thinking of what should now become of him. There will
+have arisen in his heart very sad recollections of his sins, of his
+whoredom with Thamar, and of the advice which he had given to sell
+Joseph. Certainly, I should have died with sorrow and tears. But there
+soon follow a fine dew and a lovely balm, refreshing the heart again."
+
+Footnote 2: _Bochart_ says: "When the whelp of a lion is weaned, and
+begins to go out for prey, and to seek his own food without the help of
+his mother, he then ceases to be a גור, and is called a כפיר." Deut.
+xxxiii. 22 must, therefore, not be translated, "Dan is a lion's whelp
+leaping from Bashan"--as if the גור אריה were already active--but thus,
+"Dan is a lion's whelp; he shall leap (_i.e._, after he shall have
+grown up) from Bashan." Dan is in that place styled a lion's whelp,
+just as is Judah in Gen. xlix. 9, because, as yet, he is only a
+candidate for future victories.
+
+Footnote 3: The LXX. translate, ἐκ βλαστοῦ υἱέ μου ἀνέβης, "from a shoot,
+my son, thou hast grown up." They explain טרף by an inappropriate
+reference to Ezek. xvii. 9, where it is used of a fresh green leaf.
+
+Footnote 4: Calvin says: "This dignity is bestowed upon Judah only with
+a view to benefit the whole of the people."
+
+Footnote 5: In the first edition of this work, the author had likewise
+maintained that view.
+
+Footnote 6: It was this difficulty which led _Grotius_ to adopt the
+feeble exposition, "That teachers out of Judah's posterity would lead
+the people until the times of the Messiah, who would be the highest
+leader and commander of Jews and Gentiles."
+
+Footnote 7: Calvin says: "If any one should object, that the words of
+Jacob convey a different meaning, we would answer him, that whatever
+promises God gave concerning the outward condition of the Church, they
+were so far limited that God might, in the meantime, exercise His
+judgments in the punishment of men's sins, and prove the faith of His
+people. And indeed it was not a light trial when, at the third
+succession, the tribe of Judah was deprived of the greater part of his
+territory. A more severe one followed when, before the eyes of the
+father, the sons of the king were slain, his own eyes put out, and
+himself was carried to Babylon, and given over to servitude and exile
+along with the whole royal family. But the heaviest trial of all came,
+when the people returned to their land, and were so far from seeing
+their expectations fulfilled, that they were, on the contrary,
+subjected to a sad dispersion. But even then, the saints beheld with
+the eye of faith the sceptre hidden under ground; neither did their
+hearts fail, nor their courage give way, so that they desisted not from
+continuing their course."
+
+Footnote 8: Many expositors, following the LXX. (ἐκ τῶν μηρῶν αὐτοῦ),
+the _Vulgate_ (_de femore ejus_), and the Chaldee Paraphrast,
+understand this expression as a designation of origin and production.
+But in that case, we must assume a very hard ellipsis, viz., "he who is
+to proceed." Moreover, this explanation is destructive of the
+parallelism, according to which, "from between his feet" must
+correspond with "from Judah."
+
+Footnote 9: The signification, "expectation," given to this word by the
+LXX. (καὶ αὐτὸς προσδοκία ἐθνῶν), _Jerome_, and other translators, is
+founded upon the erroneous derivation of the word from קוה. In the
+other passage (Prov. xxx. 17), where the LXX. translate, "the age of
+his mother," they have confounded the root יקה with קהה, "to be
+blunted."
+
+Footnote 10: _Gousset_ says: The word can signify something good only,
+on account of the passage, Prov. xxx. 17, namely, something which
+adorns the relation of the son to his mother, the despising of which is
+a crime on the part of the son, and which deserves that he should be
+sent εἰς κόρακας. And not less so from its being used in Gen. xlix. 10
+in reference to the Shiloh, where, thereby, not one or a few, but all
+the nations without exception, are bound to Him by a tie similar to
+that which exists betwixt mother and son.
+
+Footnote 11: Thus Luther says: "This sceptre of Judah shall continue,
+and shall not be taken from him, till the hero come; but when He comes,
+then the sceptre also shall depart. The kingdom or sceptre has fallen;
+the Jews are scattered throughout the whole world, and, therefore, the
+Messiah has certainly come; for, at His appearing, the sceptre should
+be taken from Judah."
+
+Footnote 12: In the volume containing the _Dissertations on the
+Genuineness of Daniel_, _etc._ Edinburgh, T. and T. Clark.
+
+Footnote 13: _Delitzsch_ (who had formerly been a defender of the
+explanation of a personal Messiah) differs, in his Commentary on
+Genesis, from this view, only in so far, that he supposes that, while
+Judah's dominion over the tribes comes to an end in Shiloh, his
+dominion over the nations dates from that period. But this explanation
+must be objected to on the ground, that the dominion bestowed upon
+Judah is not merely a dominion over the tribes, but over the world.
+
+Footnote 14: _Knobel_ knows of no other expedient by which to escape
+from the force of this argument, than by changing the punctuation. He
+proposes to read שֶׁלֶה, a word which nowhere occurs.
+
+Footnote 15: The rationalistic objection, that at so great an age, and
+on the brink of the grave, man is not wont to compose poems, may be
+refuted by a reference to the history of the ancient Arabic poetry.
+The Arabic poets before the time of Mohammed often recited long
+poems extempore,--so natural to them was poetry. (Compare _Tharaphæ
+Moallakah_, ed. _Reiske_, p. xl.; _Antaræ Moallakah_, ed. _Menil._ p.
+18.) The poet _Lebid_, who attained to the age of 157 years (compare
+_Reiske prolegg. ad Thar. Moall._ p. xxx.; _De Sacy_, _Memoires de
+l'Academie des inscriptions_, p. 403 ff.), composed a poem when he was
+dying; compare _Herbelot Bibl. Or._ p. 513. The poet _Hareth_ was
+135 years old when he recited extempore his _Moallakah_, which is
+still extant; compare _Reiske_ l.c. The objection, too, that it is
+inconceivable how the blessing spoken by Jacob could have been handed
+down _verbatim_ to Moses, finds its best refutation in the history of
+Arabic poetry. The art of writing was introduced among the Arabs only a
+short time before Mohammed. (Compare _de Sacy_ l.c. pp. 306, 348;
+_Amrulkeisi Moall._ ed. _Hengstenberg_, p. 3.) Up to that time, even
+the longest poems, of which some consisted of more than a hundred
+verses, were preserved by mere oral tradition (compare _Nuweiri_ in
+_Rosenmüller_, _Zoheiri Moall._ p. 11); and the internal condition of
+those which have been preserved to us bears the best testimony to their
+having been faithfully handed down. But in the case before us,
+something altogether different from a poem was concerned.
+
+Footnote 16: _Onkelos_ paraphrases these words very correctly, thus:
+"Hear, O Lord, the prayers of Judah when he goes out to war, and bring
+him safely back to his people."
+
+Footnote 17: It is probable also, that in the passage, Josh. xvi. 6,
+where Shiloh occurs for the first time as the name of a place, and
+which we have already discussed, there is not, as we assumed, a
+connection of the former name with the latter, but the complete
+appellation, of which the latter--Shiloh--is only an abbreviation. From
+the well ascertained and common signification of the verb אנה, we are
+entitled to explain Taanath-Shiloh: "the futurity, or the appearance of
+Shiloh." Shiloh shall come! Such was the watchword at that time. The
+word תאנה would then correspond to the יבא of the fundamental passage.
+
+Footnote 18: That there exists a connection between Shiloh and Solomon
+has often been guessed at and expressed; but expositors have not
+succeeded well in determining it more closely. The Samarit. Arab.
+Translation here says expressly: "Until Solomon cometh." (Comp. _Lib.
+Genes. sec. Arab. Pent._ _Samarit. vers. ed. Kuenen_. _Leyden_, 51.)
+
+Footnote 19: _Kimchi_ says: "As long as the Jews were doing the will of
+God, they could lie down like the lion without fear."
+
+
+
+
+                           BALAAM'S PROPHECY.
+                          (Numb. xxiv. 17-19.)
+
+Carried by the Spirit into the far distant future, Balaam sees here how
+a star goeth out of Jacob and a sceptre riseth out of Israel, and how
+this sceptre smiteth Moab, by whose enmity the Seer had been brought
+from a distant region for the destruction of Israel. And not Moab only
+shall be smitten, but its southern neighbour, Edom, too shall be
+subdued, whose hatred against Israel had already been prefigured in its
+ancestor, and had now begun to display Itself; and In general, all the
+enemies of the [Pg 99] people of God shall be cast down to the ground
+by the Ruler out of Jacob.
+
+Ver. 17. "_I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not nigh. A star
+goeth out of Jacob, and a sceptre riseth out of Israel, and smiteth
+the borders of Moab, and destroyeth all the sons of the tumult._
+Ver. 18. _And Edom shall be a possession, and Seir shall be a
+possession--his enemies, and Israel acquireth might._ Ver. 19. _And a
+Ruler shall come out of Jacob, and destroyeth what remaineth out of
+the city._"
+
+The star is, in Scripture, the symbol of the splendour of power. The
+sceptre leads us back to Gen. xlix. 10; and, in general, the
+announcements of Balaam have, throughout, the promises and hopes of the
+Patriarchs for their foundation. As in the fundamental passage, so here
+also, the sceptre, the symbol of dominion, stands for dominion itself.
+The substance of the two figurative expressions is briefly stated in
+ver. 19, in the words, "They shall rule out of Jacob," which are
+tantamount to, "A Ruler shall come out of Jacob."
+
+A difference of opinion exists regarding the glorious King who is here
+announced. From the earliest times, the Jews understood thereby the
+Messiah, either exclusively, or, at least, principally, so as to
+admit of a secondary reference to David. _Onkelos_ translates: "When a
+King shall rise out of Jacob, and out of Israel Messiah shall be
+anointed;"--_Jonathan_: "When a valiant King shall rise out of the
+house of Jacob, and out of Israel, Messiah, and a strong Sceptre shall
+be anointed." The Book of Sohar remarks on the words, "I see him, but
+now:" "This was in part fulfilled at that time; it will be completely
+fulfilled in the days of Messiah." (Compare the passages in _Jos. de_
+_Voisin_, in the _Prooem._ on _R. Martini Pugio fid._ p. 68; _R.
+Martini_ iii. 3, c. 11; _Schöttgen_, "_Jesus Messias_," S. 151.) How
+widely this opinion was spread among the Jews, is sufficiently apparent
+from the circumstance, that the renowned pseudo-Messiah in the time of
+Hadrian adopted, with reference to the passage under review, the
+surname _Barcochba_, _i.e._, Son of the Star.--From the Jews, this
+interpretation very soon passed over to the Christians, who rightly
+found a warrant for it in the narrative of the star of the wise
+men from the East. _Cyril_ of Jerusalem defended the Messianic
+interpretation against _Julian_. (Compare _Julian_, ed. _Spanh._
+p. 263 c. See other passages [Pg 100] from the fathers of the
+Church in _Calov._) According to _Theodoret_ (Quest. 44 in Numb.),
+there were, indeed, some to whom "Balaam appeared to have foretold
+nothing concerning our Saviour;" but this opinion was rejected as
+profane. The Messianic interpretation has, in a narrower and wider
+sense--_i.e._, as referring in the first instance to David, but in the
+highest and proper sense to Christ--become the prevailing one in the
+Evangelical Church also. It was defended even by such interpreters as
+_Calvin_ and _Clericus_, who, as to other passages, differed from the
+prevailing Messianic interpretation. (Compare especially _Mieg_, _de
+Stella et Sceptro Baleamitico_ in the _Thes. Nov._ p. 423 sqq., and
+_Boullier_, _Dissert. Syll. Amsterdam_ 1750, _Diss._ I.) On the other
+hand, the Messianic interpretation found a zealous and ingenious
+opponent, first in _Verschnir_ in the _Bibl. Brem. nova_, reprinted
+in his _Opusc._ He was joined by the rationalistic interpreters, who
+maintained an exclusive reference to David. But _Rosenmüller_ and
+_Baumgarten-Crusius_ (bibl. Theol. S. 369) returned to the Messianic
+interpretation.
+
+The question at issue is chiefly this:--Whether by the star and sceptre
+some single Israelitish king is designated, or rather, an ideal
+person--the personified Israelitish kingdom. The latter view I proved,
+in my work on Balaam, to be the correct one, for the following
+reasons:--1. The reference to a certain Israelitish king is against the
+analogy of the other prophecies of the Pentateuch. A single person,
+especially a single king of future time, is nowhere announced in
+it,--except the Messiah, whose announcement, however, is different from
+that of David. But, on the other hand, the rise of the _kingdom_ in
+Israel is announced as early as in the promise to the Patriarchs, on
+which all of Balaam's declarations rest throughout. It is only to this
+that the words, "A star goeth out of Jacob, and a sceptre riseth out of
+Israel," can refer,--according to the analogy of Gen. xvii. 6: "Kings
+shall come out of thee;" ver. 16: "And she shall become nations,
+_kings_ of people shall be of her;" and xxxv. 11: "Kings shall come out
+of thy loins." 2. The reference to a single king would be against the
+_analogy_ of _Balaam's_ prophecies, inasmuch as these nowhere refer to
+a single individual. 3. The _sceptre_ does not, in itself, lead us to
+think of an individual, since it does not designate a ruler, but
+dominion in general. But that which especially militates against the
+reference [Pg 101] to an individual is the comparison with the
+fundamental passage, Gen. xlix. 10, in which Judah, and in him all
+Israel, does not receive the promise of a single king, but of the
+kingdom which shall at last be consummated in the Shiloh. 4. In favour
+of this general interpretation is also ver. 19, in which the words,
+"And dominion shall come out of Jacob," or literally, "They shall rule
+out of Jacob," may be considered as just a commentary on the words, "A
+sceptre riseth out of Israel." So also is ver. 7, "More elevated than
+Agag be his king," where the king of Israel is an _ideal_ person--the
+personification of the kingdom. Agag, _i.e._, the fiery one, is not a
+proper name, but a surname of all Amalekite kings. The Amalekite
+kingdom--which here represents the world's power, opposed to the
+kingdom of God, because at the time of the Seer the Amalekites were the
+most powerful among the people who were hostile to Israel (compare ver.
+20, where they are called the _beginning_ of the heathen nations,
+_i.e._, the most powerful of them)--is here put in opposition to the
+Israelitish kingdom, and the  latter will show itself superior to all
+worldly power.
+
+The arguments which thus prove the reference of Balaam's prophecy to
+an Israelitish kingdom, disprove also, not only the exclusive reference
+to David, but also the exclusive reference to Christ; although they
+imply at the same time that the prophecy, in its final reference, has
+Christ for its subject. The Israelitish kingdom, indeed, attained to
+the full height of its destiny only in and with the Messiah; without
+the Messiah, the Israelitish kingdom is a trunk without a head. The
+prophecy thus centres in Christ. We are, however, not entitled to
+suppose that the prophet himself was not aware of this; on the
+contrary, we cannot but assume that Balaam must have known it. It is
+with intention that he does not speak of a plurality of Israelitish
+kings. The Israelitish kingdom, on the contrary, appears to him in the
+from of an _ideal_ king, because he knows that, at some period, it will
+find Its full realization in the person of one king. For the same
+reason, Moses also describes the prophetic order, in the first
+instance, as an _ideal_ prophet. That Balaam knew that the Israelitish
+kingdom would centre in the Messiah, is shown by the reference which
+his prophecy has to that of dying Jacob, in Gen. xlix. 10, from which
+the figure of the sceptre is borrowed. According to the latter passage,
+the whole dignity of Judah as [Pg 102] ruler and lord over the whole
+heathen world is to centre in one elevated individual--the Shiloh. As
+to the letter, Balaam's prophecy falls short of the prophecy to which
+it refers, and on which it is founded, in two points. Instead of Judah,
+it mentions Israel; and instead of the invincible kingdom which is at
+last to centre in the Messiah, it represents the invincible kingdom
+only in general. But in both cases, this generality is easily accounted
+for by the _external_ direction of Balaam's prophecy: a more definite
+tendency was of importance only for those who were _within_. We are
+fully entitled to suppose that Balaam himself knew what was contained
+in the fundamental passage. To the same result we are led by the
+contents of the prophecy itself. Balaam here brings into view an
+Israelitish kingdom, all-powerful on earth, and raised absolutely above
+the world's power. He does not stop with the victory over Moab and
+Edom--even this victory appears to him as an absolute and lasting one,
+and hence, essentially different from the temporary submission to
+David--but, from the particular, which only serves to exemplify the
+idea in reference to the historical relations existing at the present,
+he passes on, in ver. 19, to the general, the total overthrow of the
+whole hostile world's power. Indeed, such a progress is probably found
+even in ver. 17 itself. If at the close of it we read, "And destroyeth
+all the sons of the tumult," the word _all_, which is wanting in Jer.
+xlviii. 45, indicates that by the sons of the tumult we are to
+understand not only the Moabites, but the whole _species_ to which they
+belonged, the whole heathen world, whose nature is restlessness, desire
+for strife, and the spirit of conquest,--the opposites of meekness and
+gentleness, which are the virtues characteristic of the subjects of the
+kingdom of God. In ver. 18, the particular is likewise followed by the
+general. But while ver. 17 and 18 contain, in each of the two
+particular features, a previous short allusion to the general, ver. 19
+most expressly and intentionally reduces the particular to the general.
+The absolute elevation above the world's power, attributed by Balaam to
+the Israelitish kingdom, leads not only beyond the idea of a single
+king of the ordinary stamp, but also beyond that of the entire ordinary
+kingdom.
+
+The objections urged against the Messianic interpretation are based
+either on a misunderstanding, or upon a superficial view of the
+passage. They who maintain that the judging activity of [Pg 103] the
+Messiah is here brought forward in a manner too one-sided, forget that
+this part only could here be treated of. As Balaam's discourse
+formed the answer to Balak's message--"Come, curse me this people;
+peradventure we shall prevail to smite them and drive them out of the
+land,"--its natural subject was: _Israel's position towards their
+enemies_; and Balaam had expressly stated, in ver. 14, that he would
+treat of that subject. Balaam had to do with an enemy of Israel, and
+his chief aim was to represent to him the vanity of all his hostile
+efforts. The partial view arises, therefore, from the nature of the
+case; and only _in that case_ could doubts arise as to the ultimate
+reference to the Messiah, if the other view were altogether _denied_.
+But such is by no means the case; for the words in ver. 9, "Blessed is
+he that blesseth thee," distinctly point it out. They who object to the
+Messianic interpretation on the ground that, at the time of Christ, the
+Moabites had disappeared from the stage of history, overlook the
+circumstance, that the Moabites here, as well as in Is. xi., where the
+complete destruction of Moab is likewise assigned to the times of the
+Messiah, are viewed only in their character as enemies to the
+congregation of God. If the prophecy were fulfilled upon the Moabites,
+even at the time when they still existed as a nation, not as Moabites,
+but as the enemies of the people of God; then the limit of their
+national existence cannot be the limit of the fulfilment of the
+prophecy. A case quite analogous is found in Mic. v. 4, 5, where the
+prophet characterizes the enemies of the kingdom of God at the time of
+the Messiah by the name of Asshur, although it appears, from other
+passages, that he distinctly knew that Asshur must, long ere that time,
+have disappeared from the scene of history.
+
+The Messianic character of the prophecy being thus established, it will
+be impossible to misunderstand the internal relation between the star
+of Balaam and the star of the wise men from the East. The star of
+Balaam is the emblem of the kingdom which will rise in Israel. The star
+of the Magi is the symbol of the Ruler in whom the kingly power appears
+concentrated. The appearance of the star embodying the image of the
+prophet, indicates that the last and highest fulfilment of his
+prophecies is now to take place.
+
+[Pg 104]
+
+
+                     MOSES' PROMISE OF THE PROPHET.
+                          (Deut. xviii. 15-19.)
+
+Ver. 15. "_A prophet from the midst of thee, of thy brethren, like
+unto me, Jehovah thy God will raise up: unto him ye shall hearken._
+Ver. 16. _According to all that thou desiredst of Jehovah thy God in
+Horeb, in the day of the assembly, when thou didst say, I will not hear
+any farther the voice of Jehovah my God, and will not see this great
+fire any more, that I die not._ Ver. 17. _Then Jehovah said unto me.
+They have well spoken._ Ver. 18. _A prophet I will raise them up from
+among their brethren, like unto thee; and I will put My words into his
+mouth, and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him._ Ver.
+19. _And it shall come to pass, that whosoever will not hearken unto My
+words which he shall speak in My name, I will require it of him._"
+
+If we leave out of view the unfortunate attempts of those who would
+understand by the prophet here promised, either Joshua--as is done
+by _Abenezra_, _Bechai_, and _von Ammon_ (_Christol_. S. 29)--or
+Jeremiah--as is the case in _Baal Hatturim_ and _Jalkut_ out of the
+book _Pesikta_, and in _Abarbanel_--we may reduce the expositions of
+this passage to three classes. 1. Several consider the "prophet"
+as a collective noun, and understand thereby the prophets of all
+times. Such was the opinion of _Origen_ (_c. Celsum_ i. 9, § 5,
+_Mosh._), of the Arabic translator, and of most of the modern Jewish
+interpreters,--especially _Kimchi_, _Alshech_, and _Lipman_ (_Nizachon_
+137); while _Abenezra_ and _Bechai_ conjoin this view with that
+according to which Jeremiah is meant. Among recent expositors, it is
+defended by _Rosenmüller_, _Vater_, _Baumgarten-Crusius_ (_Bibl.
+Theol._ S. 369), and others. 2. Some see in it an exclusive reference
+to Christ,--a view which has been held by most interpreters in the
+Christian Church, and from the earliest times. It is found as early as
+in _Justin Martyr_, _Tertullian_, _Athanasius_, _Eusebius_ (_Demonstr._
+iii. 2, ix. 11), _Lactantius_ (iv. 17), _Augustine_ (_c. Faustum_, xvi.
+c. 15, 18, 19), and _Isidore_ of _Pelusium_ (c. iii. ep. 49). It was
+held by _Luther_ (t. 3. _Jen. Lat._ f. 123), became the prevailing one
+in the Lutheran Church, and was [Pg 105] approved of by most of the
+Reformed interpreters. Among its earliest defenders, the most eminent
+are _Deyling_ (_Misc._ ii. 175), _Frischmuth_ (in the _Thesaurus
+theol.-philol._ i. 354), and _Hasaeus_ (in the _Thes. theol.-philol._
+nov. i. S. 439.) In recent times it has been defended by _Pareau_ (in
+the _Inst. interpr. V. T._ p. 506), by _Knapp_ (_Dogm._ ii. 138). 3.
+Others have steered a middle course, inasmuch as they consider the
+"prophet" to be a collective noun, but, at the same time, maintain that
+only by the mission of Christ, in whom the idea of the prophetic order
+was perfectly realized, the promise was completely fulfilled. Thus did
+_Nicolaus de Lyra_, _Calvin_, several Roman Catholic interpreters,
+_Grotius_, _Clericus_, and others.
+
+In favour of the Messianic interpretation, the authority of tradition
+has been, first of all, appealed to. It is true that modern Jewish
+interpreters differ from it; but this has been the result of polemical
+considerations alone. It can be satisfactorily proved that the
+Messianic interpretation was the prevailing one among the older Jews. 1
+Mac. xiv. 41--"Also that the Jews and priests resolved that Simon
+should be commander and high priest for ever, until a _credible
+prophet_ should arise,"--has been frequently appealed to in proof of
+this, but erroneously. For, that by the "credible prophet," _i.e._, one
+sufficiently attested by miracles or fulfilled prophecies, we are not
+to understand the prophet promised by Moses (as was done by Luther, and
+many older expositors who followed him), is shown, partly by the
+absence of the article, and partly by the circumstance that a
+_credible_ prophet is spoken of. The sense is rather this: Simon and
+his family should continue to hold the highest dignity until God
+Himself should make another arrangement by a future prophet, as there
+was none at that time (comp. Ps. lxxiv. 9: "There is no more any
+prophet"), and thus put an end to a state of things which, on the one
+hand, was in contradiction to the law, and, on the other, to the
+promise,--a state of things unto which they had been led by the force
+of circumstances, and which could, at all events, be only a provisional
+one. (Compare _J. D. Michaelis_ on that passage.) It is not on the
+passage under review that the expectation of a prophet there rests, but
+rather on Mal. iii. 1, 23, where a prophet is promised as the precursor
+of the Messiah. But the New Testament furnishes sufficient materials
+for proving the [Pg 106] Messianic interpretation. The very manner in
+which Peter and Stephen quote this passage shows that the Messianic
+interpretation was, at that time, the prevailing one. They do not deem
+it at all necessary to prove it; they proceed on the supposition of its
+being universally acknowledged. It was, no doubt, chiefly our passage
+which Philip had in view when, in John i. 46, he said to Nathanael: ὃν
+ἔγραψε Μωϋσῆς ἐν τῷ νόμῳ εὑρήκαμεν, Ἰησοῦν. For, besides the passage
+under consideration, there is only one other personal Messianic
+prophecy in the Pentateuch, namely, Gen. xlix. 10; and the marks of the
+Shiloh did not so distinctly appear in Jesus, as did those of the
+Prophet. The mention of the person of Moses[1] (which in Gen. xlix. 10
+is less concerned), and of the law, clearly point to the passage under
+review. After the feeding of the five thousand, the people say, in John
+vi. 14: Ὅτι οὗτος ἐστιν ἀληθῶς ὁ προφήτης, ὁ ἐρχόμενος εἰς τὸν κόσμον.
+The Messianic interpretation was, accordingly, not peculiar to a few
+learned men, but to the whole people. Even with the Samaritans the
+Messianic explanation was the prevailing one,--based, no doubt, upon
+the tradition which had come to them from the Jews. The Samaritan woman
+says, in John iv. 25: οἶδα ὅτι Μεσσίας ἔρχεται, ὁ λεγόμενος Χριστός· ὅταν
+ἔλθῃ ἐκεῖνος, ἀναγγελεῖ ἡμῖν πάντα. Now, as the Samaritans acknowledged
+only the Pentateuch, there is no other passage than that under review
+from which the idea of the Messiah as a divinely enlightened teacher,
+which is here expressed, could have been derived. The last words agree
+in a remarkable manner with Deut. xviii. 18: "And he shall speak unto
+them all that I shall command him." That too great weight, however,
+must not be attached to tradition, is shown by John i. 21, and vii. 40,
+41; for these passages clearly prove that there were also many who
+thought it possible that Deut. xviii. contained not only the
+announcement of the Messiah, but of some distinguished prophet also,
+besides Him, who should be His precursor or companion. At the same
+time, we must not overlook the circumstance that, in both passages, the
+people are at a loss, and are thereby induced to deviate from the
+prevailing [Pg 107] opinion. Their uncertainty and wavering, however,
+is only about the person. In this they agree, notwithstanding, that in
+Deut. xviii. they find the announcement of one distinguished person.
+
+But the Messianic interpretation may appeal, with still greater
+confidence, to the direct evidence of the New Testament. The
+declaration of the Lord in John v. 45-47 is here to be noticed above
+all: Μὴ δοκεῖτε ὅτι ἐγὼ κατηγορήσω ὑμῶν πρὸς τὸν πατέρα· ἔστιν ὁ
+κατηγορῶν ὑμῶν, Μωϋσῆς, εἰς ὃν ὑμεῖς ἠλπίκατε. Εἰ γὰρ ἐπιστεύετε Μωϋσῇ,
+ἐπιστεύετε ἂν ἐμοί· περὶ γὰρ ἐμοῦ ἐκεῖνος ἔγραψεν. Εἰ δὲ τοῖς ἐκείνου
+γράμμασιν οὐ πιστεύετε, πῶς τοῖς ἐμοῖς ῥήμασι πιστεύσετε;--It is clear
+that the Lord must here have had in view a distinct passage of the
+Pentateuch,--a clear and definite declaration of Moses. Dexterous
+explanations (_Bengel_: _Nunquam non_; _Tholuck_: The prophetical and
+typical element implied in the whole form of worship) are of no
+apologetic value, and it is not possible summarily, on such grounds, to
+call the enemies before the judgment-seat of God. It was not enough to
+allude, in a way so general, to what could not be at once perceptible;
+greater distinctness and particularity would have been required. But if
+a single declaration--a direct Messianic prophecy--form the question at
+issue, our passage only can be meant; for it is the only prophecy of
+Christ which Moses, on whose person great stress is laid, uttered in
+his own name. Moreover, Christ would more readily expect that the Jews
+would acknowledge our prophecy to be fulfilled in Him, than the
+prophecy in Gen. xlix., which refers rather to the Messiah in glory.
+The preceding words of Jesus likewise contain references to the passage
+now under consideration. Ver. 38--"And ye have not His word abiding in
+you; for whom He hath sent, Him ye believe not,"--contains an allusion
+to Deut. xviii. 18: "And I will put My words into his mouth, and
+he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him;" so that
+whosoever rejects the Ambassador of God, rejects His word at the
+same time. John v. 43--"I am come in My Father's name, and ye receive
+Me not,"--acquires both its significance and earnestness from its
+reference to ver. 19 of our passage: "Whosoever will not hearken unto
+My words, which he shall speak in My name, I will require it of him."
+_Further_,--The point at issue in this discourse of Christ is an
+accusation of the Jews against Christ, [Pg 108] that He had violated
+the Mosaic law. (Compare John v. 10-16, and v. 18, which states the
+second apparent violation of the law.) It was thus highly appropriate
+that Jesus should throw back upon the Jews the charge which they
+brought against Him, and should prove to them that it was just they who
+were in fatal opposition to the enactments of the Mosaic law.
+_Finally_,--It is this same Moses in whom they trusted, whom they
+considered as their patron, and whom to please the more, they were so
+zealous for his law against Jesus,--it is this same Moses whom Jesus
+represents as their accuser. And he is such an accuser as renders every
+other superfluous, so that Christ did not need specially to come
+forward in such a character. The accusation of Moses must, then,
+according to this declaration, and in accordance with what follows,
+refer to the cause of Christ. But the passage under review is
+the only Messianic prophecy of a _threatening character_ which the
+Pentateuch contains,--the only one in which divine judgments are
+threatened to the despisers of the Messiah,--the only Mosaic foundation
+for the denunciation: "Woe to the people that despiseth thee." If it be
+denied that Christ refers to it,--if its Messianic character be not
+acknowledged, the first words of Christ are destitute of foundation.
+But if it be thus undeniable that Christ declared Himself to be the
+prophet of our passage, it must be considered an indirect attack upon
+His divinity to say, as _Dr Lücke_ does, that Christ did so by way of
+"adaptation to the interpretation of that time." It is just this appeal
+which forms the pith of Christ's discourse; it is the real death-blow
+inflicted by Him upon His adversaries. If this blow was a mere feint,
+His honour is endangered,--which may God forbid!--The Lord further
+marks Himself out as the prophet announced by Moses, and that, too, in
+a very distinct manner, in John xii. 48-50,--a passage which is
+evidently based upon vers. 18 and 19 of the text under review. (Compare
+John xiv. 24-31.)--To this we may add, further, that, according to St
+Luke xxiv. 44, the Lord Himself explains to His disciples the
+prophecies in the Pentateuch concerning Him; and we cannot well expect
+that Christ should have made no reference to a passage which one of the
+Apostles points out as being of greater weight than all others. This is
+done by Peter in Acts iii. 22, 23. The manner in which he quotes it,
+entirely excludes the notion that Moses was [Pg 109] speaking of
+Christ, only in so far as He belonged to the collective body of the
+prophets. Peter says expressly, that Moses and the later prophets
+foretold τὰς ἡμέρας ταύτας; and the words, τοῦ προφήτου ἐκείνου, show
+that he did not understand the singular in a collective sense. The
+circumstance that Stephen, in Acts vii. 37, likewise refers the passage
+to Christ, would not be, in itself, conclusive, because Stephen's case
+is different from that of the Apostles. But we must not overlook the
+passage Matt. xvii. 5, according to which, at Christ's transfiguration,
+a voice was heard from heaven which said: οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ
+ἀγαπητὸς, ἐν ᾧ εὐδόκησα· αὐτοῦ ἀκούετε. As the first part of this
+declaration is taken from the Messianic prediction in Is. xlii., so is
+the second from the passage under consideration; and, by this use of
+its words, the sense is clearly shown. It is a very significant fact,
+that our passage is thus connected just with Is. xlii.--the first
+prophetic announcement in which it is specially resumed, and in which
+the prophetic order itself is the proclaimer of _the_ Prophet. And it
+is not less significant that this reference to our text, with which all
+the other announcements by Isaiah concerning the Great Prophet to come
+are so immediately connected, should precede chapters xlix., l., and
+lxi. It thus serves as a commentary upon the declaration of Moses. The
+beginning and the outlines receive light from the progress and
+completion.
+
+He, however, who believes in Christ, will, after these details, expect
+that internal reasons also should prove the reference to Christ; and
+this expectation is fully confirmed.
+
+That Moses did not intend by the word נביא "prophet," to designate a
+collective body merely, but that he had at least some special
+individual in view, appears, partly, from the word itself being
+constantly in the singular, and, partly, from the constant use of the
+singular suffixes in reference to it; while, in the case of collective
+nouns, it is usual to interchange the singular with the plural. The
+force of this argument is abundantly evident in the fact, that not a
+few of even non-Messianic interpreters have been thereby compelled to
+make some single individual the subject of this prophecy. But we must
+hesitate the more to adopt the opinion that נביא stands here simply in
+the singular instead of the plural, because neither does this word
+anywhere else occur as a collective noun, nor is the prophetic order
+ever [Pg 110] spoken of in the manner alleged. The expectation of a
+Messiah was already at that time current among the people. In what way,
+then, could they understand a promise, in which one individual only was
+spoken of, except by referring it, at least chiefly, to the one whom
+they expected?--_Hofmann_ (_Weissagung und Erfüllung_ i. S. 253)
+objects that the prophet here spoken of was, in no respect, different
+from the _king_ in Deut. xvii. 14-20. But the king mentioned there is
+no collective noun. An individual who, in future times, should first
+attain to royal dignity, forms there the subject throughout. This
+appears especially from ver. 20, where he and his _sons_ are spoken of.
+The first king is held up as an example, to show in him what was
+applicable to the royal dignity in general. On the other hand, it is in
+favour of our view, that, in the verses immediately preceding (vers.
+8-13), the priests are, at first, spoken of only in the plural,
+although the priestly order had much more of the character of a
+collective body than the prophetic order.
+
+A comparison between this prophecy and that of the Shiloh in Gen. xlix.
+10 is likewise in favour of the Messianic interpretation. Even there.
+His prophetic office is alluded to in the kingly office. The ruler out
+of Judah is the Peaceful One, to whom the nations yield a spontaneous
+obedience, an obedience flowing from a pious source,--and He rules not
+by compulsion, but by the word.
+
+The prophet is moreover contrasted with a single individual--with
+Moses; and this compels us to refer the prophecy to some distinguished
+individual. In ver. 15, Moses promises to the people a prophet _like
+unto himself_; and thus also does the Lord say, in ver. 18: "A prophet
+_like unto thee_ I will raise up." We cannot for a moment suppose that
+this likeness should refer to the prophetic calling only,--to the
+words: "I will put My words into his mouth, and he shall speak unto
+them all that I shall command him." It must at the same time be implied
+in it, that the future prophet shall be as thoroughly competent for his
+work, as Moses was for that which was committed to him. If it were not
+so, the promise would be deficient in that consolatory and elevating
+character which, according to the context, it is evidently intended to
+possess. If we were to paraphrase thus, "The Lord will raise up a
+prophet, inferior, indeed, to myself, [Pg 111] but yet the bearer of
+divine revelations," we should at once perceive how unsuitable it were.
+_Further_,--It is quite evident that the "Prophet" here is the main
+instrument of divine agency among the Covenant-people of the
+future,--that He is the real support and anchor of the kingdom of God.
+But now the difficulties of the future were, as Moses himself saw, so
+great, that gifts in any way short of those of Moses would by no means
+have been sufficient. Moses foresees that the spirit of apostasy,
+which, even in his time, began to manifest itself, would, in future
+times, increase to a fearful extent. (Compare especially Deut. xxxii.)
+Against this, ordinary gifts and powers would be of no avail. A
+successful and enduring reaction could be brought about only by one who
+should be, for the more difficult circumstances of the future, such as
+Moses was for his times. But--and this circumstance is of still greater
+weight--it forms the task of the future to translate the whole heathen
+world into the kingdom of God. In it, Japheth is to dwell in the tents
+of Shem; all the nations of the earth are to become partakers in the
+blessing resting on Abraham. In the view of such a task, a prophet of
+ordinary dimensions, as well as the collective body of such, would
+dwindle down to the appearance of a dwarf. They would have been less
+than Moses. In Deut. xxxiv. 10, it is said, "There arose not a prophet
+since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face;"--a
+passage which not only plainly refers to the experience acquired at
+that time, but which expresses also what might be expected of that
+portion of the future which was more immediately at hand. When Miriam
+and Aaron said, "Doth the Lord indeed speak only by Moses, doth He
+not speak by us also?" the Lord immediately, Num. xii. 6-8, reproves
+their presumption of thinking themselves _like unto Moses_, as
+respects the prophetical gift, in these words: "If some one be your
+prophet,"--_i.e._, if some one be a prophet according to your way,
+with prophets of your class,--"I, the Lord, make myself known unto him
+in a vision, in a dream I speak unto him. Not so my servant Moses; in
+all My house he is faithful. Mouth to mouth I speak to him, and face to
+face, and not in dark speeches; and the appearance of the Lord he
+beholds." Moses, as a prophet, is here contrasted with the whole order
+of prophets of ordinary gifts. A higher dignity among them is claimed
+for him on the ground that not some special mission, [Pg 112] but the
+care of the whole economy of the Old Testament, was entrusted to him;
+compare Heb. iii. 5. His is a specially close relation to the Lord, a
+specially high degree of illumination. The collective body of ordinary
+prophets cannot, therefore, by any possibility be the "prophet" who is
+_like unto Moses_, as completely equal to the task of the future as
+Moses was for that of his day. But the greater the work of the future,
+the more necessary is it that the prophet of the future, in order to be
+_like unto Moses_, should, in his whole individuality, and in all his
+gifts, be far superior to him; compare Heb. iii. 6.
+
+_Finally_,--The common prophetic order itself refuses the honour of
+being the prophet like unto Moses. The prophecies of Isaiah, in
+chapters xlii., xlix., l., and lxi., are based upon our passage, and in
+all of them the Messiah appears as the prophet κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν. It is to
+Him that the mission is entrusted of being the restorer of Jacob, and
+the salvation of the Lord, even unto the end of the world.
+
+Whilst these reasons demand the reference of this prophecy to Christ,
+there are, on the other hand, weighty considerations which make it
+appear that a reference to the prophetic order of the Old Testament
+cannot be excluded. These considerations are, 1. The wider context.
+Deuteronomy is distinguished from the preceding books by this, that
+provisions are made in it for the time subsequent to the death of
+Moses, which was now at hand. From chap. xvii. 8, the magistrates and
+powers--the superiors, to whose authority in secular and spiritual
+affairs the people shall submit--are introduced. First, the civil
+magistrates are brought before them, xvii. 8-20; and then the
+ecclesiastical superiors, chap. xviii. Vers. 1-8 treat of the priests
+as the ordinary servants of the Lord in spiritual things. Everywhere
+else, offices, institutions, orders, are spoken of. In such a
+connection, it is not probable that _the prophet_ should be only an
+individual; and the less so, because evidently the prophet, as the
+organ of the immediate revelation of God, is placed by the side of the
+priests, the teachers of the law (compare xvii. 10, 11, 18; xxxiv. 10),
+as their corrective, as a thorn in their flesh, to make up for their
+inability. It is true that this wider connection is also against those
+who would here _exclude_ Christ. If it be certain that Moses already
+knew the Messianic promises (compare the remarks on Gen. xlix.), then,
+just in this context, the reference [Pg 113] to Christ, the head of the
+authorities of the future, could not be wanting.
+
+2. An exclusive reference to Christ is opposed by the more immediate
+context. This connection is twofold. In ver. 15, Moses first utters the
+promise in his own name, and here it stands connected with what
+precedes. Moses had forbidden to the people the use of all the means by
+which those who were given to idolatry endeavoured to penetrate the
+boundaries of human knowledge: "Thou shalt not do so," is his language;
+for that which these are vainly seeking after in this sinful manner,
+shall, in reality, be granted to thee by thy God. Here, it was not only
+appropriate to remind them of the Messiah, inasmuch as His appearance,
+as being the most perfect revelation of God, satisfies most perfectly
+the desire after higher communications; but it would have been very
+strange if here, where so suitable an opportunity presented itself, the
+founder of the Old Economy had omitted all reference to the founder of
+the New Economy, and had limited himself to the intervening, more
+imperfect divine communications. But, on the other hand, it would have
+been as strange if Moses had taken no notice of them at all,--if,
+supposing that a series of false prophets would appear, he had been
+satisfied to lay down in chap. xiii. 2 sqq. the distinctive marks of
+true and false prophets, and had then, in the passage under review,
+referred to the divine revelations to be expected in the distant
+future, without noticing those to be expected in the more immediate
+future,--thus neglecting to employ means peculiarly fitted for gaining
+admission for his exhortations. The word נתן in ver. 14 is especially
+opposed to such a view. "And thou (shalt) not (do) so, Jehovah thy God
+gave thee." _J. D. Michaelis_ says: "What He gave to the Israelites is
+specified in vers. 15 and 18." The past tense suggests the idea of a
+gift which had already taken its beginning in the present.--The promise
+stands in a different connection in ver. 18. Moses had already given it
+in his own name in ver. 15. In order to give it greater authority, he
+reports, in the following verses, when and how he had received it from
+God. It was delivered to him on Sinai, where God had directly revealed
+Himself to the people at the promulgation of the Law, partly in order
+to strengthen their confidence in Moses the mediator, and [Pg 114]
+partly to show them the folly of their desiring any other mode of
+divine communication. But the people were seized with terror before the
+dreadful majesty of God, and prayed that God would no longer speak to
+them directly, but through a mediator, as He had hitherto done; compare
+Exod. xx.; Deut. v. The Lord then said to Moses, "They have well
+spoken; a prophet," etc. The words here, in ver. 17, agree very well
+with Deut. v. 28. The agreement in the words indicates that _here_ we
+have an addition to that which is _there_ communicated regarding what
+was spoken by God on that occasion. _There_, we are told only what had
+an immediate reference to the present--viz., the appointment of Moses
+as mediator; _here_, we are told what was at that time fixed in
+reference to the future of the people. We cannot fail to perceive that
+_here_, if ever, a divine revelation was appropriate concerning the
+coming of Christ, who, as the Mediator between God and man, veiled His
+Godhead, and in human form, brought God nearer to man. But we should,
+at the same time, expect here an allusion to the inferior messengers of
+God, who were to precede Him.
+
+3. The exclusive reference to the Messiah is inconsistent with vers.
+20-22. The marks of a false prophet are given in them. If, however,
+that which precedes had no reference at all to true prophets, it would
+be almost impossible to trace any suitable connection of the thoughts.
+
+4. If the passage were referred to Christ exclusively, the prophetic
+institution would then be without any legitimate authority; and from
+the whole character of the Mosaic legislation, as laying the foundation
+for the future progress and development of the Theocracy, we could not
+well conceive that so important an institution should be deficient in
+this point. Moreover, the whole historical existence of the prophetic
+order necessarily presupposes such a foundation. Deut. xiii. 2 sq. was
+not fitted to afford such a foundation, as it refers, only indirectly
+and by implication, to true prophets.
+
+5. _Finally_,--There are not wanting slight hints in the New Testament
+that the reference to Christ is not an exclusive one. These are found
+in Luke xi. 50, 51: Ἵνα ἐκζητηθῇ τὸ αἷμα πάντων τῶν προφητῶν ... ἀπὸ
+τῆς γενεᾶς ταύτης ... ναὶ λέγω ὑμῖν ἐκζητηθήσεται ἀπὸ τῆς γενεᾶς
+ταύτης. The emphatic repetition of ἐκζητεῖν in that passage shows
+plainly its connection [Pg 115] with the words, "I will require it of
+him," in the passage under review; just as the ידרש, which, according
+to 2 Chron. xxiv. 22, the prophet Zechariah, who was unjustly slain,
+uttered when dying, alludes not only to Gen. ix. 5, but to our passage
+also. But here we must remark that, in consequence of the sin committed
+against the Prophet κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν--Christ--vengeance for the crimes
+committed against the inferior prophets is executed at the same time,
+so that, in the first instance, _His_ blood is required, and, on this
+occasion, all the blood also which was formerly shed.
+
+But how can these two facts be reconciled:--that Moses had, undeniably,
+the Messiah in view, and that, notwithstanding, there seems at the same
+time to be a reference to the prophets in general? The simplest mode of
+reconciling them is the following. The prophet here is an _ideal_
+person, comprehending all the true prophets who had appeared from Moses
+to Christ, including the latter. But Moses does not here speak of the
+prophets as a collective body, to which, at the close, Christ also
+belonged, as it were, incidentally, and as one among the many,--as
+_Calvin_ and other interpreters mentioned above suppose; but rather,
+the plurality of prophets is, for this reason only, comprehended by
+Moses in an _ideal_ unity, that, on the authority of Gen. xlix. 10, and
+by the illumination of the Holy Spirit, he knew that the prophetical
+order would, at some future time, centre in a real person,--in Christ.
+But there is so much the more of truth in thus viewing the prophetic
+order as a whole, since, according to 1 Peter i. 11, the Spirit of
+Christ spoke in the prophets. Thus, in a certain sense, Christ is the
+only Prophet.
+
+
+Footnote 1: _Lampe_ says: He has preserved to us not only what, in
+Paradise, and afterwards to and through the Patriarchs, had been told
+about this Redeemer; but he himself, under divine inspiration, has
+prophesied of Him,--especially in Deut. xviii. 15-18.
+
+
+
+
+    THE ANGEL OF THE LORD IN THE PENTATEUCH, AND THE BOOK OF JOSHUA.
+
+
+The New Testament distinguishes between the hidden God and the revealed
+God--the Son or Logos--who is connected with the former by oneness of
+nature, and who from everlasting, and even at the creation itself,
+filled up the immeasurable distance between the Creator and the
+creation;--who has been the Mediator in all God's relations to the
+world;--who at all times, and even before He became man in Christ, has
+been the light of [Pg 116] the world,--and to whom, specially, was
+committed the direction of the economy of the Old Covenant.
+
+It is evident that this doctrine stands in the closest connection with
+the Christology,--that it forms, indeed, its theological foundation and
+ground-work. Until the Christology has attained to a knowledge of the
+true divinity of the Saviour, its results cannot be otherwise than very
+meagre and unsatisfactory. Wheresoever the true state of human nature
+is seen in the light of Holy Scripture, no high expectations can be
+entertained from a merely human Saviour, although he were endowed even
+with as full a measure of the gifts of the Spirit of God as human
+nature, in its finite and sinful condition, is able to bear. But unless
+there exist in the one divine Being itself, such a distinction of
+persons, the divinity of the Saviour cannot be acknowledged, without
+endangering the unity of God which the Scriptures so emphatically
+teach. If, however, there be such a distinction,--if the Word be indeed
+with God, we cannot avoid ascribing to God the desire of revealing
+Himself; nor, in such a case, can we conceive that He should content
+Himself with inferior forms of revelation, with merely transitory
+manifestations. We can recognise in these only preparations, and
+preludes of the highest and truest revelation.
+
+The question then is, whether any insight into this doctrine is to be
+found as early as in the Books of the Old Testament. Sound Christian
+Theology has discovered the outlines of such a distinction betwixt the
+hidden and the revealed God, in many passages of the Old Testament, in
+which mention is made of the Angel or Messenger of God. The general
+tenor of these passages will be best exemplified by the first among
+them,--the narrative of Hagar in Gen. xvi. In ver. 7, we are told that
+the Angel of Jehovah found Hagar. In ver. 10, this Angel ascribes to
+Himself a divine work, viz., the innumerable increase of Hagar's
+posterity. In ver. 11, He says that Jehovah had heard her distress. He
+thus asserts of Jehovah what, shortly before. He had said of Himself.
+Moreover, in ver. 13, Hagar expresses her astonishment that she had
+seen God, and yet had remained alive.--The opinion that these passages
+form the Old Testament foundation for the Proemium of St John's
+Gospel, has not remained uncontroverted. From the very times of the
+Church-fathers it has been asserted by many, that where the [Pg 117]
+Angel of the Lord is spoken of, we must not think of a person connected
+with God by unity of nature, but of a lower angel, by whom God executes
+His commands, and through whom He acts and speaks. The latest defenders
+of the view are _Hofmann_ in "_Weissagung und Erfüllung_" and in the
+"_Schriftbeweis_" and _Delitzsch_ in his commentary on Genesis.--Others
+are of opinion, that the Angel of Jehovah is identical with Jehovah
+Himself,--not denoting a person distinct from Him, but only the form in
+which He manifests Himself. We shall not here discuss the question in
+its whole extent; we shall, in the meantime, consider only what the
+principal passages of the Pentateuch and of the adjacent Book of Joshua
+teach upon this point, and how far their teaching coincides with, or is
+in opposition to, these various views. For it is only to this extent
+that the inquiry belongs to our present object.
+
+In Gen. xvi. 13, these words are of special importance: "_And she
+called the name of the Lord who spoke unto her, Thou art a God of
+sight: for she said, Do I now_ (properly _here_, in the place where
+such a sight was vouchsafed to me) _still see after my seeing?_" "Do I
+see" is equivalent to, "Do I live," because death threatened, as it
+were, to enter through the eyes. (Compare the expression, "Mine eyes
+have seen," in Is. vi.) רֹאִי is the pausal form for רֳאִי; see Job
+xxxiii. 21, where, however, the accent is on the penultimate. Then
+follows ver. 14: _They called the well_, "_Well of the living sight_;"
+_i.e._, where a person had a sight of God, and remained alive.
+
+Hagar must have been convinced that she had seen God without the
+mediation of a created angel; for, otherwise, she could not have
+wondered that her life was preserved. Man, entangled by the visible
+world, is terrified when he comes in contact with the invisible world,
+even with angels. (Compare Dan. viii. 17, 18; Luke ii. 9.) But this
+terror rises to fear of death only when man comes into contact with the
+Lord Himself. (Compare the remarks on Rev. i. 17.) In Gen. xxxii. 31--a
+passage which bears the closest resemblance to the one now under
+review, and from which it receives its explanation--it is said: "And
+Jacob called the name of the place _Peniel_, for I have seen God face
+to face, and my life has been preserved." In Exod. xx. 19, the children
+of Israel said to Moses, "Speak thou with us, and we will hear; and let
+not God speak with us, [Pg 118] lest we die;" compared with Deut. v.
+21: "Now therefore why should we die? for this great fire will consume
+us; if we hear the voice of the Lord our God any more, then we shall
+die." (Compare also Deut. xviii. 16.) And it is Jehovah who, in Exod.
+xxxiii. 20, says, "There shall no man see Me and live." Israel's Lord
+and God is, in the absolute energy of His nature, a "consuming fire,"
+Deut. iv. 24. (Compare Deut. ix. 3; Is. xxxiii. 14: "Who among us would
+dwell with the devouring fire? who among us would dwell with
+everlasting burning?" Heb. xii. 29.) It is not the reflected light,
+even in the most exalted creatures, nor the sight of the saints of whom
+it is said, "Behold, He puts no trust in His servants, and His angels
+He chargeth with folly,"--but the sight of the thrice Holy One, which
+makes Isaiah exclaim, "Woe is me, for I am undone; for I am a man of
+unclean lips, and dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips."
+
+So much then is clear,--that the opinion which considers the Angel of
+the Lord to be a created angel is overthrown by the first passage where
+that angel is mentioned, if the exposition which we have given of vers.
+13, 14--an exposition which is now generally received, and which was
+last advanced by _Knobel_--be correct. But _Delitzsch_ gives another
+exposition: "Thou art a God of sight, _i.e._, one whose all-seeing eye
+does not overlook the helpless and destitute, even in the remotest
+corner of the wilderness." Against this we remark, that ראי never
+denotes the act of seeing, but the sight itself. "Have I not even here
+(even in the desert land of destitution) looked after Him who saw me?"
+"Well of the living one who seeth me," _i.e._, of the omnipresent
+divine providence. In opposition to this exposition, however, we must
+remark, that God is nowhere else in Genesis called the Living One. But
+our chief objection is, that these expositions destroy the connection
+which so evidently exists between our passage and those already
+quoted,--especially Gen. xxxii. 31; Exod. xxxiii. 20. (Compare,
+moreover, Jud. xiii. 22: "And Manoah said unto his wife, We shall
+surely die, because we have seen God.")
+
+It has been asked. Why should the Logos have appeared first to the
+Egyptian maid? But the low condition of Hagar cannot here come into
+consideration; for the appearance is in reality intended, not for her,
+but for Abraham. Immediately [Pg 119] before, in chap. xii. 7, it is
+said, "And the Lord appeared unto Abraham;" and immediately after, in
+chap. xvii. 1, "And when Abraham was ninety years old and nine, the
+Lord appeared to him;" the appearance of the Lord Himself is mentioned
+in order that every thought of a lower angel may be warded off. The
+passage under consideration, then, contains the indication, that such
+appearances must only be conceived of as manifestations of the Deity
+Himself to the world. Just as our passage is preserved from erroneous
+interpretations by such passages as Gen. xii. 7, xvii. 1, so these
+receive from ours, in return, their most distinct definition. We learn
+from this, that wherever appearances of Jehovah are mentioned, we must
+conceive of them as effected by the mediation of His Angel. There is no
+substantial difference betwixt the passages in which Jehovah Himself is
+mentioned, and those in which the Angel of Jehovah is spoken of. They
+serve to supplement and to explain one another. The words, "In His
+Angel," in chap. xvi. 7, furnish us with the supplement to the
+succeeding statement, "And _Jehovah_ appeared to him" (so, _e.g._, also
+in chap. xviii. 1), just as the writer in Gen. chap. ii. iii. makes use
+of the name Jehovah-Elohim, in order that henceforth every one may
+understand that where only Jehovah is spoken of. He is yet personally
+identical with Elohim.
+
+Let us now turn to Gen. xviii. xix. According to _Delitzsch_. all the
+three men who appeared to Abraham were "finite spirits made visible."
+_Hofmann_ (_Schriftb._ S. 87) says: "Jehovah is present on earth in His
+angels, in the two with Lot, as in the three with Abraham." We,
+however, hold fast by the view of the ancient Church, that in chap.
+xviii. the Logos appeared accompanied by two inferior angels.
+Abraham's regards are, from the very first, involuntarily directed to
+one from among the three, and whom he addresses by אֲדוֹנָי, O Lord
+(xviii. 3); the two others are considered by him as companions only.
+But Lot has to do with both equally, and addresses them first by אֲדוֹנַי,
+my Lords.--In chap. xviii., it is always one only of the three who
+speaks; the two others are mute;[1] while in chap. xix. everything
+comes from the two [Pg 120] equally. He with whom Abraham has to do,
+always, and without exception, speaks as God Himself; while the two
+with whom Lot has to do speak at first, as λειτουργικὰ πνεύματα,
+distinguishing themselves from the Lord who sent them (compare ver.
+13); and it is only after they have thus drawn the line of separation
+between themselves and Jehovah, that they appear, in vers. 21, 22, as
+speaking in His name. They do so, moreover, only after Lot, in the
+anxiety of his heart and in his excitement, had previously addressed,
+in them, Him who sent them, and with whom he desired to have to do as
+immediately as possible. The scene bears, throughout, a character of
+excitement, and is not fitted to afford data for general conclusions.
+We cannot infer from it that it was, in general, customary to address,
+in the angels, the Lord who sent them, or that the angels acted in the
+name of the Lord. In chap. xviii., from ver. 1, where the narrative
+begins with the words, "And Jehovah appeared unto him," Moses always
+speaks of him with whom Abraham had to do as Jehovah only, excepting
+where he introduces the three men. (He with whom Abraham has to do is
+called, not fewer than eight times, Jehovah, and six times אֲדוֹנָי.) But
+in chap. xix., Jehovah, who is concealed behind the two angels, appears
+only twice in the expression, "And He said," in vers. 17, 21, for which
+ver. 13 suggests the supplement: "through His two angels."--Even in
+ver. 16, the narrative distinguishes Jehovah from the two men,--and all
+this in an exciting scene which must have influenced even the narrator.
+If he who spoke to Abraham was an angel like the other two, we could
+scarcely perceive any reason why he should not have taken part in the
+mission to Sodom; but if he was the Angel of the Lord κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν, the
+reason is quite obvious; it would have been inconsistent with divine
+propriety.--In chap. xviii. Moses speaks of three men; it is evidently
+on [Pg 121] purpose that he avoids speaking of three angels. In chap.
+xix. 1, on the contrary, we are at once told: "And there came the two
+angels." (Compare ver. 15.) The reason why in chap. xviii. the use of
+the name _angels_ is avoided can only be, because it might easily have
+led to a misunderstanding, if the Angel of the Lord had been
+comprehended in that one designation along with the two inferior
+angels, although it would not, in itself, have been inadmissible.--If
+we suppose that he, with whom Abraham had to do, was some created
+angel, we cannot well understand how, in chap. xviii. 17 seq., the
+judgment over Sodom could, throughout, be ascribed to him. _He_ could
+not, in the name of the Lord, speak of that judgment, as not he, but
+the two other angels who went to Sodom, were the instruments of its
+execution. Hence it only remains to ascribe the judgment to him as the
+_causa principalis_.--If the three angels were equals, it would be
+impossible to explain the adversative clause in chap. xviii. 22: "And
+the men turned from thence and went to Sodom; _but Abraham stood yet
+before the Lord._" Jehovah and the two angels are here contrasted. It
+is true that, in the two angels also, it is Jehovah who acts. This is
+evident from xviii. 21: "I will go down and see"--where the going down
+does not refer to descending to the valley of Jordan, the position of
+which was lower (thus _Delitzsch_); but, according to xi. 7, it refers
+to a descent from heaven to earth. That Jehovah, though on earth,
+should declare His resolution to go down, as in xi. 7, may be explained
+from the ὁ ὢν ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ in John iii. 13. God, even when He is on
+earth, remains in heaven, and it is thence that He manifests Himself.
+Moreover, the words immediately following show in what sense this going
+down is to be understood,--that it is not in His own person, but
+through the medium of His messengers. The resolution, "I will go down,"
+is carried into effect by the going down of the angels to Sodom.
+
+By the Jehovah who, from Jehovah out of heaven, caused brimstone and
+fire to rain upon Sodom and Gomorrah (xix. 24), we are not at liberty
+to understand the two angels only,[2] but, [Pg 122] agreeably to the
+views of sound Christian expositors generally, Christ,--with this
+modification, however, that the two angels are to be considered as His
+servants, and that what they do is His work also. It is true that the
+angels say, in xix. 13, "We will destroy," etc.; but much more
+emphatically and frequently does he with whom Abraham has to do,
+ascribe the work of destruction to himself. (Compare xviii. 17, where
+Jehovah says, "How can I hide from Abraham that thing which I am
+doing?" vers. 24-28, etc.) If in xix. 24 there be involved the contrast
+between, so to speak, the heavenly and earthly Jehovah,--between the
+hidden God and Him who manifests Himself on earth,--then so much the
+more must we seek the latter in chap. xviii., as in ver. 22, compared
+with ver. 21, the angels are distinctly pointed out as His Messengers.
+
+_Delitzsch_ asserts that in Heb. xiii. 2, the words, ἔλαθόν τινες
+ξενίσαντες ἀγγέλους, clearly indicate that "all three were finite
+spirits made visible." This assertion, however, which was long before
+made by the Socinian _Crellius_, has been sufficiently refuted by _Ode
+de Angelis_, p. 1001. The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews intends
+to connect the events which happened to Abraham and Lot equally--τίνες;
+and for this reason he did not go beyond what was common to them both.
+Moreover, the Angel of the Lord is likewise comprehended in the
+appellation "_angels_," for the name has no reference to the nature,
+but to the mission.
+
+
+Footnote 1: The words in ver. 9, "And they said to him," are to be
+understood only thus:--that one spoke at the same time in the name of
+the others; in the question thus put, it is, in the first instance,
+only the general relation of the guests to the hostess that comes into
+consideration. That such is the case, appears from ver. 10, where the
+use of the plural could not be continued, because a work was on hand
+which was peculiar to the one among them, and in which the others were
+not equally concerned. If the words in ver. 9 were spoken by all the
+three, then the one in ver. 10 ought to have been singled out thus:
+"And one from among them thus spoke." On account of the suffix in
+אחריו, "And the door was behind _him_," the ויאמר in ver. 10 can be
+referred only to the one, and not to the Jehovah concealed behind all
+the three. This shows how the preceding, "And they said," is to be
+understood.
+
+
+Footnote 2: _Delitzsch_ says: "As the two are really sent to destroy
+Sodom and Gomorrah, it is evident that Jehovah, in ver. 24, who causes
+brimstone and fire to rain from Jehovah out of heaven, is viewed as
+being present in the two on earth, but in such a manner that,
+nevertheless, His real judicial throne is in heaven."
+
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+Of no less importance and significance is the passage Gen. xxxi. 11
+seq. According to ver. 11, the Angel of God, מלאך האלהים, appears to
+Jacob in a dream. In ver. 13, the same person calls himself the God of
+Bethel, with reference to the event recorded in chap. xxviii. 11-22. It
+cannot be supposed that in chap xxviii. the mediation of a common angel
+took place, who, however, had not been expressly mentioned; for Jehovah
+is there contrasted with the angels. In ver. 12, we read: "And behold
+the angels of God ascending and descending on it." In ver. 13, there is
+another sight: "And behold Jehovah stood by him and said, I am Jehovah,
+the God of Abraham thy father, and the God of Isaac; the land whereon
+thou liest, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed."
+
+[Pg 123]
+
+This passage is also in so far of importance, because, agreeably to
+what has been remarked in p. 119, it follows from it that even there,
+where Jehovah simply is mentioned, the mediation through His Angel is
+to be assumed.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+He with whom Jacob wrestles, in Gen. xxxii. 24, makes himself known as
+God, partly by giving him the name Israel, _i.e._, one who wrestles
+with God, and partly by bestowing a blessing upon him. Jacob calls the
+place _Peniel_, _i.e._, face of God, because he had seen God face to
+face, and wonders that his life was preserved. The answer which Elohim
+gives here to Jacob's question regarding His name, remarkably coincides
+with that which in Judges xiii. 17, 18, is given by _the_ Angel of the
+Lord to a similar question. In Hosea xii. 4 (comp. the remarks on this
+passage in the Author's "_Genuineness of the Pentateuch_," vol. i. p.
+128 ff.), he who wrestled with Jacob is called Elohim, as in Genesis;
+but in ver. 5, he is called מלאך, a word which is more distinctly
+defined by the preceding Elohim; so that we can, accordingly, think
+only of the Angel of God. As it was certainly not the intention of the
+prophet to state a new historical circumstance, the mention of the
+Angel must be founded upon the supposition, that all revelations of God
+are made by the mediation of His Angel,--a supposition which we have
+already proved to have its foundation in the book of Genesis itself.
+
+_Delitzsch_ says, S. 256, "Jehovah reveals Himself in the מלאך, but
+just by means of a finite spirit becoming visible, and therefore in a
+manner more tolerable to him who occupies a lower place of communion
+with God." And similarly, _Hofmann_ expresses himself, S. 335: "It is
+quite the same thing whether it be said, he saw God, or an angel, as is
+testified by Hosea also; and nowhere have we less right to explain it
+as if it were an appearance of God the Son, in contrast with the
+appearance of an angel."
+
+But since it is an essentially different matter, whether Jacob wrestled
+with God Himself, or, in the first instance, with an ordinary angel
+merely, we have, as regards this opinion, only the choice between
+accusing the prophet Hosea, who brought in the angel, of an
+Euhemerismus, or of raising against sacred history the charge that it
+cannot be relied on, because it omitted so important [Pg 124] a
+circumstance. The name Israel, by which, "at the same time, the
+innermost nature of the Covenant-people was fixed, and the divine law
+of their history was established" (_Delitzsch_), is, in that case, a
+falsehood. Jacob has overcome omnipotence, and, in this one adversary,
+all others who might oppose him,--as he is expressly assured in ver.
+29: "Thou hast wrestled with God and _with men_, and hast prevailed."
+Can God invest a creature with omnipotence? Jacob would certainly not
+have gone so cheerfully to meet Esau, if in Him over whom he prevailed
+with weeping and supplication, he himself had recognised only an angel,
+and not Jehovah the God of hosts, as Hosea, in ver. 6, calls the very
+same, of whom in ver. 5 he had spoken as the angel. The consolatory
+import of the event for the Church of all times is destroyed, if Jacob
+had to do with a created angel only. With such an one, Jacob had not to
+reckon on account of his sinfulness, and it is just the humiliating
+consciousness of this his sinfulness which forms the point at issue in
+his wrestling. Moreover, with such a view, the New Testament Antitype
+would be altogether lost. Jesus, the true Israel, does not wrestle with
+an angel,--such an one only appears to strengthen Him in His struggle,
+Luke xxii. 43--but with God, Heb. v. 7.--The occurrence would,
+according to this opinion, furnish a strong argument for the worship of
+angels: "He wept and made _supplication_ unto him," Hos. xii. 5
+(compare Deut. iii. 23). The ἀγωνίζεσθαι ἐν ταῖς προσευχαῖς, mentioned
+in Col. iv. 12, in allusion to our passage, would, in that case,
+besides God, have the angels for its object.
+
+If an ordinary angel were here to be understood, we must likewise
+believe that an angel is spoken of in Gen. xxxv. 9 seq. For, of the
+same angel with whom Jacob wrestled, Hosea says that Jacob found him in
+Bethel: "And he wrestled with the Angel and prevailed, he wept and made
+supplication unto him; he found him in Bethel, and there he spake with
+us." (_Tarnov_: "_Nobiscum qui in lumbis Jacobi hærebamus._") Then, it
+must have been a common angel, too, who appeared to Jacob in Gen.
+xxviii. 10 ff.; for chap. xxxv. 9, compared with ver. 7, does not allow
+us to doubt of the identity of him who appeared on these two occasions.
+But such an idea cannot be entertained for a moment; for in chap.
+xxviii. 13, Jehovah is contrasted with the angels ascending and
+descending on the ladder.
+
+[Pg 125]
+
+In Gen. xlviii. 15, 16, we read of Jacob: "_And he blessed Joseph, and
+said, The God before whom my fathers Abraham and Isaac did walk, and
+the God which fed me all my life long unto this day, the Angel which
+redeemed me from all evil, bless the lads._"
+
+In this passage, God first appears, twice in the indefiniteness of His
+nature, and then, specially, as the Angel concerned for Jacob and his
+posterity.
+
+By the Angel, we cannot here understand a divine emanation and
+messenger, because no permanent character belongs to such; while here
+the whole sum of the preservations of Jacob, and of the blessings upon
+Ephraim and Manasseh, is derived from the Angel. And just as little can
+we thereby understand a created angel, according to the view of
+_Hofmann_, who, in S. 87, says: "Jacob here makes mention of God, not
+thrice, but twice only; first as the God of his fathers, and then as
+the God of his own experience, but in such a way that in ver. 16 he
+names, instead of God, the Angel who watched over him; and he does so
+for the purpose of denoting the special providence of which he had been
+the object."
+
+The analogy of the threefold blessing of Aaron in Num. vi. 24-26 would
+lead us to expect that the name of God should be three times mentioned.
+No created angel could in this manner be placed by the side of God, or
+be introduced as being independent of, and co-ordinate with, Him. Such
+an angel can only be meant as is connected with God by oneness of
+nature, and whose activity is implied in that of God. The singular יברך
+is here of very special significance. It indicates that the Angel is
+joined to God by an inseparable oneness, and that his territory is just
+as wide as that of Elohim.[1] If by the angel we understand some
+created one, we cannot then avoid the startling inference, that God is,
+in all His manifestations, bound [Pg 126] absolutely to the mediation
+of the lower angels. In the history upon which Jacob looks back, the
+inferior angels do not appear at all as taking any part in all the
+preservations of Jacob. Twice only are they mentioned in his whole
+history,--in chap. xxviii. 12, and xxxii. 2. _Lastly_,--The angel
+cannot well be a collective noun; for we nowhere meet with the _ideal_
+person of the angel, as comprehending within himself a real plurality.
+(Compare remarks on Ps. xxxiv. 8.) We should therefore be compelled to
+think of Jacob's protecting angel. But this, again, would be in
+opposition to the fact, that Scripture nowhere says anything of the
+guardian angels of any individual. Moreover, it is a plurality of
+angels that in xxviii. 12, xxxii. 2, serves for the protection of
+Jacob, and we nowhere find the slightest trace of one inferior angel
+being attached to Jacob for his protection.
+
+
+Footnote 1: This significance of the singular was pointed out as early
+as in the third century by _Novatianus_, who, _de Trinitate_ c. xv. (p.
+1016 in _Ode_), says: "So constant is he in mentioning that Angel whom
+he had called God, that even at the close of his speech he again
+refers, in an emphatic manner, to the same person, by saying, 'God
+bless these lads.' For had he intended that some other angel should be
+understood, he would have used the plural number in order to comprehend
+the two persons. But since, in his blessing, he made use of the
+singular, he would have us to understand that God and the Angel are
+quite identical."
+
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+In Exod. xxiii. 20, 21, Jehovah says to the children of Israel:
+"_Behold, I send an angel before thee, to keep thee in the way, and to
+bring thee into the place which I have prepared. Beware of him, and
+obey his voice; do not rebel against him, for he will not pardon your
+transgressions: for My name is in him._"
+
+As the people are here told to beware of the Angel, because he will not
+pardon their transgressions, so Joshua xxiv. 19 warns them as regards
+the most high God: "Ye will not be able to serve Jehovah: for He is a
+holy (_i.e._, a glorious, exalted) God; He is a jealous God; He will
+not forgive your transgressions nor your sins." The energetic character
+of the reaction proceeding from the angel against all violations of His
+honour, is founded upon the words, "For My name is in him." By the
+"name of God" all His deeds are understood and comprehended, His glory
+testified by history, the display and testimony of His nature which
+history gives. (Compare the remarks in my commentary on Ps. xxiii. 2,
+xlviii. 11, lxxxiii. 17-19, lxxxvi. 11.) "My name is him;" _i.e._,
+according to Calvin, "My glory and majesty dwell in him." Compare here
+what in the New Testament is said of Christ: ἃ γὰρ ἂν ἐκεῖνος ποιῇ
+ταῦτα καὶ ὁ υἱὸς ὁμοίως ποιεῖ, John v. 19; ἵνα πάντες τιμῶσι τὸν υἱὸν
+καθὼς τιμῶσι τὸν πατέρα, John v. 23; ἐγὼ καὶ ὁ πατὴρ ἕν ἐσμεν, John x.
+30; ἵνα γνῶτε καὶ πιστεύσητε ὅτι ἐν ἐμοὶ ὁ πατὴρ κᾀγὼ ἐν αὐτῷ, [Pg 127]
+John x. 38; οὐ πιστεύεις ὅτι ἐγὼ ἐν τῷ πατρὶ καὶ ὁ πατὴρ ἐν ἐμοί ἐστι,
+John xiv. 10; καθὼς σὺ πάτερ ἐν ἐμοὶ κᾀγὼ ἐν σοί, John xvii. 21; ἐν
+αὐτῷ κατοικεῖ πᾶν τὸ πλήρωμα τῆς θεότητος σωματικῶς, Col. ii. 9.--It is
+impossible that the name of God could be communicated to any other, Is.
+xlii. 8. The name of God can dwell in Him only, who is originally of
+the same nature with God.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+After Israel had contracted guilt by the worship of the golden calf. He
+who had hitherto led them--Jehovah = the Angel of Jehovah--says, in
+Exod. xxxii. 34, that He would no more lead them Himself, but send
+before them His Angel, מלאכי: "_For I_ (myself) _will not go up in the
+midst of thee, for thou art a stiff-necked people, lest I consume thee
+in the way_;" xxxiii. 3, compared with xxiii. 21. The people are quite
+inconsolable on account of this sad intelligence, ver. 4.
+
+The threatening of the Lord becomes unintelligible, and the grief of
+the people incomprehensible, if by the Angel in chap. xxiii. an
+ordinary angel be understood. But everything becomes clear and
+intelligible, if we admit that in chap. xxiii. there is an allusion to
+the Angel of the Lord κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν, who is connected with Him by oneness
+of nature, and who, because the name of God is in Him, is as zealous as
+Himself in inflicting punishment as well as in bestowing salvation;
+whilst in chap. xxxii. 34, the allusion is to an inferior angel, who is
+added to the highest revealer of God as His companion and messenger,
+and who appears in the Book of Daniel under the name of Gabriel, while
+the Angel of the Lord appears under the name of Michael.
+
+On account of the sincere repentance of the people, and the
+intercession of Moses, the Lord revokes the threatening, and says in
+xxxiii. 14, "My face shall go." But Moses said unto Him, "If Thy face
+go not, carry us not up hence."
+
+That פנים, _face_, signifies here the _person_, is granted by
+_Gesenius_: "The face of some one means often his personal
+presence,--himself in his own person." A similar use of the word occurs
+in 2 Sam. xvii. 11: "Thy face go to battle" (_Michaelis_: "Thou thyself
+be present, not some commander only"); and in Deut. iv. 37, where בפניו
+means _in_, or _with_, _his personal presence_: "He [Pg 128] brought
+them out with His face, with His mighty power out of Egypt."
+
+The state of things has in xxxiii. 14, 15, evidently become again what
+it was in xxiii. 20, 21. The face of the Lord in the former passage, is
+the Angel of the Lord in the latter. Hence, we cannot here admit the
+idea of some inferior angel; we can think only of that Angel who is
+connected with the Lord by oneness of nature.
+
+The connection between the face of the Lord in xxxiii. 14, 15, and the
+Angel in whom is the name of the Lord, in xxiii., becomes still more
+evident by Is. lxiii. 8, 9: "And He (Jehovah) became their Saviour. In
+all their affliction (they were) not afflicted, and the Angel of His
+face saved them; in His love and in His pity He redeemed them, and He
+bore and carried them all the days of old." The Angel of the face, in
+this text, is an expression which, by its very darkness, points back to
+some fundamental passage--a passage, too, in the Pentateuch--as facts
+are alluded to, of which the authentic report is given in that book.
+The expression, "Angel of the face," arose from a combination of Exod.
+xxiii. 20--from which the "Angel" is taken--and Exod. xxxiii. 14,
+whence he took the "face." To explain "Angel of the face" by "the angel
+who sees His face," as several have done, would give an inadequate
+meaning; for by the whole context, an expression is demanded which
+would elevate the angel to the height of God. Now, as in Exod. xxxiii.
+14, "the face of Jehovah" is tantamount to "Jehovah in His own person,"
+the Angel of the face can be none other than He in whom Jehovah
+appeal's personally, in contrast with inferior created angels. The
+Angel of the face is the Angel in whom is the name of the Lord.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+When Joshua was standing with the army before Jericho, in a state of
+despondency at the sight of the strongly fortified city, a man appeared
+to him, with his sword drawn; and when he was asked by Joshua, "Art
+thou for us or for our adversaries?" he answers, in chap. v. 14, "Nay,
+for I am the Captain of the host of Jehovah, שר צבא יהוה, now I have
+come." This Captain claims for himself divine honour, in ver. 15,
+precisely in the same manner as the Angel of Jehovah in Exod. iii., by
+commanding [Pg 129] Joshua to put off his shoes, because the place on
+which he stood was holy. In chap. vi. 2 he is called Jehovah. For it
+is evident that we are not to think of another divine revelation
+there given to Joshua in any other way--as some interpreters suppose;
+because, in that case, the appearance of the Captain, who only now
+gives command to Joshua, would have been without an object. In chap. v.
+the directions would be wanting; in chap. vi. we should have no report
+of the appearance.
+
+There can be no doubt that, by the host of the Lord, the heavenly host
+is to be understood; and _Hofmann_ (S. 291) has not done well in
+reviving the opinion of some older expositors (_Calvin_, _Masius_)
+which has been long ago refuted, viz., that the host of the Lord is
+"Israel standing at the beginning of his warfare," and in asserting
+that the prince of this host is some inferior angel. The Israelites
+cannot be the host of the Lord, that explanation is excluded by the
+comparison with the host of the Lord mentioned at the very threshold of
+revelation, in Gen. ii. 1; that which is commonly (Gen. xxxii. 2; 1
+Kings xxii. 19; Neh. ix. 6; Ps. ciii. 21, cxlviii. 2, compared with 2
+Kings vi. 27) so called, infinitely surpasses the earthly one in glory,
+and of it the Lord has the name Jehovah Zebaoth. It is only in two
+isolated passages of the Pentateuch that the appellation which properly
+belongs to the heavenly hosts of God is transferred to the earthly
+ones; and that is done in order to point out their correspondence, and
+thereby to elevate the mind. In the first of these passages, Exod. vii.
+4, the "host of the Lord" is not spoken of absolutely, but it is
+expressly said what host is intended: "And I bring forth My host. My
+people, the children of Israel." The second passage, in Exod. xii. 41,
+is similarly qualified, and refers to the first. According to this view
+of _Hofmann_, the words, "now I have come," are quite inexplicable.[1]
+The Captain of the host of the Lord expresses Himself in such a manner
+as if, by His coming, everything were accomplished. But if he was only
+the commander of Israel--an inferior [Pg 130] angel--his coming was no
+guarantee for success, for his limited power might be checked by a
+higher one. But if the Captain of the host of Jehovah be the Prince of
+angels, we cannot by any means refer the divine honour which He demands
+and receives, to Him who sent Him, in contrast with Him who is sent;
+the higher the dignity, the more necessary is the limitation. If the
+honour be ascribed to Him, He must be a partaker of a divine nature.
+
+Jesus not at all indistinctly designates Himself as the Captain of the
+Lord's host spoken of in our passage, in Matt. xxvi. 53: Ἢ δοκεῖς ὅτι
+οὐ δύναμαι ἄρτι παρακαλέσαι τὸν πατέρα μου, καὶ παραστήσει μοι πλείους
+ἢ δώδεκα λεγεῶνας ἀγγέλων; This passage alone would be sufficient to
+refute the view which conceives of the Angel of the Lord as a mere
+emanation and messenger. It also overthrows the opinion that he is an
+inferior angel, inasmuch as the Angel of the Lord here appears as
+raised above all inferior angels.
+
+Thus there existed, even in the time of Moses, the most important
+foundation for the doctrine concerning Christ. He who knows the general
+relation which the Pentateuch bears to the later development of
+doctrine, will, _a priori_, think it impossible that it should have
+been otherwise; and, instead of neglecting these small beginnings,
+appearing, as it were, in the shape of germs, he will cultivate them
+with love and care.
+
+It is only at a late period, in Malachi iii. 1, that the doctrine of
+the Angel of the Lord is expressly brought into connection with that of
+Christ. But a knowledge of the divine nature of the Messiah is found at
+a much earlier period; and we can certainly not suppose that the
+doctrine of the Angel of the Lord, and that of a truly divine Saviour,
+should have existed by the side of each other, and yet that manifold
+forebodings regarding their close obvious connection should not have
+been awakened in the mind.
+
+
+Footnote 1: _Seb. Schmid_ says: "I have now come with my heavenly host
+to attack the Canaanites, and to help thee and thy people. Be thou of
+good cheer; prepare thyself for war along with me, and I will now
+explain to thee in what manner thou must carry it on;" vi. 2 ff.
+
+
+
+
+                   THE PROMISE IN 2 SAMUEL, CHAP. VII.
+
+
+The Messianic prophecy, as we have seen, began at a time long anterior
+to that of David. Even in Genesis, we perceived [Pg 131] it, increasing
+more and more in distinctness. There is at first only the general
+promise that the seed of the woman should obtain the victory over the
+kingdom of the evil one;--then, that the salvation should come through
+the descendants of Shem;--then, from among them Abraham is marked
+out,--of his sons, Isaac,--from among his sons, Jacob,--and from among
+the twelve sons of Jacob, Judah is singled out as the bearer of
+dominion, and marked out as the person from whom, at length, should
+proceed the glorious King whose peaceful dominion is destined to extend
+over all the nations of the earth.
+
+Whilst, hitherto, the tribe only had been pointed out, in the midst of
+which an imperishable dominion should be established, and out of which
+the Saviour was at last to come,--under David another feature was added
+by the determination of the _family_. This was done in the prophetic
+announcement which the Lord, by the prophet Nathan, addressed in 2 Sam.
+vii. to David, when he had adopted the resolution of building to the
+Lord a fixed temple, instead of the moveable tabernacle which had
+hitherto been used.
+
+Ver. 1. "_And it happened when the king sat in his house, and the
+Lord had given him rest from all his enemies round about._ Ver. 2.
+_And the king said unto Nathan the prophet, See, now, I dwell in a
+house of cedar, and the ark of God dwelleth within curtains._"
+The question here is:--To what time is the occurrence to be assigned?
+The answer is:--To the time not long after David had obtained the
+dominion over all Israel. To this opinion we are led by the position
+which the report occupies in the Books both of Chronicles and of
+Samuel. The supposition is so very probable, that nothing short of very
+cogent reasons could induce us to abandon it. A narrative, in which
+David's accession to the throne is followed by the conquest of
+Jerusalem, and this by the building of his palace,--and this again by
+the bringing up of the ark of the covenant,--and this, still further,
+by David's anxiety for a fixed sanctuary, evidently agrees with the
+order in which these events followed each other. We can the less
+entertain any doubt concerning it, because we are expressly told, that
+the wars and victories of David reported in chap. viii. were subsequent
+to what is reported in chap. vii.; compare viii. 1. That the conquest
+of Jerusalem and the [Pg 132] building of his palace belong to the
+period soon after his accession to the throne, is both evident, and
+generally acknowledged; but that David's anxiety for a fixed sanctuary
+was awakened in him soon after the completion of his palace, is
+expressly stated in 1 Chron. xvii. 1. Instead of כי ישב in ver. 1 of
+our passage, we find there כאשר ישב, "when," or "as soon as" he dwelt.
+We cannot well think of any later period, as David's zeal for the
+building of the house of the Lord was closely connected with the
+question regarding the duration of his own family, which was so readily
+suggested by the fate of Saul, and which must necessarily have engaged
+his attention at a very early period. If he obtained the divine
+sanction for the building of the temple, that question also was thereby
+answered. _Further_,--It appears from ver. 12, that Solomon was not yet
+born at the time when David received the promise. The circumstance,
+too, that there are so many allusions to it in the Psalms of David,
+proves that this promise had been already given to him at the beginning
+of his reign.--One circumstance only has been adduced against assigning
+to it so early a period, viz., that the event is here placed within the
+time when the Lord had given David rest from all his enemies round
+about. But there is not one word which affirms that this rest was a
+definitive one; while, on the other hand, the contrary is alluded to by
+the circumstance that the Books of Chronicles make no mention at all of
+David's rest from his enemies, and is distinctly indicated by viii. 1.
+In 1 Chron. xiv. 17 it is said, after the account of David's victory
+over the Philistines (on which event the Books of Samuel report
+previous to chap. vii., viz. in v. 17-25): "And the name of David went
+out into all lands, and the Lord gave his fear upon all the heathen."
+This previous result was so much the more important, as the Philistines
+had been, for a long time, the most dangerous enemies of Israel, and
+David himself may have considered it as a definitive one,--may have
+imagined this truce to be a peace,--may not have been aware that he had
+yet to bear the burden of the most trying wars. Looking, then, to the
+passage in Deut. xii. 10, 11--in which the choice of a place where the
+Lord will cause His name to dwell, is connected with the giving of rest
+from all enemies round about--he might think that the present
+circumstance formed a call upon him to erect a sanctuary to [Pg 133]
+the Lord.[1] But the issue (compare viii. 1) soon made it manifest to
+him, that the supposition on which he proceeded was an erroneous one.
+We have a tacit correction of David's mistake in 1 Kings v. 17, 18:
+"Thou knowest how that David my father could not build an house unto
+the name of the Lord his God, for the wars with which they surrounded
+him, until the Lord put them under the soles of his feet. And now the
+Lord my God hath given me rest on every side, and there is neither
+adversary nor evil occurrence." It was only under Solomon that the
+period provided for by Deut. xii. really arrived. (Compare 1 Chron.
+xxii. 19.)
+
+Ver. 3. "_And Nathan said to the king, Go, do all that is in thine
+heart, for the Lord is with thee._ Ver. 4. _And it came to pass that
+night that the word of the Lord came unto Nathan, saying:_ Ver. 5. _Go
+and tell My servant David, Thus saith the Lord, Shalt thou build Me a
+house to dwell in?_"
+
+In ver. 5 the question is stated, the answer to which is the point at
+issue. In ver. 6, the exposition begins with כי, which refers to the
+whole of it, and not merely to the clause which immediately follows.
+Hitherto, the Lord has not had a fixed temple (ver. 6), nor has any
+such been wished for or desired by Him (ver. 7). By the grace of God,
+David has been raised to be ruler over the people (ver. 8), and the
+Lord has helped him gloriously (ver. 9), and, through him, His people
+(ver. 10). This mercy the Lord had already bestowed upon him, that,
+since the beginning of the period of the Judges, it was through him,
+first of all, that the people had obtained rest from all their enemies
+round about; but to this favour the Lord is now adding another, by
+announcing to him that He would make him an house (ver. 11). When David
+dies, his seed shall occupy the throne, and be established in the
+kingdom (ver. 12). It is he who shall build an house for the Lord who
+will establish for ever the throne of his kingdom, vers. 13-16.
+
+David's zeal for the house of the Lord is thus acknowledged (compare
+Ps. cxxxii. 1), and so also is the correctness of his supposition, that
+the building of the fixed temple is intimately [Pg 134] connected with
+his being raised to be ruler over Israel. The first answer of Nathan
+remains correct; it is only more distinctly and closely defined and
+modified. David is to build the house,--not, however, in his own
+person, but in his seed, and after the Lord has begun to fulfil His
+promise, that He would make him an house.
+
+But why was it that David himself was not permitted to build the house
+to the Lord? In this passage we obtain no answer. In Solomon's message
+to Hiram (1 Kings v. 17) an external reason only is stated--viz., that,
+by his numerous wars, David had been prevented from building a house to
+the Lord. There was a deeper reason than this; but the heathen could
+not comprehend it. It is contained in the words which, according to 1
+Chron. xxviii. 3, David spoke to the people: "And God said unto me,
+Thou shalt not build an house for My name, because thou hast been a man
+of war, and hast shed blood;" and in the words of the Lord which,
+according to 1 Chron. xxii. 8, David repeated to Solomon: "Thou hast
+shed blood abundantly, and hast made great wars; thou shalt not build
+an house unto My name, because thou hast shed much blood upon the earth
+in My sight,"--a disclosure which David could have obtained only at a
+later period, and as a supplement to the divine communication which had
+been made to him through Nathan. For it is only after the revelation in
+2 Sam. vii. that David had to carry on his most bloody wars. We must
+not, by any means, entertain the idea that these words express anything
+_blameworthy_ in David, and that the permission to build the temple was
+refused to him on account of his personal unworthiness. David stood in
+a closer relation to God than did Solomon. His wars were wars of the
+Lord, 1 Sam. xxv. 28. It is in this light that David himself regarded
+them; and that he was conscious of his being divinely commissioned for
+them, is seen, _e.g._, from Ps. xviii.: it was the Lord who taught his
+hands to war (ver. 35) and who gave him vengeance, and subdued the
+people unto him, ver. 48. The passages 1 Chron. xxii. 8, xxvii. 3, do
+not, in themselves, contain one reproachful word against David. On the
+contrary, the words, _in My sight_, in the former of these passages,
+rather lead us to suppose that David is, in his wars, to be considered
+only as a servant of the Lord (_Michaelis_: "_In My sight_--_i.e._, who
+am, as it were, the [Pg 135] highest judge, and the commander"). The
+reason is rather of a symbolical character. How necessary soever, under
+certain conditions, war may be for the kingdom of God,--as indeed the
+Saviour also says that (in the first instance) He had not come to send
+peace, but a sword,--it is after all only something accidental, and
+rendered needful by human corruption. The real nature of the kingdom of
+God is peace. Even in the Old Testament, the Lord of the Church appears
+as the Prince of Peace, Is. ix. 5. According to Luke ix. 56, the Son of
+Man is not come to destroy men's lives, but to save them. In order to
+impress upon the mind this view of the nature and aim of the Church,
+the Temple--the symbol of the Church--must not be built by David the
+man of war, but by Solomon, the peaceful, the man of rest, 1 Chron.
+xxii. 9.
+
+Ver. 6. "_For I have not dwelt in any house from the day that I brought
+up the children of Israel out of Egypt even to this day, and have
+walked in a tent and in a tabernacle._ Ver. 7. _In all that I have
+walked among the children of Israel, have I spoken one word with any of
+the tribes of Israel whom I commanded to feed My people Israel, saying.
+Why build ye Me not a house of cedar?_"
+
+According to several interpreters, these words are intended as
+a consolation to David for the delay in building the temple, and
+convey this sense: that God did not require the temple, that the
+building of it was of no consequence,--as sufficiently appears from
+the circumstance of His not having hitherto urged it. But such a view
+would ill agree with the great importance which David continues, even
+afterwards, to ascribe to the building of the temple,--with the grand
+efforts of Solomon towards it,--and with the exulting words which are
+uttered by the latter, in 1 Kings viii. 13, after the work has been
+accomplished: "I have built Thee an house to dwell in, a settled place
+for Thee to abide in for ever." A comparison of 1 Kings viii. 16-20
+furnishes us with a clue to the right interpretation. In that passage,
+the period before David is contrasted with that during which David
+lived. (Compare the עתה, _now_, in ver. 8.) Hitherto, everything in the
+government had borne a provisional character, and, hence, the sanctuary
+also. But now that, after the unsettled state of things under [Pg 136]
+the Judges and Saul, _the definitive government_ has been called into
+existence with David, to whom the Lord will make an house, the
+_definitive sanctuary_ also shall be built,--only, that it shall
+not be founded by David, but by his seed.[2] The words, _I have
+walked_--literally, I have been walking, I have continued walking--_in
+a tent and in a tabernacle_, indicate not only that the Lord dwelt in a
+portable sanctuary, but also, that the place of this sanctuary was
+oftentimes changed, from one station to another in the wilderness, then
+to Gilgal, Shiloh, Nob and Gibeon. This changing of the place of the
+tabernacle is still more distinctly pointed out, in the parallel
+passage in 1 Chron. xvii. 5: "And I have been from tent to tent, from
+tabernacle to tabernacle;" _i.e._, I went from one tent into the other,
+_e.g._, from the dwelling-place of Shiloh into that of Nob,--a mode of
+expression which pays no attention to the circumstance whether or not
+the tent was materially the same. Instead of, "With any of the tribes
+of Israel," we find in 1 Chron. xvii. 6, "With any of the judges of
+Israel,"--a parallel passage which very well explains the main text.
+The tribes come into consideration through their judges, who, in the
+Book of Judges, always appear as judges in Israel, and procured a
+temporary [Pg 137] superiority to the tribe from which they
+proceeded.[3] The שבטי, which has been doubted, is rendered certain by
+1 Kings viii. 16. (Compare, moreover, Ps. lxxviii. 67, 68.)--The reason
+why no such word came to any one of these tribes is, that the
+superiority of none of them was permanent; the election of all of them
+was merely temporary. The continuance of the tent-temple was intended
+to indicate that the state of things was, in general, provisional only,
+and that a new order of things was at hand. The creation of a settled
+sanctuary was to be coincident with the establishment of an abiding
+kingdom, to which the grace of God was vouchsafed. It was an evil omen
+for Saul that the erection of a fixed sanctuary was not even mooted
+under him. The close of Ps. lxxviii. likewise points out the intimate
+connection of the kingdom and the sanctuary.
+
+Ver. 8. "_And now, thus shalt thou say unto David My servant: Thus
+saith the Lord, of hosts, I took thee from the sheep-cote,_[4] _from
+behind the sheep, to be ruler over My people, over Israel._ Ver. 9.
+_And I was with thee whithersoever thou wentest, and have cut off all
+thine enemies from before thee, and have made thee a great name like
+unto the name of the great men that are upon the earth._ Ver. 10. _And
+I gave room unto My people Israel, and planted them, and they dwell in
+their place, and they shall no more be frightened, and the sons of
+wickedness shall afflict them no more as heretofore._"
+
+Seven divine benefits are here enumerated,--one in ver. 8, which forms
+the foundation of all the others, and three in each of the two
+following verses,--in ver. 9, what the Lord has given to David,--in
+ver. 10, what, through him, He has given to Israel. These benefits are
+so many symptoms that a _definitive_ order of things has now taken the
+place of the _provisional_ one, and that, hence, the moveable sanctuary
+will now be soon followed by the settled one. In the first member of
+ver. 10, there is an enumeration of the benefits which the [Pg 138]
+people have already received through David; in the second and third
+members, an enumeration of the benefits to be constantly bestowed upon
+them through him. A commentary upon it is formed by Ps. lxxxix. 22-24,
+in which it is said of David: "With whom My hand shall be continually.
+Mine arm also shall strengthen him. The enemy shall not exact upon him,
+nor the son of wickedness afflict him. And I crush his enemies before
+him, and will smite those who hate him."
+
+Ver. 11. "_And since the day that I commanded judges over My people
+Israel, I have given thee rest from all thine enemies. And the Lord
+telleth thee, that the Lord will make thee an house._"
+
+The first part of this verse comprehends all the benefits formerly
+enumerated;--the second adds another, which, however, is closely
+connected with the previous ones. The circumstance that the Lord first
+gave rest to David, and, in him, to the people, was a sign of his
+election which could not but manifest itself afterwards in the care for
+his house. The promise, "The Lord will make thee an house," was to
+David an answer to prayer, as is shown by Ps. xxi. 3, 5, lxi. 6,
+cxxxviii. 3. Even the thought of building the temple was a question put
+to the Lord, as to whether He would, in harmony with His past conduct,
+give a duration to his house, different from that of the house of Saul.
+
+Ver. 12. "_And when thy days be fulfilled, and thou shalt sleep with
+thy fathers, I shall cause thy seed to rise up after thee which shall
+proceed out of thy bowels, and I will establish his kingdom._"
+
+The הקים does not signify the beginning of existence, but the elevation
+to the royal dignity. זרע, _seed_, denotes the posterity, which,
+however, may consist of one only, or be represented by a single
+individual. In the parallel passage, 1 Chron. xvii. 11, the words run
+thus: "Thy seed which shall be of thy sons," _i.e._, who shall be one
+of thy sons (Luther). The truth of the promise, "I shall establish his
+kingdom," became manifest, _e.g._, in the vain machinations of
+Adonijah. That the fulfilment of this promise must be sought in the
+history of Solomon, in whom the difference between the house of David
+and that of Saul first became evident (instead of, "I establish," in
+ver. 12, we find, in the second member of ver. 13, "I establish for
+ever"), is seen from 1 Kings viii. 20, where Solomon says, "And the
+Lord hath performed His word which [Pg 139] He spake; for I am risen up
+in the room of David my father, and sit on the throne of Israel, as the
+Lord promised." (Compare 1 Kings ii. 12: "And Solomon sat upon the
+throne of David his father, and his kingdom was established greatly.")
+
+Ver. 13. "_He shall build an house for My name, and I establish the
+throne of his kingdom for ever._"
+
+The general establishment which was spoken of in ver. 12 precedes the
+building of the temple; the eternal establishment mentioned in ver. 13
+follows the building of the temple, or is coincident with it. It is
+evident, that the first clause of the verse refers, in the first
+instance, to the building of the temple which was undertaken by
+Solomon. (Compare 1 Kings v. 19, where Solomon says, "Behold, I purpose
+to build an house unto the name of the Lord my God, as the Lord spake
+unto David my father, saying. Thy son whom I will set upon thy throne
+in thy stead, he shall build the house unto My name.") We shall not,
+however, be at liberty to confine ourselves to what Solomon, as an
+individual, did for the house of the Lord. The building of the house
+here goes hand in hand with the eternity of the kingdom. We expect,
+therefore, that the question is not about a building of limited
+duration. If a building of only a limited duration were meant, such,
+surely, might have been erected long ago, even in the period of the
+Judges. The contrary, however, is quite distinctly brought out in 1
+Kings viii. 13, where, at the dedication of the temple, Solomon says,
+"I have built Thee an house to dwell in, a fixed place for Thee to
+abide in _for ever_." If, then, with the eternity of the kingdom of
+David's house the eternity of the temple to be built by him be closely
+bound up, the destruction of the latter can be only _temporary_, and
+the consequence of the apostasy and punishment of the Davidic race,--of
+which vers. 14 and 15 treat. Or, if it be definitive, it can concern
+the _form_ only. If the building of the temple fall into ruins, it is
+only the Davidic race from which its restoration can proceed; the local
+relation of the royal palace to the temple prefigured their close
+union. Hence, the building of the temple by Zerubbabel was likewise
+comprehended in the words, "He shall build an house for My name." It
+was impossible that the second temple could be reared otherwise than
+under the direction of David's family. But we must go still farther.
+The essence of the temple consists in its being a symbol, an outward
+[Pg 140] representation of the kingdom of God under Israel. The real
+import of our passage then is,--that henceforth the kingdom of David
+and the kingdom of God should be closely and inseparably linked
+together. As the third phase, therefore, in the fulfilment of our
+prophecy, John ii. 19 must come under consideration: λύσατε τὸν ναὸν
+τοῦτον, καὶ ἐν τρισὶν ἡμέραις ἐγερῶ αὐτόν. (Regarding the sense of
+this passage, and the symbolical meaning of the tabernacle and temple,
+compare "_Dissertations on the Genuineness of the Pent._" vol. ii. p.
+514 ff.) "House of God" is, in ver. 14 of the parallel text, used of
+the Church, and in parallelism with "kingdom of God,"--a sense in which
+it occurs  as early as in Num. xii. 7.[5] This _usus loquendi_ is quite
+common in the New Testament; compare 1 Tim. iii. 15; 2 Cor. vi. 16;
+Heb. iii. 6. In the first two phases of the temple of Solomon, the
+house consists in the first instance of ordinary stones,--although,
+even at that time,  the _spiritual_ is concealed behind the _material_;
+but in its third phase, the material is altogether thrown off, and the
+house is entirely spiritual--consisting of living stones, 1 Pet. ii.
+5.--That the expression, "for ever," in the second clause of the verse,
+is to be taken in its strict and full sense, is proved not only by the
+threefold repetition, but also by a comparison with the numerous
+secondary passages, in which the duration of the Davidic dominion
+appears as absolutely unlimited. In Ps. lxxxix., for example, where the
+promise is repeated, "for ever" corresponds with, "as the days of
+heaven" in ver. 30,--with "as the sun" in ver. 37,--and with "as the
+moon" in ver. 38. The final fulfilment of this promise is pointed out
+by the words of the angel to Mary, in Luke i. 32, 33: οὗτος ἔσται μέγας
+(compare ver. 9 here), καὶ υἱὸς ὑψίστου κληθήσεται (compare ver. 14),
+καὶ δώσει αὐτῷ κύριος ὁ Θεὸς τὸν θρόνον Δαυὶδ τοῦ πατρὸς αὐτοῦ. Καὶ
+βασιλεύσει ἐπὶ τὸν οἶκον Ἰακὼβ εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας, καὶ τῆς βασιλείας αὐτοῦ
+οὐκ ἔσται τέλος.
+
+Ver. 14. "_And I will be a father to him, and he shall be a son to Me.
+If he commit sin, I will chastise him with the rod of men, and with the
+stripes of the children of men._ Ver. 15. _And My mercy shall not
+depart away from him, as I caused it to depart away from Saul, whom I
+put away before thee._"
+
+[Pg 141]
+
+Wheresoever God is, in the Old Testament, designated as _Father_, there
+is a reference to the deepest intensity of His love,--a love which is
+similar to that of a father towards his son. (Compare remarks on Ps.
+ii. 7.) Sonship to God has this significancy here also, as is shown by
+what immediately follows, where, in explanation of it, the promise of
+indestructible love is connected with it. But this relationship, in its
+highest and closest form, cannot exist betwixt God and a mere man. It
+is only when the Davidic family is viewed as centring in Christ, that
+the words can acquire their full truth. To this, the quotation in Heb.
+i. 5 points: Τίνι γὰρ εἶπέ ποτε τῶν ἀγγέλων, Υἱός μου εἶ σὺ, ἐγὼ
+σήμερον γεγέννηκά σε; Καὶ πάλιν· Ἐγὼ ἔσομαι αὐτῷ εἰς πατέρα, καὶ αὐτὸς
+ἔσται μοι εἰς υἱόν; The depth of meaning which is contained in these
+words appears plainly from their expansion in Ps. lxxxix. 26: "And I
+place his hand on the sea, and his right hand on the rivers. He shall
+call Me thus: Thou art my Father, my God, and the rock of my salvation.
+And I will also make him My first-born, the highest of the kings of the
+earth." The sonship accordingly implies the dominion over the world,
+which in Ps. ii. 7-9 appears, indeed, as inseparably connected with
+it.--If the race of David commit sin, it shall be chastened with the
+rods of men, and with the stripes of the children of men. Ps. xvii. 4
+distinctly and unambiguously designates corrupt actions--walking in the
+ways of transgressors--as "the works of men." (Compare 1 Sam. xxiv. 10;
+Hos. vi. 7; Job xxxi. 33, xxiii. 12.) Hence, the rods of men, and the
+stripes of the children of men, are punishments to which all men are
+subject, because they are sinners, and at which no man needs to be
+surprised. Grace is not to free the Davidic family from this common lot
+of mankind, is not to afford to them the privilege of sinning. The
+mitigation only follows in ver. 15, in which the close resumes the
+beginning: "I will be a father to him." But this mitigation must not be
+misunderstood by being conceived of as referring to the individuals.
+Such a conception of it would be opposed to the nature of the thing
+itself, would be in opposition to 1 Chron. xxviii. 9, where David says
+to Solomon, "If thou seek Him, He will be found of thee; and if thou
+forsake Him, He will cast thee off _for ever_:" and would be against
+history, which shows that the rebellious members of the Davidic dynasty
+were visited with destroying [Pg 142] judgments. The contrast is rather
+thus to be understood: sin is to be visited upon the individuals, while
+the grace abides continually upon the race,--so that the divine promise
+is raised to an absolute one. The commentary on it is furnished by Ps.
+lxxxix. 31 seq.: "If his children forsake My law, and walk not in My
+judgments ... then I will visit their transgression with the rod, and
+their iniquity with stripes. But My loving-kindness will I not withdraw
+from him, nor will I break My faithfulness."--The words from "if he
+commit sin" to "children of men" are awanting in the parallel passage.
+This omission is intended to make the continuance of the mercy appear
+the more distinctly, and to show, as indeed is the case, that the main
+stress is to be laid upon it. We cannot for a moment conceive that any
+unworthy motive prompted this omission; for the Chronicles were written
+at a time when the chastening rod of the Lord had already fallen
+heavily upon the Davidic race. There would have been stronger reasons
+for adding the words than for omitting them, inasmuch as, under these
+circumstances, they were full of consolation. It is just upon these
+words that the penman of Ps. lxxiv. dwells at particular length.
+
+Ver. 16. "_And thine house and thy kingdom shall be sure for ever
+before thee, thy throne shall be firm for ever._"
+
+The extent to which this prophecy of Nathan bears the character of a
+fundamental one, appears from the circumstance that almost every word
+of the verse under review has called forth an echo in later times. נאמן
+_sure_, _certain_, _constant_, occurs again in Ps. lxxxix. 29, compared
+with ver. 38, and in Is. lv. 3. The _sure_ (_constant_) mercies of
+David, spoken of in the last of these passages, shall be bestowed upon
+the people of the covenant, in the coming of Christ, by which the
+perpetuity of the house of David was most fully manifested. The נכון,
+_constant_, _firm_, occurs in Mic. iv. 1, and the לעולם, _for ever_, in
+Ps. lxxii. 17, lxxxix. 37, xlv. 7, and cx. 4. The saying of the people
+in John xii. 34, ἡμεῖς ἠκούσαμεν ἐκ τοῦ νόμου ὅτι ὁ Χριστὸς μένει εἰς
+τὸν αἰῶνα, refers, in the first instance, to our passage, and all the
+other texts quoted may be considered as a commentary.
+
+It is certainly not the result of mere accident, that the twelve verses
+of Nathan's prophecy are divided into two sections of seven and of five
+verses respectively, and that the former again is subdivided into
+sections of three and four verses. Its closing [Pg 143] words, "The
+Lord will make thee an house," are farther expanded in vers. 12-16.
+
+We subjoin to the exposition of Nathan's prophecy, that of David's
+prayer of thanks, because, by means of the thanks, the promise itself
+is more clearly brought out.
+
+The Lord has done great things for His servant in his low estate, and
+has promised things still more glorious, vers. 18-21. By doing such
+glorious things to His servant, He has manifested Himself as a faithful
+God, in harmony with His revelations in ancient times, vers. 22-24. The
+thanksgivings for the promise are followed in vers. 25-29 by a prayer
+for its fulfilment, intermingled with expressions of hope.
+
+As the promise was expressed in twelve verses, so are the thanks. These
+twelve verses are again divided into seven and five, and the seven into
+four and three.
+
+The name of Jehovah occurs twelve times. Ten times is the address
+directed to Jehovah. Once He is addressed by the simple name of
+Jehovah, six times by that of Adonai Jehovah, twice by that of Jehovah
+Elohim, and once by that of Jehovah Zebaoth. The address, Adonai
+Jehovah, occurs at the beginning and the close. The third division
+first takes up the name of God which is used in the second, and
+returns, at the close, to that which is used in the first division. In
+the parallel passage in Chronicles, Jehovah occurs seven times, and
+Elohim three times.--Ten times the servant of the Lord is mentioned in
+David's prayer, and seven times, the house of David. The servant of the
+Lord occurs three times in vers. 18-21, and seven times in vers. 25-29;
+the house of David twice in 18-21, and five times in vers. 25-29. In
+vers. 22-24, where the manifestation of the mercies to David are
+brought into connection with the glorious revelations of God in ancient
+times, neither the servant nor the house is mentioned.
+
+Ver. 18. "_And King David came and sat before the Lord, and said: Who
+am I, Lord Jehovah, and what my house_ (literally, _who_ my house,--the
+house being conceived of as an _ideal_ person), _that Thou hast brought
+me hitherto?_"
+
+Moses also was sitting in long-continued prayer, Exod. xvii. 12. David,
+as a true descendant of Jacob (Gen. xxxii. 10), acknowledges his
+unworthiness of the great mercies bestowed upon him. The comparison of
+Ps. cxliv. 3 is still more striking [Pg 144] than that of Ps. viii. 5;
+for, in the former, the words, "Lord, what is man, that Thou takest
+knowledge of him; the son of mortal man, that Thou hast regard to him?"
+were uttered in praise of the adorable mercy which the Lord had shown
+to his house.
+
+Ver. 19. "_And this is yet too little in Thy sight, Lord Jehovah; and
+Thou speakest also to the house of Thy servant of things far distant;
+and this is the law of man, Lord Jehovah._"
+
+The word תורה has only the signification of _law_. Gesenius, in
+assigning to it the signification of _mos_, _consuetudo_, has no other
+warrant for it than our passage. The law of any one is the law which
+has been given for him, or which concerns him; compare Lev. vi. 2 (9):
+"This is the law of the burnt-offering;" Lev. xiii. 7: "This is the law
+for her that hath born;" Lev. xiv. 2: "This shall be the law of the
+leper," etc. Hence the law of man can only be the law regulating the
+conduct of man. Man is commanded in the law: "Thou shalt love thy
+neighbour as thyself;" compare Mic. vi. 8: "He hath showed, O man, what
+is good; and what doth the Lord require of thee but to do justice, and
+to _love kindness_, and to walk humbly before thy God?" The fact that
+God should, in His conduct towards poor mortals, follow the rule which
+He hath given to men for their conduct towards one another, and that He
+shows Himself to be full of mercy and love, cannot but fill him who
+knows God and himself with adoring wonder. The words in Ps. xviii. 36
+are parallel: "Thou givest me the shield of Thy salvation, and Thy
+right hand holdeth me up, and Thy meekness (the parallel passage in 2
+Sam. has: 'Thy being low') maketh me great." In the parallel passage in
+Chronicles the words are these: "And Thou hast regarded me according to
+the law of man (concerning תורה = תור compare remarks on Song of Sol.
+i. 10), Thou height, Jehovah God." The essential agreement of the sense
+of the parallel passage with that of the fundamental passage, may be
+applied as a test to prove the correctness of our exposition. "To
+regard some one" is used for "to visit some one," "to have intercourse
+with some one;" compare 2 Sam. iii. 13, xiii. 5, xiv. 24, 28; 2 Kings
+viii. 29. The words, "Thou height" (God is represented as personified
+height in Ps. xcii. 9: "And Thou art a height for evermore, O Lord"),
+bring out still more prominently the contrast with human lowness, which
+was already implied in the names of [Pg 145] God, Adonai Jehovah, and
+Jehovah Elohim, and serves therefore to show still more distinctly the
+condescension of God, whose revelation on this occasion was a prelude
+to ὁ λόγος σὰρξ ἐγένετο. _Luther_ has introduced into the main text a
+direct allusion to the incarnation of God in Christ. He translates,
+"This is the manner of a man who is God the Lord;" and adds, in a
+marginal note, the following remark: "This means, Thou speakest to me
+of such an eternal kingdom, in which no one can be king unless he be
+God and man at the same time, because he is to be my son and yet a king
+for evermore--which belongs to God alone." But this single circumstance
+is sufficient to overthrow this view:--that in the preceding, as well
+as in the subsequent context, Adonai Jehovah is always used in the
+vocative sense.
+
+Ver. 20. "_And what shall David say more unto Thee?_ (In the parallel
+passage: 'As regards the honour for Thy servant.') _And Thou knowest
+Thy servant, Lord Jehovah._"
+
+It is not necessary that David should make many words, in order to
+express his thanks, as his thankful heart lies open before God. In
+Ps. xl. 10, David also appeals to the testimony of the Omniscient
+as regards his thankful heart: "I preach righteousness in the
+great congregation; lo, I will not refrain my lips, O Lord, Thou
+knowest,"--knowest how with my whole heart I am thankful for Thy great
+mercy. It is, in general, David's practice to appeal to God, the
+Searcher of hearts; compare, _e.g._, Ps. xvii. 3.
+
+
+Ver. 21. "_For Thy word's sake, and according to Thine own heart, hast
+Thou done all these great things to make Thy servant know them._"
+
+In 1 Chron. xvii. 19, the words run thus: "Lord, on account of Thy
+_servant_, and according to Thine own heart, hast Thou done all these
+great things, to make known all the glorious things." Hence, by the
+"word," a promise given to David can alone be intended,--a word
+formerly spoken to David, which contained the germ of the present one.
+There is, no doubt, a special allusion to the word in 1 Sam. xvi. 12:
+"And the Lord said. Arise and anoint him, for this is he." (Compare 2
+Sam. xii. 7; Ps. lxxxix. 21; Acts xiii. 22.) _According to Thine
+heart_: "The Lord is merciful and gracious, slow to anger and [Pg 146]
+plenteous in mercy," Ps. ciii. 8. _All these great things_,--_i.e._ the
+promise of the eternal dominion of his house. גְּדֻלָּה and גְּדיּלָה--words in
+which David takes special delight--never mean "greatness," but always
+"great things." (Compare remarks on Ps. lxxi. 21, cxlv. 3.) The words,
+"To make know," etc., indicate that the _making_ refers, in the
+meantime, only to the divine decree.
+
+Ver. 22. "_Wherefore Thou art great, Lord God: for there is none like
+Thee, neither is there any God besides Thee, according to all that we
+have heard with our ears._"
+
+_Wherefore_--in the first instance, on account of the great things
+which Thou hast done unto me. _According to all_, etc., _i.e._, as this
+is confirmed by all, etc. Of this David has been reminded anew by his
+personal experience. Just as he does here, David, in Ps. xl. 6, rises
+from his personal experience to the whole series of God's glorious
+manifestations in the history of His people. As to the words, "There is
+none like Thee, neither is there any God besides Thee," compare the
+fundamental passages Exod. xv. 11; Deut. iii. 24, iv. 35.
+
+Ver. 23. "_And where is there a nation on earth like Thy people
+Israel, for whose sake God went to redeem them for a people to
+Himself, and make Him a name, and to do for you great things, and
+terrible things for Thy land, putting away from before Thy people,
+whom Thou redeemedst to Thee out of Egypt, heathen and their gods?_"
+We must here compare the fundamental passages, Deut. iv. 7, 34, xxxiii.
+29, in which that which Israel has received from his God is praised,
+as being without precedent and parallel. In לכם and לארצך the address
+is, with poetical liveliness, directed to Israel. _For you great
+things_--instead of, To do for them great things, as the Lord has done
+for you. The phrase מפני עמך means, literally, only, "away from before
+Thy people;" "putting" must be supplied from the preceding לעשית, and
+from a comparison of the fundamental passages, Exod. xxiii. 28, 29,
+xxxiv. 11; Deut. xxxiii. 27, to which the concise expression refers.
+The text in Chronicles, which expressly adds what we have here to
+supply, לגרש מפני, "to drive out before," is, in this case also, merely
+a parallel passage which, by the addition of a word, serves as a
+commentary.
+
+Ver. 24. "_And Thou hast confirmed to Thyself Thy people_ [Pg 147]
+_Israel to be a people for ever, and Thou, Lord, art become their
+God._"
+
+Ver. 25. "_And now, Jehovah God, the word that Thou hast spoken
+concerning Thy servant, and concerning his house, establish it for
+ever, and do as Thou hast said._"
+
+Praise and thanks for the promise are followed by the prayer for its
+fulfilment.
+
+Ver. 26. "_And let Thy name be magnified for ever, so that it may be
+said, Jehovah Zebaoth_ (is) _God over Israel. And the house of Thy
+servant shall be firm before Thee._"
+
+_Let Thy name be magnified_, instead of, Give cause for its being
+glorified; compare Ps. xxxv. 27, xl. 17.--_Is God over Israel_, _i.e._,
+proves Himself to be such, by protecting the house of the king, on whom
+the salvation of Israel depends. In Chronicles it is thus expressed:
+"Jehovah Zebaoth, the God of Israel, is God for Israel," _i.e._. He
+fulfils to Israel what He promised (Jarchi). The prayer for the
+establishment of David's house is expressed in the form of confidence,
+in the conviction based upon the word of God, that such is according to
+the will of God.
+
+Ver. 27. "_For Thou, Jehovah Zebaoth, God of Israel, hast opened the
+ear of Thy servant, saying, I will build thee an house. Therefore Thy
+servant found_ (in) _his heart to pray this prayer unto Thee._"
+(Otherwise, his heart would have failed him; he would have had neither
+the desire nor the courage.) Ver. 28. "_And now, Lord Jehovah, Thou art
+God, and Thy words are truth, and Thou hast promised unto Thy servant
+these good things._ Ver. 29. _And now let it please Thee to bless the
+house of Thy servant, that it may continue for ever before Thee; for
+Thou, Lord Jehovah, hast spoken, and, by Thy blessing, the house of Thy
+servant shall be blessed for ever._"
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+To whom does this promise refer, which David received through Nathan?
+Some Rabbins, and _Grotius_, would fain restrict it to Solomon and his
+more immediate posterity. This opinion, however, is refuted by the
+single circumstance, that they are compelled to assume merely a long
+duration of time, instead of the eternity which is here promised to the
+house of David. And that such cannot be the meaning of the words "for
+ever," is abundantly confirmed by a comparison with [Pg 148] Ps.
+lxxxix. 30, "And I place his seed for ever, and his throne as the days
+of heaven." In these words of the Psalm there is a reference to Deut.
+xi. 21, where the _people_ of the Lord are promised a duration "as the
+days of heaven and of earth." An absolute perpetuity is everywhere
+ascribed to the people of God. If, then, the house of David is placed
+on the same level as they, its perpetuity must likewise be absolute.
+_Further_,--with such a view, it is impossible to comprehend what David
+here says in his prayer, regarding the greatness of the promise, and
+also what he says in Ps. cxxxviii. 2: "For Thou hast magnified Thy word
+above all Thy name." The giving of the promise is there placed on a
+loftier elevation than all the former deeds of the Lord.
+
+Others--as _Calovius_--would refer the promise to Christ alone. But
+vers. 14, 15 are decisive against this view; for, according to them,
+God will not, by a total rejection, punish the posterity of David, if
+they commit sin,--from which the reference is evident to a posterity
+merely human, and hence sinful. According to ver. 13, David's posterity
+is to build a temple to the Lord,--a declaration which, with reference
+to David's plan of building a temple to the Lord, can, in the first
+instance, be understood in no other way than as relating to the earthly
+temple to be built by Solomon. To this consideration it may be added,
+that, in 1 Chron. xxii. 9 seqq., David himself refers this announcement
+primarily to Solomon, and that Solomon, in 1 Kings v. 5 seqq., and in 2
+Chron. vi. 7 seqq., refers it to himself.
+
+Nor is there entire soundness in the view of those who, following
+_Augustine_ (_de Civitate Dei_ xvii. 8, 9), assume the existence of a
+double reference,--to Solomon and his earthly successors on the one
+hand, and to Christ on the other. Thus _Brentius_: "Solomon is not
+altogether excluded, but Christ is chiefly intended." It is true that
+these interpreters are substantially right in their view; but they err
+as to the manner in which they give expression to it. The promise has
+not a reference to two subjects simultaneously.[6] It views David's
+house as an _ideal_ unity.
+
+[Pg 149]
+
+The promise is given to the house of David, vers. 11, 16, 19, 25,
+26, 27, 29; to his seed, ver. 12. It is to the house of David that
+the absolute perpetuity of existence, the unchangeable possession of
+the grace of God--a relation to God similar to that of a son to his
+father--and the inseparable connection of their dominion with the
+kingdom of God in Israel, are guaranteed.
+
+
+Footnote 1: _Seb. Schmid_ says: "He thought that this duty was imposed
+upon him by the Word of God. For, as the state enjoyed peace, the royal
+palace was finished, and his family established, there seemed to be
+nothing wanting but to build a temple to the Lord."
+
+Footnote 2: In 1 Kings viii. 16, Solomon thus reports what, in 2 Sam.
+vii., had been spoken to David, in reference to the house of the Lord:
+"Since the day that I brought up My people Israel out of Egypt, I chose
+no city out of all the tribes of Israel to build an house that My name
+might be in it; and I chose David to be over My people Israel." The
+comment on this passage is given by the parallel one, 2 Chron. vi. 5,
+6: "I did not choose any man to be a ruler over My people Israel. And I
+have chosen Jerusalem that My name might be there, and I have chosen
+David to be over My people Israel." Since David resided in Jerusalem,
+the election of David, announced in 2 Sam. vii., implies also the
+choice of Jerusalem as the place of the sanctuary. Hence, we must add
+to 1 Kings viii. 16, the supplement: "And in connection with this
+choice, David (the Davidic dynasty) is to build Me an house at the
+place of his residence." The Vulgate translates very correctly: _Sed
+elegi._ Solomon then continues, _Ver._ 17: "And it was in the heart of
+David my father (namely, before he received this divine revelation) to
+build an house for the name of the Lord, the God of Israel. _Ver._ 18.
+And the Lord said unto David my father, Whereas it was in thine heart
+to build an house unto My name, thou didst well that it was in thine
+heart. _Ver._ 19. And thou shalt not build the house; but thy son that
+shall come forth out of thy loins, he shall build the house unto My
+name."
+
+Footnote 3: _Seb. Schmid_ says: "He rightly considers the tribes and
+the judges as one. For the tribes are viewed in the judges who had
+sprung from them, and _vice versa_, the judge, in his paternal tribe.
+And that the matter is thus to be understood, is clear, because, in
+Chronicles, where the judge is spoken of, he is introduced in the
+plural: 'Why have _ye_ not built Me an house,' etc.? viz., thou, judge,
+with thy tribe."
+
+Footnote 4: That נוה, properly "habitation," "abode," is used here, as
+frequently, of the sheep-cote, is shown by Ps. lxxxviii. 70, which is
+based upon our passage.
+
+Footnote 5: Michaelis says: "Just as in the preceding verses also, the
+house of David did not mean a heap of stones and wood brought together,
+but a congregation of people."
+
+Footnote 6: This mistake was corrected by _Seb. Schmid_. He says: "The
+promises here given to David have, of course, a reference to Solomon;
+but not such as if they were to be fulfilled only in the person of
+Solomon, and not also in his posterity, and, most of all, in the
+Messiah to be descended from David and Solomon."
+
+
+
+There is no direct mention of the person of the Messiah; and yet the
+words, when considered in their full import, point, indirectly, to Him.
+The absolute perpetuity of the race can be conceived of, only when at
+last it centres in some superhuman person. But still more decisive is
+the connection in which this promise stands to Gen. xlix. The dominion
+which is there promised to Judah is here transferred to David. It is
+then to David's race that the exalted individual must belong, in whom,
+according to Gen. xlix. 10, Judah's dominion is to centre at some
+future period. That David really connected the promise which he
+received with Gen. xlix. 10, is shown by 1 Chron. xxviii. 4 (compare p.
+91), and also by the name, Solomon, which he gave to his son; compare
+ibid. That Solomon also founded his hopes regarding the future upon a
+combination of Gen. xlix. and 2 Sam. vii., is shown by Ps. lxxii.,
+which was composed by him; compare pp. 91, 92.
+
+But, as respects this combination, David was not left to himself.
+He received further light from the source from which the promise
+had come to him. Although his mission was not properly a prophetic
+one,--although, in the main, it belonged to him to describe poetically
+what had come to him through prophetic inspiration, yet prophetic
+inspiration and sacred lyric are frequently commingled in him. The man
+who is "the sweet psalmist of Israel" claims a נאם in 2 Sam. xxiii. 1,
+and, in ver. 2, says that the Spirit of God spake by him, and His word
+was upon his tongue. In Acts ii. 30, 31, Peter declares that, by the
+divine promise, David received, first the impulse, and afterwards
+further illumination, by the prophetic spirit dwelling in him. The
+latter declaration, moreover, rests on the testimony of the Lord
+Himself, in Matt. xxii. 43, where He says that in Ps. cx., David had
+spoken ἐν πνεύματι, _i.e._, seized with the Holy Spirit.
+
+It is true that, in a series of Psalms, David is not any more [Pg 150]
+explicit and definite than the fundamental prophecy, but speaks only of
+the grace which the Lord had conferred upon the Davidic race by the
+promise of a dominion which should outlast all earthly things. Thus it
+is in Ps. xviii., where, in the presence of the congregation, he offers
+those thanks which previously he had, as it were, privately expressed,
+for the glorious promise made to him;--in Ps. xi., where, in the name
+of the people, he expresses thankful joy for this same promise;--in
+Ps. lxi. and in the cycle of Psalms from Ps. cxxxviii. to cxlv.--the
+prophetic legacy of David--in which, at the beginning, in Ps.
+cxxxviii., he praises the Lord for His promise of eternal mercy given
+to him, and then, with the torch of promise, lightens up the darkness
+of the sufferings that are to fall upon this house,--Psalms with which
+Ps. lxxxix. and cxxxix., which were composed at a later period, and by
+other writers, are closely connected.
+
+But there are other Psalms (ii. and cx.) in which David, with a
+distinctness which can be accounted for only by divine revelation,
+beholds the Messiah in whose coming the promise in 2 Sam. vii. should
+find its final and complete fulfilment. Whilst David, in these Psalms,
+represents the Messiah as his antitype, as the mighty conqueror, who
+will not rest until He shall have subjected the whole earth to His
+sway, Solomon, in Ps. lxxii., represents Him as the true Prince of
+Peace, and His dominion, as a just and peaceful rule. The circumstances
+of the time of Solomon form, in a similar way, the foundation for the
+description of the Messiah in Ps. xlv., which was written by the sons
+of Korah.
+
+A personal Messianic element is contained in some of those Davidic
+Psalms also which refer to the _ideal_ person of the _righteous one_,
+whose image we at last find fully portrayed in the Book of Wisdom. In
+these the sufferings of the righteous one in a world of sin are
+described, as well as the glorious issue to which he attains by the
+help of the Lord. After his own experience, David could not have
+doubted that, notwithstanding the glorious promise of the Lord, severe
+sufferings were impending over his family, and over Him in whom that
+family was, at some future time, to centre. But his own experience
+likewise promised a glorious issue to these sufferings. The Psalms in
+which, besides the reference to the righteous one, and to the [Pg 151]
+people, the allusion to the afflictions of the Davidic race, and to the
+suffering Messiah, most plainly appear, are the xxii., the cii., and
+the cix.
+
+There cannot be any doubt that the Messianic promise made considerable
+progress in the time of David. It is, in itself, a circumstance of
+great importance that the eyes of the people were henceforth directed
+to a definite family; for, thereby, their hopes acquired greater
+consistency. _Further_,--The former prophecies were, all of them, much
+shorter, and more in the shape of hints; but, now, their hopes could
+become detailed descriptions, because a _substratum_ was given to them
+in the present. The Messiah had been foretold to David as a successor
+to his throne,--as a King. Hence it was, that, in the view of David
+himself and of the other psalmists, the earthly head of the
+Congregation of the Lord formed the _substratum_ for the future
+Saviour. The naked thought now clothed itself with flesh and blood. The
+hope gained thereby in clearness and distinctness, as well as in
+practical significance.
+
+The slight hint of a higher nature of the Messiah, given in Gen. xlix.
+8, forms the main ground for the advancing and more definite knowledge,
+which we find in the days of David and Solomon. Grand and lofty
+expectations could, henceforth, not fail to be connected with the
+promise in 2 Sam. vii. 14, "I will be a father to him, and he shall be
+a son to Me," and with the prophecy of the absolute perpetuity of
+dominion, in the same passage. In Ps. ii. 12, the Messiah appears as
+the Son of God κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν,--as He, in whom to trust is to be saved,
+and whose anger brings destruction. In Ps. cx. 1, He appears as the
+Lord of the Congregation and of David himself,--as sitting at the right
+hand of omnipotence, and as invested with a full participation in the
+divine power over heaven and earth. In Ps. lxxi. eternity of dominion
+is ascribed to Him. In Ps. xlv. 7, 8, He is called God, Elohim.
+
+Among the offices of Christ, it is especially the _Regal_ office on
+which a clear light has been shed. The Messiah appears prominently as
+He "who has dominion from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends
+of the earth," Ps. lxxii. 8. In Ps. cx., however, the office of the
+Messiah as the eternal _High Priest_ is first revealed to the
+congregation. He appears as the person who atones for whatever sins
+cleave to His people, as their Intercessor [Pg 152] and Advocate with
+God, and as the Mediator of the closest communion with God. We have
+here the outlines, for the filling up of which Isaiah was, at a later
+period, called. The _Prophetic_ office of the Saviour does not
+distinctly appear in the Psalms. It was reserved for Isaiah to bring
+out into a clearer light the allusion given, on this subject, by Moses,
+after it had been taken up again, for the first time since Moses' day,
+by the prophet Joel.
+
+It was quite natural that David, who himself was exercised and proved
+by the cross, should be the first to introduce to the knowledge of the
+Church a _suffering Messiah_. But the doctrine has with him still the
+character of a germ; he still mixes up the references to the Messiah
+with the allusions to His types. It was from these that David rose to
+Him; it was from their destiny that David, by the Holy Spirit, inferred
+what would befall Him. Nowhere, however, has David directly and
+exclusively to do with a suffering Messiah, as had, afterwards, the
+prophet Isaiah.
+
+In all that respects the Psalms, we must content ourselves with merely
+a passing glance, lest we encroach too much upon the territory which
+belongs to the Commentary on the Psalms. But "the last words of David,"
+preserved to us in the Books of Samuel, we shall make the subject of a
+more minute consideration, inasmuch as they form a connecting link
+between the two classes of Psalms which rest on the promise in 2
+Sam. vii., viz., those referring to David's house and family, and
+those relating to the personal Messiah. The "ruler among men" whom we
+meet in these "last words," is, in the first instance, an _ideal_
+person,--viz., the Davidic race conceived of as a person; but the
+_ideal_ points to the _real_ person, in whom all that had been foretold
+of the Davidic family should, at some future period, find its full
+realization. It is with a view to this person, that the personification
+has been employed.
+
+
+
+
+                          2 SAMUEL XXIII. 1-7.
+
+
+The last words of David are comprehended in seven verses; and these,
+again, are subdivided into sections of five and two [Pg 153] verses
+respectively. First, there is a description of the fulness of blessings
+which the dominion of the just ruler shall carry along with it, and
+then of the destruction which shall overtake hostile wickedness.
+
+It is not by accident that these last words are not found in the
+collection of Psalms. The reason is indicated by the נאם There is a
+prophetic element in the lyric poetry of David wheresoever it refers to
+the future destiny of his house; but this prophetic element rises,
+here, at the close of his life, to pure prophetic inspiration and
+utterance, which stand on an equal footing with the prophecy of Nathan
+in 2 Sam. vii., and claim an equal authority.
+
+Ver. 1. "_And these are the last words of David. David, the son of
+Jesse, prophesies, and the man prophesies who was raised up on high,
+the anointed of the God of Jacob, and sweet in the Psalms of Israel._"
+
+It is substantially the same thing, whether we understand: "the last
+words of David" or "the latter words of David"--later in reference to
+xxi. 1. For even Ps. xviii., which precedes in chap. xxii., belongs,
+according to its inscription and contents, to the last times of David;
+it is, as it were, "a grand Hallelujah with which he withdraws from the
+scene of life." But, at all events, there is a closer connection with
+that Psalm; in it, too, David has in view the future destiny of his
+race, and we have here, in the last words, the prophetic conclusion of
+the lyrical effusion there. From this connection with chap. xxii., the
+closer limitation of the "words" follows. We learn from it that _holy_
+words only can be meant. The solemn introduction, and the parallelism
+with the blessings of Jacob and Moses, fully agree with and confirm
+this our introductory remark regarding the chronological position of
+these "words."--There can be no doubt that, in this introduction, there
+is a reference to Balaam's prophecy in Num. xxiv. 3,--and this goes far
+to prove how much David was occupied with the views which men of God
+had formerly opened up into future times:--"And he took up his parable
+and said: Balaam the son of Beor prophesies, and the man who had his
+eyes shut, prophesies: He prophesies who hears the words of God, who
+sees the vision of the Almighty, falling down and having his eyes
+open." The remarks which we made on that passage find here also a
+strict application: [Pg 154] "Balaam begins with a simple designation
+of his person, and then, in the following members, adds designations of
+such qualities of this person as here come into consideration, and
+serve for affording a foundation to the נאם with which he opens his
+discourse." As נאם always has the signification, "word of God,"
+"revelation," it can here be ascribed to David, as it was in the
+fundamental passage to Balaam, only in as far as the word has been
+received by, and communicated to, him. The על, "upon," "over," stands
+here for "on high,"[1]--those over whom David has been raised up being
+omitted in order to express the absolute sovereignty bestowed upon
+David, more, however, in his posterity, than in his own person.
+(Compare Ps. xviii. 44: "Thou makest me the head of the heathen;" and
+in ver. 48: "God who avengeth me, and subdueth people under me.") _He
+who was raised up on high_--With the exception of the bodily ancestor
+and the lawgiver, of none under the Old Testament could this be with so
+much truth affirmed, as of David, the founder of the royal house,
+which, in all eternity, was to be the channel of blessings for the
+Congregation of the Lord, and to which, at last, all power in heaven
+and on earth was to be given. _The anointed of the God of Jacob_--Such
+is David, not only as an individual, but also as the representative of
+his race; compare Ps. xviii. 51. He is pre-eminently the anointed, the
+Christ of God.--זמיר plur. זמירית signifies, according to derivation
+and usage, not _song_ or _hymn_ in general, but the hymn in the higher
+strain, the skilful, solemn song of praise; compare my commentary on
+Song of Sol. ii. 12. David's Psalms are called זמירות of Israel,
+because he sang them as the organ of the congregation, and because they
+were appointed to be used in public worship; compare Comment, on
+Psalms, vol. iii. p. vi. _Sweet in Psalms of Israel_ here finds its
+place only on the supposition that David, in his Psalms, spoke in the
+Spirit, Matt. xxii. 41-46; compare Commentary on Psalms, vol. iii. p.
+vii. viii. The most distinguished excellence in poetry which is [Pg
+155] merely human cannot form a foundation for the assertion in ver. 2.
+But if, on the other hand, David be an often times tried organ of the
+Spirit for the Church, it cannot surprise us that in ver. 2 he even
+declares that, in the Spirit, he there foretells the future. Thus the
+נאם in our verse also has a good foundation.
+
+Ver. 2. "_The Spirit of the Lord spake to me, and His word is upon my
+tongue._" That דבר refers to the communication which David promulgates
+in the sequel, and not to other revelations which he had formerly
+received, appears from its relation to the נאם in ver. 1. We should
+lose the new revelation announced in ver. 1, if ver. 2, and, hence,
+ver. 3 also--for the אמר there evidently resumes the דבר--refer to
+divine revelations which David, or, as _Thenius_ supposes, even some
+other person, had formerly received.--בי is not "through me," for in
+that case the Participle would have been used instead of the Preterite;
+nor "in me," for that is contradicted by the parallel passages in which
+דבר occurs with ב; but "into me," which is stronger than "to me," and
+marks the deeply penetrating power of the revelation by the Spirit;
+compare remarks on Hosea i. 2. Such being the case, the Preterite is
+quite in its proper place; for the inward revelation, the נאם יהוה
+precedes the communication--the נאם דוד. (On the whole verse, 1 Pet. i.
+11, 2 Pet.  i. 21, are to be compared.)
+
+Ver. 3. "_The God of Israel said, the Rock of Israel spake to me: a
+Ruler over men--just; a Ruler--fear of God._"
+
+The omission of the verb, "will be or rise," is quite suited to the
+concise and abrupt style of the divine word. The mention of God, the
+Rock of Israel, shows that the revelation has a reference to what is
+done for the good of the people of God,--of His Church. For her good,
+the glorious Ruler shall be raised. (Compare the words, ἀντελάβετο
+Ἰσραὴλ παιδὸς αὑτοῦ, in Luke i. 54, as also ver. 68, and ii. 32.) The
+appellation. Rock of Israel, indicates God's immutability,
+trustworthiness, and inviolable faithfulness; compare my comment, on
+Psalm xviii. 3, 32-47. The connection betwixt Ps. xviii. and the "last
+words of David" here also clearly appears. The fundamental passage is
+Deut. xxxii. 4.--That _men_ must be conceived of as the subjects of
+dominion, is proved by Ps. xviii. 44, where David is made the head of
+nations, and people whom he has not known [Pg 156] serve him,--and by
+ver. 45, where the sons of the stranger do homage to him,--and by ver.
+48: "Who subdues people under me."--_A Ruler_--_fear_ of God, _i.e._, a
+Ruler who shall, as it were, be fear of God itself--personified fear of
+God. We must here compare the expression, "This man is the peace," Mic.
+v. 4, and, as to the substance of the expression. Is. xi. 2, "And the
+Spirit of the Lord rests upon him ... the spirit of knowledge and of
+the fear of the Lord." We might be disposed to refer this exclusively
+to the person of the Messiah, especially when those Psalms are compared
+which refer to a personal Messiah. But Ps. xviii.--which here receives,
+as it were, its prophetic seal--and especially the relation of ver. 3
+and 4 to ver. 5, where David speaks of his house, prove that the Ruler
+here is, primarily, only an ideal person, viz., the seed of David
+spoken of in Ps. xviii. 51. Things so glorious can, however, be
+ascribed to it only with a reference to the august personage in whom
+that seed will centre at the end of days,--the righteous Branch, whom
+the Lord will raise up unto David (Jer. xxiii. 5), who executeth
+judgment and righteousness on earth, Jer. xxxiii. 15. David knew too
+well what human nature is, and what is in man, to have expected any
+such thing from the collective body, as such.
+
+Ver. 4. "_And as the light of the morning when the sun riseth, a
+mourning without clouds; by brightness, by rain,--grass out of the
+earth._"
+
+In the first hemistich we have to supply: will be His appearance in its
+loveliness and saving importance. The morning elsewhere also,
+especially in the Psalms (compare remarks on Ps. lix. 17; Song of Sol.
+iii. 1), is used as the emblem of salvation. The condition of men
+before the appearance of the Ruler among them, is, in its destitution,
+like dark night.--The _brightness_ is that of the Ruler, as the
+spiritual Sun, the Sun of Salvation. (Compare Mal. iii. 20 [iv. 2],
+where righteousness is represented as the sun rising to those who fear
+God.) The _rain_--the warm, mild rain, not the winter's rain which, in
+the Song of Sol. ii. 11, and elsewhere, occurs as an emblem of
+affliction and judgment--is the emblem of blessing (compare Is. xliv.
+3, where "rain" is explained by "blessing"). The _grass_, which springs
+up out of the earth by means of sunshine and rain, is emblematical of
+the fruits and effects of salvation. [Pg 157] (Compare Is. xlv. 8,
+where, in consequence of the rain of salvation pouring down from the
+skies, the earth brings forth salvation and righteousness.) The passage
+in Ps. lxxii. 6 is parallel, where Solomon says of his Antitype, "He
+shall come down like rain upon the mown grass, as showers watering the
+earth." The figure of the rain making fresh grass to spring up is there
+likewise employed to designate the blessings of the Messianic time.
+
+Ver. 5. "_For is not thus my house with God? For He has made with me an
+everlasting covenant, ordered in all things and kept; for all my
+salvation, and all pleasure,--should He not make it to grow?_"
+The special revelation which David received at the close of his life
+(compare the remarks on נאם in ver. 1) is here connected with the
+fundamental promise in 2 Sam. vii., which was thereby anew confirmed to
+him. Those who, like _De Wette_ and _Thenius_, mistake the correct
+sense of vers. 3 and 4, are not a little perplexed by the "_for_"
+at the beginning of this verse, and attempt in vain to account for
+it.--_Thus_, _i.e._, as it had been told in what precedes.--ערוכה,
+"prepared," "ordered," forms the contrast to what is only half
+finished, indefinite, depending upon circumstances and conditions,
+admitting of provisions and exceptions. The extent to which all
+interposing obstacles were excluded, or rather, had been considered and
+calculated upon beforehand, appears especially from 2 Sam. vii. 14, 15,
+according to which, even the most fatal of all interpositions--the
+apostasy of the bearers of the covenant--should not destroy the
+covenant,--should not annul the gracious promise made to the race.
+_Kept_, _i.e._, firm, inviolable, because given by Him who keepeth
+covenant and mercy, Deut. vii. 9; Dan. ix. 4. In 1 Kings viii. 25,
+Solomon prays, "And now, Lord God of Israel, keep with Thy servant
+David my father what Thou promisedst him when Thou saidst. There shall
+not be cut off unto thee a man from My sight to sit on the throne of
+Israel." The second "_for_" points out the cause of _kept_. _All
+pleasure_, _i.e._, all that is well-pleasing to me, all that my heart
+desires. The preceding ישעי serves the purpose of qualifying it more
+definitely. The object of David's desires is, accordingly, his
+salvation, the glory of his house.
+
+Ver. 6. "_And wickedness, like thorns, they will all be driven away;
+for not will any one take them into his hands._"
+
+The subject treated of in this verse is: the Ruler among men [Pg 158]
+in His relation to His enemies. To those He is as formidable as His
+appearance is blessed to those who surrender themselves to Him. In Ps.
+xviii. also, there is a celebration of the indomitable power which the
+Lord grants to David, His anointed, and to his seed against all their
+enemies; compare ver. 38: "I pursue mine enemies and overtake them, and
+do not turn again till they are consumed; ver. 39, I crush them and
+they cannot rise, they fall under my feet." In the cycle of Psalms from
+cxxxviii. to cxlv., David likewise speaks of the dangers which threaten
+his house from enemies, and the leading thought of Ps. ii. is: the
+Messiah as the conqueror of His enemies. The eyes of David were the
+more opened to this circumstance, the more he himself had had to
+contend against adversaries.--בליעל always means unworthiness in a
+moral point of view, "wickedness," "vileness." _Wickedness_ is here
+used in the concrete sense = the wicked ones, the sons of wickedness,
+Deut. xiii. 14. The wicked ones, the enemies of the Church, are
+compared to the thorns, on account of their pricking nature; and
+therefore their end is like that of thorns, they will be thrown aside
+like them. In Ezek. xxiv. 28, after the judgment upon the neighbouring
+people has been proclaimed, it is said, "And there shall remain no more
+a pricking brier everywhere round about the house of Israel, where
+their enemies are, nor a grieving thorn;" compare Num. xxxiii. 55; Song
+of Sol. ii. 2; Is. xxvii. 4; Nahum i. 10.--מנד, the _Partic. Hoph._ of
+נוד, "thrust out," "put to flight" (compare Ps. xxxvi. 12), cannot be
+applied to the thorns, but only to the men. _Like thorns_, _i.e._, so
+that they become like thorns, of which the land is cleared. _For not
+will any one take them into his hands_--_Michaelis_: _Intractabiles
+sunt._
+
+Ver. 7. "_And if any one toucheth them, he is filled with iron, and the
+staff of a spear; and they shall be utterly burnt with fire where they
+dwell._"
+
+The two members of vers. 6 and 7 stand in an inverted relation to each
+other. In ver. 6, we have, first, the punishment described, and then
+their hostile nature, by which the punishment was called forth. In ver.
+7, we have, first, the cause, and then the consequence. The thought in
+the first member is: every touch of them bears a hostile character.
+_Iron_--instead of weapons fabricated of iron; comp. 1 Sam. xvii. 7;
+Job xx. 24, xli. 19 compared with vers. 18, 20; Jer. xv. 12. [Pg 159]
+בשבת, literally, "in the dwelling" (compare Ps. xxiii. 6, xxvii. 4;
+Deut. xxx. 20) instead of "where they dwell," shows that in their own
+borders they shall be visited and overtaken by retribution. בשבת cannot
+have the signification, "without delay," ascribed to it by _Thenius_.
+
+
+Footnote 1: תחת, "below," "beneath," "under," is often used
+adverbially, _e.g._ Gen. xlix. 25. על, in the signification "on high,"
+occurs also in Hosea xi. 7,--less certainly in Hos. vii. 16. For,
+according to 2 Chron. xxx. 9, that passage may be explained; "they
+return, not _to_," _i.e._, there is the mere commencement of
+conversion, but not the attainment of the end. On הוקם Deut. xxviii. 36
+is to be compared.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                          THE SONG OF SOLOMON.
+
+
+An important link in the chain of the Messianic hopes is formed by the
+Song of Solomon. It is intimately associated with Ps. lxxii., which was
+written by Solomon, and represents the Messiah as the Prince of Peace,
+imperfectly prefigured by Solomon as His type. As in this Psalm, so
+also in the Song of Solomon, the coming of the Messiah forms the
+subject throughout, and He is introduced there under the name of
+Solomon, the Peaceful One. His coming shall be preceded by severe
+afflictions, represented under the emblems of the scorching heat of the
+sun, of winter, of rain, of dark nights, and of the desert. Connected
+with this coming is the reception of the heathen nations into His
+kingdom, and this, through the medium of the old Covenant-people.
+
+Thus far the first part, down to chap. v. 1. The subjects contained in
+the second part are, the sin of the daughter of Zion against the
+heavenly Solomon and the judgment; then, repentance and reunion, which
+will be accomplished by the co-operation of the daughters of Jerusalem,
+_i.e._, of the very heathen nations who had formerly received salvation
+through them; the complete re-establishment of the old relation of
+love, in consequence of which the daughter of Zion again occupies the
+centre of the kingdom of God; and the indissoluble nature of this
+covenant of love now anew entered into, in contrast with the
+instability of the former.
+
+The Song of Solomon does not, strictly speaking, possess a prophetical
+character. It does not communicate any new revelations; like the
+Psalms, it only represents, in a poetical form, things already known.
+It sufficiently appears from our former statement, that, in the first
+part of this book, not one feature occurs which did not form a part of
+those Messianic prophecies [Pg 160] which we can prove to have been
+known at the time of Solomon. In the second part, however, it is
+somewhat different. No corresponding parallel can be adduced from any
+former time to the view, that a great part of the people would reject
+the salvation offered to them in Christ, and, thereby, draw down
+judgment upon themselves. Yet, all that the book under consideration
+contains upon this point, is only the application of a general truth,
+the knowledge of which the Covenant-people had received at the very
+beginning of their history. A consideration of human nature in general,
+and more especially of Israel's character, as it had been deeply and
+firmly impressed upon the people by the Mosaic law, joined to the ample
+experience which history had afforded in this respect, sufficiently
+convinced those who were more enlightened, that it could not be by any
+means expected--that, indeed, it was even impossible--that, at the
+coming of the Messiah, the whole people would sincerely and heartily
+receive Him, and do homage to Him. And there existed, on the other
+hand, at the time of Solomon also, the foundation for the doctrine of
+the final restoration of the people. For, even in the Pentateuch, the
+election of Israel by God is represented as irrevocable and absolute,
+and which, therefore, must at last triumph over all apostasy and
+Covenant-breaking on the part of the people.
+
+The Song of Solomon, then, is no _apocalypsis_, no revelation of
+mysteries till then unknown. There is in it no such disclosure as is,
+_e.g._, that in 2 Sam. vii., on the descent of the Messiah from David;
+or, as is that in Mic. v. 1 (2), on His being born at Bethlehem; or
+even as is that in Is. liii. on His office as a High Priest, and His
+vicarious satisfaction. But, nevertheless, we must not imagine the case
+to have been thus, that the contents of the Song of Solomon could have
+originated merely from reflection on the part of Solomon. The truths
+hitherto revealed had too much of the character of mere germs to allow
+us to suppose that from them, and in such a way, we could account for
+the clearness and certainty with which they have been blended into one
+whole. Another element, moreover, must be joined to the historical
+ground--viz., an elevated condition of the soul, a "being in the
+Spirit,"--a breathing of the divine Spirit upon the human. History
+bears witness that such prophetic states, in the wider sense, were not
+strange to Solomon. It twice [Pg 161] reports about the Lord's having
+appeared to him, 1 Kings iii. 5, ix. 2. From such an elevated state of
+soul, his dedicatory prayer, in 1 Kings viii., and Ps. lxxii., also
+originated.
+
+We must content ourselves with these hints as regards Solomon's Song.
+As it moves throughout on Messianic ground, the Author must consider
+his commentary on this book (Berlin, 1853) as an appendix to the
+Christology.
+
+[Pg 162]
+
+
+
+
+                 MESSIANIC PREDICTIONS IN THE PROPHETS.
+
+
+After the time of Solomon, the Messianic prediction was for a
+considerable time discontinued. It was first resumed, and farther
+expanded, by the Canonical prophecy which began under Uzziah. There
+cannot be any doubt that that which _appears_ as an interval was
+_really_ such. There is no ground for the supposition that any
+important connecting links have been lost. The Messianic prediction in
+the oldest canonical prophets is immediately connected with that which
+existed previously at the time of David and Solomon.
+
+It is not a matter of chance that, whilst the blossom of prophetism
+appeared as early as Samuel, the canonical prophetism took its rise at
+a much later date. Nor is it the result of accident, that we do not
+possess any written prophecies, either by Elijah, who, at the
+transfiguration of the Lord, appeared as the representative of all the
+Old Testament prophets, or by Elisha. Nor is it merely accidental that,
+at the time of Uzziah, there appears all at once, and simultaneously, a
+whole series of prophets. All these things are connected with the
+circumstance, that it was only at that time that great events for the
+Covenant-people were in preparation,--that, only then, those
+catastrophes were impending which were to be brought about by the
+Asiatic kingdoms, and which kept equal pace with the sin of Israel, the
+measure of which was being more and more filled up. Canonical prophecy
+is closely linked with these catastrophes. It is called to disclose to
+the Church the meaning of these judgments, and, thereby, to secure to
+them their effects in all time coming. The Messianic predictions
+uttered by the prophets are likewise closely connected with the
+announcement of these judgments. Whilst false security was shaken by
+the threatenings, despondency--which is as [Pg 163] hostile to true
+conversion--was prevented by pointing to the future coming of the
+Saviour.
+
+The prophets do not deliver the Messianic prediction in its whole
+compass, any more than do the writers of the Messianic Psalms. On the
+contrary, it is always only certain individual aspects which they
+exhibit. The writers of the Messianic Psalms take up those features
+which presented points of contact with their own lives and their own
+experiences, or at least the circumstances of their times. This is
+quite in keeping with the more subjective origin of Psalm-poetry. Thus
+David describes the suffering Messiah surrounded by powerful enemies,
+and who, after severe struggles, at length obtains victory and
+dominion. To Solomon, He appears as the Ruler of a great and peaceful
+kingdom, and he beholds the most distant nations reverentially offering
+presents to Him and doing Him allegiance. But the Prophets, in pointing
+out this or that feature, are not so much guided by their own
+experience, disposition of mind, and peculiar circumstances, as by the
+wants of those whom they are addressing, and by the effect which they
+are anxious to produce on them. When they have to do with
+pusillanimity, desponding at the sight of the heathen world as it seems
+to be all-powerful,--they then represent the Messiah as the invincible
+conqueror of the heathen world, who shall subject the whole earth to
+the kingdom of God. When they have to deal with pride, trusting in
+imaginary prerogatives of the Covenant-people, and boldly challenging
+the judgments of God upon the heathen,--they then represent the Messiah
+as Him who shall make a great separation among the Covenant-people
+themselves, and who shall be a consolation to the godly, while He
+brings inexorable judgments upon the wicked when they have to do with
+those who mourn in Zion, who through the inflicted judgments of the
+Lord have been brought to a deep sorrow on account of their sins,--they
+then represent the Messiah as Him who shall one day take away the sins
+of the land, who is to bear their griefs and carry their sorrows. Now,
+as canonical prophecy extends over several centuries, during which
+circumstances, wants, and dispositions the most diverse, must have
+taken place, and as the Messianic prophecy is in harmony with these, it
+displayed, more and more fully, its riches, and did so in a manner far
+more effective and vivid than it could possibly have [Pg 164] done had
+it been proclaimed in the form of a discussion or treatise. As the
+Messiah was thus represented from the most various points of view, and
+in the way of direct perception, and divine confidence,--as He was thus
+everywhere pointed out as the end of the development. He could not but
+become more and more the soul of the nation's life.
+
+In the Messianic announcements by the prophets, no such gradual
+progress in clearness and distinctness can be traced, as in those of
+the Pentateuch. The assertion that there existed with them at first,
+only a general hope of better times, unconnected with any person, rests
+on the unfounded hypothesis that Joel is the oldest among all the
+prophets,--and at the same time on the erroneous assumption that he was
+ignorant of a personal Messiah,--and, _further_, on the incorrect
+supposition that the prophets, who write only what presents itself
+immediately to their view, have not in their creed all that they omit
+to say. It is, _moreover_, opposed by the prospect of a personal
+Messiah held out in the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and the Song of
+Solomon. How very slender is the ground for inferring that, because
+many essential points are not touched upon by Hosea, Joel, and Amos,
+they, therefore, did not know them, is shown by the fact that neither
+do several among the later prophets--as Jeremiah and Ezekiel--touch
+upon them, although the previous more distinct prophecies of Isaiah
+were certainly known and acknowledged by them. We must never forget
+that it is from above that each of the prophets received his share of
+the prophetic spirit, and that this depended partly upon the measure of
+his receptivity, which might have been greater with the former than
+with the latter prophets,--and, partly, upon the wants and capacities
+of those for whom the prophecy was destined.
+
+A central position, as regards the Messianic predictions, is occupied
+by Isaiah. Even his Messianic prophecies, however, when viewed detached
+and isolated, bear the character of onesidedness. He nowhere gives us a
+complete image of the Messiah. But, whilst the other prophets were
+permitted to give only single disclosures, he gives us, in the whole
+body of his Messianic prophecies, the materials for a full and entire
+image, although not the image itself. The Fathers of the Church have,
+therefore, rightly designated him as the Evangelist among the prophets.
+But the transition to him from the Psalms and [Pg 165] the Song of
+Solomon could not be Immediate. Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, and
+Micah form, as it were, the connecting links. Proceeding from the
+Messianic promise, in the shape which it had received at the time of
+David and Solomon, they give it a standing in the prophetic message,
+and infuse into it new life by means of the connection into which it is
+brought by them, and supplement it by adding single new features.
+
+It is our intention to give an exposition of the Messianic passages in
+the prophets, according to their chronological order. In placing Hosea
+at the head, we follow the example of those who collected the Canon,
+and who, regarding not so much the succession of years as that of the
+governments, may have assigned the first place to Hosea, because he is
+the most important among the prophets at the time of Jeroboam in
+Israel, and of Uzziah in Judah, or because he really appeared first,
+and the prophecy in chap. i.-iii. is the beginning of written
+prophecies. The latter supposition most naturally suggests itself; the
+analogies are in its favour, and no decisive argument has been brought
+forward against it.
+
+
+                           THE PROPHET HOSEA.
+
+                      GENERAL PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
+
+That the kingdom of Israel was the object of the prophet's ministry is
+so evident, that upon this point all are, and cannot but be, agreed.
+But there is a difference of opinion as to whether the prophet was a
+fellow-countryman of those to whom he preached, or was called by God
+out of the kingdom of Judah. The latter has been asserted with great
+confidence by _Maurer_, among others, in his _Observ. in Hos._, in the
+_Commentat. Theol._ ii. i. p. 293. But the arguments by which he
+supports this view will not stand the test. He appeals (1) to the
+inscription. The circumstance that, in this, there is mention made of
+the kings of Judah under whom Hosea exercised his ministry,--that they
+are mentioned _at all_,--and that they are mentioned _first_ and
+_completely_, while only one of the kings of Israel is named, [Pg 166]
+proves, according to him--especially on a comparison with the
+inscription of Amos--that the prophet acknowledged the kings of Judah
+as his superiors. But this mode of argumentation entirely overlooks the
+position which the pious in Israel generally, and the prophets
+especially, occupied in reference to Judah. They considered the whole
+separation--the civil as well as the religious--as an apostasy from
+God. And how could they do otherwise, since the eternal dominion over
+the people of God had been granted, by God, to the house of David? The
+closeness of the connection between the religious and the civil
+sufficiently appears from the fact, that Jeroboam and all his
+successors despaired of being able to maintain their power, unless they
+made the breach, in religious matters also, as wide as possible. The
+chief of the prophets in the kingdom of the ten tribes--Elijah--by
+taking twelve stones according to the number of the tribes of Israel (1
+Kings xviii. 31), plainly enough declared, that he considered the
+separation as one not consistent with the idea of the Jewish kingdom,
+and that therefore, in reality, it must at some future period be done
+away with; that he considered the government in Israel as existing _de
+facto_, but not _de jure_.
+
+By none do we find this view so distinctly brought out as by Hosea.
+"They have set up kings, and not by Me"--says the Lord by him, chap.
+viii. 4--"they have made princes, and I knew it not." In his view,
+then, the whole basis of the government in Israel is ungodliness.
+Because they have chosen kings and princes without God, and against the
+will of God, they shall be taken from them by God, chap. iii. 4.
+Salvation cannot come to the people until Israel and, Judah set over
+themselves one head, ii. 2 (i. 11), until the children of Israel seek
+Jehovah their Lord, and David their king, iii. 5. These two things are,
+in his view, intimately connected; no true return to the invisible head
+of the Theocracy is possible without, at the same time, a return to the
+visible one--the house of David. What, at some future time, the mass of
+the people, when converted, were to do, the converted individual must
+do even now. He even now recognised the kings of the tribe of Judah as
+truly his sovereigns, although he yielded civil obedience to the rulers
+of Israel, until God should again abolish the government which He gave
+to the people in wrath, and set [Pg 167] up in opposition to the
+government of the house of David in His anger, on account of their
+apostasy. From all this, it clearly appears that, in order to account
+for the peculiarity of the inscription, we need not have recourse to
+the conjecture, that Hosea was a native of Judah. One might, with as
+much reason, maintain that all the prophets in the kingdom of Israel,
+who rejected the worship of the calves--and hence all the prophets
+without exception--were natives of the kingdom of Judah. For the
+worship of the calves is quite on a par with the apostasy from the
+anointed of God. Hosea mentions, first and completely, the kings of the
+legitimate family. He then further adds the name of one of the rulers
+of the kingdom of Israel, under whom his ministry began, because it was
+of importance to fix precisely the time of its commencement. Uzziah,
+the first in the series of the kings of Judah mentioned by him,
+survived Jeroboam nearly twenty-six years; compare _Maurer_, l. c. p.
+284. Now, had the latter not been mentioned along with him, the thought
+might easily have suggested itself, that it was only during the latter
+period of Uzziah's reign that the prophet entered upon his office; in
+which case all that he said about the overthrow of Jeroboam's family
+would have appeared to be a _vaticinium post eventum_, inasmuch as it
+took place very soon after Jeroboam's death. The same applies to what
+was said by him regarding the total decay of the kingdom which was so
+flourishing under Jeroboam; for, from the moment of Jeroboam's death,
+it hastened with rapid strides towards its destruction. If, therefore,
+it was to be seen that future things lie open before God and His
+servants "before they spring forth" (Is. xlii. 9), it was necessary
+that the commencement of the prophet's ministry should be the more
+accurately determined; and this is effected by the statement, that it
+happened within the period of the fourteen years during which Uzziah
+and Jeroboam reigned contemporaneously. That this is the main reason
+for mentioning Jeroboam's name, is seen from the relation of ver. 2 to
+ver. 1. The remark there made,--that Hosea received the subsequent
+revelation at the very beginning of his prophetic ministry, corresponds
+with the mention of Jeroboam's name in ver. 1. But this is not all; nor
+can we say that, had it not been for this reason, Hosea would not have
+mentioned any king of Israel at all, in order that, from the outset, he
+might exhibit [Pg 168] his disposition. There was a considerable
+difference between Jeroboam and the subsequent kings. _Cocceius_
+remarked very strikingly: "The other kings of Israel are not considered
+as kings, but as robbers." Jeroboam possessed a _quasi_ legitimacy. The
+house of Jehu, to which he belonged, had opposed the extreme of
+religious apostasy. It was, to a certain degree, acknowledged, even by
+the prophets. Jeroboam had obtained the throne, not by usurpation, but
+by birth. He was the last king by whom the Lord sent deliverance to the
+people of the ten tribes; compare 2 Kings xiv. 27: "And the Lord would
+not blot out the name of Israel from under heaven; and He saved them by
+the hand of Jeroboam, the son of Joash." (2.) The _internal_ reason
+adduced by _Maurer_ (S. 294) is equally insignificant. "The _morum
+magistri_," he says, "are wont more slightly to reprove, in the case of
+strangers, that which they severely condemn in their own people; but
+Hosea rebukes with as much severity the inhabitants of Judah, when he
+comes to speak of them, as he does the Israelites." But no certain
+inferences can be drawn from such commonplaces; for, in this way we
+might as reasonably infer, that Isaiah and the writer of the Books of
+Kings were natives of the kingdom of the ten tribes, because they
+censure the sins of the Israelites as severely as they do those of the
+inhabitants of Judah. To this commonplace we might as easily oppose
+another equally true, viz., the "_morum magistri_, from a partiality
+for their own people, are wont to judge more leniently of their faults
+than of those of strangers." Such maxims require to be applied with the
+utmost caution, even in the territory to which they belong, because one
+consideration may be so easily outweighed by another. Here, however,
+its application is altogether out of the question. The prophets, as the
+instruments of the Spirit, spoke pure and plain truth without any
+regard to persons. Whether Hosea was a native of Judah or of Israel, he
+would express himself in the same way concerning the inhabitants of
+Judah. He would severely rebuke their sins, and at the same time
+readily acknowledge, as he does, their advantages,--for "Salvation
+cometh of the Jews."
+
+If, then, these be the arguments in favour of the Judean origin of
+Hosea, it readily appears that the probabilities of such an origin,
+compared with that of his Israelitish descent, are not [Pg 169] even in
+the proportion of one to a hundred. The prophets were almost more
+numerous in the kingdom of Israel than in that of Judah; and yet the
+entire history knows of only two instances of prophets being sent from
+the kingdom of Judah to that of Israel, viz., the prophet spoken of in
+1 Kings xiii. and Amos. And the former of these even scarcely belongs
+to this class, inasmuch as he received only a single mission into the
+kingdom of Israel, and _that_, at a time when the prophetic institution
+was not as yet organized there. In the case of Amos likewise, it is
+manifest not only that he was only an exception to the rule,--as
+appears from the transactions with the priest Amaziah, reported in Amos
+vii. (compare especially ver. 12),--but still more plainly, from the
+mention in the inscription of his having been a native of Judah.
+
+With regard to the _time_ of the prophet, the inscription places his
+ministry in the reigns of the kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah.
+A long period is, no doubt, thus assigned to it,--a period embracing at
+least twenty-six years of Uzziah's reign, and, in addition, the sixteen
+years of that of Jotham, the sixteen years during which Ahaz reigned,
+and at least one or two years of the reign of Hezekiah, making, at the
+lowest calculation, a period of sixty years in all.
+
+This exceedingly long duration of the prophet's ministry might easily
+excite suspicion regarding the genuineness and correctness of the
+inscription; but such suspicion is at once set at rest by the fact,
+that the statements contained in the book itself lead us to assume a
+period equally extended. The _beginning_ of the prophet's ministry
+cannot be assigned to any _later_ period; for, in chap. i. 4, the fall
+of Jeroboam's house, which took place soon after his death, is
+announced as a future event. _Moreover_, the condition of the kingdom
+appears still, throughout the whole first discourse, as a very
+flourishing one. Nor can the end of his ministry be assigned to any
+earlier period. For in chap. x. 14, an expedition of Shalman or
+Shalmaneser against the kingdom of Israel (_Vitringa_, _Proleg. in Is._
+p. 6) is described as being already past, and a second invasion is
+threatened. But the first expedition of Shalmaneser, reported in 2
+Kings xvii. 1 seqq., is almost contemporaneous with the beginning of
+Hezekiah's reign. For it was directed against Hoshea, king of Israel,
+who began his reign in the twelfth [Pg 170] year of that of Ahaz, which
+lasted sixteen years. The exact harmony of the passage in Hosea with
+that in 2 Kings xvii. is very evident. In 2 Kings xvii. 3, it is said:
+"Against him came up Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, and Hoshea became
+his servant and gave him tribute." This was the first expedition of
+Shalmaneser. Then followed the second expedition, which was caused by
+the rebellion of Hoshea,--in consequence of which Samaria was taken and
+the people carried away. In Hos. x. 14, 15, it is said: "And tumult
+ariseth against thy people, and all thy fortresses shall be spoiled, as
+Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel in the day of battle; the mother was dashed
+in pieces upon (her) children. So shall he do unto you, Bethel, because
+of your great wickedness in the dawn of the morning, destroyed,
+destroyed shall be the king of Israel." Hosea here declares that the
+beginning of the destruction by Shalmaneser is the prophecy of the end
+of the kingdom of Israel. The "morning dawn" is the time of apparently
+reappearing prosperity, when, according to _Cocceius_, a time of peace
+begins to shine. In Amos iv. 13, v. 8, the prosperity again dawning
+upon the kingdom of Israel is likewise expressed by "morning" and
+"morning dawn." The identity of Beth-arbel and Arbelah in Galilee can
+the less be doubted, because recent researches have rendered it certain
+that this place, now called _Irbid_, was an important fortress.
+(Compare _Münchener gelehrte Anzeigen_ 1836, S. 870 ff.; _Robinson_,
+iii. 2, p. 534; _v. Raumer_, S. 108.) The use of Beth-arbel, instead of
+the more common Arbelah, as well as that of Shalman instead of
+Shalmaneser, belongs to the higher style. At the first expedition, the
+decisive battle had, no doubt, taken place at Arbelah. They who
+disconnect this passage from 2 Kings xvii. do not know what to make of
+it. _Simson_ complains of the darkness resting on the passage under
+consideration.--But Hos. xii. 2 (1) likewise leads us to the very last
+times of the kingdom of Israel,--those times when Hoshea endeavoured to
+free himself from the Assyrian servitude by the help of Egypt. "Ephraim
+feedeth on wind, and followeth after the east-wind; he daily increaseth
+lies and desolation; and they do make a covenant with Assyria, and oil
+is carried into Egypt." Their sending oil to Egypt, notwithstanding the
+covenant made with Assyria, is the lie, which goes hand in hand with
+desolation, while they imagine thereby to [Pg 171] work deliverance.
+This explanation has been already given by _J. H. Manger_, of whose
+_Commentarius in Hoseam_, _Campen_, 1782--a commentary in many respects
+excellent--most of the recent commentators, and, lastly, _Simson_,
+have, to their great disadvantage, not availed themselves. _Manger_
+says: "These words refer to the ambassadors who were sent with splendid
+presents by king Hoshea to the king of Egypt, in order to win him over
+to himself, and induce him to assist him against the Assyrians, to whom
+he had become subject by a solemn treaty."--To the last times of the
+kingdom of Israel we are likewise led by what occurs in other passages
+concerning the relation of Israel to Egypt and Asshur. The matter has
+been falsely represented by very many as if two parties among the
+people were spoken of,--an Assyrian and an Egyptian party. Nor is it
+so, that the whole people turn at one time to Egypt in order to free
+themselves from the Assyrians, and at another time to Assyria to assist
+them against Egypt. The position is rather thus: The people, heavily
+oppressed by Asshur, at one time seek help from Egypt against Asshur,
+and, at another, attempt to conciliate the latter. Precisely thus is
+the situation described in vii. 11: "They call to Egypt, they go to
+Asshur." That by which Israel was threatened, was, according to viii.
+10, "the burden of the king of princes, the king of Asshur," ver. 9.
+This they seek to turn off, partly by artifices, and partly by calling
+to their help the king of Egypt. Asshur alone is the king "warrior"
+(_Jareb_), v. 13, x. 6; he only has received the divine mission to
+execute judgment; compare xi. 5: "He, _i.e._, Israel, shall not return
+to the land of Egypt, and Asshur, he is his king." As an ally not to be
+trusted, Egypt is described in vii. 16, where, after the announcement
+of their destruction on account of their rebellion against the Lord, it
+is said: "This shall be their derision on account of the land of
+Egypt," _i.e._, thus they shall be put to shame in the hope which they
+place on Egypt. Is. xxx. 1-5 is quite analogous. In that passage the
+prophet announces that Judah's attempt to protect themselves against
+Asshur by means of Egypt would be vain; compare, especially, ver. 3:
+"And the fortress of Pharaoh shall be your shame, and the trust in the
+shadow of Egypt, your confusion;" and ver. 5: "Not for help nor for
+profit, but for shame and for reproach." Such historical circumstances,
+[Pg 172] however, had not yet occurred under Menahem. At that time,
+Israel was not yet placed in the midst betwixt Asshur and Egypt. It is
+expressly mentioned in 2 Kings xv. 20, that the invasion of Pul was
+only transitory, and that not conquest, but spoil, was its aim. The
+real commencement of the Assyrian oppression is formed by the invasion
+of Tiglathpileser at the time of Ahaz. Isaiah, in chap. vii., points
+out the pernicious consequences of Ahaz's calling the Assyrians to his
+assistance against Syria and Israel. The very fact of this war carried
+on against Judah by Syria and Ephraim shows, that up to that time,
+Asshur had not laid his hand upon these regions. It was only with the
+invasion under Ahaz that there was any display of Asshur's tendency to
+make permanent conquests on the other side of Euphrates, which could
+not fail to bring about the conflict with the Egyptian power.--"King
+Jareb,"--such had already become the historical character of the king
+of Asshur, at the time when Hosea wrote; but prior to the times of Ahaz
+and Hezekiah, he did not stand out as such.
+
+There is no decisive weight to be attached to what _Simson_ advances in
+order to prove that we must fix an earlier date. He argues thus:
+"Gilead, which, according to 2 Kings xv. 29, was taken and depopulated
+by Tiglathpileser, whom Ahaz had called to his assistance, appears in
+vi. 8, xii. 12 (11) to be still in the possession of Israel. Hence, the
+ministry of the prophet cannot have extended beyond the invasion of
+Judah by the Syrians and Ephraim." But since the book gives the sum and
+substance of Hosea's prophecies during a prolonged period, there must
+necessarily occur in it references to events which already belonged to
+the past, at the time when the prophet wrote. In chap. i. 4, even the
+overthrow of the house of Jeroboam appears as being still future.
+
+But even although we could not establish, from other sources, the
+statement contained in the inscription, the inscription itself would
+nevertheless be a guarantee for it; and the more so, because there are
+other analogies in favour of so long a duration of the prophetic
+office, which was sometimes entered upon even in early youth. The
+inscription has the same authority in its favour as every other part of
+the book; and it is hardly possible to understand the levity with which
+it has, in recent times, been pretty generally designated as spurious,
+or, at least, suspicious. [Pg 173] It is altogether impossible to sever
+it from the other parts of the book. There must certainly have been
+some object in view when, in ver. 2, it is expressly remarked, that
+what follows took place at the _beginning_ of Hosea's ministry. But
+such an object it will be possible to point out, only in the event of
+its being more accurately determined at what time this beginning took
+place--viz., still under the reign of Jeroboam, when the state of
+things as it appeared to the eye did not yet offer any occasion for
+such views of the future as are opened up in the first three chapters.
+Ver. 1 cannot, therefore, be regarded as an addition subsequently made,
+unless the words in ver. 2, from תחלת to בהושע be so likewise. But
+these again are most closely connected with what follows by the
+_Future_ with _Vav convers._, which never can begin a narrative. There
+remains, therefore, only this alternative:--either to regard the whole
+as having been written at a later period, or to claim for Hosea the
+inscription also. We cannot agree with the view of _Simson_, that the
+remark by which the beginning of the book is assigned to the beginning
+of the prophet's ministry, originated from a chronological interest
+only; and we can the less do so, because the prophet does not pay any
+attention to chronology in any other place, but is anxious to give only
+the sum and substance of what he had prophesied during a series of
+years. The only exception which he makes in this respect must have
+originated from strong reasons; and such do not exist, if the
+inscription in ver. 1, or the mention of the kings in it, be spurious.
+The mention of the beginning in ver. 2 would, in that case, be so much
+the more groundless, as we could know nothing at all regarding the
+length of his ministry.
+
+Much more fruitful, certainly, than all such vain doubts, are the
+reflections of Calvin on the long duration of the prophet's ministry:
+"How grievous is it to us when God requires our services for twenty or
+thirty years; and, especially, when we have to contend with ungodly
+people, who would not willingly take upon them the yoke, yea, who even
+obstinately resist us! we then wish to be freed at once, and to become
+pensioned soldiers. But, seeing this prophet's long protracted
+ministry, let us take from it an example of patience, that we may not
+despair although the Lord should not at once free us from our burden."
+
+Many interpreters have zealously attempted to determine the [Pg 174]
+particular portions of this lengthened period to which the particular
+portions of this book belong. But such an undertaking is wholly vain in
+the case before us, as well as in that of Micah, and most of the minor
+prophets generally. The supposition upon which it rests is false--viz.,
+that the collection consists of a number of single, detached portions.
+We do not possess the whole of Hosea's prophecies, but only the
+substance of their essential contents,--a survey which he himself gave
+towards the end of his ministry. This appears (1) from the דבר יהוה in
+the inscription. In itself, this would not be a decisive argument, as
+the prophet might also have comprehended in an _ideal_ unity,
+discourses outwardly distinct; but, nevertheless, as long as no reason
+appears for the contrary, it is more naturally referred to a continuous
+discourse with an external unity also. (2.) It appears from the entire
+omission of all chronological data. The only exception is in ver. 2;
+but this exception serves only to strengthen the argument drawn from
+the omission everywhere else. (3.) It is proved by the absence of all
+certain indications about the beginning and ending of the particular
+portions. There occur, just as in the second part of Isaiah, new
+starting points only; but, with these exceptions, the discourse always
+moves on in the same manner. (4.) It is seen from the indefiniteness
+and generality of the historical references, which must necessarily
+arise if the prophet referred, in like manner, to the whole of this
+lengthened period. That the facts, upon which the last two arguments
+rest, really exist, is made sufficiently apparent from the immense
+diversity of opinions as to the number and extent of the particular
+portions, and as to the time of their composition. There are not even
+two of the more important interpreters who agree in the main points
+alone. Such a diversity does not exist in reference to any of the
+prophetical books which actually consist of detached prophecies. (5.)
+The style and language are too much the same throughout the whole, to
+admit of the idea that any long period could have elapsed between the
+particular prophecies. This, indeed, is only a subordinate argument;
+but it acquires its full importance, when connected with the foundation
+of the third and fourth proofs.
+
+It now only remains to give a survey of the historical circumstances at
+the time of the prophet. This is the more necessary, as a knowledge of
+these is required for the exposition of [Pg 175] the Messianic
+prophecies, not only of Hosea, but also of Amos, his contemporary.
+
+The kingdom of Israel carried within it, from its very commencement, a
+twofold element of destruction--viz., the establishment of the worship
+of the calves, and the rebellion against the dynasty of David. With
+regard to the former,--the consequence of this apparently so much
+isolated transgression of a Mosaic ordinance extended much further than
+would appear upon a superficial view. In this case also it was seen
+that a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump. Of far higher importance
+than the low conceptions of God produced by this symbolical
+representation of Him, was another aspect of the transaction. The
+prohibition of image-worship in the Pentateuch was as distinct and
+clear as it was possible to make it. The kings of Israel were far from
+rejecting it; but still, how difficult soever it may appear, they found
+out an interpretation by which they evaded the application of it to
+their institution. Such a course once entered upon, could only lead
+them further and further astray. As, in so important a case, they
+had, in opposition to their own better convictions, allowed themselves
+to pervert and explain away the law--asserting, probably, that
+it was given only on account of the coarse sensuality of former
+generations--the  same was done in other things also, as often as it
+was called for by the disposition of the corrupted heart. All
+unfaithfulness which is known to be so, and yet is cherished, and
+excused to the conscience and before men, must draw after it entire
+ruin, in a community, not less than in an individual. As a reason for
+this ruin, it is very strikingly said in 2 Kings xvii. 9: "And they
+_covered_ (this is the only ascertained signification of חפא) words
+that were not so, over the Lord their God;" _i.e._, they ventured, by a
+number of perversions and false interpretations of His word, to
+veil its true form. To this, the following consideration must be
+added:--That first change of the religious institutions proceeded from
+the political power which secured to itself, for the future, an
+absolute influence upon the religious affairs, by subjecting to its
+control the ecclesiastical power, which had hitherto been independent
+of it. Those Levites who, having no regard to the miserable sophisms
+invented by the king as an excuse, declared against the worship of
+calves, were expelled, and, in their stead, creatures of the king [Pg
+176] were made ministers of the sanctuary. This became now the king's
+sanctuary (compare the remarkable passage, Amos vii. 13), and all the
+ecclesiastical affairs were, in strict contradiction to the Mosaic law,
+submitted to his arbitrary power. The consequences of this must
+necessarily have been all the sadder, the worse the kings were; and
+they must inevitably have become so, because of the bad foundation on
+which the royal power rested.
+
+Image-worship was very speedily followed by idolatry,--which is,
+however, in like manner, not to be looked upon in the light of an
+undisguised opposition to the true God. Such an opposition took place
+during the reign of only one king--Ahab--under whom the matter was
+carried to an extreme. Holy Scripture, however, with a total disregard
+of the whole multitude of miserable excuses ordinarily made, designates
+as _direct_ apostasy from God, everything which was substantially such,
+although it did not outwardly manifest itself as such. Externally, they
+remained faithful to Jehovah; they celebrated His feasts,--they offered
+the sacrifices prescribed in the Pentateuch,--they regulated, in
+general, all the religious institutions according to the requirements
+there laid down, as may be proved from the Books of Kings, and, still
+more plainly, from Amos and Hosea. But in all this they discovered a
+method by which light and darkness, the worship of idols with that of
+the Lord, might be combined. Nor was this discovery so very difficult,
+since their eye was not single. They had before them the examples of
+heathen nations, who were quite prepared reciprocally to acknowledge
+their deities, in all of whom they recognised only different forms of
+manifestation of one and the same divine being; and they were quite
+willing to extend this acknowledgment even to the God of Israel also,
+as long as they did not meet with intolerance on the part of those who
+professed to worship Him, and were therefore not roused to the practice
+of intolerance in return. This reciprocal recognition of their deities
+by the nations in the midst of whom the Israelites lived, is
+sufficiently evident from the circumstance, that they all called their
+highest deity by the same name--Baal--and expressed, by some epithet,
+only the form of manifestation peculiar to each. Now, the Israelites
+imagined that they might be able, at one and the same time, to satisfy
+the demands of their God, and to propitiate [Pg 177] the idols of the
+neighbouring mighty nations--especially of the Phœnicians--if they
+removed the wall of separation betwixt the two. Jehovah and Baal were,
+in their view, identical as to their essence. The former was that mode
+of manifestation peculiar to them, and the main object of their worship
+according to the method prescribed by Himself in His revelation. But
+the latter was not to be neglected; inasmuch as they imagined that they
+might thereby become partakers of the blessings which this form of
+manifestation of the deity was able to bestow. And thus to Jehovah they
+gave the name of Baal also, Hos. ii. 18 (16); they celebrated the days
+appointed by Jehovah, ver. 13 (11), but those also devoted to Baalim,
+ver. 15 (13). In this way we receive an explanation of the fact which,
+at first sight, is so startling, viz., that according to Hosea and
+Amos, all is filled with the service of Baal; while the Books of Kings
+would lead us to think that, with the reign of Ahab, the dominion of
+this worship had ceased. But it was only its hostile opposition to the
+worship of Jehovah that had disappeared, while a far more dangerous
+religious compromise took its place. No doubt can be entertained as to
+the party on whose side lay the advantage in this compromise. It was
+plainly on that side on which it always lies, whensoever the heart is
+divided betwixt truth and falsehood. Externally, the worship of Jehovah
+remained the prevailing one; but, inwardly, idolatry obtained
+almost the sole dominion. If only the limits betwixt the two religions
+were removed, that religion would of course come with the highest
+recommendation, the spirit of which was most in accordance with
+the spirit of the people. But, owing to the corrupt condition of
+human nature, this would not be the strict religion of Jehovah,
+which, as coming from God, did not bring God down to the level of
+human debasement, but demanded that man should be raised to His
+elevation,--which placed the holiness of God in the centre, and founded
+upon it the requirement that its possessors should be holy;--but it
+would be the soft, sensual, idolatrous doctrine which flattered human
+corruption, because from that it had its origin. Thus the Jehovah of
+the Israelites became in reality what they sometimes called Him by way
+of alternation--a Baal. And the matter was now much more dangerous
+than if they had deserted Him [Pg 178] externally also, inasmuch as
+they now continued to trust in His covenant and promises, and to boast
+of their external services,--thus strengthening themselves in their
+false security.
+
+The _natural_ consequence of this apostasy from the Lord was a
+frightful corruption of manners. The next result of spiritual
+adultery was the carnal one. Voluptuousness formed the fundamental
+characteristic of the Asiatic religions in general, and, in particular,
+of those with which the Israelites came in contact. But the pernicious
+influence extended still further over the whole moral territory. Where
+there is no holy God, neither will there be any effort of man after
+holiness. All divine and human laws will be trampled under foot. All
+the bonds of love, law, and order, will be broken. And, as such, the
+condition of the country in a moral point of view is described by its
+two prophets throughout. Compare, _e.g._, Hosea iv. 1, 2: "There is no
+truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in the land. Swearing, and
+lying, and killing, and stealing, and committing adultery--they break
+through, and blood toucheth blood." There then followed, from the moral
+corruption, the internal dissolution of the state, and its external
+weakness.
+
+The _supernatural_ consequences of the apostasy from the Lord, were the
+severe punishments which He inflicted upon the people. With whomsoever
+God has entered into a closer connection, whomsoever He thinks worthy
+of His grace, in him the Lord will be glorified by the infliction of
+punishment upon him, if, through his own guilt. He has not been
+glorified by sanctification in him. Just because Israel formed part of
+the Covenant-people, they could not be allowed to continue to retain
+the outward appearance of it, when, inwardly, they did not retain a
+vestige.
+
+As the second element of the ruin, we mentioned the rebellion against
+the dynasty of David. Their dominion rested on divine right, while the
+new Israelitish kingdom rested upon the sandy foundation of human
+caprice. The first king had raised himself to the throne by his own
+power and prudence, and through the favour of the people. Whosoever had
+the same means at his disposal, imagined that these gave him the right
+to do likewise. And thus dynasty supplanted dynasty, regicide followed
+regicide. In the bloody struggles thereby occasioned, the people became
+more and more lawless. Sometimes interregna, [Pg 179] and periods of
+total anarchy took place; and by these internal struggles the power to
+resist external enemies was more and more broken. No king was able to
+stop this source of mischief, for such an effort would have required
+him to lay aside his position as a king. And as little was any one able
+to put a stop to that source of evil formerly mentioned: for, if the
+religious wall of partition which was erected between Israel and Judah
+were once removed, the civil one likewise threatened to fall.
+
+Such were, in general, the circumstances under which Hosea, like the
+other prophets of the kingdom of Israel, appeared. There cannot be any
+doubt that these were much more difficult than those of the kingdom
+of Judah. There, too, the corruption was indeed very great; but it
+was not so firmly intertwined with the foundation of the whole state.
+Thorough-going reforms, like those under Hezekiah and Josiah, were
+possible. The interest of a whole tribe was closely bound up with the
+preservation of true religion.
+
+The reign of Jeroboam II., which was externally so prosperous, and in
+which Hosea entered upon his prophetic ministry, had still more
+increased the apostasy from the Lord, and the corruption of manners,
+and thus laid the foundation for the series of disastrous events which
+began soon after his death, and which, in quick succession, brought
+the people to total ruin. The prosperity only confirmed them still
+more in their security. Instead of being led to repentance by the
+unmerited mercy of God (compare 2 Kings xiv. 26, 27), they considered
+this prosperity as a reward of their apostasy, as the seal by which
+Jehovah-Baal confirmed the rectitude of their ways. The false prophets,
+too, did what was in their power to strengthen them in their delusion,
+whilst the true prophets preached to deaf ears.
+
+Immediately after the death of Jeroboam, it soon became apparent on
+which side the truth lay. There followed an interregnum of from eleven
+to twelve years.[1] After the termination [Pg 180] of it, Zachariah,
+the son of Jeroboam, succeeded to the throne; but he was murdered by
+Shallum, after a short reign of six months, 2 Kings xv. 10. Shallum,
+after he had reigned only one month, was slain by Menahem, ver. 14.
+Menahem reigned ten years at Samaria. Under him, the catastrophe was
+already preparing which brought the kingdom to utter destruction. He
+became tributary to the Assyrian king Pul, vers. 19-21. He was
+succeeded by his son Pekahiah, in the fiftieth year of Uzziah. After a
+reign of two months, he was slain by Pekah, the son of Remaliah, who
+held the government for twenty years (ver. 27), and, by his alliance
+with the kings of Syria against his brethren the people of Judah (comp.
+Is. vii.), hastened on the destruction of Israel. The Assyrians, under
+Tiglathpileser, called to his assistance by Ahaz, even at that time
+carried away into captivity part of its citizens,--the tribes who lived
+on the other side of the Jordan. In the fourth year of Ahaz, Pekah was
+slain by Hoshea, who, after an interregnum of eight years, began to
+reign in the twelfth year of Ahaz, xvii. 1. He became tributary to
+Shalmaneser; and the end of his government of nine years was also the
+end of the kingdom of the ten tribes. His having sought for an alliance
+with Egypt drew down, upon himself and his people, the vengeance of the
+king of Assyria.
+
+We have already proved that the historical references in the prophecies
+of Hosea extend to the time when the last king of Israel attempted to
+secure himself against Asshur, by the alliance with Egypt. It is very
+probable that the book was written at [Pg 181] that time. At the time
+when the sword of the Lord was just being raised to inflict upon Israel
+the death-blow, Hosea wrote down the sum and substance of what he had
+prophesied during a long series of years, beginning in the last times
+of Jeroboam, when, to a superficial view, the people were in the
+enjoyment of the fullest prosperity. When at the threshold of their
+final fulfilment, he condensed and wrote down his prophecies, just as,
+in the _annus fatalis_, the fourth year of Jehoiakim, Jeremiah,
+according to chap. xxv., gave a survey of what he had prophesied over
+Judah during twenty-three years.
+
+In the prophecies of Hosea, as in those of Amos, the _threatening_
+character prevails. The number of the elect in Israel was small, and
+the judgment was at hand. In Jeremiah and Ezekiel, too, the prophecies,
+previous to the destruction, are mainly minatory. It was only after the
+wrath of God had been manifested in deeds, that the stream of promise
+brake forth without hindrance. Hosea, nevertheless, does not belie his
+name, by which he had been dedicated to the helping and saving God, and
+which he had received, _non sine numine_. (הושע, properly the Inf. Abs.
+of ישע, is, in substance, equivalent to Joshua, _i.e._, the Lord is
+help.) Zeal for the Lord fills and animates him, not only in the energy
+of his threatenings, but also in the intensity and strength of his
+conviction of the pardoning mercy and healing love of the Lord, which
+will, in the end, prevail. In this respect, Hosea is closely connected
+with the Song of Solomon--that link in the chain of Holy Scripture into
+which he had, in the first instance, to fit. There are in Hosea
+undeniable references to the Song of Solomon. (Compare my Comment. on
+the Song of Solomon, on chap. i. 4, ii. 3.) It is certainly not by
+accident that the brighter views appear with special clearness at the
+beginning, in chap. i. 3 (compare ii. 1-3, 16-25 [i. 10, ii. 1, 14-23],
+iii. 5), and at the close, xiv. 2-10 (1-9), where the fundamental
+thought is expressed in ver. 4 (3): "For in Thee the fatherless findeth
+mercy." But even in the darker middle portions, they sometimes suddenly
+break through; compare v. 15, vi. 3, where the subject is: "He teareth
+and He healeth us; He smiteth and He bindeth up;" vi. 11, where, after
+the threatening against Israel, we suddenly find the words:
+"Nevertheless, O Judah! He grants thee a harvest, when I (_i.e._, the
+Lord) return to the prison of My people." (Judah is [Pg 182] here
+mentioned as the main portion of the people, in whom mercy is bestowed
+upon the whole, and in whose salvation the other tribes also share.)
+Compare also xi. 8-11, where we have this thought: After wrath, mercy;
+the Covenant-people can never, like the world, be altogether borne down
+by destructive judgments; xiii. 14, where the strong conviction of the
+absolutely imperishable nature of the Congregation of the Lord finds
+utterance in the words, "I will ransom them from the hand of hell; I
+will redeem them from death: O death! where is thy plague? O hell!
+where is thy pestilence? repentance is hid from Mine eyes." _Simson_ is
+perplexed "by the sudden transition of the discourse, in this passage,
+from threatening to promise,--and this without even any particle to
+indicate the mutual relation of the sentences and thoughts." But the
+same phenomenon occurs also in vi. 11 (compare Micah ii. 12, 13),
+where, likewise, several expositors are perplexed by the suddenness and
+abruptness of the transition. It is explained from the circumstance,
+that behind even the darkest clouds of wrath which have gathered over
+the Congregation of the Lord, there is, nevertheless, concealed the sun
+of mercy. In the prophets, it sometimes breaks through suddenly and
+abruptly; but in this they are at one with history, in which the
+deepest darkness of the night is oftentimes suddenly illuminated by the
+shining of the Lord: "And at midnight there was a cry made: Behold, the
+bridegroom cometh."
+
+The sum and substance of Hosea's prophetic announcement is the
+following:--Israel falls, through Asshur: Judah, the main tribe, shall
+be preserved from destruction in this catastrophe. (The prophet's
+tender care for Judah is strikingly brought out in his exhortation to
+Israel, in iv. 15, that they should desist from their compromises in
+religion, and that, if they chose to commit sin, they should rather
+desert the Lord altogether, lest by their hypocrisy Judah also should
+be seduced and infected.) But at a later period, Judah too is to fall
+under the divine judgment (ii. 2 [i. 11], where it is supposed that
+Judah shall also be carried away into captivity; v. 5: "Israel and
+Ephraim fall by their iniquity, Judah also falleth with them;" v. 12:
+"I am unto Ephraim as a moth, and to the house of Judah as rottenness;"
+compare also xii. 1, 3), although the immediate instruments of the
+judgment upon Judah are not mentioned [Pg 183] by Hosea. But the
+judgments which the two houses of Israel draw upon themselves by their
+works (ii. 2 [i. 11], iii. 5, indicate that even Judah will, at some
+future time, rebel against the house of David) shall be followed by the
+deliverance to be accomplished by grace. Judah and Israel shall, in the
+future, be again gathered together under one head, ii. 2 (i. 11); a
+glorious king out of David's house not only restores what was lost, but
+also raises the Congregation of the Lord to a decree of glory never
+before conceived of, iii. 5: "Afterwards shall the children of Israel
+return and seek the Lord their God, and David their King, and shall
+fear the Lord and His goodness in the latter days."
+
+The peculiarity of the Messianic prophecies of Hosea, as compared with
+those of the time of David and Solomon, consists in the connection of
+the promise with threatenings of judgments, and in the Messiah's
+appearing as the light of those who walk in the deepest darkness of the
+divine judgments. It was necessary that this progress should have been
+made in the Messianic announcements, before the breaking in of the
+divine judgments; for, otherwise, the hope of the Messiah would have
+been extinguished by them, because it was but too natural to consider
+the former as, _in fact_, an annihilation of these dreamy hopes. But
+now there was offered to the elect a staff on which they might support
+themselves, and walk with confidence through the dark valley of the
+shadow of death.
+
+The Book of Hosea may be divided into two parts, according to the two
+principal periods of the prophet's ministry,--under Jeroboam, when the
+external condition was as yet prosperous, and the bodily eye did not as
+yet perceive anything of the storms of divine wrath which were
+gathering,--and under the following kings, down to Hosea, when the
+punishment had already begun, and was hastening, by rapid strides,
+towards its consummation.--Another difference, although a subordinate
+one, is this:--that the first part, which comprehends the first three
+chapters, contains prophecies connected with a symbol, while the second
+part contains direct prophecies which have no such connection. A
+similar division occurs in Amos also,--with this difference, that
+there, the symbolical prophecies form the conclusion. The first part
+may be considered as a kind of outline, which all the subsequent
+prophecies served to fill up; just [Pg 184] as may the 6th chapter in
+Isaiah, and the first and second in Ezekiel. We shall give a complete
+exposition of this section, as it will afford us a vivid view of the
+whole position of Hosea, and as it is just there that the Messianic
+announcement meets us in its most developed form.
+
+
+Footnote 1: _Ewald_, _Thenius_, and others, will not grant that such an
+interregnum took place. As numbers were originally expressed by
+letters, in which an interchange might easily happen, we cannot deny
+the possibility of such an error having occurred in 2 Kings xiv. 23. It
+is quite possible that the duration of Jeroboam's reign was there
+originally stated at fifty-two or fifty-three, instead of forty-one
+years. But strong reasons would be required for rendering such a
+supposition admissible,--the more so, as the interchange would not have
+been limited to one letter, as _Thenius_ supposes, but must have
+extended to both. But no such reasons exist. The silence of the Books
+of Kings upon the subject of this interregnum cannot be urged as a
+reason, since these books are so exceedingly short as regards the
+history of the last times of the kingdom of Israel. Sacred
+historiography has no interest in the details of this process of decay,
+which began with the death of Jeroboam,--which also is represented by
+Amos as if it were the day of Israel's death (Amos vii. 11: "Jeroboam
+shall die by the sword, and Israel shall be led away captive out of
+their own land"), although bare existence is still, for some time,
+spared. By the rejection of this interregnum, Hosea's ministry would be
+shortened by twelve years; but this gain--if such it be--can be
+purchased only at the expense of a most improbable extension of the
+duration of Jeroboam's reign. _Simson_, S. 201, has defended the
+interregnum.
+
+
+
+                        THE SECTION CHAP. I.-III.
+
+The question which here above all engages our attention, and requires
+to be answered, is this: Whether that which is reported in these
+chapters did, or did not, actually and outwardly take place. The
+history of the inquiries connected with this question is found most
+fully in _Marckius's_ "_Diatribe de uxore fornicationum_," Leyden,
+1696, reprinted in the Commentary on the Minor Prophets by the same
+author. The various views may be divided into three classes.
+
+1. It is maintained by very many interpreters, that all the events here
+narrated took place actually and outwardly. This opinion was advanced
+with the greatest confidence by _Theodoret_, _Cyril_ of Alexandria, and
+_Augustine_ from among the Fathers of the Church; by most interpreters
+belonging to the Lutheran and Reformed Churches (_e.g. Manger_); most
+recently, by _Stuck_, _Hofmann_ (_Weissag u. Erf._ S. 206), and, to a
+certain extent, by _Ewald_ also, who supposes "a free representation of
+an event actually experienced by the prophet."
+
+2. Others consider it as a parabolical representation. Thus does
+Calvin, who expressly opposes the supposition not only of an external,
+but also of an internal event. He explains it thus: "When the prophet
+began to teach, he commenced thus: The Lord has placed me here as on a
+stage, that I might tell you, I have taken a wife," etc. Entirely
+similar was the opinion of the Chaldee Paraphrast, by whom the words,
+"Go," etc., are thus paraphrased: "Go and prophesy against the
+inhabitants of the adulterous city." Of a like purport is the view
+held, from among recent interpreters, by _Rosenmüller_, _Hitzig_ ("that
+which the prophet describes as actual, is only a fiction"), _Simson_
+and others. The strange opinion of Luther, which, out of too great
+respect, was adopted by a few later theologians (_Osiander_, [Pg 185]
+_Gerhard_, _Tarnovius_), is only a modification of this. It is to the
+effect, that the prophet had only ascribed to his own chaste wife the
+name and works of an adulteress, and, hence, had performed with her,
+before the people, a kind of play. (Compare, against this view,
+_Buddeus_, _de peccatis typicis_ in the _Misc. s. t._ i. p. 262.) The
+same opinion is expressed by _Umbreit_: "His own wife is implicated in
+the general guilt, and hence she is a representative of the whole
+people." In opposition to this view, compare _Simson's_ Commentary.
+
+3. Others suppose that the prophet narrates events which took place
+_actually_, indeed, but _not outwardly_. This opinion was, considering
+the time at which it was advanced, very ably defended by _Jerome_ in
+_Epist. ad Pammachium_, and in his commentary on chap. i. 8. According
+to _Rufinus_, all those in Palestine and Egypt who respected the
+authority of _Origen_, asserted that the marriage took place only in
+spirit. The difficulties attaching to the first view were made
+especially obvious by the ridicule of the Manicheans (_Faustus_ and
+_Secundinus_ in _Augustine_, t. vi. p. 575) on this narrative. The most
+accomplished Jewish scholars (_Maimonides_ in the _More Nebuch._ p. ii.
+c. 46, _Abenezra_, _Kimchi_) support this opinion. Some new arguments
+in defence of it have been adduced by _Marckius_.
+
+Of these three views:--actually and outwardly; neither outwardly nor
+actually; actually, but not outwardly,--the second must be at once
+rejected. Those who hold it supply, "God has commanded me to tell you."
+But there is not the slightest intimation of such an ellipsis; and
+those interpreters have no better right to supply it in this, than in
+any other narrative. There is before us action, and nothing but action,
+without any intimation whatsoever that it is merely an invention.
+
+But the following arguments are decisive in favour of the third, and
+against the first view.
+
+1. The defenders of an outward transaction rely, in support of their
+view, upon the supposition, that their interpretation is most obvious
+and natural;--that they are thus, as it were, in the _possession_ of
+the ground, and in a position from which they can be driven only by the
+most cogent reasons;--that if the transaction had been internal, it
+would have been necessary for the prophet to have expressly marked it
+as such. But precisely the reverse of all this is the case. The most
+obvious supposition [Pg 186] is, that the symbolical action took place
+in vision. If _certain_ actions of the prophets, especially seeing,
+hearing, and their speaking to the Lord, etc., must be conceived of as
+having taken place inwardly, unless there be distinct indications of
+the opposite, why not the remainder also? For the former presupposes
+that the world in which the prophets move, is altogether different from
+the ordinary one; that it is not the outward, but the spiritual world.
+It is certainly not a matter of chance, that the _seeing_ in the case
+of the prophets must be understood spiritually; and if there be a
+reason for this, the same reason entitles us to assert that the
+walking, etc., also took place inwardly only. By what right could we
+make any difference between the actions of others, described by the
+prophet, and his own? Vision and symbolical action are not opposed to
+each other; the former is only the _genus_ comprehending the latter as
+a _species_. By this we do not at all mean to assert, that _all_ the
+symbolical actions of the prophets took place in inward vision only. An
+inward transaction always lay at the foundation; but sometimes, and
+when it was appropriate, they embodied it in an outward representation
+also (1 Kings xx. 35 seq., xxii. 11; Jer. xix. xxviii.; and a similar
+remarkable instance from modern times, in _Croesi Hist. Quakeriana_, p.
+13). For this very reason, however, this argument cannot be altogether
+decisive by itself; but it furnishes, at least, a presumptive proof,
+and that by no means unimportant. If regularly and naturally the
+transaction be internal only, then the opposite requires to be proved
+in this case. If this had been admitted, no attempt would have been
+made elsewhere also, _e.g._, Is. xx., by false and forced
+interpretations to explain away the supposition of a merely internal
+transaction.
+
+2. No one will certainly venture to assert that a merely internal
+transaction would have missed its aim, since there exists a multitude
+of symbolical actions, in regard to which it is undeniable, and
+universally admitted, that they took place internally only. For the
+inward action, being narrated and committed to writing, retained the
+advantage of vividness and impressiveness over the naked representation
+of the same truth. Sometimes, in the case of actions concentrated into
+a single moment, this advantage may be still further increased by the
+inward transaction being represented outwardly also. But, here, just
+the [Pg 187] opposite would take place. We have here before us a
+symbolical transaction which, if it had been performed outwardly, would
+have continued for several years. The separation of the single events
+would have prevented its being taken in at a single view, and have thus
+deprived it of its impressiveness. But, what is still more important,
+the natural _substratum_ would have occupied the attention so much more
+than the _idea_, that the latter would have been thereby altogether
+overlooked. The domestic affairs of the prophet would have become the
+subject of a large amount of _tittle-tattle_, and the idea would have
+been remembered only to give greater point to the ridicule.
+
+3. The command of God, when considered as referring to an outward
+transaction, cannot be, by any means, justified. This is most glaringly
+obvious, if we understand this command, as several do, to mean that the
+prophet should beget children with an unchaste woman, and without
+legitimate marriage. Every one will sympathize with the indignation
+expressed by _Buddeus_ (l. c. p. 206) against _Thomas Aquinas_, who,
+following this view, maintains that the law of God had been, in this
+special case, repealed by His command. God Himself cannot set us free
+from His commands; they are an expression of His nature, an image of
+His holiness. To ascribe arbitrariness to God in this respect, would be
+to annihilate the idea of God, and the idea of the Law at the same
+time. This view, it is true, is so decidedly erroneous as to require no
+further refutation; but even the opinion of _Buddeus_ and others
+presents insurmountable difficulties. They suppose that the prophet had
+married a woman who was formerly unchaste. In opposition to this,
+Calvin very strikingly remarks: "It seems not to be consistent with
+reason, that God should spontaneously have rendered His prophet
+contemptible; for how could he ever have appeared in public after such
+ignominy had been inflicted upon him? If he had married such a wife, as
+here described, he ought rather to have hidden himself all his lifetime
+than have assumed the prophetic office." In Lev. xxi. 7 the law forbids
+the priests to take a wife that is a whore, or profane. That which,
+according to the letter, referred to the priests only, is applicable,
+in its spirit, to the prophets also,--yea, to them in a higher degree,
+as will be seen immediately, when the ordinance is reduced to its
+_idea_. The latter is easily inferred from the reason stated, [Pg 188]
+viz., that the priests should be holy to their God. The servants of God
+must represent His holiness; they are, therefore, not allowed, by so
+close a contact with sin, to defile or desecrate themselves either
+inwardly or outwardly. Although the inward pollution may be prevented
+in individual cases by a specially effective assistance of divine
+grace, yet there always remains the outward pollution.
+
+It is inconceivable that, at the very commencement of his ministry, God
+should have commanded to the prophet anything, the inevitable effect of
+which was to mar its successful execution. Several--and especially
+_Manger_--who felt the difficulties of this interpretation, substituted
+for it another, by which, as they imagined, all objections were
+removed. The prophet, they say, married a person who had formerly been
+chaste, and fell only after her marriage. This view is no doubt the
+correct one, as is obvious from the relation of the figure to the
+reality. According to ver. 2, it is to be expressed figuratively that
+the people went a-whoring from Jehovah. The spiritual adultery
+presupposes that the spiritual marriage had already been concluded.
+Hence, the wife can be called a whoring wife, only on account of the
+whoredom which she practised after her marriage. This is confirmed by
+chap. iii. 1, where the more limited expression "to commit adultery" is
+substituted for "to whore," which has a wider sense, and comprehends
+adultery also. The former unchastity of the wife would be without any
+meaning, yea, would be in direct contradiction to the real state of the
+case. For before the marriage concluded at Sinai, Israel was devoted to
+the Lord in faithful love; comp. Jer. ii. 2: "I remember thee, the
+kindness of thy youth, the love of thine espousals, thy walking after
+Me in the wilderness, in a land not sown." Compare also Ezek. xvi.,
+where Israel, before her marriage, appears as a _virgo intacta_. But
+how correct soever this view may be--and every other view perverts the
+whole position--it is, nevertheless, erroneous to suppose that thereby
+all difficulties are removed. All which has been urged against the
+former view, may be urged here also. It might have been better for the
+prophet to have married one who was previously unchaste, in the hope
+that her subsequent better life might wipe out her former shame, than
+one previously chaste, who _was required_ to become unchaste, and to
+remain so for a long time, because, [Pg 189] otherwise, the symbolical
+action would have lost all its significance. The objection brought
+forward, that whatever is unbecoming as an outward action, is so
+likewise though it were only an internal action, can scarcely be meant
+to be in earnest. For, in this case, every one knew that the prophet
+was a mere type; and, with regard to his wife, this circumstance was so
+obvious, that mockery certainly gave way to shame and confusion. But a
+marriage outwardly entered into is never purely typical. It has always
+its significance apart from the typical import, and must be
+justifiable, independently of its typical character. Ridicule would, in
+this case, have been not only too obvious, but to a certain extent also
+well founded.
+
+4. If the action had taken place only outwardly, it would have been
+impossible to explain the abrupt transition from the symbolical action
+to the mere figure, and again to the entirely naked representation as
+we find it here, and _vice versa_. In the first chapter, the symbolical
+action is pretty well maintained; but in the prophecy ii. 1-3 (i.
+10-ii. 1), which belongs to the same section, it is almost entirely
+lost sight of. As the corporeal adultery, and rejection in consequence
+of it, were to be the type of the spiritual adultery and rejection, so
+the receiving again of the wife, rejected on account of her
+faithlessness, but now reformed, was to typify the Lord's granting
+mercy to the people. But of this, not a trace is found. And yet, we are
+not at liberty to say that the ground of it lies in a difference
+betwixt the type and the thing typified,--in the circumstance that the
+wife of the prophet did not reform. If there existed such a difference,
+the type could not have been chosen at all. The contrary appears also
+from ii. 9 (7).--In the whole second section, ii. 4-25 (ii. 2-23),
+regard is indeed had to the symbolical action; but in a manner so free,
+that it dwindles away to a mere figure, from behind which the thing
+itself is continually coming into view. In chap. iii. the symbolical
+action again acquires greater prominence. These phenomena can be
+accounted for, only if the transaction be viewed as an inward one. In
+the case of an outward transaction, the transition from the symbolical
+action to the figure, and from the figure to the thing itself, would
+not have been so easy. The substratum of the idea is, in that case, far
+more material, and the idea itself too closely bound to it.
+
+[Pg 190]
+
+5. When the transaction is viewed as an outward one, insurmountable
+difficulties are presented by the third chapter; and the argument drawn
+from this would, in itself, be quite sufficient to settle the question:
+"Then the Lord said unto me. Go again, love a woman beloved of her
+friend and an adulteress." Interpreters who have adopted that view,
+find themselves here in no little embarrassment. Several suppose that
+the woman, whom the prophet is here commanded to love, is his former
+wife, Gomer,--with her he should get reconciled. But this is quite out
+of the question. In opposition to it, there is, _first_, the indefinite
+signification by אשה; _then_, in ver. 2, there is the purchase of the
+woman,--which supposes that she had not yet been in the possession of
+the husband; and, _further_, the words, "beloved of her friend, and an
+adulteress," can, according to a sound interpretation, mean only, "who,
+although she is beloved by her faithful husband, will yet commit
+adultery;" so that, if it be referred to the reunion with Gomer,
+we should be compelled to suppose that, after being received again,
+she again became unfaithful,--and in favour of this opinion, no
+corresponding feature can be pointed out in the thing typified.
+_Lastly_,--The word "love" cannot mean "love again," "_restitue
+amoris signa_." For the love of the prophet to his wife must correspond
+with the love of God to the people of Israel. That this love,
+however, cannot be limited to the love which God will show to the
+Congregation _after_ her conversion, is seen from the additional
+clause, "And they turn themselves to other gods, and love grape-cakes."
+Hence it appears that the love of God continues even during the
+unfaithfulness, and consequently, also, the love of the prophet, by
+which it is typified.--Equally untenable is the other opinion, that the
+prophet is here called upon, by his entering into a new marriage, to
+prefigure the relation of God to the Covenant-people a second time. In
+that case, it is supposed either that Gomer had been rejected, because
+she would not return, or that she had died. In either case, however,
+she would not have been chosen by God to be a type of the people
+of Israel. The ground of this choice can be no other than the
+correspondence with the antitype. But this would be wanting just in the
+most important point. If the ungodly part of the nation were not to be
+deprived of all hope, nor the pious of all consolation, it was of
+special importance to [Pg 191] point out that even the rejected
+congregation would receive mercy; that the Lo-Ruhamah should be the
+Ruhamah. Just the reverse of all this, however, would, according to
+this view, have been typified. Two different women would, quite
+naturally, suggest the thought of two different nations. Moreover, the
+non-conversion of Gomer would be in direct opposition to the prophet's
+own expressions. There cannot be any doubt, that her relation to the
+prophet still lies at the foundation of the description in ii. 4 seqq.
+For they are her three children whose former names, announcing
+disaster, are changed, in ver. 25 (23), into such as are significant of
+salvation. In vers. 4-6 (2-4) the whole relation, as previously
+described, is presupposed. But now, she who, in ver. 9 (7), says, "I
+will go and return to my first husband, for then was it better with me
+than now," is the same who said in ver. 7 (5), "I will go after my
+lovers that give me my bread and my water, my wool and my flax." To the
+same result we are also led by the showing of mercy to her children,
+announced in the first section, ii. 1-3 (i. 10-ii. 1), where the
+prophet alludes to their names; and still more distinctly in the second
+section; compare ver. 25 (23). But now, the showing of mercy to the
+children cannot be conceived of without the conversion of the mother,
+and mercy being subsequently shown to her also. As they are to be
+rejected on account of the unfaithfulness of the mother (compare ii.
+6 [4], and, specially, the כי at the commencement of ver. 7), so the
+ground of their being received into favour can only be the faithfulness
+of the mother. Being begotten in adultery, they stand in connection
+with the prophet only through the mother; as soon as he has rejected
+the mother, he has nothing further to do with them.--The supposition
+that Gomer had died, is evidently the result of an embarrassment which
+finds itself compelled to invent such fictions.--_Finally_,--Several
+interpreters, after the example of _Augustine_, suppose that no
+marriage at all is here spoken of, but only a certain kindness
+which the prophet should manifest to some woman, in order to
+encourage her conversion. But this opinion is contradicted by
+these circumstances:--that the prophet's love towards the woman must
+necessarily be of the same extent, and of the same nature, as the love
+of God towards the people of Israel, since the אהב and the כאהבת
+exactly correspond with each other; that only conjugal love is suitable
+to [Pg 192] the image; that this view falls, of itself, to the ground
+when רֵעַ is referred to the prophet, as it must be; that, in such
+circumstances, no satisfactory account can be given of the purchase of
+the woman, etc. To all these suppositions there is, moreover, the
+common objection that, according to them, no account can be given of
+the omission of very important circumstances which the prophet leaves
+to his hearers and readers to supply from the preceding symbolical
+action. Two things only are pointed out, viz., the appropriation of the
+woman by the prophet, ver. 2, and the course which he pursues for her
+reformation, ver. 3. Every intervening circumstance--the criminal,
+long-continued unfaithfulness of the wife--is passed over in silence.
+If we suppose an outward action, this circumstance cannot be accounted
+for. For we are not at liberty to draw, from the first case, any
+inference bearing upon the second. The latter would again have required
+a complete account. But if we suppose an inward transaction, everything
+is easily explained. The question as to whether it was Gomer, or some
+other person, does not come up at all. If Gomer was only an _ideal_
+person, that which applied to her was equally applicable to the second
+_ideal_ wife of the prophet; since both typified the same thing, and
+without having an independent existence of their own, came into
+consideration as types only. Thus, very naturally, the second
+description was supplemented from the first, and the prophet was
+allowed abruptly to point out those circumstances only which were of
+special importance in the case before him.
+
+6. If the whole be viewed as an outward transaction, there arises a
+difficulty, by no means inconsiderable, as regards the children
+mentioned in chap. i. These had been begotten in adultery. Even
+although the mother did reform, they could yet never be considered by
+the prophet as, in the full sense, his own. There would then arise a
+great difference between the type and the thing typified. But if we
+suppose a transaction merely inward, this difficulty vanishes. The
+physical impossibility then no longer comes into consideration. That
+which is possible in the thing typified, viz., that those who formerly
+were not children of God, become children of God, is transferred to the
+type. In point of fact, the mother does not exist beside, and apart
+from, the children; she stands related to them as the whole to the
+parts; and hence it is, that in ii. 25 (23), the [Pg 193] mother and
+children are imperceptibly blended in the prophet's description.
+
+7. We are led to the idea of a mere inward transaction by the
+symbolical names of the first wife, and of her father. On the other
+hand, if such a symbolical signification could not be proved, this
+might be used as an argument for the literal interpretation,--although,
+indeed, it would be only a single argument which would be obliged to
+yield to other counter-arguments. For it may well be conceived that the
+prophet, in order to give to the inward transaction more of the
+appearance of an outward one, should have chosen names usual at that
+time; just as, in a similar manner, poetry would not be satisfied with
+invented names used only in certain formulas and proverbs, but makes
+use of names which would not, at once, be recognised by every
+one as mere fictions.--גֹּמֶר can only mean "completion" in the
+passive sense. For _Segolate-forms_ in _o_ are only used to express
+passive and intransitive notions, and the verb גמר is found in the
+ignification "to be completed," in Ps. vii. 10, xii. 2. The sense in
+which the woman, the type of the Israelitish people, is called
+_completion_,--_i.e._, one who, in her whoredom, had proceeded to the
+highest pitch,--is so obvious from the context, as to render nugatory
+the argument which _Maurer_ (p. 360) has drawn from the omission of
+express statements on this point, in order thereby to recommend his
+own interpretation, which is altogether opposed to the laws of the
+language. A significant proper name can, in any case, convey only an
+allusion; but such an allusion was here quite sufficient, inasmuch as
+the mention of the wife's whoredom had preceded. Compare, moreover,
+Zech. v. 5-11, where the thought, that Israel had filled up the measure
+of their sins, is represented by a woman sitting in an Ephah. _Hofmann_
+explains the name Gomer by "end," "utmost ruin:" "By luxury, Israel has
+become wanton, and hence it must come to an end, to utter ruin." But
+this interpretation is at variance with the context, from which it must
+necessarily be derived; for it is not the _punishment_, but the _guilt_
+which is spoken of in the context. גמר, "Completion" (compare the גמיר,
+"_perfectus_," "_absolutus_," in Ezra vii. 12), is equivalent to אשת
+זנונים, "a wife of whoredom." The בת דבלים can only mean, "daughter of
+the two fig-cakes," = _filia deliciarum_ = _deliciis_ [Pg 194]
+_dedita_. The word "daughter" serves to indicate every relation of
+dependence and submission: _Gesenius_, _Thesaurus_, p. 220. Fig-cakes
+were considered as one of the greatest dainties; compare _Faber_ on
+_Harmar_. i. p. 320 ff. Sensuality was the ground of the Israelites'
+apostasy from the severe and strict religion of Jehovah to the idolatry
+of their neighbours, which was soft, sensual, and licentious. The
+occasion which had called it forth with their neighbours was one which
+rendered them favourably disposed towards it. The masculine form can
+offer no difficulty as to the derivation from דבלה, "fig-cake;" for the
+masculine form of the plural occurs also in 1 Sam. xxv. 18; 1 Chron.
+xii. 40. As little difficulty can arise from the Dual form, which may
+be explained from the circumstance that fig-cakes commonly consisted of
+a double layer of figs, or of double cakes (_Hesych._ παλάθη--which
+Greek word is a corruption of the Hebrew דבלה--ἡ τῶν σύκων ἐπάλληλος
+θέσις), and the Dual is used in reference to objects which are commonly
+conceived of as a whole, consisting of two parts, even when several of
+them are spoken of. That this explanation of the Dual is correct, is
+proved from the circumstance, that it occurs also as the name of a
+Moabitish town, _Beth-Dibhlathaim_, Jer. xlviii. 22, and _Dibhlathaim_,
+Num. xxxiii. 46, which, probably, was famous for its fig-cakes.--There
+existed another special reason for the prophet's choosing the Dual in
+the masculine form, viz., that there was the analogy of other proper
+names of men--as Ephraim, etc.--in its favour; and such an analogy was
+required,--for, otherwise, the name would not have been, as it was
+intended to be, a riddle. Our whole exposition, however, which was
+already in substance, although without proper foundation and
+justification, advanced by _Jerome_, is raised above the condition of a
+mere hypothesis, by its being compared with chap. iii. There, the
+words, "They turn themselves to other gods, and love grape-cakes," are
+a mere paraphrasis of "_Gomer Bath Dibhlaim_." It scarcely needs to be
+remarked, that the difference betwixt grape-cakes and fig-cakes does
+not here come into consideration at all, inasmuch as both belonged to
+the choicest dainties; and it is as evident, that "to love," and "to be
+the daughter of," express the same idea. But if thus the symbolical
+signification of the name be established, the correctness of the
+supposition of a merely internal transaction is established [Pg 195] at
+the same time. The symbolical names of the children alone could not
+have furnished a sufficient foundation for this supposition. Against
+this an appeal might, with the most perfect propriety, have been made
+to _Shear-Jashub_, and _Maher-shalal-hash-baz_, neither of whom can, by
+any means, have been an ideal person. The prophet gave them these
+names; but the matter is quite different in the case of the wife, who
+already had her name when the prophet took her. All that we can grant
+to _Hofmann_ is, that such a providential coincidence was _possible_;
+but _probable_ it could be, only if other decisive arguments favoured
+the view of the transaction having been an outward one. If the name
+were not symbolical--if it belonged to the real wife of the prophet, it
+cannot be easily explained, why he did not afterwards mention the name
+of his second wife also, but content himself with the general term, "a
+wife."
+
+8. A main argument against the literal interpretation is further
+furnished by iii. 2. The verse is commonly translated: "And then I
+bought her to me for fifteen pieces of silver, and an homer of barley,
+and a lethech of barley;" and is explained from the custom prevalent in
+the East of purchasing wives from their parents. But it is very
+doubtful whether the verb כרה has the signification "to purchase."
+There is no necessity for deviating from the common signification "to
+dig," in Deut. ii. 6: "And water also ye shall dig from them for money,
+and drink" (compare Exod. xxi. 33); the existing wells were not
+sufficient for so great a multitude, compare Gen. xxvi. 19, 21, 22. To
+this philological reason, we must _further_ add, that the circumstance
+would be here altogether destitute of significance, while every other
+feature in the description is full of meaning. We base our
+interpretation upon the supposition, already sufficiently established
+by _J. D. Michaelis_, that the whole purchase-money amounted to thirty
+shekels, of which the prophet paid one-half in money, and the other
+half in the value of money. According to Ezek. xlv. 11, the homer
+contained ten ephahs, and a lethech was the half of an homer. We have
+thus fifteen pieces of silver, and also fifteen ephahs; and the
+supposition is very probable that, at that time, an ephah of barley
+cost a shekel,--the more so, as according to 2 Kings vii. 1, 16,
+18, in the time of a declining famine, and only relative cheapness,
+two-thirds of an ephah of barley cost a shekel. We are unable [Pg 196]
+to say with certainty, why one-half was paid in money, and the other
+half in natural productions; but a reason certainly exists, as no other
+feature is without significance. Perhaps it was determined by custom,
+that the sum by which servants were purchased was paid after this
+manner. The lowness of their condition was thereby indicated; for
+barley, _vile hordeum_, was, in all antiquity, very little esteemed.
+Upon this estimate of it was based its use at the jealousy offering
+(Num. v. 11 seqq.; compare _Bähr's Symb._ ii. S. 445), and the
+symbolical use of the barley-bread in Judg. vii. 13. The statement
+of the sum leads us, involuntarily, to think of slaves or servants.
+It is the same sum which was commonly given for a man-servant, or a
+maid-servant, as is expressly mentioned in Exod. xxi. 32; compare the
+remarks on Zech. xi. 12. And this opinion is confirmed by the use of
+ואכרה. The ears of a servant who was bound to his master to _perpetual_
+obedience, were bored; compare Exod. xxxi. 5, 6; Deut. xv. 17, where it
+is added: "And also unto thy maid-servant thou shalt do likewise." In
+conformity with the custom of omitting the special members of the body,
+in expressions frequently occurring, it is said simply "to bore." The
+meaning then is: I made her my slave. It was not a free woman, then,
+whom the prophet desired in marriage, but a servant, whom he was
+obliged, previous to marriage, to redeem from servitude; who was
+therefore under a double obligation to him, and over whom he had a
+double claim. The reference to the thing to be typified is quite
+apparent. It was not a free, independent people whom the Lord chose,
+but a people whom He was obliged first to redeem from vile servitude,
+before He entered into a nearer relation to them. This redemption
+appears, throughout, as a ransoming from the house of bondage,--and the
+wonderful dealings of the Lord, as the price which He paid. Compare,
+_e.g._, Deut. vii. 8: "But because the Lord loved you, and because He
+kept His oath which He had sworn to your fathers, He has brought you
+out with a mighty hand, and redeemed thee (ויפדך) from the house of
+bondmen (מבית עבדים), from the hand of Pharaoh, king of Egypt." See
+also Deut. ix. 26. It is upon this redemption that the exhortation to
+the people is founded--that, as the Lord's servants, they should serve
+Him alone; comp., _e.g._, the introduction to the Decalogue. Thus, we
+have here also a feature so evidently typical, [Pg 197] so plainly
+transferred from the thing typified to the type, that we cannot any
+longer think of an outward transaction. This argument, however, is, in
+the main point, quite independent of the philological interpretation of
+כרה. Even if it be translated "I bought her to me," the circumstance,
+notwithstanding, always remains, that the wife was redeemed from
+slavery, unless there be a denial of the connection of the sum
+mentioned with Exod. xxi. 32, and Zech. xi. 12, where the thirty pieces
+of silver likewise appear as the estimate of a servant's value; and
+this circumstance evidently suggests the inward character of the
+transaction.
+
+The first germs of the representation of God's relation to Israel under
+the figure of marriage, are found so early as in the Pentateuch,
+Exod. xxxiv. 15, 16; Lev. xx. 5, 6, xvii. 7; Num. xiv. 33--where
+idolatry, and apostasy from the Lord in general, are represented as
+whoredom--Deut. xxxii. 16, 21; compare the author's _Dissertations on
+the Genuineness of the Pent._ vol. i. p. 107 ff.; and commentary on the
+Song of Solomon, S. 261. But it was only through the Song of Solomon
+that it became quite a common thing to represent the higher love
+under the figure of the lower. It is not through accident that this
+representation appears so prominent just in Hosea, where it not only
+pervades the first three chapters, but returns continually in the
+second part also. Hosea, being one of the oldest prophets, was
+specially called to fit, as a new link, into the Song of Solomon, which
+was the last link in the chain of Sacred Literature. There are,
+moreover, in the details, other undeniable references to the Song of
+Solomon, which coincide with this connection with it, as regards the
+fundamental idea. The basis, however, for this whole figurative
+representation is Gen. ii. 24, where marriage appears as the most
+intimate of all earthly relations of love, and must, for this very
+reason, have a character of absolute exclusiveness.
+
+
+                         CHAP. I.-II. 3 (II. 1).
+
+The section chap. i.-iii. is distinguished from the other prophecies by
+this,--that, in it, the relation of the Lord to the [Pg 198] people of
+Israel Is represented, _throughout_, under the figure and symbol of
+marriage, whilst this same mode of representation is soon relinquished
+wherever else it occurs in the book. By this closer limitation, the
+objections of _Böckel_ and _Stuck_ to the common division of the
+collection into two parts, are set aside. This first portion may be
+divided into three parts, which are, in one respect, closely connected,
+as is shown by the _Fut._ with the _Vav Conv._ in iii. 1, and likewise
+by the fact that this chapter requires to be supplemented from the two
+preceding ones, while, in another respect, they may be considered as
+wholes, complete in themselves. They do not, by any means, so
+distribute the contents among themselves, as that the first describes
+the apostasy; the second, the punishment; and the third, the return and
+restoration; but each of them contains all these three features, and
+yet in such a manner, that here the one feature, and there the other,
+is more fully expanded; so that the whole description is complete, only
+when all the three parts are taken together. In the portion now before
+us, the covenant relation into which the Lord entered with Israel is
+typified by a marriage which the prophet contracted at the command of
+the Lord; the apostasy of the people, and especially of the ten tribes,
+to whom the prophet was sent in the first instance, is typified by the
+adultery of the wife, by the divine punishment, and the unpropitious
+names which he gives to the children born by the adulterous wife. In
+chap. ii. 1-3, there follows the announcement of salvation more
+directly, and only with a simple allusion to the symbol.
+
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+Ver. 1. "_The word of the Lord that came unto Hosea, the son of Beeri,
+in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in
+the days of Jeroboam, the son of Joash, king of Israel._ Ver. 2. _At
+the beginning when the Lord spake to Hosea, the Lord said to Hosea: Go
+take unto thee a wife of whoredoms, and children of whoredoms; for the
+land is whoring away from the Lord._" דִּבֶּר is never a noun--not even in
+Jer. v. 13--but always the 3d pers. _Pret. Piel_. The _status constr._
+תחלת is explained by the fact, that the whole of the following sentence
+is treated as one substantive idea: the beginning "of the Lord hath
+spoken," [Pg 199] etc., for "the beginning of speaking." יום דבר יהוה,
+_the day of_ "_the Lord spoke_," instead of, "the day on which the Lord
+spoke." Similar constructions occur also in Is. xxix. 1, and Jer.
+xlviii. 6.--The _Fut._ with _Vav Conv._, ויאמר, "and then He spoke,"
+carries forward the discourse, as if there had preceded: the Lord began
+to speak to Hosea. There is here a _constructio ad sensum_. It is
+intentionally, and in order the more distinctly to point out the idea
+of the beginning, that the prophet has made use of the noun תחלת, not
+of the verb. The construction of דבר with ב, with the signification "to
+speak to some one," may be explained thus:--that the words are, as it
+were, put into the mind of the hearer in order that they may remain
+there. Several interpreters erroneously translate, "spoke through:"
+others, following _Jerome_ (the last is _Simson_), "spoke in;" as if
+thereby the act of speaking were to be designated as an inward one. The
+difference between outward and inward speaking disappears in the
+vision; and, for this reason, we cannot imagine that there is any
+intention of here noticing it particularly. Everything which takes
+place in the vision is substantially, indeed, internal, but in point of
+form it is external. Moreover, דבר with ב several times occurs in other
+passages also, where the signification, "to speak to some one," is
+alone admissible. Thus 1 Sam. xxv. 39, where _Simson's_ explanation,
+"David sent and _ordered_ to speak _about_ Abigail," is set aside by
+ver. 40. The analogy of the construction of the verbs of hearing and
+seeing with ב is likewise in favour of our explanation.[1]--A wife of
+_whoredoms_ and _children of whoredoms_. The wife belongs to whoredoms
+in so far as she is _devoted to them_; the children, in [Pg 200] so far
+as they _proceed_ from them. For we cannot suppose that the children
+themselves are described as given to whoredom. Such a thought would
+here be altogether out of place. For whoredom is here only the general
+designation of adultery, as, by way of applying it to the case in
+question, it is immediately subjoined, "away from Jehovah." The subject
+of consideration is only the relation of the wife and children to the
+prophet, as the type of the Lord; and with this view, it is only the
+origin of the children from an adulterous wife which can be of
+importance. That this alone is regarded, appears from ii. 6 (4),
+compared with ver. 7 (5). That the children, as children of whoredoms,
+deserve no compassion, is founded upon the fact that their mother plays
+the harlot. אשת זנונים is stronger than זונה; it expresses the idea
+that the woman is given, soul and body, to whoredoms. The same emphasis
+is expressed also by the analogous designations: man of blood, of
+deceit, etc.--Calvin says, "She is called a wife of whoredoms, because
+she was long accustomed to them, gave herself over to the lusts of all
+indiscriminately, did not prostitute herself once, or twice, or to a
+few, but to the debauchery of every one." It is not without reason that
+"_take_" is connected with the children also. The prophet shall, as it
+were, receive and take, along with the wife, those who, without his
+agency, have been born of her. It is self-evident, and has been,
+moreover, formerly proved, that we cannot speak of children who were
+previously born of the prophet's wife; but that, on the contrary, the
+children are they whose birth is narrated in ver. 4 seqq. And that we
+cannot consider these children as children of the prophet, as is done
+by several interpreters (_Drus._: "_Accipe uxorem et suscipe ex eâ
+liberos_"), is obvious from their being designated "children of
+whoredoms;" from the word "take" itself, which is expressive of the
+passive conduct of the prophet; from the fact that, in the subsequent
+verses, the conceiving and bearing of the wife are alone constantly
+spoken of, but never, as in Is. viii. 3, the begetting by the prophet;
+and, _finally_, from the relation of the type to the thing typified. By
+the latter, it is absolutely required that children and mother stand in
+the same relation of alienation from the legitimate husband and father.
+The words in ver. 3, "She bare him a son," are not indeed in opposition
+to it, for these words are only intended to mark the deceit of the wife
+who [Pg 201] offers to her husband the children begotten in adultery,
+as if they were his, and, at the same time, to bring out the patience
+and forbearance of the husband who receives them, and brings them up as
+if they were his, although he knows that they are not. In like manner,
+the Lord treated, for centuries, the rebellious Israelites as if they
+were His children, and granted to them the inheritance which was
+destined only for the children, along with so many other blessings,
+until at length He declared them to be bastards, by carrying them away
+into captivity. The last words state the ground of the symbolical
+action. The causal כי is explained from the fact that the import of a
+symbolical action is also its ground. The _Inf. absol._ preceding the
+_tempus finitum_ gives special emphasis to the verbal idea. The prophet
+thereby indicates that, in using the expression "to whore," he does so
+deliberately, and because it corresponds exactly to the thing, and
+wishes us to understand it in its full strength and compass. In calling
+the thing by its right name, he silences, beforehand, every attempt at
+palliating and extenuating it. Of such palliations and extenuations the
+Jews had abundance. They had not the slightest notion that they had
+become unfaithful to their God, but considered their intercourse
+with idols as trifling and allowable attentions which they paid to
+them.--_Manger_ understands by whoredoms, their placing, at the same
+time, their confidence in man; but from what follows, where idolatry
+alone is constantly spoken of, it is obvious that this is inadmissible.
+If this special thing be reduced to its idea, it is true that trusting
+in men is, then, not less comprehended under it than idolatry, inasmuch
+as this idea is the turning away from God to that which is not God.
+And, from this dependence of what is special upon the idea, it follows
+that the description has its eternal truth, and does not become
+antiquated, even where the folly of gross idolatry has been long since
+perceived.--הארין, the definite land, the land of the prophet, the land
+of Israel.--Concerning the last words, Ps. lxxiii. 27 may be compared,
+where זנה מן occurs with a similar signification. This phrase contains
+an allusion to the common expression, "to walk with, or after, God;"
+compare 2 Kings xxiii. 3. According to _Calvin_, the spiritual chastity
+of the people of God consists in their following the Lord.
+
+Ver. 3. "_And he went and took Gamer the daughter of Dibhlaim, and she
+conceived and bare him a son._"
+
+[Pg 202]
+
+Many interpreters suppose that, by the three children, three different
+generations are designated, and the gradual degeneracy of the people,
+which sinks deeper and deeper. But this opinion must certainly be
+rejected. There is no gradation perceptible. On the contrary, the
+announcement of the total destruction of the kingdom of Israel is
+connected immediately with the name of the first child, ver. 4. Nor is
+it legitimate to say, as _Rückert_ does, that the three children are a
+designation of the "conditions" in which the Israelites would be placed
+in consequence of their apostasy from the Lord. For, how could mercy be
+shown to _conditions_? The right view rather is, that the wife and
+children are both the people of Israel, viewed only in different
+relations. In the first designation, they are viewed as a unity; in the
+latter, as a plurality proceeding from, and depending upon, this unity.
+The circumstance that the prophet mentions the birth of children at
+all, and the birth of three only, is accounted for by their names. The
+children exist only that they may receive a name. The three names must,
+therefore, not be considered separately, but must be viewed together.
+In that case they present a corresponding picture of the fate impending
+upon Israel. The circumstance that the mother and sons are
+distinguished in Hosea, rests upon the Song of Solomon. (Compare the
+more copious remarks in my commentary on the Song of Sol. iii. 4: "By
+the mother, the people is designated according to its historical
+continuity,--by the daughter or sons, according to its existence at any
+moment.")
+
+Ver. 4. "_And the Lord said unto him, Call his name Jezreel; for yet a
+little_ (while), _and I visit the blood of Jezreel upon the house of
+Jehu, and cause to cease the kingdom of the house of Israel._"
+
+The name "Jezreel" is, by most expositors, explained in this passage as
+meaning: "God disperses." This they maintain to be its real
+signification, according to the etymology, and that all the rest is
+only an allusion. But this exposition is erroneous, as _Manger_ has
+correctly perceived. For, 1. No instance occurs where the verb זרע has
+this signification. When applied to men, it is always used only in a
+good sense: compare ii. 25, Ezek. xxxvi. 9, and the subsequent remarks
+on Zech. x. 9. The idea of _scattering_ is not at all the fundamental
+one; so that the signification, to _disperse_, is much further from the
+fundamental [Pg 203] signification than might, at first sight, appear.
+2. The subsequent words must be considered as an explanation of the
+name Jezreel, as is obvious from the corresponding explanations of the
+names Lo-Ruhamah in ver. 6, and Lo-Ammi in ver. 9, which are intimately
+connected with these names. But in this explanation, not even a single
+word is said on the subject of the dispersion of the people of
+Israel. The circumstance that, in this explanation, Jezreel occurs
+as a proper name, without any regard being paid to its appellative
+signification[2]--an allusion to which occurs only in the announcement
+of the salvation--shows that here too it must be viewed in the same
+way. The correct view is this. Jezreel was the place where the last
+great judgment of God upon the kingdom of Israel had been executed. The
+apostasy from the Lord, and the innocent blood of His servants, shed by
+Jezebel and the whole house of Ahab, had been there avenged upon them
+by Jehu, the founder of the dynasty which was reigning at the time of
+the prophet. At the command of God, Jehu is anointed as king by one of
+the sons of the prophets sent by Elisha, 2 Kings ix. In vers. 6-9 the
+Lord says to him through the latter: "I anoint thee king over the
+people of the Lord, over Israel. And thou shalt smite the house of Ahab
+thy master; and _I avenge the blood of My servants the prophets, and
+the blood of all the servants of the Lord at the hand of Jezebel, and
+the whole house of Ahab shall perish._ And I give the house of Ahab
+like the house of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, and like the house of
+Baasha the son of Ahijah." The execution corresponded with the command.
+When Jehu approached Jezreel, Joram the son of Ahab went out against
+him, and met him in the portion of Naboth the Jezreelite, ver. 21.
+Appealing to the declaration of the Lord, [Pg 204] "Surely I have seen
+the blood of Naboth, and the blood of his sons, and I will requite thee
+in this portion of ground" (ver. 26), Jehu orders the corpse of the
+slain king to be cast thither. At Jezreel, Jezebel too found a
+disgraceful death. Thither, as to the central point of vengeance, were
+sent the heads of the seventy royal princes, who had been slain, x.
+1-10, and there Jehu slew all that remained of the house of Ahab, ver.
+11.--The royal house, and, along with it, all Israel, are now anew to
+become a Jezreel; _i.e._, the same divine punitive justice which, at
+that time, was manifested at Jezreel, is to be exhibited anew. The
+reason why this should be, is stated in the explanation. The house of
+Jehu, and all Israel, shall become a Jezreel, in as far as punishment
+is concerned, because they have become a Jezreel with respect to guilt,
+and because, as in former times at Jezreel, so now again, blood that
+has been shed cries to the Lord for vengeance. Where a new carcase is,
+there the eagles must anew be gathered together.--It must have, already
+appeared from this, how we understand the words, "I visit the blood of
+Jezreel," used in the explanation of the name of Jezreel, in the verse
+under consideration. According to the prophet's custom of designating,
+by the name of an old thing, any new thing which is substantially
+similar to it, the new guilt is marked by the name of the old; and it
+is marked as _blood_, because the former guilt was pre-eminently
+blood-guiltiness;[3] and as the blood of Jezreel, because the former
+blood-guiltiness had been especially contracted there, and it was there
+where the punishment was executed. The deep impression, which just this
+mode of representation must have produced, must not be overlooked. The
+sins formerly committed at Jezreel were acknowledged as such by the
+whole people, and especially by the royal house, whose whole rights
+were based upon this acknowledgment. The recollection of the fearful
+punishment was still in the minds of all; but they did not by any means
+imagine that they were implicated in the same guilt, and had to expect
+the same punishment. That which they considered as already [Pg 205]
+absolutely past, the prophet, by a single word, brings again into the
+present, and the immediate future. By a single word of dreadful sound
+he terrified and aroused them out of their self-deception (which will
+not recognise its own sin in the picture of the sins of others), and
+out of their carnal security. Entirely analogous are 2 Kings ix. 31,
+where Jezebel says to Jehu, "Hast thou peace, Zimri, murderer of his
+master?" which _Schmid_ well explains by--"It is time for thee to
+desist, that thou mayest not experience the same punishment as Zimri;"
+Zech. v. 11, where the prophet mentions Shinar as the place of Israel's
+future banishment; and x. 11, where he calls their future oppressors by
+the names of Asshur and Egypt, and describes a new passing through the
+Red Sea. In Revelation, the degenerate church is called by the names of
+Sodom and Egypt (xi. 18); the true Church, by Jerusalem; Rome, by
+Babylon.--The explanation which we have given will be its own defence
+against the current, and evidently erroneous, expositions. Many
+interpreters understand, by the blood of Jezreel, the slaughter of the
+family of Ahab which was accomplished there by Jehu. It is, indeed,
+quite correct to say that a deed objectively good does not thereby
+become one which is subjectively so. That which has been willed and
+commanded by God may itself become an object of divine punishment, if
+it be not performed from love and obedience to God, but from culpable
+selfishness. But that Jehu was actuated by motives so bad, is
+sufficiently obvious from the circumstance, that he himself did the
+very thing which he had punished in the house of Ahab. _Calvin_ rightly
+remarks: "That slaughter is, as far as God is concerned, a just
+vengeance; but, as far as Jehu is concerned, it is open murder." But
+yet, this deed cannot be regarded as the principal crime of Jehu and
+his family. We must not overlook other crimes far more heinous, and
+consider the guilty blood shed by them as the sole ground of their
+punishment. That this was indeed considered as guilt, but only as a
+lower degree of it, is clearly seen from 1 Kings xvi. 7, where
+destruction is announced to Baasha, who had destroyed the house of
+Jeroboam I., "on account of all the evil which he did in the sight of
+the Lord, in provoking Him to anger with the works of his hands, so
+that he may be like the house of Jeroboam, and because he killed him."
+The main crime is, that Baasha had become like the house of Jeroboam.
+[Pg 206] What he perpetrated against this house is the minor crime, and
+becomes a crime only through the former.--It is worthy of notice that
+"the blood of Jezreel" exactly corresponds, according to our
+explanation, with the expression, "so that he may be like the house of
+Jeroboam." It may be further noticed, that, in the deed of Jehu, every
+better feeling cannot be excluded. If the command of God had been used
+by him merely as a pretext, we could not account for the praise and the
+promises given to him on account of this very deed, 2 Kings x. 30. It
+is true that the limitation of the promise shows that pure motives
+alone did not prevail with him.[4]--"The bloody deed to which the house
+of Jehu owed its elevation" nowhere else appears as the cause of the
+catastrophe which befell this house. That which he had done against the
+house of Ahab, whose sins were crying to heaven for vengeance far more
+than those of Baasha, is, in 2 Kings x. 30, 31, represented as his
+_merit_. His _guilt_ consisted in his not departing from the ways of
+Jeroboam, and in his making Israel to sin. It is this guilt alone
+which, in the Book of Kings, is charged against all the members of his
+family,--against Jehoahaz, the son of Jehu, in 2 Kings xiii. 2; against
+Jehoash, in 2 Kings xiii. 11; against Jeroboam, in 2 Kings xiv. 24;
+against Zechariah, under whom the catastrophe took place, in 2 Kings
+xv. 9: "And he did that which was evil in the eyes of the Lord, as his
+fathers had done, and departed not from the sins of Jeroboam the son of
+Nebat, who had made Israel to sin." According to the context, we must,
+in the first place, think of the _religious guilt_; the blood of
+Jezreel, in the verse under consideration, must correspond with the
+_whoredoms_ in ver. 2.--Moreover, the extension of the punishment to
+all Israel could not, according to this explanation, be understood; for
+the deed was only that of Jehu and his assistants. How, then, could not
+only the house of Jehu be punished, but also [Pg 207] the kingdom of
+the house of Israel be destroyed, and its bow broken in the valley of
+Jezreel?
+
+According to another interpretation still more prevalent, "the blood of
+Jezreel" denotes "all the evil deeds committed by the Israelitish kings
+in Jezreel." But this interpretation is sufficiently invalidated by the
+single circumstance, that the residence of the family of Jehu, which,
+after all, alone comes into consideration in this place, was, from the
+very beginning, not Jezreel, but Samaria; compare 2 Kings x. 36, xiii.
+10, xiv. 23.
+
+Two particulars are contained in the announcement of punishment.
+_First_,--The whole house of Jehu, and _then_ all Israel, are to become
+a Jezreel as regards punishment, as they are even now in point of
+guilt; and, in this announcement, the significant _paronomasia_ must
+not be overlooked between _Israel_--the designation of the dignity of
+the people, and _Jezreel_--that which is base in deeds and condition.
+Calvin makes prominent the last-mentioned feature only: "You are," he
+explains, "a degenerate people, you differ in nothing from your king
+Ahab." We cannot, however, follow him in this explanation; the words,
+"I cause to cease the kingdom of the house of Israel," cannot, as
+several interpreters suppose, mean merely, "I will put an end to the
+dominion of the family of Jehu over Israel." That these words rather
+announce the cessation of every native regal government, and hence of
+the entire national independence, is so evident, that it stands in need
+of no proof. Both of these features are, in their fulfilment, separated
+indeed by a long period of time (see the Introduction); but they are
+nevertheless closely connected. With the ruin of the house of Jehu, the
+strength of the kingdom of Israel was broken; from that time it was
+only a living corpse. The fall of the house of Jehu was the beginning
+of the end,--the commencement of the process of putrefaction. The
+omission, in the inscription, of all mention of any of the kings after
+Jeroboam, coincides with the circumstance that the fall of the house of
+Jehu is connected with the fall of the kingdom. With regard, however,
+to the former event, Hosea had an earlier prophecy before him. It had
+been prophesied to Jehu (2 Kings x. 30) that his children should sit on
+the throne until the fourth generation. Now, since Jeroboam was the
+great-grandson of Jehu, the glory of [Pg 208] this family must come to
+an end with his son. But at no period did the house of Jehu, and the
+kingdom of Israel, seem to be so far from destruction as under the
+reign of Jeroboam; and, hence, it was time that the forgotten prophecy
+should be revived, and, at the same time, expanded.
+
+Ver. 5. "_And it shall come to pass at that day, that I break the bow
+of Israel in the valley of Jezreel._"
+
+Of this, Calvin gives the following paraphrase: "Ye are puffed up with
+pride; ye oppose your fierceness to God, because ye excel in weapons
+and strength; because ye are warlike men, ye believe that God can do
+nothing against you. But surely your bows shall not prevent His hands
+from destroying you."--In the valley of Jezreel, Israel shall become,
+as to punishment, what they already are, as to guilt, viz., a
+"Jezreel." The verse is a further expansion of the last words of the
+preceding one, to which the words, "at that day," refer. He whose bow
+is broken is defenceless and powerless; compare Gen. xlix. 24; 1 Sam.
+ii. 4; Jer. xlix. 35. It is evident that we can here think only of the
+defeat of Israel by the Assyrians, the consequence of which was the
+total overthrow of the kingdom of Israel. But it is not to be
+overlooked, that the Assyrians, who in the second section of Hosea are
+frequently mentioned in express terms, as the instruments of God's
+punishment, are not spoken of at all as such in the first section,
+which belongs to the reign of Jeroboam. Amos likewise abstains from
+mentioning any name of the enemies. The Assyrians had not at that time
+appeared on the historical horizon. But the prophecy was to evince
+itself as such, by the fact of the announcement of the judgment at a
+time when its instruments were not as yet prepared; just as Elijah, in
+1 Kings xviii. 41, hears the rushing of the rain before there was even
+a cloud in the sky.--We are not told in the historical books at what
+place Israel was defeated by the Assyrians. _Jerome_, in his remarks on
+our passage, says that it took place in the valley of Jezreel. It is
+very probable, however, that this is only an inference clothed in the
+garb of history. But even apart from the passage under review, the
+matter is very probable. The valley of Jezreel or Esdrelon "is the
+largest, and at the same time the most fertile, plain of Palestine. The
+brook of Kishon, which is, next to Jordan, the most important river of
+Palestine, waters and fructifies it, and, [Pg 209] with its
+tributaries, flows through it in all directions." (_Ritter_, S. 689.)
+In all the wars which were carried on within the territories of the ten
+tribes, especially when the enemies came from the North, it was the
+natural battle-field. "It was, in the first centuries, the station of a
+legion (μέγα πεδίον λεγεῶνος); it is the place where the troops of
+Nebuchadnezzar, Vespasian, Justinian, the Sultan Saladdin, and many
+other conquering armies were encamped, down to the unsuccessful
+expedition of _Buonaparte_, whose success in Syria here terminated.
+_Clarke_ found erected here the tents of the troops of the Pacha of
+Damascus. In later times, it was the scene of the skirmishes between
+the parties of hostile hordes of Arabs and Turkish pachas. In the
+political relations of Asia Minor, it is to this locality that there
+must be ascribed the total devastation and depopulation of Galilee,
+which once was so flourishing, full of towns, and thickly populated."
+(_Ritter_, _Erdk._ 1 _Ausg._ ii. S. 387.) We may add, that, in the same
+plain also, the battle was fought in which Saul and Jonathan perished
+(for the plain of Esdrelon is bounded on the south-east by the
+mountains of Gilboa), and so likewise was the battle between Ahab and
+the Syrians. To it also belonged the plain near the town of Megiddo,
+where Josiah, in the battle against Pharaoh-Necho, was mortally
+wounded. Compare _Rosenmüller_, _Alt._ ii. 1, p. 149.
+
+Ver. 6. "_And she conceived again, and bare a daughter. And He said to
+him, Call her name Lo-Ruhamah_ (_i.e._, one who has not obtained
+mercy): _for I will not continue any more to have mercy upon the house
+of Israel; for I will take away from them._"--Interpreters ask why
+the second child was a female; and this question is by no means an
+idle one, since the prophet everywhere else adheres closely to the
+subject-matter, and adds no feature, merely for the sake of giving
+vividness to the picture. We cannot for a moment suppose, as _Jerome_
+and others do, that the female child denotes a more degraded
+generation. For why, then, is the third again a male child? The
+supposition proceeds from the altogether unfounded notion that the
+three children denote different generations. The reason must, on the
+contrary, be sought for in the name. _Schmid_ says: "It seems to have
+reference to the weakness of the sex. For the female sex [Pg 210] finds
+greater sympathy than the male." The verb רחם does not denote any kind
+of love, but only the love of him who is high to him who is low, of the
+strong to the weak; and hence the LXX., whom Peter follows in 1 Pet.
+ii. 10 (οὐκ ἠλεημένη), render the word more accurately than Paul, in
+Rom. ix. 25 (οὐκ ἠγαπημένη). Hence it is never used of man's love to
+God, but only of the love of God to man,--of His mercy. The only
+passage which seems to contradict this, Ps. xviii. 2, is not to the
+purpose, as, there, the _Kal_ is used. But the female sex, being
+weaker, stands in greater need of the compassion of men, than does the
+male. Is. ix. 16. The female child places the neediness and
+helplessness of the people in more striking contrast with the refusal
+of help from Him who alone can bestow it. The רחמה is either
+_Participle_ in _Pual_ which has cast off the מ, or the 3d fem. _Pret.
+in pause_; thus _Cocceius_, who explains it by: "She has not obtained
+mercy." It is in favour of the latter view, that according to _Ewald_,
+§ 310 b, לא does not often stand before a _Participle_. The words, "_I
+will not continue_," refer to the former great manifestations of divine
+mercy, and especially the last under Jeroboam, which the people still,
+at that time, enjoyed; compare 2 Kings xiii. 23: "And the Lord was
+gracious unto them, and had _mercy_ upon them, and turned towards them
+because of His covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and would not
+destroy them, neither cast them from His presence." Upon this contrast,
+also, rests the mild expression, "I will not have mercy,"--an
+expression which, in virtue of this contrast, becomes stronger than any
+other. Several interpreters here lay peculiar stress upon the
+circumstance, that "the _house_ of Israel" is spoken of. This, the
+kingdom of Israel, they say, as an independent state, is given over to
+everlasting destruction; it is only single individuals who shall obtain
+mercy after they have joined the house of David. But the supposition
+that "house of Israel" is used in this sense, is altogether unfounded.
+The house is equivalent to the family; and the prophets speak of "a
+house of Israel" after the destruction, no less than before it. The
+words in ii. 6 (4), "I will not have mercy upon her children," and the
+circumstance that she who is here called Lo-Ruhamah is afterwards
+called Ruhamah, also militate against referring "house of Israel" to
+the state. The right view rather is, that the denial of mercy [Pg 211]
+must not be understood absolutely, but relatively. It is not for ever
+that mercy shall be denied to them, but for a time,--until God's
+punitive justice shall have been satisfied. Just as Israel shall not
+always remain Jezreel, Lo-Ammi shall, at some future time, become again
+Ammi.--The last words are, by the greater number of recent
+interpreters, almost unanimously explained: "That I should forgive
+them." But, in that case, we can perceive no reason why the _Inf. abs._
+should be placed before the _tempus finitum_. Why should the verbal
+idea here be rendered so emphatic? In addition to this, the extreme
+feebleness of the sense would be remarkable. Nothing would be said that
+would not be already implied in the words, "I will not continue any
+more to have mercy." But, on the other hand, we obtain a very suitable
+sense if we translate thus: "I will take away from them." The object is
+not mentioned, just because _every thing_ is to be understood. The
+prominence given to the verbal idea is then accounted for from its
+being contrasted with the _having mercy_, which implies _giving_. There
+is then, moreover, a very striking contrast with the standing phrase
+נשא עון ל, or also simply נשא ל: I shall take away from them, not,
+however, as hitherto, their guilt (compare Amos vii. 8), but all that
+they have. _Calvin_ had previously directed attention to the
+circumstance that the following verse also is in favour of the
+translation by _tollere_: "_Servare et tollere inter se opponit
+propheta._" Chap. v. 14 may also be compared, where נשא is used in a
+similar manner, the object being likewise omitted: "I will tear and go
+away, I will take away, and there is none that delivereth."
+
+Ver. 7. "_And I will have mercy upon the house of Judah, and I save
+them by the Lord their God; and I do not save them by bow, and by
+sword, and by war, and by horses, and by horsemen._"
+
+Several interpreters suppose that mercy is here promised to Judah as a
+_consolation_ to Israel, inasmuch as the latter should partake in it.
+But this view is erroneous. From the antithesis to ver. 6, it is
+evident that mercy is here promised to Judah for the time when Israel
+shall not find mercy; and we are not at liberty to anticipate the time
+described in ii. 1-3, when both become partakers of mercy. This is
+apparent also from the circumstance that in vers. 8, 9, the threatening
+of punishment [Pg 212] to Israel is still continued. It can then only
+be the intention of the prophet, by describing the mercy which Judah
+their brethren should experience, to sharpen the goad, more effectually
+to rouse Israel from their false security, and to direct their
+attention to the bad foundation of the entire constitution of their
+political and ecclesiastical affairs, in consequence of which they
+considered as legitimate that which, in Judah, was only an abuse. As
+the showing of mercy to Judah runs parallel with the withholding of it
+from Israel, we can, primarily and chiefly, think only of the different
+fates of the two, during the Assyrian dominion. The wonderful
+deliverance of Judah on that occasion is foretold by Isaiah, xxxi. 8,
+in a similar manner: "And Asshur falls through the sword not of a man,
+and the sword not of a man devours him." We must not, however, limit
+ourselves to this event; a preference of Judah over Israel, a remnant
+of divine mercy appeared, even when they were carried away into
+captivity. During its continuance, they were not altogether deprived of
+marks of the continuance of the divine election. Prophets continued to
+labour among them, as immediate ambassadors of God. Wonderful events
+showed them in the midst of the Gentiles the superiority of their God,
+and prepared the way for their deliverance. They maintained, in a far
+greater degree, their national constitution; and, _lastly_, their
+affliction lasted for a far shorter time than did that of the
+Israelites. Contrary to all human expectation, their affairs soon took
+a favourable turn, in which only a comparatively small number of their
+Israelitish brethren partook, while, for the rest, the withholding of
+mercy continued. But it is just by means of this contrast with the lot
+of Judah, that the announcement of the lot of Israel appears in its
+true light. Without this contrast, one might have imagined, that the
+announcement of the prophet did not go beyond his human vision. It
+would, of course, appear highly probable that a kingdom so weak as that
+of Israel,--weak, especially when compared with those great Asiatic
+kingdoms which were great already, and yet were continually striving
+after enlargement,--a kingdom, moreover, placed in the midst between
+these kingdoms, and their natural enemy and rival, Egypt--should not
+have been able to maintain its existence for any length of time. But
+this probability existed in a far higher decree in the case of the
+kingdom of [Pg 213] Judah, which was smaller and weaker still, and
+which had suffered much through Jehoash the father of Jeroboam (2 Kings
+xiv. 13), under the latter of whom, the splendour and glory of Israel
+had been so greatly increased. But that which prevented this
+probability from becoming a reality lay altogether beyond the sphere of
+human calculation, as Hosea himself here so emphatically expresses. And
+by _such_ help, the kingdom of Israel would have been delivered, no
+less than the kingdom of Judah. It is true that this prediction of
+Hosea is no prediction of some accidental event, but has its foundation
+in the idea. The lots of Israel and Judah could not be otherwise than
+so different, after their different position in reference to the
+Covenant-God was once fixed. Nor is this prediction one which has
+ceased after its first and literal fulfilment, but is constantly and
+anew realizing itself. The proceeding of God towards the different
+Churches and States is regulated by their conduct towards Him. The
+history of the world is a judgment of the world. But even to know this
+truth is, in itself, a supernatural gift; and they only are able to use
+it with safety, to whom God has given an insight into the mysteries of
+His government of the world. This becomes very evident, if we observe
+how often the predictions of those who knew the truth in general, down
+to _Bengel_ and his followers, have been put to shame by the result.
+God's ways are not our ways. No one knows them except Himself, and
+those to whom He will reveal them. The extent to which the prophecy
+rests on the idea is, moreover, clearly seen by the words, "And I save
+them _by Jehovah their God_." Here we have the ground of their
+deliverance. Jehovah is the God of Judah, and, hence, the source of
+their salvation, which does not cease to flow although all human
+sources be dried up. The reason why Israel does not obtain mercy must
+then be, that Jehovah is not their God. That this contrast is implied
+here, is confirmed by iii. 5: "Afterwards shall the children of Israel
+return and seek the _Lord their God_, and David their king." That which
+in aftertimes they shall seek, and thereby obtain salvation, they must
+have lost now; and this loss must be the source of their affliction.
+Calvin makes the following pertinent remark: "The antithesis between
+the false gods and Jehovah must here be kept in mind. Jehovah was the
+God of the house of Judah; and hence, it is just as if the prophet had
+said, 'Ye [Pg 214] indeed profess the name of God, but ye worship the
+devil, and not God. Ye have no part in Jehovah. He resides in His
+temple, and has pledged His faithfulness to David when He commanded him
+to build Him a temple on Mount Zion; but from you, the true God has
+departed!'" (Compare Amos ii. 8, where the prophet speaks of the god of
+the ten tribes as one who belongs to them alone, and with whom he has
+nothing to do.) In contrast with Him who alone could grant help, and
+whom Israel did not possess, but Judah did, the prophet enumerates, in
+the remaining part of the verse under consideration, the aids which
+could not afford any real help, in which Israel was, at that time, much
+richer than Judah, and in which they placed a false confidence. Compare
+x. 13: "Thou didst trust in thy way, in the multitude of thy mighty
+men;" Ps. xx. 8; Mic. v. 9 seqq.; and Deut. xxxiii. 29, where the Lord
+is spoken of as the only true bulwark and armour: "Happy art thou,
+Israel: who is like unto thee? a people saved by the Lord, the shield
+of thy help, thy proud sword: thine enemies shall be liars unto thee,
+and thou shalt tread upon their high places." Calvin says, "God does
+not require any other aids; His own strength is quite sufficient. The
+sum and substance is therefore this, that although the weakness of the
+kingdom of Judah excites the contempt of all, this shall be no obstacle
+to its deliverance by the grace of God, although there be no help at
+all from men."--The prophet has, at the same time, before his eyes the
+great events of former history, where, when all human resources failed,
+the power of God had shown itself to be alone quite sufficient.--We
+cannot assert with _Gesenius_, that "war" should here be quite
+identical with "weapons of war;" it rather comprehends everything which
+is required for war, viz., the prudence of the commanders, the valour
+of the heroes, the strength of the army, etc. "Heroes and horsemen"
+are, however, specially mentioned, because in ancient times the main
+strength of the armies lay in these. Even Mahommed thought himself
+entitled to hold up a victory which he had obtained without cavalry--by
+infantry alone--as a miracle wrought immediately by God; comp. _Abulf.
+vit. Moh._ pp. 72, 91.
+
+Ver. 8. "_And she weaned Lo-Ruhamah, and conceived, and bare a son._"
+
+Ver. 9. "_And He said, Call his name, Lo-Ammi_ (_i.e._, not [Pg 215] my
+people); _for you are not My people, and I, not will I be yours._"
+
+As the prophet everywhere else adheres closely to his subject-matter,
+as, indeed, he allows the figure to recede behind the subject of his
+discourse, but never the opposite, we cannot well imagine that the
+weaning is mentioned merely for the purpose of making the description
+more graphic. Calvin says, "I do not doubt that the prophet intends
+here to commend the Lord's long-continued mercy and forbearance towards
+that people." The unfaithfulness of the wife, and the forbearance of
+the prophet, do indeed continue for years. But it is better to suppose
+that the mention of the weaning is intended to separate the territory
+of Lo-Ruhamah from the following birth, and to call forth the idea
+that, now, there may follow one of better import.--The literal
+translation of the close of the verse is, "And I will not be to
+you"--equivalent to, "I will not any longer belong to you." We cannot
+assume, as _Manger_ does, that לאלהים has been here left out, nor, as
+others do, that it must be supplied. Since it is God who speaks, "to
+you," or "yours," is sufficiently definite. Similar is Ezek. xvi. 8:
+"And I entered into a covenant with thee, and thou becamest Mine,"
+ותהיי לי; Ps. cxviii. 6: "The Lord is mine, יהוה לי, I will not fear."
+The explanation given by some, "I shall not be among you," is too
+limited. It is the highest happiness to possess God Himself, with all
+His gifts and blessings, and the greatest misery to lose Him. The
+fulfilment of this threatening is reported in 2 Kings xvii. 18: "And
+the Lord was very angry with Israel, and removed them out of His sight;
+and there was none left but the tribe of Judah alone;" comp. also Is.
+vii.
+
+The first three verses of the following chapter ought to have been
+connected with the first chapter; for they contain the announcement of
+salvation which is necessary to complete the first prophecy.
+
+Chap. ii. 1. "_And the number of the children of Israel shall be as the
+sand of the sea, which is not measured nor numbered. And it shall come
+to pass, in the place where it was said unto them, Not my people ye, it
+shall be said unto them. Sons of the living God._"
+
+The first point which requires to be determined, is the subject of the
+verse. Every other reference except that to the [Pg 216] ten tribes is
+here out of the question; inasmuch as the same who, in the preceding
+verse, were called Lo-Ammi, are now to be called sons of the living
+God. Several of the ancient expositors here assume a sudden transition
+to the Christian Church; but such would be a _salto mortale_. Nor are
+we to understand by the children of Israel, all the descendants of
+Jacob; for the children of Judah are distinguished from them in ver. 2.
+Substantially, however, those too are included, as appears from this
+very verse; for both shall then form one nation of brethren. But here
+the prophet views only one portion, because to this only did the
+preceding threatening, and the mission of the prophet in general,
+refer. From this, also, it may be explained how the prophet may apply
+to the _part_ the promises of Genesis, which there refer to the
+_whole_. The reference to these promises, in the first part of the
+verse, cannot be at all mistaken. Compare especially, as agreeing most
+literally, the passage in Gen. xxii. 17: "I will multiply thy seed as
+the stars of heaven, and as the sand which is on the shore of the sea;"
+and xxxii. 13 (12): "I make thy seed as the sand of the sea, which is
+not numbered for multitude." A similar literal reference is in Jer.
+xxxiii. 22: "As the host of heaven is not numbered, neither the sand of
+the sea measured; so will I multiply the seed of David My servant."
+Now, the reference here cannot be accidental. It supposes that these
+promises were at that time generally known in the kingdom of Israel.
+They served to strengthen the ungodly in their false security. Relying
+on them, they charged the prophets with making God a liar in thus
+announcing the impending destruction of the kingdom, inasmuch as the
+prophecy had not yet been fulfilled in all its extent. The prophet,
+however, by his almost literal repetition of the promise, shows that
+thereby his threatenings are not excluded--"teaches that the visitation
+of which he had spoken would be such that, nevertheless, God would not
+forget His word; that the rejection of the people would be such that,
+nevertheless, its election should stand firm and sure,--and, finally,
+that the adoption should not be invalid by which He had chosen
+Abraham's progeny as His people" (_Calvin_).--The case is quite
+analogous, when corrupted Christian churches harden themselves in
+trusting in the promise that the Lord would be with them all the days,
+and that the gates of hell should not prevail against His Church. The
+[Pg 217] Lord knoweth how to execute His judgments so that His promises
+shall not suffer thereby, yea, that their fulfilment is thereby
+rendered possible. The relation of our passage to Is. x. 22 requires
+_further_ to be considered: "For though thy people Israel be as the
+sand of the sea, the remnant only shall return." Here, too, the
+reference to the promises in Genesis cannot be mistaken. But there is
+this difference,--that in the time of Isaiah, the people, viewing the
+partial fulfilment of the promises of God in their then prosperous
+condition, as a sure pledge of divine mercy, founded thereupon their
+false security. To this, however, the prophet replies, that even the
+perfect fulfilment would give no warrant for it. In Hosea, however,
+they rely on the perfect fulfilment, which had, as yet, no existence at
+all. But Hosea has in view the godly as much as the ungodly. To the
+former he shows that here also there would be a fulfilment of what is
+written in Num. xxiii. 19: "God is not a man, that He should lie;
+neither the son of man, that He should repent. Should He say, and not
+do it; and speak, and not fulfil it?" Moreover, we cannot fail to see
+that, in the verse under review, as also in ver. 2, there is an
+allusion to the first child, Jezreel,--that in the second member of the
+verse there is an allusion to Lo-Ammi, and in ver. 3, to Lo-Ruhamah.
+But the name Jezreel is now taken in a good sense, probably in the
+sense in which it was first given to the valley (compare remarks on i.
+4), and also to the town by its founders. Jezreel means "God sows." The
+founders of the town thereby expressed the hope that God would cause an
+abundant harvest to proceed from a small sowing--a glorious end from a
+small beginning. Thus God will now sow the small seed of Israel, and an
+infinitely rich harvest shall be gained from this sowing; compare
+remarks on ver. 25.--But if now we seek for the historical reference of
+the announcement, we are compelled to go back to the sense of those
+declarations in Genesis. By many, these are referred merely to the
+bodily descendants of the Patriarchs; by many, also, to their spiritual
+descendants, their successors in the faith. But the latter reference is
+altogether arbitrary; and the former could be well-founded only, if the
+Congregation of the Lord had been destined solely for the natural
+descendants, and if all the Gentiles had been refused admittance into
+it. But that such is not the case, is evident from the command to
+circumcise every bondservant; [Pg 218] for, by circumcision, a man was
+received among the people of God. This appears, _further_, from the
+command in Exod. xii. 48, that every stranger who wished to partake of
+the Passover must be previously circumcised; and this implies that
+strangers might partake in the sign and feast of the covenant if they
+wished; compare _Michaelis_, _Mos. Recht._ Th. iv. § 184. This appears,
+_moreover_, from Deut. xxiii. 1-8, where the Edomites and Egyptians are
+expressly declared to be capable of being received into the
+Congregation of the Lord. It appears, _still further_, from the
+circumstance that, in the same passage, the command to exclude the
+Ammonites and Moabites is founded upon a special reason. And,
+_finally_, it appears from the Jewish practice at all times. But the
+heathens who were received among the people of God were considered as
+belonging to the posterity of the Patriarchs, as their sons by
+adoption. How indeed could it be otherwise, since, by intermarriage,
+every difference must have very soon disappeared? They were called
+children of Israel, and children of Jacob, no less than were the
+others. It now appears to what extent the promise to the Patriarchs
+refers to the Gentiles also--viz., in so far as they became believers
+in the God of Israel, and joined themselves to Israel. Compare Is.
+xliv. 5: "One shall say, I am Jehovah's, and another shall call the
+name of Jacob, and another shall write with his hand. Unto the Lord!
+and boast of the name of Israel." Such an eager desire of the Gentiles
+towards the kingdom of God regularly took place, either when the God of
+Israel had revealed Himself by specially distinguishing manifestations
+of His omnipotence and glory, as, _e.g._, in the deliverance from the
+Egyptian and Babylonish captivities, in both of which events we find a
+number of those who had previously been heathens, ערב, in the train of
+the Israelites;--or when a feeling of the vanity of the idols of the
+heathen world had been awakened with special vividness, as in the times
+after Alexander the Great, in which Roman and Greek heathenism became
+more and more _effete_, and rapidly hastened on towards ruin. In the
+time of Christ, both of these causes co-operated. If there were
+soundness in the opinion now generally prevalent, according to which
+the Church of the New Testament stands quite independent of the
+Congregation of Israel, having originated from a free and equal union
+of believers from Israel, and of those from among the Gentiles, [Pg
+219] then indeed the promise now before us would have no longer any
+reference to New Testament times. The New Testament Church would be a
+generation altogether different, and no longer acknowledge Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob as their fathers. But, according to the constant
+doctrine of the Old as well as of the New Testament, there is only one
+Church of God from Abraham to the end of the days--only one house under
+two dispensations. John the Baptist proceeds upon the supposition that
+the members of the New Testament also must be children of Abraham, else
+the covenant and promise of God would come to nought. But as the bodily
+descent from Abraham is no security against the danger of exclusion
+from his posterity--of which Ishmael was the first example--and as, so
+early as in the Pentateuch, it is said, with reference to every greater
+transgression, "This soul is cut off from its people," so, on the other
+hand, God, in the exercise of His sovereign liberty, may give to
+Abraham, in the room of his degenerate children after the flesh,
+adopted children without number, who shall sit down with him, and
+Isaac, and Jacob, in the kingdom of God, whilst the sons of the kingdom
+are cast out.--After these remarks on the promise to the Patriarchs,
+there can be no longer any difficulty in making out the historical
+reference of the announcement before us. It cannot refer to the bodily
+descendants of Abraham, as such, any more than the promise of a son to
+Abraham was fulfilled in the birth of Ishmael, or than the Arabs stand
+related to the promise of the innumerable multitude of his
+descendants,--a promise which is repeated, in the same extent, to Isaac
+and Jacob, although they were not the ancestors of the Arabs.
+Degenerate sons are not a blessing; they are no objects of promise, no
+sons in the full sense. Every one is a son of Abraham, only in so far
+as he is a son of God. For this reason the phrases "sons of Israel" and
+"sons of the living God" are, in the passage before us, connected with
+each other. Not as though the corporeal descent were altogether a
+matter of indifference. The corporeal descendants of the Patriarchs had
+the nearest claims to becoming their children in the full sense. It was
+to them that the means of becoming so were first granted. To them
+pertained the covenants, the promises, and the adoption, Rom. ix. 4.
+But all these external advantages were of no avail to them when they
+allowed them to [Pg 220] remain unused; in these circumstances, neither
+the promise to Abraham, nor the announcement before us, had any
+reference to them. Both of them would have remained to this day
+unfulfilled, although the unconverted children of Israel had increased
+so as to have become the most populous nation on the face of the whole
+earth. It thus appears that the announcement before us was first truly
+realized in the time of the Messiah; inasmuch as it was at that time
+that the family of the Patriarchs was so mightily increased; and that
+it will yet be more fully realized, partly by the reception of an
+innumerable multitude of adopted sons, and partly by the elevation of
+those who were sons only in a lower sense, to be sons in the highest.
+That which occurred at the time after the Babylonish captivity, when
+the Lord stirred up a number of Israelites to return to Palestine, we
+can regard as only an insignificant prelude; partly because this number
+was too small to correspond, even in any degree, to the infinite extent
+of the promise, and partly because there were among them certainly a
+few only who, in the fullest sense, deserved the name of "Children of
+Israel." "Israel"--which is the higher name, and has reference to the
+relation to God--is here used emphatically, as appears especially from
+a comparison with ver. 4, where it is taken from the degenerate
+children, and exchanged for the name "Jezreel."--In the second part of
+the verse, we must first set aside the false interpretation of במקום
+אשר by "instead of," which is given by _Grotius_ and others. It has
+arisen from an inappropriate reference to the Latin, which has,
+however, no support in the Hebrew _usus loquendi_. The words can only
+mean (compare Lev. iv. 24, 33; Jer. xxii. 12; Ezek. xxi. 35; Neh. iv.
+14): "in the place where," or, more literally still, "in the place
+that"--the wider designation instead of the narrower. The _status
+constr._ is explained by the circumstance that the whole succeeding
+sentence together expresses only one substantive idea, equivalent to:
+"in the place of the being said unto them." The place may here be,
+either that where the people first received the name Lo-Ammi, _i.e._,
+Palestine, or the place of the exile, where they first felt the full
+meaning of it,--the misery being a _sermo realis_ of God. Decisive in
+favour of the latter reference is the following verse, where the הארץ,
+the land of the exile, corresponds with מקים in the verse before us.
+(According to _Jonathan_, the sense is: "In the place to [Pg 221] which
+they have been carried away among the Gentiles.") It is intentionally
+that both times the Future יֵאָמֵר is used, which is to be understood as
+the Present. The difference of time being thus disregarded, the
+contrast becomes so much the more striking.--By "people" and "children"
+of God, the same thing is expressed according to different relations.
+The Israelites were the people of God, inasmuch as He was their King;
+and children of God, in as far as He was their Father,--their Father,
+it is true, in the first place, not, as in the New Testament (John i.
+12, 13), in reference to the spiritual generation, but in relation to
+heart-felt love, similar to the love of a father for a son. With regard
+to the Old Testament idea of son ship to God, compare the remarks on
+Ps. ii. 7. In this relation, sometimes all Israel is personified as the
+son of God; thus, _e.g._, Exod. iv. 22: "Thus thou shalt say unto
+Pharaoh: My son. My first-born is Israel." Sometimes the Israelites are
+also called the _children_ or _sons_ of God; _e.g._, Deut. xiv. 1: "Ye
+are children to the Lord your God" (compare also Deut. xxxii. 19),
+although not every single individual could on this account be called
+"son of God." In this sense, that designation is never used, evidently
+because the sonship under the Old Testament does not rest so much on
+the personal relation of the single individual to God,--as is the case
+in the New Testament,--but the individual rather partakes in it only as
+a part of the whole. But there is an easy transition from the sonship
+as viewed in the Old Testament, to the sonship as seen in the New. The
+former, in its highest perfection, cannot exist at all without the
+latter. It is only when its single members are born of God, that the
+Congregation can be regarded and treated as the child of God in the
+full sense of the word, and that the whole fulness of His love can be
+poured out upon it; for this is the only way of attaining to likeness
+with God, which is the condition of admission to the rights of
+children. Hence it appears that the υἱοθεσία under the Old Testament
+was an actual prophecy of the times of the New Testament; and from it,
+it follows also that the announcement under consideration has its
+ultimate reference to these times. Earlier fulfilments--especially at
+the return from the Babylonish captivity--are not to be excluded,
+inasmuch as the idea comprehends in it everything in which it is, even
+in the least degree, realized; but they can be considered [Pg 222] only
+as a slight prelude to Its real fulfilment, which takes place only when
+the reality fully coincides with the idea; so that we are not at
+liberty to limit ourselves to the commencement of the Messianic time,
+but must include the Messianic time in its last consummation.--Another
+question still remains:--Why is God here called the "_living_?"
+Plainly, to point out the antithesis of the true God to dead idols,
+which cannot love, because they do not live; and thus to bring out the
+greatness of the privilege of being the child of such a God. The same
+antithesis is found in Deut. xxxii. 3 seqq.: "Where are now their gods,
+the rock in whom they trusted, which did eat the fat of their
+sacrifices, and drank the wine of their drink-offerings? Let them rise
+up and help you; let it be a covering to you. See now that I, I am He,
+and not is a God beside Me. I kill and I make alive. I wound and I
+heal." This antithesis still continues; the world has only changed its
+idols. It still always seeks the life from the dead, from the gross
+idol of sin up to the refined idol of a self-made abstract god, whether
+he be formed from logical notions or from emotions and feelings. But
+how much soever they may strive to give life to their idols, they
+remain dead, although they should even attain to a semblance of life.
+The true God, on the contrary, lives and continues to live, how much
+soever they may strive to slay Him. He manifests Himself as the living
+one, either by smiting and killing them, if they continue in their
+impenitence, or by healing and quickening them, if they become His
+children.--_Finally_,--we must still consider the two citations, in
+the New Testament, of the passage before us. One in 1 Pet. ii. 10, οἱ
+ποτὲ οὐ λαὸς, νῦν δὲ λαὸς Θεοῦ· οἱ οὐκ ἠλεημένοι, νῦν δὲ ἐλεηθέντες,
+must certainly strike us, inasmuch as this epistle, on conclusive
+grounds (compare _Steiger_ S. 14 ff.), cannot be considered as being
+addressed to Jewish Christians exclusively. But still more striking is
+the second quotation in Rom. ix. 25, 26: ὡς καὶ ἐν τῷ Ὡσηὲ λέγει·
+Καλέσω τὸν οὐ λαόν μου, έν μου· καὶ τὴν οὐκ ἠγαπημένην, ἠγαπημένην. Καὶ
+ἔσται, ἐν τῷ τόπῳ οὗ ἐῤῥήθη αὐτοῖς οὐ λαός μου ὑμεῖς, ἐκεῖ κληθήσονται
+υἱοὶ Θεοῦ ζῶντος. Here our passage is not only alluded to, but
+expressly quoted, and, in opposition to the Jews, the calling of the
+Gentiles is proved from it. But how can a passage which, according to
+the whole context, can refer to Israel only, be applied [Pg 223]
+directly to the Gentiles? The answer very readily suggests itself when
+we reduce the prophecy to its fundamental idea. This is none other than
+that of divine mercy, which may indeed, by apostasy and unfaithfulness,
+be prevented from manifesting itself, but can never be extinguished,
+because it has its foundation in God's nature. Compare Jer. xxxi. 20:
+"Is Ephraim a dear son to Me, a child of joy? For as often as I speak
+of him, I must still remember him. Therefore My bowels sound for him,
+_I will have mercy_ upon him, saith the Lord." Now, in the same manner
+as this truth was realized in the restoration of the children of Israel
+to be again the children of God, so it is in the reception of the
+Gentiles. It is not at all a mere application, but a real proof which
+here forms the question at issue. It is _because_ God had promised to
+receive again the children of Israel, that He must receive the Gentiles
+also; for otherwise that divine decree would have its foundation in
+mere caprice, which cannot be conceived to have any existence in God.
+Although the Gentiles are not so near as Israel, yet He must satisfy
+the claims of those who are more remote, just because He acknowledges
+the claims of those who are near. The necessity of going back to the
+fundamental idea appears in the promises as well as in the
+commandments. We cite only one instance which is especially fitted to
+serve as a parallel to the case before us. There is no doubt, and
+prejudice alone could have denied, that in the Pentateuch, by _friend_
+and _brother_ the Israelite is to be understood throughout; it is in
+the New Testament that the command of Christian brotherly love is
+given. After having commended truthfulness, Paul adds: "Because ye are
+members of one another"--a reason which can refer to those only who
+have Christ as their common head. From this limitation, can anything be
+inferred to the prejudice of love towards the whole human race, or of
+the duties towards all without any distinction? Just the reverse. It is
+just because the Israelite is bound to love the Israelite, and the
+Christian the Christian, that he should embrace all men in love. If the
+special relation to God as the common Redeemer afford the foundation
+for the _special_ love, then the _general_ relation to God as the
+Creator and Preserver must also afford the foundation of _universal_
+love; just as from the command to honour father and mother, it
+necessarily follows that we must also [Pg 224] honour uncle and aunt,
+king and magistrate. This is the only correct view of the laws and
+prophecies; and if it be consistently followed out, it will make water
+to flow out of the rock, and will create streams in the wilderness.
+
+Ver. 2. "_And the children of Judah and the children of Israel assemble
+themselves together, and set over themselves one head, and go up out of
+the land; for great is the day of Jezreel._"
+
+The words, "They appoint themselves a king," appear strange at first
+sight. For it is not, in general, the union of Judah and Israel which
+the prophet expects from better times;--a _perverse_ union of both,
+one, it may be, in which the house of Judah shall also give up Jehovah
+his God, and David his King, only in order to be able to live on a
+right brotherly footing with Israel, would have been anything but a
+progress and a blessing;--but such a union as has for its foundation
+the return of Israel to the true God, and to the Davidic dynasty. This
+appears clearly from iii. 5. The difficulty is removed by a comparison
+with the passage of the Pentateuch to which the prophet seems to
+allude: "Thou shalt set over thee a king, whom the Lord thy God shall
+choose," Deut. xvii. 15. The prophet seems to have these words before
+his eyes, as it appears elsewhere also, where he describes the hitherto
+opposite conduct of the Israelites; compare the remarks on iii. 4. From
+these it appears that the election of the king by God, who had promised
+eternal dominion to the house of David, and his election by the people,
+do not in the least exclude one another. On the contrary, it is
+_because_ God had elected the king, that now the people also elect him.
+_Calvin_ remarks: "There appears to be transferred to men what properly
+belongs to God alone--viz., the appointment of a king; but the prophet
+expresses, by this word, the obedience of faith; for it is not enough
+that Christ be given, and placed before men as a King, but they must
+also acknowledge and reverently receive Him as a King. From this we
+infer, that when we believe the Gospel, we choose, as it were by our
+own vote, Christ as our King." That the prophet understands the
+"setting of a head" in this sense, appears also from the circumstance
+that the whole verse is based upon the reference to the Exodus from
+Egypt, which is now to be repeated. To this the words, "They assemble
+themselves together," likewise refer; for the departure from Egypt was
+preceded by the assembling together of the [Pg 225] whole people. The
+mention of a "head" refers back to Moses. In his case, as well as that
+of David subsequently, the election by the people was only the
+acknowledgment of his having been divinely called.--Another question
+is, How are the words, "They go up out of the land," to be understood?
+There can be no doubt that by "land," the land of captivity is
+designated. For the words are borrowed from Exod. i. 10, where Pharaoh
+says, "When there falleth out any war, they will join our enemies, and
+fight against us, and go up out of the land," ועלה מן הארץ. The
+prophet, moreover, is his own interpreter in ii. 17, where he expressly
+compares this new going up to the promised land with the former going
+up from Egypt: "_As in the day when she went up out of the land of
+Egypt_;" just as, in other passages, he describes their being carried
+away, under the figure of their being carried away to Egypt--Assyria
+being considered as another Egypt. Compare viii. 13: "Now will He
+remember their iniquity and visit their sins; they shall return
+to Egypt;" ix. 3: "They shall not dwell in the Lord's land, and
+Ephraim returns to Egypt." (Compare, on this passage, the Author's
+_Dissertations on the Genuineness of the Pentateuch_, vol. i. p. 121
+ff.) Moreover, in the other prophets also, the going up from, or
+deliverance out of, Egypt, forms throughout the basis of the second
+great deliverance. And this is quite natural; for both of those events
+stand in the closest actual connection with each other;--both proceeded
+from the same Divine Being; and the former was a prophecy _by fact_,
+and a pledge of the latter. The deliverance of the people of God from
+Egypt sealed their election; and from the latter the new deliverance
+necessarily followed;--a relation which repeats itself in individuals
+also. From this we may explain the fact that in the Psalms, they who
+celebrate God's former mercies, prove from them to Him and to
+themselves, throughout, that He must now also be their helper. It is
+then by no means a mere external similarity which induces the prophets
+ever and anon to refer to the deliverance from Egypt (compare the
+passages Mic. ii. 12, 13; Jer. xxiii. 7, 8, which bear so close a
+resemblance to the passage before us), any more than that the Passover
+is a mere memorial. Such cannot occur in the true religion which has a
+living God, and hence knows nothing of anything absolutely past.
+_Ewald's_ [Pg 226] exposition, that they go up out of the country for
+the purpose of further conquest, and that of _Simson_, that they go up
+to Jerusalem, sever the three events which, as the example of previous
+history shows, are evidently so closely allied; and these expositors,
+moreover, give, by an addition of their own, that definiteness to the
+words, "And they shall go up out of the land," which they can obtain
+only by a reference to the history of the past. In their ambiguity,
+they almost expressly point to such a commentary.--The article in הארץ,
+_the_ (_i.e._, the definite) land, is explained from the circumstance
+that, in the previous context, there had been an indirect allusion to
+their being carried away into a strange land. If Israel was no more the
+people of God,--if they no longer enjoyed His mercy, then it is
+supposed that they could not remain in the land which they had received
+only as the people of God, and had hitherto retained only through His
+mercy. But, primarily, the article refers to "the place where it was
+said unto them," in the preceding verse.--That along with the children
+of Israel, the children of Judah also assemble themselves and go up,
+implies a fact which the prophet had not expressly mentioned, because
+it did not stand immediately connected with his purpose--viz., that
+Judah too should be carried into captivity. It thus supplements chap.
+i. 7, by showing that the mercy there promised to the inhabitants of
+Judah is to be understood relatively only. Such suppositions, indeed,
+show very plainly how distinctly the future lay before the eyes of the
+prophet.[5]--With regard, now, to the historical reference,--it must,
+in the first place, be remarked, that whatever is here determined
+concerning it, must be applicable to all other [Pg 227] parallel
+passages also, in which a future reunion of Israel and Judah, and their
+common return to the promised land, are announced; _e.g._, Jer. iii.
+18: "In those days the house of Judah shall walk with the house of
+Israel, and they come together out of the land of the north to the land
+that I have given to their fathers;" l. 4: "In those days the children
+of Israel shall come, they and the children of Judah together, weeping
+shall they come and seek the Lord their God." Compare also Is. xi.;
+Ezek. xxxvii. 19, 20. In the passage under consideration, several
+interpreters, as _Theodoret_, think of the return from Babylon, and
+refer the "one head" to Zerubbabel. Now we certainly cannot deny that,
+in that event, there is a small beginning of the fulfilment. But if
+that had been the entire fulfilment, Hosea would more resemble a
+dreamer and an enthusiast than a true prophet of the living God. The
+objection which immediately presents itself--viz., that, after all, the
+greatest portion of the ten tribes, and a very considerable part of
+Judah, remained in captivity--is by no means the strongest. Although
+the whole both of Judah and Israel had returned, the real and final
+fulfilment could not be sought for in that event. It is not the renewed
+possession of the country, as such, which the prophet promises, but
+rather a certain kind of possession,--such a possession as that the
+land is completely the land of God, partaking in all the fulness of His
+blessings, and thus a worthy residence for the people of God, and for
+their children. One may be in Canaan, and yet, at the same time, in
+Babylon or in Assyria. Had not the threatened punishment of God been
+indeed as fully executed upon those who, during the Assyrian and
+Babylonish captivities, wandered about the country in sorrow and
+misery, as upon those who were carried away? Can the circumstance that
+Jews are even now living in Jerusalem in the deepest misery, be adduced
+as a proof that the loss of the promised land, with which the people
+were threatened, had not been completely fulfilled? It is true that,
+during the times of the Old Covenant, there existed a certain
+connection betwixt the lower and the higher kinds of possession. As
+soon as the people ceased to be the people of the Lord, they lost with
+the former, after being often previously warned by the decrease of it,
+the latter also. As soon as they obtained again the lower kind of
+possession, which could happen only in the case of a [Pg 228] return to
+the Lord, they recovered, to a certain degree, in proportion to the
+earnestness and sincerity of their conversion, the higher kind of
+possession also. A commencement of the fulfilment must, therefore, be
+at all events assumed in the return from the Babylonish captivity; but
+a very feeble commencement only. Just as the conversion was very
+superficial, so was the degree of the higher kind of possession but a
+very small one. The manifestations of mercy were very sparing; the
+condition of the new colony was, upon the whole, very poor; they did
+not possess the land as a free property, but only under the dominion of
+a foreigner. That which was, in one respect, the termination of the
+captivity, was, in another, much rather a continuation of it. It was
+certainly not the true Canaan which they possessed, any more than one
+still possesses the beloved object while he embraces only his corpse.
+Where the Lord is not present with His gifts and blessings, there
+Canaan cannot be. It was just as the land of the presence of the Lord,
+that it was so dear and valuable to all believers.--From what has now
+been said, it appears that, as regards the historical reference, we
+need not limit ourselves to the times of the Old Covenant, nor dream of
+a return of Israel to Canaan to take place at some future time.
+Luther's explanation, "They will go up from this place of pilgrimage to
+the heavenly father-land," is quite correct,--not indeed according to
+the letter, but according to the spirit. It is not the form, but the
+essence of the divine inheritance, which the prophet has in view. The
+form is a different one under the New Covenant, where the whole earth
+has become a Canaan; but the essence remains. To cling here to the
+form, would be just as absurd as if one, who, for Christ's sake, has
+forsaken all, were to upbraid Him because he had not received again,
+according to the letter of His promise, precisely an hundred-fold,
+lands, brothers, sisters, mothers, etc., Mark x. 30. The words of
+God, which are spirit and life, must be understood with spirit and
+life.--Suppose that the children of Israel were, at some future time,
+to return to Canaan, this would have nothing to do with our prophecy.
+In a religious point of view, it would be a matter of no consequence,
+and could not serve to prove the Covenant-faithfulness of God. Under
+the New Covenant it finds its fulfilment, that "Canaan must, even in
+the North, bloom joyfully around the beloved." The three stations
+[Pg 229]--Egypt, the wilderness, and Canaan--will continue to exist for
+ever; but we go from the one to the other only with the feet of the
+spirit, and not, as in the Old Covenant, with the feet of the body at
+the same time. The grossly literal explanation which knows not to
+separate the thought from its drapery, the essential from the
+accidental, agrees, just in the main point, with the allegorical
+explanation--viz., in interpolating, instead of interpreting.--The
+fulfilment of the prophecy before us is, therefore, a continuous and
+progressive one, which will not cease until God's whole plan of
+salvation be consummated. It began at Babylon, and was carried forward
+at the appearance of Christ, whom many out of Judah and Israel set over
+themselves as their head, to be their common leader to Canaan. It is,
+even now, realized every day before our eyes in every Israelite who
+follows their example. It will, at some future time, find its final
+fulfilment in the last and greatest manifestation of God's
+Covenant-faithfulness towards Israel, which, happily, is as strongly
+guaranteed by the New as it is by the Old Testament.--The last words of
+the verse have been already explained, substantially, in ver. 1. The
+name "Jezreel" is here used with a reference to its appellative
+signification. Israel appears here (compare ver. 25 [23], which serves
+as a commentary and as a refutation of differing interpretations) as a
+seed which is sown by God in fruitful land, and which shall produce a
+rich harvest. The figure appears, with a somewhat different turn, in
+Jer. xxxi. 27; Ezek. xxxvi. 9, where the house of Israel, and the house
+of Judah, appear as the soil in which the seed is sown by God.
+Analogous is also Ps. lxxii. 16: "They of the city shall flourish up
+like the grass of the earth."--The כי is explained by the circumstance
+that the sowing, which can take place only in the land of the Lord
+(compare ver. 25), supposes the going up from the land of the
+captivity. But if the day of sowing be great, if it be regarded by God
+as high and important, then the going up, which is the condition of
+sowing, must necessarily take place.
+
+Ver. 3. "_Say ye unto your brethren, My people_ (Ammi); _and to your
+sisters, Who has obtained mercy_ (Ruhamah)."
+
+The words, "My people," are a concise expression for: "You whom the
+Lord has called. My people." The mention of the brothers and sisters is
+explained by the reference to the [Pg 230] male and female members of
+the prophet's family. The phrase, "Say ye," is in substance equivalent
+to: "Then will ye be able to say." The prophet sees before him the
+people of the Lord who have experienced mercy; and calls upon the
+members to salute one another joyfully with the new name given to them
+by God. Such is the simple meaning of the verse, which has been
+darkened by a multitude of forced interpretations.
+
+
+Footnote 1: In Hab. ii. 1, where the prophet is standing upon his
+watch, and watches to see what the Lord will say _unto_ him, it would
+be rather strange to translate "in me." There is nothing else to lead
+us to conceive that the apparition of angels in Zech. is internal. But
+Num. xii. 8 is quite decisive. The Lord there says, with reference to
+His relation to Moses, "Mouth to mouth I speak to him (בו);" and
+immediately afterwards it is said, "Wherefore, then, were ye not afraid
+to speak to My servant (בעבדי), to Moses?" It is evident that the ב
+cannot be explained by "in" in the one case, and by "through" in the
+other. It is remarkable, however, that דבר with ב occurs very
+frequently when the Lord Himself, or, as in Zechariah, _the_ Angel,
+speaks. This may, perhaps, be explained from the circumstance, that the
+heavenly discourses have an especially penetrating power, and sink very
+deeply into the heart.
+
+Footnote 2: This is very natural, for the proper name has originally a
+cheering signification. It is apparent from the remarks of _Schubert_
+(_Reise_ iii. S. 164-166), and of _Ritter_ (_Erdkunde_ 16, i. S. 693),
+on the natural condition of the plain of Jezreel, how it happened that
+it received this name, which means: "God sows." _Schubert_ calls the
+soil of Jezreel a field of corn, the seed of which is not sown by any
+man's hand, the ripe ears of which are not reaped by any reaper. The
+various kinds of corn appeared to him to be wild plants; the mules
+walked in them with half their bodies covered by them; the ears of
+wheat were sown by themselves. "All travellers," says _Ritter_, "agree
+in their descriptions of the extraordinary beauty and fertility of the
+plain."
+
+Footnote 3: This transference was so much the more natural, as, under
+the government of the house of Jehu, guilt had certainly been
+frequently concentrated in the form of blood-guiltiness. Compare Is. i.
+21, where the prophet, in order to mark out the reigning sin in its
+highest degree, represents Jerusalem as being full of murderers.
+
+Footnote 4: _Hitzig_ is of opinion that "the prophet cannot blame him
+for the death of Joram and Jezebel, but may well do so for the murder
+of Ahaziah, king of Judah, and of his brethren, and for the carnage
+described in 2 Kings x. 11." But Ahaziah was not killed at Jezreel:
+compare 2 Kings ix. 27; 2 Chron. xxii. 9. And "the carnage in 2 Kings
+xii." likewise took place at Jezreel to a small extent only, in so far,
+namely, as it concerned the princes of the house of Ahab, who still
+remained in Jezreel. Compare _Thenius_ on this passage.
+
+Footnote 5: That the carrying away of Judah, which is here supposed,
+is a total and future one, and not, as _Hofmann_ (_Weiss. u. Erf._
+i. S. 210) asserts, one which is partial and already past (Joel
+iv. [iii.] 2-8; Amos i. 6, 9), appears from the analogy of the
+children of Israel,--from the reference to the type of the Egyptian
+conditions,--from a comparison of chap. v. 5, 12, xii. 1-3,--from the
+fact that the carrying away is placed in the view of the _whole people_
+as early as in the Pentateuch, _e.g._, Deut. xxviii. 36, iv. 26,
+27,--and, finally, from the fact, that the other prophets also, even
+from the most ancient times, manifest a clear knowledge of the
+catastrophe which threatened Judah also; compare, _e.g._, Amos ii. 4,
+5. Moreover, in Is. xi. 11, 12, also, the return of Judah is
+prophesied, although no express announcement of the carrying away
+precedes. In like manner, in Amos ix. 11, the restoration of the fallen
+tabernacle of David is foretold, although no express mention is made of
+its fall.
+
+
+
+                         CHAP. II. 4-25 (2-23).
+
+"The significant couple"--_Rückert_ remarks--"disappears in the thing
+signified by it; Israel itself appears as the wife of whoredoms." This
+is the only essential difference between this and the preceding
+sections; and it is the less marked, because even there, in the last
+part of it, the symbolical action passed over into a mere figure. With
+this exception, this section also contains the alternation of
+punishment and threatening, and of promise,--the latter beginning with
+ver. 16 (14). The features of the image, which were less attended to in
+the preceding portion, but are here more carefully portrayed, are the
+rejection of the unfaithful wife, and her gradual restoration. _Calvin_
+says: "After God has laid open their sins before men. He adds some
+consolation, and tempers the severity, lest they should despair. But
+then He returns again to threatenings, and He must do so necessarily;
+for though men may have been terrified by the fear of punishment, yet
+they do not recover, and become wise for ever." "By a new impetus as it
+were," says _Manger_, "he suddenly returns to expand the same argument,
+and sets out again from things more sad."
+
+Ver. 4. "_Contend with your mother, contend; for she is not my wife,
+and I am not her husband: and let her put away her whoredoms from her
+face, and her adultery from her breasts._"
+
+_Calvin_ is of opinion that a contrast is here intended, inasmuch as
+the Israelites were striving with God, and attributed to Him the cause
+of their misfortune: "Do not contend with Me, but rather with your
+mother, who, by her adultery, has brought down _righteous_ punishment
+upon herself and upon you." But this interpretation is inadmissible;
+because it proceeds [Pg 231] from the unfounded supposition that the
+divorce is to be considered as having already taken place outwardly,
+whilst the contending here clearly appears as one by which divorce may
+yet be averted. The words, "Contend with your mother," rather mean, on
+the contrary, that it is high time to call her to account, if they
+would not go to destruction along with her. From this, however, we are
+not entitled to infer that the moral condition of the children was
+better than that of the mother. Without any regard to their moral
+condition, the prophet only wishes to say that their interest required
+them to do this. If it were not his intention just to carry out the
+image of adultery, he might as well have called upon the mother to
+contend against the children, as it is said in Is. li. 1: "Behold, for
+your iniquities you have been sold, and for your transgression your
+mother has been put away." In point of fact, the mother has no
+standing-place apart from the children. _Vitringa_ says: "One and the
+same people is called 'mother' when viewed in their collective
+character; and 'children' when viewed in the individuals who are born
+of that people. For a people is born from the people. For the whole
+people is considered according to that which is radical in it, which
+constitutes its nature and substance,--and, in this respect, it is
+called the 'mother of its citizens.'" But we are as little entitled to
+infer from this exhortation, that a reform, and an averting of the
+threatened judgments, may still be hoped for. This is opposed by what
+follows, where the wife appears as incorrigible, and her rejection
+as unavoidable. The fundamental thought is, on the contrary, only
+this:--that a reform is necessary if the threatened judgments are to be
+averted. That this necessity, however, would not become a reality, the
+prophet foresaw; and for this reason he speaks unconditionally in the
+sequel. But from this again it must not be inferred that, in that case,
+his exhortations and threatenings would be altogether in vain. Though
+no reform was to be expected from the people, single individual
+might, nevertheless, be converted. At the same time, it was of great
+importance for the future, that before the calamity should break in, a
+right view of it should be opened up to the whole people. It is of
+great importance, that if any one be smitten, he should know for what
+reason. The instructions in the doctrines of Christianity, which a
+criminal has received in childhood, may [Pg 232] often seem for a long
+series of years to have been altogether in vain; but afterwards,
+notwithstanding, when punishment has softened his heart, they bring
+forth their fruits.--In the words, "For she is not my wife, and I am
+not her husband," the ground of the exhortation is stated. Even for
+this reason, the words cannot be referred to the _external_ dissolution
+of the marriage, to the punishment of the wife; they signify rather the
+_moral_ dissolution of the marriage--the guilt of the wife--and are
+equivalent to: "our marriage is dissolved _de facto_." But in the case
+of the spiritual marriage, this dissolution _de facto_ is always,
+sooner or later, according to the greater or smaller measure of God's
+forbearance, followed by the dissolution _de jure_; or, to speak
+without figure, wherever there is sin, punishment will always follow.
+God bears with much weakness on the part of His people; but wherever,
+through this weakness, the relation to Him is essentially dissolved, He
+there annuls the relation altogether. The παρεκτὸς λόγου πορνείας
+applies to spiritual marriages also. The surrender of the main
+faculties and powers of our nature to something which is not God,
+stands on a par with carnal adultery. Thus, then, the connection
+betwixt "contend" and "for" clearly appears.--Many interpreters,
+viewing the clause beginning with כי as parenthetical, would connect
+the last words of the verse with ריבו: "Contend with your mother that
+she may put away." But the words are rather to be considered as
+parallel with the first member; for "contend," etc., is equivalent to:
+"seek to bring your mother to a better way," or: "let your mother
+reform herself." Her crime is designated first as whoredom, and then as
+adultery. The relation in which the two stand to one another is plainly
+seen from chap. i. 2, where the notion of adultery is paraphrased by:
+"whoring away from the Lord." By "whoredom," the _genus_--carnal crimes
+in general--is designated; by "adultery," the _species_, or carnal
+crime  by which the sacred rights of another person are, at the same
+time, violated. The idea of whoredom, when transferred to a spiritual
+relation, implies chiefly the worldliness of those with whom God has
+not entered into any special relation; whilst the idea of adultery
+implies the worldliness of individuals and communities with whom God
+has entered into a special marriage, and whose apostasy is, for this
+reason, far more culpable. Leaving out of [Pg 233] view the more
+aggravating circumstance, the prophet first speaks of whoredom in the
+case of the children of Israel also.--The reason why the whoredom is
+here attributed to the face, and the adultery to the breasts, is well
+given by _Manger_: "We need not have any difficulty about seeing
+adultery attributed to the very face and breasts. There is a certain
+expressiveness in this conciseness which demonstrates, as it were
+before our eyes, that, in her whole deportment, the wife was given over
+to sensuality, and that her whole aim was only to excite to it, and to
+practise it. For the face is, with women, the sign of dissolute
+lasciviousness--as _Horace_ expresses it in his Odes, I. 19:--
+
+            Urit grata protervitas
+            Et vultus nimium lubricus aspici.
+
+Ezekiel, too, in chap. xxiii. 3, speaks of 'the pressed breasts of
+Israel in Egypt.'" _Schmid_ states as the reason why just the face and
+breasts are mentioned, "that Scripture, in order not to offend modesty,
+forbears to mention the worse and grosser deeds of fornication." But
+this is very little in harmony with the manner of Scripture--as may be
+seen from a comparison of Ezek. xvi. and xxiii., and of ver. 12 of the
+chapter before us. The reason rather is, that those parts are here
+specially to be mentioned, in which the whoring nature openly manifests
+itself; so that the highest degree of impudence is thereby expressed.
+This then shows that there is no longer any halting, no longer any
+struggle of the better against the evil principle. Such an impudent
+whore he resembles who, without shame or concern, publicly exhibits his
+devotedness to the world. In this way has _Calvin_ also explained it.
+"There is no doubt," says he, "that the prophet here expresses the
+impudence of the people, who in their hardihood, in their contempt of
+God, in their sinful superstitions, and in every kind of wickedness,
+had gone to such lengths, that they were like whores who do not conceal
+their turpitude, but publicly prostitute themselves, yea, try to
+exhibit the signs of their wickedness in their eyes, as well as in
+their whole body."
+
+Ver. 5. "_Lest I strip her naked and expose her as in the day of her
+birth, and make her like the wilderness, and set her like dry land, and
+slay her by thirst._"
+
+In the marriage here spoken of, there was this peculiarity, that the
+husband first redeemed the wife from a condition the [Pg 234] most
+wretched and miserable, before he united himself to her; and hence
+became her benefactor, before he became her husband. Compare iii. 2,
+where the Lord redeems the wife from slavery; and Ezek. xvi. 4, where
+the people appear as a child exposed, naked, and covered with filth,
+upon whom the Lord has mercy,--whom He provides with precious clothing
+and splendid ornaments, and destines for His spouse. During the
+marriage, the husband continues his liberality towards his wife. But
+now, the gifts, all of which had been bestowed upon her only with a
+view to the marriage which was to take place or was already entered
+upon, are to cease, because the marriage-tie has been broken by her
+guilt. She now returns to the condition of the deepest misery in which
+she had been sunk before her union to the Lord.--There is, in this, an
+allusion to that which, in the case of actual marriage, the husband was
+bound to give to his wife, viz., clothing and food; compare Is. iv. 1.
+If God withdraws His gifts, the consequences are infinitely awful,
+because, altogether unlike the natural husband, He has everything in
+His possession; if He does not give anything to drink. He then slays
+by thirst. If we keep in view this aggravation of the punishment,
+which has its ground only in the person of the husband, it is evident
+that we have here before us only a reference to the withdrawal of the
+marriage-gifts which is the consequence of the divorce, and not, as
+several interpreters--_e.g._, _Manger_--suppose, to a punishment of
+adultery, alleged by them to have been common at that time, "that the
+wife was stripped of her clothes, exposed to public mockery, and killed
+by hunger and thirst." The eternal and universal truth which, in the
+verse before us, is expressed with a special reference to Israel, is,
+that all the gifts of God are bestowed upon individuals, as well as
+upon whole nations, either in order to lead them to the communion of
+life with Him, or because this communion already exists; just as our
+Saviour says that to him who has successfully sought for the kingdom of
+heaven, all other things shall be added, without any labour on his
+part. If we overlook the truth that the gifts of God have this
+object--if they be not received and enjoyed as the gifts of God--if the
+spiritual marriage be refused, or if, having been already entered into,
+it be broken,--sooner or later the gifts will be withdrawn.--The word
+"naked" properly includes a whole clause: "I shall strip [Pg 235] her
+so that she shall become naked." The verb הצּיג, "to place," "to set,"
+has the secondary signification of public exhibition; compare Job xvii.
+6. The literal translation ought to be, "I shall expose her as _the
+day_ of her birth;" and we must assume that there is here the
+occurrence of one of those numerous cases, in which the comparison is
+merely alluded to, without being carried out; compare, _e.g._, "Like
+the day of Midian," Is. ix. 3; "Their heart rejoiceth like wine," Zech.
+x. 7. The _tertium comparationis_ between the day of her birth and her
+future condition is only the entire nakedness; compare Job i. 21. Any
+allusion to the filth, etc., is less obvious; the prophet would have
+been required to give an intimation of this in some manner. The two
+parts of the first hemistich of the verse correspond with each other;
+just as do the three parts of the second hemistich. In the first, the
+withdrawal of clothing, and nakedness; in the second, the withdrawal of
+food, and hunger and thirst. It is questionable whether the mention of
+the birth-day here belongs merely to the imagery, is a mere designation
+of entire nakedness, because man is never more naked than when he comes
+into the world; or whether it is to be understood as belonging to the
+thing itself, and refers to the condition of the people in Egypt to
+which they are now to be reduced. In favour of the latter explanation,
+there is not only the comparison of the parallel passage in Ezekiel,
+but, still more, the purely matter-of-fact character of the entire
+description. Israel is, in this section, not _compared_ to a wife, so
+that _figure_ and _thing_ would be co-ordinate, but appears as the wife
+herself. Ver. 17 also is in favour of this interpretation.--The words,
+"I make her like the wilderness," which, by _Hitzig_ and others, are
+erroneously referred to the country instead of the people, are
+pertinently explained by _Manger_: "The prophet depicts a horrible and
+desperate condition, where everything necessary for sustaining life is
+awanting,--where she has to endure a thirst peculiar to an altogether
+uncultivated and sunburnt wilderness." The comparison appears so much
+the more suitable, when we remark that wilderness and desert are here
+personified, and appear as hungry and thirsty. This, however, was too
+poetical for several prosaic interpreters. Hence they would in both
+instances supply a ב after the כ, "as in the wilderness" = "I place her
+in the condition in which she was formerly, in the [Pg 236]
+wilderness." But it is self-evident that such a supplying of the ב is
+inadmissible. If we were to receive this interpretation, we must rather
+assume that here also there is merely a comparison intimated: "as the
+wilderness,"--for, "as she was in the wilderness." But even then, the
+interpretation cannot, for another reason, be admitted. The impending
+condition of the people did not, in the least, correspond to what it
+was in the wilderness. The natural condition of the wilderness was not
+then seen in all its reality; the people of the Lord received bread
+from heaven, and water from the rock. It has its antitype rather in
+such a condition as that which is to follow upon the punishment, ver.
+16. The Article indicates that, by "the wilderness," we are here to
+understand, specially, the Desert of Arabia,--the desert κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν.
+But that this comes into consideration only as one especially desolate,
+and not as the former abode of the Israelites, appears from the
+following--"in dry land," without the Article, and not, as otherwise we
+would expect, "in _the_ dry land." _Finally_,--We have a parallel to
+this in the threatening in Deut. xxviii. 48: "And thou servest thine
+enemy whom the Lord thy God will send upon thee, in hunger, and in
+thirst, and in nakedness, and in great want."
+
+Ver. 6. "_And I will not have mercy upon her children, for they are
+children of whoredoms._"
+
+It appears from ver. 7, that the children are to be repudiated on
+account of their origin (compare the remarks on i. 2), and not on
+account of their morals. _Michaelis_ says, "They have the same
+disposition, and follow the same course as their adulterous mother; for
+a viper bringeth forth a viper, and a bad raven lays a bad egg." The
+cause of their rejection is, that they are children of whoredoms. That
+they are such, is proved by the circumstance that their mother is
+whoring. Compare also v. 7: "They have become faithless to the Lord,
+for they have born strange children." In point of fact, however, a
+sinful origin and a sinful nature are identical.
+
+Ver. 7. "_For their mother has been whoring, she who bore them has been
+put to shame; for she has said, I will go after my lovers, the givers
+of my bread and my water, of my wool and my flax, of my oil and my
+drink._"
+
+הובישה is explained in a two-fold way. The common explanation is: "She
+has practised what is disgraceful, she has acted [Pg 237] shamefully."
+Others, on the contrary, explain: "She has been put to shame, she has
+been disgraced." In this latter way it is explained by _Manger_, who
+remarks, "that this word is stronger than זנה; that it implies not only
+an accusation of vile whoredom, but also that she has been convicted of
+this crime, and as it were apprehended _in flagranti_; so that, even if
+she were yet impudent enough, she could no longer deny it, but must
+sink down in confusion and perplexity." This latter exposition is,
+without doubt, the preferable one; for, 1. הוביש never occurs in the
+first-mentioned signification. _Winer_ contents himself with quoting
+the passage before us. _Gesenius_ refers, moreover, to Prov. x. 5. But
+the בן מביש of that passage is evidently a son bringing disgrace upon
+his parents,--in xxix. 15 אמּו is added,--or making them ashamed,
+disappointing their hopes. On the other hand, the signification, "to be
+put to shame," "to be convicted of a disgraceful deed," is quite an
+established one. Compare, _e.g._, Jer. ii. 26: "As the disgrace of a
+thief when he is found, thus the whole house of Israel is _put to
+shame_;" Jer. vi. 15: "They are put to shame, for they have committed
+abomination; they shamed not themselves, they felt no shame;" compare
+also Jer. viii. 9. In all these passages, הוביש signifies the shame
+forced upon those who have no sense of shame.--2. The signification,
+"to act disgracefully," does not admit of a regular grammatical
+derivation. _Gesenius_ refers to analogies such as הרע ,היטיב; but
+these would be admissible only if the _Kal_ בוש signified, "to be
+infamous," while it means only "to be ashamed." Being derived from בוש,
+the verb can mean only "to put to shame," in which signification it
+occurs, _e.g._, in 2. Sam. xix. 6. But, on the other hand, the
+signification, "to be put to shame," can be well defended. As the
+_Hiphil_ cannot have an intransitive signification, it must, with this
+signification, be considered as derived from בשת, "_pudorem, ignominiam
+contraxit_,"--a view which is favoured by Jer. ii. 26.--The "lovers"
+are the idols; compare the remarks on Zech. xiii. 6. The כי confirms
+the statement, that she who bare them has been whoring, and has been
+put to shame by a further exposure of the crime and its origin. The
+same delusion which appears here as the cause of the spiritual
+adultery, is stated as such also in Jer. xlix. 17, 18. Jeremiah there
+warns the people not to contract sin by idolatry, because that was the
+cause of all their present misery, and would bring upon them [Pg 238]
+greater misery still. But they answer him, that they would continue to
+offer incense and drink-offerings to the Queen of heaven, as they and
+their fathers had formerly done in their native land; for, "since we
+left off to do so, we have wanted all things, and were consumed by
+hunger and sword." The antithesis in Jer. ii. 13 of the fountain of
+living waters, and the broken cisterns that hold no water, has
+reference likewise to this delusion. But that which is the _cause_ of
+the gross whoredom, is the _consequence_ of the refined one. The inward
+apostasy must already have taken place, when one speaks as the wife
+does in the verse before us. As long as man continues faithfully with
+God in communion of life, he perceives, by the eye of faith, the hand
+in the clouds from which he receives everything, which guides him, and
+upon which everything--even that which is apparently the most
+independent and powerful--depends. As soon as, through unbelief, he has
+lost this communion with God, and heaven is shut against him, he allows
+his eye to wander over every visible object, looks out for everything
+in the world which appears to manifest independence and superior power,
+makes this an object to which he shows his love, soliciting its favour,
+and making it his god. In thus looking around, the Israelites would,
+necessarily and chiefly, have their eyes attracted by the idols. For
+they saw the neighbouring nations wealthy and powerful; and these
+nations themselves derived their power and wealth from the idols. To
+these also the Israelites now ascribed the gifts which they had
+hitherto received; and this so much the rather, because it was easier
+to satisfy the demands of these idols, than those of the true God, who
+requires just that which it is most difficult to give--the heart, and
+nothing else. And, being determined not to give it to Him, they felt
+deeply that they could expect no good from Him. Whatever good He had
+still left to them, they could consider as only a gift of unmerited
+mercy, and destined to lead them to repentance,--a consideration which
+makes a natural man recoil and draw back, inasmuch as, in his relation
+to God, he always thinks only of merit. That which we thus perceive in
+them is even now repeated daily. We need only put in the place of
+idols, the abstract God of the Rationalists and Deists, man's own
+power, or the power of other men, and many other things besides, and it
+will at once be seen that the words, "I will go after my lovers that
+give me my [Pg 239] bread," etc., are, up to the present moment, the
+watch-word of the world.--"Bread and water" signify the necessaries of
+life; "oil and (strong) drink," those things which serve rather for
+luxuries.--"My bread," etc., is an expression of affection, indicating
+that she regards these as most necessary, and to be sought after, in
+preference to everything else.
+
+Ver. 8. "_Therefore, behold, I hedge up thy way with thorns, and I wall
+her wall, and her paths she shall not find._"
+
+The apostate woman is first addressed: "_thy_ way;" but the discourse
+then passes to the third person,--"her wall, her paths." We must not
+conceive of this, as if the wife were to be shut up in a two-fold
+way:--first, by a hedge of thorns, and then, by a wall; but the same
+thing is expressed here by a double figure, as is also done in Is. v.
+5. First, the shutting up is alone spoken of; it is afterwards brought
+into connection with the effects to be thereby produced; and because
+she is enclosed by a wall, she cannot find her path. "I wall her wall"
+is tantamount to, "I make a wall for her." The words of the husband in
+the verse under consideration form an evident contrast to those of the
+wife in the preceding verse. _Schmid_ says: "The punishment is by the
+law of retaliation. She had said, 'I will go to my lovers;' but God
+threatens, on the contrary, that He will obstruct the way so that she
+cannot go." The הנני points to the unexpectedness of the result. The
+wife imagined that she would be able to carry out her purpose with
+great safety and ease; it does not even occur to her to think of her
+husband, who had hitherto allowed her, from weakness, as she imagines,
+to go on her way undisturbed; but she sees herself _at once_ firmly
+enclosed by a wall.--There can be no doubt, that, by the hedging and
+walling about, severe sufferings are intended, by which the people are
+encompassed, straitened, and hindered in every free movement. For
+sufferings regularly appear as the specific against Israel's apostasy
+from their God. Compare, _e.g._, Deut. iv. 30: "In the tribulation to
+thee, and when all these things come upon thee, thou returnest in the
+end of the days to the Lord thy God, and hearest His voice;" Hosea v.
+15: "I will go and return to My place till they become guilty; in the
+affliction to them, they will seek Me." The figure of enclosing has
+elsewhere also, undeniably, the meaning of inflicting sufferings. Thus
+in Job iii. 23: "To the man whose way is hid, [Pg 240] and whom God has
+hedged in round about;" xix. 8: "He hath fenced up my way and I cannot
+pass, and upon my paths He sets darkness;" Lam. iii. 7: "He hath hedged
+me about, and I cannot get out; He hath made my chain heavy;" compare
+also ibid. ver. 9; Ps. lxxxviii. 9.--The object of the walling about is
+to cut her off from the lovers; the infliction of heavy sufferings is
+to put an end to idolatrous tendencies.--The words, "thy way," clearly
+refer to, "I will go after my lovers," in ver. 7; and by "her paths
+which she cannot find," her whole previous conduct in general is indeed
+to be understood, but chiefly, from the connection with ver. 7, her
+former intercourse with idols. But here the question arises:--How far
+is  the remedy suited for the attainment of this end? We can by no
+means  think of an external obstacle. Outwardly, there was, during the
+exile, and in the midst of idolatrous nations, a stronger temptation to
+idolatry than they had in their native land. Hence, we can think of an
+internal obstacle only; and then again we can think only of the
+absolute incapacity of the idols to grant to the people consolation and
+relief in their sufferings. If this incapacity has been first
+ascertained by experience, we begin to lose our confidence in them, and
+seek help where alone it can be found. As early as in Deut. xxxii. we
+are told how misery proves the nothingness of false gods, and shows
+that the Lord alone is God; compare especially ver. 36 sqq. Jeremiah
+says in ii. 28, "And where are thy gods that thou hast made thee? Let
+them arise and help thee in the time of trouble." That which the gods
+cannot turn away, they cannot have sent; and if the suffering be sent
+by the Lord, it is natural that help should be sought from Him also.
+Compare vi. 1: "Come and let us return unto the Lord, for He hath torn
+and He healeth us, He smiteth and He bindeth us up."
+
+Ver. 9. "_And she runs after her lovers and shall not overtake, and she
+seeks them and shall not find; then she saith: I will go and return to
+my first husband, for it was better with me then than now._"
+
+רדף has, in _Piel_, not a transitive, but an intensive meaning.
+_Calvin_ remarks: "By the verb, insane fervour is indicated, as indeed
+we see that idolaters are like madmen; it shows that such is the
+perverseness of their hearts, that they will not at once return to a
+sound mind." The distress at first only increases [Pg 241] the zeal in
+idolatry; compare Jer. xliv. 17. Every effort is made to move the idols
+to help. But if help be, notwithstanding, refused--and how could it be
+otherwise, since they from whom it is sought are _Elilim_, _i.e._,
+nothings?--they by and by begin to bethink themselves, and to recover
+their senses. They discover the nothingness of their idols, and return
+to the true God. This apostasy and return are in a touching manner
+described by our prophet in xiv. 2-4 also. The words, "I will go and
+return to my first husband," form a beautiful contrast to, "I will go
+after my lovers," in ver. 7. This statement of the result shows that
+God's mercy is then greatest and most effective, just when it seems to
+have disappeared altogether, and when His punitive justice seems alone
+to be in active exercise. For the latter is by no means to be excluded,
+inasmuch as there is no suffering which does not, at the same time,
+proceed from it, and no punishment which is inflicted solely on account
+of the reformation.
+
+Ver. 10. "_And she, she does not know that I gave her the corn, and the
+must, and the oil, and silver I multiplied unto her, and gold which
+upon Baal they spent._"
+
+The prophet, starting anew, here returns to a description of her guilt
+and punishment; and it is only from ver. 16 that he expands what, in
+ver. 9, he had intimated concerning her conversion, and her obtaining
+mercy. The words, "She saith," in that verse, belong thus to a period
+more remote than the words, "She does not know," in the verse before
+us. The things which are here enumerated were, in the case of Israel,
+in a peculiar sense, the gift of God. He bestowed them upon the
+Congregation as her Covenant-God, as her husband. They are thus
+announced as early as in the Pentateuch; compare, _e.g._, Deut. vii.
+13: "And He loveth thee, and blesseth thee, and multiplieth thee, and
+blesseth the fruit of thy womb, and the fruit of thy land, thy corn,
+thy must, and thy oil;" xi. 14: "And I give the rain of your land in
+due season, and thou gatherest in thy corn, thy must, and thy oil."
+It is certainly not accidental that Hosea enumerates the three
+objects, just in the same order in which they occur in these two
+passages. By the celebration of the feasts, and by the offering
+of the first-fruits, the Israelites were to give expression to the
+acknowledgment, [Pg 242] that they derived these gifts of God from His
+special providence--from the covenant relation. The relative clause עשו
+לבעל is subjoined, as is frequently the case, without a sign of its
+relation, and without a _pron. suff._, which is manifest from the
+preceding substantive. Several interpreters, from the Chaldee
+Paraphrast down to _Ewald_, give the explanation, "which they have made
+for a Baal," _i.e._, from which they have made images of Baal, and
+appeal to viii. 4: "Their silver and their gold they have made into
+idols for themselves." But we must object to this opinion on the
+following grounds. 1. עשה, with ל following, is a religious _terminus
+technicus_, with the sense of, "to make to any one," "to appropriate,"
+"to dedicate," as appears from its frequent repetition in Exod. x. 25
+sqq., and also from the fact that ליהוה is frequently omitted. The
+phrase is used with a reference to idolatry in 2 Kings xvii. 32; 2
+Chron. xxiv. 7.--2. It cannot be proved that הבעל, in the singular and
+with the Article, could be used for "statues of Baal."--3. By this
+explanation we lose the striking contrast between that which the
+Israelites _were doing_, and that which they _were to do_. That which
+the Lord gave to them, they consecrated to Baal, instead of to Him, to
+whom alone these embodied thanks were due. And, not satisfied in
+withdrawing from the true God the honour and thanks which were due to
+Him, they transferred them to His enemy and worthless rival,--a
+proceeding which bears witness to the deep corruption of human nature,
+and which, up to the present day, is continually repeated, and must be
+so, because the corruption remains the same. It is substantially the
+same thing that the Israelites dedicated their gold to Baal, and that
+our great poets consecrate to the world and its prince the rich
+intellectual gifts which they have received from God. The words, "and
+she knew not," in both cases show that they are equally guilty and
+equally culpable. He who bestows the gifts has not concealed Himself;
+but they on whom they are bestowed have shut their eyes, that they may
+not see Him to whom they are unwilling to render thanks. They would
+fain wish that their liberal benefactor were utterly annihilated, in
+order that they may not be disturbed in the enjoyment of His gifts by a
+disagreeable thought of Him,--in order that they may freely use and
+dispose of them, without being obliged to fear their loss,--and in
+order that they may be able to devote them, without any [Pg 243]
+obstruction, to a god who is like themselves, who is only their own
+self viewed objectively (_ihr objectivirtes Ich_). Parallel to the
+passage before us, and, it may be, formed after it, is Ezek. xvi. 17,
+18: "And thou didst take thy ornament of My gold and of My silver which
+I gave thee, and madest to thyself images of men, and didst commit
+whoredom with them. And thou tookest thy broidered garments, and
+coveredst them, and My fat and Mine increase thou gavest before them."
+_Hitzig_ understands, by the Baal here, the golden calf, appealing to
+the fact that the real worship of Baal had been abolished by Jehu. But
+no proof at all can be adduced for the assertion that the name of Baal
+had been transferred to the golden calf. It is self-evident, and is
+confirmed by 2 Kings xiii. 6, xvii. 16 (in the latter of which passages
+the worship of Baal appears as a continuous sin in the kingdom of the
+ten tribes), that the destruction of the heathenish worship by Jehu was
+not absolute. But so much is certain, that by the mention of Baal, the
+sin is here designated only with reference to its highest point, and
+that, in substance, the service of the calves is here included. In 1
+Kings xiv. 9, it is shown that the sin of worshipping Jehovah under the
+image of calves is on a par with real idolatry; and in 2 Chron. xi. 15,
+the calves are put on a footing with the goat-deities of Egypt.
+
+Ver. 11. "_Therefore I return, and take My corn in its time, and My
+must in its season, and take away My wool and My flax to cover her
+nakedness._"
+
+לכן stands here with great emphasis. It points to the eternal law of
+God's government of the world, according to which He is sanctified
+_upon_ them, _in_ whom He has not been sanctified; and this so much the
+more, the closer was His relation to them, and the greater were His
+gifts. From him who is not thereby moved, they will be taken away; and
+nothing but his natural poverty and nakedness is left to him who was
+formerly so richly endowed. And well is it with him if they be taken
+from him at a time when he is able still to recognise the giver in Him
+who taketh away, and may yet deeply repent of his unthankfulness, and
+return to Him, as is said of Israel in iii. 5. If such be done, it is
+seen that the ungrateful one has not yet become an object of divine
+justice alone, but that divine mercy is still in store for him. The
+longer God allows His [Pg 244] gifts to remain with the ungrateful, the
+darker are their prospects for the future. That which He gave in mercy,
+He, in such a case, allows to remain only in anger. The words אשוב
+ולקחתי are commonly explained by expositors, "I shall take again,"
+inasmuch as two verbs are frequently found together which, in their
+connection, are independent of each other--the one indicating only an
+accessory idea of the action. But this mode of expression occurs in
+general far more rarely than is commonly assumed; and here the
+explanation, "I will return and take," is to be preferred without any
+hesitation. Scripture says, that God appears even when He manifests
+Himself only in the effects of His omnipotence, justice, and love,--a
+mode of expression which is explained by that large measure of faith
+which perceives, behind the visible effect, the invisible Author of it;
+compare, _e.g._, Gen. xviii. 10, where the Lord says to Abraham, that
+He would return to him at the same period in the following year;
+whereas He did not return in a visible form, as then, but only in the
+fulfilment of His promise. Thus God had formerly appeared to Israel as
+the Giver; and now that they did not acknowledge Him as such. He
+returns as the God that takes away. "She did not know that I gave,
+therefore I shall return and take." That the words were to be thus
+understood, the prophet, as it appears, intended to indicate by the
+change of the tenses. It is quite natural that a verb, used as an
+adverb, should be as closely as possible connected with that verb which
+conveys the principal idea; and it would scarcely be possible to find a
+single instance--at all events there are not many instances--where, in
+such a case, a difference of the tense takes place. Altogether
+analogous is Jer. xii. 15: "And it shall come to pass after I have
+destroyed them, אשוב ורחמתים, I will return and have compassion on
+them;" where the sense would be very much weakened if we were to
+translate, "I shall _again_ have compassion." There appears to be the
+same design in the change of the tenses in iii. 5 also. What is there
+said of Israel forms a remarkable parallel to what is here said of
+God. God had formerly come, giving--Israel, taking; God now returns,
+taking--Israel giving,--a relation which opens up an insight into the
+whole economy of the sufferings.--"_My_ corn," etc., forms a contrast
+to ver. 7, where Israel had spoken of all these things as _theirs_.
+Whatever God gives, always remains [Pg 245] His own, because He gives
+only as a loan, and on certain conditions. If any one should consider
+himself as the absolute master of it, He makes him feel his error by
+taking it away.--"In its time" and "in its season" are added, because
+it was _then_, ordinarily, that God had appeared as _giving_, and
+because _then_ they therefore confidently expected His gifts. But now
+He appears at once as _taking_, because they were already so sure of
+the expected gifts that they held them, as it were, already in their
+hands; just as if, at Christmas--which corresponds to the harvest, the
+ordinary season of God's granting gifts--parents should withdraw from
+their children the accustomed presents, and put a rod in their place.
+It is better thus to understand the expression, "in its time, etc.,"
+than to follow _Jerome_, who remarks, that "it is a severe punishment,
+if at the time of harvest the hoped-for fruits are taken away, and
+wrested from our hands;" for if, even at the time of the harvest, there
+be a want of all things, how will it be during the remaining time of
+the year.--The words, "to cover, etc.," are very concise, but without
+any grammatical ellipsis, instead of, "which hitherto served to cover
+her nakedness." As to the sense, the LXX. are correct in translating,
+τοῦ μὴ καλύπτειν τὴν ἀσχημοσύνην αὐτῆς. For that which had _hitherto_
+been, is mentioned by the prophet only for the purpose of drawing
+attention to what _in future_ will _not_ be.--It is the Lord who must
+cover the nakedness; and this leads us back to the natural poverty of
+man, who has not, in the whole world, a single patch or shred--not even
+so much as to cover his shame, which is here specially to be understood
+by nakedness. The same thought which is so well calculated to humble
+pride--what have we that we have not received, and that the Giver might
+not at any moment take back?--occurs also in Ezek. xvi. 8: "I spread
+out My wings over thee, and covered thy nakedness."
+
+Ver. 12. "_And now I will uncover her shame before the eyes of her
+lovers, and none shall deliver her out of My hands._"
+
+The ἅπαξ λεγόμενον נבלות is best explained by "decay," "_corpus multa
+stupra passum_." Being a femin. of a Segholate-form, its signification
+can be derived only from the _Kal_; but נבל always signifies "to be
+faded, weak, feeble;" in _Piel_ it means, "to make weak," "to declare
+as weak," "to disgrace," "to despise." As the signification of _Kal_
+does not [Pg 246] imply the Idea of ignominy, we cannot explain the
+noun, as several interpreters do, by "_turpitudo_, _ignominia_." The
+ἀκαθαρσία of the LXX. is probably a free translation of the word
+according to our view.--לעיני is constantly used for "_coram,
+inspectante aliquo_," properly, "belonging to the eyes of some one,"
+and cannot therefore be explained here by "to the eyes," as if she were
+uncovered to, or for, the lovers alone; these, on the contrary, are
+mentioned only as fellow-witnesses. But in what respect do they come
+into consideration here? Several interpreters are of opinion that their
+powerlessness, and the folly of trusting in them, are intended to be
+here pointed out. Thus _Calvin_ says: "The prophet alludes to the
+impudent women who are wont, even by terror, to prevent their husbands
+from using their rights. He says, therefore, this shall not prevent me
+from chastising thee as thou deservest." Thus also _Stuck_, who
+subjoins to the phrase "her lovers:" "who, if they had the strength,
+might be a help to her." But it is altogether erroneous thus to
+understand the verse. The words, "Before the eyes of the lovers,"
+rather mean, that the Lord would make her an object of disgust and
+horror even to those who formerly sought after her. The idea is this:
+Whosoever forsakes God on account of the world, shall, by God, be put
+to shame, even in the eyes of the world itself, and all the more, the
+more nearly he formerly stood to Him. This idea is here expressed in a
+manner suited to the figurative representation which pervades the whole
+section. _Jerome_ says: "All this is brought forward under the figure
+of the adulterous woman, who, after she has been taken in the very act,
+is exposed and disgraced before the eyes of all." The uncovering, as
+guilt, is followed by the uncovering, as punishment; and every one (and
+her lovers first) turns away with horror from the disgusting spectacle.
+They now at once see her who, hitherto, had made a show with the
+apparel and goods of her lawful husband, in her true shape as a
+withered monster. That this explanation is alone the correct one,
+appears from the parallel passages: compare, _e.g._, Nah. iii. 5:
+"Behold, I come upon thee, saith the Lord of hosts, and uncover thy
+skirts upon thy face, and make the heathen to see thy nakedness, and
+kingdoms thy shame. And it cometh to pass, all that see thee shall flee
+from thee:" Lam. i. 8: "Jerusalem hath committed sin, therefore she has
+[Pg 247] become a reproach; all that honoured her, despise her, for
+they have seen her nakedness; she sigheth and turneth away;" Jer. xiii.
+26: "And I also (as thou hast formerly uncovered) uncover thy skirts
+over thy face, and thy shame shall be seen;" Ezek. xvi. 37, 41; Is.
+xlvii. 3.--But now, it might seem that, according to this explanation,
+not the idols, but only the nations serving them, can be understood by
+the lovers. But this is only in appearance. In order to make the
+scene more lively, the prophet ascribes to the אלילים, to them
+who are nothing, life and feeling. If they had these, they would act
+just as it is here described, and as their worshippers really acted
+afterwards.--The second member of the verse, "And none shall deliver,"
+etc., is in so far parallel to the first, as both describe the
+dreadfulness of the divine judgment. Parallel is v. 14: "For I will be
+as one who roars to Ephraim, and as a lion to the house of Judah: I
+will tear and go away, I will take away, and there is no deliverer."
+
+Ver. 13. "_And I make to cease all her mirth, her feast, and her
+new-moon, and her sabbath, and all her festival time._"
+
+The feasts served a double purpose. They were days of sacred
+dedication, and days of joy; compare Num. x. 10. Israel had violated
+them in the former character--just as at present the sacred days have,
+throughout the greater part of Christendom, the name only by way of
+_catachresis_--and, as a merited punishment, they were taken away by
+God in the latter character. They had deprived the festival days of
+their sacredness; by God, they are deprived of their joy fulness. The
+prophet, in order to intimate that he announces the cessation of the
+festival days as days of gladness, premises "all her mirth," to which
+all that follows stands in the relation of _species_ to _genus_. משוש
+does not here denote "joyful time:" it might, indeed, according to its
+formation, have this signification: but it is never found with it. It
+here means "joy" itself. (Compare the parallel passages, Jer. vii. 34;
+Lam. i. 4: "The ways of Zion do mourn, because none come to the
+feasts;" Amos viii. 10: "And I will turn your feasts into mourning, and
+all your songs into lamentation;" Lam. v. 15; Is. xxiv. 8, 11.) The
+three following nouns were very correctly distinguished by _Jerome_.
+חג, "feast," is the designation of the three annual principal
+festivals. In addition to these, there was in every month the [Pg 248]
+feast of the new-moon; and in every week, the Sabbath. This connection
+is a standing one, which, even in the New Testament (compare Col. ii.
+16), still reverts. The words, "all her festival time," comprehend the
+single _species_ in the designation of the _genus_. That מועד properly
+signifies "appointed time," then, more specially, "festival time,"
+"feast," appears from Lev. xxiii. 4: "These are the מועדי of the Lord,
+the sacred assemblies which you shall call במועדם, in their appointed
+time." That the _feasts_ are not a single species co-ordinate with the
+new-moons and Sabbaths, but the genus, appears from the fact that in
+Lev. xxiii. the Sabbath opens the series of the מועדים. In a wider
+sense, the new-moons also belonged to the מועדים, although they are not
+enumerated among them in Lev. xxiii. on account of their subordinate
+character. In Num. x. 10, Is. i. 14, Ezra iii. 5, the new-moons are
+mentioned along with the מועדים only as the species by the side of the
+genus. But we are at liberty to think only of the feasts appointed by
+God; for, otherwise, there would be no room for the application of the
+_lex talionis_:--God takes from the Israelites only what they had taken
+from Him. The days of the Baalim are afterwards specially mentioned in
+ver. 15. The days of God are taken from them; for the days of the
+Baalim they are punished. This much, however, appears from the passage
+before us--and it is placed beyond any doubt by several other passages
+in Hosea as well as in Amos--that, outwardly, the worship, as regulated
+by the prescriptions of the Pentateuch, had all along continued. (For
+the arguments in proof of this assertion, the author's _Dissertations
+on the Genuineness of the Pentateuch_, vol. i., are to be compared.)
+
+Ver. 14. "_And I make desolate her vine and fig-tree, whereof she said,
+They are the wages of whoredom to me, that my lovers have given me; and
+I make them a forest, and the beasts of the field eat them._"
+
+The vine and fig-tree, as the two noblest productions of
+Palestine--_Ispahan_, in the "_Excerpta ex vita Saladini_," p. 10,
+calls them "_ambos Francorum oculos_"--are here also connected with
+each other, as is commonly done in threatenings and promises, as the
+representatives of the rich gifts of God, wherewith He has blessed this
+country.--אשר is often placed before an entire sentence, to mark it out
+as being relative in general. [Pg 249] It is the looser, instead of the
+closer connection, = "of which."--אתנה "wages of prostitution," instead
+of which, in ix. 1 and other passages, the form אתנן occurs, requires a
+renewed investigation. It is commonly derived from תנה, to which the
+signification "_largiter donavit, dona distribuit_," is ascribed. But
+opposed to this, there is the fact that the root תנה is, neither in
+Hebrew, nor in any of the dialects, found with this signification. It
+has in Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac, the signification "to laud," "to
+praise," "to recount." But besides this תנה, there occurs another תנה,
+not with the general signification "to give," but in the special one,
+"to give a reward of whoredom;" in which signification it cannot be a
+primitive word, but derived from נתן אתנה = אתנה, in the passage under
+consideration, and in Ezek. xvi. 34. The supposition of a primitive
+verb תנה, with the signification "to give," is also opposed by the
+circumstance that the noun which is said to be derived from it never
+occurs with the general signification "gift," but always with the
+special one, "reward of prostitution." אתנה is rather derived from the
+first pers. Fut. Kal of the verb נתן, a "I will-give-thee," similar to
+our "forget-me-not." The whore asks, in Gen. xxxviii. 16, מה־תתן לי
+("what wilt thou give me?"), and the whoremonger answers, אתן־לך ("I
+will give thee"), ver. 18. From this there originated, in the language
+of the brothel, a base word for such base traffic. The sacred writers
+are not ashamed or afraid to use it. They speak, throughout, of common
+things in a common manner; for the vulgar word is the most suitable for
+the vulgar thing. The morality of a people, or of an age, may be
+measured by their speaking of vulgar things in a vulgar manner, or the
+reverse. Wherever, in the language, the "_fille de joie_" or
+"_Freudenmädchen_" has taken the place of the "whore," a similar change
+will, in reality, have taken place. Whatsoever the people of Israel
+imagined that they received from their idols, they certainly will not
+have designated as a "reward of prostitution," but as a "reward of true
+love." But the prophet at once destroys all their pleasant imaginings
+by putting into their mouths the corresponding expression,--an
+expression which must certainly have sounded very rudely and vulgarly
+in their tender ears; for the tongue and the ear become more tender, in
+the same degree in which the heart becomes more vulgar. She who
+imagined herself so tender and affectionate sees herself [Pg 250] at
+once addressed as a common prostitute. The sweet proofs of the
+heartfelt mutual love which her "lovers" gave her are called "wages of
+whoredom." This is indeed a good corrective for our language, for our
+whole view of things, for our own hearts, which are so easily befooled.
+All love of the world, all striving after its favour, every surrender
+to the spirit of the age, is whoredom. A reward of whoredom, which must
+not be brought into the temple of the Lord (for it is an _abomination_
+unto the Lord thy God, Deut. xxiii. 19), is everything which it offers
+and gives us in return. Like a reward of whoredom, it will melt away;
+"of wages of whoredom she has collected, and to wages of whoredom it
+shall return."--This derivation from the Future has a great many
+analogies in its favour; among others, the whole class of nouns with ת
+prefixed, in which it is quite evident (although this has been so often
+overlooked) that they have arisen from the Fut. If the ת in these forms
+originated from the _Hiphil_, how could it be explained that they are
+more frequently connected with _Kal_? Even the very common occurrence
+of the formation from the Future in the case of proper names, induces
+us to expect, _a priori_, that it will be more frequent in appellative
+names than is commonly supposed. The occurrence of the phrase נתן אתנה,
+in the passages quoted, is also in favour of this derivation. By it,
+the interchange of the two forms אתנה and אתנן is easily accounted for.
+In the latter of these forms, the _Nun_ which prevails in נתן, but
+which had been dropped at the beginning, again reappears. A variation
+in the form is, moreover, quite natural in a word which originated from
+common life, which is entirely destitute of accurate analogies, and is
+therefore, as it were, without a model; for the other nouns of this
+class are formed from the 3d pers. of the _Fut._--As regards, now, the
+substance:--Egotism, and selfishness arising out of it, are the ground
+of all desire for the love of that which is not God, especially in the
+case of those who have already known the true God; for where this is
+not the case, there may be, even in idolatry, a better element, which
+seeks for a false gratification only because it does not know the true
+one. From this, however, it appears, that the idolatry of the
+Israelites (and this is only a species of the idolatry of all those who
+have had opportunity to know the true God, and of whom it is true that
+"the last is worse than the first") was [Pg 251] much lower than that
+of the Gentiles, whose poets and philosophers, in part, zealously
+opposed the dispositions which are here expressed; compare the passages
+in _Manger_. Egotism is here, as it always is, folly; for it trusts in
+him who himself possesses only borrowed and stolen goods, which the
+lawful owner may, at every moment, take away from him. And in order
+that such folly may appear as such, and very glaringly too. He appears
+here indeed, and takes what He had in reality given out of His mercy,
+but what, according to their imagination, they had received from
+the idols as a reward.--The suffix in שמתים refers to the vine and
+fig-tree. The gardens of vines and fig-trees carefully tended, hedged
+and enclosed round about, are to be deprived of hedges, enclosures, and
+culture (καθυλομανεῖ γὰρ μὴ κλαδευομένη ἡ ἄμπελος, _Clem. Alex. Paed._
+i. 1, p. 115 Sylb.), to be changed into a forest, and given over to the
+ravages of wild beasts; for the words "and eat them" are by no means to
+be referred to the fruits only. The same image of an entirely
+devastated country is found in Is. vii. 23 ff.; Mic. iii. 12.
+
+Ver. 15. "_And I visit upon her the days of the Baalim, to whom she
+burnt incense, and put on her ring and her ornament, and went after her
+lovers, and forgat Me, saith the Lord._"
+
+The days of the Baalim are the days consecrated to their worship,
+whether they were specially set apart for that purpose, or whether they
+were originally devoted to the worship of the Lord, whom they sought to
+confound with Baal. _Manger_, and with him, most interpreters, are
+wrong in understanding by the days of Baal, "all the time--certainly a
+very long one--in which that forbidden worship flourished in this
+nation." Such would be too indefinite an expression. When days of
+the Baalim are spoken of, every one must think of days specially
+consecrated to them,--their festivals. To this must be added, moreover,
+the reference to the days of the Lord in ver. 13. In ver. 10, however,
+only one Baal, הבעל, is spoken of; here there are several. This may be
+reconciled by the supposition that one and the same Baal was worshipped
+according to his various modes of manifestation which were expressed by
+the epithets. But the plural may also be explained--and this seems to
+be preferable--from 1 Kings xviii. 18, where Baalim is tantamount to
+Baal and his associates (compare _Dissertations on the Gen. of the
+Pent._ vol. i. p. 165); or from Lev. xvii. 7, where שעירים denotes the
+Goat-idol, [Pg 252] and others of his kind. The calves, the worship of
+which was, at the time of Hosea, the prevailing one throughout the
+kingdom of the ten tribes, are, in that case, comprehended in the
+Baalim.--In the words, "And she put on her ring and ornament," the
+figurative mode of expression has been overlooked by most interpreters.
+Misled by the תקטיר, which refers directly to the spiritual adulteress,
+they imagined that the wearing of nose-rings, and other ornaments, in
+honour of the idols, was here spoken of. A more correct view was held
+by the Chaldee who thus paraphrases: "The Congregation of Israel was
+like a wife who deserted her husband, and adorned herself, and ran
+after her lovers. Thus the Congregation of Israel was pleased to
+worship idols, and to neglect My worship." A great many false
+interpretations have had their origin in the circumstance, that they
+could not comprehend this liberty of the sacred writers, who at one
+time speak plainly of the spiritual antitype, and at another time
+transfer to it the peculiarities of the outward type. Had this been
+kept in view, it would not, _e.g._, have been asserted, that David had,
+in Ps. xxiii. 5, relinquished the image of the good shepherd, because
+he does not speak of a trough which the actual good shepherd places
+before his sheep, but of a table, placed before them by the spiritual
+good Shepherd. In the passage under consideration, the תקטיר denotes an
+action performed by her who is an adulteress in a spiritual point of
+view. In the words, "She puts on," etc., her conduct is described under
+the figure of that of her outward type. The actual correspondence is to
+be found in her efforts of making herself agreeable,--in the employing
+of every means in order to gain her spiritual lovers. The putting on of
+precious ornaments comes into view, only in so far as it is one of
+these efforts, and, indeed, a very subordinate one. The burning of
+incense, the offering of sacrifices, etc., are, in this respect, of far
+greater importance. The correctness of our interpretation is confirmed
+by those parallel passages also, in which the same figurative mode of
+expression occurs. Thus, _e.g._, Is. lvii. 9: "Thou lookest upon the
+king (the common translation, "thou goest to the king," cannot be
+defended on philological grounds) in oil (_i.e._, smelling of
+ointment), and multipliest thy perfume,"--evidently a figurative
+designation, taken from a coquetish woman, to express the employing of
+all means in, order to gain favour;--Is. iv. 30: [Pg 253] "And thou
+desolate one, what wilt thou do? For thou puttest on thy purple, for
+thou adornest thyself with golden ornaments, for thou rentest thine
+eyes with painting. In vain thou makest thyself fair; the lovers
+despise thee, they seek thy life." In Ezek. xxii. 40-42, Jerusalem
+washes and paints herself, expecting her lovers, and decks herself with
+ornaments; then she sits down upon a stately couch; a table is prepared
+before her, upon which she places the incense of the Lord, and His oil.
+In this last feature in Ezekiel, the type disappears behind the thing
+typified, although not so completely as is the case in the passage
+under consideration, in the words, "She burns incense."--From what has
+been remarked, it appears that, in substance, Hos. iv. 13, "They
+sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains and bum incense upon the
+hills," is entirely parallel. The two clauses, "She went after her
+lovers," and "she forgat Me," both serve to represent the crime in a
+more heinous light. Sin must certainly have already poisoned the whole
+heart, if occasion for its exercise be spontaneously sought after. In
+reference to the latter, _Calvin_ remarks: "Just as when a wife has for
+a long time lived with her husband, and has been kindly and liberally
+treated by him, and then prostitutes herself to lovers, and does not
+entertain or retain any more love for him; such a depravity is nothing
+less than brutish."
+
+Ver. 16. "_Therefore, behold, I allure her, and lead her into the
+wilderness and speak to her heart._"
+
+The consolation and promise here begin with as great abruptness as in
+the first section. It is reported how the Lord gradually leads back His
+unfaithful wife to reformation, and to reunion with Him, the lawful
+husband. Great difficulty has been occasioned to interpreters by the
+לכן at the commencement. Very easily, but at the same time very
+inconsiderately, the difficulty is got over by those who give it the
+signification, "_utique_, _profecto_;" but this cannot be called
+interpreting. It must be, above all, considered as settled and
+undoubted, that לכן can here have that signification only which it
+always has; and this all the more, that in vers. 8 and 15 it occurred
+in the same signification. This being taken for granted, the
+"therefore" might be referred to the words of the wife in ver. 9, "I
+will go and return to my first husband," and all which follows be
+considered as only a kind of parenthesis. That the Lord begins again to
+show Himself [Pg 254] kind to His wife would then have its foundation
+in this:--that in her the first symptoms of a change of character
+manifested themselves. But this supposition is, after all, too forced.
+These words are too far away as that the prophet could have expected to
+be understood, in thus referring to them in a manner so indefinite.
+Several interpreters follow the explanation of _Tarnovius_: "Therefore,
+because she is not corrected by so great calamities, I will try the
+matter in another and more lenient way, by kindness." But the prophet
+could not expect that his hearers and readers should themselves supply
+the thought, which is not indicated by anything,--the thought, namely,
+"because that former method was of no avail, or rather, because it
+_alone_ did not suffice;" for it was by no means wholly in vain. When
+the Lord had hedged up her way with thorns, the woman speaks: "I will
+go and return;" and where tribulations are of no avail--tribulations
+through which we must enter the kingdom of God--nothing else will. The
+severity of God must precede His love. And even though this train
+of thought should have occurred to them, they had no guarantee for
+its correctness. It is most natural to take the לכן as being simply
+co-ordinate with the לכן in vers. 8 and 11. The "_because_," which, in
+all the three places, corresponds to the _therefore_, is the wife's
+apostasy. Because she has forgotten God, He recalls Himself to her
+remembrance, first by the punishment, and then, after this has attained
+its end,--after the wife has spoken: "I will go and return,"--by proofs
+of His love. The leading to Egypt, into the wilderness, into the land
+of Canaan, rests on her unfaithfulness as its foundation. Without it,
+the Congregation would have remained in undisturbed possession of the
+promised land. By it, God is induced, both according to His justice and
+His mercy, to take it from her, to lead her back into the wilderness,
+and thence to the promised land.--פתה, in the _Piel_, is a _verbum
+amatorium_; it signifies "to allure by tender persuasion." There is to
+be a repetition of the proceeding of God, by which He formerly, in
+Egypt, allured the people to Himself, and induced them to follow Him
+into the wilderness, from the spiritual and bodily bondage in Egypt.
+After the sufferings, there always follows the alluring. God first
+takes away the objects of sinful love, and then He comes alluring and
+persuading us that we should choose, for the object of our love. Him
+who alone is worthy of, and entitled to, love. He is not [Pg 255]
+satisfied with the strict prosecution of His right, but endeavours to
+make duty sweet to us, and, by His love, to bring it about that we
+perform it from love. After He has thus allured us. He leads us
+from Egypt into the wilderness.--The words, "I lead her into the
+wilderness," have been very much misunderstood by interpreters.
+According to _Manger_, the wilderness here is that through which the
+captives should pass on their return from Babylon. But one reason alone
+is sufficient to refute this opinion,--namely, that on account of the
+following verse, by the wilderness (the article must not be
+overlooked), only that wilderness can be understood which separates
+Egypt from Canaan. Others (_Ewald_, _Hitzig_), following _Grotius_,
+understand by the wilderness, the Assyrian captivity. _Kuehnöl_ has
+acquired great merit for this exposition, by proving from a passage
+in _Herodotus_, that there were, at that time, uncultivated regions
+in Assyria! The same reason which militates against the former
+interpretation is opposed to this also. To this it may be further
+added, that, according to it, we can make nothing of the _alluring_.
+The Israelites were not _allured_ into captivity by kindness and
+love; they were driven into it _against_ their will, by God's wrath.
+_Moreover_, what according to this interpretation is to be done with
+the משם in ver. 17? Did, perhaps, the vineyards of Canaan begin
+immediately beyond Assyria, or does not even this rather lead us to the
+Arabian desert? It is certain, then, that this desert is the one to be
+thought of here, and, in addition, that it can only be as an image and
+type that the prophet here represents the leading through the
+wilderness, as a repetition of the former one in its individual form;
+inasmuch as it was, substantially, equal with it. For they who returned
+from the Assyrian captivity could not well pass through the literal
+Arabian desert; and the comparison expressed in the following verse,
+"As in the day when she went up from the land of Egypt," shows that
+here also a _decurtata comparatio_ must take place. But, now, all
+depends upon determining the essential feature, the real nature and
+substance, of that first leading through the wilderness; because the
+leading spoken of in the verse before us must have that essential
+feature in common with it. The principal passage--which must guide us
+in this investigation, and which is proved to be such by the
+circumstance that the Lord Himself referred [Pg 256] to it when He was
+_spiritually_ led through the wilderness, an event which, for a sign,
+_outwardly_ also took place in the wilderness--is Deut. viii. 2-5: "And
+thou shalt remember all the way which the Lord thy God led thee these
+forty years in the wilderness, to afflict thee and to prove thee, to
+know what was in thy heart, whether thou wouldst keep His commandments,
+or no. And He afflicted thee, and suffered thee to hunger, and fed thee
+with the manna which thou knewest not, neither did thy fathers know,
+that He might make thee know that man doth not live by bread only, but
+by everything which proceedeth out of the mouth of the Lord doth man
+live. Thy raiment waxed not old upon thee, neither did thy foot swell
+these forty years. And thou knowest in thine heart, that as a father
+chasteneth his son, so the Lord thy God chasteneth thee." The essential
+feature in the leading through the wilderness is, accordingly, the
+_temptation_. By the wonderful manifestations of the Lord's omnipotence
+and mercy, on the occasion of Israel's deliverance from Egypt, a
+heartfelt love to Him had been awakened in the people. (Compare the
+tender expression of it in the Song in Exod. xv.; and also the passage
+in Jer. ii. 2: "I remember thee, the kindness of thy youth, the love of
+thine espousals, thy going after Me in the wilderness in a land not
+sown,"--which cannot but refer to the very first time of the abode in
+the wilderness, before the giving of the law on Sinai, as is evident
+from the mention of the youth and espousals; for the latter ceased on
+Sinai, where the marriage took place.) The whole conduct of the people
+at the giving of the law,--their great readiness in promising to do all
+that the Lord should command,--likewise bear testimony to this love.
+The Lord's heartfelt delight in Israel during the first period of their
+marching through the wilderness, of which Hosea speaks in ix. 10,
+likewise presupposes this love. Thus the first station was reached. The
+people now hoped to be put in immediate possession of the inheritance
+promised to them by the Lord. But, because the Lord knew the condition
+of human nature. His way was a different one. A state of temptation and
+trial succeeded that of entire alienation from God. The first love is
+but too often--nay, it is, more or less, always--but a flickering
+flame. Sin has not been entirely slain; it has been only subdued for a
+moment, and only wants a favourable opportunity [Pg 257] to regain its
+old dominion. It would never be thoroughly destroyed, if God allowed
+this condition always to continue; if by always putting on new fuel, if
+by uninterrupted proofs of His love. He were to keep that fire burning
+continually. If the love of the feelings and imagination is to become a
+cordial, thorough moral love, it requires to be tried, in order that
+thus it may recognise its own nothingness hitherto, and how necessary
+it is that it should take deeper root. The means of this trial are
+God's afflicting us, concealing Himself from us, leading us in a way
+different from that which we expected, and, apparently, forsaking vis.
+But because He is the merciful One who will not suffer us to be tempted
+above that we are able,--because He Himself has commanded us to pray,
+"Lead us not into temptation," _i.e._, into such an one as we are not
+able to bear, and would thereby become a temptation inwardly,--He makes
+His gifts to go by the side of His chastisements. He who suffered
+Israel to hunger, gave them also to eat. He who suffered them to
+thirst, gave them also to drink. He who led them over the burning sand,
+did not suffer their shoes to wax old. But this counterpoise to
+tribulation becomes, in another aspect, a new temptation. As Satan
+tries to overthrow us by pleasure as well as by pain; so God proves us
+by what He gives, no less than by what He takes away. In the latter
+case, it will be seen whether we love God _without_ His gifts; in the
+former, whether we love Him in His gifts. This second station is, to
+many, the last; the bodies of many fall in the wilderness. But while a
+multitude of individuals remain there, the Congregation of God always
+passes over to the third station,--the possession of Canaan. The state
+of temptation is, to her, always a state of sifting and purification at
+the same time. That which is to the individual a calamity, is to her a
+blessing.--That we have thus correctly defined the nature and substance
+of the leading through the wilderness, is confirmed by the temptation
+of Christ also, which immediately succeeded the bestowal of the Spirit,
+which again corresponded to the first love. That this temptation of
+Christ corresponded to the leading through the wilderness--in so far as
+it could do so in the case of Him who was tempted in all things,
+yet without sin; while in our case, there is no temptation, even
+when resisted [Pg 258] victoriously, that is without sin--appears
+sufficiently from its two external characteristics, viz., the stay
+in the wilderness, and the forty days; but still more so, from the
+internal feature,--the fact that the Saviour, in order to show the
+tempter that He recognised in His own case a repetition of the stay in
+the wilderness, opposed Him with a passage taken from the _locus
+classicus_ concerning it, already quoted.--We now, moreover, cite the
+parallel passages which serve as an explanation of the passage under
+consideration, and as a confirmation of the explanation which we have
+given. The most important is Ezek. xx. 34-38: "And I bring you _out
+from the nations_, and gather you out of the countries wherein ye are
+scattered, with a mighty hand and with a stretched-out arm, and with
+fury poured out. And I bring you into the _wilderness of the nations_,
+and there will I plead with you face to face; like as I pleaded with
+your fathers in the wilderness of the land of Egypt, so will I plead
+there with you, saith the Lord God. And I cause you to pass under the
+rod, and bring you into the bond of the covenant, and purge out from
+among you the rebels, and them that transgress against Me; out of the
+land of your pilgrimage (the standing designation of Egypt in the
+Pentateuch) I will bring them forth, and into the land of Israel they
+shall not come, and ye shall know that I am the Lord." Here also, the
+stay in the wilderness appears as a state of trial, lying in the middle
+between the abode among the nations (corresponding to the bondage in
+Egypt, which was so not merely bodily, but spiritual also), and the
+possession of Canaan. And the result of this trial is a different one,
+according to the different condition of the individuals. Some shall be
+altogether destroyed; even the appearance of the communion with the
+Lord, which they hitherto maintained by having come out of the land of
+pilgrimage along with the others, shall be taken away; whilst the
+others, by the very means which brought about the destruction of the
+former, shall be confirmed in their communion with the Lord, and be
+more closely united to Him. Hosea, who, in consequence of the
+personification of the Congregation of Israel, has the whole more in
+view, regards chiefly the latter feature. A very remarkable
+circumstance in Ezekiel, however, requires to be still more minutely
+considered; because it promotes essentially the right understanding of
+the passage before us. What is meant [Pg 259] by the "wilderness of the
+nations?" Several interpreters think that it is the wilderness between
+Babylon and Judea. Thus, for example, _Manger_: "_I am disposed to
+think_ that the desert of Arabia itself is here called the wilderness
+of the nations, on account of the different nomadic tribes which are
+accustomed to wander through it." _Rosenmüller_ says: "He _seems_ to
+speak here of those vast solitudes which the Jews had to pass through,
+on their way from Babylon to Judea." But this "I am disposed to think,"
+and this "he seems," on the part of these interpreters, show that they
+themselves felt the insufficiency of their own explanation. That
+nomadic tribes are straying through that wilderness, is not at all
+essential, and can therefore not be mentioned here, where only the
+essential feature--the nature and substance of the leading through the
+wilderness--are concerned. And we cannot at all perceive why just the
+wilderness between Babylon and Judea should be called the wilderness of
+the nations. It was no more travelled by nomadic tribes than was any
+other wilderness. And just as little was it characteristic of it, that
+it bordered upon the territories of various nations (_Hitzig_). Such a
+designation would throw us upon the territory of mere conjecture, on
+which we are, in Holy Scripture, never thrown, except through our own
+fault. But it is quite decisive that the words, "I bring you out of the
+wilderness of the nations," stand in a close relation to the words, "I
+bring you out from the nations." From this it appears that the nations,
+to which the Israelites are to be brought, cannot be any other than
+those, out of the midst of whom they are to be led. In the first
+leading out of the Israelites, the two spiritual conditions were
+separated externally also. The first belonged to Egypt; the second, to
+the wilderness. But it shall not be thus, in this announced repetition
+of the leading. It is only spiritually that the Israelites, at the
+commencement of the second condition, shall be led out from among the
+nations, in the midst of whom they, outwardly, still continue to be.
+The wilderness is in the second Egypt itself. The stay in the
+wilderness is repeated as to its essence only, and not as to its
+accidental outward form; just as in Zech. x. 12, the words, "And he
+passeth through the sea," which apparently might imply a repetition of
+the outward form merely, are limited to the substance by the subjoined
+"affliction." From this we obtain for our passage (_Hitzig_ likewise
+[Pg 260] remarks: Ezek. xx. 34-38 seems to depend on Hosea ii. 16) the
+important result, that the leading of God which is here announced, is
+not limited to a definite place, and as little, to a definite time. And
+what is true of the leading through the wilderness, must necessarily
+apply to the leading into Canaan also. Just as Egypt might begin, and
+actually did begin, even in Palestine, inasmuch as Israel was there
+in a condition of heavy spiritual and bodily bondage;--just as,
+spiritually, they might already be in the wilderness, though,
+outwardly, they were still under Asshur; so, the stay in the wilderness
+might, relatively, have still continued in Canaan, even although--which
+did not happen--the whole people should have returned thither with
+Zerubbabel. What is it that makes Canaan to be Canaan, the promised
+land, the land of the Lord? It is just this:--that the Lord is there
+present with all His gifts and blessings. But such was by no means the
+case in the new colony. Because the spiritual condition of those who
+had returned was in conformity with the second--in part, even with the
+first--rather than with. the last station, their outward condition was
+so likewise. John the Baptist symbolized this continuation of the
+condition of the wilderness, by his appearing _in the wilderness_, with
+the preaching of repentance, and with. the announcement, that now the
+introduction to the true Canaan was near at hand. By proclaiming
+himself as the voice crying in the wilderness, announced by Isaiah, he
+showed with sufficient plainness how false was that carnal view which,
+without being able to distinguish the thought from its drapery,
+understood, and still understands, by the wilderness spoken of
+in this prophecy, some piece of land, limited as to space, and then
+murmured that the actual limit did not correspond with the fancied
+one.--As in the case of Israel, so in ours also, these conditions are
+distinguished, not absolutely, but relatively only. Even he who has, in
+one respect, been already led through to Canaan, remains, in another
+respect, in the wilderness still. Canaan, in the full sense, does not
+belong to the present world, but to the future, as regards both the
+single individual, and the whole Church.--Another parallel passage is
+Jer. xxxi. 1, 2: "At this time, saith the Lord, will I be the God of
+all the families of Israel, and they shall be My people. Thus saith
+the Lord, The people who have escaped from the sword find mercy
+in the wilderness; [Pg 261] I go to give rest to Israel." In Rev. xii.
+6, 14, the wilderness likewise designates the state of trial and
+temptation.--דבר על־לב, properly "to speak over the heart," because the
+words fall down upon the heart, signifies an affectionate and
+consolatory address; compare Gen. xxxiv. 3 ("And he loved the damsel,
+and spoke over the heart of the damsel"), l. 21; Is. xl. 2. Here they
+signify that the wife is comforted after she had been so deeply cast
+down by the consciousness of her former unfaithfulness, and by the
+experience of its bitter consequences. The view of those who would here
+think only of the comforting words of the prophets is much too
+limited,--although these words are, of course, included. We must
+chiefly think of the _sermo realis_ of the Lord, of all the proofs of
+affectionate and tender love, whereby He gives rest to the weary and
+heavy-laden, and brings it about, that those who were formerly
+unfaithful, but who now suffer themselves to be led by Him out of the
+spiritual bondage into the spiritual wilderness, can now put confidence
+in Him; just as, formerly. He comforted Israel in the wilderness, in
+the waste and desolate land, in the land of drought and of the shadow
+of death (Jer. ii. 6), and affectionately cared for all their wants, in
+order that they might know that He is the Lord their God, Deut. xxix.
+4, 5.
+
+Ver. 17. "_And I give her her vineyards from thence, and the valley of
+Achor_ (trouble) _for a door of hope; and she answers thither as in the
+days of her youth, and as in the day when she came up out of Egypt._"
+
+The same faithful love which led into the wilderness, now leads into
+Canaan also; and the entrance into the promised land is immediately
+followed by the possession of all its gifts and blessings, which now
+legitimately belong to the _faithful_ wife (_her_ vineyards), whilst,
+formerly, they were taken from the unfaithful wife by the giver, ver.
+14. נתן with ל of the person, always means "to give to some one." Hence
+_Simson_ is wrong in giving the explanation: "And I make her of it,
+viz., the wilderness, her vineyards;" for the valley of Achor was not
+situated in the wilderness, but in Canaan; compare Is. lxv. 10. The
+signification "to give" is here suited to the second member of the
+verse also. The valley of Achor is given to her in its quality as a
+valley of hope. The _vineyards_ are mentioned with reference to ver.
+14, where the devastation of the vine is [Pg 262] threatened. They are
+brought under notice as the noblest possession, as the finest ornament
+of the cultivated land, in contrast with the barren wilderness. משם,
+properly "from thence," is correctly explained by _Manger_: "As
+soon as she has come out of that wilderness." The explanation of
+_Rödiger_ and others, "From that time," is unphilological; שם is never
+an adverb of time.--According to the opinion of many interpreters
+(_Calvin_, _Manger_, and others), the valley of Achor here comes into
+consideration only because of its fruitfulness, and its situation at
+the entrance of the promised land, but not with any reference to the
+event which, according to Josh. vii., happened there. But the
+circumstance that here, as in the whole preceding context, the prophet,
+in almost every word, has before his eyes the former leadings of
+Israel, compels us, almost involuntarily, to have respect to that
+event. And, in addition, there is a still more decisive argument. It
+cannot be denied that there is a contrast between what the valley of
+Achor is by nature, and what it is made by the Lord; there is too plain
+a contrast between the _hope_ and the _affliction_. But if thus the
+meaning of the name is brought into view, then certainly there must
+also be a reference to the event to which it owed its name. But in
+order to have a right understanding of this reference, we must find out
+what was the essential feature in the event, the repetition of which is
+here announced. The people, when they were entering into Canaan, were
+immediately deprived of the enjoyment of the divine favour by the
+transgression of an individual--Achan--which was only a single fruit
+from the tree of the sin which was common to all. But God Himself,
+in His mercy, made known the means by which the lost favour might
+be recovered; and thus the place, which seemed to be the door of
+destruction, became the door of hope; compare _Schultens_ on _Harari_
+iii. p. 180. The remembrance of this event was perpetuated by the
+name of the place; compare ver. 25: "And Joshua said. Why hast thou
+troubled us? The Lord shall trouble thee this day. Therefore the name
+of the place was called. The valley of Achor, unto this day." This
+particular dealing of God, however, is based upon His nature, and
+must, therefore, repeat itself when Israel again comes into similar
+circumstances,--must be repeated, in general, whensoever similar
+conditions arise. Even they who have already entered the [Pg 263]
+promised land, who have already come to the full enjoyment of salvation
+(_full_, in so far as it is considered as a whole, and designated as
+the last station; but as this last station again has several steps and
+gradations, this fulness can be relative only. If it were absolute, if
+nothing more of the wilderness were left, then, of course, the case
+here in question could no more occur; for a salvation absolutely full
+presupposes a righteousness absolutely full);--even they who have
+already come to the full enjoyment of salvation, and to a degree of
+righteousness corresponding to this salvation, require still the mercy
+of God; for, without it, they would soon lose their salvation again.
+This mercy, however, is vouchsafed to them in abundant measure. The
+whole manner in which God leads those who have obtained mercy, is a
+changing of the valley of trouble into a door of hope. He will order
+all things in such a way, that the bond of union betwixt Him and those
+for whom all things must work together for good, instead of being
+broken by sin--as it would be if He were justice alone--is only the
+more strengthened. The same idea occurs again in ver. 21. The new
+marriage-covenant is there founded not on justice only, but on mercy
+also.--The words וענתה שמה are commonly explained, "She sings there,"
+or, "She there raises alternative songs." But both of these
+interpretations are unphilological. For 1. שמה does not signify
+"there," but "thither." Those passages which have been appealed to for
+the purpose of proving that it may also sometimes signify "there," or
+"at yonder place," all belong to the same class. The opposite of the
+construction of the verbs of motion with ב takes place in them. As, in
+these verbs, the idea of rest is, for the sake of brevity, omitted, so
+here, that of motion. Thus, _e.g._, Jer. xviii. 2, "Go down to the
+potter's house, and _thither_ will I cause thee to hear My voice," is a
+concise mode of expression for, "I will send My voice thither, and
+cause thee to hear there;" 1 Chron. iv. 41, "Which were found thither,"
+instead of, "which were found there when they came thither." We might,
+in the case of the passage under consideration, most easily concede
+what we are contending against, that שמה is used instead of שם, as a
+kind of grammatical blunder; but that the writer knew the difference
+between these two forms clearly appears from the close of the verse,
+where, certainly, he would not have put שמה for שם. These are the
+instances adduced by _Winer_. _Gesenius_, further, refers [Pg 264]to
+Is. xxxiv. 15: "_Thither_ makes her nest;" but the making of the nest
+implies the placing of it. _Ewald_, moreover, appeals to Ps. cxxii. 5:
+"_Thither_ sit the thrones for judgment." It is true that ישב never
+signifies "to sit down," but it frequently implies it. He appeals,
+further, to the Song of Solomon viii. 5: "_Thither_ thy mother brought
+thee forth;" which is tantamount to--there she brought thee forth, and
+put thee down. But שמה can so much the less signify "there," that the
+instances alleged for the weakening of the ה _locale_ in other
+passages, will not stand the test. _Ewald_ appeals to Ps. lxviii. 7:
+"God makes the solitary to dwell ביתה;" which, however, does not mean
+"_in_ the house," as _Ewald_ translates, but "_into_ the house"--He
+leads them thither, and makes them to dwell there. The idea of motion
+being sufficiently indicated by the ה itself, no other designation was
+required in poetry, which delights in brevity. _Further_--Hab. iii. 11:
+"Sun and moon stand זבלה, towards their habitation," _i.e._, go into
+their habitation and stand there. 2. The verb ענה signifies neither "to
+begin the discourse," nor "to sing," nor "to sing alternately," nor "to
+correspond," nor "to be favourably disposed" (_Ewald_), nor "to obey"
+(_Hitzig_), but always, and everywhere, "to answer." All these
+explanations will lose their plausibility, if we only consider, that it
+is not always necessary that a question be expressed by words, but that
+it may be implied in the thing itself--especially in the case of the
+lively Orientals, for whom things, even the most mute, have a language.
+As examples, we cite only 1 Sam. xxi. 12:--"Did they not answer to him
+in dances, saying, Saul has slain his thousands, but David his ten
+thousands!" Similarly also xxix. 5. That even here, the signification
+"to answer" ought to be retained, is plain from xviii. 7, compared with
+ver. 6. The coming together of David and Saul was a silent question as
+to which was the greater. Ps. cxlvii.: "Answer the Lord with praise."
+The real addresses of the Lord were His blessings; compare vers. 2-6, 8
+ff. By everything which God gives He asks. What art thou doing to Me,
+since I am doing that to thee? ענה is often used of God, although no
+formal question or prayer preceded; but the very relation itself
+implies prayer and asking. It is in this sense that even the ravens are
+said to cry to God. It is in this sense that God _answers_ His people
+before they cry to Him. He who has nothing, prays by this very
+circumstance, even without words, [Pg 265]yea, even without the
+gestures and posture of one who is praying. Since, in these remarks, we
+have already refuted the arguments which seemed most plausible, we may
+pass over other objections which are less to the purpose. There is only
+the passage Exod. xv. 21, which requires to be specially noticed, as it
+is in that passage that the signification "to sing alternately" is
+supposed, beyond any doubt, to be; and many interpreters assume that
+there is a verbal reference to it in the passage under consideration.
+"And then Miriam answered to them (להם, _i.e._, to the men), Sing ye to
+the Lord," Moses sings first with the children of Israel, ver. 1, "and
+then Miriam the prophetess took, etc., and _answered_." The
+signification "to answer," is here quite evident. But, on the other
+hand, it appears that that passage has not the slightest relation to
+the one under consideration, inasmuch as there is not, in the latter,
+any mention of a first choir, to which the second answers.--From what
+has been hitherto remarked, it is settled that the translation, "And
+she answers thither," is alone admissible. But now, since no _verbal_
+question or address has preceded here, the question arises:--Which
+address by deeds called forth the answer? To this question an answer is
+readily suggested by the reference of שמה to the preceding משם. The
+address must have come from that place to which the answer is sent;
+hence, it can consist only in the giving of the vineyards, and of the
+good things of the promised land generally. On entering into it, she is
+welcomed by this affectionate address of the Lord, her husband, and
+there she answers it. The following words, "As in the days," etc.,
+show what that is in which the answer consists. If, at that time,
+Israel answered the Lord by a song of praise, full of thanks for the
+deliverance from Egypt, now also they will answer Him by a song of
+praise, for being led into Canaan. If history had given any report
+of a hymn of praise sung by Israel when they entered into Canaan,
+the prophet would have referred to it; but as it was, he could only
+remind them of that hymn. And although the occasion on which it was
+sung did not altogether correspond, it must be borne in mind, that in
+this hymn (compare ver. 12 ff.) the passing through the Red Sea is
+represented as a preparatory step, and as prefiguring the occupation of
+Canaan--the latter being contained in it as in a germ. It is, moreover,
+self-evident that the essential fundamental thought is [Pg 266]only
+that of the cordial and deep gratitude of the redeemed,--that the form
+only is borrowed from the previous manifestation of this thankfulness.
+An image altogether similar, and arising from the same cause, is found
+in Is. xii. also, where the reference to Moses' hymn of thanks is
+manifested by employing the very words; and likewise in Is. xxvi.; and,
+further, in Hab. iii. and Rev. xv. 3.--ימי and יום are Nominatives, not
+Accusatives; which latter could not be made use of here, because the
+discourse is not of an action extending through the whole period, but
+of one happening at a particular point of that period. The comparison
+is here also merely intimated, because the _tertium comparationis_ is
+abundantly evident from what precedes: "As the days of her youth,"
+instead of, "As she once answered in the days of her youth."
+
+Ver. 18. "_And it shall be at that day, saith the Lord, thou shalt call
+Me, My husband, and shall call Me no more, My Baal._"
+
+The full performance of her duties corresponds with the full admission
+to her rights. The prophet expresses this thought, by announcing the
+removal of the two forms in which the apostasy of the people from the
+true God--the violation of the marriage-covenant which rested on
+exclusiveness--was at that time manifested. One of these was the mixing
+up of the religion of Jehovah with heathenism, according to which they
+called the true God "Baal," and worshipped Him as Baal; the other was
+still grosser--was pure idolatry. The abolition of the former (compare
+above, p. 176 f.) is predicted in this verse; the abolition of the
+latter, in the verse following. Both are in a similar way placed beside
+each other in Zech. xiv. 9: "In that day shall there be one Lord,
+and His name one;" where the first clause refers to the abolition
+of polytheism, and the second to the abolition of the mixing of
+religion--of the hidden apostasy--which, without venturing to forsake
+the true God entirely and openly, endeavours to mix up and identify Him
+with the world. To the fundamental thought there are several parallels;
+_e.g._, Deut. xxx. 5 ff.: "And the Lord thy God bringeth thee into the
+land which thy fathers possessed; and the Lord thy God circumciseth
+thine heart, and the heart of thy seed, to love the Lord thy God with
+all thine heart, and with all thy soul, that thou mayest live." This
+passage shows that the verse before us, no less than that which
+precedes, contains a _promise_, and that the "calling," and the
+"calling no more," is a work of divine [Pg 267]grace. To this we are
+led also by the words, "I shall take away," in ver. 19, as well as by
+the other parallel passages:--Jer. xxiv. 7: "And I give them an heart
+to know Me, that I am the Lord; and they shall be a people to Me, and I
+will be a God to them, for they shall return to Me with their whole
+heart;" Ezek. xi. 19: "And I give them one heart, and a new spirit I
+put within them, and take the stony heart out of their flesh;" compare
+further Zech. xiii. 2. Another interpretation of the verse recommends
+itself by its apparent depth. According to it, בעל is to be taken as an
+appellative noun, the "marriage-Lord," in contrast with איש, "husband,"
+and that the people are henceforth to be altogether governed by love.
+But this interpretation must be objected to, for a whole multitude of
+reasons. There is, _first_ of all, the relation of this verse to the
+following one, which does not allow that בעל, which there occurs as a
+proper name, should in this place be taken as an appellative. There is,
+_then_, the arbitrariness in defining the relation between איש and בעל,
+the former of which as little exclusively expresses the relation of
+love, as the latter excludes it. (Compare Is. liv. 5, 6, lxii. 4; 2
+Sam. xi. 26.) Further, it is incorrect to say that בעל properly
+means "Lord;" it means "possessor." _Still further_,--There is the
+unsuitableness of the thought, which would be without any analogy in
+its favour throughout Scripture. And, _lastly_, the relation of love to
+God cannot, even in its highest consummation, do away with reference to
+Him, etc.
+
+Ver. 19. "_And I take away the names of the Baalim out of her mouth,
+and they shall no more be remembered by their name._"
+
+The people are to conceive such an abhorrence of idolatry, that they
+shall be afraid of being defiled even by pronouncing the name of the
+idols. The words are borrowed from Exod. xxiii. 13: "Ye shall not make
+mention of the name of other gods, neither shall it be heard out of thy
+mouth." The special expression of the idea must, as a matter of course,
+be referred back to this idea itself, viz., the abhorrence of the
+former sin and, hence, such a mention cannot here be spoken of as, like
+that in the passage before us, has no reference to that sin.
+
+Ver. 20. "_And I make a covenant for them in that day with the beasts
+of the field, and with the fowls of heaven, and with the creeping
+things of the earth; and bow, and sword, and war I break out of the
+land, and make them to dwell in safety._"
+
+[Pg 268]
+
+On the expression, "I make a covenant," _Manger_ remarks, "The cause is
+here put for the effect, in order to inspire with greater security."
+For the benefit of Israel, God makes a covenant with the beasts,
+_i.e._, He imposes upon them obligations not to injure them. The phrase
+כרת ברית is frequently used of a transaction betwixt two parties,
+whereby an obligation is imposed upon only one of the parties, without
+the assumption of any obligation by the other. A somewhat different
+turn is given to the image in Job v. 23, where, by the mediation of
+God, the beasts themselves enter into a covenant with Job after his
+restoration. רמש never means "worm," but always "what moves and
+creeps," both small and great, as, in Ps. civ. 25, is subjoined by way
+of explanation. The three classes stand in the same order in Gen. ix.
+2. The normal order there established, "And the fear of you and the
+dread of you shall be upon every beast," etc., returns, after the
+removal of the disturbance which has been produced by sin. Upon the
+words, "I break," etc., _Manger_ makes the very pertinent remark: "It
+is an emphatic and expressive brevity, according to which breaking out
+of the land all instruments of war, and war itself, means that He will
+break them and remove them out of the land." It is self-evident that
+"war" can here, as little as anywhere else, mean "weapons of war." The
+prophet, as it appears, had in view the passage Lev. xxvi. 3 ff.: "If
+ye will walk in My statutes, and keep My commandments and do them, I
+will give you your rains in due season, and the land shall yield her
+increase, and the trees of the field shall yield their fruit.... And I
+give peace in the land, and you dwell, and there is none who makes you
+afraid; and I destroy the wild beasts out of the land, and the sword
+shall not enter into your land." It is so much the more obvious that we
+ought to assume a reference to this passage, as Ezekiel also, in xxxiv.
+25 ff., copies it almost _verbatim_. On account of the fatal _If_, that
+promise had hitherto been only very imperfectly fulfilled; and
+frequently just the opposite of it had happened. But now that the
+condition is fulfilled, the promise also shall be fully realized. But
+we must observe, with reference to it, that, when we look to the
+present course of the world, this hope remains always more or less
+ideal, because in reference to the condition also, the idea is not yet
+reached by the reality. The idea is this:--As evil is, as a [Pg
+269]punishment, the inseparable concomitant of sin, so prosperity and
+salvation are the inseparable companions of righteousness. This is
+realized even in the present course of the world, in so far as
+everything must serve to promote the prosperity of the righteous. But
+the full realization belongs to the παλινγενεσία, where, along with
+sin, evil too (which is _here_ still necessary even for the righteous,
+in order to purify them) shall be extirpated. Parallel are Is. ii. 4,
+xi.-xxxv. 9; Zech. ix. 10.
+
+Ver. 21. "_And I betroth thee to Me for eternity; and I betroth thee to
+Me in righteousness and judgment, and in loving-kindness and mercy._"
+
+Ver. 22. "_And I betroth thee to Me in faithfulness, and thou knowest
+the Lord._"
+
+The word ארש, "to espouse" (compare Deut. xx. 7, where it is contrasted
+with לקח), has reference to the entrance into a marriage entirely new,
+with the wife of youth, and is, for this reason, chosen on purpose.
+"Just as if (so _Calvin_ remarks) the people had never violated
+conjugal fidelity, God promises that they should be His spouse, in the
+same manner as one marries a _virgo intacta_." It was indeed a great
+mercy if the unfaithful wife was only received _again_. Justly might
+she have been rejected for ever; for the only valid reason for a
+divorce existed, inasmuch as she had lived in adultery for years. But
+God's mercy goes still further. The old offences are not only
+_forgiven_, but _forgotten_. A relation entirely new begins, into which
+there enter, on the one side, no suspicion and no bitterness, and on
+the other, no painful recollections, such as may pass into similar
+human relationships, where the consequences of sin never disappear
+altogether, and where a painful remembrance always remains. The same
+dealing of God is still repeated daily; every believer may still say
+with exultation: "Old things are passed away; behold, all things are
+become new." It is the greatness of this promise which occasions the
+direct address, whilst hitherto the Lord had spoken of the wife in the
+third person. She shall hear face to face, the great word out of His
+mouth, in order that she may be assured that it is she whom it
+concerns; and in order to express its greatness, its joyfulness, and
+the difficulty of believing it, it is repeated three times. _Calvin_
+says: "Because it was difficult to deliver the people from fear and
+despair, and because they could not but be [Pg 270]aware how grievously
+they had sinned, and in how many ways they had alienated themselves
+from God, it was necessary to employ many consolations, that thus their
+faith might be confirmed. One likes to hear the repetition of the
+intelligence of a great and unexpected good fortune which one has some
+difficulty in realizing. And what could a man, despairing on account of
+his sins, less readily realize than the greatest of all miracles--viz.,
+that all his sins should be done away with, at once and for ever? But
+the repetition is, in this case, so much the more full of consolation,
+that, each time, it is accompanied with the promise of some new
+blessing; that, each time, it opens up some new prospect of new
+blessings from this new connection. First, there is the eternal
+duration,--then, as a pledge of this, the attributes which God would
+display in bestowing it,--and, finally, there are the blessings which
+He would impart to His betrothed." The לעולם points back to the painful
+dissolution of the former marriage-covenant: This new one shall not be
+liable to such a dissolution; for "the mountains shall depart, and the
+hills be removed, but My kindness shall not depart from thee, neither
+shall the covenant of My peace be removed, saith the Lord:" Is. liv.
+10. The attributes which God will display towards the wife, and the
+conduct which she shall observe towards Him through His mercy, are
+connected with ארשתיך לי, "I betroth thee to Me," by means of ב,
+which is often used to mark the circumstances on which some action
+rests. Thus, in the case before us, the betrothment rests upon
+what God vouchsafes along with it, inasmuch as thereby only does it
+become a true betrothment. That the accompanying gifts must be thus
+distributed--as we have done--first, the faithful discharge of all the
+duties of a husband on His part, and then, the inward communication of
+strength to her for the fulfilment of her obligations; and that we are
+neither at liberty to refer, as do some interpreters, everything
+to one of the two parties, nor to assume, as others do, that everything
+refers to both at the same time--is proved not only by the intervening
+repetition of "I betroth thee to Me," but also by the internal
+nature of the gift's mentioned. רחמים, "mercy," cannot be spoken
+of in the relation of the wife to God, nor knowledge of God, in the
+relation of God to the wife. The four manifestations of God which are
+mentioned here form [Pg 271] a double pair,--righteousness and
+judgment, loving-kindness and mercy. The two are frequently connected
+in a similar way; _e.g._, Is. i. 27: "Zion shall be redeemed in
+judgment, and her inhabitants in righteousness." They are distinguished
+thus:--the former, צדק, designates the _being just_, as a subjective
+attribute, with the dispositions and actions flowing from it; the
+latter, משפט, denotes the _objective right_.[1] A man can give to
+another his right or judgment, and yet not be righteous; but God's
+righteousness, and His doing right in reference to the Congregation,
+consists in this:--that He faithfully performs the obligations which
+He took upon Himself when He entered into covenant with her. This,
+however, is not sufficient. The obligations entered into are
+reciprocal. If, then, the covenant be violated on the part of the
+Congregation, what hope is left for her? In order the more to relieve
+and comfort the wife, who, from former experience, knew full well what
+she might expect from righteousness and judgment alone, the Lord adds a
+second pair,--loving-kindness and mercy, the former being the root of
+the latter, and the latter being the form in which the former manifests
+itself, in the relation of an omnipotent and holy God to weak and
+sinful man. חסד, properly "love," man may also entertain towards
+God; although even this word is very rarely used in reference to man,
+because God's love infinitely exceeds human love; but God only can have
+רחמים, "mercy," upon man. But still a distressing thought might, and
+must be entertained by the wife. God's mercy and love have their
+limits; they extend only to the one case which dissolves even human
+marriage--the type of the heavenly marriage, the great mystery which
+the Apostle refers to Christ and the Church. What, then, if this case
+should again occur? Her heart, it is true, is now filled with pure
+love; but who knows whether this love shall not cool,--whether she
+shall not again yield to temptation? A new consolation is applied to
+the new distress. God Himself will bestow what it is not in the power
+of man to bestow--viz., faithfulness towards Him (compare אמונה
+used of human faithfulness, in Hab. ii. 4; Jer. v. 3, vii. 28;
+the faithfulness in this verse forms the contrast to the whoredom in i.
+2), [Pg 272]and the knowledge of Him. "Thou knowest the Lord" is
+tantamount to--"in My knowledge." The knowledge of God is here
+substantial knowledge. Whosoever thus knows God cannot but love Him,
+and be faithful to Him. All idolatry, all sin, has its foundation in a
+want of the knowledge of God.
+
+Ver. 23. "_And it comes to pass in that day, I will hear, saith the
+Lord; I will hear the heavens, and they shall hear the earth;_ Ver. 24.
+_And the earth shall hear the corn, and the must, and the oil; and they
+shall hear Jezreel_" (_i.e._, him whom God sows).
+
+The promise in this passage forms the contrast to the threatening in
+Deut. xxviii. 23, 24: "And thy heaven that is over thy head shall be
+brass, and the earth that is under thee shall be iron. The Lord will
+give for the rain of thy land, dust, and dust shall come down from
+heaven upon thee." The second אענה is, by most interpreters, considered
+as a resumption of the first. But we obtain a far more expressive
+sense, if we isolate the first אענה, "I shall hear," namely, all
+prayers which will be offered up unto Me by you, and for you. Parallel,
+among other passages, is Is. lviii. 9, where the reformed people are
+promised: "Then shalt thou call, and the Lord shall answer; thou shalt
+cry, and He shall say. Here I am." By a bold _prosopopœia_, the prophet
+makes heaven to pray that it might be permitted to give to the earth
+that which is necessary for its fruitfulness, etc. Hitherto they have
+been hindered from fulfilling their _destination_, since God was
+obliged to withdraw His gifts from the unworthy people, ii. 11; but
+now, since this obstacle has been removed, they pray for permission to
+resume their vocation. The prophets in this manner give, as it were, a
+visible representation of the idea, that there is in the whole world no
+good independent of God,--nothing which, in accordance with its
+destination, is not ours, and would indeed be ours, if we stood in the
+right relation to Him,--nothing that is not His, and that will not be
+taken away from us, if we desire the gift without the Giver. _Calvin_
+remarks: "The prophet shows where and when the happiness of men begins,
+viz., when God adopts them, when He betrothes Himself to them, after
+having put away their sins.... He teaches, also, in these words, that
+the heavens do not become dry by some secret instinct; but it is when
+God withholds His grace, that there is no rain by which the heavens
+water the earth." God, then, here shows [Pg 273]plainly that the whole
+_order of nature_ (as men are wont to say) is so entirely in His
+hand, that not one drop of rain shall fall from heaven unless by His
+will,--that the whole earth would produce no grass,--that, in short,
+all nature would be sterile, unless He made it fruitful by His
+blessing.
+
+Ver. 25. "_And I sow her unto Me in the land, and I have mercy upon her
+'who had not obtained mercy'_ (Lo-Ruhamah); _and I say to 'not My
+people'_ (Lo-Ammi), _Thou art My people, and they say to Me, My God._"
+
+The three symbolical names of the children of the prophet here once
+more return. The _femin. suffix_ in זרעתיה, referring to יזרעאל, need
+not at all surprise us; for, in the whole passage before us, the sign
+disappears in the thing signified. In point of fact, however, _Jezreel_
+is equivalent to Israel to be sowed anew. (It is not the Israel to be
+_planted_ anew, which is a figure altogether different; the sowing has
+always a reference to the increase.)
+
+
+Footnote 1: In our authorized version משפט is almost constantly
+rendered by "_judgment_," although evidently in the sense pointed out
+by the author,--for which reason, this rendering has been retained
+here.--Tr.
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+"The significant couple returns for a new reference" (_Rückert_).
+First, in vers. 1-3, the symbolical action is reported. At the command
+of the Lord, the prophet takes a wife, who, notwithstanding his
+affectionate and faithful love, lives in continued adultery. He does
+not entirely reject her; but, in order that she may come to recovery
+and repentance, he puts her into a position where she must abstain
+from her lovers. The interpretation of the symbol is given in ver.
+4: Israel, forsaken by the world, shall spend a long time in sad
+seclusion. A glance into the more distant future, without any
+symbolical imagery, forms the conclusion. The punishment will at length
+produce conversion. Israel returns to the Lord his God, and to David
+his king.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+Ver. 1. "_Then said the Lord unto me, Go again, love a_ [Pg 274]_woman
+beloved of her friend, and an adulteress, as the Lord loveth the sons
+of Israel, and they turn to other gods and love grape-cakes._"
+
+The right point of view for the interpretation of this verse has been
+already, in many important respects, established; compare p. 183 sqq.
+We here take for granted the results there obtained. It is of great
+importance, for an insight into the whole passage, to remark, that the
+symbolical action in this section, just as in that to which chap. i.
+belongs, embraces the entire relation of the Lord to the people of
+Israel, and not, as some interpreters assume, one portion only, viz.,
+the time from the beginning of the captivity. This false view--of which
+the futility was first completely exposed by _Manger_--has arisen from
+the circumstance, that the prophet, in narrating the execution of the
+divine commission, omits very important events. In the expectation that
+every one would supply them, partly from the commission itself, and
+partly from the preceding portions, where they had been treated of with
+peculiar copiousness, he rather at once passes from the first
+conclusion of the marriage, to that point which, in this passage, forms
+his main subject, namely, the disciplinary punishment to which he
+subjects his wife,--the Lord, Israel. The prophet's aim and purpose is
+to afford to the people a right view of the captivity so near at hand;
+to lead them to consider it neither as a merely accidental event,
+having, no connection at all with their sins; nor as a pure effect of
+divine anger, aiming at their entire destruction; but rather as being
+at the same time a work of punitive justice, and of corrective love.
+Between the second verse, "I purchased her to me," etc., and the third,
+"Then I said unto her," etc., we must supply. And I took her in
+marriage and loved her; but she committed adultery. That this is the
+sound view, appears clearly from ver. 2. According to the right
+exposition (compare p. 195 sqq.), this verse can be referred only to
+the first beginning of the relation betwixt the Lord and the people of
+Israel--to that only by which He acquired the right of property in this
+people, on delivering them from Egypt. This is confirmed, moreover, by
+the second half of the verse under consideration: "As the Lord loveth,"
+etc. Here the love of the Lord to Israel in its widest extent is spoken
+of. Every limitation of it to a single manifestation--be it a [Pg
+275]renewal of love after the apostasy, or the corrective discipline
+inflicted from love--is quite arbitrary; and the more so, because, by
+the addition, "And they turned," etc., the love of God is represented
+as running parallel with the apostasy of the people. The same result is
+obtained from a consideration of the first half. For what entitles us
+to explain "love" by "love again," or even by "_restitue amoris signa_"
+as is done by those who hold the opinion, already refuted, that the
+woman is _Gomer_? The word "love" corresponds exactly with "as the Lord
+loveth." If the latter must be understood of the love of the Lord in
+its whole extent,--if it does not designate merely the manifestation of
+love, but love itself,--how can a more limited view be taken of the
+former "love?" How could we explain, as is done by those who defend the
+reference to a new marriage, the words, "Beloved of her friend, and an
+adulteress," as referring to a former marriage of the wife, and as
+tantamount to--who was beloved by her former husband, and yet committed
+adultery? In that case, there would be the greatest dissimilarity
+betwixt the type and the antitype. Who, in that case, is to be the type
+of the Lord? Is it to be the former husband, or the prophet? If the
+figure is at all to correspond with the reality,--the first member with
+the second, the רֵעַ can be none other than the prophet himself.--Let us
+now proceed to particulars, אהב, "love," is stronger than קח, "take,"
+in chap. i. 2. There, marriage only was spoken of; here, marriage from
+love and in love. This is still more emphatically pointed out by the
+subsequent words אהבת רע, and contrasted with the conduct of the
+wife, which is indicated by מנאפת, so that the sense is this: "In
+love take a wife who, although she is beloved by thee, her friend,
+commits adultery, and with whom--I tell it to thee beforehand--thou
+wilt live in a constant antagonism of love, and of ingratitude, the
+grossest violation of love." The word "_love_" has a reference to the
+love preceding and effecting the marriage; the word "_beloved_,"
+to the love uninterruptedly continuing during the marriage, and
+notwithstanding the continued adultery, unless we should say--and it is
+quite admissible--that "love" implies, at the same time, "to take out
+of love," and "to love constantly." Instead of "beloved by _thee_" it
+is said, "beloved by her _friend_." Many have been thereby misled; but
+it only serves to make the contrast more [Pg 276]prominent.[1] רֵעַ has
+only one signification--that of _friend_. It never, by itself, means
+"fellow-man," never "fellow-Jew," never "one with whom we have
+intercourse." The Pharisees were quite correct in understanding it as
+the opposite of enemy. In their gloss, Matt. v. 43, καὶ μισήσεις τὸν
+ἐχθρόν σου, there was one thing only objectionable--the most important,
+it is true--that by the friend, they understood only him whom their
+heart, void of love, loved indeed; not him whom they ought to have
+loved, because God had united him to them by the sacred ties of
+friendship and love. Thus, what ought to have awakened them to love,
+just served them as a palliation for their hatred. Now this
+signification, which alone is the settled one, is here also very
+suitable. He whom the wife criminally forsakes, is not a severe
+husband, but her loving friend, whom she herself formerly acknowledged
+as such, and who always remains the same. Entirely parallel is Jer.
+iii. 20: "As a wife is faithless towards her _friend_, so have ye been
+faithless to Me;" compare ver. 4: "Hast thou not formerly called me. My
+father, _friend_ of my youth art thou?" Compare also Song of Sol. v.
+16. The correct meaning was long ago seen by _Calvin_: "There is," says
+he, "an expressiveness in this word. For often, when women prostitute
+themselves, they complain that they have done it on account of the too
+great severity of their husbands, and that they are not treated by
+their husbands with sufficient kindness. But if a husband delight in
+having his wife with him, if he treat her kindly and perform the duties
+of a husband, she is then less excusable. Hence, it is this most
+heinous ingratitude of the people that is here expressed, and set in
+opposition to the infinite mercy and kindness of the Lord." For a still
+better insight into the meaning of the first half of this verse, we
+subjoin the _paraphrasis_ by _Manger_: "Seek thee a wife in whom thou
+art to have thy delight, and whom thou art to treat with such love,
+that, even if she, by her unfaithfulness, violate the sacred rights of
+matrimony, and thou, for that reason, canst no longer live with her,
+[Pg 277]she shall still remain dear to thee, and shall be willingly
+received again into thy favour, as soon as she shall have reformed her
+life."--In the second half of the verse, there is a verbal agreement
+with passages of the Pentateuch, so close that it cannot certainly be
+accidental. Compare on כאהבת יהוה את־בני ישראל, Deut. vii. 8, מאהבת
+יהוה אתכם,--an agreement which undoubtedly deserves so much more
+attention, that we have already established the relationship of the
+passage with ver. 2. On פנים אל אלהים אחרים, compare Deut. xxxi. 18: "I
+will hide My face in that day for all the evil they are doing, for they
+turn to other gods," אשישי ענבים--.פנה אל אלהים אחרים, "grape-cakes,"
+has, as to its substance, been already explained, p. 194 sqq. It is the
+result of an entire misunderstanding, that some interpreters should
+here think of the love of feasting and banqueting. Others (as
+_Gesenius_) are anxious to prove that such cakes were used at the
+sacrifices which were offered to idols. The grape-cakes are rather
+idolatry itself; but the expression, "They love grape-cakes," adds an
+essential feature to the words, "They turn to other gods." It points,
+namely, to the sinful origin of idolatry. Earnest and strict religion
+is substantial and wholesome food; but idolatry is soft food, which is
+sought only by the dainty and squeamish. That which is true of
+idolatry, is true also of the service of sin, and of the world in
+general, which, in Job xx. 12, appears under the image of meat which
+is, in the mouth, as sweet as honey from the comb, but which is, in the
+belly, changed into the gall of asps. In the symbolism of the law,
+honey signified the _lust_ of the world; compare my work _Die Opfer
+der Heil. Schrift_, S. 44. It is only the derivation of אשישיט, the
+signification of which is sufficiently established by parallel
+passages, which requires investigation. We have no hesitation in
+deriving it from אֵשׁ, "fire;" hence it means properly, "that which has
+been subjected to fire (compare אִשֶּׁה) = that which has been baked,"
+"cakes." The derivation from אשש, "to found," has of late become
+current; but the objections to it are:--partly, that the transition
+from "founding," to "cake," is by no means an easy one; partly and
+mainly, that there is not the slightest trace of this root elsewhere in
+Hebrew. It is asserted, indeed, that אשישים itself is found in Is. xvi.
+7, with a signification which renders necessary the derivation from the
+verb אשש. But, even in that passage, the signification of [Pg 278]
+"cakes" must be retained. The following reasons are in favour of it,
+and against the signification "ruins," adopted by _Gesenius_, _Winer_,
+and _Hitzig_. 1. The signification "cakes" deserves, _ceteris paribus_,
+a decided preference, because it is established by the other passages.
+It is only for reasons the most cogent that we can grant that one and
+the same word has two meanings, and these not at all connected with
+each other. 2. The transition from the meaning "foundation," which
+alone can be derived from the verb אשש, to that of "_ruins_," is by no
+means so easy as those critics would represent it. With respect to a
+rebuilding, for which the ruins' afford the foundation, they might, it
+is true, be called foundations, compare Is. lviii. 12, but not where
+destruction only is concerned. Who would speak of howling over
+foundations, instead of howling over ruins? 3. The context is quite
+decisive. If we translate אשישים by "ruins," the subsequent כי is quite
+inexplicable. This little word, upon which so much depends, performs
+also the office of a guide: "For this reason Moab howls, for Moab
+altogether does he howl, for the cakes of Kirhareseth you do sigh,
+wholly afflicted; _for_ the vineyards of Heshbon are withered, the vine
+of Sibmah, the grapes of which intoxicated the lord of the nations,"
+etc. Then, ver. 9, "Therefore I weep with Jaeser for the vine of
+Sibmah." If there be no more grapes, neither are there any more
+grape-cakes. The destruction of the vineyards is therefore the cause of
+the howling for the cakes. That such cakes, moreover, were prepared in
+many places in Moab, sufficiently appears from the name of the place
+Dibhlathaim, _i.e._, town of cakes. It may be remarked further, that we
+are not entitled to assume a sing. אשיש as given by lexicographers
+along with דבלה ;אשישה likewise forms the plural דבלים.
+
+Ver. 2. "_And I bought her to me for fifteen pieces of silver, and a
+homer of barley, and a lethech of barley._" Compare the explanation of
+this verse, p. 195 sqq.
+
+Ver. 3. "_And I said unto her. Thou art to sit for me many days: thou
+art not to whore, and thou art not to belong to a man; and so I also to
+thee._"
+
+The sitting has the accessory idea of being forsaken and solitary,
+which may be explained from the circumstance, that he who is not
+invited to go with us is left to sit. Thus, _e.g._, Gen. xxxviii. 11:
+"Sit as a widow in thy fathers house, until Shelah [Pg 279]my son be
+grown;" Is. xlvii. 8, where Babylon says, "I shall not _sit_ as a
+widow," etc. The Fut. in this and the following verses must not be
+taken in an imperative sense, as meaning, thou shalt sit for me, thou
+shalt not whore; the explanation given in ver. 4, and in the parallel
+passage in chap. ii. 8, 9, are alike opposed to it. The husband will
+not subject his wife to a moral probation, but he will lock her up, so
+that she must _ sit_ solitary, and _cannot_ whore. With reference to
+this. _Manger_ strikingly remarks: "There is, in that very severity,
+the beginning of leniency; 'sit for me,' _i.e._, I who have been so
+unworthily treated by thee, and who yet am thy most affectionate
+husband, and who, though now at a distance from thee, will not
+altogether forget thee." The לי indicates that the sitting of the wife
+must have reference to the prophet. Quite similar is Exod. xxiv. 14:
+"And he said unto the elders, שבו לנו, Sit ye here for us until we
+return to you." The phrase itself, which must not be explained by "to
+sit in expectation of some one," does not indicate in what way the
+sitting has reference to him. The issue of the whole proceeding,
+described in ver. 5, clearly shows, however, that it is not inflicted
+by him as a merited punishment, as an effect of his just indignation,
+but rather that we must think chiefly of his compassionate love, which
+makes use of these means in order to render the reunion possible.--The
+distinction between "to whore," and "to belong to a man," is obvious:
+the former denotes _vagos et promiscuus amores_; the other, connubial
+connection with a single individual; compare, _e.g._, Ezek. xvi. 8;
+Lev. xxi. 3. But the question is,--Who is to be understood by the
+"_man?_" Several refer it to the prophet exclusively. Thus _Jerome_
+says, "Thou shalt not shamefully prostitute thyself with other lovers,
+nor be legally connected with me, the man to whom thou art married."
+Others admit, at least, a co-reference to the prophet = the Lord. By
+the words, "Thou art not to whore," they say that the intercourse with
+the lovers is excluded; but, by, "Thou art not to belong to a man," the
+intercourse with the husband also; so that the sense would be, "Thou
+shalt not have connubial intercourse either with me, or with any other
+man." But the correct view is to refer both to the intercourse with the
+lovers; and so, indeed, that the former designates the giving of
+herself up, now to one, then to another; while the latter points to her
+entering [Pg 280]into a firm relation to a single individual; just as,
+in point of fact, the relation of Israel to the idols hitherto was a
+whoring. According as it suited their inclination, they made, now this,
+and then that, god of the neighbouring nations an object of their
+worship; whilst a marriage connection would have been formed, if they
+had entered with any one of them into a permanent and exclusive
+connection, similar to that which had heretofore existed between them
+and the Lord. This explanation is required by the words, "And so I also
+to thee," at the close of the verse. If the words, "Thou shalt not
+belong to any man," referred to the prophet, then "thou shalt not have
+any intercourse with me" would imply, "I shall not have any intercourse
+with thee;" and did not require any new mention to be made.--The
+questions, however, now arise:--By what means was the state of things
+corresponding to the figure to be brought about? By what is adulterous
+Israel to be prevented from whoring, and from belonging to any man? By
+what means is idolatry to be extirpated from among the people? The
+answer has been already given in our remarks on chap. ii. 8, 9. The
+idols manifest themselves to Israel in their supposed gifts. If these
+were taken from them,--if they were entirely stripped, and plunged into
+want and misery, they could not fail to recognise the vanity of all
+their previous efforts, along with the vanity of the object of their
+worship, while their love to him could not but vanish. The absolute
+inability of the idols to afford consolation and help to the people in
+their sufferings must have put an end to their showing them
+allegiance.--The last words, "And I also to thee," are explained by the
+greater number of interpreters to mean, "I also will be thine."
+_Manger_ explains them thus: "I will not altogether break the tie of
+our love, nor marry another wife; but I will remain thine, will at last
+receive thee again into my favour, and restore thee to the position of
+my wife." _De Wette_ interprets them thus: "But then I will come to
+thee;" _Umbreit_: "And I also only to thee;" _Ewald_: "And yet I am
+full of love towards thee." But the words, "And I also to thee," are
+rather tantamount to--"I will conduct myself in a similar manner
+towards thee." Now two things may constitute this equality of conduct.
+_Either_ it is conceived thus:--that the prophet is placed in
+parallelism with the wife. The latter has lost all claims upon the
+prophet; she has violated connubial [Pg 281]fidelity, and, hence, has
+no title to demand that he should observe it. But that which she cannot
+demand from him, he does, from the necessity of his nature. He promises
+to her that, during the proceeding which has commenced against her, he
+would not enter into any new connection; and by holding out to her the
+hope of her returning, at some future period, to her old relation to
+him, he makes it more easy for her to break off the sinful connections
+which have destroyed it. Without a figure: The Lord, from His
+forbearance and mercy, waits for the reformation of those who hitherto
+were His people; does not drive them to despair by receiving another
+people in their place. _Or_, The prophet is placed in parallelism with
+the other man. As the wife does not enter into any relation with that
+man, so the prophet also abstains from any nearer intercourse with her.
+The latter explanation (adopted by _Simson_ and _Hitzig_) is to be
+preferred. The exclusiveness cannot in the same sense be applicable to
+the prophet, representing the Lord, as to the wife, representing the
+people. So early as in Deut. xxxii. 21, we read: "They have moved Me to
+jealousy with that which is not God, they have provoked Me to anger
+with their vanities; and I will move them to jealousy with those which
+are not a people, I will provoke them to anger with a foolish nation,"
+After all that had, in the Song of Solomon, been predicted regarding
+the reception of the Gentile nations into the kingdom of God and
+Christ, and about the receiving again into it of Israel, to be effected
+by their instrumentality (compare my _Comment. on Song of Sol._, S.
+239), the thought suggested by the former view would be quite
+incomprehensible. Quite decisive, however, is ver. 4, in which the
+thought, which is here in a symbolical garb, is expressed in plain
+language. There, however, not only the intercourse with the idols, but
+the connection with Jehovah also, appears to be intermitted. The reason
+why the prophet does not enter into a closer connection with the wife
+is, that her repentance is more of a negative, than of a positive
+character. By want and isolation, her hard heart is to be broken, true
+repentance to be called forth, and the flame of cordial conversion and
+love to her husband, whose faithful love she had so ill requited, to be
+enkindled in her. In favour of the explanation given by us, and in
+opposition to that first mentioned, the גם is decisive. Against this,
+that other explanation, [Pg 282]in its various modifications, tries its
+strength in vain. "I also will be thine, or will adhere to thee," would
+require in the preceding context, "Thou shalt be mine, or adhere to
+me;" but of this, there is no trace. It is only in ver. 5 that, with
+an _after_, the conversion is reported. In favour of that false
+interpretation it is said, and with some plausibility, that the
+explanation would otherwise be more extended than the symbol: The
+latter would contain the outward dealing only; while the former, in
+ver. 5, would contain at the same time its salutary effect. But, even
+according to this explanation, the words would not correspond with ver.
+5. _Here_, the showing of mercy would be announced without the mention,
+even by a word, of the sincere return to the husband--and this,
+altogether apart from the גם, would be quite unsuitable, and would,
+moreover, be opposed by the analogy of chap. ii. 9--while, in ver. 5,
+not the showing of mercy, but only the reformation, would form the
+subject. In that case, it ought not to have been said, "They shall
+return to the Lord," but rather, "The Lord shall return to them." But
+this plausible reason falls to the ground, along with the unfounded
+supposition that the two last verses contain the explanation. The
+correct view is, that the explanation is limited to ver. 4. Ver. 5 must
+be considered as an appendix, in which, without any figurative
+covering, the effect is described which will be produced upon the
+nation by these outward dealings. The symbol and its explanation extend
+only as far as the main object of the prophet in the section under
+review,--that object being to present the impending captivity in its
+true light, and thereby to secure against levity and despair when it
+should appear.
+
+Ver. 4. "_For many days the children of Israel shall sit without a
+king, and without a prince, and without a sacrifice, and without a
+pillar, and without an Ephod and Teraphim._"
+
+כי is used because the reason of the performance of the symbolical
+action lies in its signification. Concerning ישב, see the remarks on
+ver. 3; compare, moreover. Lament, i. 1: "How does the city sit
+solitary that was full of people! she has become as a widow."--The
+question is, whether, by the religious objects here mentioned, such
+only are to be understood as belonged to the worship of the idols, or
+such also as belonged to the worship of Jehovah. The following
+furnishes the reply. The מצבה only [Pg 283]can be considered as
+belonging exclusively to the idolatrous worship. Such pillars always
+occur only as being consecrated to the idols--especially to Baal. It
+cannot be proved in any way that, contrary to the express command in
+Lev. xxvi. 1, Deut. xvi. 22, they were, in the kingdom of Israel,
+consecrated to the Lord also; compare 2 Kings iii. 2, xvii. 10, x.
+26-28. On the other hand, among the objects mentioned, there is also
+one, the אפוד, the mantle for the shoulders of the high priest, on
+which the Urim and Thummim were placed, which must be considered as
+belonging exclusively to the worship of Jehovah; at least there is not
+the smallest trace to be found that it was part of any idolatrous
+worship. It is true that _Gesenius_, in the _Thesaurus_, p. 135, gives
+_s. v._ אפוד, under 2, the signification _statua_, _simulacrum idoli_,
+and, besides the passages under consideration, refers to Jud. viii. 27,
+xvii. 5, xviii. 14, 17. But one requires only to examine these passages
+a little more minutely, to be convinced that the metamorphosis of
+Jehovah into an idol is as little justified as the changing of the
+mantle into a statue. From the personal character of Gideon, who was so
+zealous for the Lord against the idols, we cannot at all think of
+idolatry in Jud. viii. 27. In the _Dissertations on the Genuineness of
+the Pentateuch_, vol. ii. p. 80, it has been proved that the Ephod of
+Gideon was a precious imitation of that of the high priest. In chap.
+xvii. 5, we need only to consider these words: "And the man Micah had
+an house of God, and made an Ephod and Teraphim, and consecrated one of
+his sons, and he became a priest to him." Afterwards, Micah took a
+_Levite_ for a priest. But for what reason should he have been better
+suited for that purpose than any other man? The answer is given in ver.
+13: "Then said Micah, Now I know that Jehovah will do me good, for the
+Levite has become a priest to me." The ignorant man knows after all
+thus much, that the Levites alone are the only legitimate servants of
+Jehovah, and he rejoices, therefore, that he had now remedied the
+former irregularity. Jud. xviii. 14 does not require any particular
+illustration, for it is the same Ephod which is spoken of in that
+passage; but we must still direct attention to vers. 5 and 6 of that
+chapter. "Then they (the Danites) said unto him (the Levite), Ask God,
+we pray thee, in order that we may know whether our way in which we go
+shall be prosperous. And the priest said unto them, Go in [Pg
+284]peace, before _Jehovah_ is the way wherein ye go." Here, then, we
+have a revelation given to the priest, as is alleged, by means of Ephod
+and Teraphim; and this revelation is not ascribed to the idols, but to
+Jehovah, whom alone the Levite wished to serve. From this it appeal's
+that the graven image and the molten image--which, besides Ephod and
+Teraphim, according to ver. 14, exist in the house of Micah--must be
+considered as representations of Jehovah, similar to the calves in the
+kingdom of the ten tribes. In vol. ii. pp. 78, 79, of my _Dissertations
+on the Genuineness of the Pentateuch_, it has been demonstrated that
+the Ephod of Micah was, along with the Teraphim, an apeing of the
+high-priestly Ephod with the Urim and Thummim. The four objects
+mentioned in Judges xvii. and xviii. are such as were separable
+although connected, and connected although separable. The _molten work_
+is the pedestal under the image; the image is clothed with the Ephod,
+and in the Ephod were the Teraphim, from whom information and good
+counsel for the future were expected. For, that this is the object of
+the whole contrivance, is plain from chap. xviii. 5, 6, where the
+priest asks counsel of God for the Danites.--With regard to the other
+two objects mentioned in the verse before us, viz., the sacrifice and
+Teraphim, a reference, at least exclusive, to idolatrous worship,
+cannot be by any means maintained. As sacrifices are mentioned in the
+widest generality, without any limitation in the preceding context,
+there is certainly nothing which could in the least entitle us to
+exclude the sacrifices which were offered to Jehovah. The Teraphim are
+intermediate deities, by means of which the future is to be disclosed
+(compare the remarks on Zech. x. 2); they might be brought into
+connection with every religious system, but are found only once in
+connection with any other religion than that of Jehovah,--and this in a
+case where a non-Israelite is spoken of. It is true, however, that, in
+substance, the Teraphim belong to the side of idolatry; for, wherever
+they occur within the religion of Jehovah, they belong to a degenerate
+condition of it only, which is on a par with idolatry. It would appear
+that they are here contrasted with the Ephod, as the illegal means for
+ascertaining the future, in opposition to the legal means. That the
+Ephod was used for discovering the divine will, is seen from 1 Sam.
+xxiii. 9, xxx. 7. The Teraphim, in like manner, served to explore [Pg
+285]the future. A closer connection of the two seems to be indicated by
+the circumstance that אין is omitted before תרפים.--But how can we
+account for this strange intermingling of what belonged to the idols
+with what belonged to Jehovah, since it cannot but be done
+intentionally? It points to the dark mixture which at that time existed
+among the people, and is a kind of ironical reflection upon it.--The
+Lord makes them disgusted with idolatry, and all that belongs to it,
+through His visitations, in which they seek in vain the help of the
+idols, and become thoroughly acquainted with their vanity; compare
+remarks in ver. 3. At the same time, however, all the pledges of His
+grace are taken from them, so that they get into an altogether isolated
+position. He withdraws from them their independent government, the
+altar and priesthood--the former as a just punishment for their
+rebellion against the dynasty ordained by God (compare chap. viii. 4),
+of which, first Israel, and then Judah, had made themselves guilty.--As
+regards the historical reference of this prophecy, interpreters are
+divided, and refer it either to the Assyrian, the Babylonish, or the
+Romish exile. The greater number of them, however, refer it exclusively
+to the last. This is especially the case with the Jewish interpreters;
+_e.g._, _Kimchi_, who says: "These are the days of the exile, in which
+we are now; we have neither an Israelitish king nor an Israelitish
+prince, but are under the dominion of the Gentiles and their kings."
+The principal defenders of a direct reference to the Assyrian
+captivity, are _Venema_ (_Dissert._ p. 232) and _Manger_. The decision
+depends chiefly upon what we are to understand by "the children of
+Israel." If these are the whole people, it is arbitrary to assign any
+narrower limits to the _Word_ of God, than to His _deed_. The prophecy
+must, in that case, comprehend everything in which the idea is
+realized; and this so much the more, as the spiritual eye of the
+prophet, directed to the idea only, does not generally regard the
+intervals which, in the fulfilment, lie between the various
+realizations of the _idea_. But now, ver. 5 would seem to lead us to
+entertain the opinion, that, in the first instance, the prophet has in
+view the children of Israel in the more limited sense only. The words,
+"They shall return and seek David their king," imply a reference to the
+then existing apostasy of the ten tribes from the dynasty of David. But
+the future apostasy of the sons of Judah also from [Pg 286]David their
+king may be as well _presupposed_ here, as, in chapter ii. 2, their
+being carried away; and this so much the rather, as in chap. ii. 2, the
+words, "They appoint themselves a king," suggest that the sons of Judah
+also, no less than the sons of Israel, are without a head, and hence
+have apostatized from David the king. And it is so much the more
+natural to adopt such a supposition, as the Song of Solomon had already
+described so minutely the rebellion of the whole people against the
+glorious descendant of David--the heavenly Solomon--to which the
+apostasy of the ten tribes from the house of David was only a prelude.
+Considering the whole relation in which Hosea stands to the Song of
+Solomon, we could scarcely imagine that, in this respect, he should not
+have alluded to, and resumed its contents. _In the whole third chapter
+there is nothing which refers exclusively to the ten tribes._ Chap.
+iii. 2 has reference to all Israel. Throughout the whole Book of Hosea
+also, as well as by the second Israelitish prophet Amos (compare the
+remarks on Amos, chap ix.), Judah and Israel are viewed together, both
+as regards apostasy and punishment (v. 5, 12, viii. 14, x. 11, etc.),
+and as regards salvation, vi. 1-4, etc. Of special importance is the
+comparison of the remarkable prophecy of Azariah in 2 Chron. xv. 2-4,
+which was uttered at the time of Asa, king of Judah, and which so
+nearly coincides with the one before us, that the idea suggests itself
+of an allusion to it by Hosea: "Hear ye me, Asa, and all Judah and
+Benjamin: The Lord will be with you, if you are with Him; and if ye
+seek Him, He will be found of you; and if ye forsake Him, He will
+forsake you. And many days will be to Israel when there is no true
+God,[2] and no teaching priest,[3] and no law. Then they return in
+their trouble unto Jehovah the God of Israel, and they seek Him, and He
+is found of them." If the fundamental prophecy refer to all Israel, the
+same must be the case with the prophecy under consideration. The
+condition in which the Jews are, up to the present day, is described in
+both of these prophecies with remarkable clearness; and hence we may
+most confidently entertain [Pg 287]the hope, that there shall be a
+fulfilment also of that which, in them as well as in the Song of
+Solomon, has been foretold regarding the glorious issue of these
+dealings of God.
+
+Ver. 5. "_Afterwards shall the children of Israel return and seek the
+Lord their God, and David their king, and shall tremble to the Lord and
+to His goodness in the end of the days._"
+
+יָשֻׁבוּ must not by any means be regarded as modifying בקשו, so that both
+the verbs would constitute only one verbal idea. This must be objected
+to, not only from the arguments already stated in the remarks on chap.
+ii. 11, but, most decidedly, on account of the parallel passage, chap.
+ii. 9, "I will go and return to my first husband." Compare chap. vi. 1:
+"Come and let us return unto the Lord;" v. 15, where the Lord says, "I
+will go and return to My place until they become guilty and seek My
+face; in their affliction they will seek Me;" Jer. l. 4: "In those
+days, and in that time, saith the Lord, the children of Israel shall
+_come_, they and the children of Judah together, weeping will they
+come, and seek the Lord their God,"--a passage which, like Jer. xxx. 9,
+points to the one before us in a manner not to be mistaken; Is. x. 21:
+"The remnant shall _return_, the remnant of Jacob, unto the mighty
+God." The text, and the parallel passages, most clearly indicate what
+is to be considered as the object of their return, namely, the Lord
+their God, and David their king, from whom they had so shamefully
+apostatized; so that those interpreters who here think of a return to
+Canaan do not deserve a refutation. The words, "Jehovah their God," at
+the same time lay open the delusion of the Israelites (who imagined
+that they could still possess the true God, in the idol which they
+called Jehovah), and rebuke their ingratitude. _Calvin_ says, "God had
+offered Himself to them, yea. He had had familiar intercourse with
+them,--He had, as it were, brought them up on His bosom just as a
+father does his sons. The prophet, therefore, indirectly rebukes, in
+these words, their stupendous wickedness." The God of the Israelites,
+as well as the God of the Jews after they had rejected Christ, stood to
+the God of Israel in the same relation as does the God of the Deists
+and Rationalists to the God of the Christians. The question here
+arises. Who is to be understood here by "David their king?" Some
+interpreters refer it, after the example of _Theodoret_ (t. ii. p. 2,
+p. 1326), to [Pg 288]Zerubbabel: but by far the greater number of them,
+following the Chaldee ("And they shall obey the Messiah, the son of
+David their king"), understand, thereby, the Messiah. It is true that
+the latter exposition is quite correct as to its substance, but not as
+to the form in which it is commonly expressed. From the words, "They
+shall return and seek," it is evident that the Messiah is here not
+called David as an individual, as is done in other passages, _e.g._,
+Jer. xxx. 9. For the return presupposes their having been there
+formerly, and their having departed; just as the seeking implies
+neglecting. The expression, "their king," also requires special
+attention. In contrast to the "king" in ver. 4 (compare viii. 4, "They
+have made a king, and not by Me, a prince, and I knew it not"), it
+shows that the subject of discourse is not by any means a new king to
+be elected, but such an one as the Israelites ought to obey, even now,
+as the king ordained for them by God. The sound view is this: By the
+"king David" the whole Davidic house is to be understood, which is here
+to be considered as an unity, in the same manner as is done in 2 Sam.
+vii., and in a whole series of Psalms which celebrate the mercies
+shown, and to be shown, to David and his house.[4] These mercies are
+most fully concentrated in Christ, in whose appearance and everlasting
+dominion the promises given to David were first to be fully realized.
+The prophet mentions the whole--the Davidic family--because it was only
+thus that the contrast between the apostasy and the return could be
+fully brought out; but that, in so doing, he has Christ especially in
+view--that he expected a return of the children of Israel to David in
+Christ, is shown by the term באחרית הימים, which, in the prophets,
+never occurs in any other sense than the times of the Messiah.
+(Compare, regarding this expression, the remarks on Amos ix. 1.) This
+reason is alone sufficient to refute the reference to Zerubbabel;
+although so much must indeed be conceded, that the circumstance of part
+of the citizens of the kingdom of the ten tribes adhering to him, the
+descendant of the house of David, may be considered as a prelude of
+that general return. The close connection betwixt the seeking of
+Jehovah their God and David  their king, likewise claims our attention.
+David and his family had  been elected by God to be the mediator
+between Him and the [Pg 289] people--the channel through which all His
+blessings flowed clown upon  the people--the visible image of the
+invisible King, who, at the end of  the days, was, in Christ, most
+perfectly to reflect His glory. The Israelites, in turning away from
+David their king, turned away, at the same time, from Jehovah their
+God,--as was but too soon manifested by the other signs of apostasy
+from Him, by the introduction of the worship of calves, etc. He who
+refuses to acknowledge God in that which He has Himself declared to be
+His visible image (from Christ down to every relation which represents
+Him in any respect, _e.g._, that of the father to the son, of the king
+to the subject), will soon cease to acknowledge Himself. But as, first,
+the ten tribes, and afterwards, the entire people, apostatized from
+God, by apostatizing from David, so, by their apostasy from him, they
+excluded themselves from all participation in the privileges of the
+people of God, which could flow to them only through him. It is only
+when they return to David by returning to Christ, that, from their
+self-made God, they come to the true God, and within the sphere of His
+blessings. That the same thing is repeated among ourselves in the case
+of those who have forsaken Christ their King, and yet imagine still to
+possess God, and that it is only by their returning to the brightness
+of His glory that they can attain to a true union with the Lord their
+God, and to a participation in the blessings which He bestows,--all
+this is so obvious as to  require nothing beyond a simple suggestion. A
+perfectly sound interpretation of this passage is to be found in
+_Calvin_, who remarks: "David was, as it were, a messenger of the Lord,
+and, hence, that defection of the ten tribes was tantamount to a
+rejection of the living God. The Lord had, on a former occasion, said
+to Samuel (1 Sam. viii. 7), 'They have not rejected thee, but they have
+rejected Me.' But how much more was this applicable in the case of
+David, whom Samuel had anointed at the command of God, and whom the
+Lord had adorned with so many glorious attributes, that they could not
+reject his rule without, at the same time, publicly rejecting, to a
+certain extent, the Lord Himself! It is true, indeed, that David was
+then dead; but Hosea here represents, in his person, his everlasting
+dominion, which the Jews knew would last as long as the sun and moon."
+The expression, [Pg 290] "They tremble to the Lord," graphically
+describes the disposition of heart in him, who, trembling with terror
+and anxiety on account of the surrounding danger and distress, flees to
+Him who can alone afford help and deliverance. That we must thus
+explain it,--that we cannot entertain the idea of any trembling which
+proceeds from the inconceivable greatness of the blessing--a
+disposition of heart so graphically described by _Claudian_ in the
+words,
+
+           "Horret adhuc animus, manifestaque gaudia differt
+            Dum stupet et tanto cunctatur credere voto,"--
+
+and that we can as little think of a fearing or trembling which is the
+consequence of the knowledge of deep sinfulness and unworthiness, is
+shown by the parallel passage in chap. xi. 11: "They tremble as a bird
+out of Egypt, and as a dove out of the land of Assyria." The bird and
+the dove are here an emblem of helplessness. Substantially parallel is
+also chap. v. 15: "In their affliction they will seek Me." Their
+trembling is not voluntary; it is forced upon them by the Lord. But
+that they tremble _to the Lord_--that, through fear, they suffer
+themselves to be led to the Lord--is their free act, although possible
+only by the assistance of grace. The manner in which the words, "and to
+His goodness," are to be understood, is most plainly shown by the
+words, "I will return to my first husband, for it was _better_ with me
+then than now," chap. ii. 9. Along with the Lord, they have lost His
+goodness also, and the gifts flowing from it. But distress again drives
+them to seek the Lord, and His goodness, which is inseparable from
+Himself. This explanation is confirmed by other parallel passages also;
+_e.g._, Jer. xxxi. 12: "And they come and exult on the height of Zion,
+and flow together to the goodness of the Lord (טוב יהוה), to corn, and
+must, and oil, and lambs, and cattle;" ver. 14: "My people shall be
+satisfied with My goodness." Compare also Ps. xxvii. 13, xxxi. 20;
+Zech. ix. 17. We would therefore object to the opinion of several
+interpreters, who would explain טוב יהוה as being equivalent to כבוד
+יהוה, to His manifestation in the Angel of the Lord, the Λόγος, by whom
+His glory and goodness are made known.
+
+
+Footnote 1: It is quite impossible to refer רֵעַ to the adulterers, and
+for this reason:--that it is always Israel's love to the idols that is
+spoken of, but never the love of the idols to Israel. In the
+explanation given in the words immediately following, it is not the
+idols that take the initiative; it is Israel who turns to other gods.
+
+Footnote 2: _J. D. Michaelis_ remarks: "In the present captivity they
+do not, indeed, worship idols, but nevertheless they do not know, nor
+worship, the true God, since they reject the Son, without whom the
+Father will not be worshipped, John xvii. 3; 1 John ii. 23; 2 John 9."
+
+Footnote 3: The "priest" here corresponds with the "Ephod" in Hosea.
+
+Footnote 4: In 1 Kings xii. 16, also, David stands for the Davidic
+dynasty.
+
+
+[Pg 291]
+
+
+                            THE PROPHET JOEL.
+
+                          PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
+
+The position which has been assigned to Joel in the collection of the
+Minor Prophets, furnishes an external argument for the determination of
+the time at which Joel wrote. There cannot be any doubt that the
+Collectors were guided by a consideration of the chronology. The
+circumstance, that they placed the prophecies of Joel just between the
+two prophets who, according to the inscriptions and contents of their
+prophecies, belonged to the time of Jeroboam and Uzziah, is thus
+equivalent to an express testimony that he also lived, and exercised
+his ministry, during that time.
+
+By this testimony we have, in the meanwhile, obtained a firm
+standing-point; and it must remain firm, as long as it is not
+overthrown by other unquestionable facts, and the Collectors are not
+convicted of an historical error. But, as regards the latter point,
+there is the greater room for caution, because all the other statements
+which they have made are, upon a careful examination, found to stand
+the test; for none of the other Minor Prophets is found to occupy a
+place to which he is not entitled. But no such facts are to be found;
+on the contrary, everything serves to confirm their testimony.
+
+It will not be possible to assign the prophecies of Joel to a later
+period; for Amos places at the head of one of his prophecies one of the
+utterances of Joel (compare Amos i. 2 with Joel iv. 16 [iii. 16]), as
+the text, as it were, on which he is to comment. That we are not
+thereby precluded from considering the two prophets as contemporaneous,
+is shown by the altogether similar case of Isaiah, in his relation to
+Micah. Isaiah, too, borrows, in chap. xiii. 6, a sentence from Joel i.
+15, the peculiarity of which proves that the coincidence is not
+accidental. Such verbal repetitions must not be, by any means,
+considered as unintentional reminiscences. They served to exhibit that
+the prophets acknowledged one another as the organs of the Holy
+Spirit,--to testify the ἀκριβῆ διαδοχήν, the want of which in the times
+after Ezra and Nehemiah is mentioned by Josephus as one of the reasons
+why none of the writings of [Pg 292]that period could be acknowledged
+as sacred. (See the Author's _Dissertations on the Genuineness of
+Daniel_, p. 199.) _Further_,--The description of the threatening
+judgment in chap. i. and ii. is, in Joel, kept just in that very same
+generality in which we find it in the oldest prophecies that have been
+preserved to us, viz., in Amos, in the first chapters of Isaiah and of
+Hosea; whilst in later times, the threatening is, throughout,
+particularized by the express mention of the instruments who were, in
+the first instance, to serve for its fulfilment, viz., the Assyrians
+and Babylonians. That which Judah had to suffer from the former was so
+severe, that Joel, in chap. iv. 4 ff.--where he mentions, although, as
+it were, only in the way of example, nations with which Judah had
+hitherto already come into hostile contact--would scarcely have passed
+them over in silence, in order to mention only the far lesser calamity
+inflicted by other nations.
+
+But just as little can we think of an earlier period. It is certainly
+not accidental, that among all the prophets whose writings have been
+preserved to us, no one appeared at an earlier period; any more than it
+is accidental, that no prophecies are extant of the distinguished men
+of God in earlier times, of whom the historical books make mention,
+especially Elijah and Elisha. It was only when the great divine
+judgments were being prepared, and were approaching, that it was time,
+through their announcement, to waken from the slumber of security those
+who had forgotten God, and to open the treasures of hope and
+consolation to the faithful. Formerly, the living, oral word of the
+prophets was the principal thing; but now that God opened up to them a
+wider view,--that their calling had regard not only to the present, but
+also to the future time, the written word was raised to an equal
+dignity. Nothing, then, but the most cogent reasons could induce us to
+make, in the case of Joel only, an exception to so established a rule.
+
+But we cannot acknowledge as such, what _Credner_ (in his _Comment. on
+Joel_, p. 41 sqq.) has brought forward to prove that Joel committed to
+writing his prophecies as early as under the reign of Joash, _i.e._,
+about 870-65 B.C., or from seventy to eighty years earlier than
+any of the other prophecies which have come down to us. If we do not
+allow ourselves to be carried away by the multitude of his words,
+we shall find that the only remaining plausible argument is--that the
+Syrians of Damascus [Pg 293]are not mentioned among the enemies of the
+Covenant-people, as they are in Amos. From this, _Credner_ infers that
+Joel must have prophesied before the first inroad of the Syrians on
+Judea, which, according to 2 Kings xii. 18 ff.; 2 Chron. xxiv. 23 ff.,
+took place under Jehoash. But we need only look at that passage, in
+order to be convinced that the mention of that event could not be
+expected in Joel. The expedition of the Syrians was not directed
+against Judea, but against the Philistines. It was only a single
+detached corps which, according to Chronicles, incidentally, and on
+their return, made an inroad on Judah; but Jerusalem itself was not
+taken. This single act of hostility could not but be soon forgotten in
+the course of time. It was of quite a different character from that of
+the Phœnicians and Philistines mentioned by Joel, which were only
+particular outbreaks of the hatred and envy which they continually
+cherished against the Covenant-people, and which, as such, were
+preeminently the object of punitive divine justice. But on what ground
+does the supposition rest, that Joel must necessarily mention all those
+nations, with which the Covenant-people came, at any time, into hostile
+contact? The context certainly does not favour such an idea. The
+mention of former hostile attacks in chap. iv. (iii.) 4-8 is altogether
+incidental, as _Vitringa_, in his _Typ. Doctr. Proph._ p. 189 sqq., has
+admitted: "The prophet," says he, "was describing the heavy judgments
+with which God would, after the effusion of the Spirit, successively,
+and especially in the latter days, visit the enemies of the Church, and
+overthrow them, on account of the injuries which they had inflicted
+upon it. And while he was doing so, those injuries presented themselves
+to his mind, which in his own time, and in the immediate past, were
+inflicted upon the Jewish people--a portion of the universal Church--by
+the neighbouring nations, the Tyrians, Sidonians, and Philistines. To
+them he addresses his discourse _in passing_ (_in transitu_), and
+announces to them, in the name of God, that they themselves also would
+not remain unpunished." The correctness of _Vitringa_, with his "_in
+transitu_," is proved by the וגם, as well as by the circumstance, that
+vers. 9 ff. are closely connected with ver. 3; so that vers. 4 ff. form
+a real parenthesis. How entirely out of place would here have been any
+mention of the Syrians! There was necessarily something required which
+was very striking, and [Pg 294]which, having but recently occurred, was
+still vividly remembered. But the matter was altogether different in
+the case of Amos. Joel has to do with the enemies of Judah only; Amos,
+with those of the kingdom of Israel also, among whom the Syrians were
+the most dangerous. Hence, he begins with them at once. The crime with
+which he charges them in chap. i. 3, that they had threshed the
+inhabitants of Gilead with threshing instruments of iron, concerns the
+kingdom of Israel only. The same applies to the Ammonites and Moabites
+also, who, in like manner, are mentioned by Amos, and not by Joel. The
+Ammonites are charged in Amos i. 13 with ripping up the women with
+child of Gilead, that they might enlarge their border; and the crime of
+the Moabites, rebuked in chap. ii. 1, occurred, very probably, during
+the time of, or after, the expedition against them, mentioned in 2
+Kings iii.--the real instigator of which was the king of Israel.
+
+We must indeed be astonished that _Hitzig_, _Ewald_, _Meier_, _Baur_,
+and others, after the example of _Credner_, have likewise declared in
+favour of the view that the prophecies of Joel were composed under
+Joash. None of the arguments, however, by which they attempt to support
+their view, can stand examination.
+
+"There is nowhere, as yet, the slightest allusion to the Assyrians,"
+says _Ewald_. But neither is any such found in Amos, nor in the first
+part of Hosea. An irruption, however, such as former times had not
+known,--an overflowing, as it were, by the heathen, such as could by no
+means proceed from the small neighbouring nations, but from extensive
+kingdoms only, is here also brought into view. Joel is, in this
+respect, in strict agreement with Amos, who embodies his prophecy
+concerning this event, in chap. vi. 14, in these words: "For, behold, I
+raise up against you, O house of Israel, Gentile people, saith the
+Lord, the God of hosts, and they shall afflict you from Hamath unto the
+river of the wilderness."
+
+"There breathes here still the unbroken warlike spirit of the times of
+Deborah and David," _Ewald_ further remarks. But is there in the fourth
+(third) chapter any trace of self-help on the part of the people?
+Judgment upon the Gentiles is executed without any human
+instrumentality, by God,--not by His earthly, but by His heavenly
+"heroes," who are sent down [Pg 295]from heaven to earth, and who make
+short work with these fancied earthly heroes. Compare chap. iv. (iii.)
+11-13, where the address is directed to the heavenly ministers of God,
+at the head of whom the Angel of the Covenant must be supposed to be:
+Ps. ciii. 20; Rev. xix. 14. _Such_ a victory of the kingdom of God, all
+the prophets announce,--not only Isaiah and Micah, but also Ezekiel,
+_e.g._, in chap. xxxviii. and xxxix.
+
+"We perceive here the prophetic order in Jerusalem, still in the same
+ancient greatness as when Nathan and Gad may have exercised their
+office at the time of David. A whole people, without contradicting or
+murmuring, still depend upon the prophet. He desires the observance of
+a grievous ordinance, and willingly it is performed; his word is still
+like a higher command which all cheerfully obey. Nor is any discord to
+be seen in the nation, nor any wicked idolatry or superstition; the
+ancient simple faith still lives in them, unbroken and undivided." So
+_Ewald_ still further remarks. But this argument rests upon a false
+supposition; a conversion of the people at the time of the prophet is
+not at all spoken of. The pretended repentance is to take place _in
+future_,--which, according to chap. i. 4, we must conceive of as being
+still afar off, namely, in the time after the divine judgments have
+broken in. And as to a progress in the apostasy of the people, it can
+scarcely be proved that such took place in the time betwixt Joash and
+Uzziah. Between these two, we do not find any new stage of corruption.
+The idolatry of Solomon, and the abominations of Athaliah, had
+exercised their influence, even as early as under Joash. How deep the
+rent was which, even then, went through the nation, is shown by the
+fact, that, according to 2 Chron. xxiv. 17, 18, after the death of
+Jehoiada, Joash gave way to the _urgent demands of the prince's of
+Judah_, and allowed free scope to idolatry. Moreover, the threatening
+announcement of a judgment, which is to extend even to the destruction
+of the temple, proves how deep the apostasy was at the time of Joel.
+Where a judgment is thus threatened, which, in its terrors, far
+surpasses all former judgments, the "ancient faith" certainly cannot
+have been very vigorous.
+
+"The Messianic idea appears here in its generality and indefiniteness,
+without being as yet concentrated in the person of an ideal king,"
+_Hitzig_ remarks. But if this argument were at all [Pg 296] valid, we
+should have to go back even beyond the time of Joash. Solomon, David,
+and Jacob already knew the personal Messiah. The prophets, however, do
+not everywhere proclaim everything which they know. Even in Isaiah,
+there occur long Messianic descriptions, in which the Messiah Himself
+is not to be found. In Joel, moreover, everything is collected around
+the person of the "Teacher of righteousness."
+
+"Joel," it is further remarked, "must have prophesied at a time when
+the Philistine and other nations, who had become so haughty under
+Jehoram, had but lately ventured upon destructive plundering
+expeditions as far as Jerusalem, 2 Chron. xxi. 10 ff." This argument
+would be plausible, if the injuries inflicted by the Philistines and
+the inhabitants of Tyrus had not appeared in equally lively colours
+before the mind of Amos (chap. i. 6-10), who, at all events, prophesied
+between seventy and eighty years after these events. It is just this
+fact which should teach caution in the application of such arguments.
+The recollection of such facts could not be lost, as long as the
+disposition continued from which they originated. It was as if they had
+happened in the present; for, under similar circumstances, similar
+events would have again immediately taken place. The passage chap. iv.
+19, "Egypt shall be a desolation, and Edom shall be a desolate
+wilderness, for the violence against the children of Judah, because
+they have shed innocent blood in the land," shows also how lively was
+the recollection of injuries sustained long ago. Egypt and Edom in that
+passage are mentioned individually, in order to designate the enemies
+of the people of God in general, and yet with an allusion to deeds
+perpetrated by the Egyptians and Edomites properly so called. As the
+suffix in ארצם must be referred to the sons of Judah--for we have no
+historical account of a bloody deed perpetrated against Judah by the
+Edomites in their own land, and it was the land of Judah which was
+invaded and devastated by the host of locusts--we can think, in the
+case of the Egyptians, only of the invasion under Rehoboam (1 Kings
+xiv.), and in the case of the Edomites, only of the great carnage which
+they made in Judah, during the time at which David carried on war with
+Aram in Arabia and on the Euphrates,--probably at a time when he had
+sustained heavy losses in that warfare; compare my Comment. on Ps.
+xliv. and lx. Of any [Pg 297] similar later occurrence there is no
+account extant. It is only by a fanciful exposition that "the innocent
+blood" can be found in 2 Kings viii. 20-22. The Edomites at that time
+kept only a defensive position, and did not come into the land of
+Judah. "The innocent blood" implies a war of conquest, and a hostile
+inroad.
+
+"In chap. iv. (iii.) 4-7, Joel promises a return to the citizens of
+Judah, who had been carried away by the Philistines under Jehoram; and,
+hence, an age cannot have elapsed since that event." Thus _Meier_
+argues. But the words, "Behold, I raise them out of the place whither
+ye have sold them," contain no special prediction, but only the
+application of the general truth, that God gathers together the
+dispersed of Judah, and brings back again the exiled of Israel; and it
+is only requisite to compare concerning them. Gen. xv. 16, "In the
+fourth generation they shall come hither again," and l. 24, "God will
+visit you, and bring you out of this land."
+
+We thus arrive at the conclusion that Joel occupies the right place in
+the Canon.
+
+The assertion that Joel belonged to the priestly order, is as baseless
+as the similar one regarding Habakkuk, and as the supposition that the
+author of the Chronicles was a musician.
+
+The book contains a connected description. It begins with a graphic
+account of the ruin which God will bring upon His apostate
+Congregation, by means of foreign enemies. These latter represent
+themselves to the prophet in his spiritual vision as an all-destroying
+swarm of locusts. The fundamental thought is this:--"Wheresoever the
+carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered together,"--wherever
+corruption manifests itself in the Congregation of the Lord, punishment
+will be inflicted. Because God has sanctified Himself _in_ the
+Congregation, and has graciously imparted to her His holiness. He must
+therefore sanctify Himself upon her,--must manifest His holiness in her
+punishment, if she has become like the profane world. He cannot allow
+that, after the Spirit has departed, the dead body should still
+continue to appear as His kingdom, but strips off the mask of hypocrisy
+from His degenerate Church, by representing her outwardly as that
+which, by her guilt, she has become inwardly. This thought commonly
+appears in a special [Pg 298] application, by the mention of the name
+of the particular people whom the Lord is, in the immediate future, to
+employ for the realization of it. In the case before us, however, He is
+satisfied with pointing to the dignity and power inherent in Him. The
+enemies are designated only as _people from the North_. But it was from
+the North--from Syria--that all the principal invasions of Palestine
+proceeded. Hence there is no reason either to think of one of them
+exclusively, or to exclude one. On the contrary, the comprehensive
+character of the description distinctly appears in i. 4. It is there,
+at the very threshold, intimated, that the heathenish invasion will be
+a fourfold one,--that Israel shall become the prey of four successive
+extensive empires. Joel's mission fell at the commencement of the
+written prophecy; and in harmony with this, he gives only an outline of
+that which it was reserved for the later prophets to fill up, and to
+carry out in its details, by the mention of the name of each single
+empire, as the times moved on. It was enough that Joel prophesied the
+destruction by these great empires, even before any one of them had
+appeared on the stage of history, and that he was enabled to point even
+to the fourfold number of them.
+
+The threat of punishment, joined with exhortations to repentance, to
+which the people willingly listened, and humbled themselves before the
+Lord, continues down to chap. ii. 17. With this is connected the
+proclamation of salvation--which extends down to chap. iii. 2 (ii. 29).
+The showing of mercy begins with the fact, that God sends the _Teacher
+of righteousness_. He directs the attention of the people to the design
+of their sufferings, and invites the weary and heavy laden to come to
+the Lord, that He may refresh them. His voice is heard by those who are
+of a broken heart; and there then follows rich divine blessing, with
+its consummation--the outpouring of the Spirit. Both--the sending of
+the Teacher of righteousness, and the outpouring of the Spirit--had
+their preliminary fulfilments; the first of which took place soon after
+the commencement of the devastation by the locusts, in the time of the
+Assyrians,--a second, after the destruction by the Babylonians had come
+upon the people,--a third, after the visitation by the Greek tyranny
+under the Maccabees. But the chief reference of the prophecy is,
+throughout, to Christ, and to the vouchsafement [Pg 299] of the
+blessing, and to the outpouring of the Spirit, originating in His
+mediation.
+
+The announcement of salvation for the Covenant-people is, in the third
+and last part, followed by the opposite of it, viz., the announcement
+of judgments upon the enemies of the Congregation of God. Their hatred
+of it, proceeding from hatred to God, is employed by Him, indeed, as a
+means of chastising and purifying His Church; but it does not, for that
+reason, cease to be an object of His punitive justice. The fundamental
+idea of this part of the book is expressed in 1 Pet. iv. 17 by the
+words: "For the time is come that judgment must begin at the house of
+God. And if it first begin at us, what shall the end be of them that
+obey not the Gospel of God? And if the righteous scarcely be saved,
+where shall the ungodly and the sinner appear?" The description bears
+here also, as in the second and first parts, a comprehensive character.
+That which, in the course of history, is realized in a long series of
+single acts of divine interposition against the enemies of the Church,
+is here brought together in a single scene. The overthrow of Assyria,
+Babylon, the Persian and Grecian monarchies, is comprehended in this
+prophecy. But its final fulfilment must be sought for only in the
+Messianic time. This is sufficiently evident from the relation of this
+part, to the second. Having given ear to the Teacher of righteousness,
+and the Spirit having been poured out upon her, the Congregation has
+become an object of the loving providence of God. From this flows the
+judgment upon her enemies. If, then, the promise of the Teacher of
+righteousness and of the outpouring of the Spirit be, in substance,
+Messianic, so, the judgment too must, in substance, bear a Messianic
+character. The same appears from iv. (iii.) 18, according to which
+passage, simultaneously with the judgments, there cometh forth, from
+the house of the Lord, a fountain which watereth the valley of
+Shittim--the waters of salvation which water the dry land of human
+need. (Compare the remarks on Ezek. xlvii,; Zech. xiv. 8; and my
+_Comment. on Revel._ xxii. 1.) This feature, however, clearly points to
+the Messianic time.
+
+We must here, however, avoid confounding the substance with the
+form,--the idea with the temporary clothing which the prophet puts upon
+it, in accordance with the nature of prophetic [Pg 300] vision, in
+which, necessarily, all that is spiritual must be represented in
+outward sketches and forms. This form is as follows:--In the place
+nearest to the temple, and which was able to contain a great multitude
+of people, in the valley of Jehoshaphat, all nations are gathered. (The
+valley very probably received its name from the appellation which, in
+the passage under consideration, the prophet gives to it, in order to
+mark its destination; for Jehoshaphat means, "the Lord judges," or
+"Valley of Judgment."[1]) The Lord, enthroned in the temple, exercises
+judgment upon them. In this manner--in outward forms of perception--the
+idea is brought out, that the judgment upon the Gentiles is an effect
+of the kingdom of God; that they are not punished on account of
+their violation of the natural law, but because of the hostile
+position which they had occupied against the teachers of God's revealed
+truth,--against the Lord Himself who is in His Church. Every violation
+of the natural law may be pardoned to those who have not stood in any
+other relation to God, even although they should have [Pg 301]
+proceeded to the most fearful extent in depravity. They who were once
+disobedient, when the long-suffering of God waited in the days of Noah,
+were not as yet given over to complete condemnation, but were kept in
+prison until Christ came and preached to them. "This was the iniquity
+of Sodom: fulness of bread, and abundance of peace, were in her and her
+daughters; yet the hand of the poor and needy they did not assist; but
+they were haughty and committed abomination before the Lord: therefore
+He took them away as He saw good." But, nevertheless, the Lord will, at
+some future time, turn the captivity (the misery) of this Sodom and her
+daughters, and they shall be restored as they were before,--not
+corporeally, for their seed is utterly rooted out from the earth, and
+even their place is destroyed, but spiritually; compare Ezek. xvi. 49
+ff. But, on the other hand, far more severe punishments are inflicted
+upon those who have rejected, not the abstract, but the concrete
+God,--not the God  who is shut up in the heavens, but the God who
+powerfully manifests  Himself on earth, in His Church. It is true, that
+as long as this  revelation is still an imperfect one--as it was under
+the Old Testament dispensation--and hence the guilt of rejecting Him
+less, mercy may  still be shown. External destruction does not involve
+spiritual ruin. Moab, indeed, is destroyed, so that it is no longer a
+people, because it has exalted itself against the Lord; yet, "in the
+latter days I will turn the captivity of Moab, saith the Lord," Jer.
+xlviii. 47. But when the revelation of the grace of God has become
+perfect, His justice also will be perfectly revealed against all who
+reject it, and rise in hostility against those who are the bearers of
+it: "Their worm shall not die, neither shall their fire be quenched,
+and they shall be an abhorring unto all flesh," Is. lxvi. 24. These
+remarks contain the key to all which the Lord declares as to the future
+judgment which, in its completion, belongs only to the future world. It
+is not the world as such, but that world to which the Gospel has been
+declared, and in the midst of which the Church has been founded, which
+forms the object of it; compare Matt. xxiv. 14.
+
+
+Footnote 1: _Hofmann_ (_Weissag. u. Erfül._ i. S. 203) has revived the
+explanation, according to which the valley of Jehoshaphat is to be
+understood as the valley in which, under Jehoshaphat, judgment was
+executed upon several Gentile nations. But this locality, the desert of
+Thekoa, which was about three hours distance from Jerusalem (compare my
+_Comment. on the Psalms_, in the _Introduction to Ps._ xlvi. xlviii.
+lxxxiii.), is at too great a distance from the temple, where, according
+to vers. 16 and 17, the Lord holds His judgment upon the nations.
+Tradition has rightly perceived that the valley of Jehoshaphat can be
+sought for only in the immediate vicinity of the temple. In favour of
+the valley of Jehoshaphat now so called, "at the high east brink of
+Moriah, the temple-hill" (_Ritter_, _Erdk._ xv. 1, S. 559; xvi. 1, S.
+329), is also Zech. vi. 1-8 (compare the remarks on that passage). From
+the circumstance that there is, first, the mention of the name, and,
+then, the statement of its signification, "And I gather all nations,
+and bring them down into the valley of Jehoshaphat, and _plead_ with
+them there," _Hofmann_ infers that the name must have already existed
+as a proper name. There is, however, an analogy in Num. xx. 1: "And the
+people encamped at Kadesh;"--but the place received the name Kadesh
+only because of the event to be subsequently related: previous to that,
+its name was Barnea. (Compare _Dissert. on Gen. of the Pent._ vol. ii.
+p. 310 ff.) The two theological names of the place, which arose only
+from the event recorded in Num. xx., occur even as early as Gen. xiv.
+7. The natural name of the valley of Jehoshaphat is, moreover, in all
+likelihood, _King's Dale_; compare Gen. xiv. 17; 2 Sam. xviii. 18; and
+_Thenius_ on this passage.
+
+
+
+[Pg 302]
+
+                             JOEL I.-II. 17.
+
+We shall not dwell here for any length of time upon the history of the
+expositions of this passage. It has been given with sufficient
+minuteness by _Pococke_ and _Marckius_ among older writers, and by
+_Credner_ among the more modern. We content ourselves with remarking
+that the figurative exposition is the more ancient, having been adopted
+by the Chaldee Paraphrast, and by the Jews mentioned by _Jerome_, and
+that we cannot by any means, as _Credner_ does, derive it from
+doctrinal considerations only; for many, with whom such considerations
+weighed, as _Bochart_, _Pococke_, and _J. D. Michaelis_, do not approve
+of it; whilst, on the other hand, there are among its defenders not a
+few who were guided by just the opposite motives, such as _Grotius_,
+_Eckermann_, _Berthold_ (Einl. S. 1607 ff.), and _Theiner_. Two
+preliminary questions, however, require to be answered, before we can
+proceed to the main investigation.
+
+1. Does Joel here describe a present, or a future calamity? The former
+has been asserted, in former times, by _Luther_ and _Calvin_ (compare,
+especially, his commentary on chap. i. 4), and in more recent times,
+with special confidence, by _Credner_. But there is nothing to favour
+this view. The frequent use of the Preterites would prove something in
+support of it, provided only we were not standing on prophetical
+ground. They are, moreover, found quite in the same manner in chap.
+iv.--in that portion which, by all interpreters unanimously, is
+referred to the future. And yet, if this view were to be acknowledged
+as sound, it ought to commend itself by stringent considerations,
+inasmuch as the prophetic analogy is, _a priori_, against it. There is
+not found anywhere in the prophets so long and so detailed a
+description of the present or the past. But, moreover, if we once give
+up the reference to the future, we could think of the past only; for in
+chap; ii. 18, 19, the description of the salvation following upon the
+misery, is connected with the preceding context by the Future with _vav
+conversivum_. If, then, the scene of inward vision be forsaken, and
+everything referred to external reality, the calamity described in the
+preceding context must likewise be viewed as one already entirely past,
+and the salvation as already actually existing. It can be proved,
+however, [Pg 303] from the contents, by incontrovertible special
+reasons, that the reference to the future is alone the correct one. The
+day of the Lord is several times spoken of as being at hand, which may
+be explained from the circumstance, that God's judgment upon His Church
+is a necessary effect of His justice, which never rests, but always
+shows itself as active. When, therefore, its object--the sinful
+apostasy of the people--is already in existence, its manifestation must
+also of necessity be expected; and although not the last and highest
+manifestation, yet such an one as serves for a prelude to it. The day
+of the Lord is, therefore, continually coming, is never absolutely
+distant; and its being spoken of as _at hand_ is a necessary
+consequence of the saying, "Whereseover the carcase is, there will the
+eagles be gathered together,"--a declaration founded upon the divine
+nature, and therefore ever true. (Compare my _Commentary on the
+Apocalypse_ i. 1.) This designation is first found in i. 15: "Alas! for
+the day, for the day of the Lord is _at hand_, and as a destruction
+from the Almighty does it come." Here, two expedients for evasion have
+been tried. _Justi_ maintained that "the day is at hand" was equivalent
+to "the day is there,"--an opinion which does not deserve any further
+refutation. _Holzhausen_, _Credner_, and _Hitzig_ suppose that, by "the
+day of the Lord," we are not to understand the devastation by the
+locusts, but some severe judgment, to which that served as a prelude.
+This supposition is, however, opposed, first of all, by the verbal
+parallel passage in Isa. xiii. 6: "Howl ye, for the day of the Lord is
+at hand; it cometh as a destruction from the Almighty,"--where the day
+of the Lord cannot be any other than that which is described in the
+preceding context. But this opinion is further opposed by the
+circumstance, that, in the subsequent context, there is not the
+slightest trace of any other judgment than that of the devastation by
+the locusts; on the contrary, with its termination, the whole period of
+suffering comes to an end, as regards the Covenant-people, and the time
+of blessing upon them and of judgment upon their enemies begins. But
+the necessity for understanding, by "the day of the Lord at hand," the
+devastation by the locusts, and hence, for viewing the latter as still
+future, is even more clearly seen from the second passage, chap. ii. 1,
+2: "Blow ye the trumpet in Zion, and sound an alarm in My holy
+mountain; let all the [Pg 304] inhabitants of the land tremble, for the
+day of the Lord _hath come_, for _nigh at hand_, a day of darkness and
+gloominess, a day of clouds and fogs, as the morning-red spread upon
+the mountains, a people numerous and strong; there hath not been the
+like from eternity, neither shall there be any more after it, even
+through the years of all generations." That, by "the day of the Lord,"
+which the prophet, from the standing-point of his inward vision, here
+speaks of as having already come, and as being in reality nigh at hand,
+we must understand the same day as that which is minutely described in
+the preceding and subsequent context, viz., the devastation by the
+locusts, appears, in the first place, from the verbal parallel passage,
+Ezek. xxx. 2, which likewise speaks of one day only: "Thou son of man,
+prophesy and say. Thus saith the Lord, Howl ye, woe for the day! For
+the day is near, a day to the Lord, a day of clouds, the time of the
+heathen it shall be." But what places the matter beyond all doubt are
+the words: "A people numerous and strong." These words, by which,
+according to what follows, the locusts only can be understood, form an
+explanatory apposition to "the day of the Lord," "the day of darkness,"
+etc. To this we may further add, that, by the last words, this judgment
+is represented as the most formidable, and the last by which Judea
+shall be visited; so that we cannot by any means think of a subsequent
+later day of the Lord. 2. Are the different names of the locusts
+designations of various species of locusts, or are these, beside the
+common name of the locusts, only poetical names, which denote the
+qualities coming into consideration? _Credner_ has attempted to prove
+the former. He maintains that Joel's description has to do with two
+generations of locusts,--the first belonging to the end of one
+year,--the second, to the beginning of the year following. The latter
+he thinks to be the offspring of the former. In accordance with this
+hypothesis, he explains the different names, גזם is, according to him,
+the migratory locust, which visits Palestine chiefly in autumn; ארבה,
+elsewhere the general name of locusts, here the young brood; ילק, the
+young locust in the last stage of its transformation, or between the
+third and fourth casting of the skin; חסיל, the perfect locust,
+proceeding from the last transformation, and, hence, as the brood
+proceeded from the חסיל ,גזם would be the same גזם.
+
+[Pg 305]
+
+It forms a general argument against this hypothesis, that, according to
+it, the prophet should enter so deeply and minutely into the natural
+history of locusts, that a Professor of that science might learn from
+him. There is nothing analogous to this, either in Scripture generally,
+or in the Prophets particularly. The difficulty, moreover, increases,
+when we assume--what has been already proved--that the description
+refers to the future. The religious impression which the prophet has,
+after all, solely in view, would not gain, but suffer by such a minute
+detail in the description of a future natural event,--especially such
+as a devastation by locusts.
+
+A closer examination proves that the whole explanation of the names of
+the locusts, upon which the hypothesis is built, is untenable. It
+appears, then, that the prophet knows of only one kind of locusts,
+which he divides into four hosts; and that, with the exception of ארבה,
+the names are not those of natural history, but poetical, and taken
+from the qualities of the locusts.
+
+Let us first demonstrate that the interpretation of ילק, upon which
+_Credner_ founds that of the other names, is inadmissible. This
+interpretation, he maintains (S. 295), is put beyond all doubt by the
+passage, Nah. iii. 16: "The ילק casts its skin and flies away." The
+merchants, who constituted the principal part of the population of
+Nineveh, are, according to him, compared to a ילק which flies away,
+after having cast his skin for the third or last time. But this passage
+of Nahum, when minutely examined and correctly interpreted, is by
+itself sufficient to refute that opinion concerning the ילק. In ver.
+15, it is said concerning Nineveh: "There shall the fire devour thee,
+the sword shall cut thee off, it shall eat thee up, as the _licker_
+(כילק): make thyself many as the _lickers_, make thyself many as the
+locusts. Ver. 16: Thou hast multiplied thy merchants like the stars of
+heaven; _lickers broke through and flew away_. Ver. 17: Thy princes are
+like locusts, and thy captains are as a host of grasshoppers, which
+camp on the hedges in the day of cold. The sun has risen, and they flee
+away, and their place is not known where they are." This passage just
+proves that ילק must be _winged_ locusts. The inhabitants of Nineveh
+are numerous like the locusts; numerous are her rich merchants; but
+suddenly there cometh upon them a numberless host of locusts, who rob
+[Pg 306] them of everything, and fly away. They who rob and fly away,
+in ver. 16, are not the merchants, but the enemies. This becomes quite
+evident from the comparison of ver. 15, where quite the same antithesis
+is found between--"The sword shall eat thee up as the lickers"
+(Nominat.), and "Make thyself many as the lickers." The verb פשט, in
+its common signification, _irruit_, _invasit ad praedam agendam_, is
+here, in reference to the merchants, very significant. But what is
+decisive against the explanation of _Credner_ is this:--that the
+signification "to cast the skin" cannot be established at all, and that
+the whole sense is utterly unsuitable. For the discourse is not here,
+by any means, of mercenaries or foreign traders, but of the native
+merchants of Nineveh, just as, in the subsequent verses, the discourse
+is about her own nobles. How then could that image be suitable, which
+must certainly denote a safe transition from one state into a
+better?--_Credner_ moreover refers to Jer. li. 27, where to ילק the
+quality סמר, _horridus_, is ascribed. This, according to him, is to be
+referred to the rough, horn-like coverings of the wings of the young
+locusts. But, according to the context, and to the analogy of the
+parallel passage, li. 14, we should rather expect that "horrid" is here
+a designation of the multitude. (Compare the ὡς ἀκρίδων πλῆθος of the
+LXX.) But it is still more natural to give to סמר the signification of
+"awful," "terrible." (Compare Ps. cxix. 120, where the verb occurs with
+the meaning "to shudder.")--That by ילק, not the young brood, but the
+winged locusts are to be understood, appears also from a comparison of
+Ps. cv. 34 with Exod. x. 12 ff. In Exod. a single army of _flying_
+locusts overspread Egypt; the Psalmist, in recalling this event to
+memory, says: "He spake, and the locusts came, and ילק without number."
+From this passage, especially when compared with Ps. lxxvii. 46, where,
+instead of חסיל ,ילק is interchanged with ארבה, which alone is found in
+Exod., it is very clearly seen that ילק, the _licker_, is nothing else
+than a poetical epithet of the locusts. It never occurs, indeed, in
+prose; and this can be the less accidental, as גזם, the _gnawer_, is
+also never found in prose writings, and חסיל only once, in the prayer
+of Solomon, 1 Kings viii. 37--as that which it is in reality, as a mere
+attribute to ארבה. That ילק has its name from the eating, is shown by
+Nah. iii. 15: "The sword shall eat thee up as the ילק." And, in
+addition to this, we may [Pg 307] further urge, that the exposition
+of ארבה is altogether fictitious, and contradicted by all the
+passages;--that the prophet in ii. 25 inverts the order, and puts the
+גזם last, from which it is certainly to be safely inferred that the
+arrangement in i. 4 is not a chronological one;--that _Credner_
+himself, by his being obliged to grant that גזם and חסיל do not signify
+a particular kind of locusts, raises suspicions against his
+interpreting the two other names of particular kinds;--and that if this
+interpretation were to be considered as correct, גזם and חסיל must
+denote the locusts as fully grown. But that is by no means the case.
+The origin of the name גזם is, moreover, clearly shown by Amos iv. 9:
+"Your vineyards, your fig-trees, and your olive-trees,--הגזם devours
+them." As regards the corn, other divine means of destruction had been
+mentioned immediately before; the trees alone then remained for the
+locusts, and they received a name corresponding to this special
+destination, viz., הגזם, the _gnawer_.--The verb חסל is, in Deut.
+xxviii. 38, used of the devouring of the locusts, and חסיל never occurs
+excepting where the locusts are viewed in this capacity. (Besides the
+passages already quoted, compare Is. xxxiii. 4.)
+
+The following also may be considered. The description of the ravages of
+the second brood is, according to _Credner_, to begin in chap. ii. 4.
+But the suffix in ver. 4 refers directly to the winged locusts spoken
+of in vers. 1-3; and in the verb ירוצון they are the subject.
+
+And now, every one may judge what value is to be attached to a
+hypothesis which has everything against it, and nothing in its favour,
+and the essential suppositions of which--such as the departure of the
+swarms, their leaving their eggs behind, their death in the Red
+Sea--are, as the author of the hypothesis himself confesses, passed
+over in silence by the prophet.
+
+We may now proceed to the solution of our proper problem. There are no
+general reasons, either against the figurative, or against the literal
+interpretation; neither of them has any unfavourable prejudice which
+can be urged against it. A devastation by real locusts is threatened,
+in the Pentateuch, against the transgressors of the law, Deut. xxviii.
+38, 39; against the Egyptians, the Lord actually made use of this,
+among other methods of punishment; and a devastation in Israel by
+locusts is, in Amos iv. 9, represented as an effect of divine
+anger.--[Pg 308]On the other hand, figurative representations of that
+kind are of very common occurrence. In Isaiah, _e.g._, the invading
+Assyrians and Egyptians appear, in a continuous description, as swarms
+of flies and bees. The comparison of hostile armies with locusts is
+very common, not only on account of their multitude (from which
+circumstance the locusts received their name in Hebrew), but also on
+account of the sudden surprise, and the devastation: compare Judges vi.
+5; Jer. xlvi. 23, li. 27; Judith ii. 11. Several times a hostile
+invasion also is represented under the _image_ and _symbol_ of the
+plague of the locusts. In Nah. iii. 15-17, the Assyrians appear in
+the form of locusts,--and that this is not only on account of their
+numbers, but also on account of the devastations which they make, is
+shown by the comparison with the ילק in ver. 15;--and just in the same
+manner are the enemies described who accomplish their overthrow.
+And,--what is completely analogous,--in Amos vii. 1-3, the prophet
+beholds the approaching divine judgment under the image of a swarm of
+locusts, just as, in ver. 4, under that of a fire, and in ver. 7, under
+that of a plumb-line. All these three images are in substance
+identical; their meaning is expressed in ver. 9 by the words: "The high
+places of Isaac shall be desolate, and the sanctuaries of Israel shall
+be destroyed." The locusts denote destroying hostile armies; the fire
+denotes war; and the plumb-line, the destruction to be accomplished by
+the enemies. It was so much the more natural to represent the divine
+judgment under the image of a devastation by locusts--as is done also
+in Rev. ix. 3 ff.--because, formerly, it had actually manifested itself
+in this way  in Egypt. The figurative representation had therefore a
+significant substratum in the history of the past. But it is,
+throughout, the custom of the prophets to describe the future under the
+image of the analogous past, which, as it were, is revived in it.--It
+ought to be still further remarked, that we must, _a priori_, be the
+less indisposed to admit a detailed symbolical representation in Joel,
+as the two prophets, betwixt whom he is placed, have likewise such
+symbolical portions.
+
+The decision depends, therefore, upon the internal character of the
+description itself. An allegory must betray itself as such, by
+significant hints; where these are wanting, it is arbitrary to assume
+its existence. Following the order of the [Pg 309] text, we shall bring
+together everything of this kind which we find in it.
+
+The words, even, of the introduction,--"Hath any such thing happened in
+your days, and in the days of your fathers? Of it you shall tell your
+sons, and your sons to their sons, and their sons to the succeeding
+generation,"--scarcely permit us to think of a devastation by locusts
+in the literal sense. It could only be by means of the grossest
+exaggeration--which, if it were far from any prophet, was certainly so
+from the simple and mild Joel--that he could represent, as the greatest
+disaster which ever befell, or should ever befall the nation, a
+devastation by locusts which was, after all, only a transitory evil.
+For it is the greatness of the disaster which is implied in the call to
+relate it to the latest posterity; no later suffering should be so
+great as to cause this one to be forgotten.
+
+We must not overlook the expression in ver. 6: "_For a nation_ (גוי)
+has come up over my land." "Nation," according to most interpreters, is
+thought to signify the mere multitude; but in that case, עם would
+certainly have been used, as is done in Prov. xxx. 25, 26, concerning
+the ants. In גוי there is implied not only the idea of what is
+hostile--this _Credner_ too acknowledges--but also of what is profane.
+This, indeed, is the principal idea; and, on this account, even the
+degenerate Covenant-people several times receive the name גוי. That
+this principal idea is here likewise applicable, is evident from the
+antithesis: "Over my land." It is true, that the suffix cannot be
+referred to Jehovah, as is done by _J. H. Michaelis_ and others,
+although the antithesis would thus most strikingly appear; but as
+little can we refer it, as is done by modern interpreters, to the
+prophet as an individual; for, in this case the antithesis would be
+lost altogether. The comparison of vers. 7 and 19 clearly shows that,
+according to a common practice (compare the Introduction to Micah, and
+the whole prophecy of Habakkuk), the prophet speaks in the name of the
+people of God. A strange, unheard-of event! A heathen host has invaded
+the land of the people of God! The antithesis is in ii. 18: "Then the
+Lord was jealous for His land, and spared His people." We do not think
+that the prophet loses sight of his image. He designates the locust as
+the heathen host; but he would not have chosen this designation, which,
+when literally [Pg 310] understood, is very strange, unless the matter
+had induced him to do so. If it be understood figuratively, Amos vi. 14
+entirely harmonizes with it.--In the same verse (Joel i. 6) it is said:
+"His teeth, the teeth of a lion, cheek teeth of a lion to him;" on
+which Rev. ix. 8 is to be compared. This comparison is quite suitable
+to figurative locusts, to furious enemies (compare Is. v. 29; Nah. ii.
+12, 13; Jer. ii. 15, iv. 7, xlix. 19; Ezek. xxxii. 2; Dan. vii. 4), but
+not to natural locusts; for the lion cannot possibly be the symbol of
+mere voracity.
+
+It is remarkable, that in the description of the locusts in this verse,
+and throughout, their flying is not mentioned at all. It is only in
+chap. ii. 2, "Day of darkness and gloominess, day of clouds and thick
+darkness," that _Credner_ supposes such an allusion to exist. The
+darkness is, according to him, in consequence of the swarm of locusts
+coming up in the skies. But the incorrectness of such a supposition is
+immediately perceived, upon a comparison of chap. ii. 10. Before the
+host, and before it arrives, the earth quakes, the heavens tremble, sun
+and moon cover themselves with darkness, and the stars withdraw their
+shining. It is only after all this has happened, that the Lord
+approaches at the head of His host. It is not from this host,
+therefore, that the darkness can proceed. On the contrary, the
+darkening of the heavens, as is quite conclusively shown by the
+numerous almost literally agreeing parallel passages (compare the
+remarks on Zech. xiv. 6), is the symbol of the anger of God, the sign
+that He approaches as a Judge, and an Avenger. But in what way could
+the omission of every reference to the flying of the locusts, in a
+description so minute, be accounted for other than this: that the
+reality presented nothing corresponding to this feature?
+
+It is only the heaviest and most continuous suffering, and not a
+transitory plague by locusts, which can justify the call in i. 8: "Howl
+like a virgin girded with sackcloth for the husband of her youth." This
+verse forms the transition to ver. 9, where the sacrifice in the house
+of Jehovah appears as cut off, and connects Joel with Hosea, in whom
+the image, of which the outlines only are given here, appears finished.
+Zion has also lost the friend of her youth--the Lord; compare Prov. ii.
+17: "Who forsaketh the friend of her youth, and forgot the covenant of
+her God;" Is. liv. 6; Jer. ii. 2, iii. 4.--Of great [Pg 311] importance
+for the question under consideration are ver. 9: "The meat-offering and
+drink-offering are cut off from the house of the Lord;" and ver. 13:
+"Gird yourselves and lament, ye priests, howl ye ministers of the
+altar, come, spend all night in sackcloth, ye ministers of my God; for
+the meat-offering and drink-offering are withholden from the house of
+your God." It is quite inconceivable that the want of provisions,
+resulting from a natural devastation by real locusts, could have been
+the reason that the meat-offering and drink-offering, which, in a
+material point of view, were of so little value, should have been
+withheld from the Lord; inasmuch as the cessation of it appears in
+these passages as the consummation of the national calamity. During the
+siege of Jerusalem by Pompey, the legal sacrifices existed, according
+to _Josephus_ (_Arch._ xiv. 4, § 3), even amidst the greatest dangers
+to life, during the irruption of the enemies into the city, and in the
+midst of the carnage. It is true that, during the last siege by the
+Romans, when matters had come to an extremity, _Johannes_ ordered the
+sacrifices to be discontinued. But this was done, not from want of
+materials, but because there were none to offer them--from ἀνδρῶν
+ἀπορίᾳ, as _Josephus_ says (_Bell. Jud._ vi. 2, § 1; compare _Reland_
+in _Havercamp_ on this passage)--and to the great dissatisfaction of
+the people in the city, ὁ δῆμοσ δεινῶς ἀθυμεῖ. The national view is
+expressed in what _Josephus_ says on this occasion to Johannes, to whom
+he had been sent by Titus on account of this event: "If any man should
+rob thee of thy daily food, thou, most wicked man, wouldst certainly
+consider him as thine enemy. Dost thou then think that thou wilt have
+for thine associate in this war, God, whom thou hast robbed of His
+eternal worship?" But the sound explanation readily suggests itself, as
+soon as it is admitted that behind the locusts the Gentiles are
+concealed. In that case, Dan. ix. 27, where the destroyer makes
+sacrifice and oblation to cease, is parallel. The destruction of the
+temple is also announced by the contemporary Amos in chap. ix.; compare
+ii. 5: "And I send fire upon Judah, and it devours the palaces of
+Jerusalem." Of a similar purport, in the time after Joel, is the
+passage in Micah, chap. iii. 12.
+
+The words in ver. 15--"Woe, for the day, for the day of the Lord is at
+hand, and as destruction from the Almighty does it come,"--point to
+something infinitely higher than a mere [Pg 312] desolation by locusts
+in the literal sense. This appears from a comparison of Is. xiii. 6,
+where they are taken, almost verbatim, from Joel, and used with a
+reference to the judgment of the Lord upon the whole earth. This is
+granted even by _Credner_ himself, when he makes the vain attempt
+(compare S. 345) to refer them to a judgment different from the
+devastation by the locust. The same is the case with _Maurer_ and
+_Hitzig_. How, indeed, is it at all conceivable that a national
+calamity, so small and transient as a devastation by real locusts would
+have been, should have been considered by the prophet as the day of the
+Lord of the people in the city, κατ᾽ ἐξοχῄν, as the conclusion and
+completion of all the judgments upon the Covenant-people? A conception
+like this would imply such low notions of God's justice, and such a
+total misapprehension of the greatness of human guilt, as we find in
+none of the Old Testament prophets, and, generally, in none of the
+writers of Holy Scripture. That which the men of God under the Old
+Testament, from the first--Moses--to the last, announce, is the total
+expulsion of the people from the country which they defiled by their
+sins.
+
+The image suddenly changes in vers. 19 and 20: "To thee, O Lord, do I
+cry. For fire devoureth the pastures of the wilderness, and flame
+burneth all the trees of the field. Even the beasts of the field desire
+for Thee; for the fountains of waters are dried up, and fire devoureth
+the pastures of the wilderness." The divine punishment appears under
+the image of an all-devouring fire. Now, since we cannot here think of
+a literal fire, it is certain that, in the preceding verses also, a
+figurative representation prevails. _Holzhausen_ and _Credner_ (S.
+163), and others, attempt to evade this troublesome inference, by
+asserting that fire and flame are here used instead of the heat of the
+sun, scorching everything. But this assertion is, at all events,
+expressed in a distorted and awkward manner. Fire and flame are never
+used of the heat of the sun. According to this view, it ought rather to
+be said that the prophet represents the consuming heat, under the image
+of fire poured down from heaven. But even this cannot be entertained.
+For the parallel passage chap. ii. 3, "Before him fire devoureth, and
+after him flame burneth," shows that the fire, being immediately
+connected with the locusts, cannot be a cause of destruction
+independent of, and co-ordinate with, them. That the locusts are the
+sole cause of [Pg 313] the devastation, and that there is not another
+cause besides them, viz., the heat, is evident also from the words: "As
+the garden of Eden is the land before them, and behind them a desolate
+wilderness, and nothing is left by them." The burning anger of God is
+represented under the image of a consuming and destroying fire, with a
+reference to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, in which the divine
+wrath really manifested itself in that way. Under the image of fire,
+_war_ also, one of the principal punishments of God, is often
+represented. Thus, fire means the fire of war in Num. xxi. 28: Amos i.
+4, 7, 10, etc.; Jer. xlix. 27; Rev. viii. 8, 10. On the latter of these
+passages, my Commentary may be compared. If, then, the fire spoken of
+in this passage mean likewise the fire of war, and the locusts, the
+heathen enemies, the difficulty presented by the connection of these
+two things is solved. The comparison of Amos vii. here serves as a key.
+In vers. 1-3, the divine punishment is represented by the prophet under
+the image of a great army of locusts laying waste the country, which is
+just beginning to recover under Jeroboam II. after the former
+calamities inflicted by the Syrians; and then in ver. 4, under the
+image of a great fire devouring the sea (_i.e._, the world), and eating
+up the holy land. This analogy is so much the more important, the more
+impossible it is to overlook, in other passages also, the points of
+agreement betwixt Joel and Amos. But the symbolical representation goes
+still further; it extends even to the details. The beasts of the field
+are the barbarous, heathen nations. In ver. 19, the desolations are
+described which the fire of war accomplishes among Israel; in ver. 20,
+those which it effects among the Gentiles: compare the antithesis
+between the beasts of the field and the sons of Zion in ii. 22. In Is.
+lvi. 9, the beasts of the field likewise occur as a figurative
+designation of the heathen. In Jer. xiv.--a prophecy which has been
+distorted by expositors through a too literal interpretation--the image
+is, in vers. 5, 6, individualized by the mention of particular wild
+beasts--the hind and the wild ass. Joel himself indicates that the
+beasts in this description must, in general, be understood
+figuratively, by using in ver. 18 the word נאשמו, which can be
+explained only by "become guilty," "suffer punishment." (Compare Is.
+xxiv. 6: "Therefore curse devoureth the land, and they that dwell in it
+become guilty;" and [Pg 314] Hos. xiv. 1.) The word נאנחה, which is
+never used of beasts, likewise leads us to think of men. "How do the
+beasts groan," is explained by "All the merry-hearted do groan," in Is.
+xxiv. 7. The words תערג אליך, in which there is an evident allusion to
+Ps. xlii. 2, must likewise appear strange, if the description be
+understood literally. But what is decisive in favour of the figurative
+interpretation is ii. 22: "Be not afraid, ye beasts of the field, for
+the pastures of the wilderness are green with grass, for the tree
+beareth her fruit, the fig-tree and vine do yield their strength." The
+object of joy is here described, first, figuratively, and then,
+literally. The pastures of the wilderness are green with grass, _i.e._,
+the tree, etc. It is only thus that the כי can be accounted for; it
+states the reason, only when the pastures of the wilderness are not
+understood literally. _The fruits of the trees are mentioned here as
+the ordinary food of the beasts of the field._ _Hitzig_, it is true,
+remarks on this: "That many beasts of the field feed upon fruits of
+trees which they gather up, and that, _e.g._, foxes eat grapes also."
+But the point at issue here is the ordinary food; and Gen. i. 29, 30,
+where the trees are given to man, and the grass to the beasts, is
+decisive as to the literal or figurative interpretation. Under the
+image of unclean beasts--especially wild beasts--the Gentiles appear
+also in Acts xi. 6.--Nor can "the rivers of water" (ver. 20) be
+understood literally. The water of rivers, brooks, and fountains, is,
+in Scripture, the ordinary figure for the sources of sustenance, of
+thriving, wealth, and prosperity; compare remarks on Rev. viii. 10.
+
+Chap. ii. 2 is to be considered as indicating the reason which induced
+Joel to choose this figurative representation. The words, "There hath
+not been anything the like from eternity, neither may there be any more
+after it, even to the years of all generations," are borrowed, almost
+verbally, from Exod. x. 14. The prophet thereby indicates that he
+transfers the past, in its individual definiteness, to the future,
+which bears a substantial resemblance to it. What was then said of the
+plague of locusts especially, is here applied to the calamity thereby
+prefigured. From among all the judgments upon the Covenant-people (for
+these alone are spoken of), this judgment is the highest and the last;
+and such the prophet could say, only if the whole sum of divine
+judgments, up to their consummation, represented [Pg 315] itself to his
+inner vision under the image of the devastation by locusts. The
+absurdities into which men are led by the hypothesis of a later origin
+of the Pentateuch, are here seen in a remarkable instance--viz., in the
+assertion of _Credner_, that the passage in Exodus is an imitation of
+that of Joel. The verse immediately following, "As the garden of Eden
+(_i.e._, Paradise) the land is before him," has an obvious reference to
+Genesis, not only to Gen. ii. 8, but also to xiii. 10, where the vale
+of Siddim, before the divine judgment, is compared to the garden of
+Jehovah--to Paradise.
+
+In chap. ii. 6 it is said, "Before him nations tremble." That the
+mention of the _nations_ here is but ill adapted to the literal
+interpretation, appears from the circumstance, that while _Credner_
+understands by the עמים, Judah and Benjamin, _Hitzig_ attempts to
+explain it by people. But if, by the locusts, the heathen conquerors
+are designated, the עמים is quite in its place. When the powerful
+heathen empires overflowed the land, Israel always formed only a part
+of a large whole of nations; compare i. 19, ii. 22. Amos describes how
+the fire of war and of the desire of conquest raged, not only in
+Israel, but among all the nations round about, and consumed them. In
+addition to Amos chap. i. compare especially Amos vii. 4, 5, where, as
+objects of hostile visitation, are pointed out, first, the sea, _i.e._,
+the world, and then, the heritage of the Lord. According to Is. x. 6,
+the mission of Asshur was a very comprehensive one. In Habakkuk and
+Jer. chap. xxv. the judgments which the Chaldeans inflicted upon Judah,
+appear only as a part of a universal judgment upon all nations.
+
+According to chap. ii. 7-9, the locusts take the city by storm. They
+cannot be warded off by force of arms. They climb the wall. They fill
+the streets, and enter by force into the houses. Peal locusts are not
+dangerous to towns, but only to the fields.
+
+In chap. ii. 11, every feature is against the literal explanation. "And
+the Lord giveth His voice before His army; for His camp is very
+numerous, for he is strong that executeth His word; for the day of the
+Lord is great and very terrible, who can comprehend it?" There is not
+the remotest analogy in favour of the supposition which would represent
+an army of locusts as the host and camp of God, at the head of which He
+[Pg 316] Himself marches as a general, and before which He causes His
+thunders to resound like trumpets. It is true that, in some Arabic
+writer, this is mentioned as a Mosaic command: "You shall not kill
+locusts, for they are the host of God, the Most High;" see _Bochart_
+ii. p. 482, ed. _Rosenmüller_ iii. p. 318. But who does not see that
+this sentence owes its origin to the passage under consideration? Is.
+xiii. 2-5, where the Lord marches at the head of a great army to
+destroy the whole earth, may here be compared; and on Joel ii. 10,
+"Before him the earth quaketh, the heavens tremble, the sun and the
+moon mourn, and the stars withdraw their shining," Is xiii. 10 and Jer.
+iv. 28 may be compared, where, in the view of threatening hostile
+inundation, the earth laments, and the heavens above mourn.
+
+In ii. 17, "Give not Thine heritage to reproach, _that the heathen
+should rule over them_" (למשל־בם גוים), the prophet drops the figure
+altogether, and allows the reality--the devastation of the country by
+heathen enemies--to appear in all its nakedness. (It is worthy of
+notice that by the term גוים in this verse, our remarks on גיו in ii. 6
+receive a confirmation.) The defenders of the literal explanation have
+tried a twofold mode of escaping from this difficulty. _Michaelis_
+explains thus: "Spare Thy people, and deliver them from that plague of
+locusts. For if they should continue to swarm any longer, the greatest
+famine would arise, and Thy people, in order to satisfy the cravings of
+hunger, would be compelled to flee into the territories of heathen
+nations to serve them for bread, and to submit not only to their sway,
+but to ignominy." But every one must at once see how far-fetched this
+explanation is. In all history we do not find any instance in which a
+devastation by locusts--which affects the produce of one year only, and
+even this never completely and throughout the whole country--has
+reduced a people to the necessity of placing themselves under the
+dominion of foreign nations. Modern interpreters--and especially
+_Credner_--take refuge in another explanation: "Give not up Thine
+heritage to the mockery of heathens over them." They assert that the
+signification "to mock" is required by the parallelism. But we cannot
+see how, and why. The ignominy of Israel consisted just in this, that
+they, the heritage of the Lord, were brought under the dominion of the
+Gentiles, It is Just by the parallelism that the signification "to
+rule" is required. For it is the heritage [Pg 317] of the Lord, and the
+dominion of the Gentiles, which form a striking contrast, and not their
+mockery. The very same contrast is implied in ver. 18, in the words:
+"Then the Lord was jealous for His land." In these, the prophet reports
+the manner in which the Lord put away that glaring contradiction. They
+are not natural locusts, but only the heathen enemies, who can be the
+objects of the jealousy of the Lord; _His_ land. _His_ people, He
+cannot give up as a prey to heathen nations. But _further_--and this
+alone is sufficient to settle the question--the explanation is
+altogether unphilological. The verb משל never has the signification "to
+mock;" the phrase מָשַׁל מָשָׁל, "to form a proverb," is altogether peculiar
+to Ezekiel, in whose prophecies it several times occurs. In the other
+books, nothing occurs which would be, even in the smallest degree, to
+the purpose, except that in the ancient language of the Pentateuch
+משלים occurs once, in Num. xxi. 27, in the signification "poets."
+The verb משל with ב means always, and without exception, "to rule
+over"--properly, "to rule by entering into any one." Thus it occurs
+especially in that passage which the prophet had in view, Deut.
+xv. 5, 6: "If thou wait hearken unto the voice of Jehovah thy God ...
+thou shalt rule over many nations, and they shall not rule over
+thee," לא ימשלו ומשלת בגוים רבים ובך. Compare also the very similar
+passages, Ps. cvi. 41: "And He gave them into the hand of the heathen,
+and they that hated them ruled over them," וימשלו בם; and Lament, v. 8:
+"Servants rule over us,"בנו משלו. That it is from prejudice alone that
+the selection of the signification "to mock" can be accounted for,
+appears also from the circumstance that all the old Translators (the
+LXX., _Jonath._, _Syr._, _Vulg._) render it by "to rule."
+
+More than one proof is offered by ver. 20: "And I will remove from you
+the Northman, and will drive him into the land dry and desolate; his
+van into the fore sea, and his rear into the hinder sea; and his stench
+shall come up, and his ill-savour shall arise, for he has magnified to
+do."
+
+1. If we understand this literally, and refer it to real locusts, then
+the designation by הצפוני, _i.e._, "one from the North," "a Northman,"
+is inexplicable. It is true that there is no foundation for the common
+assertion, that locusts move only from the South to the North (compare
+_Credner_, S. 284); but in all history there is not one instance known
+of locusts having come [Pg 318] to Palestine from the North--from
+Syria. But even although occasionally single swarms, after having come
+to Syria from their native country, the hot and dry South, may have
+strayed thence to Palestine, such is not conceivable of so enormous a
+swarm as is here described, which, with youthful strength, devastated
+the whole of Palestine from one end to the other. Is it, moreover,
+probable that the prophet, who, as we have already seen, prophesies
+things future, would mention a circumstance so accidental as the
+transient abode of a swarm of locusts in Syria? Such a residence,
+_besides_, would not justify the assertion. The termination ־ִ־י added
+to common names, indicates origin and descent. An inhabitant of a town,
+for example, who should reside for a short time in a village, could not
+for that reason be called a פרזי.--_Finally_--The native country of the
+real locusts is plainly enough indicated by the words: "And I will
+drive him into the land dry and desolate." Who does not see that, by
+these words, the hot and dry southern countries are marked out, and
+that the prophet expresses the thought, "The enemies will be driven
+back to the place whence they came," by mentioning the country from
+which the real locusts used to come? Our opponents are here greatly
+embarrassed. Some explain: "The locusts marching northward,"--_Hezel_
+and _Justi_, without the slightest countenance from the _usus
+loquendi_: "The dark and fearful host." This opinion was approved of by
+_Gesenius_ in the _Thesaurus_; but in opposition to it _Hitzig_ may be
+compared, who himself gives the explanation, "The Typhonic." _V. Cöln_
+(_de Joelis aetate_, Marb. 1811, p. 10). _Ewald_ and _Meier_ propose a
+change in the text. With the reasons preventing us from referring the
+expression to the locusts In a literal sense, we may combine the fact
+that the North is constantly mentioned as the native land of the most
+dangerous enemies of Israel, viz., the Assyrians and Chaldeans. And
+although this designation be. In a geographical point of view.
+Inaccurate, this is outweighed by the circumstance, that enemies always
+Invaded Palestine from Syria, after having previously made that land a
+part of their dominions. Compare Zeph. ii. 13: "And the Lord stretches
+out His hand over the _North_, and destroys Assyria, and makes Nineveh
+a desolation--a dry wilderness;" Jer. i. 14: "And the Lord said unto
+me, Out of the _North_ the evil shall break forth upon all the
+inhabitants of the land;" Jer. iii. 18, where [Pg 319] the land of the
+North is mentioned as the land of the captivity of Judah and Israel;
+Jer. iv. 6, vi. 1, 22, x. 22, xlvi. 24, where the people of the North
+form the antithesis to Egypt, the African power; and Zech. ii. 10.
+_Jerome_ long ago remarked: "The prophet mentions the North, that we
+might not think of real locusts, which are wont to come from the South,
+but might, by the locusts, understand the Assyrians and Chaldeans."
+
+2. That we have here to do with a poetical description, and not with
+one of natural history, appears from a designation of the places to
+which the locusts are to be driven. Among these, the dry and hot
+southern country--the Arabian desert--is first mentioned; then, the
+anterior sea, _i.e._, the Dead Sea, situated eastward of Jerusalem; and
+lastly, the hinder, or Mediterranean Sea. That, according to the view
+of the prophet, the dispersion in these different directions was to
+take place in a moment, appears from the circumstance that, according
+to his description, the van of the same army is driven into one sea,
+and the rear, into the other sea. Now, every one very easily sees that
+this is a physical impossibility, inasmuch as opposite winds cannot
+blow at the same time. _Credner's_ explanation, according to which the
+פנים of the locusts is intended to be the swarm of those who first
+invaded Palestine, while סופו is their brood, deserves mention in so
+far only as it affords a proof of the greatness of the absurdities into
+which one may be deluded, after he has once adopted a groundless
+hypothesis.
+
+3. The words, "For he has magnified to do," state the reason of the
+destruction of the locusts. They are _punished_ in this manner, because
+they have _committed sin_ by their proud haughtiness. Because they have
+magnified to do, the Lord now magnifies Himself to do against them,
+ver. 21; He glorifies Himself in their destruction, since, at the time
+of their power, they glorified themselves, and trampled God under foot.
+But sin and punishment necessarily imply responsibility; and it would
+be indeed difficult to prove that, in the way of a poetical figure, any
+prophet would ascribe such to irrational creatures; while, as regards
+the heathen enemies of Israel, the thought here expressed is of
+constant occurrence.
+
+In chap. ii. 25, "And I restore to you the years (השנים) which the
+locusts have eaten," etc., _several_ years of calamity are spoken of.
+But we cannot agree with _Ewald_ in thinking that [Pg 320] the land
+was, for several years, laid waste by locusts: we are prevented from
+doing so by the single word יתר in chap. i. 4. _Bochart_ rightly
+remarks: "The produce of the new year cannot be called the residue of
+the former year. That word is much more applicable to the fruits of
+some fields, which are passed by, or to the residue left in a field,
+which should be eaten up in the same year." As little can we suppose,
+with _Ewald_, that the plural is here used with reference to the
+effects produced, by the devastation of one year, upon the ensuing
+years; for it is not a possible loss which is here spoken of, but one
+which has actually taken place. The prophet then passes, here also,
+from the image to the thing itself,--to the hostile invasions extending
+over longer periods, which he describes under the image of a
+devastation by locusts which, at one time, took place.
+
+Very strong arguments in favour of the figurative explanation are
+furnished, in addition, by chap. iv. (iii.). The whole announcement of
+punishment and judgment upon the heathen nations has sense and meaning,
+only when, in the preceding context, there has been mention made of the
+crime which they committed against the Lord and His people. In that
+case, we have before us the three main subjects of prophecy,--God's
+judgments upon His people by heathen enemies, their obtaining mercy,
+and the punishment of the enemies. At the very beginning of chap. iv.
+(iii.) the sufferings of Israel, described in chap. i. and ii., and the
+judgment upon the heathen, are brought into the closest connection.
+According to chap. iv. 1, 2, the gathering of the Gentiles is to take
+place at a time when the Lord will return to the captivity of Judah and
+Jerusalem, _i.e._, according to the constant _usus loquendi_ (compare
+my Commentary on Ps. xiv. 7), when He will grant them, mercy, and
+deliver them from their misery.[1] But that this misery can be none
+other than that described in chap. i. and ii. appears simply from the
+fact, that this has been declared to be the close of all the judgments
+of God.--We must, _further_, not overlook the article [Pg 321] in
+את־כל־הגוים in chap. iv. 2, and, accordingly, must not translate, "I
+will gather all nations," but "all _the_ nations." And how could this
+be explained in any other way than--all the nations which are spoken of
+in the preceding chapters under the image of locusts? But of special
+importance is the second part of the verse: "And I plead there with
+them concerning My people, and My heritage Israel, whom they have
+scattered among the nations, and distributed My land."[2] It is quite
+impossible that there should here be the mention of anything which
+happened before the time of Joel. Whatever period we may assign to him,
+he belongs, at all events, to a time in which a scattering of Israel
+among the Gentiles, and a distribution of their land, had not as yet
+taken place. _Credner_, indeed, believes that the calamities under
+Jehoram are sufficient to account for these expressions. "At that
+time," he says, "the Edomites revolted from Judah; Libnah, which
+belonged to Judah In the stricter sense, rebelled; the Arabs and
+Philistines invaded the kingdom and plundered its capital; those
+inroads did then not terminate without a diminution of the territory of
+Judah." But all this is irrelevant; the discourse concerns the
+distribution of the land of the _Lord_. The rebellion of a heathen
+tributary people does not, therefore, here come under consideration.
+Just as little can we see what Libnah has to do here. It belonged, it
+is true, to the kingdom of Judah; but the heathen nations had nothing
+to do with its rebellion;--for this, according to 2 Kings viii. 22, and
+2 Chron. xxi. 10, proceeded from the inhabitants, who were dissatisfied
+with the bad government of the king, and was speedily brought to a
+close. It cannot then be proved, that even some small portion of the
+territory was lost at that time; far less, that the whole country was
+apportioned anew. It is quite the same as regards the dispersion among
+the Gentiles. The invasion of the Philistines cannot [Pg 322] here come
+into consideration, because, in ver. 4, these enemies are expressly
+distinguished from those who had effected the dispersion of the people,
+and the distribution of the land: "And ye also, what have ye to do with
+Me, O Tyre and Sidon, and all the borders of Palestine?" The prophet
+can thus not be speaking of something which had taken place at his
+time; but as little can he speak of something still future, which had
+not been touched upon by him when he threatened punishment upon the
+Covenant-people; for the devastation by the locusts appears as the
+highest and last calamity of the future. Nothing, therefore, remains
+but to suppose, that under the image of the devastation by locusts, the
+devastation of the country by heathen enemies, and the dispersion of
+its inhabitants, are described,--a supposition which is confirmed by
+the great resemblance of the passage under consideration to chap. ii.
+17-19. _Vatke_ (_Theol. des A. Th._ i. S. 462) founded upon the fact
+that the general exile is here predicted, the assertion that Joel had
+prophesied only after the captivity. No one, of course, has been
+willing to agree with him in this; but as long as the devastation by
+the locusts is understood literally, it will not be possible to
+undermine the grounds upon which he supports his views. It is
+altogether in vain that people spend their labour in disputing the
+fact, so obvious and evident, that the discourse here concerns the
+total occupation of the land by the heathen, the total carrying away of
+its inhabitants.
+
+It may be further remarked, that this passage at the same time
+considerably strengthens the proof already adduced, that Joel foretells
+future things in chap. i. and ii. A devastation by the locusts is
+described in these chapters; but the substance of this figure does not
+refer to the time of Joel.
+
+_Finally_--We must still direct attention to the words in iv. 17:--"And
+Jerusalem shall be a sanctuary, and there shall no strangers pass
+through her any more." This promise stands in evident contrast to the
+former threatening, and becomes intelligible only by it. In it,
+therefore, the _strangers_ must be represented under the figure of the
+locusts.
+
+And now, after all these single proofs have been enumerated--proofs
+which, if necessary, might easily have been strengthened and
+increased--let us look back to this survey of the contents of the book,
+and we shall see how, according to our view, [Pg 323] and according to
+it alone, the prophecy of Joel forms an harmonious, complete, and well
+finished whole, and that the prophet adheres closely to the outlines
+already given by Moses, with the filling up and finishing of which all
+other prophets also are employed. And let us, finally, add, that
+exegetical tradition also bears a favourable testimony to the
+figurative interpretation.
+
+We need not spend much time in considering the arguments advanced
+against the figurative interpretation by _Credner_ (S. 27 ff.),
+_Hitzig_, and others. They all rest upon an almost incomprehensible
+ignoring of the nature of poetry, of the metaphor, and of the allegory.
+Thus, _e.g._, _Credner_ says, "What man of sound sense will ever be
+able to say of horses, horsemen and warriors, that they resemble horses
+and horsemen? Who has ever seen horses and horsemen climbing over
+walls? What shall we say concerning chap. ii. 20? Do land armies ever
+perish in the sea, and, moreover, in two different seas? What is the
+use of foretelling, in chap. ii. 22, 23, the ceasing of the drought, if
+the prophet here thought of real enemies?" But in opposition to all
+these and similar objections, let us simply keep in mind, that the
+prophet does not by any means view the enemies as such, and only
+incidentally compares them with locusts; but that in his inward vision
+they represented themselves to him as locusts. It is just the
+characteristic feature of the allegory, that the image becomes in it
+substantial, and has the thing represented, not _beside_ it, but _in_,
+_with_, and _under_ it. But it is just for this reason that many a
+feature must be introduced which does not belong to the _real_ subject,
+_i.e._, the figure, but to the _ideal_ only, _i.e._, the thing
+represented thereby. It is for this very reason also, that the
+metaphor, raised to the _ideal_ subject, may again be compared with the
+_real_ subject. After all this we may well judge what right _Ewald_ has
+to call the figurative explanation "an error, which, in consideration
+of our present knowledge, becomes from day to day less pardonable."
+
+We remark further, that, in chap. i. 4, it is distinctly indicated that
+Israel's visitation by the world's power will not be a simple one, but
+will present various aspects: "That which the _gnawer_ has left, the
+_locust_ devoureth; and that which the _locust_ hath left, the _licker_
+devoureth; and that which the _licker_ hath left, the _eater_
+devoureth." The opinion has been entertained, that "the prophet does
+not say, one cloud of locusts after [Pg 324] another, or swarms of
+locusts of every description have come up; but, on the contrary, that
+they are all contemporary, and that all of them devour the same
+things." But a succession is quite obvious. The four parties do not
+devour at the same time; but the second devours what the first has
+left. It is true that the succession appears as very rapid; but that is
+a peculiarity belonging only to the vision. If there be _at all_ a
+succession of those extensive empires representing the world's power,
+there must in reality be considerable intervals between them. The
+question then arises, however, whether the number _four_ is to be
+considered as a round number, so that the thought would only be this,
+that several nations are to visit the people of the Lord, or whether,
+on the contrary, importance is to be attached to the number _four_ as
+such. According to _Jerome_, the Jews followed the latter view. In
+accordance with their view, the first swarm denotes the Assyrians,
+together with the Chaldeans; the second, the Medo-Persians; the third,
+the Grecian kingdoms; the fourth, the Romans. The analogies of the four
+horns in Zech. ii. 1-4 (i. 18-21), the four beasts in Daniel, the seven
+heads of the beast in Revelation--denoting the seven phases of the
+world's power opposed to God--are decisive in favour of the latter
+view; compare my _Commentary on Rev._ xii. 18, xiii. 1. Now, if we
+follow this view at all, we must, in determining the four swarms,
+certainly assent to the opinion of the Jews, as given in _Jerome_; and
+this so much the more, as the four swarms are, in that case, exactly
+parallel to the four beasts in Daniel, which denote the Chaldean,
+Medo-Persian, Grecian, and Roman monarchies. The fact that the
+Assyrians are taken together with the Chaldeans can be the less
+strange, because, so early as in the prophecy of Balaam, Asshur and
+Babylon are comprehended under the common name עבר, _i.e._, "that which
+is on the other side,"--the power on the other side of the Euphrates;
+and are contrasted with the new empire which pressed on from the
+West--from Europe. (Compare my _Dissertation on Balaam_, p. 593 ff.)[3]
+It was the less possible to ascribe to the Assyrians an independent
+position here, as Joel has to do mainly with Judah, upon which no
+judgment of real importance was inflicted by the Assyrians.
+
+
+Footnote 1: The well ascertained _usus loquendi_ must be here the less
+given up, as, in the preceding context, to which this verse carries us
+back, we are, it is true, told that the Lord will return and bestow
+mercy; but the bringing back of the people is as little spoken of as
+the carrying of them away, inasmuch as the express mention of which did
+not suit the image of the devastation by locusts.
+
+Footnote 2: חִלֵּק means, not "to divide among themselves," but "to effect
+a new division," "to apportion the land anew," as, _e.g._, Asshur
+distributed the territory of the ten tribes among the Aramean
+Colonists, חלק is used of the distribution of the land by Joshua, in
+Josh. xiii. 7, xix. 51. In Mic. ii. 4, when the captivity was
+impending, the people, in anticipation of it, utter their lamentation
+in the words, "He distributes our fields;" compare Ps. lx. 8.
+
+Footnote 3: In the volume containing the "_Dissertations on the
+Genuineness of Daniel_, etc.," published by T. and T. Clark.
+
+
+[Pg 325]
+
+                           ON CHAPTER II. 23.
+
+"_And, ye sons of Zion, exult and rejoice in Jehovah your God; for He
+giveth you the Teacher of righteousness, and then He poureth down upon
+you rain, the former rain and the latter rain, for the first time._"
+
+The words, "In Jehovah your God," are an addition peculiar to the sons
+of Zion. In reference to the _earth_, which the locusts had devastated,
+it was in ver. 21 said only, "Fear not, exult and rejoice." In
+reference to the beasts, _i.e._, to the heathen world, which was kept
+in subjection by the conquerors of the world, but which is delivered by
+the great deeds of the Lord, it is in ver. 22 said only: "Fear not."
+They are only the sons of Zion who know and love the Author of
+Salvation, and who receive from Him special gifts, besides the general
+ones.
+
+There is considerable difference in the interpretations of this verse.
+The words, את־המורה לצדקה, are, by the greater number of interpreters,
+translated, "The Teacher of righteousness." Thus, _Jonathan_, the
+_Vulgate_, _Jarchi_, _Abarbanel_, _Grotius_, and almost all the
+interpreters of the early Lutheran Church translate them. Others take
+מורה in the signification of "rain," and לצדקה as qualifying its nature
+more accurately. Even in ancient times, this explanation was not at all
+uncommon. Among the Rabbinical interpreters, it was held by _Kimchi_,
+_Abenezra_, _S. B. Melech_, who explain it of a _timely_ rain.
+_Calvin_, who rendered the לצדקה by _justa mensura_, defends it with
+great decision, and declares the other explanations to be forced, and
+unsuitable to the connection. It is translated by "rain" in the
+English[1] and Genevan versions, and by many Calvinistic interpreters,
+who differ, however, in the translation of לצדקה, and render it either:
+"In right time," or "in right measure," or "in the right place," or
+"for His righteousness," or "according to your righteousness."
+_Marckius_ is of opinion that "rain" is necessarily required by the
+context; but that, on account of לצדקה, this rain must be understood
+spiritually of the Messiah with His saving doctrine, and His Spirit.
+Among the interpreters of the Lutheran Church, _Seb. Schmid_ thinks of
+"a rain in due season." [Pg 326] Among modern interpreters, the
+explanation by "rain" has become altogether so prevalent, that it is
+considered scarcely of any importance even to mention the other. לצדקה
+is explained by _Eckermann_: "In proof of His good pleasure;" by
+_Ewald_, _Meier_, and _Umbreit_: "For justification;" by _Justi_: "For
+fruitfulness;" and by the others (_Rosenmüller_, _Holzhausen_,
+_Credner_, _Rückert_, _Maurer_, and _Hitzig_) by: "In right measure."
+We consider this explanation to be decidedly erroneous, and the other
+to be the sound one; and this for the following reasons:--1. The great
+difference, on the part of the defenders of the current opinion, as
+regards the explanation of לצדקה certainly indicates, with sufficient
+clearness, that, by this addition, a considerable obstruction is put in
+its way. The most current explanation, by "_justa mensura_," "in right
+measure," "sufficiently," is certainly quite untenable. Even the fact,
+that it is not צדק but צדקה which is used here, must excite suspicion.
+(On the difference betwixt these two words, compare _Ewald_ in the
+first edition of his Grammar, S. 312-13.) But what is quite decisive is
+the fact that these two words, which occur with such extraordinary
+frequency, are never found in a physical, but always in a moral sense
+only. The only passage in which, according to _Winer_, צדק signifies
+"rectitude" in a physical sense, is Ps. xxiii. 3: מעגלי צדק which,
+according to him, means: "Straight, right ways." But that verse runs
+thus: "He restoreth my soul, He leadeth me in the paths of
+righteousness for His name's sake." The path is a spiritual one; it is
+righteousness itself, which consists in the actual declaration of being
+just, and in justification, which are implied in the gift of salvation.
+With regard to צדקה, _Holzhausen_ (S. 120) maintains that it is used of
+a measure which has its due size in Lev. xix. 35, 36. The words are
+these: "Ye shall not do _unrighteousness_ in judgment, in measure, in
+division. Balances of righteousness, weights of righteousness, ephas of
+righteousness, shall ye have: I am the Lord your God who brought you
+out of the land of Egypt." Even the contrast--so evident--with the
+_unrighteousness_, shows distinctly that balances, measures, and
+weights of righteousness are here such as belong to righteousness--are
+in harmony with it. Even the root צדק never occurs in a physical sense,
+but always, only in a moral sense. To this it must be added, that the
+explanation, "Teacher of righteousness," [Pg 327] is recommended by the
+parallel passage in Hos. x. 12, where, also, teaching occurs in
+connection with righteousness: וירה צדק לכם, "And the Lord will come
+and teach you righteousness." This parallel passage is also opposed to
+_Ewald's_ explanation, "for justification,"--the only explanation among
+those mentioned to which, it must be admitted, no philological
+objection can be raised. But the thought, "The early rain an actual
+justification of Israel," would be rather strange, and so much the more
+so, because the wrath of God had not manifested itself in a drought and
+want of water, but rather in the sending of the army of locusts.
+
+2. That the giving of the מורה, in the first hemistich of the verse,
+must denote a divine blessing different from the giving of the מורה in
+the second, is evident for this reason:--that, otherwise, there would
+arise a somewhat meaningless tautology. They who assigned to מורה in
+the first hemistich, the signification of "rain in general," have felt
+how very unsuitable is the twofold mention of the early rain. To this
+must be added the use of the _Fut._ with _Vav convers._, ויורד. By this
+form, an action is denoted which _follows_ from the preceding one; but
+according to the current explanation, one and the same action would
+here be expressed, only in different words. It cannot be denied,
+indeed, that the form occurs by no means rarely in a weakened sense,
+and is used only to express a connection; and that for this reason,
+this argument is not, _per se_, conclusive. Yet the original
+signification so generally holds, that we can abandon it only for
+distinct and forcible reasons. In addition to this, it must be
+considered that the addition of גשם to the second מורה distinctly marks
+out the latter as being different in its meaning from the former. It
+must also be kept in mind that it is one of the peculiarities of Joel
+to use the same words and phrases, after brief intervals, in a
+different sense; compare _Credner's_ remarks on ii. 20, iii. 5.
+
+3. The explanation by "Teacher" is far more obvious for the reason that
+מורה always occurs with the signification of "teacher" (even in Ps.
+lxxxiv. 7, where the right translation is: "With blessing also the
+teacher covereth himself"), and never with that of "rain," or "early
+rain." This is rather the meaning of יורה; and the verb also never
+occurs in _Hiphil_, as it does in _Kal_, with the signification "to
+sprinkle," "to water." [Pg 328] By this we are led to the supposition
+that Joel, in the second hemistich, made use of the uncommon form מורה
+with the meaning of "early rain," solely on account of the resemblance
+of the sound to the מורה occurring immediately before, with its usual
+signification; and that, at the same time, he added גשם for the purpose
+of avoiding ambiguity. What serves to confirm this supposition, is the
+circumstance that Jeremiah, alluding to the passage under
+consideration, has, in chap. v. 24, put יורה in the place of מורה;
+which proves that the second מורה in Joel ii. 23 has originated only
+from its connection with the first, which is altogether wanting in
+Jeremiah.
+
+4. A causal connection, similar to that which exists here betwixt the
+sending of the Teacher of righteousness and the pouring out of the
+rain, occurs also in that passage of the Pentateuch which the prophet
+seems to have had in view, viz., Deut. xi. 13, 14: "And it shall come
+to pass, _if ye shall hearken unto my commandments_ which I command you
+this day, that ye love the Lord your God, and serve Him with all your
+heart and with all your soul, that I will give you the rain of your
+land in due season, the first rain and the latter rain (יורה ומלקוש),
+and thou shalt gather in thy corn, and thy must, and thine oil." Here,
+as well as there, the righteousness of the people is the _antecedens_;
+the divine mercies and blessings are the _consequens_. Since the former
+does not exist, God begins the course of His mercies by sending Him who
+calls it forth. This remark removes, at the same time, the objection,
+that the mention of the Teacher of righteousness is unsuitable in a
+connection where the prophet speaks of temporal blessings only, and
+rises to spiritual blessings only afterwards, in chap. iii. There
+existed for the Covenant-people no benefits which were purely temporal;
+these were always, at the same time, signs and pledges of the divine
+favour, which depended upon the righteousness of the people, and this,
+in turn, upon the divine mission of a Teacher of righteousness.
+
+5. The בראשון is also in favour of our explanation. It stands in close
+relation to אחרי־כן in chap. iii. 1, ii. 28. The sending of the Teacher
+of righteousness has two consequences;--_first_, the pouring out of the
+temporal rain--an individualizing designation of every kind of outward
+blessings, and chosen with a reference to the passage of the Pentateuch
+which we have just [Pg 329] cited, but with special reference to the
+description of the calamity, under the figure of a devastation by
+locusts;--and, _secondly_, the outpouring of the spiritual rain--the
+sending of the Holy Ghost. It needs only the pointing out of this
+reference, which has been overlooked by interpreters,[2] to set aside
+the manifold and different explanations of בראשון which are, all of
+them, unphilological, or give an unsuitable sense.[3]
+
+But if any doubt should still remain, it would be removed by a parallel
+passage in Isaiah, which depends upon the text under review, in a
+manner not to be mistaken, and which, therefore, must be regarded as
+the oldest commentary upon it. Isaiah is describing the condition of
+the people subsequent to their having obtained mercy, after a long time
+of deep misery, in chap. xxx 20: "And the Lord gives you the bread of
+adversity, and the water of affliction; and then thy _teacher_ (מוריך
+is _singular_) shall no longer hide himself, and thine eyes shall see
+thy teacher; Ver. 21: And thine ears hear a word behind thee, This is
+the way, walk ye in it; do not turn to the right hand, nor to the
+left." Accordingly, after they have put away what was evil, ver. 22:
+"The Lord giveth the rain of thy seed, with which thou sowest thy
+land," etc., ver. 23. The teacher is not a human teacher, but God.
+_Human_ teachers had not concealed themselves; but that the Lord had
+concealed Himself, is affirmed in the preceding verses. The words,
+"Behind thee" (ver. 21), suggest the idea of a teacher of such a glory
+that they could not look in his face (compare Rev. i. 10); and the
+words, "Thine eyes see thy teacher," ver. 20, imply the idea of the
+high majesty of the teacher, and suggest the idea of a revelation of
+the glory of the Lord; compare Is. xl. 5, lii. 8. The Lord must first
+manifest Himself as a Teacher, before He appears as a Saviour. In
+Isaiah, the Lord Himself appears as the Teacher; as also in Hos. x. 12:
+"It is time to seek the Lord, till He [Pg 330] come and teach you
+righteousness;" while in Joel, on the contrary, it is the Lord who
+giveth the Teacher. Both may be reconciled by the consideration, that
+in the Teacher whom the Lord gives, the glory of the Lord becomes
+manifest.
+
+It now only remains to inquire who is to be understood by the Teacher
+of righteousness. (Teacher of righteousness is equivalent to: "Teaching
+them how they should fear the Lord," 2 Kings xvii. 28.) It is referred
+to the Messiah, not only by almost all those Christian interpreters who
+follow this explanation, with the exception of _Grotius_, who
+conjectures that Isaiah or some other prophet is to be thereby
+understood; but also, after the example of _Jonathan_, by several
+Jewish commentators; _e.g._, _Abarbanel_, who says: "This teacher of
+righteousness, however, is the King Messiah, who will show the way in
+which we must walk, and the works which we must do." Even on account of
+the article, it is not possible to refer it to a single human teacher;
+and this argument may, at the same time, be added to those which oppose
+the explanation of מורה by "an early rain." There can be only the
+choice betwixt the Messiah as the long promised Teacher κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν,
+and the _ideal_ teacher,--the collective body of all divine teachers.
+But the latter view requires to be somewhat raised, before it can be
+allowed to enter into the competition. That we have not here before us
+an ordinary collective body, is shown by the parallel passage in
+Isaiah, according to which the glory of the Lord is to be manifested in
+the Teacher. And this is as little applicable to a plurality of human
+teachers, as to a single individual. It is _further_ proved by the
+fundamental passage in Deut. xviii. 18, 19, where, indeed, the
+prophetic order is comprehended in an _ideal_ person. This, however,
+has its reason only in the circumstance, that the idea of prophetism
+was, at some future time, to find its realization in a _real_ person.
+It is _further_ seen from the state of the Messianic hopes at the time
+of Joel, and from the exceeding greatness of what is here connected
+with the appearance of the Teacher of righteousness. In addition to the
+allusion in Gen. xlix. 10 and Deut. xviii., the Messiah appears as a
+Teacher in the Song of Solomon also, chap. viii. 2; and in Is. lv. 4:
+"Behold, I give Him for a witness to the people, for a prince and a
+lawgiver to the people;" as also in those passages of the second part
+of Isaiah, in which He is declared to be the Prophet κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν. [Pg
+331] When thus understood, the explanation of the _ideal_ teacher may
+be preferable to the reference to Christ exclusively. In favour of such
+a reference, there is the comprehensive character and the _ideal_
+import which are, in general, peculiar to the prophecies of Joel. Such
+a reference is, moreover, favoured by the expression itself, which
+points out only that which Christ has in common with the former
+servants of God, viz., the teaching of righteousness, and especially by
+a comparison with the fundamental passages, Deut. xviii.
+
+
+Footnote 1: The English version has "a teacher of righteousness," as a
+marginal reading.--Tr.
+
+Footnote 2: Since the appearance of the first edition of this work, it
+has been acknowledged also by _Ewald_, _Meier_, and _Umbreit_.
+
+Footnote 3: _Hitzig_ explains it: "In the first month." But altogether
+apart from the consideration that it is only in a chronological
+connection that "in the first" can stand for "in the first _month_,"
+this explanation is objectionable on the ground that the early rain and
+the latter rain cannot, by any means, belong to the same month. There
+is the less difficulty in explaining it by "first," as בראשונה
+undeniably occurs, several times, in this signification; compare,
+_e.g._, Zech. xii. 7.
+
+
+
+                  EXPOSITION OF CHAP. III. (II. 28-32.)
+
+Ver. 1. "_And it shall come to pass, afterwards, I will pour out My
+Spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy;
+your old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see
+visions._"
+
+The communication of the Spirit of God was the constant prerogative of
+the Covenant-people. Indeed, the very idea of such a people necessarily
+requires it. For the Spirit of God is the only inward bond betwixt Him
+and that which is created; a Covenant-people, therefore, without such
+an inward connection, is an impossibility. As a constant possession of
+the Covenant-people, the Spirit of God appears in Isaiah lxiii. 11,
+where the people, in the condition of the deepest abandonment, say, in
+the remembrance of the divine mercies, "Where is He that put His Holy
+Spirit within him?" But it was peculiar to the nature of the Old
+Testament dispensation, that the effusion of the Spirit of God was less
+rich. His effects less powerful, and a participation in them less
+general. It was only after God's relation to the world had been
+changed by the death of Christ that the Spirit of _Christ_ could be
+bestowed,--a higher power of the Spirit of God, standing to Him in the
+same relation as the Angel of the Lord to the incarnate Word. The
+conditions of the bestowal of the Holy Spirit were, under the Old
+Testament, far more difficult to obtain. The view of Christ in His
+historical personality, in His life, suffering, and death, was wanting.
+God, although infinitely nearer to the Jews than to the Gentiles, yet
+ever remained a God relatively [Pg 332] distant. Since the procuring
+cause of the mercy of God--the merit of Christ--was not yet so clearly
+seen, it was far  more difficult to lay hold of it, and the by-path of
+legalism was far nearer. It was thus only upon a few--especially upon
+the prophets--that the direct possession of the Spirit of God was
+concentrated; while the greater number, even among those of a better
+disposition, enjoyed a spiritual life derived only from a union with
+them, and hence it was less strong. It arose from the nature of the
+case that, at some future time, there must take place a richer and more
+powerful effusion of the Spirit of God; and it was just for this reason
+that it was the desire of Moses, that such might take place, and that
+the whole people might prophesy. Num. xi. 29, besides expressing such a
+desire, is, at the same time, a prophecy. He wished nothing else than
+that the people of God might attain to such a degree as to realize the
+idea of a people of God; and this must come to pass at some future
+time, because the omnipotent and faithful God could not leave His work
+unfinished. But Moses himself immediately subjoins the prophecy to the
+wish, as a clear proof, that behind the wish the prophecy is concealed:
+"Would God that all the Lord's people were prophets! for the Lord will
+give His Spirit upon them," etc.; which is equivalent to: "At some
+future time, the whole people of the Lord shall be prophets, not
+against, but agreeably to, my wish; for," etc. It is this promise of
+Moses which is here resumed by Joel, with whom, subsequently. Is. in
+chap. xxxii. 15, "Until the Spirit be poured upon us from on high;"
+chap. xi. 9, liv. 13; Jer. xxxi. 33, 34; Ezek. xxxvi. 26 ff., and Zech.
+xii. 10, connect themselves. The ultimate reference of the promise is
+to the Messianic time; but the reference to the preparatory steps must
+not, for this reason, be by any means excluded. The announcement of the
+pouring out of the Spirit rests upon the insight into the nature of
+God's relation to His kingdom. God's judgments, in which He draws near
+to His people, in which the abstract God becomes a concrete God, excite
+in the people a longing for a union with Him. Teachers sent by God give
+a right direction to this longing, and then an outpouring of the Spirit
+takes place. This proceeding does, and must continually, repeat itself
+in the history of the Covenant-people. The perfect fulfilment at the
+time of Christ could [Pg 333] not at all have taken place, unless the
+imperfect fulfilment had already pervaded their whole earlier history;
+and that there is, in the prophecy under consideration, no reference at
+all to such imperfect fulfilments, could be maintained only, if there
+existed in the text any hint that the prophet intended to speak of only
+the last realization of the idea. But as the exclusion of all the
+preliminary stages is entirely arbitrary, it is just as arbitrary to
+separate, from the events which make up the main fulfilment in the
+Messianic time, one particular event, viz., that which took place on
+the first day of Pentecost. It is only to a certain extent that we can
+affirm that the prophecy found its final fulfilment in this event,
+viz., in as far as it formed the pledge of it,--in as far as the whole
+succeeding development and progress were already contained in it,--in
+as far as Joel's prophecy in words was then changed into an infinitely
+more powerful prophecy in deeds. It is from overlooking the relation of
+the prophecy to the thought which animates it, and from the error
+arising from this, viz., that the fulfilment must necessarily fall
+within a particular, limited period, that the various opposite
+interpretations had their rise (compare the copious enumeration and
+representation of these in _Dresde_, _Comparatio Joelis de Effusione
+Spir. S. vatic. c. Petrina interpret._ _Wittemb._ 1782, _Spec._ 2), all
+of which are partially true, and are false only by their one-sidedness
+and exclusiveness. 1. Several interpreters think of an event at the
+time of Joel. Thus Rabbi _Moses Hakkohen_, according to _Abenezra_,
+_Teller_ on _Turrettine de interpret._ p. 59, _Cramer_ on the
+_Scythische Denkmäler_, p. 221.--2. Others insist on an exclusive
+reference to the first Pentecost. Thus do almost all the Fathers of the
+Church--among whom, however, _Jerome_ (on Joel iii. 1) felt the great
+difficulties in the way of this view, arising from the context--and
+most of the later Christian interpreters.--3. Others would refer it at
+the same time to the events in Joel's time, and to those at the first
+Pentecost. Of this opinion are _Ephraem Syr._, _Grotius_, and
+_Turrettine_.--4. Others place the fulfilment altogether in the future.
+Thus did the Jews as early as in the time of _Jerome_, and afterwards
+Jarchi, Kimchi, and Abarbanel.--5. Others, finally, find in the first
+Pentecost the beginning only of the fulfilment, and regard it as
+pervading the whole Christian time. Thus, _e.g._, _Calovius_ (_Bibl.
+illustr. ad. h. l._) says: "Although [Pg 334] that prophecy began to be
+fulfilled in a remarkable manner on that feast of the Pentecost, yet
+its reference is not to that solemn event only, but to the whole state
+of these last, or New Testament times, _just after the manner of other
+general promises_." These last words show that _Calovius_ was very near
+the truth. But if the promise be a general one, by what are we entitled
+to place the beginning of its fulfilment only at the times of the New
+Testament, and to exclude all of that same gift which God bestowed in
+Old Testament times? The insufficiency of the foundation for such a
+limitation in the text itself is proved by the following confession of
+_Dresde_ (l. c. p. 8), who even believes himself obliged to defend such
+a limitation from the authority of the Apostle Peter, and to whom it
+did not at all occur, that any other reference than to some particular
+event was even possible: "It appears, therefore," he says, "that the
+prophecy, considered in itself, is so expressed, that no one, except
+the first author of the prophecy, will be able convincingly to define
+the exact event to which it really refers." We shall afterwards see
+that the testimony of the New Testament to which _Dresde_ here alludes,
+does not by any means demand such a limitation. We have seen that Joel
+points to a fourfold oppression of Israel by the world's power. The
+_main_ fulfilment we must then expect at the time of the fourth; but
+this can scarcely be the first fulfilment; for we cannot imagine that
+the former calamities should have passed over the people altogether
+without effect; and the divine gift of the Spirit goes always hand in
+hand with the susceptibility of the people. By proving that fourfold
+oppression, we have also furnished the proof that the prophecy of the
+outpouring of the Spirit has a comprehensive character.--From the
+already established reference of the אחרי־כן to the בראשון in chap. ii.
+23, it is obvious that it is not so much a determination of the
+succession of time, as of a succession in point of importance, which is
+thereby given. Among the two effects of the mission of the Teacher of
+righteousness, first, the lower, and then, the higher, presents itself
+to the view of the prophet. The determination of time is not the
+essential point; that serves only to illustrate the internal relation
+of these two events, the gradation of these divine blessings; although
+we are able to demonstrate that, even as regards time, the prophecy was
+fulfilled in this order. For after the destruction by the [Pg 335]
+Chaldeans, the temporal blessings were restored to the people, before
+the main fulfilment of the promise of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit
+took place; compare Ps. cvii. 33-42 with Joel ii. 25-27.--The words, "I
+shall pour out," refer to the rain in ver. 23. The idea of copiousness,
+opposed to the former scantiness, is indeed implied in it. Yet it must
+not be exclusively considered; the qualities of the rain alluded to in
+ver. 24 ff.--viz., the quickening of what was previously dead, the
+fructifying power--must not be overlooked.--The words, "Upon all
+flesh," are, by most of the Jewish interpreters (_e.g._, _Kimchi_,
+_Abenezra_; compare _Lightfoot_ and _Schöttgen_ on Acts ii. 16, 17),
+referred to the members of the Covenant-people only; but by the
+Christian interpreters, whom even Abarbanel joins, to all men. So,
+still, does _Steudel_ in the _Tübinger Pfingst-Programm_, 1820, p. 11.
+But in this latter explanation, one thing has been overlooked--as,
+among the older interpreters, has been well shown by _Calvin_,[1] and
+among the more recent, by _Tychsen_ (_progr. ad h. l._ p. 5)--viz.,
+that the  subsequent words, "Your sons, your daughters, your old men,
+your young men, the servants, the handmaids," contain a specification
+of the בשר; so that the _all_, by which it is qualified, does not do
+away with the limitation to a particular people, but only with the
+limits of sex, age, and rank, among the people themselves. The
+participation of the Gentiles in the outpouring of the Holy Ghost did
+not, in the first instance, come into consideration in this place,
+inasmuch as the threatening of punishment, with which the proclamation
+of salvation is connected, had respect to the Covenant-people only.
+_Credner_ has been led into a strange error, by pressing the words
+כל־בושר without any regard to the connection. He imputes to the prophet
+the monstrous idea, that the Spirit of God, the fountain of all which
+is good and great, well pleasing to God, and divine, is to be poured
+out upon all animals also, even upon the locusts.--The foundation for
+the promise of the  Holy Spirit is formed by Gen. ii. 7, compared with
+i. 26. It supposes that the spirit of man, as distinguished from all
+other living things [Pg 336] on earth, is a breath from God.--There is
+here, moreover, the same contrast betwixt בשר and רוח as in Gen. vi. 3
+and Is. xxxi. 3: "The Egyptians are men, and not God; their horses are
+flesh, and not spirit." (Compare other passages in _Gesenius'_
+_Thesaurus_, _s. v._ p. 249.) _Flesh_, in this contrast, signifies
+human nature with respect to its weakness and helplessness; the
+_spirit_ is the principle of life and strength. As "your sons," etc.,
+is a specification of all flesh, so, the words, "They prophesy, they
+dream dreams, they see visions," are a specification of: "I pour out My
+Spirit." From this, it is evident that the particular gifts do not here
+come into consideration according to their individual nature, but
+according to that essential character which is common to them as
+effects of the Spirit of God. Hence it is obvious also, that we are not
+at liberty to ask why it is just to the sons and daughters that the
+prophesying is ascribed, etc. The prophet, whose object it is only to
+individualize and expand the fundamental thought, _i.e._, the
+universality of the effects of the Spirit, chooses for this purpose the
+extraordinary gifts of the Spirit,[2] because these are more obvious
+than the ordinary ones; and from among the extraordinary ones, again,
+those which were common under the Old Testament; without thereby
+excluding the others, or, as regards the real import, adding anything
+to the declaration, "I will pour out My Spirit." This appears also from
+ver. 2, where, in reference to the servants and handmaids, the
+expression returns to the former generality. In distributing the gifts
+of the Spirit among the particular classes, the prophet has been as
+little guided by any internal considerations, as, _e.g._, Zechariah,
+when in chap. ix. 17 he uses the words, "Corn maketh the young men grow
+up, and must, the maids." The remark made by _Credner_ and _Hitzig_,
+after the example of _Tychsen_, that visions are ascribed to vigorous
+youth, but dreams to feebler age, appears at once, from an examination
+of the historical [Pg 337] instances, and from the comparison of Num.
+xii. 6, to be unfounded. "Your sons and your daughters prophesy," etc.,
+is equivalent to: "Your sons and your daughters, your old men and your
+young men, prophesy, have _divine_ dreams (a limitation to such is
+implied in their being the effects of the outpouring of the Spirit),
+and see visions;" and this again is equivalent to: "They will enjoy the
+Spirit of God, with all His gifts and blessings." In this, and in no
+other way, has the passage been constantly understood among the Jews.
+If it had been otherwise, how could Peter have so confidently declared
+the events on the feast of Pentecost, where there occurred neither
+dreams nor visions, to be a fulfilment of the prophecy of Joel? It is
+implied, however, in the nature of the case, that, in the principal
+fulfilments of the prophecy of Joel, the extraordinary gifts of the
+Spirit should be accompanied by the ordinary ones; for the former are
+the witnesses and means of the latter, although, at the same time, the
+basis also on which they rest; so that times like those which are
+described in 1 Sam. iii. 1, where the Word of God is precious in the
+country, and there is no prophecy spread abroad, must necessarily be
+poor in the ordinary gifts of grace also. It is not in the essence, but
+only in the form of manifestation, that the extraordinary gifts differ
+from the ordinary ones,--just as Christ's outward miracles differ from
+His inward ones.
+
+Ver. 2. "_And upon the servants also, and upon the handmaids, I will
+pour out My Spirit in those days._"
+
+_Credner_ refers this to the Hebrew prisoners of war, living as
+servants and handmaids among heathen nations, far away from the Holy
+Land. But if the prophet had this in view, he must necessarily have
+expressed himself with greater distinctness. Moreover, the relation to
+the preceding verse requires that, as the difference of sex and age was
+there done away with, so no allowance should here be made for the
+difference of rank. The גם shows that the extension of the gifts of the
+Spirit even to servants and handmaids, who, to the carnal eye, appeared
+to be unworthy of such distinction, is to be considered as something
+unexpected and extraordinary. That there is very little correctness in
+the assertion of _Credner_, that "there could have been scarcely any
+doubt as regards the participation of the Hebrew [Pg 338] slaves," is
+sufficiently shown by the fact, that Jewish interpreters have
+attempted, in various ways, to lessen the blessing here promised to the
+servants and handmaids. Even the translation of the LXX. by, ἐπὶ τοὺσ
+δούλουσ μου καὶ ἐπὶ τὰσ δούλασ μου, may be considered as such an
+attempt. In the place of the servants of men, who appeared to them
+unworthy of such honour, they put the servants of God. _Abarbanel_
+asserts that the Spirit of God here means something inferior to the
+gift of prophecy, which is bestowed only upon the free people. Instead
+of regarding the Spirit of God as the root and fountain of the
+particular gifts mentioned in the preceding verse, he sees in Him only
+an isolated gift,--that of an indefinite knowledge of God. But such a
+view is opposed even by the relation of the words, "I will pour out My
+Spirit," in ver. 2, to the same words in ver. 1; and also by Is. xi. 2,
+where "Spirit of God" is likewise used in a general sense, and
+comprehends within itself all that follows. It is not without design
+that the fact is so prominently brought out in the New Testament, that
+the Gospel is preached to the poor, and that God chooses that which is
+mean and despised in the eye of the world. The natural man is always
+inclined to suppose that that which is esteemed by the world must be so
+by God also. This is sufficiently evident from the deep contempt of the
+Pharisees for the ὄχλοι; compare, _e.g._, John vii. 49.
+
+Ver. 3. "_And I give wonders in the heavens, and on earth; blood, and
+fire, and vapour of smoke._"
+
+The mercy bestowed upon the Congregation of God is accompanied by the
+judgment upon her enemies. Since the Congregation has again become the
+object of His favour, especially in consequence of the Holy Spirit
+being poured out upon her, it cannot be but that He will protect her
+against the persecution of the world, and avenge her upon it. In vers.
+3 and 4, the _precursors_ of the judgment (_before_ cometh, ver. 4) are
+described, and in chap. iv. throughout, the judgment itself. There is
+here an allusion to an event of former times, and which is now to be
+repeated on a larger scale, viz., the plagues inflicted upon Egypt in
+consequence of the same law. The prophet had specially in view the
+passage, Deut. vi. 22: "And the Lord gave signs and wonders, great and
+sore, upon Egypt, upon Pharaoh, and upon all his household before our
+eyes."--The wonders are divided [Pg 339] into those which are in
+heaven, and those which are on earth; then those which are on earth are
+in this verse designated individually; and afterwards, in ver. 4, those
+which are in heaven. With regard to the former, many interpreters (the
+last of whom is _Credner_) understand by the "blood," bloody defeats of
+the enemies of Israel; by "fire and smoke," their towns and habitations
+consumed by fire. But this interpretation cannot be entertained. The
+very designation by מופתים indicates that we have here to think of
+extraordinary phenomena of nature, the symbolical language of which is
+interpreted by the evil conscience, which recognises in them the
+precursors of coming judgment. This is confirmed also by the more
+particular statement of the signs in heaven, in ver. 4; for the signs
+on earth must certainly be of the same class as these. It is confirmed
+likewise by a comparison with the type of former times, which we have
+pointed out; for it is from this, that the blood is directly taken. The
+first plague is thus announced in Exod. vii. 17: "Behold, I smite with
+the rod in mine hand upon the waters in the river, and they are turned
+into blood." _Jalkut Simeoni_ (in _Schöttgen_, p. 210) remarks: "The
+Lord brought blood upon the enemies in Egypt: thus also shall it be in
+future times; for it is written, I will give wonders, blood and fire."
+The same is the case as respects the fire. Exod. ix. 24: "And there
+came hail, and _fire mingled_ with the hail." It is more natural to
+suppose that the prophet borrowed these features, as, in the former
+description of the judgment upon Israel, the plague of the locusts lies
+at the foundation, and as the contents of the following verse have
+likewise their prototype in those events. Compare Exod. x. 21: "And the
+Lord said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand toward the heaven, and let
+there be darkness over the land of Egypt." That it is not real blood
+which is here meant, but that only which, by its blood-red colour,
+reminds of blood (comp. _e.g._, "Waters red as blood," 2 Kings iii.
+22), is shown by the fundamental passage, Exod. vii. 17, where the
+water which had become red is called simply blood; compare my work on
+_Egypt and the Books of Moses_, p. 106. Blood brings into view the
+shedding of blood; the fiery phenomena announce that the fire of the
+anger of God, and the fire of war, will be enkindled; compare remarks
+on i. 19, 20.--The word תימרות requires a renewed investigation.
+Interpreters [Pg 340] uniformly explain it by "pillars,"--a
+signification which is altogether destitute of any foundation; for the
+Chaldee תלרה, to which they refer, is not found with the signification
+"pillar." Such a meaning is quite inappropriate in the single passage
+quoted by _Buxtorf_; the signification "smoke," or "cloud of smoke," is
+necessarily required in that place. As little are we at liberty to
+appeal to תמר, "palm," with which תימרה has nothing at all to do. The
+י, which would be without any analogy if derived from תמר (compare
+_Ewald_ on _Song of Sol._ iii. 6), requires the derivation from ימר.
+The word תימרה is a noun formed from the 3d pers. _fem. Fut._ of this
+verb with ה affixed (compare, on these nouns, the remarks on Hos. ii.
+14, and my work on _Balaam_, p. 434), and, as to its form, it
+corresponds exactly with תמורה, derived from the 3d _fem. Fut._ of the
+verb מור. There cannot now be any doubt regarding the signification of
+ימר. Is. lxi. 6, and Jer. ii. 11, where המיר and הימיר occur in the
+same verse, show that it corresponds entirely with מור. Hence _Ewald_
+(l. c.) is wrong in identifying it with אמר, the alleged meaning of
+which is "to be high." Now in Hebrew, מור and ימר occur only in the
+derived signification of "to transform," "to change," "to exchange;"
+but the primary signification is furnished by the Arabic, where it
+means: _huc illuc latus, agitatus fuit,--fluctuavit._ (Compare the
+thorough demonstration by _Scheid_, _ad cant. Hisk._ p. 159 sqq.)
+תימרות can accordingly signify only "clouds" or "_vortices_." (In
+Arabic, מור means "dust agitated by the wind.") The connection of this
+signification with that of "_palpehrae_," "eye-lids," in which it
+occurs in the Talmudic and Rabbinical languages, is very obvious. They
+were so called from their continual motion hither and thither. Such a
+connection, however, we must the more easily be able to prove, because
+that Talmudic and Rabbinical use of the word cannot be derived from any
+other root than an ancient Hebrew one. The ἀτμίς of the LXX. likewise
+leads to our interpretation, rather than to the prevailing one. The
+former is, in the only passage in which תימרות occurs, besides the one
+under consideration, and where it likewise occurs in the connection
+with עשן, viz., in Song of Sol. iii. 6, at least as suitable as the
+latter. We have to think here of such phenomena as those which are
+described in Exod. xix. 18: "And Mount Sinai was altogether on a smoke,
+because the Lord had descended upon [Pg 341] it in fire, and the smoke
+thereof ascended as the smoke of a furnace." Here, as well as there,
+the fire, and the accompanying smoke, represent, in a visible manner,
+the truth that God is πῦρ καταναλισκον, Heb. xii. 29. The clouds of
+smoke are the sad forerunners of the clouds of smoke of the divine
+judgments upon the enemies, and of the fire of war, in the form of
+which the former commonly appear. Compare Is. ix. 18, 19: "And they
+mount up like the lifting up of smoke.... And the people became as the
+fuel of fire; no man spareth his brother." The belief--which pervades
+all antiquity--that the angry Deity announced the breaking in of
+judgments through the symbolical language of nature, is very
+remarkable. This belief cannot be a mere delusion, but must have a deep
+root in the heart. Nature is the echo and the reflection of the
+disposition of man. If there prevail within him a fearful expectation
+of things to come, because he feels his own sin, and that of his
+people, all things external harmonize with that expectation; and, most
+of all, that which is the natural image and symbol of divine punitive
+justice, which would not, however, be acknowledged as such, were it not
+for the interpreting voice within. Having regard to this relation of
+the mind to nature, God, previous to great catastrophes, often causes
+those precursors of them to appear more frequently and vividly, than in
+the ordinary course of nature. In a manner especially remarkable, this
+took place previous to the destruction of Jerusalem. Compare
+_Josephus_, _d. Bell. Jud._ iv. 4, 5. "For during the night, a fearful
+storm arose,--there arose boisterous winds with the most violent
+showers, continual lightnings and awful thunders, and tremendous
+noises, while the earth was shaken. It was, however, quite evident that
+the condition of the universe was put into such disorder for the
+destruction of men, and almost every one conjectured that these were
+the signs of impending calamity." A great number of other signs and
+precursors are mentioned by him in _B. J._ vi. 5, § 3. These will never
+be altogether absent, as certainly as punishment never comes without
+sin, and sin never exists without the consciousness, without the
+expectation, of deserved judgment. But the chief point in this mode of
+viewing things, is not the sign itself, but the disposition of mind
+which interprets it,--the consciousness of guilt, which fills the soul
+with the thought of an avenging God,--the [Pg 342] _condition of
+filings which brings into view the infliction of the judgment._ It is
+by this that we can account for the circumstance that; in the Old
+Testament, the darkening of the sun and moon, and other things,
+frequently appear as _direct images_ of sad and heavy times.
+
+Ver. 4. "_The sun is turned into darkness, and the moon into blood,
+before there cometh the great and terrible day of the Lord._"
+
+Among all interpreters, _Calvin_ has given the most admirable
+interpretation of this verse: "When the prophet says that the sun shall
+be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, these are
+metaphorical expressions, by which he indicates that the Lord will show
+signs of His wrath to all the ends of the earth, as if a whole
+revolution of nature were to take place, in order that men may be
+stirred up by terror. For, as sun and moon are witnesses of God's
+fatherly kindness towards us, as long as, in their changes, they
+provide the earth with light, so will they, on the other hand, says the
+prophet, be the messengers of the angry and offended God.--By the
+darkness of the sun, by the bloody appearance of the moon, by the black
+cloud of smoke, the prophet intended to express the idea, that
+wheresoever men should turn their eyes, upwards or downwards, many
+things would appear to fill them with terror. Hence the language of the
+prophet amounts to this:--that never had the state of things in the
+world been so miserable,--that never had there appeared so many and so
+terrible signs of the anger of God."--We have already seen that the
+prophet has before his eye the Egyptian type. The darkness upon the
+whole land of Egypt, while there was light in the dwellings of the
+Israelites, represented, in a deeply impressive manner, the anger of
+God in contrast with His grace, of which the symbol is the shining of
+His heavenly lights. The extinction of these is, in Scripture,
+frequently the forerunner of coming divine judgments, or an image of
+those which have been already inflicted; compare the remarks on Zech.
+xiv. 6. Thus it has already occurred in the Book of Joel itself, in the
+description of the former judgment; compare ii. 2: "Day of darkness and
+gloominess, day of clouds and mist;" ii. 10: "Before Him quaketh the
+earth, and trembleth the heaven; the sun and the moon mourn, and the
+stars withdraw their shining." Thus it returns in iv. [Pg 343] 14, 15:
+"The day of the Lord is near in the valley of judgment. The sun and the
+moon mourn, and the stars withdraw their shining." The passages in
+which, as in the one before us, the extinction has not a _figurative_,
+but a _typical_ character, must not be limited to a single phenomenon.
+Everything by which the brightness of the heavenly luminaries is
+clouded or darkened, eclipses of the sun or moon, earthquakes,
+thunderstorms, etc., fill with fear those in whose hearts the sun of
+grace has set.
+
+Ver. 5. "_And it comes to pass, every one who calls on the name of the
+Lord is saved; for in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem shall be such as have
+escaped, as the Lord hath said, and amongst those who are spared is
+whomsoever the Lord calleth._"
+
+We must first determine the signification of פליטה. The greater number
+of interpreters explain it by "deliverance;" but it means rather "that
+which has escaped." This appears, 1. from the form. It is the fem. of
+the Adj. פליט, the ־־ִ־י of which has arisen from ־־ֵ־ by means of
+lengthening; hence it is that פְלֵיטָה is thrice formed without ־־ִ־י. It
+is, then, an adjective of intransitive signification. Now it is true
+that, by means of the feminine termination, adjectives are changed into
+abstract nouns, but never into such as indicate an action; but always
+into such only for which, in Latin and Greek, the neuter of the
+adjective might be used. This, however, is here inadmissible. 2. To
+this must be added the constant use; as in Is. xxxvii. 31, 32: "And
+_that which has escaped_ (פליטת) of the house of Judah, the _remnant_,
+taketh root downward, and beareth fruit upward. For out of Jerusalem
+shall go forth a _remnant_ (שארית), and _that which has escaped_ out of
+Mount Zion,"--a passage exactly parallel to the one under consideration
+(compare also the following words in Is. xxxvii. 32: "For the zeal of
+the Lord will do this," with "As the Lord hath said," here). Is. iv. 2:
+"To that which has escaped," with which, "That which is left in Zion,
+and that which remaineth in Jerusalem," in the following verse, is
+identical; Is. x. 20: "The remnant (שאר) of Israel, and that which has
+escaped of the house of Jacob;" Obad. ver. 17: "And upon Mount Zion
+shall be that which has escaped,"--which forms an antithesis to ver. 9:
+"And man shall be cut off from the Mount of Esau;" and _finally_--Gen.
+xxxii. 9 (8): "And the camp which has been left is for [Pg 344] the
+escaped." There does not thus remain a single passage in which the
+signification "deliverance" is even the probable one. The passages in
+Jeremiah, where שריד ופליט occur together (xlii. 17, xliv. 14; Lam. ii.
+2), show that פליטה here is not different from שרידים in the subsequent
+clause of the verse.--The expression קרא בשם יהוה never is used of a
+merely outward invocation, but always of such as is the external
+expression of the faith of the heart; compare the remarks on Zech. xiv.
+9. Even on account of this stated condition, it is not possible to
+think of the deliverance of the promiscuous multitude of Israel, in
+contrast with that of the Gentiles; for the condition is one which is
+purely internal, and it affords an important hint for the right
+understanding of what follows. The כי by which it is connected remains
+inexplicable, if Mount Zion and Jerusalem be considered as a place of
+safety and deliverance for all who are there externally. The same thing
+is evident from פליטה. The sense is not by any means that all the
+inhabitants of Zion and Jerusalem shall be delivered; but that there
+shall be some who have escaped--viz., those who call on the name of the
+Lord; while those who do not, shall be consumed by the divine judgment.
+The second condition stated by the prophet--that of being called by the
+Lord--is in like manner internal. The words אֲשֶׁר יְהוָֹה קֹרֵא have so
+evident a reference to אֲשֶׁר־יִקְרָא בְּשֵׁם יְהוָה, that we cannot at all
+suppose, as _Credner_ does, that they refer to other subjects. On the
+contrary, they who _call on_ the Lord, are also they whom _He calls_
+from the general calamity into His protecting presence; and the prophet
+has endeavoured, by the choice of the words, to bring out into view the
+close connection of these two parties. They who call on the Lord, and
+they whom the Lord calls (_Maurer's_ explanation: "And among those who
+have escaped is every one who calls on the Lord" [compare Ps. xiv. 4],
+gives a very feeble tautology), are the very same upon whom, according
+to vers, 1 and 2, the fulness of the Spirit has been poured out.--The
+words, "As the Lord has said," indicate, that the faithful ones may
+safely take comfort from this promise; inasmuch as it is not the word
+of men, but of God. We may see, from such parallel passages as Is. i.
+20, xiv. 5, lviii. 14, how little reason we have for thinking that the
+prophet here refers to some other prophecy. That the prophet, and not
+the Lord Himself, is speaking in this verse, [Pg 345] is evident from
+the words: "Who calls on the name _of the Lord_." It was, therefore,
+very suitable to show, that it was by Immediate, divine commission that
+the prophet had given utterance to the consolatory promise, that the
+people of God would escape in these great and heavy judgments which
+were to come upon the world. That it is very natural for believers to
+fear that the punishments which threaten the world should fall upon
+them also who are living _in_ the world, is shown by Rev. vii., the aim
+of which is, throughout, to allay the anxious fear which might arise in
+believers when considering the judgments which threaten the world. The
+relation of the whole verse to what precedes and follows is this:--In
+vers. 3 and 4, the prophet had stated the signs and forerunners of the
+great and fearful day of the Lord. Now he points to the only, and the
+absolutely sure means of standing on that day. Then, in chap. iv.,
+which is connected by כי, he describes the judgment itself.
+
+If, now, we endeavour to discover the historical reference of vers.
+3-5, we are met by a great variety of opinions. It is referred to the
+destruction of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans, by _Grotius_, _Cramer_,
+_Turrettine_ (_de Scrip, s. interpret._ p. 331); among the Socinians,
+in the _Raccovian Catechism_, p. 22, and by _Oeder_; and among the
+Arminians, by _Episcopius_ in the _Instit. Theol._ p. 198. Others (as
+_Jerome_) think of the resurrection of the Lord; others (as _Luther_)
+of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit; others (as _Münster_, _Capell_,
+_Lightfoot_, _Dresde_, l.c. p. 22) of the destruction by the Romans. It
+is referred to the judgment upon the enemies of the Covenant-people
+soon after the return from the Babylonish captivity, by _Ephraem
+Syrus_; to the impending overthrow of Gog, at the time of the Messiah,
+by the Jewish interpreters; to the general judgment, by _Tertullian_,
+_Theodoret_, and _Crusius_, In _Theol. Prophet._ i. p. 621; and to the
+destruction of Jerusalem, and the general judgment at the same time, by
+_Chrysostom_ and others.
+
+The great variety of these references has arisen solely from the
+circumstance, that the prophecy has not been reduced to its fundamental
+idea. This fundamental idea is:--The manifestation of God's punitive
+justice upon all which is hostile to His kingdom, which runs parallel
+with the manifestation of His grace towards the subjects of His
+kingdom. This idea appears here, in all its generality, without any
+temporal limitation [Pg 346] whatsoever. Not one of these
+interpretations, therefore, can be absolutely right. They differ only
+in this, that some of them are altogether false, inasmuch as they
+assume a reference to events which do not at all fall under the
+fundamental idea; while others are only limited and partial views of
+the truth.
+
+To the first of these classes belong evidently the references to the
+resurrection, and to the outpouring of the Holy Ghost. It is only by
+detaching these verses from the following chapter that such a view
+could arise. These events stand in no relation whatsoever to the
+animating thought of the passage. There is a certain relation to that
+thought in the reference to the destruction by the Chaldeans, in so far
+as this was really a manifestation of divine punitive justice. But the
+reference to this event would be admissible here, only if the prophet
+were describing the manifestation of divine punitive justice _in
+general_. But such is not the case. The comparison of chap. i. and ii.
+shows that the subject of the prophecy is rather the manifestation of
+divine justice in reference to those who are enemies to the kingdom of
+God. The defenders of such a view have altogether misunderstood the
+structure of the prophecy of Joel; for, otherwise, they would have seen
+that that event belongs to the threatening of judgment in chap. i. and
+ii., where the judgment upon the house of God is described; while,
+here, there is a description of the judgment upon those who are
+without.
+
+The same argument seems, at first sight, to apply also to the
+destruction by the Romans. But on a closer examination, there appears
+to be a difference betwixt these two events, and one which brings the
+latter far more within the scope of the prophecy. The destruction by
+the Romans was much more intimately connected with a total apostasy and
+rejection, than was that by the Chaldeans. Even before the former
+destruction, and immediately after the death of Christ, the former
+Covenant-people had sunk down to the rank of the Gentiles. They were no
+more apostate children, who were, by means of punishment, to be brought
+to reformation, but enemies, who were judged on account of their
+hostile disposition towards the kingdom of God. Malachi, in chap. iii.
+23 (iv. 5), shows that such a time would come when that, which they
+imagined to be intended only for the heathen by descent, should be
+realized upon Israel after the flesh. The verbal repetition of the
+words, "Before there [Pg 347] cometh the great and dreadful day of the
+Lord," and their application to the judgment upon Israel, can be
+accounted for only by his intention to oppose the prevailing carnal
+interpretation of the prophecy under consideration.
+
+It will now be seen also, what the relation is which the phenomena at
+the death of Christ, the darkening of the sun, the quaking of the
+earth, the rending of the rocks (compare Matt. xxvii. 45, 51; Luke
+xxiii. 44), occupy to the passage before us. They were like the מופתים
+here, actual declarations of the divine wrath, and forerunners of the
+approaching judgment; and they were recognised as such by the guilty,
+to whom this symbolical language was interpreted by their consciences;
+compare Luke xxiii. 48: Καὶ πάντες οἱ συμπαραγενόμενοι ὄχλοι; ἐπὶ τὴν
+θεωρίαν ταύτην, θεωροῦντες τὰ γενόμενα, τύπτοντες ἑαυτῶν τὰ στήθη,
+ὑπέστρεφον.
+
+But we must not limit ourselves to the obduracy of the Covenant-people.
+This we are taught, not only by the relation of chap. i. and ii. to iv.
+2, but, with especial distinctness, by the renewal of this threatening
+in Rev. xiv. 14-20, where the image of the vintage and winepress, in
+particular, is borrowed from Joel; see iv. 12, 13. The objects of
+judgment are there the heathen nations on account of their hostility to
+the people of God, who, by Christ, and by the outpouring of the Spirit
+procured by Him, have fully attained to that dignity. Nor is the
+judgment there an isolated one. On the contrary, all which, in history,
+is realized in an entire series of judicial acts, to be at last
+consummated in the final judgment, is there comprehended in one great
+harvest--in one great vintage.
+
+We have still to make a few remarks upon the quotation in Acts ii. 16
+ff. Nothing but narrow-mindedness and prejudice could deny that Peter
+found, in the miracle of Pentecost, an actual fulfilment of the promise
+in vers. 1 and 2. This becomes probable, not only from the
+circumstance, that the reference of this prophecy to the Messianic time
+was the prevailing one among the Jews (compare the passages in
+_Schöttgen_, S. 413), but also from the translation of אחרי־כן by ἐν
+ταῖς ἐσχάταις ἡμέραις, by which, in the New Testament, the Messianic
+time is always designated. To this must also be added the express
+declaration in ver. 39, that the promise was unto the generation then
+present. How could Peter have uttered such a declaration, [Pg 348] if
+his view had been that the promise had found its fulfilment in a time
+long gone past? At the same time, it is equally certain, that Peter was
+so far from considering all the riches of the promise to be completely
+exhausted by that Pentecostal miracle, that he rather considered it to
+be only a beginning of the fulfilment,--a beginning, indeed, which
+implies the consummation, as the germ contains the tree. This is quite
+obvious from ver. 38: μετανοήσατε καὶ βαπτισθήτω ἕκαστοσ ὑμῶν.... καὶ
+λήψεσθε τὴν δωρεὰν τοῦ ἁγίου πνεύματος. How could Peter, referring to
+the prophecy, promise the gift of the Holy Spirit, promised in the
+prophecy to those who should be converted, if the prophecy was already
+completely fulfilled? But it is still more apparent from ver. 39: Ὑμῖν
+γάρ ἐστιν ἡ ἐπαγγελία καὶ τοῖς τέκνοις ὑμῶν, καὶ πᾶσι τοῖς εἰς μακρὰν,
+ὄσους ἂν προσκαλέσηται Κύριος ὁ Θεὸς ἡμῶν. The question is, who are to
+be understood by those εἰς μακρὰν? No one could have doubted that the
+Gentiles are thereby to be understood, unless two things altogether
+heterogeneous had been confounded, viz., the uncertainty of Peter
+concerning the _fact_ of the reception of the Gentiles into the kingdom
+of God, and his uncertainty concerning the _mode_ of their reception.
+Considering the condition of the Old Testament prophecy, the latter is
+easily accounted for; but the former cannot. To state only one from
+among the mass of arguments which prove that Peter could not be
+ignorant of the _fact_, we observe that the very manner in which, in
+Acts iii. 25, he quotes the promise given to Abraham, that by his seed
+the nations should be blessed, proves that he regarded the Gentiles as
+partakers of the kingdom of Christ. This is rendered still more
+incontrovertible by the πρῶτον in ver. 26. To understand, by εἰς
+μακρὰν, foreign Jews, is inadmissible, for the single reason that these
+were present in great numbers, and hence, were included in the term
+ὑμῖν. Now Peter, throughout, addresses all those who were present. How
+then could he have here confined himself, all at once, to a portion of
+these I There is, moreover, a plain allusion to the close of Joel iii.
+5, which the LXX. translate οὓς Κύριος προσκέκληται. This allusion
+contains, at the same time, a proof of the concurrent reference to the
+Gentiles, which is not in express words contained in the prophecy,
+provided we do not put an arbitrary interpretation upon בשר. Attention
+is thereby directed [Pg 349] to the fact, that, In that passage,
+salvation, which requires, as its condition, a participation in the
+outpouring of the Spirit, does not depend upon any human cause, but
+solely upon the call of God--upon His free grace. In a manner entirely
+similar, does St Paul, in Rom. x. 12, 13, prove, from the beginning of
+Joel iii. 5, the participation of the Gentiles in the Messianic
+kingdom: Οὐ γάρ ἐστι διαστολὴ Ἰουδαίου τε καὶ Ἕλληνος· ὁ γὰρ αὐτὸς
+Κύριος πάντων, πλουτῶν εἰς πάντας τοὺς ἐπικαλουμένους αὐτόν. Πᾶς γὰρ ὃς
+ἂν ἐπικαλέσηται τὸ ὄνομα Κυρίου, σωθήσεται. If the calling on God were
+the condition of salvation, access to it was as free to the Gentiles as
+to the Jews. But if the prophecy has a distinct reference to the still
+unconverted Jews, their children and the Gentiles, it is then evident,
+that, according to the view of the Apostle, it did not terminate in
+that one instance of Its fulfilment, but that, on the contrary, it
+extends just as far as the thing promised--as the outpouring itself of
+the Holy Spirit. This clearly appears, also, from the allusions to the
+passage under consideration. In the accounts of later outpourings of
+the Spirit; compare, _e.g._, Acts x. 45, xi. 15, xv. 8. How, then, was
+it even possible that Peter should have limited to the few who had
+already, at that time, received the Spirit, a prophecy, in which the
+idea of generality is, intentionally, made so prominent? But, even if
+the universal character of the prophecy had been less distinct, Peter
+would certainly not have thought of confining it in such a manner. Such
+a gross and superficial view of the prophecies was far from Peter, as
+well as from the other Apostles.
+
+Another question remains to be answered. For what purpose does the
+Apostle quote verses 3-5 also, inasmuch as, apparently, verses 1 and 2
+alone properly served his purpose; and what sense did he put upon them?
+The answer Is given In ver. 40: Ἑτέροις τε λόγοις πλείοσι διεμαρτύρετο,
+καὶ παρεκάλει, λέγων· Σώθητε ἀπὸ τῆς γενεᾶς τῆς σκολιᾶς ταύτης. Even in
+the few words In which Luke communicates to us the brief summary of
+what Peter spoke In this respect, a reference to the passage under
+consideration has been preserved to us. Peter made use of the
+threatening which was, in the first Instance, to be fulfilled upon the
+dark refuse of the Covenant-people, In order to Induce them, by terror,
+to seek a participation in the promise which alone could deliver them
+[Pg 350] from the threatened judgment. That he succeeded in this, is
+shown by the words, Ἐγένετο δὲ πάσῃ φόβος, in ver. 43. Several
+interpreters have, by ver. 22, been led into a total misconception of
+the sense in which Peter quotes vers. 3-5. It is true, certainly, that
+the words τέρασι καὶ σημείοις are not used without reference to the
+passage in Joel. Peter directs attention to the circumstance, that they
+who, from their hardness of heart, do not acknowledge the τέρατα and
+σημεῖα with which God accompanied the manifestation of His grace, shall
+be visited by τέρατα and σημεῖα of a totally different nature, from the
+fearful impression of which they shall not be able to escape.
+
+But let us now in addition consider some of the particulars. In
+substance, the quotation by Peter agrees with the LXX.; but deviations
+occur on particular points. At the very beginning, the LXX., adhering
+more closely to the Hebrew text, have: καὶ ἔσται μετὰ ταῦτα; whereas
+Peter says: καὶ ἔσται ἐν ταῖς ἐσχάταις ἡμέραις. The reason of this
+deviation is, that the Apostle intends to determine, by this deviation,
+the expression, which in itself is wider and more indefinite, in such a
+manner that the period to which the prophecy specially refers, and
+hence also its application to the case in question, should be rendered
+more obvious. In a case entirely similar, Jeremiah, in chap. xlix. 6,
+employs the wider term אחרי־כן, while in xlviii. 47 he makes use of the
+more definite באחרית הימים. By the latter term, _Kimchi_ also explains
+the אחרי־כן in the passage before us; while _Jarchi_ (compare
+_Schöttgen_, S. 210) explains it by the equivalent term לעתיד לבא. The
+words λέγει ὁ Θεός are wanting in the LXX., as well as in the original
+Hebrew text. They have been taken from ver. 5, and, contrasted with τὸ
+εἰρημένον διὰ τοῦ προφήτου Ἰωήλ, they direct attention to the divine
+source of prophecy, and hence to the necessity of its fulfilment. The
+two members, καὶ οἱ πρεσβύτεροι ὑμῶν ἐνύπνια ἐνυπνιασθήσονται, καὶ οἱ
+νεανίσκοι ὑμῶν ὀράσεις ὄψονται, Peter has reversed; probably in order
+to place the young men together with the sons and daughters, and to
+assign the place of honour to the old men. In the δούλους μου and
+δούλας μου, Peter follows the LXX., and that in a sense which only
+expressly makes prominent a point really contained in the prophecy,
+whether such was intended by the translators, or not; for the
+circumstance that the servants of men were, at the same [Pg 351]time,
+servants of God, formed the ground of their participation in the
+promise. The same contrast is found, _e.g._, in 1 Cor. vii. 22, 23: Ὁ
+γὰρ ἐν Κυρίῳ κληθεὶς δοῦλος ἀπελεύθερος Κυρίου ἐστίν· ὁμοίως καὶ ὁ
+ἐλεύθερος κληθεὶς, δοῦλός ἐστι Χριστοῦ. Τιμῆς ἠγοράσθητε· μὴ γίνεσθε
+δοῦλοι ἀνθρώπων; compare Gal. iii. 28; Philem. 10. Hence it is
+equivalent to: Upon servants and handmaids of men who are, at the same
+time, my servants and handmaids, and, therefore, in spiritual things of
+equal rank with those who are free. To give prominence to this perfect
+equality, is also the design of the additional clause: καὶ
+προφητεύσουσι, subjoined after ἐκχεῶ ἀπὸ τοῦ πνεύματός μου. The
+circumstance that Peter thought it necessary to add this clause, which,
+as we have proved, quite harmonizes with the design of the prophet,
+seems to prove that, even at his time, interpretations were current, in
+which an attempt was made to diminish, or altogether to take away, in
+the case of servants and handmaids, their participation in those
+blessings;--interpretations similar to those of _Abarbanel_, and even
+of _Grotius_, who thus paraphrases the verse: "Even to those who seem
+to be lowest, I will certainly impart, although not prophesying and
+dreaming dreams, yet certain extraordinary and heavenly motions." The
+antiquity of this false interpretation is attested by _Jerome_ also,
+who probably was, in this respect, altogether dependent upon his Jewish
+teachers. He interprets, indeed, the servants and handmaids
+spiritually, and of such as have not the spirit of freedom he says:
+"They shall neither have prophecies, nor dreams nor visions, but,
+satisfied with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, they shall possess
+only the grace of faith and salvation."--In ver. 3, Peter adds ἄνω to
+ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ, and κάτω to ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς, in order to make the contrast
+more obvious and striking. All the deviations from the LXX., and the
+original text, are thus of the same kind, and intended to bring out
+more distinctly what is implied in the passage itself. Not one of them
+need to be accounted for by the circumstance, that the Apostle quoted
+from memory.
+
+
+Footnote 1: He says: "The sense in which the universality must be
+understood is clearly indicated by what follows. For, it is first said,
+in general, 'All flesh,' and afterwards, a specification is added, by
+which the prophet intimates, that age or sex will not constitute any
+difference, but that God will bring them all, without any distinction,
+into the communion of His grace."
+
+Footnote 2: The two parallel members prove, in opposition to _Redslob_
+and others, that the verb נבא here, as everywhere else, has reference
+to an ecstatic condition, to the speaking in the Spirit, although this
+is by no means limited to a revelation of the future. The closeness of
+the connection between prophesying, dreaming dreams, and seeing
+visions, is evident from Num. xii. 6, where visions and dreams appear
+as the two principal forms of revelation to the נביא.
+
+
+[Pg 352]
+
+
+                            THE PROPHET AMOS.
+
+                      GENERAL PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
+
+It will not be necessary to extend our preliminary remarks on the
+prophet Amos, since on the main point--viz., the circumstances under
+which he appeared as a prophet--the introduction to the prophecies of
+Hosea may be regarded as having been written for those of Amos also.
+For, according to the inscription, they belong to the same period at
+which Hosea's prophetic ministry began, viz., the latter part of the
+reign of Jeroboam II., and after Uzziah had ascended the throne in
+Judah.
+
+The circumstances of the prophet we learn, generally, from the words in
+chap. i. 1: "Who was among the herdmen of Tekoah." If there existed no
+other statement than this, there might be truth in the remark made by
+many interpreters, that we cannot, from his having been a herdman,
+infer that he was poor and low. It is shown, however, by a statement in
+chap. vii. 14, that, by the "herdman," we are not to understand one who
+was also possessed of flocks, or, like David, the son of such, but a
+poor servant herdman. For, in that passage, the prophet replies to the
+command of the priest Amaziah to get himself out of the country, to
+which he did not belong, and to return to his native land: "I am no
+prophet, nor the son of a prophet, but I am a herdman; and _such an one
+as plucketh sycamores_. And the Lord took me from behind the flock, and
+the Lord said unto me. Go prophesy unto My people Israel." The fruit of
+the sycamores, called ἄτροφος and κακοστόμαχος by _Dioscorides_, served
+as food for only the poorest and meanest. _Bochart_ (_Hieroz._ t. i. p.
+407 [385] _Rosenmüller_) remarks: "It is the same as if he had said,
+that he was a man of the humblest condition, and born in poor
+circumstances, so that he scarcely maintained his life by scanty and
+frugal fare; that he had never thought of obtaining the prophetical
+office in Israel, until a higher power, viz., divine inspiration,
+impelled him to undertake it."[1] But this passage merits our attention
+in another [Pg 353] point of view. In what sense is it that Amos here
+denies that he is a prophet? It is evidently in a very special sense
+that he does so. He obviously does not mean thereby to deny that he
+possessed the gift of prophecy, or held the prophetical office; for,
+otherwise, he would himself have furnished weapons to his enemy, to
+whom he wishes to prove his right. The following remarks will be found
+to contain the true answer.
+
+It cannot be proved in any way, that the schools of the prophets,
+established by Samuel at a time when the circumstances of Judah and
+Israel were altogether similar, were continued in the kingdom of Judah.
+Every prophet there stands in an isolated position. The entire
+prophetic order and institute bears rather a sporadic character. But in
+the kingdom of Israel, where the prophetic order occupied a position
+altogether different from that which it held in the kingdom of Judah,
+inasmuch as, after the expulsion of the tribe of Levi, they had to
+watch over all the interests of religion, the schools of the prophets
+had a very important mission assigned to them. We must not by any means
+imagine that their constitution was such, that after a few years'
+training, the sons of the prophets attained to perfect independence.
+The greater number of them remained during all their lifetime in the
+position of sons. The schools of the prophets were a kind of
+monasteries. Even those who, in consequence of their peculiar
+circumstances, no longer remained there, but were scattered throughout
+the country, continued always under their authority. One needs only to
+read attentively the histories of Elijah and of Elisha, which afford us
+the fullest information regarding these institutions, to be speedily
+convinced of the soundness of the view which we have here presented. On
+the subject of the organization of the schools of the prophets in the
+kingdom of Israel, compare _Dissertations on the Genuineness of the
+Pentateuch_, i. p. 185. f.
+
+[Pg 354]
+
+But how can Amos adduce it as a proof of his divine mission, that he is
+neither a prophet, nor, in the sense explained, a prophet's son,
+_i.e._, that he was neither a superior nor an inferior member of the
+prophetic order? The answer is,--It was the result of that organization
+of the prophetic order, that the relation to the Lord was one which was
+more or less mediate. To those who would not acknowledge the immediate
+divine influence, some ground was thereby afforded for doing so. Their
+training, their principles, the form of their prophecies, all admitted
+of a natural explanation. It is true that the _spirit_ which animated
+them baffled any such attempt; but that spirit was not so easily
+perceived. In the case of any one, then, who appeared as a prophet,
+without standing in that connection, and yet in the full possession of
+all prophetic gifts,--in demonstration of the spirit and of power, a
+natural explanation was far more difficult; especially if, like Amos,
+he was, by his outward situation, cut off from all human resources for
+education. But was Amos, for that reason, an uneducated man? This is a
+question which one may answer either in the affirmative or negative,
+according to what he understands by education. So much is certain, that
+he was in possession of the essential part of a true Israelitish
+education--viz., the knowledge of the law. The most intimate
+acquaintance with the Pentateuch everywhere manifests itself; compare
+in proof of this the _Dissertations on the Genuineness of the
+Pentateuch_, i. p. 136 ff. There are too many instances, down to most
+recent times, of living piety breaking, in this respect, through almost
+impenetrable barriers, to allow us to consider this as a strange thing,
+and to make it necessary for us to excogitate the various ways and
+means by which Amos may have received this education. It is only on the
+lower ground of the mere forms of language, that the rank of Amos not
+unfrequently appears. In all the higher relations he shows himself a
+type of the Apostles, who, although they were uneducated fishermen of
+Galilee, exhibit the most distinguishing proofs of true education.
+
+Amos belonged to that circle of prophets who received a commission to
+prophesy the ruin which was impending over the Covenant-people, before
+any human probability existed for it. _Baur_, on Amos, S. 60, is of
+opinion that "the definiteness with which he prophesies the destruction
+of the kingdom of [Pg 355] Jeroboam, although its power was at that
+time still flourishing, leads us to expect that he must have had
+distinct indications of its speedy decay." In a certain sense we may
+assent to this opinion. The prophet himself continually points to such
+indications. These indications are the sins of the people. But if
+_Baur_ endeavours to put political indications in the stead of these
+moral ones; if he be of opinion that the Assyrians must, at that time,
+have stood in a threatening attitude in the background, we must give to
+his opinion a decided opposition. We can, in such an assertion, see
+only an effect of that naturalistic mode of viewing things, which would
+limit the horizon of the prophets to that of their own times.[2] Not
+the slightest allusion to the Assyrians occurs. The supposition that
+Calneh or Ktesiphon, in chap. vi. 2, appears as having already fallen
+(through the Assyrians), rests upon an incorrect interpretation, just
+as does the assertion that Hamath, in the same passage, is supposed to
+be conquered; concerning the latter point, compare _Thenius_ on 2 Kings
+xiv. 28. In the announcement of the carrying away into captivity beyond
+Damascus, made in chap. v. 27, there appears nothing more than the
+knowledge, that the catastrophe will not be brought about by that
+heathen power which had hitherto brought ruin upon the kingdom of
+Israel But, everywhere, we may see that the prophet--whom we have no
+reason to think an especially ingenious politician--appeared at a time
+when no one expected any danger. Amos prophesied at a time when the
+morning-dawn had risen upon Israel, iv. 13, v. 8; "in the beginning of
+the shooting up of the grass, and behold the grass was standing, after
+the King (Jehovah) had caused to be mown," vii. 1; at a time when the
+prosperity of the kingdom of the ten tribes was again budding forth. In
+chap. viii. 9, the Lord threatens that He will cause the sun to go down
+at noon, and bring darkness over the land in the day of _light_. In
+chap. vi. 4-6, the prevailing careless luxury and [Pg 356] joy are
+graphically described. Chap. v. 18 implies that the people mocked at
+the threatening of the coming of the day of the Lord, the coming of
+which could, therefore, not have been indicated by any human
+probability. In chap. vi. 1, the prophet gives utterance to an
+exclamation of woe over them that are secure in Zion, and that trust in
+the mountain of Samaria. In chap. vi. 13, he opposes the delusion of
+those "who rejoice in a thing of nought, who say, Have we not taken to
+us horns by our own strength?" The people in the kingdom of the ten
+tribes must accordingly have imagined that they were living in the
+golden age of the fulfilment of Deut. xxx. 17, and must not have
+thought for a moment that the axe was already laid to the root of the
+tree.
+
+But we are not at liberty to seek the fulfilment of the prophecy of
+Amos, only in the visitation by the Assyrians. That which happens to
+the people of the ten tribes is, to the prophet, only a part of a
+general visitation, which comes, not only upon all the neighbouring
+nations, but upon Judah also, and which brings utter ruin upon the
+latter, chap. ii. 4, 5, destroying the temple at Jerusalem, and driving
+the house of David from the throne, ix. 1, 11. According to prophecy
+and history, however, this catastrophe came upon Judah, not by Asshur,
+but, in the first instance, by Babylon.
+
+The prophecy possesses a comprehensive character, such as we should be
+led to expect from the close connection of Amos with Joel. It
+comprehends everything which Judah and Israel, along with the
+neighbouring people, had to suffer from the rising heathen powers;
+compare vi. 14, v. 24, according to which, judgment shall roll down as
+waters, and righteousness as a _continual_ stream.[3]
+
+In the case of Amos, also, interpreters have been at considerable pains
+in fixing the time and the occasion of the single portions, but with as
+little success as in the cases of Hosea and Micah. The very inscription
+proves that we have before us a whole, composed at one time, and
+containing the substance of [Pg 357] what the prophet had uttered
+previously, and in a detached form. According to this inscription, the
+book was composed only two years after the prophet's personal ministry
+in the kingdom of Israel. But if there were such an interval betwixt
+the oral preaching of the prophet and its having been committed to
+writing, it is, _a priori_, not likely that the latter should have
+followed the former, step by step.
+
+The words, "Two years before the earthquake," cannot be regarded as a
+chronological date, intended to fix more definitely the exact time
+within the more extended period previously stated, viz., "the days of
+Uzziah and Jeroboam." For such a purpose they are ill suited, inasmuch
+as the time of the earthquake is not fixed; and, moreover, any such
+more definite determination would have been without either significance
+or interest. This only was of importance, that the word of the Lord
+should have been uttered in the days of Jeroboam, and that the prophecy
+of the destruction should have been delivered at a time when the
+Israelites enjoyed an amount of prosperity, such as they had not known
+for a long time. It can scarcely be doubted that the earthquake under
+Uzziah, the fearfulness of which is testified by Zech. xiv. 5, comes
+under consideration only as the reason for the composition of the
+book,--for committing to writing what had formerly been delivered
+orally. The earthquake denotes, in the symbolical language of
+Scripture, great revolutions, by which the form of the earth is
+changed, and that which is uppermost, overturned; compare my remarks on
+Rev. vi. 12. To point to such an earthquake had been the fundamental
+thought of Amos' oral predictions. By the natural earthquake, he was
+induced to commit them to writing, that they might go side by side with
+the symbol, and serve as its interpreter.
+
+There is a plan in the arrangement of the book, which indicates that
+the book is not a collection of separate discourses, but that it bears
+an independent character. It is distinctly divided into two parts,--the
+first, made up of naked prophecies, from chap. i. to chap. vi.; the
+second, of such prophecies as are connected with a symbol, which is
+always very simple, and very briefly described,--from chap. vii. to
+chap. ix.
+
+In the first part, the prophet begins with the announcement of the
+wrath of the Lord, ver. 2. He then reviews, in their [Pg 358] order,
+those kingdoms upon which it shall be poured out, viz., Damascus,
+Philistia, Tyrus, Edom, Ammon, Moab, and Judah: until at last the storm
+reaches to Israel, and, according to _Rückert's_ striking remarks,
+remains suspended over it.
+
+In addition to Israel, there are seven nations, and the seven are
+divided into three, and four; three not related to the people of the
+ten tribes, and four related to them; the brotherly people of Judah
+being introduced after three nations have been mentioned which are more
+distantly related to Israel.
+
+According to _Rückert_, it is only in chap. ii. 6-16 that the storm
+which remained suspended over Israel is described; then in chap.
+iii.-vi. there follow four threatening discourses, which are not
+connected either with the preceding ones, or with each other. But the
+correct view rather is, that this stationary suspension is described in
+the whole of the first half,--in the main, indeed, even to the end of
+the book.
+
+This is evident from the consideration that, if such were not the case,
+the treatment of the main subject would be, as regards the extent of
+the description, greatly disproportioned to the introduction; for chap.
+i. to ii. 5 must be considered to be, throughout, merely introductory.
+But as the ground on which we advance this assertion is made in
+opposition to an unsound view, it requires a more particular
+determination. It is assumed by many interpreters, that in the nations
+besides Israel, the prophet reproves "some haughty excesses, but,
+evidently, only as instances of the immorality prevailing" (_Jahn_,
+_Einl._ 2, p. 404). But this view, according to which the prophet
+might, instead of the various crimes mentioned, have noticed any other
+crime, _e.g._, fornication, idolatry, etc., is certainly erroneous. It
+is rather a _theocratic_ judgment of which he speaks throughout; they
+are crimes against the theocracy, the punishment of which he announces.
+These he considers as being more heinous than all others; for the guilt
+of the latter is diminished by the circumstance of their having been
+committed against the hidden God only, while the former have been
+committed against the God who has manifested Himself, and who is living
+among His people. For so much is evident, that the main cause of the
+hatred of all the neighbouring nations against Israel was, that Israel
+was the people of God. For where can an instance be found of a hatred
+betwixt any [Pg 359] two of them, so inextinguishable, and continuing
+through centuries? How entirely different is, _e.g._, the position of
+Edom against Moab, from that of Edom against Israel? Three reasons
+confirm the correctness of our assertion as to the purely theocratic
+nature of the judgment. 1. The general announcement of the judgment.
+"Jehovah roareth from Zion, and from Jerusalem He giveth His voice."
+The very use of the name Jehovah here deserves attention. A judgment of
+a general kind upon the heathen would belong to God as Elohim. It is
+Elohim who is the God of the heathen,--the Creator, Preserver, and
+Governor of the world, from whom blessings, as well as judgments upon
+it, proceed. Now it might be said that Jehovah is used in the case of
+the heathen also, for the sake of uniformity, because to Him belongeth
+the judgment upon Judah and Israel. But that this is not the case, is
+seen from the addition: "From Zion,--from Jerusalem." Every general
+judgment proceeds from heaven; it is only as a theocratic God, that God
+reigns in Zion and Jerusalem. This argument admits of no exception; all
+that God does from Zion is theocratic deliverance, or theocratic
+judgment.--2. The nature of the crimes themselves, which are cited by
+way of example. It can certainly not be merely accidental, that they
+are all such as were committed against the Covenant-people. There is
+one only which forms an apparent exception, viz., that of the Moabites,
+who are, in chap. ii. 1, charged with having burned into lime the bones
+of the king of Edom. But, with the consent of the greater number of
+interpreters, _Jerome_ remarks on this: "In order that God might show
+that He is the Lord of all, and that every soul is subject to Him who
+formed it. He punishes the iniquity committed against the king of
+Edom." But in this remark of Jerome, the relation in which Idumea stood
+to the Covenant-people is altogether lost sight of. It is only as a
+vassal of their kings that the king of Edom here comes into view. This
+is sufficiently manifest from 2 Kings iii., although the event narrated
+there is different from that which is here alluded to, of which no
+record has been preserved in history.[4] The hatred against the
+Covenant-people, which the [Pg 360] Moabites were too weak openly to
+exhibit, impelled them to this wicked deed against the king tributary
+to them.--3. It must be carefully observed how the prophet, when coming
+to Judah, introduces us, at once, into the centre of _theocratic_
+transgression, the forsaking of the living God, and the serving of
+vain, dead idols.
+
+It will now be easily seen in what way the portion, chap. i.-ii. 5,
+serves as an introduction to what follows. The prophecies against
+foreign nations do not, as elsewhere, serve as a consolation, or as a
+proof of the love of God towards His people, and of His omnipotence, or
+as a means for destroying confidence in man's power, in man's help;
+they are, on the contrary, intended, from the very outset, to give rise
+in Israel to the question: If such be done in the green tree, what
+shall be done in the dry? That question the prophet answers at large.
+If severe punishment be inflicted, even upon those who have trespassed
+against the living God, with whom they came into contact only
+distantly, what will become of those to whom He manifested Himself so
+plainly and distinctly,--among whom He had, as it were, gained a
+form,--before whose eyes He had been so evidently set forth? The
+declaration, "You only do I know of all the families of the earth;
+therefore I shall visit upon you all your iniquities" (iii. 2), forms
+the centre of the whole threatening announcement to Israel. And could
+it indeed be introduced in any better way than by pointing out, how
+even the lowest degree of knowledge was followed by such a visitation?
+But now, that which under the Old Testament was the highest degree,
+becomes, under the New Testament, only a preparatory step. The
+revelation of God in Christ stands in the same relation to that made to
+Israel under the Old Testament, as the latter stands to the
+manifestation of His character and nature to the heathen, who came into
+connection with the Covenant-people. Thus the fulfilment becomes to us
+a new prophecy. If the rejection of God, in His inferior revelation,
+was followed by such awful consequences to the temporal welfare of the
+people of the Old Covenant, what must be the consequences of the
+rejection of the highest and fullest revelation of God to the temporal
+and spiritual welfare of the people of the New Covenant? This is a
+thought which is further expanded in Heb. xii. 17 ff., and it forms the
+essential feature of [Pg 361] the description of the judgment of the
+world in the New Testament. This judgment has been but too often
+thus misunderstood, as if it concerned the world as the world,--a
+misunderstanding similar to that of the section before us. The Gospel
+shall first be preached to every creature, and according as every one
+has conducted himself towards the _living_ God, so he shall be
+judged.--But it is not to the heathen nations only, but to Judah also
+that, by way of introduction, destruction is announced. The
+circumstance that not even the possession of so many precious
+privileges, as the temple and the Davidic throne, could ward off the
+well-merited punishment of sin, could not but powerfully affect the
+hearts of the ten tribes. If God's justice be so energetic, what have
+_they_ to expect?
+
+If we continue the examination of _Rückert's_ view, it will soon appear
+that the phrase, "Hear this word," in iii. 1, iv. 1, and v. 1,
+can alone be considered as the foundation on which it rests. But
+these words do not at all prove a new commencement, but only a new
+starting-point. This appears sufficiently from the absence of these
+words at the alleged fourth threatening discourse in chap. vi.; and
+likewise from a comparison of Hosea iv. 1 and v. 1: "Hear the word of
+the Lord, ye children of Israel," and "Hear this, ye priests, and
+hearken, ye house of Israel, and give ear, house of the king;" while
+nothing similar occurs in the following chapters. That such an
+exhortation was appropriate, even in the middle, is clearly seen from
+Amos iii. 13. It cannot then, _per se_, prove anything in favour of a
+new beginning. If it is to be regarded as such, the discourse must be
+proved, by other reasons, to have been completed. But no such reasons
+here exist. We might as reasonably assume the existence of ten
+threatening discourses, as of four. The circumstance that we can
+nowhere discover a sure commencement and a clearly defined termination,
+shows that we are fully justified in considering the whole first part,
+chap. i. to vi., as a connected discourse.
+
+The second part, which contains the visions of the destruction, is
+composed, indeed, of various portions,--as might have been expected
+from the nature of the subject. Each new vision, with the discourse
+connected with it, must form a new section. Chap. vii., viii., and ix.,
+form each a whole. From the account which is added to the first vision;
+and which relates [Pg 362] to the transactions between Amos and the
+high priest Amaziah, which were caused by the public announcement of
+this vision (chap. vii. 12-14), we are led to suppose that these
+visions were formerly delivered singly, in the form in which we now
+possess them. But that, even here, we have not before us pieces loosely
+connected with each other in a chronological arrangement, is evident
+from the fact, that the promises stand just at the end of the whole
+collection. The prophet had rather to reprove and to threaten than to
+comfort; but yet he cannot refrain, at least at the close, from causing
+the sun to break through the clouds. Without this close there would be
+wanting in Amos a main element of the prophetic discourse, which is
+wanting in no other prophet, and by which alone the other elements are
+placed in a proper light.
+
+It also militates against the supposition of a mere collection, that in
+the last vision the prevailing regard to the kingdom of the ten tribes
+disappears almost entirely, and that, like the third chapter of Hosea,
+it relates to the whole of the Covenant-people,--in agreement with the
+reference to the earthquake mentioned in the inscription, which the
+prophet had experienced in Judah, and which brought into view, not a
+particular, but a general, judgment.
+
+The symbolical clothing, however, forms the sole difference betwixt the
+second part and the first. As the "real centre and essence of the book"
+the second part cannot be regarded; the threatening is as clear and
+impressive in the first part.
+
+That which is common to Amos with the contemporary prophets, is the
+absolute clearness with which he foresees that, before salvation comes,
+all that is glorious, not only in Israel, but in Judah also, must be
+given over to destruction. Judah and Israel shall be overflowed by the
+heathen world, the Temple at Jerusalem destroyed, the Davidic dynasty
+dethroned, and the inhabitants of both kingdoms carried away into
+captivity. But afterwards, the restoration of David's tabernacle (ix.
+11), and the extension of the kingdom of God far beyond the borders of
+the heathen world (ver. 12), take place. The most characteristic point
+is the emanation of salvation from the family of David, at the time of
+its deepest abasement.
+
+
+Footnote 1: _Bochart_ remains unrefuted by the assertions of _Hitzig_,
+_Baur_, and others, who make Amos the owner of a plantation of
+sycamores, which, according to them, made him a wealthy man. בלס can be
+understood only of the plucking, or gathering of the fruits of the
+sycamores. The "cutting of the bark" is by no means obvious, and is too
+much the language of natural history. That the prophet's real vocation
+is designated by בוקר, and that בולס שקמים is not, by any means,
+something independent of, and co-ordinate with that, appears from ver.
+15, where the בוקר is resumed. The fruits of the sycamores may,
+occasionally, not have a disagreeable taste, for him who eats them only
+as a dainty; but they are at all events very poor ordinary food;
+compare _Warnekros_ in _Eichhorn's Repert._ 11. 256.
+
+Footnote 2: The groundlessness of such a mode of viewing things is
+shown by the prophecy of events such as that mentioned in i. 15: "The
+people of Aram are carried away to Kir, saith the Lord;" compare the
+fulfilment in 2 Kings xvi. 9. They had originally come from Kir, Amos
+ix. 7. This circumstance furnished the natural foundation for the
+prophecy, and it was certainly this circumstance also which induced the
+conqueror to adopt his measures. But the supernatural character of the
+definite prophecy remains, nevertheless, unshaken.
+
+Footnote 3: _Caspari_ in his commentary on Micah, S. 69, is wrong in
+remarking: "Joel beholds the instruments of punitive justice upon
+Israel, as numberless hosts only; Amos, already, as a single nation."
+In Amos vi. 14 the גוי as little means a single nation, as it does in
+the fundamental passage, Deut. xxviii. 49 ff., beyond the definiteness
+of which Amos does not go.
+
+Footnote 4: Scarcely any doubt can, however, be entertained that we
+have here before us a _consequence_ of the war mentioned in 2 Kings
+iii., viz., the vengeance which the Moabites took for what they
+suffered on that occasion.
+
+[Pg 363]
+
+                               CHAPTER IX.
+
+The chapter opens with a vision. The temple, shaken by the Angel of the
+Lord in its very foundations, falls down, and buries Judah and Israel
+under its ruins. Without a figure,--the breach of the Covenant by the
+Covenant-people brings destruction upon them. The prophet endeavours to
+strengthen the impression of this threatening upon their mind, by
+breaking down the supports of false security by which they sought to
+evade it. There is no deliverance, no escape, vers. 2-4, for the
+Almighty God is the enemy and pursuer, vers. 5, 6. There is no mercy on
+account of the Covenant, for Israel is no more the Covenant-people.
+They shall not, however, be altogether destroyed; but the destruction
+of the sinful mass shall be accompanied by the preservation of a small
+number of the godly, vers. 7-10. This great sifting is followed,
+however, by the restoration; the tabernacle of David which is fallen,
+the kingdom of God among Israel, connected with the family of David,
+shall be raised up again, ver. 11; rendered glorious by its extension
+over the heathen, ver. 12; and blessed with the abundance of the divine
+gifts, vers. 12-15.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+Ver. 1. "_I saw the Lord standing over the altar; and He said, Smite
+the chapiter, and make the thresholds tremble, and break them upon the
+heads of all; and I will kill their remnant by the sword: he that
+fleeth away of them shall not flee away, and he that escapeth of them
+shall not be delivered._"
+
+The principal question which here arises is:--Who is here
+addressed,--to whom is the commission of destruction given by the Lord?
+As, in accordance with the dramatic character of the prophetical
+discourse, the person is not more definitely marked out, we can think
+of Him only who, throughout, executes God's judgments upon the enemies
+of His kingdom. But He is the same to whom the preservation and
+protection of the true members of His kingdom are committed, viz., the
+Angel of the Lord. It was He, who, as המשחית, the destroying Angel,
+smote the first-born of Egypt, Exod. xii. 2, 3, compared with 12, 13.
+It was from Him that the destruction of the [Pg 364] Assyrians
+proceeded, 2 Kings xix. 34, 35; Is. xxxvii. 35, 36. After the numbering
+of Israel, when the anger of the Lord was kindled against them, it was
+He who inflicted the punishment, 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, 15, 16. As He
+encampeth round about them who fear the Lord, so He is, in regard to
+the ungodly, like the wind which carries away the chaff, Ps. xxxiv. 8,
+xxxv. 5, 6.--In opposition to the objection raised by _Baur_,--"That,
+with the exception of the passage in Is. vi., nowhere, in the books
+composed before the Chaldee period, do angels appear to act as
+mediators in the execution of the divine commands,"--it is sufficient
+to refer to Joel iv. (iii.) 9-11, and, as regards _the_ Angel of the
+Lord, to Hosea xii. 5 (4). But we have, in addition, a special reason
+for thinking here of the Angel of the Lord. This is afforded to us by
+the ninth chapter of Ezekiel, which must be considered, throughout, as
+a further expansion of the verse under consideration, and as the oldest
+and most trustworthy commentary upon it. In that chapter, there appear
+(at the command of the Lord who is about to avenge the apostasy of His
+people) the servants of His justice--six in number--and in the midst of
+them, "a  man clothed with linen;"--the former, with instruments of
+destruction; the latter, with writing materials. They step (the scene
+is in the temple) by the side of the brazen altar. Thither there comes
+to them out of the holy of holies, to the threshold of the temple, the
+glory of the Lord, and gives to Him who is clothed with linen the
+commission to preserve the faithful, while the others receive a
+commission to destroy the ungodly, without mercy. But now, Who is the
+man clothed in linen? None other than the Angel of the Lord. This
+appears from Daniel x. 5, xii. 6, 7, where Michael = the Angel of the
+Lord (compare _Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel_, p. 135 ff.)
+is designated in the same way,--a remarkable coincidence in these two
+contemporary prophets, to  which we omitted to direct attention in our
+work on Daniel. It is  _further_ evident from the subject itself. The
+dress is that of the  earthly high priest (_Theodoret_ remarks: "The
+dress of the seventh is  that of the high priest, for he was not one of
+the destroyers, but the  redeemer of those who were worthy of
+salvation"); compare Lev. xvi. 4, 23. It is especially from the former
+of these passages that the plural בדים is to be accounted for.
+According to it, the various parts [Pg 365] of the high priest's dress
+are of linen. But the heavenly Mediator, High Priest, and Intercessor,
+is the Angel of the Lord; compare, _e.g._, Zech. i. 12, where He makes
+intercession for the Covenant-people, and the Lord answers Him with
+good and comfortable words. Concerning the earthly high priest as a
+type of Christ, and hence a type of the Angel of the Lord, compare the
+remarks on Zech. iii. But we must not imagine that He who is clothed
+with linen is commissioned solely for the work of delivering the godly,
+and hence stands contrasted with the six ministers of justice. On the
+contrary, these are rather to be considered as being subordinate to
+Him, as carrying out the work of destruction only by His command and
+authority. From Him, punishment no less than salvation proceeds.
+This is sufficiently evident for general reasons. The punishment
+and deliverance have both the same root, the same aim, viz., the
+advancement of the kingdom of God. We cannot by any means think of evil
+angels in the case of the six; such could be assumed only in opposition
+to the whole doctrine of Scripture on the point, which is always
+consistent in ascribing the punishment of the wicked to the good
+angels, and the temptation of the godly, with the permission of God, to
+the evil angels. In proof of this, we have only to think of Job's
+trial, of Christ's temptation, and of the angel of Satan by whom Paul
+was buffeted. This subject has already been very well treated by _Ode_,
+who, in his work _De Angelis_, p. 741 ff., says: "God sends good angels
+to punish wicked men, and He employs evil angels to chasten the
+godly."[1] But if this be established, it is then established at the
+same time, that the judgment here belongs to the Angel of the Lord. For
+to Him, as the Prince of the heavenly host, all inferior angels are
+subordinate, so that everything [Pg 366] which they do belongs to
+Him.--To these general reasons, we may, however, add special reasons
+which are altogether decisive. That He who is clothed with linen is
+closely connected with the six, is indicated by the number seven. He
+also appears at the side of the altar, and comes in the midst of the
+others, who follow after Him, ver. 2. But of conclusive significance
+are the words in chap. x. 2 and 7: "And the Lord spake unto the man
+clothed with linen, and said, Go in between the wheels under the
+cherubim, and fill Thine hand with coals of fire from between the
+cherubim, and scatter them over the city. And He went in, in my sight.
+And a cherub stretched forth his hand from between the cherubim, unto
+the fire that was between the cherubim, and took, and put it into the
+hands of Him who was clothed with linen. And He took it and went out."
+The _fire_ here is not the symbolical designation of wrath, but natural
+fire; for it is the setting on fire and burning of the city which is
+here to be prefigured. The wheels denote the natural powers,--in the
+first instance, the wind, chap. x. 13, but the fire also; while the
+cherubim denote the living creation. The Angel of the Lord is here
+expressly designated as He who executeth the judgments of divine
+justice.
+
+The importance of the preceding investigation extends beyond the mere
+clearing up of the passage under consideration. We have here obtained
+the Old Testament foundation for the New Testament doctrine, that all
+judgment has been committed to the Son, while the harmony of the two
+Testaments is exhibited in a remarkable instance. Compare with the
+already cited Old Testament declarations, such passages as Matt. xiii.
+41: Ἀποστελεῖ ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου τοὺς ἀγγέλους αὑτοῦ, καὶ συλλέξουσιν
+ἐκ τῆς βασιλείας αὐτοῦ πάντα τὰ σκάνδαλα, καὶ τοὺς ποιοῦντας τὴν
+ἀνομίαν· and xxv. 31: Ὅταν δὲ ἔλθῃ ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐν τῇ δόξῃ
+αὑτοῦ, καὶ πάντες οἱ ἄγγελοί μετ' αὐτοῦ, τότε καθίσει ἐπὶ θρόνου δόξης
+αὑτοῦ. In order to be convinced of the identity of the Angel of the
+Lord and Christ (compare above, p. 107 sqq. and _Commentary on Rev._ i.
+p. 466), we may further direct attention to the fact that the Angel of
+the Lord, who meets us throughout the whole of the Old Testament,
+suddenly disappears in the New Testament, and that to Christ all is
+ascribed which was in the Old Testament attributed to the Angel of the
+Lord.
+
+[Pg 367]
+
+A second important question is:--What is to be understood by _the_
+altar, המזבח? Several interpreters adopt the opinion of _Cyril_, and
+think of the altar at Bethel, or some other idolatrous altar in the
+kingdom of Israel. Others (_e.g._, _Marckius_) are of opinion that the
+article stands here without meaning, and that it is the intention of
+the prophet only to represent God as appearing on some altar, leaving
+it undetermined on which, in order thereby to indicate that He required
+the blood of many men. But against such expositions the article is
+conclusive. _The_ altar can be that altar only, of which every one
+would think, if an altar κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν, and without a more definite
+designation, were spoken of. Such was the brazen altar, or altar of
+burnt-offering in the outer court of the temple at Jerusalem. That it
+was this altar, and not the altar of incense before the holy of holies,
+which received, in the common language of the people, the name of _the_
+altar, is easily explained from the circumstance that it stood in a
+much closer relation to the people than did the other which was
+withdrawn from their view. On this altar all the sacrifices were
+offered, and it must, throughout, be understood, when _the_ altar of
+the Lord is spoken of; compare remarks on Rev. vi. 9. But that which
+removes all doubt is the comparison with the parallel passage in
+Ezekiel. There, the scene is the temple at Jerusalem. The ministers
+of justice step beside the brazen altar. At the threshold of the
+temple-building proper, the glory of the Lord moves toward them. This
+parallel passage, moreover, does not leave any doubt as to the reason
+why the Lord appears here beside the altar. _Jerome_ remarks on this:
+"They are introduced standing beside the altar, ready for the order of
+their commander; so that they know every one whose sins are not
+forgiven, and who is liable, therefore, to the sentence of the Lord,
+and to destruction." The Lord's appearing beside the altar is a visible
+representation of the truth, that wheresoever the carcase is, there
+will the eagles be gathered together. The altar is the place of
+transgression; it is there that there lies accumulated the unexpiated
+guilt of the whole nation, instead of the rich treasure of love and
+faith, which alone should be there, embodied in the sacrifice. The Lord
+appears at the place of transgression, in order that He may be
+glorified in the destruction of those who would not glorify Him in
+their lives. [Pg 368]--Now several interpreters (_e.g._, _Michaelis_),
+who have correctly defined the meaning of the altar, would infer from
+the mention of the temple at Jerusalem, that the whole prophecy refers
+to the kingdom of Judah. But such an assumption is altogether
+inadmissible. Even the general reason, that a prophecy which refers
+exclusively to Judah cannot be at all expected from a prophet who had
+received his special mission to Israel, militates against it.
+_Further_,--The close of this prophecy, the proclamation of salvation,
+belongs, as we have already proved, to the whole collection. If this be
+referred to Judah alone, there is then an essential element awanting in
+that portion which is addressed to Israel; we should then have judgment
+without mercy, threatening without consolation,--a thing which could
+not well be conceived of, and would be without analogy in any of the
+prophets. To this we must _further_ add the express references, or
+co-references to Israel throughout the whole chapter,--such as the
+mention of Carmel in ver. 3; of the children of Israel, in ver. 7; of
+the house of Jacob, in ver. 8; of the house of Israel, in ver. 9; of
+פרציהן, in ver. 11; of My people Israel, in ver. 14. The whole
+assumption of an exclusive reference to Judah owes its origin to the
+circumstance, that features which are only symbolical have been
+erroneously interpreted as actual. But if they be viewed and explained
+as symbols, every reason for denying the reference to Israel is then at
+once removed. The temple symbolizes the kingdom of God; its falling
+down upon the people is symbolical of the punishment which is inflicted
+upon them, in consequence of this kingdom. The destruction of the
+temple in the literal sense is not, primarily, spoken of; although
+the latter, it is true, be inseparable from the former. If the
+Covenant-people in general were outwardly desecrated, because they had
+desecrated themselves inwardly, then also the outward sanctuary which
+they had, by their wickedness, converted into a den of thieves, was
+taken from them; compare the remarks on Dan. ix. 27. If Israel then, at
+that time, still belonged to the kingdom of God (and this can certainly
+not be doubted, and is sufficiently proved by the very mission of our
+prophet to Israel), there exists no reason at all for excluding it. For
+Israel also, the temple at Jerusalem formed the seat and centre from
+which it was governed,--the place from which blessings and punishments
+[Pg 369] proceeded. The prophet indeed, at the very opening of his
+prophecies, describes the Lord as roaring from Zion, and uttering His
+voice from Jerusalem. On the altar at Jerusalem the crimes of Israel
+were deposited, no less than those of Judah; for there was the place
+where the people of both kingdoms were to deposit the embodied
+expression of their godly disposition. It was there, then, that, in
+reality, the fruits of the opposite were lying, although, as regards
+the place, they were offered elsewhere.--So much indeed is certain,
+that the co-reference to Judah is necessarily required by the
+symbolical representation. The rejection of Israel alone could not be
+symbolized by the destruction of the temple. And no less does this
+appear from the announcement of salvation. For this does not by any
+means promise the re-establishment of the Davidic dominion among the
+people of Israel, but the restoration of the entire fallen Davidic
+government. The tabernacle of David that is fallen refers to the
+destroyed temple. Both signify, substantially, the same thing. With the
+destruction of the temple, the Davidic tabernacle also fell; and its
+fall included the overthrow of the kingdom of Israel; for, in this
+also, the Davidic race had still the dominion _de jure_, although it
+was suspended _de facto_.
+
+The passage under consideration is remarkable also, inasmuch as it
+furnishes a proof for the custom of designating the kingdom of God from
+its existing seat and centre, and thus furnishes us, for other passages
+also, with the right of freeing the thought from the figurative
+clothing.
+
+A _further_ reason against referring _the_ altar to the altar at
+Bethel, is, that the latter enjoyed no such pre-eminence in the kingdom
+of Israel. The temple at Bethel was, to the ten tribes, by no means
+what the temple at Jerusalem was to Judah. The law regarding the
+unity of the place of worship was, among the ten tribes, regarded as
+non-existing. Even in the verse immediately preceding, in viii. 14, Dan
+and Beersheba had been mentioned as the chief seats of the Israelitish
+worship; and in chap. iv. 4, Gilgal appears beside Bethel as possessing
+the same importance. In chap. v. 5, Bethel, Gilgal, and Beersheba are
+mentioned together. Hosea, in chap. viii. 11, reproves Israel for
+having made many altars to sin. Hence, there did not exist in Israel an
+altar κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν. Such an altar existed only in [Pg 370] Judah. Nor
+had the sanctuary at Bethel such importance, as that it could be
+considered as the spiritual abode of the whole people.--_Hofmann_
+(_Weissagung u. Erfüllung_, S. 203) raises the following objection
+against the reference to the altar at Jerusalem:--"The prophet, it is
+true, reproves the sins in Judah as well as those in Israel; but it is
+only to the kingdom of Jeroboam that he announces destruction, while to
+the house of David he promises that Jehovah would raise it up from its
+fallen condition." But in opposition to this objection, we need only
+refer to ii. 5: "And I send fire in Judah, and it devours the palaces
+of Jerusalem." Passages such as i. 14, 15, ii. 3, absolutely forbid us
+to make an exception of the palace of the king; and, by chap. vii. 9,
+where destruction is announced to all the sanctuaries of Isaac, we have
+as little warrant for excepting the temple. To assume any such
+exceptions, would be contrary to the analogy of all other threatenings.
+_Hofmann_ further objects (l. c. S. 204), "As the threatening
+announcement of the prophet had last remained suspended over Israel, we
+are at liberty to think of the altar at Bethel only." But already, in
+the third chapter, all Israel is addressed, according to ver. 1; and we
+may further refer to v. 25, where likewise Israel can mean only the
+whole people,[2] while in vi. 1, Judah is expressly mentioned beside
+Israel. The prophet employs, throughout, the name of Israel with a
+certain ambiguity; so that it would be vain to attempt to determine
+whether it be used in the wider, or in the more limited sense. Wherever
+he wishes to be distinctly understood as speaking of the ten tribes, he
+speaks of Joseph and Samaria. Still less would the prophet have
+employed the names of Jacob (iii. 13, vi. 8, vii. 2, 6) and of Isaac
+(vii. 9, 16), which were quite uncommon as a designation of the ten
+tribes,[3] [Pg 371] if it had been of importance, and intentional on
+his part strictly to separate the boundaries of Judah from those of
+Israel, and, if there were not everywhere here, only a special
+application to the ten tribes of that which concerned the whole who
+were connected by a common fate. But it is especially suitable, that
+just the close of the whole should, in a remarkably distinct manner,
+bring into view the two kingdoms, the destinies of which were so
+intimately connected.--_Hitzig_, further, with a view to favour the
+reference to the temple in Bethel, adduces the consideration that this
+vision is connected with the close of viii. 14, and forms a kind of
+explanation of it. But we have here an entirely new beginning, just as
+in chap. viii. in its relation to chap. vii. The three visions are
+altogether independent of, and co-ordinate with each other.--נצב with
+על is commonly used of a prominent position _at the side of_: Gen.
+xviii. 2; 1 Sam. iv. 20; compare עמד with על 1 Kings xiii. 1. In Ezek.
+ix. 1 also, the angels stand at the side of the brazen altar, נצב can,
+of course, never signify "_to be suspended_."--הכפתור is a species of
+ornament at the top of the pillars; and הספים, "the thresholds," are
+contrasted with each other, in order to give expression to the thought
+that the building was to be shaken, and destroyed from the highest part
+of it to the lowest,--from the top to the bottom. The shaking of the
+thresholds occurs also in Is. vi. to denote that the shaking extended
+to the deepest foundations. The greater number of interpreters
+translate: "Strike the knop _so that_ ... tremble," etc.; but the
+וירעשו must be viewed rather as co-ordinate with הך: "And they may
+tremble," equivalent to "Make to tremble."--The suffix in בצעם refers
+to the knops and threshold, or to the entire building, which is marked
+out by the contrast of the highest and lowest portions. According to
+_Ewald_ and _Umbreit_, it is intended to refer to the dashed pieces of
+the altar; but nothing has been said about the destruction of the
+altar. In Ezek. ix. 2 likewise, the altar is mentioned, not because it
+was to be destroyed, but only because there the guilt is heaped up. The
+casting down does not, in itself, imply the _breaking_, _dashing into
+pieces_; it does so only by its being connected with the following
+בראש. The passage in Jer. xlix. 20 is analogous: "He shall make their
+habitation desolate over them;" instead of: "He shall thus make it
+desolate that they are buried beneath its ruins;" [Pg 372] compare Jer.
+l. 45. בראש, properly understood, does not mean "_upon_ the head;" the
+head is rather represented as the receptacle of the tumbling ruins;
+they fall into their heads and crush them; compare Ps. vii. 17. In what
+precedes, there is no definite noun to which כלם refers. This is to be
+explained by the dramatic character of the whole representation which
+arises necessarily from the opening phrase: "I saw." The same reason
+accounts for the peculiarity of הך being employed without any
+designation of person. In his inward vision, the prophet sees the whole
+people assembled before the Lord at the threshold of the temple.
+The Lord appears before him as the judge, at the place of the
+transgressions, at the side of the altar. At His command, the whole
+assembled multitude are buried under the ruins of the temple. From this
+also it is evident that a destruction of the temple in a literal sense
+cannot be entertained; for how could a whole people be buried under its
+ruins? The same appears also from ראיתי at the commencement. This,
+then, shows that we have here before us a symbolical representation,
+corresponding altogether to that which we have in vii. 1, 4, 7, viii.
+1. Hitherto, the Lord speaking to some one, had given him the
+commission of destruction. He now continues with: "I will kill." This
+also shows that the one who is addressed is the Angel of the Lord. The
+same occurrence takes place in the greater number of the passages in
+which the Angel of the Lord is spoken of. In the action there is
+constant alternation; it is ascribed, at one time to Him, at another,
+to Jehovah.--Several interpreters (_Marckius_, _De Wette_, _Rückert_,
+and others) explain אחרית by "posterity;" others, after the example of
+the Chaldee (שארהון), by "remnant;" and others, by "lowest of the
+people." We must here enter into a closer examination of the
+significations of this word. It is commonly supposed (compare
+_Gesenius_ and _Winer_) that, primarily and properly, it signifies "the
+last and extreme part," and then "the end." But that which is supposed
+to be the derived signification is rather the original and proper one.
+The form of the word cannot furnish any reason why this should not be
+the case, as is evident from what has been remarked by _Ewald_: "As the
+feminine termination, in general, forms abstract nouns, so also, not
+unfrequently, abstract nouns are derived from other nouns, by means of
+the termination ־־ית; very frequently there is no [Pg 373] masculine in
+־ִי at all at the foundation, but ־ִית serves, in general, only as the
+sign of derivation." The following reasons prove that the signification
+"end" is the primary and proper one. 1. If the contrary were the
+case, the masculine ־ִי would also occur, and the feminine would be met
+with as an adjective also. 2. ראשית forms the constant antithesis to
+אחרית; but it is universally admitted that the former is, originally
+and properly, an abstract noun, and signifies "beginning." The
+signification "end" must then be retained here also. The word never has
+another signification (compare my work on Balaam, p. 465 ff.); it means
+only "end" in Its various relations. But the posterity cannot here be
+thought of as the end; for the whole action is concentrated in one
+point of time. Nor is the word ever used in the sense of "posterity."
+With as little propriety can "end" mean "the lowest of the people;" for
+one cannot see why just these should be given up to the sword. "End,"
+here, rather denotes "remnant,"--all those who, at the overthrow of the
+temple, might escape. These, the Lord will pursue with the sword. They
+who were buried under the temple are the beginning, ראשית; the latter
+are the אחרית, end. Corresponding to the shaking of the temple from the
+knops to the thresholds, the thought is expressed in this manner, that
+from the first to the last, כלם מקצה they should be subjected to the
+divine punishment. An implied antithesis of quite the same kind, of
+אחרית to ראשית occurs also In iv. 2 (where _De Wette_ and _Rückert_
+have likewise mistaken the sense), and in viii. 10.--On the last words
+of the verse, which are to be considered as a further explanation of,
+"Their end, or remnant, I will kill by the sword," _Cocceius_ remarks:
+"This slaughter becomes the more thorough, inasmuch as even they who
+flee, or seemed to have fled, are not excluded from it." The second
+member seems to contradict the first; for if none be allowed to flee
+away, how can any have escaped? Several Interpreters have been thereby
+induced to give to the verb נוס the first time, the signification "to
+escape,"--the second time, "to flee." But the contradiction is quite
+similar to that which occurs in the preceding context also, when all
+are dashed to pieces by the ruins, and yet a remnant is spoken of. It
+soon disappears when we consider that it Is the intention of the
+prophet to cut off every possible way of escape, by which carnal
+security endeavoured to save [Pg 374] and preserve itself against the
+impression of his discourse--that it is equivalent to: "_All_ shall be
+buried under the ruins, and although some should succeed in escaping
+from this kind of destruction, yet the sword of divine vengeance would
+be behind them, and slay them; flight shall not be possible to any man;
+and even although it might be to some, it would be of no avail to them,
+for God would be their persecutor." But another apparent contradiction
+must not be overlooked. Even here, the destruction is most emphatically
+described as being quite general; as such, it is minutely represented
+ins vers. 2-4. One cannot fail to see how anxious the prophet is to cut
+off, from every individual, the idea of the possibility of an escape.
+On the other hand, it is announced in ver. 8, that the house of Jacob
+shall not be utterly destroyed; according to ver. 9, all the godly
+shall be preserved; according to ver. 10, the judgment is to be limited
+to the sinners from among the people,--a limitation which is also
+presupposed by the description in the 11th and subsequent verses. In
+iii. 12, the preservation of a small remnant amidst the general
+destruction had been promised. The greater number of interpreters, in
+order to reconcile this apparent contradiction, assume an hyperbole in
+vers. 1-4. But this assumption is certainly erroneous. The ground of
+this great copiousness,--the reason why the prophet represents the same
+thought in aspects so various,--is evidently to prevent every idea of
+an hyperbole,--to show that the words are to be taken in all their
+strictness of meaning. But the limitation may be arrived at, and
+effected in a different, and legitimate way. There is, in the nature of
+ungodliness, a levity which flatters every individual with the hope of
+escape, even although a threatened general calamity should take place.
+All the possibilities of deliverance are sought after in such a
+disposition of mind, and are, by imagination, easily changed into
+probabilities and realities, because just that is wanting which proves
+them to be improbable and unreal, viz., the consciousness of a living,
+omnipotent God. Thus men free themselves from fear, and with it, from
+the troublesome obligation of escaping from it in another and a
+legitimate way, viz., by true conversion. Now, it is this levity which
+the prophet opposes. He shows that whatever possibility of deliverance
+such levity may dream of, it never would become a reality, and this [Pg
+375] for the simple reason, that they had not to deal with human
+antagonists; from them an escape by human means would be possible, how
+powerful and wise soever they might be. But they have to deal with an
+omnipotent God, who, being also omnipresent, can arm all His creatures
+against His despisers, so that they cannot retreat to any place where
+He, who reigneth absolutely in heaven and on earth, has not ministers
+of His vengeance. Every thought, then, of an escape by _human means_ is
+here cut off. But with this, every thought of deliverance in any way is
+taken from the _ungodly_, who are told by their own consciences that
+God will not deliver them. But, on the other hand, the same
+consideration could not but administer consolation to the godly. If no
+one, should he even hide himself in heaven, can escape from God the
+Avenger, then no one, were he even in the midst of his enemies, and
+were the sword even already lifted up against him, can be lost from God
+the Deliverer.--Another question has been asked, which relates to the
+historical reference of the threatened punishment. It goes just as far
+as the thought which lies at its foundation: "You only have I known of
+all the families of the earth; therefore I shall visit upon you all
+your transgressions." Those interpreters who think exclusively of
+either the Assyrian, or the Chaldean, or the Roman destruction, are, in
+the same way, partly right and partly wrong, at the same time. All
+these events, and others besides, belong essentially to one whole. The
+difference as to time and circumstances is that which is unessential.
+That a prophet had exclusively in view any single one from among those
+divine manifestations of punishment, can be asserted, only where he
+himself has given express declarations to such an effect; and even
+then, the prophecy is limited to that single event, as to its _form_
+only: its _idea_ is not lost by the single fulfilment.
+
+Ver. 2. "_If they break through into hell, from thence My hand shall
+take them; if they ascend up into heaven, from thence I will take them
+down._"
+
+The Future must not, either here, or in what follows, be understood as
+_potentialis_: "Though they should conceal themselves;" but as the real
+Future: "If they are to conceal themselves." That אם with the Future is
+used only _de re dubia_, as _Winer_ asserts, is as erroneous as to
+assert that, with the Preterite, [Pg 376] it supposes the condition as
+existing. The correct view has been already given by _Gesenius_ in the
+_Thesaurus_. By supposing the possibility of a condition, impossible in
+reality, the denial of the consequence becomes so much the more
+emphatic and expressive. That such a supposition is made here, is
+evident from ver. 4, where the prophet passes over to the territory of
+actual possibility, and where, therefore, we cannot translate: "Though
+they should go." Such a supposition is, in general, very frequent. It
+occurs, _e.g._, Matt. v. 29, where _Tholuch_ (_Comment. on the Sermon
+on the Mount_) has been led very far astray from the right
+understanding of εἰ δὲ ὁ ὀφθαλμός σου ὁ δεξιὸς σκανδαλίζει σε, κ.τ.λ.,
+by overlooking this _usus loquendi_. We are not indeed at liberty to
+translate, "Though thy right eye should offend thee;" but it must be
+decided by other arguments, whether the condition here _supposed_ be
+one really possible; and these arguments show that it is only for the
+sake of greater emphasis that there has here been supposed as possible,
+what is impossible.--Heaven and Sheol form a constant contrast between
+the highest height and the lowest depth. From a merely imagined
+possibility, the prophet descends to the real one. If, then, even the
+former be not able to afford protection, because God's hand reaches
+even where one has escaped far from any human power, how much less the
+latter!--חתר with the Accus. signifies "to break through," Job xxiv.
+16; with ב, "to make a hole in anything;" thus Ezek. viii. 8, xii. 7,
+12 (חתר בקיר, "to make a hole in the wall"). These parallel passages
+show that the Sheol must be conceived of as being surrounded with
+strong walls,--by which is expressed its inaccessibility to all that is
+living. The fundamental passage is in Ps. cxxxix. 7, 8: "Whither shall
+I go from Thy Spirit, and whither shall I flee from Thy presence? If I
+ascend up into heaven. Thou art there; if I make my bed in hell,
+behold, Thou art there." David does not here speak in his own person,
+but in that of his whole race. The Psalm is an indirect exhortation to
+his successors on the throne, and at the same time to the people. "If
+you are wicked," so he here addresses them, "you can never hope to
+escape from the punishing hand of the Almighty." And since they have
+become wicked, the words of David have acquired new emphasis.
+
+Ver. 3. "_And if they hide themselves on the top of Carmel,_ [Pg 377]
+_from thence I will search and take them out; and if they hide
+themselves from My sight in the bottom, of the sea, from thence I will
+command the serpent, and he bites them._"
+
+The question here is:--Why is Carmel specially mentioned? Interpreters
+remind us of the numerous caves of this mountain, which make it
+peculiarly suitable for concealment. _O. F. von Richter_, in the
+_Wallfahrten im Morgenlande_, S. 65, remarks on this point: "The caves
+are extremely numerous in Carmel, especially on the west side. It is
+said that there are more than a thousand, and that they were inhabited
+in ancient times by monks, to whom, however, their origin cannot be
+ascribed. In one part of the mountain, called 'the caves of the members
+of the orders,' 400 are found beside each other. Farther down in the
+hard limestone mountain, there is one which is distinguished by its
+size, about 20 paces long, and more than 15 broad and high." Details
+still more accurate are given by _Schulz_ in the _Leitungen des
+Höchsten_, Th. 5, S. 186, 303. According to him, the road is pure rock,
+and very smooth, and so crooked, that those going before cannot see
+those who follow them. "When we were only ten paces distant from each
+other, we heard each other's voices, indeed, but were invisible to each
+other, on account of the winding ways made in consequence of the
+intervening by-hills.... Everywhere there are caves, and their mouths
+are often so small that only one man can creep through at a time; the
+approaches to them are so serpentine, that he who is pursued may escape
+from his pursuer, and step into such a small opening, of which there
+are frequently three or four beside each other, before his pursuer is
+aware of it. Hence, if any one should hide himself there, it is
+exceedingly difficult, yea, even impossible for the eyes of man to
+discover him who is pursued." But this circumstance alone does not
+exhaust the case, even if we still further add that the mountain was
+then, as it is now (_Richter_, S. 66), covered with trees and
+shrubberies up to the summit. The expression, "In the top," must not be
+overlooked, and the less so, since it stands in evident antithesis to
+the "_bottom_ of the sea,"--like the contrast of height and depth in
+the preceding verse. Heaven and hell are represented on earth by the
+top of Carmel, and the bottom of the sea. The height of Carmel must,
+therefore, come also into consideration. This, it is true, is not very
+great; _Buckingham_ [Pg 378] estimated it at 1500 feet (_v. Raumer_, S.
+40); but the prophet chose Carmel in preference to other higher
+mountains, partly on account of the peculiarity already stated; partly,
+and especially, on account of its position in the immediate
+neighbourhood of the sea, over which its summit hangs, and which can be
+seen to a great distance from it; compare 1 Kings xviii. 43, 44. Of
+corporeal things it holds true, as it does of spiritual things, that
+opposites, placed beside each other, become thereby more distinct. A
+lower elevation, placed by the side of a depth, appears to the
+unscientific eye to be much higher than another which is really so.
+Moreover, the position of Carmel at the extreme western border of the
+kingdom of Israel must also be considered. He who hides himself there,
+must certainly be ignorant of any safer place in the whole country; and
+if even then there be no more security, the sea alone is left.--צוה
+occurs frequently with the signification "to bid," to "command." The
+word is chosen on purpose to show, how even the irrational creatures
+stand in the service of the omnipotent God; so that it requires only a
+word from Him to make them the instruments of His vengeance. That the
+prophet had a knowledge of a very dangerous kind of sea-serpents (of
+which _Pliny_ xix. 4 speaks), need not be supposed on account of the
+משם. That was not of the slightest consequence here. In v. 19 the
+serpent occurs in a particularizing representation of the thought that
+God is able to arm all nature against His enemies: "As if a man flees
+from the lion, and a bear meets him; and he comes home, and leans his
+hand on the wall, and a serpent bites him"--just the opposite of the
+assurance that "to those who love God, all things shall work together
+for good." So early as in Deut. xxxii. 24, apostates are threatened
+with the poison of the serpents of the dust, besides the teeth of wild
+beasts; and what this threatening implied, might have been well known
+to Israel from their former history; compare Num. xxi. 6: "And the Lord
+sent against the people serpents, and they bit the people, and much
+people of Israel died,"--a passage to which Jeremiah alludes in chap.
+viii. 17, where he says; "For behold I send against you serpents,
+basilisks, against which there is no charm, and they bite you, saith
+the Lord." It is very probable that to this the prophet also alludes in
+the passage before us.
+
+[Pg 379]
+
+Ver. 4. "_And if they go into captivity before their enemies, from
+thence will I command the sword, and it slayeth them; and I set Mine
+eyes upon them for evil and not for good._"
+
+בשבי means the state of exile. The circumstance of their being carried
+into captivity might awaken the hope that mercy will be granted to
+them; for, according to the natural course of things, he who is carried
+away into captivity may be sure of his life; but nothing can give
+security before God. The last words are strikingly illustrated by
+_Calvin_, who says: "There is an antithesis in this sentence, inasmuch
+as God had promised that He would be the protector of His people. But
+as hypocrites are always apt to appropriate to themselves the promises
+of God, without having either repentance or faith, the prophet here
+declares, that the eye of God would be upon them, not to protect them,
+as was His custom, but rather to add punishments to punishments. And
+this sentence is worthy of notice, inasmuch as we are thereby reminded,
+that although the Lord does by no means spare infidels. He yet observes
+us more closely in order to punish us the more severely, when He sees
+that we are utterly hardened and incurable." Under any circumstances,
+the people of the Lord continue to be the objects of special attention.
+They are more richly blessed; but they are also more severely punished.
+
+Ver. 5. "_And the Lord, Jehovah, of hosts, who toucheth the earth, and
+it melteth, and all that dwell therein mourn; and it riseth up wholly
+like the stream, and it sinketh down as the stream of Egypt._"
+
+The prophet continues to cut off every false hope with which levity
+flatters itself. How can you think to escape, since you have the
+Almighty God for your enemy! "The prophet," remarks _Jerome_, "speaks
+thus, in order to impress them with the greatness of divine power, that
+they might not imagine that He would perhaps not do what He had
+threatened, or that His power was not equal to His will." Similar
+descriptions of the divine omnipotence, as opposed to unbelief and weak
+faith, are very numerous; _e.g._, iv. 13, v. 8, 27; Is. xl. 22, xlv.
+12. We are not at liberty to translate: "And the Lord Jehovah of hosts
+is He who toucheth." It is rather an abrupt mode of speech; and there
+must be supplied, either at the beginning, "And who is your enemy?" or
+at the end, "He is your opponent." [Pg 380] This abruptness of language
+is quite in accordance with the subject, and belongs, moreover, to the
+characteristic peculiarities of Amos. Altogether similar is v. 7, 8,
+where Israel and their God are simply placed beside each other, and
+every one is left to conclude for himself how such a God would act
+towards such a people: "They who turn judgment to wormwood, and cast
+righteousness to the earth. Making the Pleiades and Orion, and turning
+the shadow of death into the morning, and making the day dark with
+night, calling," etc. The accumulated appellations. Lord, Jehovah, of
+hosts, likewise serve to point out the omnipotence of God. The believer
+accumulates these appellations in his prayer in order to awaken his
+confidence and hope; compare, _e.g._, Is. xxxvii. 16, where Hezekiah
+begins his prayer to the Lord thus: "Jehovah, of hosts, God of Israel,
+Thou who art enthroned on Cherubim, Thou art God alone for all the
+kingdoms of the earth." But these appellations are held up to the
+unbelievers, to cast down all their hopes. We have separated, of hosts,
+from the preceding appellation of God by a comma. Ever since
+_Gesenius_, in his Commentary on Is. i. 9, has asserted that צבאות when
+connected with Jehovah, must be considered as a Genitive depending upon
+it, his view has been pretty generally adopted. But it is certainly
+erroneous. The instances by which _Gesenius_ endeavours to prove the
+possibility of such a connection of proper names with appellative names
+are not to the point. In "Bethlehem Jehudah" it is only by a false
+interpretation that Jehudah is considered as standing in the _status
+constr._ with Bethlehem (compare the remarks on Mic. v. 1 [2]); and
+with regard to ארם נהרים it is to be remarked that, in consequence of
+its many divisions, ארם loses the nature of a proper name. The two
+words, Jehovah Zebaoth, can no more be immediately connected with each
+other than Jehovah (which is as perfect a proper name as ever existed)
+ever has, or ever can have, the article. Let us only consider the
+phrase אלהים צבאות in Ps. lxxx. 15, and elsewhere, where a _status
+constr._ is out of the question; and, _further_, the fact that
+wherever, as in the case under review, Adonai precedes, the Mazorets
+have always given to יהוה the points of אֱלֹהִים but never of אֱלֹהֵי; and
+let us, _finally_, consider the far more frequent, full expression,
+יהוה אלהי הצבאות (_e.g._, iii. 13, iv. 13, v. 14), and we shall be
+convinced, that even where the [Pg 381] simple יהוה הצבאות occurs, not
+indeed אלהי is simply to be supplied (if such were the case, why is it
+that הצבאות never occurs alone?), but that the notion of the Lord is to
+be taken from the preceding designations of the sovereignty of God.
+Compare on צבאות the remarks in my Commentary on Ps. xxiv. 10, where
+those also are refuted who, like _Maurer_ (in his Comment. on Is. i.
+9), maintain that it had simply become a name of God.--The
+manifestations of God's omnipotence are, after the general intimations
+of it are given, just such as might now be expected; compare viii. 8.
+The _Fut. with Vav Conv._ ותמוג does not here denote the Past, "And it
+melted," but only the consequence of the preceding action, as
+continuous as that: "Who toucheth the earth, and it melteth." A
+dissolution of the earth is to be thought of,--similar to that
+condition in which it was before the days of creation, and similar to
+its condition during the great flood. Such a condition of dissolution
+takes place also when the earth is visited by mighty kings desirous of
+making conquests. "Who toucheth the earth, and it melteth,"--the truth
+of these words Israel had _first_ to learn by sad experience when the
+wild hosts of Asshur were poured out over the West of Asia. The passage
+in Ps. xlvi. 7 is parallel, where it is said: "The heathen rage,
+kingdoms are shaken; He uttereth His voice (which corresponds with,
+'Who toucheth the earth,' in the verse before us), and the earth
+_melteth_." The מוג, "to melt," "to dissolve," signifies, in that
+passage, the dissolving effect of the divine judgments, the instruments
+of which are the conquerors. _Further_,--Ps. lxx. 4: "The earth and all
+the inhabitants thereof are melted,"--by the success of the conqueror
+of the world, the earth is, as it were, dissolved, and sunk back into
+the chaotic state of primitive time.--The words, "And it riseth up,"
+are to be explained from the fact that the earth, changed into a great
+stream, cannot be distinguished from the water which covers it. The
+earth rises up, it is overflowed,--the earth sinks down, the water
+subsides. The last clause of the verse must not be translated--as is
+done by _Rosenmüller_, _Gesenius_, _Maurer_--"It is overflowed as by the
+stream of Egypt." This explanation is unphilological, and contrary, at
+the same time, to the parallelism, which requires that כיאר be, both
+the times, understood in the same way. The verb שקע means only "to
+sink," "to sink down," and is used of the subsiding water, Ezek. xxxii.
+14; of the subsiding flame, [Pg 382] Num. xi. 2; and of a sinking town,
+Jer. li. 64. The last words thus rather contain the opposite of the
+clause immediately preceding. But the sinking does not, by any means,
+signify a freedom from the waters, nor is it to be conceived of as
+remaining. All which is expressed is the change only,--the ebb takes
+the place of the flood, and _vice versa_. This, however, is, on the dry
+land, a very sad condition. The inundation is here an emblem of hostile
+overflowing. Water is frequently an emblem of enemies; compare Ps.
+xviii. 17, cxliv. 7. Overflowing streams are emblematical of the crowds
+of nations, who, with a view to conquest, overflow the whole earth. Is.
+viii. 7, 8, xvii. 12; Jer. xlvii. 2, xlvi. 7, 8, where Egypt rises as
+the Nile, just as, in the case before us, the earth; with this
+difference, however, that there the rising is an active, while here it
+is a passive one: "Who is this who riseth like the Nile, whose waters
+are moved as the rivers? Egypt riseth up like the Nile, and his waters
+are moved like rivers, and he saith, I will go up and cover the earth,
+I will destroy the city and the inhabitants thereof;" Ezek. xxxii. 14:
+"Then will I make sink their waters, and cause their rivers to run like
+oil," equivalent to: The conquering power of Egypt shall cease. Amos
+viii. 8 is a parallel passage, in which, after the description of the
+prevailing sin, it is said: "Shall not the earth tremble for this, and
+every one mourn that dwelleth therein? And it riseth up wholly like the
+Nile, and is agitated, and sinketh down like the Nile of Egypt." The
+earthquake is the symbol of great revolutions, by which that which is
+highest is turned upside down; compare Haggai ii. 21, 22: "I shake the
+heavens and the earth, and overthrow the throne of kingdoms, and
+destroy the strength of the kingdom of the heathen;" while the
+overflowing is emblematical of hostile inundation, of visitation by
+war, in which the ebb succeeds the flood, and _vice versa_.--In his
+negligent mode of writing--which frequently occurs in this book--the
+prophet wrote נשקה instead of נשקעה, corresponding to the שקעה in the
+verse under consideration, just as in the same verse he wrote כאר
+instead of כיאר. The Mazorets, who everywhere disregarded the
+peculiarities of the individual writers, have introduced the common
+form.
+
+Ver. 6. "_Who buildeth His upper chambers in the heaven, and His
+vault--over the earth He foundeth it: who calleth the waters_ [Pg 383]
+_of the sea, and poureth them out over the earth--Jehovah His name._"
+
+That מעלות is here equivalent to עלות, "upper chambers" (compare 1
+Chron. xvii. 17, where מעלת occurs with the signification "high
+place"), is put almost beyond any doubt by the parallel passage, Ps.
+civ. 3: "Who frameth with the waters His upper chambers." The
+fundamental passage is Gen. i. 7: "God made the vault, and divided
+between the waters which are under the vault, and the waters which are
+above the vault." "The waters, viz., the upper ones"--thus we have
+remarked in our commentary on that passage from the Psalms--"are the
+material out of which the structure is reared. To construct, out of the
+moveable waters, a firm palace, the cloudy sky, firm as a molten
+looking-glass (Job xxxvii. 18), is a magnificent work of divine
+omnipotence. The palace of clouds, as the upper part of the fabric of
+the universe, gets the name _upper chambers_ of God; the lower part is
+the earth." As all the other manifestations of divine omnipotence in
+vers. 5, 6, are such as are to be called into existence now, the upper
+chambers and the vault will here come into consideration, in so far as
+from thence the torrents of rain are poured forth; compare Ps. civ. 13,
+according to which the rain cometh from the upper chambers of God; and
+Gen. vii. 11: "The same day broke forth all the fountains of the great
+flood (the last member of our verse), and _the windows of heaven were
+opened_." From the upper chambers of God, whence once, at the time of
+the deluge, the natural rain came down, the rain of affliction will now
+descend.--הקורא--שמו already occurred, _verbatim_, in v. 8. הקורא
+stands in the same relation to וישפכם, as in ver. 5 נוגע does to ותמוג
+and is equivalent to: "Upon whose mere word the waters of the sea cover
+the surface of the earth;" compare Gen. vi. 17: "And, behold, I do
+bring the flood of waters upon the earth." The sea is the common emblem
+of the heathen world; compare remarks on Ps. xciii., civ. 6-9. In chap.
+vii. 4, the "great flood" is contrasted with the "lot" in Deut. xxxiii.
+9,--the heathen world, with the people of God. The fire of war, which
+the Lord kindles, devours both in the same way. Here, in contrast with
+the deluge, the conquering inundation of the earth proceeds from the
+midst of the heathen world, stirred up by the Lord, and destroys first
+of all unfaithful Israel, who, had they been [Pg 384] faithful to the
+Covenant, would have been able to say, as in Ps. xlvi. 2-4, "God is our
+refuge and strength, a help in trouble He is found very much. Therefore
+will we not fear when the earth is overturned, and the mountains shake
+in the midst of the sea; its waters roar and foam, mountains tremble by
+its swelling."
+
+Ver. 7. "_Are you not as the sons of the Cushites unto Me, O children
+of Israel? saith the Lord. Have not I brought up Israel out of the land
+of Egypt, and the Philistines from Caphtor, and Aram from Kir?_"
+
+The prophet here deprives the people of another prop of false security.
+They boasted of their election, by which God Himself, as they imagined,
+had bound His hands. They considered the pledge of it--the deliverance
+from Egypt--as a charter of security against every calamity, as an
+obligation to further help in every distress, which God could not
+retract even if He would. A great truth lay at the foundation of this
+error,--a truth which has been disregarded by the greater number of
+interpreter's, who have, in consequence, forced upon the prophet a
+sense which is altogether false.[4] The election of the people, and
+their deliverance from Egypt, were actually what they considered them
+to be. God Himself had in reality thereby bound His hands; He _was
+obliged_ to deliver the people. He _could_ not cast them off. The
+election was an act of free grace; the manifestation of it in deeds was
+an act of His righteousness. The people had a right to remind Him of
+His duty, when He seemed not to perform it. Their election was then a
+firm anchorage of hope, a rich source of consolation, the foundation of
+all their prayers. But the error consisted in this, that the election
+was usurped by those to whom it did not belong,--an error which is
+continually repeating itself, and which shows itself in a fearful form,
+especially in the case of those who believe in the doctrine of
+Predestination. We need, for example, refer only to _Cromwell_, who, in
+the hour of death, silenced, by this false consolation, all the
+accusations of his [Pg 385] conscience. Περιτομὴ μὲν γὰρ ὠφελεῖ, says
+the Apostle, in Rom. ii. 25, ἐὰν νόμον πράσσῃς· ἐὰν δὲ παραβάτης νόμου
+ᾕς, ἡ περιτομή σου ἀκροβυστία γέγονεν. The deliverance from Egypt
+stands on the same footing as circumcision. The former also was
+profitable; to those who showed themselves to be children of Israel, it
+afforded the certainty that God would prove Himself to be their God.
+For those, however, who had become degenerate, it entered altogether
+into the circle of ordinary events. For them, it became something that
+had altogether passed away--that did not carry within itself any pledge
+of renovation. This error is here laid open by the prophet, as he had
+already done in v. 14: "Seek good and not evil, that ye may live, and
+_thus_ the Lord, the God of hosts, be with you." He directs their
+attention to the fact, that, in the Covenant-relation, which rests on
+reciprocity, the party who broke the Covenant had nothing to ask,
+nothing to hope for. "_Be not_," etc.; the _tertium comparationis_ is
+evidently the alienation from God. The "children of Israel" (the
+appellation expressive of their dignity is intentionally chosen in
+order to make more striking the contradiction between the appearance
+and the reality) have become so degenerate, that they are no more any
+nearer to God than the sons of the Cushites. Those interpreters who
+regard sin alone as the _tertium comparationis_ (_Cocceius_ says: "Ye
+are so alienated from Him, and so unfaithful, that every one of you may
+be called a Cushite"), give too limited a sense to the expression. "You
+are to Me," is rather equivalent to, "I have not any more concern in
+you, you stand not to Me in any other relation." But why are the
+Cushites alone mentioned as an example of a people alienated from God?
+Their colour, perhaps, is more to be considered in this, than their
+descent from Ham; the physical blackness is viewed as an emblem of the
+spiritual. Thus they appear in Jer. xiii. 23: "Will indeed the Cushite
+change his skin, and the leopard his spots? will you indeed be able to
+do good, who have been taught to do evil?" But the fundamental passage
+is the inscription of Ps. vii., where Saul, on account of his black
+wickedness, appears under the symbolical name of Cush.--The right
+explanation of these first words furnishes, at the same time, the key
+to the sound interpretation of the words which [Pg 386] follow: It is
+only for the Covenant-people that the deliverance from Egypt is a
+pledge of grace. But you are no longer the Covenant-people; your being
+brought up out of Egypt, therefore, stands on the same line with the
+bringing up of the Philistines from their former dwelling-places in
+Caphtor to their present abodes, and with the bringing up of the
+Syrians from Kir, in which no one will see a pledge of divine grace, a
+preservative against every danger, and, especially, an assurance of the
+impossibility of a new captivity. The geographical inquiries regarding
+Caphtor and Kir would lead us too far away from the subject which we
+are here discussing. The view which is now prevalent, and according to
+which Crete is to be understood by the former, is in contradiction to
+the old translations, which have Cappadocia, and with Gen. x. 14,--as
+long as, in that passage, the Colchians are to be understood by the
+Casluhim. But that point would require a minute investigation, which
+may be more suitably carried on at some other place.
+
+Ver. 8. "_Behold, the eyes of the Lord Jehovah are upon the sinful
+kingdom, and I destroy them from off the face of the earth, saving that
+I will not utterly destroy the house of Jacob, saith the Lord._"
+
+_The_ sinful kingdom, whether its name be Israel or Judah, or whether
+it be called Egypt or Edom. The holy God has not by any means, as you
+in your blindness imagine, given you a privilege to sin. A difference
+exists between Israel and the others in this respect only, that utter
+ruin does not take place in the case of the former, as it does in that
+of the latter. For the distinction between the people of God and other
+nations consists in this, that in the former, there always remains a
+holy seed, an ἐκλογή, which the Lord must protect, and make the nursery
+of His kingdom, according to the same necessity of His nature as that
+by which He extirpates the sinners of His people. The "sinful kingdom"
+forms the contrast with the righteous kingdom; the article being here
+used in a generic sense. Similar are Is. x. 6: "_I send him against
+impious people, and against the people of My wrath_ (wheresoever there
+are such) _I give him command_;" and Ps. xxxiii. 12: "Blessed is the
+nation whose God is the Lord, the people whom He hath chosen for His
+inheritance;" on which latter passage _Michaelis_ remarks, "Blessed is
+the nation, whichsoever it may be." The eyes of [Pg 387] the Lord are
+open upon _the_ sinful kingdom, and hence also upon the house of Jacob;
+it must be destroyed as all others are, but it cannot be _destroyed
+like them_,--an idea which is prominently brought out by the prefixed
+Infinit. השמיד. That is an erroneous interpretation which understands
+by the sinful nation, Ephraim, and, after the example of _Grotius_ ("I
+will destroy the kingdom, not the people"), assumes that, by the house,
+in contrast with the kingdom, the people are intended. Such a contrast
+betwixt the house and the kingdom would have required a more distinct
+intimation. The house of Jacob, when referred to the ten tribes, is
+identical with the kingdom. They were a house only in so far as they
+were a kingdom. But it is both against the words (in Obad. ver. 17,
+"house of Jacob" is likewise used of the whole of the nation), and
+against the connection, to refer it to the ten tribes. When, however,
+it is referred to the whole, a contrast betwixt people and kingdom can
+the less have place, as, according to ver. 11, the kingdom also shall
+be restored.--The first part of the verse is almost literally identical
+with Deut. vi. 15: "For a jealous God is Jehovah, thy God, in thy
+midst; lest the anger of Jehovah thy God be kindled against thee, and
+He destroy thee from off the face of the earth," והשמידך מעל פני האדמה.
+The prophet says nothing new; he only resumes the threatening of the
+revered lawgiver.--The construction of עיני יהוה with ב is explained by
+the circumstance that, according to the context, the eyes of the Lord
+can mean only His angry eyes--equivalent to the anger of the Lord in
+the passage quoted from Deuteronomy; and the verbs and nouns expressive
+of anger are connected by ב with the object on which the anger rests;
+compare Ps. xxxiv. 17.
+
+Ver. 9. "_For behold I command and shake the house of Israel among all
+the nations, as one shaketh in a sieve, and not shall anything firm
+fall to the ground._"
+
+The figure in this verse is, upon the whole, plain; but some of the
+particulars require to be explained, and to be more accurately
+determined. The signification "sieve," commonly assigned to כברה, must
+be conceded to it. We must, however, here understand it of such a sieve
+as serves similar purposes as a winnowing shovel, in which the corn is
+violently shaken, and thus purified; and not of a sieve in which, by
+mere sifting, the corn is freed from the dust which has remained after
+the first [Pg 388] and proper cleansing. The latter is assumed by
+_Paulsen_ (_vom Ackerbau der Morgenländer_, S. 144), and, along with
+him, by the greater number of interpreters. Such a sieve--a kind of
+fan--is mentioned in Is. xxx. 24, in addition to the winnowing shovel.
+It occurs likewise in Luke xxii. 31, where συνιάζειν is _vanno
+agitare_. The LXX. also have here adopted the explanation, not of an
+ordinary sieve, but of an instrument which serves the same purposes as
+the winnowing shovel: διότι ἰδοὺ ἐγὼ ἐντέλλομαι καὶ λικμιῶ (Α. λικμήσω)
+ἐν πᾶσι τοῖς ἔθνεσι τὸν οἶκον τοῦ Ἰσραὴλ, ὃν τρόπον λίκμᾶται ἐν τῷ
+λικμῷ. _Hesych._ λικμῷ, πτύῳ. To this we are likewise led by the verb
+הניעותי, which is indicative of a violent procedure, and by the
+occurrence of the same figure in so many passages of Scripture;
+compare, _e.g._, Jer. li. 2; "I will send against Babylon fanners that
+shall fan her, and shall empty her land;" Jer. xv. 7, and Matt. iii.
+12; while the use of the ordinary sieve for such a purpose is never
+mentioned, nor is it ever employed for a figure.--בכל־הגוים is not to
+be translated, "_by_ all nations," but, as the corresponding בכברה
+shows, "in," or "among all nations." The many people are the spiritual
+sieve,--the means of purging. The Lord, whose instruments they are,
+employs them for the destruction of the ungodly. They are taken away by
+His secret judgments, for the execution of which He employs the
+heathen; compare ver. 10. Even the godly are violently shaken; but the
+hand of the Lord secretly upholds them that they may not sink, but
+that the temptation may serve for their spiritual growth; compare
+Luke xxii. 31, 32, where the Lord distinctly alludes to the passage
+under consideration. The corn is shaken; dust and impurity fall to the
+ground, the chaff flies into the air. Many interpreters ascribe
+to צרור the signification, "corn;" others, "little stone." But these
+significations have been both assumed merely for the sake of the
+context. צרור, from צרר, _colligavit_, _constrinxit_, means, primarily,
+"that which is tightly bound together;" then, "bundle," "bag;" but
+here, as in 2 Sam. xvii. 13, "that which is compact, firm, and solid,"
+as opposed to that which is loose, dissolved, and thin. That which is
+here meant is the solid, firm corn, as opposed to the loose chaff, and
+the dust which falls to the ground through the sieve.
+
+Ver. 10. "_By the sword, shall die all the sinners of My people who
+say, The evil will not come near, nor advance to us._"
+
+[Pg 389]
+
+In order that the preceding mitigation of the threatening of punishment
+might not be appropriated by those to whom it did not belong, the
+prophet, before passing on to the further detail of the promise, once
+more presents the threatening in all its severity. "The sinners who
+speak," etc., are they who usurped the promises of the Covenant without
+having truly fulfilled its conditions,--who boasted of, and trusted in,
+their belonging outwardly to the people of God (compare iii. 2), and
+their zeal in the external performance of the duties of worship
+(compare v. 21-23); and who therefore imagined that the judgments of
+the Lord could not reach them, while, by their sins, they did all in
+their power to draw them down upon them, v. 18, vi. 3.
+
+Ver. 11. "_In that day I will raise up the tabernacle of David that is
+fallen, and wall up its breaches, and raise up its ruins, and build it
+as the days of eternity._"
+
+The words, "In that day," are to be understood quite generally, viz.,
+as referring to a time after the divine judgments have broken in and
+have completed their work upon Israel. μετὰ ταῦτα, by which James
+renders it in Acts xv. 16, completely expresses the sense. The
+assertion of _Baur_, "That the prophet must have conceived of the
+restoration of the tabernacle of David as being near at hand, because
+he recognised the instruments of judgment in the invading Assyrians,"
+falls to the ground along with the supposition on which it rests. The
+prophet has nothing at all special to do with the invasion of the
+Assyrians.--The Partic. נפלת, according to the usual signification of
+the Partic., expresses a permanent condition. The very expression,
+"tabernacle," suggests the idea of a sunken condition of the house of
+David. The prophet sees the proud palace of David changed into a humble
+tabernacle, everywhere in ruins, and perforated. The same idea is
+expressed by a different image in Is. xi. 1. There the house of David
+is called the cut off trunk of Jesse, which puts forth a new shoot.
+_Hofmann_ and others are of opinion that the prophet designates the
+house of David as a fallen tabernacle, on account of its abasement at
+the time then present. "At present," he says, "the lofty house of David
+is a סכה נפלת when compared with the power of Jeroboam; but the latter
+shall fall, and the former shall raise itself again from its decay."
+But this designation is certainly not applicable to [Pg 390] the house
+of David under a king like Uzziah, nor, in general, to the whole time
+of the existing Davidic kingdom. The fact that Amos foresees the deep
+fall of Judah, is placed beyond all doubt even by ii. 5. It is
+impossible that the announcement of the restoration which is to
+_follow_ only after this fall, should altogether ignore the latter.
+This is, moreover, proved by the parallel passages. The predictions of
+all the prophets are pervaded by the foresight of the Messiah's
+appearing at the time of the deepest debasement of the Davidic dynasty,
+and after the total loss of the royal dignity; compare the remarks on
+Mic. iv. 8, vi. (2); Is. xi. 1, liii. 2; Ezek. xvii. 22-24.--It might
+now appear as though the prophet here only supposed the ruin of the
+house of David, without having, in the preceding context, expressly
+mentioned it; but such is not the case. The whole of the preceding
+threatening of punishment relates to the ruin of the house of David;
+for when the kingdom suffers, the reigning family cannot but suffer
+also. This close connection of the two is pointed out by the prophet
+himself in the subsequent words. The change of the suffixes is there
+certainly not without a reason. The suffix in פרציהן refers to the two
+kingdoms; that in הריסתיו to David; and that in בניתיה to the
+tabernacle, while the subject of יירשו (ver. 12) is the people. By this
+it is intimated that David, his tabernacle, the kingdoms, and the
+people, are in substance one--that one stands and falls with the other.
+They who overlook the co-reference to Judah, in the preceding verses,
+do not know what to make of the suffix in פרציהן (compare the
+expression "these kingdoms," used of Judah and Israel in vi. 2), and,
+in their uncertainty, conjecture sometimes one thing and sometimes
+another.--ימי is Nominat., not Accusat. The comparison is merely
+intimated; compare remarks on Hos. ii. 17. The circumstance that
+the happy days of the times of David and Solomon are here spoken
+of as "days of eternity"--of the remotest past (compare Mic. vii.
+14)--implies that the prophet sees a long interval between the present
+and the predicted event.--The foundation of this prophecy is the
+promise to David in 2 Sam. vii.; compare especially ver. 16: "And thine
+house and thy kingdom shall be sure in eternity before thee, and thy
+throne shall be firm in eternity." This reference has also been pointed
+out by _Calvin_, who remarks: "When the prophet says, 'as in the days
+of old,' he confirms [Pg 391] the doctrine that the dignity of
+the house would not always flow in an equal current, but that,
+nevertheless, there would always be such a restoration as would make it
+easily perceptible that God's promise of an eternal dominion to David
+had not been in vain." The dominion of David had already suffered a
+considerable shock by the separation of the two kingdoms, existing at
+the prophet's time; but it was in future to sink even far more deeply,
+and the people along with it. But, with all these things, God's promise
+remains true. The judgments do not shut up the way for His mercy, but
+rather prepare it. That it was only through the family of David that
+the promised salvation could be imparted to the people, the prophet
+plainly declares. If it were not so, how could he have identified the
+tabernacle of David with the two kingdoms, and with the people? As to
+the person of the restorer, he does not more particularly designate it.
+The main thing with him, as with Hosea (compare the remarks on Hos. ii.
+2, and iii. 5), is to impress upon the people of Israel the conviction,
+that salvation could come to them only from a reunion with Judah--from
+their joining again the house of David; compare Ezek. xxxvii. 22: "And
+I make them one nation in the land upon the mountains of Israel, and
+one king shall be king to them all; and they shall be no more two
+nations, and they shall be no more divided into two kingdoms." But if
+this was sure and established, there could then be no more any doubt as
+to the person. It was at that time generally known that the promise
+given to David would be finally fulfilled in the Messiah; and it was
+generally acknowledged by the ancient Jews, that the passages under
+consideration refer to the Messiah. _Jerome_ remarks: "The Jews refer
+everything which, in this and the other prophets, is foretold
+concerning the building up of Jerusalem and the temple, and the
+happy condition of all things, to themselves, and foolishly expect
+that all shall be fulfilled in a carnal sense." It is from the passage
+under review that the Messiah received the name בר נפלים, _filius
+cadentium_--He who springs forth from the fallen family of David;
+compare _Sanhedrin_, fol. 96, 2: R. Nachman said to R. Isaac, Hast thou
+heard when בר נפילים is to come? The latter answered: Who is he? R.
+Nachman said: The Messiah. R. Isaac: But is the Messiah thus named? R.
+Nachman: Certainly, in Amos ix. 11: [Pg 392] "In that day I will raise
+up the tabernacle of David that is fallen." In _Breshith Rabbah_, sec.
+88, we read: "Who would have expected that God should raise up again
+the fallen tabernacle of David? And yet we read in Amos ix. 11, 'In
+that day,' etc. And who could have hoped that the whole world could yet
+become one flock? And yet, such is declared in Zeph. iii. 9: 'Then will
+I turn to the people in pure lips, that they all may call upon the name
+of the Lord, and serve Him with one lip.' But all that is prophesied
+only in reference to the Messiah." See _Schöttgen_, p. 70, and other
+passages, especially from the _Sohar_, ibid. p. 111, 566.
+
+Ver. 12. "_In order that they may possess the remnant of Edom, and of
+all the heathen upon whom My name is called, saith the Lord that doeth
+this._"
+
+_Calvin_ remarks on this verse: "This main point is plainly declared to
+us, that there is here promised an extension of the kingdom under
+Christ; and it is just as if the prophet had said that the Jews were
+enclosed within narrow limits, even when the kingdom of David did most
+flourish, inasmuch as, under Christ, God is to extend their territory,
+so that they shall rule far and wide." There is here an evident
+allusion to the times of David, which, in the last words of the
+preceding verse, formed the subject of discourse. This is quite plain
+also from the mention of the Edomites. These had been made subject by
+David; but afterwards, availing themselves of the commencing fall of
+David's tabernacle, they had again freed themselves. Not only they,
+however, but all the other heathen nations, shall be again subjected to
+the raised up tabernacle of David. That former event served as a type
+and prelude to the latter, and formed moreover a prophecy of it in
+deeds, inasmuch as both rested on the same foundation, viz., God's
+protection of His Church, and His care for His kingdom. It is for this
+reason too, that, with an allusion to the former event, the verb יירשו
+is chosen. By this verb, expression is given only to the fact of their
+agreement, and to points in which those events agree; but it gives no
+indication of _how far_ they agree, or in what respects they differ;
+this is to be declared in the subsequent words. The prophet, however,
+in speaking only of the _remnant_ of Edom, looks back to the
+threatening in chap. i. They only who have been preserved in the
+judgment which is there announced, are to come [Pg 393] under the
+blissful dominion of the kingdom of David. As Israel, so also the
+Gentiles, must be prepared for the coming of the kingdom of Christ by
+crushing judgments. The judgment upon Israel is only a single portion
+of a great judgment upon all nations. Into this connection it is
+brought by the very opening chapters of this book. In chap. v. 8, vii.
+7, there is likewise an intimation of great calamities and shakings,
+which are to come upon the heathen world. The submission of the remnant
+of the heathen world, however, will not be an abasement, but, on the
+contrary, an exalting of them; this is shown by the words, "Upon whom
+My name is called." These words do not allow us to think of such a
+relation of Edom and the other nations to Israel, as existed at the
+time of David in the case of the conquered nations. They are never used
+to designate a form of allegiance to the Lord so low and false, but
+always denote the relation of close and cordial allegiance. The heathen
+are in future to be considered and treated as those who are consecrated
+to the Lord, and who belong to His holy people,--just as Israel is now
+considered and treated. Compare, as to the use of these words with
+reference to Israel, Deut. xxviii. 9, 10: "The Lord shall raise thee
+_an Holy people unto Him_, as He hath sworn unto thee ... and all
+people of the earth see that the name of the Lord is called upon thee,
+and are afraid of thee." In this verse, the expression, "The name of
+the Lord is called upon thee," corresponds with "holy people." Jer.
+xiv. 9: "And Thou, O Lord, art in the midst of us, and Thy name is
+called upon us." Is. lxiii. 19: "We are those over whom Thou hast not
+reigned from eternity, and upon whom Thy name has not been called." As
+regards the use of these words in reference to the temple, compare,
+further, Jer. vii. 10, 11: "And ye come and stand before Me in this
+house, upon which My name is called. Is, perhaps, this house upon which
+My name is called, a den of robbers in your eyes?" The exceeding
+greatness of their wickedness is denounced in these words; and the
+ground why it is so great, is not by any means the fact, that the
+temple, as was indeed the case with that at Bethel, bore the name of
+the house of God only by the caprice of the people, but that it really
+was the house of God, and that God, in His gracious condescension, was
+there _really_ present, as a type of His dwelling in Christ; compare
+Deut. xii. 5: "The place which [Pg 394] the Lord your God shall choose
+out of all your tribes, to put His name there." _Finally_, These words
+are used in reference to single individuals, whom God, in a special
+sense, has made His own, His representatives, the bearers of His word,
+the mediators of His revelations, in Jer. xv. 16: "I found Thy words
+and I did eat them, and Thy words became unto me the joy and rejoicing
+of my heart: for Thy name was called upon me, Jehovah, God of hosts,"
+etc., equivalent to, "For I was the messenger and representative of
+Thee, the Almighty God."--_Hitzig_, _Hofmann_, and _Baur_ explain the
+expression, "Upon whom My name is called," by, "Upon all the nations
+who once, at the time of David, were in subjection to the people of
+God." The use of the Preterite has been urged in favour of this
+explanation; but it is certainly very rash to assert, on the ground of
+this, that "this view alone is admissible according to the rules of
+grammar." The statement of _Ewald_, § 135 _a_, is exactly applicable to
+this case: "The _Perfectum_, when used with reference to some future
+event, either mentioned or conceived of, may as well indicate the past
+which _then_ has taken place." The sense might thus be: "All the
+heathen upon whom then My name will be called." In the same sense, the
+Preterite is used in another passage, quoted by _Hofmann_ for a
+different purpose--viz., 2 Sam. xii. 28: "In order that I may not take
+(אלכד) the city, and my name be called (נקרא) upon it." It militates,
+however, against their view, that the name of the Lord being called
+upon any one, has, according to all the parallel passages, a sense too
+profound to admit of a relation to the Lord so loose and external being
+thereby designated. It is used only of such as are received into the
+condition of the people and sons of Jehovah, Hos. ii. 1 (i. 10).
+_Further_, The mere restoration of the Davidic dominion over the
+heathen is a very meagre thought, which is far from coming up to what
+Jacob had foretold in Gen. xlix. 10, and to what David and Solomon
+expected of the future; compare, _e.g._, Ps. lxxii. 11: "And all kings
+worship Him, all the heathen serve Him."--The closing words, "Thus
+saith the Lord that doeth this," are intended to strengthen faith in a
+promise which appears to be incredible, by calling attention to the
+fact, that the person who promises is also the person who carries it
+out to its fulfilment; compare Jer. xxxiii. 2: "Thus saith the Lord
+that makes it, the Lord that forms it, [Pg 395] to carry it out, the
+Lord is His name." This closing formula is also very ill suited for so
+meagre a prediction as that of the restoration of the old borders, of
+which Israel, under the reign of Uzziah and Jeroboam, was not so very
+far short. It was, probably, solely from a false interpretation of the
+passage under review, that an important historical event had its rise.
+Hyrcanus compelled the Idumeans, who were conquered by him, to be
+circumcised, and in that way to be incorporated into the Theocracy; so
+that they lost entirely their national existence and name (_Jos. Arch._
+xiii. 9, 1; _Prideaux Hist. des Juifs_, vol. v. p. 16). This proceeding
+differed so materially from that which was ordinarily followed--for
+David did not think it at all necessary to adopt a similar proceeding
+against the Idumeans, and the other nations which were conquered by
+him--that it necessarily requires some special reason to account for
+it; and such a reason is furnished by the passage under consideration.
+Hyrcanus washed to be instrumental in the fulfilment of the prophecy
+contained in it; but in this he failed. He did not consider, 1. That
+the reception of Edom into the kingdom of God is here brought into
+connection with the restoration of the tabernacle of David, and hence
+could be brought about only by a king of the house of David. He did not
+consider, 2. That the matter here in question is not such a reception
+into the kingdom of God as depends upon the will of man, but a
+spiritual reception, which carries along with it the full enjoyment of
+divine blessings. That it was, however, easy for Hyrcanus to fall into
+such a mistake, is shown by the example of _Grotius_, who confined
+himself to this merely apparent fulfilment, although he had the real
+fulfilment before his eyes. By a similar misunderstanding of Old
+Testament prophecies, other important events also were brought about;
+_e.g._, according to the express testimony of Josephus, the building of
+the Egyptian temple, and, as we shall afterwards see, the building of
+the temple by Herod.
+
+It now only remains to consider the quotation of this passage in the
+New Testament, in Acts xv. 16, 17. _Olshausen_ has directed attention
+to a difficulty regarding it, which has been overlooked by the greater
+number of interpreters. He says that one cannot well see how the
+quotation bears upon the point at issue. Both parties were at one as to
+the duty of admitting the Gentiles into the kingdom of God. The only
+question was [Pg 396] about the manner of their reception--whether
+with, or without, circumcision--and as to this, the prophecy, which
+confines itself to the fact only, does not contain any express
+declaration. But this difficulty has its sole foundation on the
+erroneous view that James was stating two reasons altogether
+independent of each other;--the first in ver. 14, God's declaration by
+facts, in His having given His Holy Spirit to the Gentiles, without
+their having been circumcised; and then, in vers. 16, 17, the testimony
+of the Old Testament. But the sound view rather is, that both together
+form only one reason. Apart from that testimony which God, the Searcher
+of hearts, had given to the Gentiles by the gift of the Holy Spirit,
+and by making no difference betwixt them and Israel, the prophetic
+declaration would have been without any significance; but it acquires
+this significance when combined with the testimony of God. It is now
+also that the silence of James, in reference to that condition which
+was demanded by those of a pharisaic tendency, gains significance.
+Simeon has declared how God at first was pleased to take a people for
+His name out of the Gentiles; and after the _fact_ of their reception
+has been so expressively declared, the Old Testament passage, where
+this reception is spoken of, is not cognizant of any other _mode_. The
+Apostle does not content himself with quoting ver. 12; he first cites
+ver. 11, because it furnished the proof that the declaration contained
+in ver. 12 referred to that time. That event, with which the conversion
+of the Gentiles is here immediately connected, had already taken place
+in Christ, at least as to the germ, which contained within itself the
+whole substance which afterwards displayed itself. But it was the main
+thought only which came into consideration in ver. 11, and therefore it
+is somewhat abbreviated. In the quotation, the translation of the LXX.
+evidently forms the foundation.
+
+The quotation of ver. 12 agrees, almost _verbatim_, with the LXX. It
+follows them in their important deviation from the Hebrew text. Instead
+of, "In order that they may occupy the remnant of Edom," the LXX. read,
+ὅπως ἂν ἐκζητήσωσιν σἱ καταλοιποι τῶν ἀνθρώπων με (instead of με Luke
+has τὸν κύριον, which is found in the _Cod. Alex._ also, but has very
+likely come in from Luke). It is of very little consequence to
+determine in what manner the translation of the LXX. arose; whether
+they had a different reading, למען ידרשו שארית אדם, [Pg 397] before
+them; or whether they merely read erroneously; or whether, according to
+_Lightfoot_ (in his remarks on Acts xv. 16, 17), they intentionally
+thus altered the words; or whether it was their object to express the
+sense only generally and approximately (in the last two cases we should
+be obliged to suppose that, by a kind of play, and in order to
+represent, in an outward manner, the substantial agreement of the
+thought, they chose words exactly corresponding to the Hebrew text,
+with the exception of a change of a few letters,--a thing which
+frequently occurs in the Talmud, and even in Jeremiah when compared
+with the older prophets); only, we must set aside the idea of a really
+different reading,--a reading resting on the authority of good
+Manuscripts, inasmuch as such an idea would be irreconcilable with the
+deviations of the LXX. elsewhere, and with the unanimity of the Hebrew
+Manuscripts in the passage before us. The assertion of _Olshausen_,
+however, that, in the Hebrew form, the passage would not have been
+suitable for the purpose, and that therefore it is probable that, on
+this occasion, Greek must have been spoken in the assembly, does indeed
+deserve our attention.
+
+Whether or not the latter was the case, we leave undecided. That it was
+probable, may be proved from other grounds, but it by no means follows
+from the reason stated by _Olshausen_. The passage was suited for the
+proof, as well according to the Hebrew text, as according to the
+Alexandrian version; for the latter is quite correct and faithful in so
+far as the sense is concerned. The _occupying_, in the sense in which
+it is used by Amos, has the _seeking_ for its necessary supposition.
+For how, indeed, can spiritual possession, spiritual dominion by the
+people of the Lord exist, unless the Lord has been sought by those who
+are to be ruled over? Compare the declaration: "The isles shall wait
+for His law," Is. xlii. 4. The words, "And of all the heathen,"
+following immediately after Edom, evidently prove that Amos mentions
+Edom, only by way of individualizing; and the Idumeans, especially, as
+a people, only because their former, specially violent hatred to the
+Covenant-people (compare i. 11) made their future humble submission
+more evidently a work of the omnipotence of God, and of His love
+watching over His people; and at the same time there may be a reference
+also to the former subjection by David. The LXX. [Pg 398] have done
+nothing more, than at once to substitute for the particular, the
+general which comprehends this particular,--a particular which is, by
+Amos too, designated as a part of the general.[5]
+
+Ver. 13. "_Behold, days come, saith the Lord, and the ploughman
+reacheth to the reaper, and the treader of the wine-press to him that
+soweth seed. And the mountains drop must, and all the hills melt._"
+
+The fundamental thought in this passage is this:--Wheresoever the Lord
+is, there also is the fulness of His gifts.--The imagery in the first
+hemistich is taken from Lev. xxvi. 3-5: "If ye shall walk in My laws,
+and keep My commandments and do them; then I will give your rains in
+their seasons, and the land gives its produce, and the tree of the
+field gives its fruit. And your threshing _reaches_ to the vintage, and
+the vintage _reaches to the sowing_ time." After the Lord has purified
+His congregation by His judgments, then the joyful time of blessing,
+prophesied by His servant Moses, shall likewise come. _Cocceius_ says:
+"One shall reap, the other shall immediately plough; one shall scatter
+the seeds in the ploughed field, while another shall, at the same time,
+tread the grapes,--a work is wont to be done at the last time of the
+year. There shall be continual work, and continual fruit, and a
+fruitfulness such as that in the land of the Troglodytes which
+_Scaliger_ (_Exercit._ 249, 2) thus describes: 'Throughout the whole
+year there is sowing and reaping at the same time; at one place the
+seed is committed to the fields, and at another the wheat shoots up, at
+another it gets ears, at another it is reaped, at another it is
+collected, and [Pg 399] brought to the threshing-places, and thence to
+the barn.'"--The second hemistich agrees with Joel iv. (iii.) 18 (which
+is certainly not accidental; compare the introduction to Joel): "At
+that time the mountains shall drop must, and the hills go with milk."
+From a comparison of this passage it appears that the melting of the
+hills can mean only their dissolving into rivers of milk, must, and
+honey, with an allusion to the description of the promised land in the
+Pentateuch (Exod. iii. 8) as a land flowing with milk and honey.
+
+Ver. 14. "_And I turn Myself to the captivity of My people Israel, and
+they build waste cities, and dwell, and plant vineyards, and drink
+their wine; and they make gardens and eat their fruit._"
+
+The captivity is a figure of misery. With reference to שבות שוב compare
+the remarks on Joel.
+
+Ver. 15. "_And I plant them in their land, and they shall no more he
+plucked up out of their land which I have given them, saith the Lord
+thy God._" Compare p. 227 seqq.
+
+
+Footnote 1: _Hofmann_, _Schriftbeweis_ I. S. 312, objects: "If this
+were correct, Paul ought to have delivered that fornicator at Corinth
+(1 Cor. v. 5), or Hymeneus and Alexander (1 Tim. i. 20), not to Satan,
+but to the good angels." But the individuals mentioned were members of
+the Church of Christ, and they were delivered to Satan, not for their
+absolute destruction, but for their salvation: ἵνα τὸ πνεῦμα, (which of
+course was still in existence; and it is just the πνεῦμα that separates
+between the world and the Church, compare Ps. li. 13) σωθῇ ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ
+τοῦ Κυρίου, ἵνα παιδευθῶσι μὴ βλασφημεῖν. It is, as in the case of Job,
+a punishment with a view to purification, for which power is given to
+Satan, Heb. xii. 6. These passages, then, serve only to confirm the
+view which we have expressed.
+
+Footnote 2: The same is probably the case in vi. 14: "For behold I
+raise up against you, O house of Israel, saith the Lord God of Hosts,
+heathen people; and they shall afflict you from Hamath unto the river
+of the wilderness." The river of the wilderness can here be none other
+than the river of Egypt, which commonly appears as the boundary of the
+whole. Compare 1 Kings viii. 65; 2 Chron. vii. 8, where Solomon
+assembles the whole people from Hamath unto the river of Egypt; Josh.
+xv. 4, 47; 2 Kings xxiv. 7; Is. xxvii. 12. They who think of the
+boundary of the kingdom of the ten tribes only, are at a loss, and have
+recourse to uncertain conjectures.
+
+Footnote 3: In Micah i. 15 the entire people are called Jacob. The same
+occurs also in Hos. x. 11, xii. 3 (2).
+
+Footnote 4: _Hitzig_ says: With a disposition of mind different from
+that in iii. 2, the prophet says here, "You enjoy no privileges with
+me, you are to me like all others." A strange disposition of mind
+indeed for a prophet! An interpretation which results in such thoughts,
+which cannot be entertained for a moment, is self-condemned.
+
+Footnote 5: Whether, however, it was James or Luke who quoted these
+words according to the version of the LXX., this passage is one of the
+many hundreds which prove that the violent urging and pressing for an
+improvement in our (German) authorized version of the Scriptures, as it
+proceeded from _von Meier_ and _Stier_, is exaggerated. The Saviour and
+His Apostles adopted, without hesitation, the version current at their
+time, when its deviations concerned not the thought but the words. If
+we proceed upon this principle, how will the mountain of complaints
+melt away which has been raised against _Luther's_ translation of the
+Scriptures. But it is true that, even then, weighty objections remain.
+The revision of it is a want of the Church; but it is not so urgent
+that we may not, and must not, wait for the time when it may be
+satisfied without danger. If it were undertaken at present, the
+disadvantages would far outweigh the advantages. To everything there is
+a season; and it is the duty of the wise steward to find it out, and to
+know it.
+
+
+                        THE PROPHECY OF OBADIAH.
+
+We need not enter into details regarding the question as to the time
+when the prophet wrote. By a thorough argumentation, _Caspari_ has
+proved, that he occupies his right position in the Canon, and hence
+belongs to the earliest age of written prophecy, _i.e._, to the time of
+Jeroboam II. and Uzziah. As bearing conclusively against those who
+would assign to him a far later date, viz., the time of the exile,
+there is not only the indirect testimony borne by the place which this
+prophecy occupies in the collection of the prophets which is
+chronologically arranged, but there are also the following facts;--that
+those who are to inflict the predicted calamity upon Judah are not at
+all more definitely characterized than in the first part of Hosea, in
+Joel, and Amos;--that, in like manner, the heathen power from which the
+overthrow of Edom is to proceed, is neither mentioned, nor more
+definitely pointed out in any other way;--that Jeremiah already made
+use of Obadiah's prophecy; and if such be denied, the older foundation
+would then be withdrawn from the prophecy of Jeremiah--which would be
+contrary [Pg 400] to the analogy of Jeremiah's prophecies against
+foreign nations;--and, finally, that, in vers. 12-14, the prophet
+exhorts the Edomites neither to rejoice nor to co-operate in the
+destruction of Jerusalem, because, otherwise, they would certainly
+receive the well-merited reward of such wickedness committed against
+the Covenant-people, to whom they were so nearly related. Such an
+exhortation would have been out of place, after the wickedness had been
+committed.--The view of _Hofmann_ (which was revived by _Delitzsch_ in
+his treatise, "When did Obadiah prophesy?" [_Guerike's Zeitschrift_ 51,
+_Hft._ 1])--according to which the capture of Jerusalem by the
+Philistines and Arabians under Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi. 16 ff.) was the
+occasion of the prophecy before us, and according to which Obadiah is
+thus made the oldest among all the prophets in the Canon, and separated
+by nearly a century from the three prophets who preceded him--overlooks
+the fact that only cogent reasons could induce us to assume so isolated
+a position, since it is certainly not a matter of accident that the
+written prophecy began its course under the reign of Jeroboam and
+Uzziah. The guilt and punishment of Edom are, in like manner, spoken of
+in the Preterite; and it is inadmissible to understand the Preterites
+as historical, in so far as they refer to the guilt, and as
+prophetical, in so far as they refer to the punishment. The words, "Day
+of their destruction," in ver. 12, are decisive against every other
+catastrophe upon Judah, but that of the Chaldean. Ver. 20, when rightly
+interpreted, supposes the carrying away of Israel and Judah, and hence
+allows us to think only of the Assyro-Chaldean catastrophe. In ver. 21,
+Mount Zion is forsaken, and "the saviours" return to it from the land
+of captivity.
+
+In strict accordance with the position of the book in the Canon, is the
+fact, that Obadiah connects himself most closely with Joel, and,
+excepting him, among all the prophets, with Amos only; compare
+_Caspari_, S. 20 ff., 35; _Hävernick_, _Einleitung_ II. S. 318. Of
+greater importance than the coincidences in particulars, is the fact
+that the prophecy of Obadiah, upon the whole, connects itself most
+closely and immediately with the fourth (third) chapter of Joel--that
+in the prophecy of Obadiah, we have indeed a _variation_ on that
+chapter. The judgment upon Judah, which Joel announces in the first
+part, [Pg 401] is here supposed to have already taken place; and this
+might be done so much the rather, because, even in Joel, the prophetic
+_Plerophory_, with which rationalistic interpreters are so much
+puzzled, has changed the Future into the Present and Past--as, even
+there, the destruction of Jerusalem, and the overflowing of the whole
+country by the heathen, are represented as already existing. It is only
+the judgment upon the heathen, and the restoration of Israel, which
+Obadiah represents in his prophetic picture.
+
+Like Hosea (in the first three chapters), Joel, and Amos, so Obadiah
+also, received the mission to point out the catastrophe threatened by
+the world's power, even before the latter existed on the scene of
+history. It was to the Covenant-people a source of rich consolation
+that it was so clearly and distinctly foretold to them, even before it
+had an existence, and the points of view from which it must be regarded
+were opened up to them. He, however, distinctly points to one idea
+only, just because there were already predecessors to whose prophecies
+he could refer. He did not receive the mission to call to repentance,
+or to represent the judgment as a well-deserved punishment--although,
+_indirectly_, in him as well as in Joel, these thoughts also occur, as
+certainly as the supposed destruction of Judah and Israel could only be
+the punishment of their sin; he has to point out only the salvation
+subsequent to the overflowing by the heathen world, the conquering
+power of the kingdom of God which, in the end, will manifest itself,
+and deeply to impress upon the Covenant-people the words: θαρσεῖτε, ἐγὼ
+νενίκηκα τὸν κόσμον. The glaring contrast betwixt the _idea_--according
+to which the kingdom of God was to be all prevailing--and the
+_reality_, in which it is pressed into a corner, shall in future
+increase still more. Even from this corner, the people of God shall be
+driven. But death is the transition to life; the uttermost degree of
+sufferings, the forerunner of deliverance and salvation. Not a
+restoration only is in store for the people of God--they even obtain
+the dominion of the world; but to the heathen world, which is at enmity
+with God, their exaltation is a forerunner of destruction.
+
+All which Obadiah had to say in reference to the heathen, God-hating
+world, and to the form which, in future, Israel's [Pg 402] relation to
+it would assume, has been exemplified by him in the case of Edom. For
+the fact, that it is only the heathen power individualized which we
+have before us, is shown by the transition to the heathen in general in
+ver. 15, according to which, Edom comes into consideration only as a
+part of the whole: "For near is the day of the Lord upon _all the
+heathen_." So also is it in ver. 16: "For as ye[1] have drunk upon My
+holy mountain, so shall _all the heathen_ drink continually;[2] and
+they drink, and sup up, and they are as though they were not." When
+speaking of the guilt, he mentions Edom only; when speaking of
+punishment, he introduces all the heathen at once. According to ver.
+17, Israel shall occupy the possessions of _all the heathen_. And even
+the last words of the whole prophecy, "And the kingdom shall be the
+Lord's," show that it bears a universal character,--that in the case of
+Edom, we have only a principle exemplified which applies to all the
+enemies of the kingdom of God. The leading thought is: The kingdom of
+God shall obtain universal dominion, which follows the deepest
+abasement of the people of God, and of which the fullest and most
+perfect realization must be sought in Christ.
+
+The animating thought could be so much the better individualized in the
+case of Edom, as its natural relation to Israel was one of special
+nearness, and its hatred specially deep; and as, moreover, it at all
+times considered itself the rival of Israel, of whose advantages it was
+envious. That which Amos, the cotemporary of Obadiah, says of Edom in
+chap. i. 11--"He pursues his brother with the sword, and corrupts his
+compassions, and his anger tears perpetually, and he keeps his wrath
+for ever"--shows how exceedingly well he was fitted to be a
+representative of the enemies of the kingdom of God. It was so much the
+more obvious thus to represent Edom as a particular and individualizing
+exemplification of this principle, as the prophets of that period had
+not as yet received any more definite disclosures as to the threatening
+kingdoms of the future, while Edom, in his [Pg 403] hatred against the
+people of God, stood before their eyes. The germ of this is to be found
+in Joel iv. (iii.) 19, where Edom already appears as a representative
+and type of the God-hating heathen world, which is to be judged by the
+Lord, after the judgment upon Judah.
+
+In Obadiah, we find a fulness of remarkable glances into the
+future compressed within a narrow space. The chief events are the
+following:--1. The capture of Jerusalem, the total carrying away of the
+entire people, both of Judah and Israel, to a far distance, vers. 20,
+21. 2. The return of Israel, the cessation of the separation of the two
+kingdoms, ver. 18 (compare Hos. ii. 2 [i. 11]; Amos ix. 11, 12), and
+his elevation to the dominion of the world by the "Saviours," ver. 21.
+3. The judgment upon Edom by heathen nations, vers. 1-9. Jeremiah, in
+xxvii. 2 ff., compared with xxv., more distinctly points out the
+Chaldeans as the heathen instruments of the judgment upon Edom and all
+the people round about; and Matt. i. 3, 4, shows the weight of the
+sufferings which were inflicted by them upon Edom. 4. The occupation of
+the land of Edom by Judah. One realization of this prophecy took place
+in the time of the Maccabees; but we must not confine ourselves to
+this. As, in the main, Edom is only a type of the God-hating heathen
+world, the true and real fulfilment can be sought in Christ alone.
+Compare the remarks, p. 98, with reference to Moab in Balaam's
+prophecy.
+
+The prophecy of Obadiah is divided into three parts:--the destruction
+of Edom by heathen nations summoned by Jehovah, vers. 1-9; the cause of
+it, his wickedness against Judah, vers. 10-16; Judah, on the contrary,
+rises with Joseph from this humiliation, and becomes a conqueror of the
+world, vers. 17-21. This last part claims our closer consideration.
+
+Ver. 17. "_And upon Mount Zion shall be they that have escaped, and it
+is holy_ (compare Joel iii. 5, iv. 17 [ii. 32, iii. 17]), _and the
+house of Jacob occupies their possessions._"
+
+The suffix in מורשיהם refers to all the heathen in ver. 16. The kingdom
+shall be the Lord's, according to ver. 16, and the dominion of His
+people extends as far as His own. We have here the general prophecy;
+and in what immediately follows, the application to Edom. The first two
+clauses serve as a foundation for the third. The holiness has, so to
+speak, not only a [Pg 404] defensive, but also an offensive character.
+Its consequence is the dominion of the world.
+
+Ver. 18. "_And the house of Jacob becomes a fire, and the house of
+Joseph a flame, and the house of Esau stubble, and they kindle them,
+and devour them; and there shall not be any remaining to the house of
+Esau; for the Lord has spoken._"
+
+Besides the whole of the people, that part of them (the house of
+Joseph, the people of the ten tribes) is specially mentioned which one
+might have expected to be excluded. That there is none remaining to the
+house of Esau (and to all who are like him) agrees with the declaration
+uttered by Joel in iii. 5 (ii. 32): "Amongst those who are spared, is
+whomsoever the Lord calleth." They, however, whom the Lord calls, are,
+according to the same verse, they who call on the name of the Lord.
+But the characteristic of Edom is his hatred against the kingdom of
+God,--and that excludes both the calling on the Lord, and the being
+called by the Lord. The single individual, however, may come out of the
+community of his people, and enter into the territory of saving grace,
+as is shown by the example of Rahab. In the further description of the
+conquering power, which the people of God shall, in future, exercise,
+we are, in ver. 19, first met by Judah and Benjamin.
+
+Ver. 19. "_And they of the south possess the Mount of Esau, and they
+from the low region, the Philistines; and they_ (_i.e._, they of Judah,
+the whole, of whom they of the South and of the low region are parts
+only) _possess the fields of Ephraim, and the fields of Samaria, and
+Benjamin--Gilead._"
+
+It is obvious that we have here before us only an individualized
+representation of the thought already expressed in Gen. xxviii. 14:
+"And thy seed shall be as the dust of the earth, and thou shalt break
+forth to the East and to the West, to the North and to the South; and
+in thee, and in thy seed, all the families of the earth are blessed;"
+compare also Is. liv. 3: "Thou shalt break forth on the right hand and
+on the left, and thy seed shall inherit the Gentiles."--נגב is the
+south part of Judea, at the borders of Edom; שפלה the low region on the
+West, at the borders of the Philistines. As, according to the vision of
+the prophet, the exaltation of Judah is preceded by his total overthrow
+and captivity (compare vers. 11-14, 20, 21), the tribe of Judah, which,
+before the catastrophe, was settled in [Pg 405] the South and low
+region, is here meant. That את can be taken only as the sign of the
+Accus., and "Mount of Esau," accordingly, as the object only, appears
+from ver. 20, according to which the South is vacant. Judah thus
+extends in the South, over Edom, in the West, over Philistia, in the
+North, over the former territory of the ten tribes, and hence also over
+the territory of Benjamin, which formerly lay betwixt Judah and Joseph.
+Benjamin is indemnified by Gilead. The whole of Canaan comes thus to
+Judah and Benjamin. Joseph, to whose damage, according to ver. 18, this
+enlargement of Judah's territory must lead, must be transferred
+altogether to heathenish territory. We expect to find, in ver. 20, how
+he is indemnified.
+
+Ver. 20. "_And the exiles of this host of the children of Israel (shall
+possess) what are Canaanites unto Zarephath, and the exiles of
+Jerusalem that are in Sepharad shall possess the cities of the South._"
+
+The circumstance that the Athnach stands below ספרד indicates that ירשו
+implies the common property of the exiles of this host, and of the
+exiles of Jerusalem. The "Sons of Israel," in this context, can only be
+the ten tribes; for they are here indemnified for their former
+territory, which, according to ver. 19, has become the possession of
+Judah. "The exiles of this host" is equivalent to: "This whole host of
+exiles,"--the whole mass of the ten tribes, carried away according to
+prophetic foresight (compare Amos v. 27: "And I carry you away beyond
+Damascus, saith the Lord, the God of hosts"), as opposed to a piecemeal
+carrying away, such as had once already taken place before the time of
+the prophet in respect to Judah, but not in respect to the children of
+Israel; compare Joel iv. (iii.) 6. That the "Canaanites unto
+Zarephath"--_i.e._, the Phœnicians, whose territory formed part
+of the promised land, but had never, in former times, come into
+the real possession of Israel--are the objects of conquest, and
+that, hence, we cannot explain as _Caspari_ does, "Who are among
+the Canaanites, even unto Zarephath," is evident from the circumstance,
+that all the neighbouring nations appear as objects of the conquering
+activity;--that the great mass of the Israelitish exiles were not among
+the Canaanites;--that the ב could, in that case, not have been
+omitted;--and that the South country is too small [Pg 406] a space for
+the children of Israel, and of Jerusalem together. Sepharad, the very
+name of which is scarcely known, is mentioned as a particularizing
+designation of the utmost distance. The description becomes complete by
+its returning to the South country, from which it had proceeded. The
+South country penetrates to Edom; the inhabitants of Jerusalem extend
+beyond the South country.
+
+Ver. 21. "_And saviours go up on Mount Zion to judge the Mount of Esau,
+and the kingdom shall be the Lord's._"
+
+עלו is to be accounted for from the consideration, that the deliverance
+and salvation imply the entire overthrow--the total carrying away of
+the people. The Saviour κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν is hidden beneath the "saviours;"
+compare Judges iii. 9, 15; Neh. ix. 27. But even here, everything is
+connected with human individuals; and the more glorious the salvation
+which the prophet beholds in the future, viz., the absolute dominion of
+the Lord, and His people, over the world, the less can it be conceived
+that the prophet should have expected the realization of it by a
+collective body of mortal men without a leader. But the plural
+intimates that the antitype is not without types,--that the head cannot
+be conceived of without members. In Jer. xxiii. 4, we read: "And I
+raise up shepherds over them which shall feed them;" and immediately
+afterwards the one good shepherd--Christ--forms the subject of
+discourse.--"And the kingdom shall be the Lord's."--His dominion, till
+_then_ concealed, shall now be publicly manifested, and the people of
+the earth shall acknowledge it, either spontaneously, or by constraint.
+The coming of this kingdom has begun with Christ, and, in Him, waits
+for its consummation. The opinion of _Caspari_, that the contents of
+vers. 19 and 20, as well as the close of this prophecy, belong
+altogether to the future, rests on a false, literal explanation, the
+inadmissibility of which is sufficiently evident from the circumstance
+that the Edomites, Philistines, and Canaanites have long since
+disappeared from the scene of history; so that there exists no longer
+the possibility of a literal fulfilment.
+
+
+Footnote 1: The fact that, _everywhere_, the discourse is addressed to
+the Edomites, proves that here also Edom is addressed. The כי and the
+כאשר sin this verse, compared with those in the preceding verse,
+likewise suggest this. Compare, moreover, Joel iv. (iii.) 3, to which
+passage there is already an allusion in ver. 11.
+
+Footnote 2: Namely, the cup of punishment, of divine wrath.
+
+
+[Pg 407]
+
+
+                           THE PROPHET JONAH.
+
+It has been asserted without any sufficient reason, that Jonah is older
+than Hosea, Joel, Amos, and Obadiah,--that he is the oldest among the
+prophets whose written monuments have been preserved to us. The passage
+in 2 Kings xiv. 25, where it is said, that Jonah, the son of Amittai
+the prophet, prophesied to Jeroboam the happy success of his arms, and
+the restoration of the ancient boundaries of Israel, and that this
+prophecy was confirmed by the event, cannot decide in favour of this
+assertion, because it cannot be proved that the victories of Jeroboam
+belonged to the _beginning_ of his reign. On the other hand, it is
+opposed, _first_, by the position of the book in the collection of
+the Minor Prophets, which, throughout, is chronologically arranged,
+and which is tantamount to an express testimony that Jonah wrote
+_after_ Hosea, Joel, Amos, and Obadiah. _Then_,--the circumstance that
+Nineveh is mentioned here, and that too in a way which implies that,
+even at that time, the hostile relations of the Assyrians to the
+Covenant-people had already begun, while in the first part of Hosea, in
+Joel, Amos, and Obadiah, no reference to the Assyrians is as yet found.
+Even ancient interpreters, as _Chr. B. Michaelis_, _Crusius_ (in the
+_Theol. Proph._ iii. S. 38), inferred from this mention of Nineveh,
+that the book had been composed in consequence of the first invasion of
+the Assyrians under Menahem, who ascended the throne 13 years after the
+death of Jeroboam II. _Finally_,--the book begins with _and_. Wherever
+else, in the canonical books of the Old Testament, such a beginning
+occurs, it indicates a resumption of, and a junction with, former links
+in the chain of sacred literature; compare Judges i. 1; 1 Sam. i. 1;
+Ezek. i. 1. That the expression, "And it came to pass," with which the
+book opens, is intended to establish the connection with the prophecy
+of Obadiah, which occupies the immediately preceding place in the
+Canon, is intimated by the internal relation of the two books to each
+other. The prophecy of Obadiah bears, throughout, a hostile aspect to
+the heathen world; it appears to him as the object only of God's
+judging activity. Jonah, on the other hand, received the mission,
+distinctly to point out the other aspect of the matter, and [Pg 408]
+thereby, not indeed to correct, but certainly to supplement his
+predecessor.
+
+The time was approaching when the heathen world was to pour out its
+floods upon the people of God. It was obvious that the position of
+Israel towards it became one altogether repulsive, that the
+susceptibility of the heathen for salvation was denied, and God's mercy
+was limited to Israel. Narrow-minded exclusiveness received a powerful
+support from the oppression and haughtiness of the heathen. Whilst
+other prophets opposed such exclusiveness by their words, by announcing
+the extension of salvation to the Gentiles, Jonah received the mission
+to illustrate, by a symbolical action, the capacity of the heathen for
+salvation, and their future participation in it. The effect of this
+must necessarily have been so much the greater, as the whole of the
+little book is exclusively devoted to this subject, as it appeared at
+the first beginning of the conflict, and as Nineveh is mentioned here,
+for the first time, in so peaceable and conciliatory a relation, and in
+close harmony and connection with the announcement of the willing
+submission of the heathen world to the dominion of Shiloh, spoken of in
+Gen. xlix. 10. It is remarkably impressive to see how spirit here
+triumphs over nature--a triumph which appears so much the brighter
+because the prophet himself pays his tribute to nature; for it was
+because he listened to the voice of nature, that, at first, he intended
+to flee to Tarshish. The reason why the commission of the Lord was so
+disagreeable to him, we learn from chap. iv. 2. He was afraid lest the
+preaching of repentance, which was committed to him, might turn away
+the judgments of the Lord from Nineveh, the metropolis of that country
+which threatened destruction to Israel. He knew the deep corruption of
+his own people, and foreboded the issue which the extension of the
+means of grace to the Gentiles might very easily bring about in the
+end. But yet, he felt almost irresistibly impelled to carry out the
+commission of God, and in order to cut himself off from the possibility
+of following the voice which called him to the east, he resolved to go
+to the far distant west. The voice, however, followed him even there;
+but the farther he advanced on his journey, the more difficult it
+became for him to follow it. At a later period, when the Lord granted
+mercy to Nineveh, he was angry and wished to die, not by any means
+because he [Pg 409] felt himself injured in his honour as a prophet (as
+was erroneously supposed, even by _Calvin_), but because he grudged to
+the Gentiles the mercy which he considered as a prerogative of Israel
+only, and because he was anxious for the destruction of Nineveh as the
+metropolis of that kingdom which was destined to be the rod of
+chastisement for his own people. He was thus actuated by the same
+ardent love for his people which called forth the wish of St Paul, that
+he might become an anathema for his brethren,--by the same disposition
+of mind which prevailed in the elder brother at the return of the
+prodigal son (Luke xv. 25 ff.), and which at first would manifest
+itself even in Peter, Acts x. 14 ff. The Jewish sentence (_Carpzov.
+Introd._ 3, p. 149), "Jonah was anxious for the glory of the Son, but
+he did not seek the glory of the Father," is very significant. Jonah
+exhibits, in a very striking way, the thoughts of his old man, in order
+that Israel might recognise themselves in his image. But we are not at
+liberty to say that the prophet represented the people only. It is true
+that, as one of the people, he also entertained those thoughts; but,
+besides these, he entertained other thoughts also. The voices of the
+Lord which he heard were spiritual; and such voices can be heard only
+when there is something akin in the heart. Not even with one step did
+Jonah touch the territory of the false prophets, who prophesied out of
+their own hearts. He retained all his human weakness to himself, and
+the Word of God stood by the side of it in unclouded brightness, and
+obtained absolute victory.
+
+There can be no doubt that we have before us in the Book of Jonah the
+description of a symbolical action,--that his mission to Nineveh has an
+object distinct from the mission itself,--that it is not the result
+attained by it in the first instance which is the essential point, but
+that it is its aim to bring to light certain truths, and in the form of
+fact, to prophesy future things. The truths are these:--_First_, that
+the Gentiles are by no means so unsusceptible of the higher truth as
+vulgar prejudice imagined them to be. This was manifested by the
+conduct of the sailors, who, at last, offer sacrifices and even vows to
+Jehovah; but, in a more striking manner, by the deep impression which
+the discourse of Jonah produced upon the Ninevites. In this we have the
+actual proof of Ezek. iii. 5, 6, where the prophet represents his
+mission as one of peculiar difficulty--more [Pg 410] difficult, even,
+than it would have been if addressed to the Gentiles: "Had I sent thee
+to them, surely they would have hearkened to thee." _Further_,--that it
+is not in His relation to Israel only, but in His relation to the
+Gentiles also, that the Lord is "gracious and merciful, slow to anger
+and of great kindness," chap. iv. 2. The view which these words, at
+once, open up into the future, is, that at some future period the Lord
+will grant to the Gentiles the preaching of His word, and admission
+into His kingdom. The glory of His mercy and grace would have been
+darkened, if the revelation of them had been for ever limited to a
+particular, small portion of the human race. Nineveh, the
+representative of the heathen multitude, is very significantly called
+the "great city" at the very outset, in i. 2, and "a great city for
+God," in iii. 3, for which, as _Michaelis_ remarks, God specially
+cared, on account of the great number of souls; compare iv. 11.
+
+If the symbolical and prophetical character of the book be denied, the
+fact of its having its place among the prophetical, and not among the
+historical, books, admits of no explanation at all. For so much is
+evident, that this fact cannot be satisfactorily accounted for by the
+circumstance that the book reports the events which happened to a
+prophet. The sound explanation has been already given by _Marckius_:
+"The book is, in a great measure, historical, but in such a manner,
+that in the history itself there is hidden the mystery of the greatest
+prophecy, and that Jonah proves himself to be a true prophet, by the
+events which happened to him, not less than by his utterances." A
+similar explanation is given by _Carpzovius_: "By his own example, as
+well as by the event itself, he bore witness that it was the will of
+God that all men should be saved, and should come to the knowledge of
+the truth," 1 Tim. ii. 4.
+
+We are led to the same conclusion by the representation itself. This
+differs very widely from that given in the historical books. The
+objection raised by _Hitzig_ against the historical truth,--viz., that
+the narrative is fragmentary,--that it wants completeness,--that a
+number of events are communicated only in so far as is required by the
+object of gaining a foundation for the graphic representation of the
+doctrinal contents,--cannot be set aside so easily as is done by
+_Hävernich_ when he says: [Pg 411] "By arguments of a nature so flimsy,
+suspicions may be raised against the truth of every historical report."
+We cannot but confess that, to the writer, history is indeed a means
+only of representing a thought to which he is anxious to give currency
+in the Church of God. It is just for this reason that he abstains from
+graphically enlarging, because that would have been an obstacle to his
+purpose. The narrative of a symbolical action which took place
+outwardly, comes, in this respect, under the same law as the narrative
+of a symbolical action belonging to the internal territory, and to that
+of the parable. The narrative would lose the character of perspicuity
+which is so necessary for the whole matter, if it were complete in the
+subordinate circumstances.
+
+It also tells in favour of the symbolical character of the history of
+Jonah, that the missionary activity on behalf of the Gentiles does not
+properly belong to the vocation of the prophets, their mission being to
+the two houses of Israel only. In the entire history, not even a single
+example is to be found of a prophet who, for the good of the heathen
+world itself, went out among them. The history of Elisha, in 2 Kings
+viii. 7 ff., has, without sufficient reason, been adduced by
+_Hävernick_. According to the visions of the prophets themselves, the
+conversion of the heathen is not to be accomplished _at present_, but
+in the Messianic time, and by the Messiah Himself. If, then, the book
+itself is not to stand altogether isolated, the symbolical character of
+Jonah's mission must be acknowledged. But then it is only in the form
+that it differs from the announcements of the extension of salvation to
+the heathen also,--announcements which occur in the other prophets
+also. That which these exhibited in words merely, is here made
+conspicuous by deeds. The influence thereby produced upon the heathen
+appears then only as the means, while the real purpose is to make an
+important truth familiar to the Congregation of God, and, by a striking
+fact, to remove the prejudices which prevailed in it.
+
+_Finally_,--If the symbolical character of the facts be denied, the
+mission of Jonah appears to be almost divested of every aim; for the
+good emotions of the crew, and the repentance of the Ninevites,
+evidently did not lead to any lasting result. If anything else were
+aimed at than the prefiguring of future events, the prophet might
+better have stayed at home; an unassuming [Pg 412] ministry in some
+corner among the Covenant-people would have carried along with it a
+greater reward.
+
+If, on the other hand, the symbolical character of the history of Jonah
+be admitted, remarkable parallels in the history of Jesus present
+themselves. The Saviour, in the days of His flesh, was satisfied with
+the prophetic intimation of the future farther extension of His
+salvation. That which He Himself did for this extension, in those
+particular cases where the faith of non-Israelites obtruded itself upon
+Him, must, in its isolation, be viewed as an embodiment of that
+intimation,--as a prophecy by deeds. He says in Matt. xv. 24: "I am not
+sent but to the lost sheep of the house of Israel;" but if,
+nevertheless. He purposely makes His abode in the territory of Tyre and
+Sidon; if there He hears the prayer of the Canaanitish woman to heal
+her daughter, after having first tried her faith, then His purpose
+evidently is: That His prophecy in words concerning the extension of
+salvation to the Gentiles, might find a support in His prophecy in
+deeds. Jesus, prefiguring the future doings of His servants, passed
+over the boundaries of the Gentiles. Whilst the Jews had rejected the
+salvation offered to them, and forced Jesus to retire into concealment,
+the heathen woman comes full of faith, and seeks Him in His
+concealment. The Canaanitish woman is a representative of the heathen
+world, the future faith of which she was called to prefigure by
+sustaining the trial. From her example, the Apostles were to learn what
+might be expected from the Gentiles when the time should arrive for
+proclaiming the Gospel to them also. In Matt. x. 5, 6, the Lord speaks
+to the Apostles: "Go not in the way of the Gentiles, and into any of
+the cities of the _Samaritans_ enter ye not; but go rather to the lost
+sheep of the house of Israel." His own conduct, however, as it is
+reported in John iv., stands in contradiction to this command to His
+Apostles, so long as its prophetical significance is not acknowledged.
+That which was, on a large scale, to be done by Christ in the state of
+glorification, was prefigured by Him, on a smaller scale, in the state
+of humiliation. The ministry of Christ in Samaria bears the same
+relation to the later mission among this people, that the single
+instances of Christ's raising the dead do to the general resurrection.
+The Lord afterwards did not foster the germs which had come forth among
+the Samaritans; He, in the meantime, left them altogether [Pg 413] to
+their fate. That prelude was quite sufficient for the object which He
+then had in view, and nothing further could be done without violating
+the rights of the Covenant-people, to which, in the conversation as
+recorded by John, the Lord as expressly pays attention, as He does in
+Matt. x.
+
+
+                           THE PROPHET MICAH.
+
+                          PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
+
+Micah signifies: "Who is like Jehovah;" and by this name, the prophet
+is consecrated to the incomparable God, just as Hosea was to the
+helping God, and Nahum to the comforting God. He prophesied, according
+to the inscription, under Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. We are not,
+however, entitled, on this account, to dissever his prophecies, and to
+assign particular discourses to the reign of each of these kings. On
+the contrary, the entire collection forms only one whole. At the
+termination of his prophetic ministry, under Hezekiah, the prophet
+committed to writing everything which was of importance for all coming
+time that had been revealed to him during the whole duration of that
+ministry. He collected into one comprehensive picture all the detached
+visions which had been granted to him in manifold repetition; giving us
+the sum and substance (of which nothing has been lost in the case of
+any of the men inspired by God) of what was spoken at different times,
+and omitting all which was accidental, and purely local and temporary.
+
+This view, which alone is the correct one, and which contributes so
+largely to the right understanding of the prophet, has been already
+advanced by several of the older scholars. Thus _Lightfoot_ (_Ordo
+temporum_, opp. i. p. 99) remarks: "It is easier to conceive that the
+matter of this whole book represents the substance of the prophecy
+which he uttered under these various kings, than to determine which of
+the chapters of this book were uttered under the particular reign of
+each of these kings." _Majus_ also (_Economia temporum_, p. 898) says:
+"He repeated, at a subsequent period, what he had spoken at different
+[Pg 414] times, and under different kings." In modern times, however,
+this view had been generally abandoned; and although, at present, many
+critics are disposed to return to it, _Hitzig_ and _Maurer_ still
+assert, that the book was composed at different periods.
+
+We shall now endeavour to prove the unity of the book, _first_, from
+the prophecies themselves. If we were entitled to separate them at all,
+according to time and circumstances, we could form a division into
+three discourses only; viz., chap. i. and ii.; chap. iii.-v.; and chap.
+vi. and vii. For, 1. Each of these discourses forms a whole, complete
+in itself, and in which the various elements of the prophetic
+discourse--reproof, threatening, promise--are repeated. If these
+discourses be torn asunder, we get only the _lacera membra_ of a
+prophetic discourse. 2. Each of these three discourses, forming an
+harmonious whole, begins with שמעו, _hear_. That this is not merely
+accidental, appears from the beginning of the first discourse, שמעו
+עמים כלם, "Hear, all ye people." These words literally agree with those
+which were uttered by the prophet's elder namesake, when, according to
+1 Kings xxii. 28, he called upon the whole world to attend to the
+remarkable struggle betwixt the true and false prophets. It is
+evidently on purpose that the prophet begins with the same words as
+those with which the elder Micah had closed his discourse to Ahab, and,
+it may be, his whole prophetic ministry. By this very circumstance he
+gives intimation of what may be expected from him, shows that his
+activity is to be considered as a continuation of that of his
+predecessor, who was so jealous for God, and that he had more in common
+with him than the mere name. _Rosenmüller_ (_Prol. ad Mich._ p. 8) has
+asserted, indeed, that these words are only put into the mouth of the
+elder Micah, and that they are taken from the passage under
+consideration. But the reason which he adduces in support of this
+assertion, viz., that it cannot be conceived how it could ever have
+entered the mind of that elder Micah to call upon all people to be
+witnesses of an announcement which concerned Ahab only, needs no
+detailed refutation. Why then is it that in Deut. xxxii. 1, Is. i. 2,
+heaven and earth are called upon to be witnesses of an announcement
+which concerned the Jewish people only? Who does not see that, to the
+prophet, Israel appears as too small an audience [Pg 415] for the
+announcement of the great decision which he has just uttered; in the
+same manner as the Psalmist (compare, _e.g._, Ps. xcvi. 3) exhorts to
+proclaim to the Gentiles the great deeds of the Lord, because Palestine
+is too narrow for them?--But now, if it be established that it was with
+a distinct object that the prophet employed the words, "Hear ye," does
+not the circumstance that they are found at the commencement of the
+three discourses, which are complete in themselves, afford sufficient
+ground for the assumption, that it was the intention of the prophet,
+not indeed absolutely to limit them to the beginning of a new discourse
+(compare, on the contrary, iii. 9[1]), but yet, not to commence a new
+discourse without them; so that the want of them is decisive against
+the supposition of a new section? 3. As soon as an attempt is made to
+break up any of these three discourses, many particular circumstances
+are at once found, upon a careful examination, to prove a connection of
+the sections so close, as not to admit of a separation without
+mutilating them. Thus chap. i. and ii. cannot be separated from each
+other, for the reason that the promise in ii. 12, 13, refers to the
+threatening in i. 5. That promise refers to all Israel, just as does
+the threatening in chap. i.; whilst in the threatening and reproof in
+chap. ii. the eye of the prophet is directed only to the main object of
+his ministry, viz., to Judah.
+
+But even these three divisions, which hitherto we have proved to be the
+only divisions that do exist,[2] can be considered as such, in so far
+only as in them the discourse takes a fresh start, and enters upon a
+new sphere. They cannot be considered as complete in themselves, and
+separated from one another by the [Pg 416] difference of the periods of
+their composition; for even in them there are found traces of a close
+connection. Even the uniform beginning by "Hear" may be considered as
+such. The second discourse in iii. 1 begins with ואמר; but the _Fut._
+with _Vav convers._ always, and without exception, connects a new
+action with a preceding one, and can never be used where there is an
+absolutely new commencement. Its significance here, where it is used in
+the transition from the promise to a new reproof and threatening, has
+been very strikingly brought out thus, by _Ch. Bened. Michaelis_: "But
+while we are yet but too far away from those longed-for times, which
+have just been promised, I _say_ in the meanwhile, viz., in order to
+complete the list of the iniquities of evil princes and teachers, begun
+in chap. ii." The words of iii. 1, "Hear, I pray you, ye heads of
+Jacob, and ye princes of the house of Israel," have an evident
+reference to ii. 12: "I will assemble Jacob all of thee, I will gather
+the remnant of Israel." In the new threatening, the prophet chooses
+quite the same designation as in the preceding promise, in order to
+prevent the latter from giving support to false security. It is not by
+any means Samaria alone, but all Israel, which is the object of divine
+punishment. It is only a remnant of Israel that shall be gathered. But
+the reference to the preceding discourse is still more obvious in ver.
+4: "Then they shall cry unto the Lord, and He will not answer; and may
+He hide[3] His face from them at this time, as they have behaved
+themselves ill towards Him in their doings." Now, as in vers. 1-3
+divine judgments had not yet been spoken of, the terms "then," and "at
+this time," can refer only to the threatenings of punishment in ii. 3
+ff., which have a special reference to the ungodly nobles.
+
+Thus the result presented at the beginning, is confirmed to us by
+internal reasons. The inscription[4] announces the oracles [Pg 417] of
+God which came to Micah under the reign of three kings; while the
+examination of the contents proves that the collection forms a
+connected whole, written _uno tenore_. How, now, can these two facts be
+reconciled in any other way than by supposing that we have here before
+us a comprehensive picture of the prophetic ministry of Micah, the
+single component parts of which are at once contemporaneous, and yet
+belonging to different periods? This supposition, moreover, affords us
+the advantage of being allowed to maintain all the historical
+references in their fullest import, without being led to disregard the
+one, while we give attention to the other; for nothing is, in this
+case, more natural, than that the prophet connects with one another
+different prophecies uttered at different times.
+
+The weight of these internal reasons is increased, however, by external
+reasons which are equally strong. When Jeremiah was called to account
+for his prophecy concerning the destruction of the city, the elders,
+for his justification, appealed to the [Pg 418] entirely similar
+prophecy of Micah in iii. 12: "Therefore shall Zion for your sake be
+ploughed as a field, and Jerusalem shall become heaps of ruins, and the
+mountain of the house as the high places of the forest." In Jer. xxvi.
+18, 19, it is said, "Micah prophesied in the days of Hezekiah, king of
+Judah, and spake to all the people of Judah, etc. Did Hezekiah, king of
+Judah, and all Judah, put him to death? Did he not fear the Lord, and
+besought the Lord, and the Lord repented Him of the evil which He had
+pronounced against them?" All interpreters admit that this passage
+forms an authority for the composition of the discourse in iii.-v.
+under Hezekiah; but we cannot well limit it in this way, we must extend
+it to the whole collection. For, even apart from the reasons by which
+we proved that the entire book forms one closely connected whole, it is
+most improbable that the elders should have known, by an oral
+tradition, the exact time of the composition of one single discourse,
+which has no special date at the head of it. Is it not a far more
+natural supposition, that they considered the collection as a whole, of
+which the component parts had, indeed, been delivered by the prophet at
+a former period, but had been repeated, and united into one description
+under Hezekiah; and that they mentioned Hezekiah, partly because it
+could not be determined with certainty whether this special prediction
+had already been uttered under one of his predecessors, and, if so,
+under which of them; and partly, because among the three kings
+mentioned in the inscription, Hezekiah alone formed an ecclesiastical
+authority?
+
+But just as that quotation in Jeremiah furnishes us with a proof that
+all the prophecies of Micah, which have been preserved to us, were
+committed to writing under Hezekiah, so we can, in a similar manner,
+prove from Isaiah, chap. ii., that they were, at least in part, uttered
+at a previous period. The problem of the relation of Is. ii. 2-4 to
+Micah iv. 1-3, cannot be solved in any other way than by supposing,
+that this portion of a prophecy which, in Jeremiah, is assigned to the
+reign of Hezekiah, was uttered by Micah as early as under the reign of
+Jotham, and that soon after it Isaiah, by placing the words of Micah at
+the head of his own prophecies, expressed that which had come to him
+also in inward vision; for, being already known to the people, they
+could not fail to produce their impression. [Pg 419] Every other
+solution can be proved to be untenable. 1. Least of all is there any
+refutation needed of the hypothesis which is now generally abandoned,
+viz., that the passage in Isaiah is the original one; compare, against
+this hypothesis, _Kleinert_, _Aechtheit des Jes._ S. 356; _Caspari_, S.
+444. 2. Equally objectionable is another supposition, that both the
+prophets had made use of some older prophecy--one uttered by Joel, as
+_Hitzig_ and _Ewald_ have maintained. The connection in which these
+verses stand in Micah, is by far too close for such a supposition. We
+could not, indeed, so confidently advance this argument, if the
+connection consisted only in what is commonly brought forward, viz.,
+that upon the monitory announcement of punishment in chap. iii., there
+follows, in chap. iv. 1 ff., the _consolatory_ promise of a glorious
+future for the godly, and that the ו in ver. 1 evidently connects it
+with what immediately precedes. But the reference and connection are
+far more close. The promise in iv. 1, 2, is, throughout, contrasted
+with the threatening in iii. 12. "The mountain of the house shall
+become as the high places of the forest,"--hence, despised, solitary,
+and desolate. In iv. 1, there is opposed to it, "The mountain of the
+house of the Lord shall be established on the top of the mountains, and
+it shall be exalted above the hills, and upon it people shall flee
+together." "Zion shall be ploughed as a field, and Jerusalem become
+a heap of ruins." Contrasted with this, there is in iv. 2 the
+declaration: "For the law shall go forth of Zion, and the word of the
+Lord of Jerusalem." The desolate and despised place now becomes the
+residence of the Lord, from which He sends His commands over the whole
+earth, and of which the brilliant centre now is Jerusalem. In order to
+make this contrast so much the more obvious, the prophet begins, in
+the promise, with just the mountain of the temple, which, in the
+threatening, had occupied the last place; so that the opposites
+are brought into immediate connection. Nor is it certainly merely
+accidental that, in the threatening, he speaks of the mountain of the
+house only, while, in the promise, he speaks of the mountain of the
+house of the Lord; compare Matt. xxiii. 38, where "your house,"
+according to _Bengel_, "is the house which, in other passages, is
+called the house of the Lord," just as the Lord, in Exod. xxxii. 7,
+says to Moses, "_Thy people._" The temple must have ceased to be the
+house of the Lord, before it would be destroyed; for [Pg 420] which
+reason, as we are told In Ezekiel, the Shechinah removed from it before
+the Babylonish destruction. And in point of form, the יהיה in iv. 1 so
+much the more corresponds with the תהיה in iii. 12, as from the latter
+יהיה must be supplied for the last clause of the verse; compare
+_Caspari_, S. 445. That ver. 5 must not be separated from the prophecy
+which Isaiah had before him, is seen from a comparison of Is. ii. 5: "O
+house of Jacob, come ye and let us walk in the light of the Lord."
+According to the true interpretation, "the light of the Lord" signifies
+His grace, and the blessings which, according to what precedes, are to
+be bestowed by it; and "to walk in the light of the Lord," means to
+participate in the enjoyment of grace. These words, accordingly, are
+closely related to those in Mic. iv. 5: "For all the people shall walk,
+every one in the name of his god, and we will walk in the name of the
+Lord our God for ever and ever:" _i.e._, the fate of the people in the
+heathen world corresponds to the nature of their gods; because these
+are nothing, they too shall sink down into nothingness, while Israel
+shall partake in the glory of his God. There is the same thought, and
+in essentially the same dress, both in Isaiah and Micah,--only that the
+words which in Micah embody a pure promise, are transformed by Isaiah
+into an exhortation that Israel should not, by their own fault, forfeit
+this preference over the heathen nations, that they should not wantonly
+wander away into dark solitudes, from the path of light which the Lord
+had opened up before them. This transformation in Isaiah, however, may
+be accounted for by the consideration, that he was anxious to prepare
+the way for the reproofs which now follow from ver. 6; whilst Micah,
+who had already premised them, could continue in the promise. It is
+also in favour of the originality of the passage in Micah, that the
+text which, in Isaiah, appears as a variation, appears as original in
+Micah; so that both cannot be equally dependent upon a third writer. 3.
+There now remains only the view of _Kleinert_, according to which the
+prophecy of Micah, in chap. iii.-v., was first uttered under the reign
+of Hezekiah; and, under the reign of the same king, but somewhat later,
+the prophecy, in chap. ii.-iv. of Isaiah, who avails himself of it.
+But, upon a closer examination, this view also proves untenable.
+Isaiah's description of the condition of the people in a moral point of
+view, the general spread of idolatry [Pg 421] and vice, exclude every
+other period in the reign of Hezekiah except the first beginning of it,
+when the effect and influence of the time of Ahaz were still felt; so
+that even _Kleinert_ (p. 364) is obliged to assume, that not only the
+prophecy of Micah, but also that of Isaiah, were uttered in the first
+months of the reign of this king. But other difficulties--and these
+altogether insuperable--stand in the way of this assumption. In the
+whole section of Isaiah, the nation appears as rich, flourishing, and
+powerful. This is most strongly expressed in chap. ii. 7: "His land is
+full of silver and gold, there is no end to his treasure; his land is
+full of horses, and there is no end to his chariots." To this may be
+added the description of the consequences of wealth, and of the
+unbounded luxury, in iii. 16 ff.; and the threatening of the withdrawal
+of all power, and all riches, as a strong contrast with their present
+condition, upon which they, in their blindness, rested the hope of
+their security, and hence imagined that they stood in no need of the
+assistance of the Lord, iii. 1 ff. Now this description is so
+inapplicable to the commencement of Hezekiah's reign, that the very
+opposite of it should rather be expected. The invasion by the allied
+Syrians and Israelites, the oppression by the Assyrians, and the
+tribute which they had to pay to them, the internal administration,
+which was bad beyond example, and the curse of God resting on all their
+enterprises and efforts, had exhausted, during the reign of the ungodly
+Ahaz, the treasures which had been collected under Uzziah and Jotham,
+and had dried up the sources of prosperity. He had left the kingdom to
+his successors in a condition of utter decay. To these, other reasons
+still may be added, which are in favour of the composition of it under
+Jotham, while they are against its composition under Hezekiah;
+especially the circumstance of their standing at the beginning of the
+collection of the first twelve chapters (a circumstance which is of
+great weight, inasmuch as these chapters are, beyond any doubt,
+arranged chronologically), but still more, the indefiniteness and
+generality in the threatening of the divine judgments, which the
+prophecy of Micah has in common with the nearly contemporaneous
+chapters i. and v. of Isaiah, whilst the threatenings out of the first
+period of the reign of Ahaz have at once a far more definite character.
+By these considerations we are involuntarily led back to a period when
+Isaiah still [Pg 422] pre-eminently exercised the office of exhorting
+and reproving, and had not yet been favoured with special revelations
+concerning the events of a future which, at that time, was as yet
+rather distant,--perhaps as far as the time when Jotham administered
+the government for his father, who was at that time still alive;
+compare 2 Kings xv. 5. By this hypothesis. Is. iii. 12 is more
+satisfactorily explained than by any other; and we are no longer under
+the necessity of asserting, that the chronological order is interrupted
+by chap. vi.; for this certainly could not have been intended by the
+collector. The solemn call and consecration of the prophet to his
+office, accompanied by an increased bestowal of grace, must be
+carefully distinguished from the ordinary ones which were common to him
+with all the other prophets. But if the prophecy of Isaiah was uttered
+as early as under Jotham (which has lately been most satisfactorily
+proved by _Caspari_ in his _Beiträge zur Einl. in das Buch Jesaias_, S.
+234 ff.), that of Micah also must have existed at that time, and must
+have been in the mouths of the people. And since its composition is
+assigned to the reign of Hezekiah, it follows that the prophet
+delivered anew, under the reign of this king, the revelations which he
+had already received at an earlier period.
+
+It will not be possible to infer with certainty from vers. 6, 7, as
+_Caspari_ does, that the book was committed to writing before the
+destruction of Samaria, and hence, before the sixth year of Hezekiah.
+Since the book gives the sum and substance of what was prophesied under
+three kings, all that is implied in vers. 6, 7, is, that the
+destruction of Samaria was foretold by Micah; but the prophecy itself
+may have been committed to writing even after the fulfilment had taken
+place. But, on the other hand, according to the analogy of Is. xxxix.,
+and xiii. and xiv., we are led by iv. 9, 10, to the time of
+Sennacherib's invasion of Judea, in which the prophetic spirit of
+Isaiah likewise most richly displayed itself, and in which he was
+privileged with a glance into the far distant future.
+
+The exordium in chap. i. and ii., and the close in vi. and vii., are
+distinguished by the generality of the threatening and promise which
+prevails in them. They have this in common with the first five chapters
+of Isaiah, and thus certainly afford us pre-eminently an image of the
+prophetic ministry of Micah, in the time previous to the Assyrian
+invasion; whilst the main [Pg 423] body (especially from iv. 8)
+represents to us particularly the character of the prophecy during the
+Assyrian period.
+
+We shall now attempt to give a survey of the contents of Micah's
+prophecy.
+
+Upon Samaria and Jerusalem--the kingdom of the ten tribes, and Judah--a
+judgment by foreign enemies is to come. Total destruction, and the
+carrying away of the inhabitants, will be the issue of this judgment,
+and, as regards Judah more particularly, the total overthrow of the
+dominion of the Davidic dynasty.
+
+Samaria is first visited by this judgment. This is indicated by the
+fact that it is first mentioned in the inscription, and that in i. 6,
+7, the judgment upon Samaria is, first of all, described; but
+especially by the circumstance that Samaria, in i. 5, appears as the
+chief seat of corruption for the whole people, whence it flowed upon
+Judah also, i. 14, and particularly, vi. 16. We expect that where the
+carcases first were, there the eagles would first be gathered together.
+
+As the first, and principal instrument of the destructive judgment upon
+Judah, Babylon is mentioned in iv. 10.
+
+As the representative of the world's power, at the time then present,
+Asshur appears in v. 4, 5. If destruction is to fall upon the kingdom
+of the ten tribes _before_ it falls upon Judah--which is most
+distinctly foretold by Hosea in i. 4-7--then, nothing was more obvious
+than to think of Asshur as the instrument of the judgment. That to
+which Micah, on this point, only alludes, is more fully expanded by
+Isaiah.
+
+Judah is delivered from Babylon, but without a restoration of the
+kingdom, iv. 10, compared with ver. 14 (v. 1).
+
+But a second catastrophe comes upon Judah, inasmuch as many heathens
+gather themselves against Jerusalem, with the intention of desecrating
+it, but yet in such a manner that, by the assistance of the Lord, it
+comes forth victoriously from this severe attack, chap. iv. 11-13. Then
+follows a third catastrophe, in which Judah becomes anew and totally
+subject to the world's power, iv. 14 (v. 1).
+
+From the deepest abasement, however, the Congregation of the Lord rises
+to the highest glory, inasmuch as the dominion returns to the old
+Davidic race, iv. 8. From the little Bethlehem, the native place of
+David, where his race, sunk back again into [Pg 424] the lowliness of
+private life, has resumed its seat, a new and glorious Ruler proceeds,
+born, and at the same time eternal, and clothed with the fulness of the
+glory of the Lord, v. 1, 3 (2, 4), by whom Jacob obtains truth, and
+Abraham mercy, vii. 20, compared with John i. 17; by whom the
+Congregation is placed in the centre of the world, and becomes the
+object of the longing of all nations, iv. 1-3, delivered from the
+servitude of the world, and conquering the world, v. 4, 5 (5, 6), vii.
+11, 12; and at the same time lowly, and inspiring the nations with
+fear, v. 6-8 (7-9). To such a height, however, she shall attain after,
+by means of the judgment preceding the mercy, all that has been taken
+from her upon which she in the present founded the hope of her
+salvation, v. 9-14 (10-15).
+
+
+Footnote 1: It must not, however, be overlooked, that there the term
+"hear" is only a resumption of "hear" in iii. 1 (and, to a certain
+extent, even of that in i. 2), intimating, that that which they are
+about to hear, will concentrate itself in a distinct and powerful
+expression,--the acme of the whole threatening in iii. 12.
+
+Footnote 2: Besides the division into three sections, there is, to a
+certain extent, a division also into two. By ואמר in iii. 1, the first
+and second discourses, or the exordium and principal part, are brought
+into a still closer connection,--a connection founded upon the
+circumstance that the reproof and threatening of the first part are to
+be here resumed, in order that thus a comprehensive representation may
+be given. It is only in iii. 12 that the threatening reaches its
+height. But yet the tripartition remains the prominent one. This cannot
+be denied without forcing a false sense and a false position upon ii.
+12, 13.
+
+Footnote 3: The _Fut. apoc._ forbids us to translate: "He will hide."
+In order to express his own delight in the doings of divine justice,
+the prophet changes the prediction into a wish, just as is the case in
+Is. ii. 9, where the greater number of interpreters assume, in
+opposition to the rules of grammar, that אל stands for לא.
+
+Footnote 4: Against the genuineness of the inscription, doubts have
+been raised by many, after the example of _Hartmann_, and last of all
+by _Ewald_ and _Hitzig_; but it is established by the striking
+allusions to, and coincidences with it, in the text. With the mention
+of Micah's name in the former, the allusion to this name in the _close_
+of the book, in chap. vii. 18, corresponds. The circumstance of Micah
+being called the Morasthite, accounts for the fact that, in this
+threatening against the cities of Judah, in i. 14, it is Moresheth
+alone which is mentioned. In the inscription, Samaria and Jerusalem
+are pointed out as the objects of the prophet's predictions; and
+it is in harmony with this, that in i. 6, 7, the judgment upon
+Samaria is first described, and then the judgment upon Judah; that
+the prophet--although, indeed, he has Judah chiefly in view--frequently
+gives attention to the ten tribes also, and includes them,--as in the
+promise in ii. 12, 13, v. 1 (2), where the Messiah appears as the Ruler
+in Israel, and vers. 6, 7 (7, 8), of the same chapter; and that in iii.
+8, 9, Judah is represented as a particular part only of the great
+whole. _Finally_--It is peculiar to Micah, that he thus views so
+specially the two _capitals_; and this again is in harmony with the
+inscription, where just these, and not Israel and Judah, appear
+as the subjects of the prophecy. It is in the capitals that Micah
+beholds the concentration of the corruption (i. 5); and to them
+the threatening also is chiefly addressed, i. 6, 7, iii. 12. Of
+the promise, also, Jerusalem forms the centre.--The statement,
+too, in the inscription--that Micah uttered the contents of his
+book under various kings--likewise receives a confirmation from the
+prophecy. The mention of the high places of Judah in i. 5, and of the
+walking in the statutes of Omri, and in all the works of the house of
+Ahab, refers especially to the time of Ahaz; compare 2 Kings xvi. 4; 2
+Chron. xxviii. 4, 25; further, 2 Kings xvi. 3; 2 Chron. xxviii. 2; and
+_Caspari_ on Micah, S. 74. On the other hand, the time of Hezekiah is
+suggested by v. 4, 6 (5, 6), which implies that already, at that time,
+Asshur had appeared as the enemy of the people of God,--and so likewise
+by the prophecy in iv. 9-14.
+
+
+
+                            CHAP. I. AND II.
+
+The prophet begins with the words: "_Hear, all ye people, hearken, O
+earth and the fulness thereof, and let the Lord God be witness against
+you, the Lord from His holy temple. For, behold, the Lord cometh forth
+out of His place, and cometh down, and treadeth upon the high places of
+the earth. And the mountains are melted under Him, and the valleys are
+cleft, as wax before the fire, as waters poured down a steep place. For
+the transgression of Jacob is all this, and for the sins of the house
+of Israel._" Vers. 2-5.
+
+This majestic exordium has been misunderstood in various ways: _First_,
+by those who, like _Hitzig_, would understand by the people, צמים in
+ver. 2, the tribes of Israel. We shall show, when commenting on Zech.
+xi. 10, that this is altogether inadmissible. But in the present case
+especially, this interpretation must be rejected; partly on account of
+the reference to the words of the elder Micah, and partly on account of
+the parallel terms, "O earth and the fulness thereof," which, according
+to the constant _usus loquendi_, lead us far beyond the narrow limits
+of Palestine. On the other hand, they who by the צמים rightly
+understand the nations of the whole earth, are mistaken in this, that
+they consider them as mere witnesses, whom the Lord calls [Pg 425] up
+against His unthankful people, instead of considering them as the very
+same against whom the Lord bears witness; and that they come into
+consideration from this point of view, clearly appears from the words,
+"The Lord be witness against you." As regards צד with ב following,
+compare, _e.g._, Mal. iii. 5.--Another mistake is committed in the
+definition of the way and manner of the divine witness. The greater
+number of interpreters suppose it to be the subsequent admonitory,
+reproving, and threatening discourse of the prophet. Thus, _e.g._,
+_Michaelis_, who explains: "Do not despise and lightly esteem such a
+witness, who by me earnestly and publicly testifies to you His will."
+But in opposition to this view, it appears from ver. 3, that here, as
+well as in Mal. iii. 5, "And I will come near to you in judgment, and I
+am a swift witness against the sorcerers, and against the adulterers,
+and against those that swear to a lie," the witness is a real
+one,--that it consists in the actual attestation of the guilt by the
+punishment, viz., by the divine judgment described in vers. 3, 4. The
+words, "The Lord cometh forth out of His place, and cometh down," there
+correspond to, "From His holy temple,"--from which it is evident, at
+the same time, that by the temple, the heavenly temple must be
+understood.
+
+We have thus, in vers. 2-4, before us the description of a sublime
+theophany, not for a partial judgment upon Judah, but for a judgment
+upon the whole world, the people of which are called upon to gather
+around their judge--whom the prophet beholds as already approaching,
+descending from His glorious habitation in heaven, accompanied by the
+insignia of His power, the precursors of the judgment--and silently to
+wait for His judicial and penal sentence.[1]
+
+But how is it to be explained that with the words, "For the
+transgression of Jacob is all this," etc., there is a sudden transition
+to the judgments upon Israel, yea, that the prophet [Pg 426] goes on as
+if Israel alone had been spoken of? Only from the relation in which
+these two judgments stand to one another. For they are perfectly one in
+substance. They are separated only by space, time, and unessential
+circumstances; so that we may say that the general judgment appears in
+every partial judgment upon Israel. In order to give expression to the
+thought, that it is the _judge of the world_ who is to judge Israel,
+the prophets not unfrequently represent the Lord appearing to judge the
+whole world; and in Israel, the _Microcosmos_, it was indeed judged. We
+have a perfectly analogous case, _e.g._, in Is. chap. ii.-iv. It is
+only by means of a very forced explanation, that it can be denied that
+after the prophet has, by a few bold touches, from ii. 6-9, described
+the moral debasement of the Covenant-people, and marked out pride as
+its last source, the last judgment upon the whole earth forms the
+subject of discourse. In that judgment there will be a most clear
+revelation of the vanity of all which is created--a vanity which, in
+the present course of the world, is so frequently concealed--and that
+the Lord alone is exalted, and that those who now shut their eyes will
+then be compelled to acknowledge these truths. That Isaiah has this
+general judgment in view, is too clearly proved by the sublimity of the
+whole description, by the express mention of the whole earth, _e.g._,
+ii. 19, and by not limiting, in the individualized description in ver.
+12 sqq., the high and lofty which is to be brought low to Judah alone,
+but by extending it to the whole world. But in iii. 1 ff. the prophet
+suddenly passes over to the typical, penal judgment upon Judah; and the
+כי, at the commencement, shows that he does not consider this subject
+as one altogether new, but as being substantially identical with the
+preceding subject. This reminds us forcibly of the mode in which, in
+the prophecies of our Lord, the references to the destruction of
+Jerusalem, and to the last judgment, are connected with one another. In
+the "burden of Babylon" in chap. xiii. likewise, the judgment of the
+Lord upon the whole earth is first described. Nor is it only on the
+territory of prophecy that this close connection of the general
+judgment with the inferior judgments upon the Covenant-people appears.
+In Ps. lxxxii. 8, _e.g._, after the unrighteousness prevailing among
+the Covenant-people has been described, the Lord is called upon to come
+to judge, not them [Pg 427] alone, but the whole earth; compare my
+Commentary on Ps. vii. 8, lvi. 8, lix. 6.
+
+The prophet thus passes over, in ver. 5, from the general manifestation
+of divine justice to its special manifestation among the
+Covenant-people, and mentions here, as the most prominent points upon
+which it will be inflicted, Samaria and Jerusalem, the two capitals,
+from which the apostasy from the Lord spread over the rest of the
+country. He mentions Samaria first, and then, in vers. 6, 7, he
+describes its destruction which was brought about by the Assyrians,
+before he makes mention of that of Jerusalem, because the apostasy took
+place first in Samaria, and hence the punishment also was hastened on.
+The latter circumstance, which is merely a consequence of the former,
+is in an one-sided manner made prominent by the greater number of
+interpreters, who therein follow the example of _Jerome_. It was at the
+same time, however, probably the intention of the prophet to be done
+with Samaria, in order that he might be at liberty to take up
+exclusively the case of Judah and Jerusalem--the main objects of his
+prophetic ministry.
+
+He makes the transition to this in ver. 8, by means of the words: "_On
+that account I will wail and howl, I will go stripped and naked; I will
+make a wailing like the jackals, and a mourning like the ostriches._"
+"_On that account_"--_i.e._, on account of the judgment upon Judah, to
+be announced in the subsequent verses. It is commonly supposed that the
+prophet here speaks in his own person; thus, _e.g._, _Rosenmüller_:
+"The prophet mourns in a bitter lamentation for the number and
+magnitude of the calamities impending over the Israelitish people." But
+the correct view rather is, that the prophet, when, in his inward
+vision, he sees the divine judgments not remaining and stopping at
+Samaria, but poured out like a desolating torrent over Judah and
+Jerusalem, suddenly sinks his own consciousness in that of his
+suffering people. We have thus here before us an imperfect symbolical
+action, similar to that more finished one which occurs in Is. xx. 3, 4,
+and which can be explained only by a deeper insight into the nature of
+prophecy, according to which the dramatic character is inseparable from
+it. The transition from the mere description of what is present in the
+inward vision only, to the prophet's own action, is, according to this
+view, very easy. If we confine ourselves to the passage before us, the
+following [Pg 428] arguments are in favour of our view. 1. The
+predicates שילל and ערום cannot be explained upon the supposition that
+the prophet describes only his own painful feelings on account of the
+condition of his people. Even if ערום stood alone, the explanation by
+"naked," in the sense of "deprived of the usual and decent dress, and,
+on the contrary, clothed in dirt and rags," would be destitute of all
+proof and authority. No instance whatsoever is found of the outward
+habit of a mourner being designated as nakedness. But it is still more
+arbitrary thus to deal with שילל, whether it be explained by "deprived
+of his mental faculties on account of the unbounded grief of his
+soul,"--as is done by several Jewish expositors (who, in the
+explanation of this passage, would have done much better, had they
+followed the Chaldee, in whom the correct view is found; only that he,
+giving up the figurative representation, substitutes the third person
+for the first, paraphrasing it thus: "On that account they shall wail
+and howl, they shall go stripped and naked," etc.),--or by "badly
+clothed," as is done by the greater number of Christian expositors. The
+signification "robbed," "plundered," is the only established one;
+compare שולל in Job xii. 17-19. The parallel passages, in which
+nakedness appears as the characteristic feature of the captives taken
+in war, show how little we are entitled to depart from the most obvious
+signification, in these two words. Thus we find immediately afterwards,
+in ver. 11: "Pass ye away, ye inhabitants of Saphir, having your shame
+naked;" on which _Michaelis_ remarks: "With naked bodies, as is the
+case with those who are led into captivity after having been stripped
+of their clothes." Thus Is. xx. 3, 4: "And the Lord said. Like as My
+servant Isaiah walketh _naked_ and _barefoot_ three years, for a sign
+and wonder upon Egypt and Ethiopia, so shall the king of Assyria lead
+away the prisoners of Egypt, and the prisoners of Ethiopia, young men
+and old men, _naked_ and _barefoot_;" compare Is. xlvii. 3.--2. The
+term התפלשתי, in ver. 10, is in favour of the supposition, that
+the prophet here appears as the representative of the future condition
+of his people. The _Imperat. fem. _התפלשי of the marginal reading
+is evidently, as is commonly the case, only the result of the
+embarrassment of the Mazorets. The reading of the text can be
+pointed as the first person of the Preterite only; for the view of
+_Rosenmüller_, who takes it as the [Pg 429] second person of the
+Preterite, which here is to have an optative signification, is,
+grammatically, inadmissible. _Rückert's_ explanation, "In the house of
+_dust_ (_zu Staubheim_), I have strewed dust upon me," is quite
+correct. But if _here_ we must suppose that the prophet suddenly passes
+over from the address to his unfortunate people, to himself as their
+representative, why should not this supposition be the natural one in
+ver. 8 also?
+
+The correctness of the view which we have given is further
+strengthened, if we compare the similar lamentations of the prophets in
+other passages, in all of which the same results will be found. In Jer.
+xlviii. 31, _e.g._, "Therefore will I howl over Moab, and cry out over
+all Moab, over the men of Kir-heres shall _he_ groan," the "he" in the
+last clause sufficiently shows how the "I" in the two preceding
+clauses, is to be understood,--especially if Is. xvi. 7, "Therefore
+Moab howleth over Moab," be compared. But if this interpretation be
+correct in Jeremiah, it must certainly be correct in Is. xv. 5 also:
+"My heart crieth out over Moab,"--a passage which Jeremiah had in view;
+and this so much the more, that in Is. xvi. 9-11--where a similar
+lamentation for Moab occurs: "Therefore do I bewail as for Jazer for
+the vine of Sibmah; I water thee with my tears, O Heshbon and
+Elealeh....  Therefore my bowels sound like a harp for Moab, mine
+inward parts for Kirhareseth"--it is quite unsuitable to think of a
+lamentation of the prophet, which is expressive of his own grief. This
+was seen by the Chaldee, who renders "_my_ bowels" by "bowels of the
+Moabites,"--a view the correctness of which has been strikingly
+demonstrated by _Vitringa_: "Although," he says, "the emotion of
+compassion be by no means unsuitable in the prophet, yet no one will be
+readily convinced that the prophet was so much concerned for the vines
+of Sibmah and Jazer, and for the crops of the summer-fruits of a nation
+hostile and opposed to the people of God, that it should have been for
+him a cause for lamentation and wailing." In Is. xxi., in the prophecy
+against Babylon, and in the lamentation in vers. 3, 4, "Therefore are
+my loins filled with pain, pangs take hold upon me as the pangs of a
+woman that travaileth, etc., the night of my pleasure has been turned
+into terror," it is clearly shown in what sense such lamentations are
+to be understood. By "the night of pleasure," we can, especially by a
+comparison of Jeremiah, understand only the night of the capture of
+Babylon, [Pg 430] in which the whole city was given up to drunkenness
+and riot. But it is impossible that the prophet should say that this
+night--the precursor of the long-desired day for Israel--had been
+turned for him into terror. Either the whole lamentation is without any
+meaning, or the prophet speaks in the name of Babylon, and that, not of
+the Babylon of the present, but of the Babylon of the future. This must
+be granted, even by those who assert that this portion was composed at
+a later period; so that, even from this quarter, the soundness of our
+view cannot be assailed.
+
+In ver. 9, the prophet returns to quiet description, from the
+symbolical action to which he had been carried away by his emotions.
+The subject of this description he states in the words: "_It cometh
+unto Judah; it cometh unto the gate of my people, unto Jerusalem._" By
+individualizing, he endeavours to give a lively view of the thought,
+and to impress it. He begins with an allusion to the lamentation of
+David over Saul and Jonathan in 2 Sam. i. 17 ff., which is so much the
+more significant, that in this impending catastrophe, Israel also was
+to lose his king (compare iv. 9), and that in it David was to
+experience the fate of Saul. He then indicates the stations by which
+the hostile army advances towards Jerusalem, and describes how, from
+thence, it spreads over the whole country, even to its southern
+boundary, and carries away the inhabitants into exile. But, in doing
+so, he always chooses places, whose names might, in some way, be
+brought into connection with what they were now suffering; so that the
+whole passage forms a chain of _paronomasias_. These, however, are not
+by any means idle plays. They have, throughout, a practical design. The
+threatening is thereby to be, as it were, localized. The thought of a
+divine judgment could not but be called forth in every one who should
+think of one of the places mentioned. Jerusalem is first spoken of in
+ver. 9 as the centre of the life of Judah: "The gate of my people,"
+etc., being tantamount to "_the_ city or metropolis of it." Then, it
+appears a second time in ver. 12, in the middle between five Judean
+places preceding and five following it,--the number ten, which is the
+symbolical signification of completeness, indicating that the judgment
+is to be altogether comprehensive. The five places mentioned after
+Jerusalem are all of them situated to the south of it. That the [Pg
+431] five places, the mention of which precedes that of Jerusalem, are
+all to be sought to the north of it, and that, hence, the judgment
+advances from the north in geographical order, as is the case in Is. x.
+28 ff. also, is evident from the fact that Beth-Leaphrah, which is
+identical with Ophrah, is situated in the territory of Benjamin, and
+that Beth-Haezel, which is identical with Azal in Zech. xiv. 5, was
+situated in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem. Hence, we cannot suppose
+that Zaanan here is identical with Zenan, which is situated in the
+south of Jerusalem, Josh. xv. 37, nor Saphir with Samir.
+
+The question still arises, In what event did the threatening of
+punishment, contained in chap. i., find its fulfilment? _Theodoret_,
+_Cyril_, _Tarnovius_, _Marckius_, _Jahn_, and others, refer it to the
+Assyrian invasion. _Jerome_ referred it to the Babylonish captivity:
+"The same sin," he says, "yea, the same punishment of sin which shall
+overturn Samaria, is to extend to Judah, yea, even unto the gates of my
+city of Jerusalem. For, as Samaria was overturned by the Assyrians, so
+Judah and Jerusalem shall be overturned by the Chaldeans." This opinion
+was adopted by _Michaelis_ and others.
+
+At first sight, it would appear as if the circumstance, that the
+judgment upon Judah is brought into immediate connection with that upon
+Israel, favoured the first view. But this argument loses its weight
+when we remark, that the events appear to the prophet in inward vision,
+and, therefore, quite irrespective of their relation in time; that the
+continuity of the punitive judgment upon Israel and Judah only, points
+out distinctly the truth, that both proceed from the same cause, viz.,
+the relation of divine justice to the sin of the Covenant-people. It is
+this truth alone which forms the essence and soul of the prophetic
+threatenings; and with reference to that, the difference in point of
+time, which is merely accidental, is altogether kept out of view.
+Another argument in favour of the Assyrian invasion might be derived
+from the expression, "_to_ Jerusalem," in ver. 9, inasmuch as the
+Chaldean invasion visited Jerusalem itself. But, because the calamity
+was not by any means to stop at Judah, but to overflow even it, it is
+shown by the preceding expression, "unto Judah," that עַד (compare on
+this word, _Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel_, p. 55 seq.)
+must, in both cases, be explained from a tacit antithesis with the
+expectation, [Pg 432] that the judgment would either stop at the
+boundary of Judah, or, although this should not be the case, would at
+least spare the metropolis. The prophet contents himself with
+representing that this opinion was erroneous. Although this passage
+itself asserts nothing upon the point as to whether Jerusalem itself is
+to be thought of as the object of the divine punishment, or whether it
+will be spared, the following reasons show that the former will be the
+case. Even ver. 5 does not admit of our expecting anything else.
+Jerusalem is there marked out as the chief seat and source of
+corruption in the kingdom of Judah, just as is Samaria in the kingdom
+of Israel. The declaration which is there made forms the foundation of
+the subsequent threatening. How is it possible, then, that, while in
+the kingdom of Israel it is concentrated upon Samaria, in the kingdom
+of Judah the seducer should be altogether passed over, and punishment
+announced to the seduced only? That such is not the intention of the
+prophet, is clearly seen from ver. 12: "_For evil cometh down from the
+Lord upon the gate of Jerusalem._" The כי alone is sufficient to
+prevent our limiting the sense of these words, so that they mean only
+that evil will come no farther than to the gate of Jerusalem, and will
+stop there. The _Particula causalis_ proves that they are the ground of
+the declaration in ver. 11, and that the mourning will not cease at
+Beth-Haezel, "the house of stopping;" compare the remarks on Zech. xiv.
+5. But, altogether apart from this connection, the words themselves
+furnish a proof. They contain a verbal reference to the description of
+the judgment upon Sodom and Gomorrha, Gen. xix. 24. Jerusalem is marked
+out by them as a second Sodom (compare Is. i. 10), upon which the
+divine judgments would discharge themselves. As a second mark of this
+extension to Jerusalem, the carrying away of the people into captivity
+is added (compare vers. 11, 15, 16), which, in the promise in chap. ii.
+12, 13, is supposed to have taken place. It is not Israel alone, but
+the whole Covenant-people, who are in a state of dispersion, and are
+gathered from it by the Lord.
+
+Now, both of these marks are not applicable to the Assyrian invasion;
+and if once we suppose the divine illumination of the prophet, it
+cannot be regarded as the real object of his threatenings. This, too,
+is equally inadmissible, if we consider the matter from a merely human
+point of view. The predictions [Pg 433] of the prophets with regard to
+Assyria are, from the very outset, rather encouraging. It is true that
+they are to be, in the hand of the Lord, a rod of chastisement for
+His people, but these are never to be altogether given up to them
+for destruction. By an immediate divine interference, their plan
+of capturing Jerusalem is frustrated. Thus the matter is constantly
+represented in Isaiah; thus also in Hosea i. 7. We can, moreover,
+adduce proofs from Micah himself, that his spiritual eye was not
+pre-eminently, or exclusively, directed to the Assyrians. In the
+prophecy from chap. iii. to v., where he describes the judgment upon
+Judah in a manner altogether similar to that in which he mentions it
+here, he passes over the Assyrians altogether in silence. Babylon is,
+in iv. 10, mentioned as the place to which Judah is to be led into
+captivity.
+
+Yet here, as well as everywhere else in the threatenings and promises
+of the prophets, we must beware, lest, in referring them to some
+particular historical event, we lose sight of the animating idea. If
+this, on the other hand, be rightly understood, it will be seen that a
+particular historical event may indeed be pre-eminently referred to,
+but that it can never exhaust the prophecy. Although, therefore, the
+main reference here be to the destruction by the Chaldeans, we must not
+on that account exclude anything in which the same law of retaliation
+was manifested, either before, as in the invasion of the Syrians and
+Assyrians; or afterwards, as in the destruction by the Romans. The
+prophet himself points, in iv. 11-14 (iv. 11-v. 1), to two other phases
+of the divine judgment which are to follow upon that by the Chaldeans.
+
+After the prophet has thus hitherto described the impending divine
+judgment in great general outlines, he passes on, in chap. ii., to
+chastise particular vices, which, however, must always be at the same
+time, yea, prominently, considered as indications of the wholly
+depraved condition of the nation, and of the punishments to follow upon
+it. One feature upon which he here chiefly dwells, and which must,
+therefore, have been a peculiarly prominent manifestation of the sinful
+corruption, consists in the acts of injustice and oppression committed
+by the great, the description of which presents striking resemblances
+to that in Is. v. 8 ff. The prophet interrupts this description only in
+order [Pg 434] to rebuke the false prophets, who reproved him for the
+severity of his discourses, and asserted that they were unworthy of the
+merciful God. Such severity, answered the prophet, was true mildness,
+because it alone could be the means of warding off the approaching
+punitive judgment; that his God did not punish from want of
+forbearance--from want of mercy; but that the fault was altogether that
+of the transgressors, who drew down upon themselves, by force. His
+judgments.[2]
+
+The prophecy closes with the promise in vers. 12, 13. It is introduced
+quite abruptly, in order to place it in more striking contrast with the
+threatening; just as, in iv. 1, there is a similar abrupt and
+unconnected contrast between the promise and the threatening.[3] It is
+only brief; far more so than in the subsequent discourses, and far less
+detailed than it is in them. The prophet desires first of all to
+terrify sinners from their security; and for this reason, he causes
+only a very feeble glimmering of hope to fall upon the dark future.
+
+Ver. 12. "_I will assemble, surely I will assemble, O Jacob, thee
+wholly: I will gather the remnant of Israel. I will bring_ [Pg 435]
+_them together as the sheep of Bozrah; as a flock on their pasture,
+they shall make a noise by reason of men._ Ver. 13. _The breaker goeth
+up before them; they break through, pass through the gate and go out,
+and their King marches before them, and the Lord is on the head of
+them._"
+
+The remark, that almost all the features of this description are
+borrowed from the deliverance out of Egypt, will throw much light upon
+the whole description. In the midst of oppression and misery, Israel,
+while there, increased by means of the blessing of the Lord, hidden
+under the cross, to greater and greater numbers; compare Exod. i. 12.
+When the time of deliverance had arrived, the Lord, who had for a long
+time concealed Himself, manifested Himself again as their God. First,
+the people were gathered together, and then, the Lord went before
+them,--in a pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night:
+Exod. xiii. 21. He led them out of Egypt, the house of bondage: Exod.
+xx. 2. So it is here also. Ver. 12 describes the increase and
+gathering, and ver. 13 the deliverance. In both passages, Israel's
+misery is represented under the figure of an abode in the house of
+bondage, or in prison, the gates of which the Lord opens--the walls of
+which He breaks down. In this allusion to, and connection with, the
+former deliverance, Micah agrees with his contemporaries, Hosea and
+Isaiah. The deeper reason of this lies in the typical import of the
+former deliverance, which forms a prophecy by deeds of all future
+deliverances, and contains within itself completely their germ and
+pledge; compare Hosea ii. 1, 2 (i. 10, 11); Is. xi. 11 ff.: "And the
+Lord shall stretch forth His hand a _second time_ to redeem the remnant
+of His people.... And He sets up an ensign for the nations, and gathers
+together the dispersed of Israel, and assembles the scattered of Judah
+from the four corners of the earth.... And the Lord smites with a curse
+the tongue of the Egyptian sea, and shakes His hand over the river, in
+the violence of His wind, and smites it to seven rivers, so that one
+may wade through in shoes. And there shall be a highway to the remnant
+of His people, ... like as it was to Israel in the day when he came up
+out of the land of Egypt." This reference to the typical deliverance
+clearly shows, that in the description we have carefully to separate
+between the thought and the language in which it is clothed.
+
+[Pg 436]
+
+Ver. 12. The _Infin. absol._, which in both the clauses precedes the
+_tempus finitum_, expresses the emphasis which is to be placed on the
+_gathering_, as opposed to the carrying away, and the scattering
+formerly announced; for the latter, according to the view of man, and
+apart from God's mercy and omnipotence, did not seem to admit of any
+favourable turn. By "Jacob" and "Israel," several interpreters
+understand Judah alone; others, the ten tribes alone; others, both
+together. The last view is alone the correct one. This appears from i.
+5, where, by Jacob and Israel, the whole nation is designated. The
+promise in the passage before us stands closely related to the
+threatening uttered there. All Israel shall be given up to destruction
+on account of their sins; all Israel shall be saved by the grace of
+God. This assumption is confirmed by a comparison of the parallel
+passages in Hosea and Isaiah, where the whole is designated by the two
+parts, Judah and Israel. Micah does not notice this division, because
+that visible separation, which even in the present was overbalanced by
+an invisible unity, shall disappear altogether in that future,
+when there shall be only one flock, as there is only one Shepherd.
+The expression, "remnant of Israel," in the second clause, which
+corresponds to, "O Jacob, thee wholly," in the first, indicates,
+that the fulfilment of the promise, so far from doing away with
+the threatening, rather rests on its preceding realization. The
+Congregation of God, purified by the divine judgments, shall be
+_wholly_ gathered. Divine mercy has in itself no limits; and those
+which in the present are assigned to it by the objects of mercy, shall
+then be removed.--The words, "I will bring them together," etc.,
+indicate equally the faithfulness of the great Shepherd, who gathers
+His dispersed flock from all parts of the world, and the unexpected and
+wonderful increase of the flock; compare Jer. xxiii. 3: "And I will
+gather the remnant of My flock out of all countries whither I have
+driven them, and lead them back to their pasture-ground, and they are
+fruitful and increase;" and xxxi. 10: "He that scattereth Israel will
+gather him and keep him as a shepherd does his flock."--Bozrah we
+consider to be the name of a capital of the Idumeans in Auranitis, four
+days' journey from Damascus. The great wealth of this town in flocks
+appears from Is. xxxiv. 6 (although a slaughter of men is spoken of in
+that passage, yet evidently the wealth of Bozrah in natural [Pg 437]
+flocks is there supposed), and can with perfect ease be accounted for
+from its situation. For, in its neighbourhood, there begins the
+immeasurable plain of Arabia, which, on one side, continues without
+interruption as far as _Dshof_, into the heart of Arabia, while,
+towards the North, it extends to Bagdad, under the name of _El Hamad_.
+Its length and breadth are calculated to amount to eight days' journey.
+It contains many shrubs and blooming plants; compare _Burkhardt_ and
+_Ritter_.[4] Several interpreters consider בצרה to be an appellative,
+and assign to it the signification "sheepfold," "cote." But there is no
+reason whatsoever in favour of such a meaning of Bozrah, while there is
+this argument against it, that the probable signification of בצרה as
+the name of a town is "_locus munitus_" = מִבְצָר or בִּצָּרוֹן. It can hardly
+be supposed that the word should at the same time have had the
+significations of "fortress" and "fold." It is, moreover, more in
+harmony with the prophetical character to particularize, than to use a
+general term. As is shown, however, by the last member (with which,
+according to the accents, the words, "As [Pg 438] a flock on their
+pasture," must be connected), the point of comparison is not the
+assembling and gathering, but the multitude, the crowd,--"As the sheep
+of Bozrah" being thus tantamount to, "So that in multitude they are
+like the sheep of Bozrah." הַדָּבְרוֹ, from דֹּבֶר, is, contrary to the
+general rule, doubly qualified, both by the article and by the suffix.
+This has been accounted for on the ground that the little suffix had
+gradually lost its power. But it is perhaps more natural to suppose
+that the article sometimes lost its power, and coalesced with the noun.
+The frequent use of the _Status emphaticus_ in undefined nouns, in the
+Syriac language (compare _Hofmann_, _Gram. Syr._, p. 290), presents an
+analogy in favour of this opinion.--The last words graphically describe
+the noise produced by a numerous, closely compacted flock. The plur. of
+the Fem. refers to the sheep.--מן denotes the _causa efficiens_. They
+make a noise; and this noise proceeds from the numerous assembled
+people. The same connection of figure and thing occurs in Ezek. xxxiv.
+31: "And ye (ואתן) are My flock, the flock of My pasture are ye men;"
+compare Ezek. xxxvi. 38.
+
+Ver. 13. The whole verse must be explained by the figure of a prison,
+which lies at the foundation. The people of God are shut up in it, but
+are now delivered by God's powerful hand. By the "breaker," many
+interpreters understand the Lord Himself. But if we consider, that in a
+double clause, at the end of the verse, the Lord is mentioned as the
+leader of the expedition if we look to the type of the deliverance from
+Egypt, where Moses, as the breaker, marches in front of Israel; and if,
+further, we look to the parallel passage in Hosea, where, with an
+evident allusion to that type, the children of Israel and of Judah
+appoint themselves one head; we shall rather be disposed to understand
+by the "breaker" the _dux et antesignanus_ raised up by God. With the
+raising up and equipping of such a leader every divine deliverance
+commences; and that which, in the inferior deliverance, the typical
+leaders, Moses and Zerubbabel, were, Christ was in the highest and last
+deliverance. To Him the "breaker" has been referred by several Jewish
+interpreters (compare _Schöttgen_, _Horæ_ ii. p. 212); and if we
+compare chap. v., where that which is here indicated by general
+outlines only is further expanded and detailed, we shall have to urge
+against this interpretation this objection only, viz., that it excludes
+the [Pg 439] typical breakers,--that, in the place of the _ideal_
+person of the breaker, which presents itself to the internal vision of
+the prophet, it puts the individual in whom this idea is most fully
+realized.--The words ויעברו שער are, by several interpreters, referred
+to the forcing and entering of hostile gates. Thus _Michaelis_, whom
+_Rosenmüller_ follows: "No gate shall be so fortified as to prevent
+them from forcing it." But this interpretation destroys the whole
+figure, and violates the type of the deliverance from Egypt which lies
+at the foundation. For the gate through which they break is certainly
+the gate of the prison.--The three verbs--"They break through, they
+pass through, they go out"--graphically describe their progress, which
+is not to be stopped by any human power.--The last words open up the
+view to the highest leader of the expedition; compare besides, Exod.
+xiii. 21; Is. lii. 12: "For ye shall not go out in trembling, nor shall
+ye go out by flight. For the Lord goeth before you, and the God of
+Israel closeth your rear;" Is. xl. 11; Ps. lxxx. 3. In the exodus from
+Egypt, a visible symbol of the presence of God marched before the host,
+besides Moses, the breaker. On the return from Babylon, the Angel of
+the Lord was visible to the eye of faith only, as formerly when
+Abraham's servant journeyed to Mesopotamia, Gen. xxiv. 7. At the last
+and highest deliverance, the breaker was at once the King and God of
+the people.
+
+As this prophecy has no limitation at all in itself, we are fully
+entitled to refer it to the whole sum of the deliverances and salvation
+which are destined for the Covenant-people; and to seek for its
+fulfilment in every event, either past or future, in the same degree as
+the fundamental idea--God's mercy upon His people--is manifested in it.
+Every limitation to any particular event is evidently inadmissible;
+but, most of all, a limitation to the deliverance from the Babylonish
+captivity, which, especially with regard to Israel, can be considered
+as only a faint prelude of the fulfilment. They, however, have
+come nearest to the truth who assume an exclusive reference to
+Christ,--provided they acknowledge, that the conversion of the first
+fruits of Israel, at the time when Christ appeared in His humiliation,
+is not the end of His dealings with this people.
+
+
+Footnote 1: The reference to the general judgment would indeed
+disappear, if we suppose בכם in ver. 2 to be addressed to _Israel_. It
+seems, indeed, to be in favour of this supposition, that, in 1 Kings
+xxii. 28, the people alone are called upon as witnesses, and that in
+Deut. xxxi. 28, xxxii. 1, and Is. i. 2, heaven and earth, and in Hos.
+vi. 1, the mountains also, are called upon only in order to make the
+scene more solemn. But the reference of בכם to the nations mentioned
+immediately before, is too evident.
+
+Footnote 2: Ver. 6 must be translated thus: _Not shall ye drop_
+(prophesy),--_they_ (the false prophets) _drop; if they_ (the
+individuals addressed, the true prophets) _do not drop to these_ (the
+rapacious great), _the ignominy will not cease_, _i.e._, the
+ignominious destruction breaks in irresistibly. The fundamental passage
+in Deut. xxxii. 2, and ver. 11 of the chapter before us, show that הטיף
+has not the signification, "to talk," which is assigned to it by
+_Caspari_. The false prophets must be considered as the accomplices of
+the corrupted great, especially as to the bulwark which they opposed to
+the true prophets, and their influence on the nation, and on their own
+consciences,--as indeed material power everywhere seeks for such a
+spiritual ally. If this be kept in view, the censure and threatening
+acquire a still greater unity.
+
+Footnote 3: To a certain extent, however, verse 11 forms the
+transition: "If one were to come, a wind, and lie falsely: I will
+prophesy to thee of wine and of strong drink,--he would be the prophet
+of this people." Such a prophet Micah, indeed, is not; but although he
+neither can nor dare announce salvation _without_ judgment, he has, in
+the name of the Lord, to announce salvation _after_ the judgment. The
+very singular opinion, that in vers. 12, 13, the false prophets are
+introduced as speaking, is refuted by the single circumstance that, in
+ver. 12, the gathering of the _remnant_ of Israel only is promised, and
+hence the judgment is supposed to have preceded. It is no less
+erroneous if, instead of considering ver. 11 as introductory to vers.
+12, 13, the latter be made to depend upon ver. 11, and be therefore
+considered as, to a certain extent, accidental.
+
+Footnote 4: After the example of _v. Raumer_, _Robinson_, _Ritter_
+(_Erdk._ 14, 101), it has now become customary to distinguish between
+two Bozrahs,--one in Auranitis, and the other in Edom. But the
+arguments adduced for this distinction are not of very great weight.
+Nowhere is a "high situation" in reality ascribed to the Bozrah in
+Edom. The assertion, that Edom was always limited to the territory
+between the Dead Sea and the Red Sea, is opposed to Gen. xxxvi. 35,
+according to which passage, even in the time before Moses, the Edomitic
+king, Hadad, smote Midian in the field of Moab; and further, to Lam.
+iv. 21, according to which Edom dwells in the land of Uz, which can be
+sought for only in _Arabia Deserta_. We need to think only of that
+branch of the Midianites who had gone over to _Arabia Deserta_, whilst
+their chief settlement continued in _Arabia Petræa_. But the following
+arguments may be adduced _against_ the distinction. 1. Bozrah is
+constantly and simply spoken of, without any further distinctive
+designation. 2. The Edomitic Bozrah must have been a great and powerful
+city, which agrees well with the "mighty ruins" in _Hauran_, but not
+with the much more insignificant ruins near _Busseireh_ in _Dshebal_.
+3. It is improbable that so important a city as that of Bozrah in
+Auranitis should never have been mentioned in Scripture.--But not
+satisfied with a double Bozrah, even a third, in Moab, has been assumed
+on the ground of Jer. xlviii. 24. But it is certainly strange that
+Bozrah, in that passage, is mentioned as the last of all the Moabitish
+towns, and that, immediately after its mention, there follow the words,
+"Upon all the cities of the land of Moab, far and near." It may be that
+Bozrah was conquered by the Edomites and Moabites in common, or that,
+in later times, the latter obtained a kind of possession of the town in
+common with the former.
+
+
+[Pg 440]
+
+                              CHAP. III.-V.
+
+The discourse opens with new reproofs and threatenings. It is _first_,
+in vers. 1-4, directed against the rapacious great, who in ver. 2 are
+described as murderers of men (compare Sirach xxxi. 21: "He who taketh
+from his neighbour his livelihood, _killeth_ him"), and in ver. 3, as
+eaters of men, because they turn to their own advantage the necessaries
+of life of which they have robbed the poor. The discourse _then_ passes
+over to the false prophets, vers. 5-7. Their character is described as
+hypocritical, weak, and selfish, and is incidentally contrasted with
+the character of the true prophet, as represented by himself, whose
+strength is always renewed by the Spirit of the Lord, and who, in this
+strength, serves only truth and righteousness, and holds up their sins
+to the people deluded by the false prophets, ver. 8. This the
+prophet continues to do in vers. 9-12. The three orders of divinely
+called rulers, upon whom the life or death of the Congregation was
+depending,--the princes, the priests, and the prophets (compare remarks
+on Zech. x. 1),--have become so degenerate, that they are not at all
+concerned for the glory of God, but only for their own interest. And
+while they have thus inwardly apostatized from Jehovah, they are
+strengthened in their false security by the promises which God has
+given to His people, and which they, altogether overlooking the fact
+that these are conditional, referred, in hypocritical blindness, to
+themselves. But God will, in a fearful manner, punish them for this
+apostasy, and frighten them from their security. The Congregation of
+the Lord, which has been desecrated inwardly, shall be so outwardly
+also. Zion shall become a corn-field; Jerusalem, the city of God, shall
+sink into rubbish and ruins; the Temple-hill shall again become what it
+was previous to its being the residence of God, viz., a thickly wooded
+hill, which shall then appear in all its natural lowness, and be
+considered as insignificant when compared with the neighbouring
+mountains.--In the whole section, the twelve verses of which are
+equally divided into three portions of four verses each, the prophet
+views chiefly the great, and the civil rulers. The false prophets, whom
+he takes up in the second of these subdivisions (vers. 5-8), come under
+consideration as their helpers only. In the third subdivision, [Pg 441]
+the discourse is again directed to the great alone, in vers. 9, 10. The
+two other orders are added to them in vers. 11, 12 only; and the
+charges raised against them refer to their relation to the great. The
+_priests_ are not by any means reproved because they made teaching a
+profession, from which they derived their livelihood, but because, for
+bribes, they interpreted the law in a manner favourable to the
+rapacious lusts of the great, and thereby, no less than the false
+prophets, assisted them in their wickedness.--The charge raised in ver.
+10 against the great,--"Building up Zion with blood, and Jerusalem with
+iniquity,"--has been frequently misunderstood. The words must not be
+explained from Hab. ii. 12, but from Ps. li. 20, where David prays to
+the Lord, "Build Thou the walls of Jerusalem," which he had destroyed
+by his blood, ver. 16. The word "building" is used ironically by Micah,
+and is tantamount to: "Ye who are destroying Jerusalem by blood and
+iniquity (compare ver. 12: 'For your sakes Zion shall be ploughed as a
+field'), instead of building it up by righteousness." Righteousness
+builds up, because it draws down God's blessing and protection; but
+unrighteousness destroys, because it calls down the curse of God.
+
+The unfaithfulness of the Covenant-people can nevertheless not make
+void the faithfulness of God. The prophet, therefore, passes suddenly
+from threatening to promise. _Calvin_ thus expresses the relation of
+these two: "But I must now come to the little remnant. Hitherto I have
+spoken about the judgment of God, which is near at hand, upon the
+king's councillors, upon the priests and prophets, upon the whole
+people in short, because they are all wicked and ungodly, because the
+whole body is pervaded by contempt of God, and by desperate obstinacy.
+Let them receive, then, that which they all have deserved. But I now
+gather the children of God apart, for to them too I have a message to
+deliver."
+
+The intimate relation of the first part of the promise to the preceding
+threatening has been already demonstrated, p. 420. The Mount of Zion,
+which forms the subject of vers. 1-7, shall, in future, not only be
+restored to its former dignity, but it shall be exalted above all the
+mountains of the earth. The kingdom of God, which is represented by it,
+shall, by the glory imparted to it by a new revelation of the Lord
+(compare ver. 7: "And [Pg 442] the Lord shall be King over them on
+Mount Zion"), outshine all the kingdoms of the world, and exercise an
+attractive power upon their citizens; so that they flow to Zion, there
+to receive the commands of the Lord, vers. 1, 2. By the sway which the
+Lord exercises from Zion, peace shall have its dwelling in the heathen
+world, ver. 3, and, consequently, the Congregation of the Lord ceases
+to be a prey to injury from the world's power, ver. 4^a. How incredible
+soever it may appear, this promise shall surely be fulfilled; for
+omnipotent faithfulness has given it, ver. 4^b, and has given it indeed
+for this very purpose; for it is altogether natural, and to be
+expected, that the glory of the Lord should in all eternity display
+itself in His dealings with His people, ver. 5. In vers. 6, 7, the
+promise receives a new impetus, by which it connects itself with ver.
+4^a. In that time of mercy, the Lord will put an end to all the misery
+of His people.
+
+Ver. 1. "_And it shall come to pass at the end of the days, that the
+mountain of the house of the Lord shall be firmly established on the
+top of the mountains, and exalted above the hills, and people flow unto
+it._"
+
+The words, "And it shall come to pass," excite the attention to the
+great and unexpected turn which things are to take. The expression,
+באחרית הימים, is explained by many as meaning: "In times to come,"
+"in future." But we have already proved, in our work on _Balaam_, p.
+465 seq., that the right explanation is: "At the end of the days."
+This is the explanation given by the LXX. also, who commonly render it
+by ἐν ταῖς ἐσχάταισ ἡμέραις; and by the Chaldee Paraphrast, who
+translates it by בסוף יומיא. The reasons which seem, at first sight, to
+favour the signification "in future," are invalidated by these two
+considerations:--_first_, that it is not at all necessary that the end
+be just absolutely the last, but only the end of those events which the
+speaker is reviewing; and, _second_, that it altogether depends upon
+the will of the speaker, what extent he is to assign to the beginning
+and to the end. The expression is used by the prophets in a manner
+different from that of the Pentateuch. The prophets use it almost
+exclusively with a reference to the Messianic times,--an _usus
+loquendi_ which originated in Deut. iv. 30. They divide the whole
+duration of the kingdom of God into two parts, the beginning and the
+end,--the state of humiliation, and [Pg 443] the state of
+glorification. The line of demarcation is formed by the birth of the
+Messiah, according to v. 2 (3): "He will give them up until she who is
+bearing brings forth."--"The mountain of the house of the Lord" is,
+according to the common _usus loquendi_, not Moriah, but the whole
+mountain of Zion, of which Moriah was considered as a part; compare Ps.
+lxxvi. 3, lxxviii. 68. In ver. 8, the prophet speaks of two parts only,
+Zion and Jerusalem. In iii. 12, Zion only, as the better part, is first
+spoken of; and then, in the second clause, Jerusalem and the mountain
+of the house, the latter corresponding to Zion, are contrasted with
+each other, or Jerusalem and Mount Zion considered in its highest
+quality as the temple-mountain.--נכון, "fixed," "firmly established,"
+implies more than, simply, "placed." It shows that the change is not
+merely momentary, but that the temple-mountain shall be exalted for
+ever, and that no earthly power shall be able to abase it. It thus goes
+hand in hand with the declaration in ver. 7: "The Lord shall be king
+over them from now _until eternity_." The same word נכון is used in 1
+Kings ii. 45 of the immutable firmness of the throne of David: "The
+throne of David shall be firmly established before the Lord for ever;"
+compare 2 Sam. vii. 12, 13. The commentary on נכון is given by Dan. ii.
+44: "And in the days of these kings shall the God of heaven set up a
+kingdom which shall not be destroyed in all eternity ... it shall break
+in pieces and destroy all these kingdoms, and it shall stand for ever."
+That בראש ההרים does not mean, "at the head of the mountains," _i.e._,
+standing at the head, as the first among them (as _Hitzig_ and others
+think), but "on the summit of the mountains" (the ב is used in a
+similar manner in Judg. ix. 7, compared with 1 Sam. xxvi, 13), is
+evident from the fact that בראש, in connection with הר, is constantly
+used of the summit of the mountains, and, hence, cannot be used in a
+figurative sense, in this connection. The sense can therefore be this
+only: "Zion, in future, so pre-eminently stands out from among
+the other mountains, that these serve, as it were, only for its
+foundation." Now, the elevation of the temple-mountain is considered,
+by several interpreters, as a _physical_ one. Passages from Jewish
+commentaries, in which the expectation is expressed that, in the days
+of the Messiah, Jehovah would bring near Mount Carmel and Tabor, and
+place Jerusalem on [Pg 444] the summit of them, will be found in
+_Galatinus_, _de Arcanis Catholicæ Veritatis_, L. v. c. 3. The literal
+explanation has, in recent times, been defended by _Hofmann_ and
+_Drechsler_. But _Caspari_, by pointing out the exact correspondence
+between the words, "The mountain of the house of the Lord shall be
+firmly established on the top of the mountains," and the words in ver.
+2, "The law shall go forth of Zion, and the word of the Lord from
+Jerusalem," has proved in a very striking manner that the elevation is
+a moral one. "As 1^b corresponds to 2^a, so does 1^a to 2^b; ver. 1^a
+is the ground of ver. 1^b; ver. 2^a, by which ver. 1^b is further
+expanded, is the consequence of 2^b. Hence 2^b must be substantially
+identical with ver. 1^a; but 2^b speaks of something that points to the
+moral height of Mount Zion, and states something upon which it is
+based." To this it may be added, that height, in a moral sense,
+is often ascribed to the temple-mountain, even with reference to the
+ante-Messianic time, and that the passage under consideration could be
+disjoined from these by force only. It is upon such a view of it,
+indeed, that the use of עלה in reference to the journeys to Jerusalem
+rests, just as it is here used in ver. 2. We may, moreover, compare Ps.
+xlviii. 3; Ezek. xvii. 22, 33: "And I plant upon a mountain high and
+elevated. On the high mountains of Israel I will plant it;" but
+especially Ps. lxviii. 16: "Mountain of God is the mountain of Bashan,
+the top of mountains is the mountain of Bashan." Ver. 17. "Why do ye
+tops of mountains insidiously observe the mountain which God desireth
+for His residence? Yea, the Lord will dwell in it for ever." The
+mountain of God is, in these verses, an emblem of the kingdoms of the
+world, which are powerful through God's grace. In ver. 16, the Psalmist
+declares what the mountain of Bashan is. In ver. 17, he rejects the
+unfounded claims which it raises on account of its real advantages.
+Although it be great, yet Mount Zion is infinitely greater, and vain
+are all its efforts to overturn this relation. This passage, then,
+leads to another argument against the literal interpretation. We find
+in it the kingdoms represented under the figure of mountains,[1]--a
+mode of representation which is of very frequent occurrence in
+Scripture; compare my Commentary on [Pg 445] Ps. lxv. 7, lxxvi. 5; Rev.
+viii. 8, xvii. 9. The more difficult it was to separate, according to
+the Israelitish conception, _mountain_ and _kingdom_, the more natural
+it was to find, in the passage before us, expression given to the
+thought, that the kingdom of God would, in future, be exalted above all
+the kingdoms of the world. If we take into account the common practice
+of employing "mountain" in a figurative sense, it is natural to suppose
+that not the exaltation alone is to be understood figuratively, but
+that the mountain itself also is to be regarded chiefly in its
+symbolical signification,--as the symbol of the kingdom of God in
+Israel; although, in this aspect, we should expect, at least in the
+beginning of the relation, that the thing itself should still be
+connected with the symbol; afterwards they may be disjoined without any
+hesitation. The deep grief which must, of necessity, have been called
+forth by the announcement in iii. 12, did not regard the mountain as
+such. It had, for its real object, the condition of the kingdom of God
+which was prefigured by the condition of the mountain; and it is just
+this to which the consolation has respect.--But by what means is the
+exaltation of the temple-mountain to be effected? _Cocceius_ has
+already directed attention to the circumstance, that it must not be
+supposed to consist in the flowing of the people unto it; for that is
+not the _cause_, but the _effect_. We find the correct answer in ver.
+2: "The law goeth forth of Zion, and the word of the Lord from
+Jerusalem;" and in ver. 7: "And the Lord will be king over them on
+Mount Zion." The exaltation will, accordingly, be effected by a
+glorious manifestation of the Lord within His congregation; in
+consequence of which, Zion becomes the centre of the whole earth. That
+this manifestation is to take place in Christ, is brought out only
+subsequently; compare especially, v. 1, 3 (2-4). A parallel passage is
+also Ezek. xl. 2, where Mount Zion is likewise seen exalted in the
+Messianic time.
+
+Ver. 2. "_And many nations go and say, Come and let us go up to the
+mountain of the Lord, and to the house of the God of Jacob, that He may
+teach us His ways, and that we may walk in His path; for from Zion the
+law shall go forth, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem._"
+
+From the words, "And many nations go," to "paths," we have an expansion
+of--"People flow unto it." Zech. viii. 20-23 are founded upon, and
+serve as a commentary on the passage before [Pg 446] us. The people go
+to one another, and send messengers to one another; a powerful
+commotion pervades the heathen world, which causes them to seek Zion,
+that had formerly been despised by them. It makes no substantial
+difference whether the going is to be understood physically or
+spiritually,--whether the people flow to the literal Mount Zion, or to
+the Church, which is thereby prefigured. All that is requisite is, that
+the commencement of their going and flowing must belong to a time in
+which the symbol and the thing symbolized were still connected,--when
+the literal Zion was still the seat of the Church. The _plurality_
+of nations forms a contrast with the _unity_, but not with the
+_universality_, as is shown by a comparison of the parallel passage in
+Isaiah, where the "many people" are preceded by the mention of "all the
+heathens (כל־הגוים, _i.e._, the whole heathen world) flow unto it,"
+instead of--"People flow unto it," as in Micah. Formerly, _one_ people
+only went to Zion, in order there to offer to the Lord their worship,
+and to be taught His ways, Exod. xxiii. 17, xxxiv. 23; Deut. xxxi. 10
+sqq.; now, many people flow thither. In the anticipation of this future
+glory of Mount Zion, which will infinitely outshine that of the
+present, the sad interval described in iii. 12, during which the
+mountain of the house is altogether forsaken, may be more easily borne.
+The connection of הורה with מן, which is rather uncommon, may be most
+simply explained by viewing the instruction as proceeding from its
+object. "The ways of the Lord" are the ways in which He would have men
+to walk,--that mode of life which is well-pleasing to Him. The contrast
+of it is walking in one's own ways. Is. liii. 6,--regulating of one's
+life according to the desires of one's own corrupt heart.--The last
+words, "For from Zion, etc.," are not to be conceived of as spoken by
+the people, stirring up and encouraging one another, but by the
+prophet. They state the reason why the people are so anxious to go to
+Zion; and this accounts also for the circumstance that Zion is so
+emphatically placed at the beginning. Zion shall, at that time, be the
+residence of the true God, and proved to be such by glorious
+revelations; and from it His commands go forth over the whole earth.
+יצא, "to go out," stands here, as in ver. 1, in the sense of "to go
+forth." As the sphere for the going forth of the law from Zion is not
+limited, it must be considered in as wide an extent as possible; in
+harmony with the preceding words, [Pg 447] according to which we must
+think of "people," "many nations," as being comprehended within this
+sphere.--We must not overlook the fact that the article is awanting
+before תורה, and that the law is not more strictly defined as the law
+of God. It is intended, in the first place, only to indicate that
+despised and desolate Zion is to be the seat of legislation for the
+whole earth. The law itself is then more strictly defined as the word
+of God. Many interpreters understand תורה here as meaning religion in
+general;[2] the going forth is explained by them of its spreading
+itself. From Zion, true religion is to extend over all the nations; and
+hence it is that to Zion the eyes of all of them are directed. Thus,
+_e.g._, _Theodoret_, who remarks: "This is the preaching of the Gospel,
+which began at Jerusalem, and from thence, as from its source, flowed
+over all the earth, offering drink to those who came to it in faith."
+But תורה never signifies "doctrine," "religion," any more than does
+משפט: it is always used as meaning "law;" and this sense of it can with
+the less propriety be departed from here, as the people, according to
+what precedes, flow to Zion not in order to seek religion in general,
+but laws for their conduct in life. But even if we were to follow
+_Caspari_, and to modify the explanation thus, "The law, which was
+formerly confined to Zion, and hence to a narrow circle, shall go forth
+from thence into the wide world,"--weighty objections to it would still
+remain. If "to go forth" were to be understood as meaning "to spread,"
+the sphere of the going forth would have been more closely determined;
+as, _e.g._, in Is. xlii. 1: "He shall bring forth judgment _to
+the Gentiles_." In Is. li. 4, "Law shall _go out_ from Me, and My
+judgment I will make for a light of the people," _to go out_ is
+tantamount to, _to go forth_. "Mine arms shall judge the people," in
+li. 5, is parallel to it. יצא in itself does not mean "to go forth."
+_Further_--The circumstance that the law spreads from Zion, does not
+account sufficiently for the zeal with which the nations flow to Zion.
+If it _goes out_, there is then no need for their seeking for it at its
+home. In Zech. viii. 20-23, also, the thronging of the people to Zion,
+in order to enter there into a closer relation to the Lord, forms the
+subject of discourse. Zion, as the place where the Lord of [Pg 448] the
+whole earth issues His orders, as if from His residence (Is. xi. 10),
+forms an appropriate contrast to "Zion shall be ploughed as a
+field,"--a suitable parallel to the exaltation of the temple-mountain
+above all the mountains of the earth, to which the prophet here
+returns, after having, in the first part of the verse, expanded the
+thought: "People flow unto it;" and to vers. 7, 8 also, where Zion
+appears likewise as the seat of dominion.
+
+Ver. 3. "_And He judges among many people, and rebukes strong nations,
+even unto a distance. And they heat their swords into ploughshares, and
+their spears into pruning-knives; nation shall not lift up a sword,
+against nation, neither shall they learn war any more._"
+
+It appears strange to us that here we see ourselves transferred all at
+once to the sphere of the general description of the Messianic time;
+for, according to the whole context, and to the contrast with chap.
+iii., we expect such predictions as will serve especially for the
+consolation of the daughter of Zion, whose heart had been pierced by
+the announcement that the mountain of the house should become a wooded
+hill, and that she herself should be given into the power of the
+Gentiles. But this difficulty is removed by remarking that this verse
+only prepares the way for ver. 4, where there is a representation of
+the advantage which accrues to the daughter of Zion from the spirit of
+peace, which, through the powerful influence of Zion's God, has become
+prevalent in the heathen world. It is from failing to perceive the
+connection of the two verses, that the remark of _Hitzig_ has arisen:
+"It is very probable that Micah, if he had been the (original) author,
+would rather have mentioned the change and restoration of Jerusalem,
+than the change of the arms."--The subject is the Lord. That it was
+through _Christ_, who as early as in the Song of Solomon appears as the
+true Solomon, that the Lord would carry out what is here announced, the
+prophet could, according to his plan, detail only afterwards. In chap.
+iv. 1-7, he describes how Zion is glorified by what the Lord does from
+thence; in ver. 8, by the restoration of the dominion of the Davidic
+race; and in v. 1 ff., by the appearance of the Messiah. It is
+especially from v. 3 (4), according to which the Messiah stands and
+feeds in the strength of the Lord, in the majesty of the name of the
+Lord His God,--and from v. 4 (5), according [Pg 449] to which He is the
+Peace, that we infer with certainty that the judging also shall be done
+by His mediation. In Isaiah we meet the person of the Messiah in the
+prophecy of chap. iv., which, along with that in chap. ii., belongs to
+one discourse, and supplements it. The judging and rebuking (הוכיח with
+ל, "to rebuke," "to reprove") refer to the strifes among the nations
+which hitherto could not be allayed, because there was wanting the
+counterpoise to selfishness which was productive of wrong. But such a
+counterpoise is now given in the word of God, which, carried home by
+His Spirit, penetrates deeply into the heart.--"_Strong_ nations," who
+were hitherto most ready to seize the sword. The words, "And they
+beat," etc., refer to Joel iv. (iii.) 10, where the heathen beat their
+ploughshares into swords, their pruning-knives into spears; and they do
+so to the prejudice of the people of God, which the prophet, although
+apparently he speaks in general terms, has specially in view. By this
+allusion Micah indicates that, with reference to the disposition of the
+heathen world, Joel has spoken a word, true, indeed, but giving
+only a partial view. The words of _Justinus_ in the _Dialogus cum
+Tryphone_--For, having learned the fear and worship of God from the Law
+and Gospel which came to us through the Apostles from Jerusalem, we
+have fled for refuge to the God of Jacob, and the God of Israel; and
+we, who formerly were filled with war and murder, and every wickedness,
+have put away the instruments of war from the whole earth, and have,
+every one of us, changed the swords into ploughshares, and the spears
+into agricultural implements, and cultivate the fear of God, justice,
+brotherly love, faith, hope," etc.,--show that, even soon after the
+appearance of Christ, it was held that the fulfilment of this prophecy
+had commenced. But it was acknowledged by the prophet also, that even
+after the appearance of the salvation, this description would, in the
+meantime, give only a partial exhibition of the truth; inasmuch as not
+every one will submit to the judging activity of the Lord, how powerful
+soever may be the effect of the new principle which entered into the
+life of the nations; for in v. 4, 5 (5, 6) he speaks of the nations
+which, in the Messianic time, attack the people of God; in ver. 8 (9),
+of their adversaries and enemies; and in ver. 14 (15), of such as do
+not hear. But the [Pg 450] imperfect fulfilment is a pledge and
+guarantee for that which is perfect, as it will take place when, by the
+last judgment, they have been removed who have obstinately preserved
+within themselves the spirit of strife and hatred. According to the
+predictions of the prophets--compare especially Is. xi. 6, 7--peace
+shall, at some future period, be extended even to the irrational
+creation, and the strife which has come upon earth by the fall, shall
+entirely cease from it.
+
+Ver. 4. "_And they sit every man under his vine, and under his
+fig-tree, and none maketh them afraid; for the mouth of the Lord of
+hosts hath spoken it._"
+
+This verse contains a description of the happy consequences which the
+peaceful influence which goes forth from the Lord to the heathen world,
+shall have upon Israel. For Israel is the subject in ישבו, and the
+verse does not at all pretend to give a description of "a Solomonic
+time for all the nations." This is shown by what is stated, in the
+following verse, as to the ground of this happy change, as well as by a
+comparison of the fundamental passages. Lev. xxvi. 6: "And I give peace
+in the land, and ye lie down, and none maketh you afraid;" and 1 Kings
+v. 5 (iv. 25): "And Judah and Israel dwelt safely every man under his
+vine and fig-tree, from Dan to Beersheba, all the days of Solomon;" and
+of the parallel passages, Micah v. 4 (5); Zech. iii. 10. It is
+_further_ shown by the connection with what precedes, where great
+calamity, and the devastation of their whole country had been predicted
+to Israel,--and by the mention of the vine and fig-tree, which are
+characteristic of the land of Israel. The words, "For the mouth of the
+Lord," etc., point out the pledge, which the person of Him who promises
+affords for the fulfilment of the promise, which appears incredible.
+
+Ver. 5. "_For all the nations shall walk, every one in the name of
+their God; and we will walk in the name of the Lord our God for ever
+and ever._"
+
+The causal particle כי states the ground of the fact that the Lord of
+hosts has spoken this, and given the promise of the final safety of
+Israel, and of his enjoying peace after the strife, in consequence of
+God's exercising dominion from Zion over the whole heathen world; while
+this peace after the strife is then more fully described in vers. 6, 7.
+The lot of every people corresponds to the nature of their God. And
+now, how [Pg 451] could it be otherwise, than that all other nations
+should be humbled, because their gods are idols, while Israel, on the
+other hand, is exalted and endowed with everlasting salvation and
+prosperity, because his God is the only true God? Is. xlv. 16, 17 is
+parallel: "They shall be ashamed, and also confounded, all of them;
+they shall go to confusion, the makers of idols. Israel is saved by the
+Lord, with an everlasting salvation; ye shall not be ashamed nor
+confounded in all eternity."--"The name of the Lord" is the complex
+whole of His excellency which is revealed, and proved by deeds; compare
+Prov. xviii. 10: "The name of the Lord is a strong tower; the righteous
+runneth into it and is exalted." Inasmuch as the name of the Lord is to
+manifest itself in His dealings with His people, it represents itself
+as the way in which they are to walk: the prayer of the Psalmist in Ps.
+xxv. 5, that the Lord would lead him in His _truth_, forms a parallel
+to this; and so does also what he says in ver. 9 of the same Psalm,
+that "He guides the meek in _judgment_." But exactly corresponding is
+Zech. x. 12: "And I strengthen them in the Lord, and _in His name shall
+they walk_" = in the path of His name, so that the latter manifests
+itself in His dealings with them; compare the remarks on that passage.
+In favour of our exposition, moreover, is the comparison of the passage
+Is. ii. 5, the evidently requisite harmony of which with the passage
+under consideration is obtained, only if the latter be understood as we
+have explained it. The _light_, _i.e._, the salvation of the Lord
+spoken of there, corresponds with the name of the Lord in the passage
+under review. Several interpreters explain: "They may walk, they may
+worship their gods. Although all nations should be idolaters, yet we,
+inhabitants of Judah, shall faithfully worship Jehovah." Against this
+explanation _Caspari_ remarks, "An exhortation, or a resolution which
+implies an exhortation, is here not easily justified, because it would
+stand in the midst of promises." Moreover, the כי cannot be explained
+according to this interpretation, as appears with sufficient clearness
+from the remark of _Justi_: "This verse does not seem to be so closely
+connected with the preceding one." The connection is more firmly
+established by the explanation of _Tarnovius_, _Michaelis_, and others:
+"Surely so brilliant a lot must fall to us; for we are faithful
+worshippers of the true God, while all other nations walk after their
+idols." [Pg 452] But the objections to tins explanation are: (1) the
+circumstance that it is rather unusual to found the salvation of the
+people upon their Covenant-faithfulness (of which, from the preceding
+reproof, we cannot entertain very high notions), instead of founding it
+upon God's grace and faithfulness, compare vii. 18-20;[3] (2) the
+repeated use of the Future, while, according to it, we should have
+expected the Preterite, at least in the first member; and (3), and most
+decisive of all, the expression, "For ever and ever;" compare the
+expression, "From henceforth, even for ever," in ver. 7.
+
+Ver. 6. "_In that day, saith the Lord, I will assemble that which
+halteth, and that which hath been driven out I will gather, and that
+which I have afflicted._ Ver. 7. _And I make that which is halting a
+remnant, and that which is far off a strong nation, and the Lord
+reigneth over them in Mount Zion from henceforth, even for ever._"
+
+The expression "in that day" does not refer to "at the end of the
+days," in ver. 1, but is connected with, and resumes ver. 4^a That the
+verb אסף has here the signification "to assemble," and not that "to
+receive," is shown by ii. 12, and especially by Ezek. xi. 17. The word
+refers to the announcement of Israel's being carried away, which was
+formerly made, and with which the scattering is connected. They are
+assembled for their return to the Holy Land. Such an assembling,
+however, is meant, as is connected with the full enjoyment of
+salvation, and in which the Congregation truly manifests itself in a
+close unity, as a kingdom of priests. In the passage, Zeph. iii. 19,
+which is founded upon the one under review, we find "I save" instead of
+"I assemble." Of such a description, the assembling under Zerubbabel
+was not; compare Nehem. ix. 36, 37. It can therefore come into notice
+only as a prelude to the true assembling.--"The Fem. sing, of the
+Partic.," says _Hitzig_, "must be understood collectively; and it is
+not several subjects, but predicates of the same subject, viz., of the
+whole of Israel, [Pg 453] which are thereby designated." The "halting,"
+which is a condition of bodily helplessness and weakness, occurs also
+in Ps. xxxv. 15, and xxxviii. 18, as a designation of adversity and
+misery.--The expression, "to make a remnant," forms the contrast to
+total annihilation. While these words show that a limit will be put to
+the _diminution_, the following words predict a vast _increase_. In the
+words, "In Mount Zion," the contrast with iii. 12 appears once more at
+the close of the section. As regards מלך יהוה, compare Ps. xciii. 1. It
+does not refer to the constant government of the Lord, but to a new and
+glorious manifestation of it--as it were to a new ascension to the
+throne. The expression, "From henceforth," refers to the _ideal_
+present. In spirit, the prophet is in that time when the Lord is just
+entering upon His government. The words, "The Lord reigneth ... for
+ever," are thus beautifully illustrated by _Calvin_: "Micah does not
+here mention the descendants of David, but Jehovah Himself; not as if
+he wished thereby to exclude that dominion of David, but in order to
+show that God would make it manifest that He was the author of that
+dominion, yea, that He Himself held all the power. For, although God
+governed the ancient people by the hand of David, and by the hand of
+Josiah and Hezekiah, _yet there was, as it were, a shadow placed
+between, so that God's government was then perceived darkly only._ The
+prophet, therefore, here expresses, that there would be some difference
+betwixt that shadowy government, and the future new dominion which He
+was openly to set up by the advent of the Messiah. And this was truly
+and solidly fulfilled in Christ's person. For although Christ was the
+true seed of David, yet He was also, at the same time, Jehovah, viz.,
+God made manifest in the flesh." With respect to this promise, however,
+it must also be kept in mind that it will be finally fulfilled only in
+the future, when the kingdom and throne of glory (compare Matt. xix.
+28) shall be set up.
+
+The prophet had hitherto described the kingdom which was to be
+established anew, as a kingdom of God, without mentioning the channel
+through which His mercy was to be poured out upon the Congregation--the
+mediator who was to represent Him among them. His representation,
+therefore, was still defective; it still wanted the connection with the
+promise given to David, and so frequently celebrated by him, and by
+other [Pg 454] holy Psalmists and Prophets--the promise of the eternal
+dominion of David's house. According to this promise, every new, great
+manifestation of grace, must be through some descendant of this family
+as a mediator. This house must ever form the substratum on which the
+divine power and the divine nature, in its most complete manifestation,
+showed themselves. This blank is supplied in ver. 8.
+
+"_And thou tower of the flock, hill of the daughter of Zion, unto thee
+it will come; and to thee cometh the former dominion, the kingdom of
+the daughter of Zion._"
+
+In the words immediately preceding it is said: "And the Lord reigneth
+over them from henceforth, even for ever." We have here, then, a
+prediction of the dominion of the house of David, by whose mediation
+the Lord is to reign; compare v. 3 (4), where it is said of Him in whom
+the Davidic race is to centre, "And He stands, and feeds in the
+strength of the Lord, in the majesty of the name of the Lord His God."
+All interpreters agree that the Davidic race is designated by the
+"Tower of the flock," and by "the hill of the daughter of Zion;" but,
+with respect to the ground of this designation, they are very much at
+variance. A great number of them (_Grotius_, and among the recent
+interpreters, _Rosenmüller_, _Winer_, _Gesenius_, _De Wette_) think of
+that Tower of the flock, in the neighbourhood of which Jacob, according
+to Gen. xxxv. 21, took up his abode for a time. They say that,
+according to _Jerome_, this Tower of the flock was situated in the
+immediate neighbourhood of Bethlehem; that it is used here only by way
+of a _metalepsis_ for Bethlehem, and that Bethlehem again designates
+the Davidic race; so that the passage agrees altogether with v. 1 (2).
+But, upon a closer examination, this interpretation appears to be
+objectionable, for the following reasons. 1. It is anything but fixed
+that that Tower of the flock was situated in the immediate
+neighbourhood of Bethlehem. It cannot be inferred from the passage in
+Genesis, and as little can it be proved from _Jerome_. In the _Quest.
+ad Genes. Opp._ iii. p. 145, Frcf., he first mentions the opinion of
+the Jews, according to which, by the "Tower of the flock" is to be
+understood the place on which the temple was afterwards built, and then
+says: "But if we follow the direction of the road, we find, by
+Bethlehem, a 'place of the shepherds,' which was so called, either
+because it was there [Pg 455] that, at the birth of the Lord, the
+angels sang their hymn of praise; or because Jacob fed his flock there,
+and gave this name to the place; or, which is more likely, because even
+then the future mystery was, by a revelation, shown to him." According
+to this, _Jerome_ does not know anything of a "Tower of the flock" near
+Bethlehem. From the direction of the road which Jacob took, he only _
+surmises_ that it was situated thereabouts; and since there was, in the
+neighbourhood of Bethlehem, a place called "the place of the
+shepherds," he, from a mere combination, declares this to be identical
+with the Tower of the flock; while, after all, he is so cautious as not
+at once to reject the only true derivation of this name from the
+shepherds at the birth of Christ. By this, the other passage in the
+book _de locis Hebr._ must be judged, where _Jerome_ expressly delivers
+his supposition as if it were historical truth: "Bethlehem, the city of
+David ... and about a thousand paces (_passus_) distant is the tower
+_Ader_, which is called 'the Tower of the flock,' indicating that, by
+some vision, the shepherds had, beforehand, been made conscious of the
+birth of the Lord." That tradition knew but little of any "Tower of the
+flock" in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem, appears also from _Eusebius
+Onom._ s. v. _Gader._ p. 79, ed. _Cleric_: "The tower Gader ... While
+Jacob dwelt there, Reuben went in to Bilhah." _Eusebius_ evidently knew
+nothing more regarding the "Tower of the flock" than what we also may
+learn from the passage in Genesis. He does not venture to offer even a
+conjecture as to its position. The same ignorance is shown by the Jews,
+mentioned by _Jerome_, who certainly would not have thought of a
+reference to the temple, if a place called "Tower of the flock" had
+existed in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem. 2. But even assuming the
+existence of the Tower of the flock in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem,
+is it anything else than the assumption of a pure _quid pro quo_, to
+assert, without assigning any reason, that the "Tower of the flock"
+stands for Bethlehem? _Rosenmüller_, at least, has felt this. He makes
+the attempt to assign a reason: "In substituting, however, an unknown
+hamlet in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem, for Bethlehem itself, he
+intended to indicate that the dominion of David would be altogether
+weakened and brought low." But this reason is certainly not by any
+means sufficient; Bethlehem was, in itself, so small, that no further
+[Pg 456] diminution was required; compare v. 1 (2). It had, moreover,
+been always small, and had not by any means sunk down in the course of
+time from former greatness. Hence, such a designation, in contrast with
+its former glory, would be entirely out of place; and even supposing
+that it were not, the mode of this designation would always be
+inexplicable, unless we could assume a closer reference of the "Tower
+of the flock" to the Davidic family. It is only by establishing such a
+reference, that the whole explanation can be saved and confirmed. For
+this purpose, it would be necessary to suppose that Bethlehem, and the
+district belonging to it, were the general designation of the native
+place of the Davidic family, while the "Tower of the flock" was the
+special one. But there is not the slightest ground on which to support
+this hypothesis. Everywhere, Bethlehem itself appears as the residence
+of Jesse, the father of David (compare 1 Sam. xvi. 1, 18, 19, xvii.
+12), and likewise of Boaz, Ruth ii. 4.
+
+The incorrectness of another explanation is still more evident.
+According to it, we are, by the "Tower of the flock," to understand
+a tower which is alleged to have stood at Jerusalem, near to the
+Sheep-gate. But the existence of such a tower is supported by no
+evidence whatsoever, and does not become even probable by the existence
+of a sheep-gate; for a Tower of the flock is not a tower which stands
+near the Sheep-gate, but a tower which is erected for the protection of
+the flock, as is clearly seen from _Migdal Eder_ in Genesis. But, even
+supposing that such a tower existed, is there anything which could
+somehow make it a suitable designation of the Davidic family?
+
+Let us now proceed to the establishment of our own opinion, by which
+the arguments advanced against the other explanations will be
+considerably strengthened. Concerning the situation of Jerusalem,
+_Josephus_, _de B. J._ i. 6, c. 13, remarks as follows: "It was built
+on two hills fronting each other, separated by a chasm running between,
+down to which the houses were situated. One of the hills, on which the
+upper part of the city lay, was much higher and longer than the other.
+And, because it was fortified, it was called the Citadel of King
+David," etc. These two hills are Akra and Zion. The city situated upon
+the latter, is, in other passages also, described by Josephus to be
+very high and steep; _e.g._, vi. 40: τὴν ἄνω πόλιν περίκρημνον [Pg
+457]οὖσαν. The sight afforded by the towers in this steep height is, by
+him, compared with that of the beacon at Alexandria from the sea (_B.
+J._ vi. c. 6: "It resembled in shape the lighthouse as seen by people
+sailing up to Alexandria"). Compare the similar representation of
+_Tacitus_, _Lib._ 5. _Histor._ c. 11 (_Reland_ ii. p. 848 sqq.).
+
+On the summit of this high and steep hill, in the upper town, was
+situated the royal castle, called the "upper house of the king," Neh.
+iii. 25. Its situation could not fail to afford to it extraordinary
+security. This is sufficiently shown by the ridicule of the Jebusites,
+when David, who did not build, but only enlarged it, was about to
+besiege it. They were of opinion that the lame and the blind would be
+sufficient for its defence, 2 Sam. v. 7-9; compare _Faber's Archæol._
+p. 191.
+
+Far above this royal castle, which David first selected for his
+residence (compare 2 Sam. v. 9: "And David dwelt in the castle and
+called it the City of David, and built it round about"), a tower jutted
+prominently out, and afforded a majestic sight. It is frequently
+mentioned in Scripture. The principal passage is Neh. iii. 25:
+"Opposite the tower which standeth out from the upper house of the king
+(appositely the Vulgate: _quæ eminet de domo regis excelsa_) in the
+court of the prison;" compare ver. 26, where the tower standing out,
+and elevated far above the king's castle, is likewise spoken of.
+Concerning the words, "In the court of the prison," we obtain some
+information from Jer. xxxii. 2: "Jeremiah the prophet was shut up in
+the court of the prison, בחצר המטרה, which is in the house of the king
+of Judah;" compare Jer. xxxviii. 6, according to which the pit into
+which the prophet was let down, was in the court of the prison.
+According to these passages, the court of the prison formed, agreeably
+to the customs of the East, part of the royal castle on Zion; and it
+was in this court that the tower rose. The other principal passage is
+in the Song of Solomon iv. 4: "Thy neck is like the tower of David
+built for arms; a thousand bucklers are hanging on it, all arms of
+heroes." According to this passage, the majestic appearance which the
+tower afforded was still further increased by the glittering arms which
+covered it. _Döpke_ and others think of the armour of conquered heroes;
+but that we must rather think of the armour of David's own heroes,
+appears from Ezek. xxvii. 10, 11, where it is said of [Pg 458] the
+hired troops of the Tyrians, "Shield and helmet they hanged up in
+thee," and is confirmed by the constant designation of David's faithful
+ones, as _his heroes_; compare Song of Sol. iii. 7: "Threescore heroes
+stand around the bed of the king, of the heroes of Israel;" and 1
+Chron. xii. 1: "These were among the heroes, helpers in the war." The
+expression in the Song of Solomon iv. 4, "All shields of the heroes,"
+indicates that the armour of all those who were received into the
+number of the heroes, was hung up on that tower, as an outward sign of
+this reception, as a kind of diploma of it. The circumstance that this
+tower, which is certainly quite identical with the tower mentioned by
+Nehemiah, is called the tower of David, refutes the supposition of
+_Clericus_, on Nehemiah, _l.c._, according to which, it is not the
+castle of David or Zion which is spoken of in that passage, but another
+castle and its tower in the lower town, supposed to have been built by
+Solomon. This hypothesis is refuted, moreover, by that passage itself,
+inasmuch as the castle is there designated as the upper, or high one.
+
+Now, it is this tower which Micah considers as the symbol of the
+Davidic house; and in so doing, he follows the example of the Song of
+Solomon, where it is the symbol of the lofty elevation of Israel, the
+centre and life-blood of which was the Davidic family. It scarcely
+needs any lengthened demonstration to show how well suited it was for
+this signification, how very naturally it represented the thing
+signified. It was indeed the most elevated part of the castle, the
+main-mast, as it were, of the ship, which, since the elevation of the
+Davidic family to the royal dignity, had been for centuries, and was
+still to be, the seat of the Davidic race. Its height was a symbol of
+the royal dignity and authority. Its relation to the whole of the rest
+of the city, which it overlooked and commanded, and which looked up to
+it with astonishment, symbolized the relation of the subjects to their
+king.
+
+Micah calls this tower the "Tower of the flock." The main reason for
+this appellation must be sought in what immediately precedes, in vers.
+6 and 7. As in chap. ii. 12, 13, so here also, Micah represented the
+Covenant-people under the figure of a flock that was to be gathered
+from its dispersion and estrangement, and protected against every
+hostile attack. Could anything then be more natural than that,
+continuing the image [Pg 459] which he had begun, he should call the
+tower, which, to him, symbolized the family by whom, under the guidance
+of the Lord, that gathering should be accomplished, the "Tower of the
+flock?"[4] It is just this close connection with what precedes which
+furnishes an important proof for the correctness of our explanation,
+for which the way was prepared by all those expositors who, like
+_Jerome_, _Theodoret_, _Cyril_, _Cocceius_, and _Paulus_ (_über die
+Evang._ i. p. 189), understand מגדל עדר as an appellative, and regard,
+as the ground of the appellation, the protection and the refuge. In the
+East, they look out from the towers of the flock, whether beasts of
+prey or hostile bands be approaching. It is into these that the flocks
+are driven, in those regions where there are no towns and villages, as
+soon as danger appears; compare the proofs in _Faber_, l.c., p. 192 ff.
+There was so much the stronger reason for Micah's choosing this
+figurative mode of representation, as he had the type immediately
+before his eyes. According to 2 Chron. xxvi. 10, xxvii. 4, Uzziah and
+Jotham erected, in the woods and pasture grounds, castles and towers
+for the protection and refuge of the flocks. But, besides this main
+reason, there seems to have existed a secondary one for choosing this
+appellation. They who adhere so firmly to the "Tower of the flock,"
+mentioned in Genesis, are not altogether wrong. Except in that passage,
+מגדל עדר nowhere occurs in precisely the same manner as it stands here.
+If, then, we consider that, besides this reference, there occur in
+Micah other plain references to the Pentateuch (and very numerous they
+are, compared with the extent of his prophecies; compare, _e.g._, ii.
+12, 13. [vide supra], vi. 4, 5, vii. 14, where the words שכני לבדד
+receive light from Num. xxiii. 9 only[5]); and still more, if we
+consider that, in v. 1 (2), the appellation Bethlehem Ephratah is
+likewise taken from Gen. xxxv. 19, and that it is in ver. 21 of the
+same chapter that the "Tower of the flock" is mentioned,--we shall
+certainly not be guilty of trifling, if we assert that there is a
+suspicion of error and unsoundness against all those interpretations
+which cannot connect the "Tower of the flock" [Pg 460] in Micah with
+that which is spoken of in Genesis. But the explanation which we have
+given is not liable to this charge. For why should not Jacob, and the
+tower which he built for the protection of his literal flocks, serve
+the prophet as a type and substratum for the relation of a spiritual
+Shepherd? We must not overlook the truth, that the main and secondary
+reasons which we have adduced, do not stand beside each other, but run
+into each other,--are related to each other as the general and
+particular. For the reason why the prophet had specially in view the
+"Tower of the flock" which had been built by Jacob was certainly this
+only: that it partook of the nature of all such towers of the flocks.
+The _tertium comparationis_ is not thereby changed; the figure is only
+more individualized, and, therefore, more striking and impressive. A
+reference to the pastoral life of the Patriarchs is certainly one of
+the reasons of the frequent use of images taken from pastoral life. In
+a different way, _Hitzig_ endeavours to come to the same result. He
+supposes that the "Tower of the flock" mentioned in Genesis was not
+situated in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem, but is identical with the
+tower of the castle on Zion, and of the castle of Millo which David
+already found existing, and which was only more strongly fortified by
+him and by Solomon, 2 Sam. v. 9; 1 Kings ix. 15, 24, xi. 27. The figure
+of the "Tower of the flock" was so much the more appropriate in the
+passage under consideration, as the founder of the royal dynasty had
+been, for a long time, a shepherd of the lambs, before he was elected
+to be a shepherd of the people, and had thus himself prefigured his
+future relation--a circumstance to which allusion is frequently made in
+Scripture itself; compare 2 Sam. v. 2, vii. 8; 1 Chron. xi. 2; Ps.
+lxxviii. 70-72.
+
+After having thus ascertained what is to be understood by the "Tower
+of the flock," there can be no great difficulty in explaining the
+"hill of the daughter of Zion." The daughter of Zion is Zion itself,
+personified, and represented as a virgin; and if her hill be spoken
+of, what else can be meant, than Mount Zion in the more restricted
+sense--the Mount κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν, before which Akra and Moriah are changed
+into plains? We have thus a most appropriate relation of the two
+appellations to each other,--the tower of the flock being the
+particular, and the hill of the daughter of Zion, the general. [Pg 461]
+_Further_,--We obtain the most perfect harmony and agreement with the
+last words of the verse. The hill which, morally and physically,
+commands the daughter of Zion, is the same which obtains dominion over
+the daughter of Jerusalem. _Finally_,--We see the most striking
+contrast with iii. 12, and the most admirable connection with iv. 1-7,
+in which, everywhere, Mount Zion is spoken of, and the exaltation is
+described which, after its deep abasement, it shall obtain in the
+future, by the flowing of the heathens to it, and by the dominion of
+the Lord to be there exercised.
+
+It is only in appearance that our explanation is contradicted by
+passages of the Old Testament, and of _Josephus_, where _Ophel_ is
+mentioned as a particular place; compare _Bachiene_ 2. 1, § 76;
+_Hamelsveld_ 2, S. 35 ff. The supposition of several interpreters, that
+this _Ophel_ is some particular hill (compare, _e.g._, _Vitringa de
+Templo Ezech._ L. i. c. iii. p. 159, and his _Commentary on Isaiah_
+xxxii. 13), has already been invalidated by _Reland_ (p. 855), and
+_Faber_ l.c., p. 347, who rightly remark, that _Josephus_, in
+enumerating the hills of Jerusalem, makes no mention of _Ophel_, but
+speaks always only of the place _Ophel_. All the difficulties, however,
+which stand in the way of the other assumptions, are removed by the
+following view of the matter. Mount Zion was called העפל, the Hill κατ᾽
+ἐξοχήν, and this word became, by and by, a _nomen proprium_, and, in
+this state, as well as in its transition to the _nomen proprium_, was
+used without the Article. From this it followed--and numerous analogies
+everywhere occur--that the foot of the mountain, the place where it was
+connected with the lower part of the temple-mountain by means of a deep
+valley, acquired this name in preference, and received it, as it were,
+as a _nomen proprium_. At this foot of Zion--and hence over against the
+temple, and near it--dwelt the Nethinim, the temple servants, Neh. iii.
+26; and _Josephus_ says, that the wall surrounding Mount Zion extended
+on the east side to the place which was called _Ophel_, and ended at
+the eastern porch of the temple (_de Bell. Jud._ vi. 6).
+
+The view which we have taken, not only of _Ophel_, but of this whole
+passage, receives an important confirmation by Is. xxxii. 13, 14: "Upon
+the land of My people come up thorns and briars, for they shoot up in
+all the houses of joy, in the joyous city. For palaces are forsaken,
+tumult of the city is [Pg 462] forsaken, _hill_ and _tower_ are around
+caves (_i.e._, it is only this which they have to protect) for ever, a
+joy of wild asses, a pasture of flocks." In this threatening of
+punishment, _hill_, עפל, and _tower_, בחן (properly "a watch-tower,"
+corresponding to מגדל), are joined, just as in Micah's promise; and
+this is a certain proof of the unsoundness of all those explanations
+which would sever the two in Micah. Perhaps there is, in that passage
+of Isaiah, the addition of a third object, standing in the middle
+between the two, viz., the castle of the king which was situated on
+Zion, and of which the highest and strongest part was formed by the
+tower. There seems, at least, to be better ground for understanding
+this by ארמון than the temple, as is done by _Vitringa_. It will,
+nevertheless, be better to understand the palace collectively, and to
+view it as being parallel to the houses of joy in ver. 13. So much is,
+at all events, evident, that here also, _Ophel_ cannot be understood of
+the lowest part of Mount Zion, inasmuch as it had nothing distinguished
+about it that could account for its being mentioned in this context;
+and to this, the circumstance of its being connected with the tower,
+must, moreover, be added. _Faber_, l.c., has convincingly proved, that
+_Ophel_, in the stricter sense, neither had, nor could have, any
+fortifications.
+
+עדיך, "unto thee," seems here to have that emphasis which originally
+belongs to עד. It indicates that the object in motion really reaches
+its goal, while אל originally expresses only its direction towards the
+goal. It points to all the obstacles which seem to render it impossible
+for the dominion to reach its goal, and represents them as such as
+shall be overcome by divine omnipotence. This is quite in accordance
+with the scope of the whole representation, which _Calvin_ thus
+appositely points out: "The prophet endeavours to confirm the faith and
+hope of the godly, that they might look forward to the distant future,
+and not dwell only upon the present destruction; that they might rather
+believe that the matter was in the hands of God, who had promised, that
+He who raised the dead, would also restore the kingdom of David, which
+had been destroyed."
+
+Several interpreters, _e.g._, _Rosenmüller_, connect תאתה immediately
+with what follows: "The kingdom shall come and attain." But, in
+opposition to this, there are not only the _accents_ (_Michaelis_; "The
+_Athnach_ is intended to keep the mind [Pg 463] of the reader in
+suspense for some time, and to direct his attention to what follows"),
+but also the change of the tenses, which is intended just to prevent
+this connection, and the weak sense which would be the result, inasmuch
+as one of the verbs would be a pleonasm. It must rather be supposed,
+therefore, that the subject in תאתה is indefinite. The remark which
+_Hävernick_, in his _Commentary on Daniel_, S. 386, makes on the
+omission of the indefinite subject, is here fully applicable, although
+he himself makes a wrong application of it to that passage: "The
+indefinite subject," he says, "has a special emphasis. By the omission
+of the definite idea, it is, as it were, left to the reader to supply
+everything possible (in the passage under consideration, the compass of
+all that is glorious), for which the writer cannot find language."
+
+The "first," _i.e._, former, or ancient "dominion," refers to the
+splendid times under David and Solomon; but, at the same time, it
+supposes a period when the dominion is altogether taken away from the
+dynasty of David. Such a period had already been announced by the
+prophet, in his first discourse, inasmuch as it is implied in the
+carrying away of all Judah into captivity; and still more distinctly in
+iii. 12, according to which, Zion, the seat of the Davidic dominion, is
+to be ploughed as a field. This announcement, with the express mention
+of the king, returns in ver. 9, and, contrasted with It, the
+announcement of the restoration of the Davidic dominion in v. 1 (2).
+
+The last words of the verse are, by many expositors (_Calvin_,
+_Michaelis_, and _Rosenmüller_), translated thus: "And the kingdom, I
+say, shall belong to the daughter of Jerusalem;" so that Jerusalem
+would here be, not the _object_, but the _subject_ of dominion. The
+sense, according to this explanation, is best brought out by _Calvin_:
+"The prophet here distinctly mentions the daughter of Jerusalem,
+because the kingdom of Israel had obscured the glory of the true
+kingdom. The prophet hence testifies, that God was not unmindful of His
+promise, and would so arrange it that Jerusalem should recover its lost
+dignity, and the whole people be gathered unto one body." But this
+explanation must be rejected on philological grounds. ממלכת is _status
+constr._; the ל serves, therefore, only as a circumlocution of the
+genitive; and it is not admissible to supply the Verb Substant. To
+this, moreover, there must be added the reference [Pg 464] to what
+precedes. The dominion over the daughter of Jerusalem is to come to the
+tower which commands the daughter of Zion, not, by any means, to the
+daughter of Zion herself. The prophet makes Jerusalem to represent the
+kingdom of God; and, in so doing, he probably has regard to the
+relation of Zion and of the king's castle to the town, by which was
+symbolized the relation which the Davidic dynasty occupied to the
+kingdom of God.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+                             CHAP. IV. 9-14.
+
+At the close of the last chapter, the prophet had announced severe
+judgments. In the verses immediately preceding, he had given glorious
+promises. In that which follows, he now combines these two elements;
+and it is only in chap. v. that the promise again appears, purely, and
+by itself. The judgments are thus introduced into the middle of the
+proclamation of salvation, in order that the faithful might thus be
+preserved from forming any vain hopes, which, if not confirmed by the
+result, are apt to be exchanged for much deeper despondency. But this
+same circumstance contained within it an indirect consolation; for it
+is certain that He who causes future events to be foretold, overrules
+them also; and "He who sends them, can also turn them." For the
+greatest cause of our despondency under the cross is certainly the
+doubt which we entertain as to whether it really comes from God. The
+prophet, however, affords _direct_ consolation also. Whensoever he
+speaks of any calamity, he immediately subjoins the announcement of
+divine deliverance. The intimation of the sufferings, in this section,
+differs essentially from the former ones. It is not, like these, in a
+threatening, but in an affectionate character; indeed, in vers. 11-13,
+the consolation preponderates even outwardly. From this, it is
+sufficiently evident, that it must have a different destination. Whilst
+the threatening was intended chiefly for the ungodly, it has, just as
+much as the preceding pure promise, the truly godly members of the
+Theocracy also in view, and aims at strengthening them in the manifold
+temptations into which they must fall, in consequence of the sufferings
+which [Pg 465] always come upon them also at the same time, on account
+of their outward, and therefore also their inward, connection with the
+wicked.
+
+A glance at the great catastrophes, which were to precede the
+appearance of Christ, was here just in its proper place. In the
+preceding context, the prophet had mentioned the restoration of the
+former dominion. Here, he describes how the dominion is lost ("There is
+no king in thee," ver. 9), and what shall happen during the period of
+this loss. He then further details, in v. 1 (2) sq., in what manner the
+dominion is to be restored.
+
+It is a threefold suffering, joined with deliverance from it, which
+presents itself to the prophet in his inward vision, and which he
+describes accordingly. This is evident from the three-fold עתה, compare
+vers. 9, 11, 14, which, each time, indicates when a new scene presents
+itself to the prophet. This, further, appears from the different
+character which each one bears. In the case of the announcement in
+vers. 9 and 10, viz., the carrying away to Babylon, it is alone the
+Lord's hand which delivers His people. In the calamity described in
+vers. 11-13, He grants to Israel courage in war, and victory to his
+_arms_. The plans of the enemies to destroy Zion are frustrated, while
+in the former calamity they succeeded. In ver. 14, Zion is anew
+represented as sorely pressed by enemies, and captured by them.
+According to v. 1, which is closely connected with what precedes, the
+deliverance is accomplished by the Messiah, in whom the promise of the
+restoration of the dominion of the house of David over the daughter of
+Zion is fulfilled.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+Ver. 9. "_Now why dost thou raise a cry? Is there no king in thee, or
+is thy councillor gone? For pangs have seized thee as a woman in
+travail._"
+
+Zion, mourning at the time of the carrying away into captivity, stands
+before the prophet's spirit, and is addressed by him. This ought never
+to have been overlooked. But since, nevertheless, it has been so, we
+quote from the multitude of analogous instances, at least one which is
+altogether incontrovertible, and where the writer likewise transfers
+himself into the time of the [Pg 466] captivity, viz., the passage in
+Hos. xiii. 9-11, which, in other respects also, shows a great
+resemblance to the one under consideration: "This has destroyed thee, O
+Israel, that thou wast against Me, against thine help. Where is now thy
+king? Let him deliver thee in all thy cities. And where are thy judges?
+Surely thou didst say: Give me kings and princes. And I gave thee a
+king in Mine anger, and took him away in My wrath." It is quite
+impossible to entertain, even for a moment, the thought that, in this
+passage, Hosea speaks of the real past and present, inasmuch as he
+prophesied before the destruction of the kingdom of the ten tribes.
+Micah opens his representation just with the moment that Jerusalem is
+captured by the enemies; and he announces to her that her sufferings
+are not yet at an end,--that she must wander into exile. The progress
+of the thought in the verse under consideration is this:--The prophet
+sees Zion dissolved in grief and lamentation. Full of sympathy, he asks
+of her the cause of this mourning,--whether, it may be, it was caused
+by the loss of her king; and he himself answers this question in the
+affirmative, because such a cause could alone account for such a grief.
+Now, in order fully to realize the mourning of Zion over her king, we
+must bear in mind that the visible head was a representative of the
+invisible one,--the mediator of His mercies: that hence, his removal
+was a token of divine anger, and an extinction of every hope of
+salvation. Every other king is, indeed, likewise an anointed of the
+Lord; but the king of Israel was so in a totally different sense. How
+deeply, from this point of view, the loss of the king was felt, at the
+time when that which is here merely the _ideal_ present became the
+_real_ present, is seen from Lam. iv. 20: "The breath of our life, the
+anointed of the Lord, is taken a prisoner in their pits, he of whom we
+said. Under his shadow we shall live among the heathen." In Zech. iv.
+the civil magistrates, along with the ecclesiastical authorities,
+appear as the greatest gift of God's grace; henceforth these two shall
+again be the medium through which the Lord communicates His gracious
+gifts to the Congregation, just as they had been before the captivity.
+It must further be borne in mind, that all the promises for the future
+were bound up with the regal institution. With its extinction,
+therefore, everything seemed to be lost; every prospect of a better
+future seemed to have disappeared. The reference in [Pg 467] Jer. viii.
+19, where the king is the Lord Himself, to the passage before us, is
+very beautiful, and full of deep meaning. It points out the truth, that
+the loss of the earthly king is a consequence of their having forced
+the heavenly King to withdraw from the midst of them.--The "councillor"
+is preeminently the king himself; compare Is. ix. 5, where Christ, in
+whom the Davidic dynasty is to attain to the full height of its
+destination, appears as the councillor in the highest sense. Other
+councillors, it is true, are not thereby excluded; they form, however,
+only a group around the king as their centre; compare Is. iii. 3.
+
+Ver. 10. "_Travail and break forth, O daughter of Zion, like a woman
+who bringeth forth; for now shalt thou go forth out of the city, and
+thou dwellest in the field, and comest till to Babylon: there shalt
+thou be delivered, there the Lord shall redeem thee out of the hand of
+thine enemies._"
+
+The consolation begins with the words שם תנצלי only; the whole
+remaining part of the verse is of a mournful character. In the words,
+"Travail and break forth," one aspect only of the figure of the
+parturient woman is brought into view, viz., the pain; but not the joy
+following upon the pain; compare remarks on v. 2. The Imperative is
+thus not, as some interpreters erroneously assume, an _Imper.
+consolationis_, but an intimation that the pain would reach its height,
+put into the form of an exhortation to submit to it. Much more
+satisfactorily than by many of the later expositors, the sense of this
+verse has been thus fixed by _Calvin_: "The sum and substance is, that
+although God would, according to His promise, take care of the people,
+the faithful should have no reason from this to indulge in joy, as if
+they were to be exempt from all troubles; on the contrary, the prophet
+exhorts them that they should rather prepare themselves to undergo all
+kinds of misery, so that, when driven out of their own land, they
+should not only, like straying people, wander about in the fields, but
+should be driven to Babylon as into a grave. But while he thus prepares
+the faithful to bear the cross, he subjoins the hope of salvation,
+viz., that God would deliver them, and redeem them from thence out of
+the hands of their enemies."--The חולי resumes the preceding, where the
+prophet had, at the point of time where he had taken his stand, viz.,
+the capture of the city, represented that calamity of this [Pg 468]
+people, under the image of the pains of child-bearing. It thus becomes
+equivalent to--Thou shalt be obliged to bear, not only the pains which
+precede the birth, but also the highest of all pains, viz., the pains
+of the birth itself. What the latter are in relation to the former,
+that, in the view of the prophet, is the carrying away out of the Holy
+Land,--the expulsion from the face of God (an expulsion similar to that
+of Cain when he was obliged to flee from Eden), when compared to the
+mere capture. Hence the close connexion with what follows, by means of
+כי. The word וגחי (the _o_ is, for the sake of euphony, employed
+instead of _u_; just as in ver. 13 דושי) is, by most interpreters,
+translated, "And lead out." But we must object to this, on the ground
+that גוח has always an intransitive signification only, viz., "to break
+forth;" and this signification is here quite suitable, more so even
+than the transitive; for it marks more emphatically the _pain_ during
+the birth, which is here the only point: Jer. iv. 31. It is, as it
+were, a dissolution of the whole nature, a violent breaking of it into
+pieces. The "now," just as the "now" at the commencement of the
+description of the scene, belongs to the _ideal_ standing-point, where
+the carrying away is just at hand; for this is the period of the future
+into which the prophet has been carried. The "dwelling in the field" is
+the intervening station between the "going forth" and "the coming to
+Babylon." In the open air, exposed to all the inclemencies of the
+weather (compare the expression, "Under the dew of heaven," in Dan. iv.
+22, 30 [25, 33]), the prisoners were collected for the purpose of being
+afterwards carried away. The word עד, as well as the twofold שם, are
+emphatic. Irresistibly, the divine _judgment_ advances to its last
+goal; but as irresistibly does divine _mercy_ wrest from the enemies
+the prey which seemed to have been given to them even for ever.--The
+futility of all attempts to explain away the distinct prophecy of
+the Babylonish captivity in this passage has been shown in the
+_Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel_, p. 151 sqq. How even
+_Caspari_ could join in these attempts, it is difficult to explain.
+Even he is of opinion that the prophet had expected the catastrophe to
+come from Asshur. Chap. v. 4, 5 (5, 6) cannot be decisive _for_ the
+reference to Asshur. For the circumstance that Asshur appears there as
+the type of the future enemies of the kingdom of God, implies, indeed,
+that he occupied the first place among the enemies [Pg 469] at the time
+of the prophet; but it by no means Implies that he must occupy a place
+in the outline of the future catastrophes of the people of God. Such a
+catastrophe was not to proceed from him, but rather from an enemy who
+had not yet at that time appeared on the scene, although his power was
+already germinating, as is shown by Is. xxxix. and other passages. The
+oppression of Judah by Asshur was indeed a heavy one; but it was
+transitory, and did not by any means constitute an era. From the
+relation in which vers. 9-14 (iv. 9-v. 1) stands to ver. 8, it
+sufficiently appears that the oppression by the Chaldeans must here
+form the commencement, although the Assyrian oppression must be added
+to it as an introduction and a prelude. According to this relation, the
+point at issue here can be only the cessation of the dominion of the
+Davidic family. From. Jer. xxvi. 18, 19, _Caspari_ endeavours to prove
+that Micah had in view, in the first instance, the Assyrians only. But
+that passage of Jeremiah refers to Mic. iii. 12, where the prophecy has
+a general character, and where the instruments of the divine judgment
+are not expressly mentioned, as is the case here. On the other hand,
+the following arguments are opposed to the reference to the Assyrians.
+1. The prophet does not mention Asshur, but Babylon. Nothing is,
+certainly, proved by the circumstance that, at the time of the prophet,
+Babylon was still under the Assyrian dominion; for Babylon comes here
+into consideration, not so much as a place, but as a hostile power. The
+place, as such, was of no consequence, and the mention of it was not
+required by the character of the prophecy. 2. If the announcement
+referred to Asshur, the result would contradict the prophecy. _Caspari_
+says, that by the repentance and conversion of the people, the
+fulfilment had been averted. But with such a view of prophecy, the
+position of the prophetic institution becomes untenable, and
+historically incomprehensible. The Mosaic regulation, that whosoever
+prophesied anything that did not take place should be punished with
+death, would in that case lose all practical significance; for there
+would always have been at hand the excuse, that by the repentance the
+execution of that sentence of punishment had been repealed. From the
+nature of the case, and from that Mosaic regulation, it follows that
+special announcements expressed absolutely must be fulfilled
+absolutely; and not a single fact in the history of prophetism [Pg 470]
+stands in contradiction to this truth. Jonah's announcement to Nineveh,
+indeed, has been appealed to; but, in reply, we remark simply, that the
+words of that announcement have not been communicated to us, while we
+see from the result that it was conditional only. Such a decided
+repentance would scarcely have been called forth by it among the
+inhabitants of Nineveh, had repentance not been expressly declared in
+it as a means of deliverance. 3. Micah everywhere goes hand in hand
+with his contemporary Isaiah. But the latter always opposes
+energetically the despondency of Judah in the face of Asshur, and
+declares that his proud power would be broken at Jerusalem (as had been
+already prophesied by Hosea in i. 4-7), and that, while the kingdom of
+the ten tribes would be destroyed, Judah would experience the
+protecting hand of the Lord. _Caspari_ contradicts himself in thus
+making these two men of God to differ in so essential a point. For a
+man like _Hitzig_, it may be quite befitting to say, "Micah did not
+possess the firm, courageous faith which was displayed by Isaiah." 4.
+It is quite impossible to get rid of the obvious parallelism of the
+passage under consideration with Is. xxxix. 6, 7, where the rising of
+the Babylonish empire, the destruction of the Davidic kingdom by it,
+and the carrying away of Judah to Babylon, are clearly and distinctly
+predicted. And in a number of other prophecies, Isaiah likewise
+declares or supposes, that that which the Assyrians threatened in vain,
+would at some future period, when the iniquity of the people had become
+full, be carried out by Babylon with her Chaldeans. It is scarcely
+conceivable how _Caspari_, acknowledging as he does the genuineness of
+these prophecies of Isaiah, could think of dissevering from them the
+prophecy now under consideration.--Declarations like that before us,
+where, in clear and distinct outlines, a future event is foretold one
+hundred and fifty years before it takes place, inflict a death-blow
+upon the naturalistic view of the prophetic institution, as is
+sufficiently evident from _Hitzig's_ embarrassment, and from his
+efforts to free himself from the bands of this troublesome fact.
+
+Ver. 11. "_And now many nations assemble themselves against thee, that
+say: Let her be profaned, and let our eyes look upon Zion._"
+
+Israel, with its claim of being alone the people of the only true God,
+was a thorn in the eyes of the nations. These here [Pg 471] burn with
+eager desire to prove, actually and by deeds, that this presumptuous
+claim was unfounded, and, by the destruction of the city, to take from
+it its fancied holiness, and the glory of holiness. Destruction and
+profanation are, in their view, inseparably connected. The contrast to
+the verse under review is formed by vii. 10: "And mine enemy shall see
+it, and shame shall come upon her who said. Where is the Lord thy God?
+Mine eyes shall behold her, now shall she be trodden down as the mire
+of the streets." The words, "Where is the Lord thy God?" entirely agree
+in substance with, "Let her be profaned!" But the desire of profaning
+Jerusalem must be conceived of as the human motive only. According to
+the view of Scripture generally, and of Micah particularly, all the
+distress of the people of God has its foundation in _sin_; and from the
+whole context, and especially from v. 2 (3), where this event also is
+comprehended within the time when God's people are given up, it clearly
+appears that, notwithstanding the happy issue, we have here before us a
+heavy calamity. By a new phase of sin, a new phase of judgment is
+brought about; and by a new phase of worldliness, a new phase of
+aggression by the world's power.--It is owing to a striving after
+variety, that the word "and" here stands before "now," while it is
+omitted in the third scene. It may stand, or it may be omitted, because
+the various catastrophes are independent of each other, and yet, at the
+same time, form a connected whole, as is evident from the words, "He
+will give them up," in v. 2 (3), by which they are connected together.
+The heavy oppression of Judah appears here under the form of a siege of
+its centre, in accordance with the scope of prophecy, which,
+everywhere, seeks to impart vividness and animation to the scene, by
+uniting into one picture that which is separated by time and space. The
+historical reference of the prophecy is thus very accurately stated by
+_Calvin_: "Although the Babylonish captivity has come to an end, and
+Israel has been restored from it, the promised kingdom shall not
+immediately come. Before that takes place, the neighbouring nations
+shall assemble themselves against Jerusalem, with the desire of
+profaning it, and of enjoying a pleasant spectacle. This took place
+under Antiochus." That to which the prophet here simply alludes, but
+yet in such a way that the right reference cannot possibly be mistaken
+(since a great hostile aggression is here described, which should
+happen [Pg 472] after the people have returned from Babylon, and which
+is removed by the piety and courage of the people themselves; and
+since, after this second oppression, there follows a third, which is
+described in ver. 14, there certainly remains no other alternative: the
+times of the Maccabees are those which can alone be thought of),
+is further detailed by Zechariah in ix. 11 ff. At his time, the
+deliverance from the first calamity had already taken place; and he
+expressly states the names of the enemies; just as, in the prophecy
+under review, the authors of the first calamity are expressly named.
+That which is especially characteristic, and which points to the time
+of the Maccabees, is, moreover, the special mention of many nations,
+which are united in their decided hatred against Jerusalem as a city,
+and against Judah as the people of the Lord, taken in connection
+with the character of the war as a _religious war_ in the strictest
+sense,--it being an attempt of heathenism to destroy the Congregation
+of the Lord as such. _These features are found in no other catastrophe
+during the time between Micah and Christ._ And that the aggression
+belongs to the period before the appearing of the Saviour, is evident
+from the whole context, as well as from v. 2 (3). In the time of the
+Maccabees, it was not with Syria alone that Judah had to do; but all
+the heathen nations without exception, with which Judah had any
+connection at that time, united themselves for a decisive stroke
+against the kingdom of God. Their purpose was to extirpate the whole
+race of Jacob, 1 Macc. v. 2. Striking remarks upon the real nature of
+the struggle at that period, as a struggle of faithful Judaism against
+Heathenism, the latter of which had gained a considerable party
+among the people themselves, are made by Stark, in "_Gaza und die
+Philistäische Küste_," _Jena_, 52, S. 481 ff. Among other things, he
+says: "The national distinctions in the boundaries of Palestine had by
+no means ceased, but continued under the general cover of the Egyptian
+and Syrian administration in a varied, unyielding, and hostile manner.
+There were the Idumeans in the whole of the south of Palestine to near
+Jerusalem; then, the Philistines, or when called by their cities, the
+Gazeans and Ashdodians; the Phœnicians, the Samaritans or Chutteans,
+the mixed population of Galilee, the Arabs of Perea.... As soon as the
+Jewish people, who, up to that time, had been altogether insignificant
+in a political point of view, rose against [Pg 473] the Syrian empire,
+at first for their religious peculiarities, then, for their political
+independence, and, finally, even for the recovery of the _ideal_
+possession of their country--an idea which had been kept alive by
+tradition,--it could not but be that those who were naturally the
+supports and centres of the Syrian operations, became the objects of
+the hostile Jewish operations; and that the whole national portion of
+the population, although not Greeks, were anew inflamed by their old
+hatred of, and opposition to, Judaism; so that they considered that
+Hellenic struggle as also a national one. This period thus produced at
+the same time a revival of the old national struggle of the inhabitants
+of Palestine, modified and increased by the struggle of Hellenism with
+the national reaction which served as a superstructure for it." The
+objection, raised even by _Caspari_, that a prophecy of the victorious
+struggles in the time of the Maccabees must be strange and surprising
+in a prophet of the Assyrian period, will not startle those who look at
+the analogies--such as the prophecy in Is. vi. In the latter prophecy,
+first the Chaldean, and then the Roman catastrophes, are described in
+sharp outlines, but without any mention of the names of the instruments
+of punishment. It is only in reference to the executors of the first of
+these judgments that more distinct disclosures were given to the
+prophet himself at a subsequent period. The announcement in Zech. ix.,
+where the Greeks are expressly mentioned, is, in reality, not less
+miraculous. According to all prophetical analogies, it is _a priori_
+probable that this detailed prophecy of the Maccabean period, and the
+similar one in Daniel, should have been preceded by some older prophecy
+which refers to the same facts, but only in general outlines, such as
+we have in the passage under consideration. If any doubt should
+still remain, it would be removed by a glance at the conflicting
+interpretations. _Ewald_ and _Hitzig_ think of the Assyrian invasion,
+to which vers. 9, 10, are likewise referred by them, although
+such a reference is in opposition to the express words of these
+verses,--which, for a Naturalistic tendency, are rather inconvenient.
+The contradiction in these two prophecies _Ewald_ endeavours to
+reconcile by the evidently erroneous supposition, that the carrying
+away in ver. 10 must be conceived of as only a partial one,--a
+supposition which is invalidated by a simple comparison of iii. 12.
+According to _Hitzig_, the prophet has, in vers. 11-13, [Pg
+474]overcome the despondency expressed in vers. 9, 10, and has raised
+himself to confidence in God. He thus makes the prophet distinctly
+contradict himself in one breath,--a supposition which does not even
+deserve a refutation. Even if we were entirely to separate this passage
+from its connection, how ill does the activity here ascribed to Judah
+agree with the oppression by the Assyrians! This activity of Judah
+supposes that it has to do with many small nations. Against the great
+Asiatic empires, a direct and immediate interposition of the Lord is
+_everywhere_ referred to. The salvation, however, which is here
+announced to Judah, can be only an imperfect one, and cannot go beyond
+what they really received at the time of the Maccabees. This is
+sufficiently evident from the circumstance, that it belongs to a time
+in which Judah has no king of the Davidic house; for him they have
+already lost in ver. 9, and receive again only in v. 1 (2), in Christ;
+and it is certain that the Davidic house was the channel through which
+all the true and great mercies of the Lord were bestowed upon His
+people.
+
+Ver. 12. "_And they know not the thoughts of the Lord, neither
+understand they His counsel; for He gathereth them as the sheaf for the
+threshing-floor._"
+
+The particle "and" is here used, where we, for the sake of a closer
+connection, would employ "but." The thoughts of the Lord are
+these,--that the sufferings, after having served their purpose as
+regards Zion, shall pass over to the enemies, so that they shall
+themselves be destroyed by Zion, while they so confidently thought to
+inflict destruction upon Zion. The כי introduces the reason of their
+not knowing the way of the Lord. If they knew it, they would not
+express such desire and hope; _for it is they themselves_ whom the Lord
+gives over to destruction.
+
+Ver. 13. "_Arise and thresh, O daughter of Zion, for I make thine horn
+iron, and thy claws brass; and thou crushest in pieces many people, and
+I consecrate their gain unto the Lord, and their strength to the Ruler
+of the whole earth._"
+
+The figure is based upon the Eastern mode of threshing; compare
+_Paulsen vom Ackerbau der Morgenl._ § 40-42; _Niebuhr_, _Reise_ i. S.
+151; and likewise Is. xxi. 10, xli. 15; Hab. iii. 12. Strictly
+speaking, one characteristic only of the threshing oxen is here
+considered, viz., the crushing power of their hoofs. The prophet,
+however, extends the comparison to that also in which [Pg 475] the
+bullock is formidable, even when it is not engaged in the work of
+threshing, viz., to its horns. On this point 1 Kings xxii. 11 may be
+compared, where the pseudo-prophet Zedekiah makes to himself iron
+horns, and thus states the import of this symbolical action: "Thus
+saith the Lord, With these shalt thou push Aram until it is destroyed."
+The first person in החרמתי has perplexed several ancient translators
+(_Syr._, _Jerome_), as well as many modern interpreters, who,
+therefore, substitute the second person for it. But it is quite
+appropriate. As at the beginning, where the Lord gathers the sheaf on
+the threshing-floor, so at the close also, the prophet declares that
+the victory is the work of God. It is He Himself, the true God, the
+Lord of the whole earth, who reminds His rebellious subjects of their
+true relation to Him, by vindicating to Himself a part of the good
+things which He bestowed upon them; just as He once did in Egypt. This
+thought contains the reason why, instead of the pronoun of the first
+person, the noun is employed; so that it is equivalent to: To Me the
+only God, the Lord of the whole earth. But it is altogether distorted,
+if the first person here be changed into the second. With respect to
+the import of the word, we must by no means think only of the gifts of
+consecration which were brought to the temple. Such a view would
+be necessary, only if the goods of the Covenant-people, or the
+Covenant-people themselves, were introduced as that which is to be
+consecrated. In that case we could understand, by that which is
+consecrated, that only which is the exclusive property of the Lord,
+which has been dedicated to Him exclusively, and for ever withdrawn
+from the use of His subjects, and which, as far as they are concerned,
+is as good as annihilated; compare Lev. xxvii. 28: "Everything
+consecrated, which any one consecrates to the Lord, of man and of
+beast, and of the field of his possession, shall not be sold nor
+redeemed; every consecrated thing is most holy to the Lord." But here,
+where He who consecrates is the Lord, while the goods are those of the
+heathen, the latter only are to be considered as being excluded from
+the possession, and as those in reference to whom the goods are
+consecrated goods; while the people of God must, on the other hand, be
+considered as partaking in what He has acquired. The community of goods
+between these two is rendered prominent in other passages also where
+the object required it. Thus, _e.g._, [Pg 476] Joel iv. (iii.) 5, where
+the Phœnicians and Philistines are charged: "My silver and My gold ye
+have taken, and My precious things, the goodly ones, ye have carried
+into your palaces." That we cannot here think of the temple-treasure is
+evident, not only from a comparison of ver. 4, where the attempts of
+these nations to avenge themselves on Israel on account of former
+injuries, are expressly represented as attempts to take vengeance upon
+God, but also from history, which knows nothing of the plunder of the
+temple by Phœnicians and Philistines. The mention of the _gain_ points
+to the _male parta_,--and this is the more strictly applicable, the
+nearer the relation is in which he who is robbed stands to the Lord of
+the earth. With the _gain_, the substance in general is lost.--The
+fundamental thought of the verse, which is here expressed only with
+an application to a special case, is that of the victory of the
+Congregation of the Lord over the world. This was perceived by
+_Calvin_, who strikingly demonstrates how this declaration is ever anew
+realized, and how its complete fulfilment is reserved only for
+the second coming of Christ. He has erred, however, in this, that
+looking only to the eternal import of the thought, he overlooked the
+circumstance that it is here expressed with reference to a definite
+event in which it was to be realized.
+
+Ver. 14. "_Who thou gatherest thyself in troops, O daughter of troops.
+They lay siege against us, they smite the judge of Israel with the rod
+upon the cheek._"
+
+A new scene presents itself to the prophet. Zion, victorious on the
+preceding occasion, appears here as powerless, and locked up within her
+walls. She is captured; and ignominious abuse is cast upon the leaders
+of the deeply abased people.--We need not here dwell for any length of
+time upon the numerous expositions of תתגדדי. There is only one, viz.,
+"thou shalt press thyself together," which affords an appropriate
+contrast; while this contrast is lost when it is translated, as
+_Hofmann_ does, by: "thou shalt lacerate thyself" (compare what
+_Caspari_ has advanced against it). "Thou shalt press thyself together"
+does not, moreover, destroy the import of Hithpael, and has especially
+the use of the Hithp. of גדד, in Jer. v. 7, in its favour. The Hithpael
+in this signification is probably a Denominative of גדוד. The person
+addressed, the בת־גדוד, can be none other than the בת־ציון in ver. 13.
+For it is she who is addressed by the prophet [Pg 477] in each of the
+new scenes announced by עתה, and she is, generally, the only one to
+whom the discourse is, throughout the whole section, addressed. The
+intentional paronomasia occasioned by the designation "daughter of
+troops," _i.e._, who appeared in warlike array, evidently alludes to
+בת־ציון, and refers to the description of Zion as a brave victorious
+hero, in the preceding verses. The _enemy_ is immediately afterwards
+spoken of in the third person. The words, "Siege (not by any means 'a
+wall,' as _De Wette_ maintains) they lay, or direct against us,"
+clearly indicate that the pressing of themselves together, which forms
+a contrast with the former courageous excursions indicated by גדוד, is
+the consequence of fear, weakness, and hostile oppression. The words
+are therefore strikingly paraphrased by _Justi_, thus: "But now, why
+dost thou thus press thyself together, thou who wast accustomed to
+press others?" This, however, only must be kept in mind, that בת־גדוד
+implies an allusion to the fact that the warlike disposition continues
+even in the present, notwithstanding the feebleness forced upon her,--a
+very characteristic feature. In saying, "They lay siege against _us_,"
+instead of "against _thee_," the prophet is carried away by his
+emotions to show himself as one of the people whom he sees to be
+oppressed by so heavy sufferings. As indicated by the word "now" also,
+he is, in spirit, in the midst of them. The ignominious treatment of
+the judge of Israel supposes that the prophet sees, in his inward
+vision, the capture of the city as having already taken place; for it
+is impossible to conceive of the judge, the soul of the city, as being
+outside of it. This judge of Israel is an _ideal_ person, formed by the
+prophet in order that he might be able to contrast him with the Ruler
+of Israel in v. 1 (2), who represents all the theocratic authorities;
+compare, _e.g._. Is. iii. 12, where the corrupted leaders of the
+Theocracy present themselves to the prophet in the person of a large
+child. To speak, in such a case, of a collective noun, as is usually
+done, is out of place. But it may be observed that it is not a king who
+is here spoken of, but, very significantly, a judge of Israel only,
+probably with reference to the times before Saul, when Israel was
+governed by judges. The royal dominion which, according to the
+announcement in ver. 9, shall be destroyed by Babylon, shall be
+restored by the Messiah only (compare v. 1 [2], iv. 8), who is not שפט
+ישראל, but, like His great ancestor [Pg 478] David, מושל בישראל;
+compare 2 Sam. xxiii. 3. There can be no doubt that, in this
+connection, the _Judge_ is spoken of as distinguished from, and
+contrasted with, the _King_. But even by itself, the mention of the
+_Judge_ cannot but be startling. It would have been against the object
+of the prophet to have mentioned any inferior persons, when there
+existed a superior one; and if the _King_ was thereby denoted, why
+should he have been designated thus?--It is on purpose that ישראל,
+which is the _nomen dignitatis_ of the people, is here chosen. It more
+emphatically points out the unworthiness of the treatment, as well as
+the contrast between the reality and the idea in the destinies of the
+nation,--a contrast, it is true, which Israel has called forth by the
+preceding contrast between the reality and the idea with regard to his
+conduct. Since Israel has inwardly profaned himself by his own guilt,
+he is now, as a just punishment, profaned outwardly also.--With
+respect, now, to the historical reference of this disastrous
+announcement, its fulfilment cannot be sought for in any other event
+than the invasion by the Romans. Among the sufferings of the people,
+which are here described in general outlines, this is the only one
+recorded in history, with the exception of those already mentioned.
+Isaiah, the contemporary of Micah, likewise announced, as early as in
+chap. vi., that upon those who should return from the captivity a
+second judgment would be inflicted, by which the national independence
+should be destroyed. This judgment is described with remarkable
+clearness and distinctness by the post-exilic prophets, inasmuch as, to
+them, it appeared already more in the foreground; compare the remarks
+on Zech. v. and xi.; Dan. ix. The only plausible argument against this
+reference is this,--that the capture of the city by the Romans was
+subsequent to the appearance of the Messiah, and that it is, after all,
+the latter which forms the subject of the announcement of salvation in
+v. 1 (2), which, again, refers to the sufferings described in the verse
+before us. This argument, however, is set aside by the following
+considerations. 1. The prophet, indeed, designates the misery which was
+inflicted by those enemies upon the Covenant-people only according to
+its acme, viz., the siege and capture of the city; but he,
+nevertheless, views it in, and understands it of, its whole extent, and
+from its first beginnings. These, then, in so far as the Romans are
+concerned, fall in the time before Christ, for the Jewish [Pg 479]
+people were already subjected to the Roman dominion by Pompey. 2. This
+alone, however, is not sufficient. If, with _Vershuir_ (_de celebri
+oraculo Mic._ iv. 14, in the _Dissert. Philol. exeg._ Leuw. 1775), we
+confine ourselves to the capture by Pompey, we cannot, by any means,
+get rid of the feeling that that fulfilment does not exhaust the
+prophecy. But we are, on the other hand, quite entitled to add that
+highest point, viz., the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, along
+with all its still existing consequences, if only we consider, that the
+announcement of salvation in chap. v.--as is shown by its contents, and
+by its accordance with the analogy of all the Messianic prophecies--is
+not limited to the short period of the first appearance of Christ. That
+comes into consideration rather as the grain of seed only from which
+the tree grew up, under which all the fowls of heaven were to dwell.
+Hence it is, that the salvation, no less than the punishment, is a
+continuous one, until, at the end of the days, it appears in its
+glorious consummation. But if it be established that Christ is
+presented as the only Saviour from the calamity here described, then
+that calamity must still continue for those who reject Him, yea, it
+must still be increased. It is only by giving up their opposition that
+they can be delivered from the yoke which presses upon them. The
+election, on the other hand, is, from the very beginning, received into
+the communion of His kingdom, which extends over the whole world.
+Here, however, that which has been already remarked in reference to
+vers. 11-13 finds its application. The siege and capture of Zion
+are pre-eminently the means of representing the idea of the heavy
+oppression and deep abasement of Israel, and of the cessation of its
+political independence, although it must not upon any account be
+overlooked, that the natural form of the representation is, at the same
+time, the natural form of the realization of the idea that Judah could
+not be destroyed without the siege and capture of Jerusalem, its
+centre.
+
+
+Footnote 1: We must not by any means suppose, as has been done last of
+all by _Caspari_, that the mountains are here regarded as places of
+worship.
+
+Footnote 2: Thus does _Calvin_, who says: "He speaks after the manner
+of the prophets, who under the term 'law' used to comprehend the whole
+doctrine of God."
+
+Footnote 3: _Caspari_, indeed, is of opinion, that the walking in the
+name of the Lord is not to be considered as a merit, on account of
+which the salvation is granted, but as a mercy which has been bestowed
+upon Israel, and which forms the ground of the salvation. But this
+feature is not at all intimated; and we are the less at liberty to
+introduce it, as the walking in the name of the gods is parallel to the
+walking in the name of the Lord.
+
+Footnote 4: _Caspari_ very properly refers here to v. 3 (4), where the
+Messiah, in whom the former dominion is to come to the Tower of the
+flock, is represented as a shepherd.
+
+Footnote 5: Micah's references to the Pentateuch are made the subject
+of a most thorough disquisition by _Caspari_, S. 419 ff.
+
+
+
+                              CHAP. V. 1.
+
+"_And thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, too little to be among the thousands of
+Judah, out of thee shall come forth unto Me_ (one) [Pg 480] _to be
+Ruler in Israel; and His goings forth are the times of old, the days of
+eternity._"
+
+The close connection of this verse with what immediately precedes
+(_Caspari_ is wrong in considering iv. 9-14 as an episode) is evident,
+not only from the ו copulative, and from the analogy of the near
+relation of the announcement of salvation to the prophecy of disaster
+in the preceding verse (for if the connection with ver. 14 be
+overlooked, the announcement of disaster contained in it remains
+without a corresponding consolation,--and this would be against the
+analogy of vers. 9, 10, 11-13); but more strikingly so from the
+contrast of the בישראל מושל with the שפט ישראל. The _Judge_ of Israel
+in his deepest abasement, is here contrasted with the _Ruler_ of Israel
+in His highest divine glory. The connection is seen also in the
+indication of Bethlehem's natural littleness, as contrasted with the
+greatness to be bestowed upon it by God. What could have induced the
+prophet thus strongly to point out this circumstance, had it not been
+that he considered Bethlehem as the type of the Jewish people in their
+misery, described in the preceding verse, and the miraculous elevation
+of the former, to be accomplished by divine omnipotence, as the pledge
+of a like result for the whole people? There is, moreover, a reference
+to the _beginning_ of the pretended episode. In iv. 9, it was said:
+"There is no king in thee;" here, it is announced that from Bethlehem
+there comes forth a glorious Ruler in Israel. But, on the other hand,
+there is also a close connection with ver. 8, as has been rightly
+perceived by Caspari. This connection and reference are sufficiently
+indicated by the like form. The address to Bethlehem here corresponds
+with the address to "the Tower of the flock" there,--the "Ruler," מושל,
+here, with the "dominion," ממשלה, there. There, the dominion returns to
+the house of David; here, the august person is described by whom this
+return is effected, after the events, described iv. 9-14, have come
+upon the Covenant-people. That the Ruler here comes forth out of
+Bethlehem, corresponds with iv. 8 in so far as there the dominion
+_returns_ to the Tower of the flock, to the hill of the daughter of
+Zion, which implies the overthrow of the Davidic kingdom, and the
+return of the family of David to the condition in which it lived at
+Bethlehem before the time of David,--which must necessarily precede its
+final glory.--According to _Bachiene_ [Pg 481] ii. 2, S. 7 ff.,
+Bethlehem and Ephratah are to be distinguished, so that the former
+designates the town alone, and the latter at the same time its whole
+environs,--so that Bethlehem Ephratah would be equivalent to Bethlehem
+situated in Ephratah. But even if we were to agree with this opinion,
+we must not, by any means, consider the two words as standing in the
+_stat. constr._, any more than the corresponding בית־לחם יהודה in
+Judges xvii. 9, xix. 1, 2, 18. For as a _Nomen proprium_ is equivalent
+to a noun with the article, it can never stand in the _stat. constr._
+with another noun. We should thus be obliged to assume that, by way of
+brevity, common in geographical designations, both appellations were
+placed unconnectedly beside each other, without any indication of their
+relation, just as in addressing a letter, we would simply write Berlin,
+Prussia. But if we compare Gen. xxxv. 19, where Ephratah is simply
+declared to be identical with Bethlehem (אפרתה הוא בית לחם);--and if we
+consider that the prophet had already alluded to the contents of that
+chapter (compare remarks on iv. 8), and that he regards the events
+which formerly happened in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem as a type of
+those which were to take place in future;--that in ver. 2 (3) he brings
+the new birth which is there to happen in parallelism with one which
+had formerly occurred in its nearest neighbourhood, and that it is just
+in the account of the latter that the designation occurs,--we shall
+have the strongest reason for understanding here also the two names as
+a designation of the town, without deciding whether the above-mentioned
+difference, as regards other passages, be well founded or not.
+Interpreters commonly assert that the sole ground of the twofold
+designation of the place is the intention of distinguishing it from
+another Bethlehem in the tribe of Zebulun; compare Josh. xix. 15. But
+in that case, we should rather have expected the common Bethlehem
+Judah, instead of Bethlehem Ephratah. There can be no doubt, that the
+prophet, in choosing this designation, was guided by a regard to that
+passage in Genesis. One might also suppose that the prophet wished to
+allude, at the same time, to the appellative significations of these
+nouns, viz., "house of bread," and "field of fruit," and to lay stress
+upon their typical import: the place, the blessing of which, as regards
+temporal things, is indicated by its name, shall, at some [Pg 482]
+future time, be blessed and fruitful in a higher sense. It is just in
+Micah, who is fond of making significant allusions to names, that such
+a supposition is very natural, as is shown, not only by chap. i., but
+also by vii. 18, where he gives an interpretation of his own name. As,
+however, the two names elsewhere also occur thus connected, without any
+attention being given to their signification, the prophet would not
+have omitted giving a hint upon this point. It is not the way of
+Scripture to make any allusions which cannot be understood with
+certainty. We shall, therefore, be obliged to suppose that, after the
+common name, the prophet mentions, in addition, the ancient name
+rendered sacred by memory from the time of the Patriarch, and by the
+authority of the most ancient documents of revelation (compare, besides
+Gen. xxxv. 19, Gen. xlviii. 7), in order thereby to impart greater
+solemnity to the discourse, and to intimate what great things he had to
+say of Bethlehem. In accordance with this designation by two names, is,
+then, the circumstance that the address is directed to Bethlehem.--The
+word צעיר forms an apposition to Bethlehem: "little to be," instead of,
+"who art too little to be." If the sense were to be, "thou art little,"
+the אתה would not have been omitted after צעיר. The circumstance that
+Bethlehem is addressed as a masculine (comp. צעיר ,אתה, and ממך) may be
+accounted for by the prophet's viewing the town in the image of its
+_ideal_ representative; compare remarks on Zech. ix. 7. In such a case,
+the gender may be neglected; compare, _e.g._, Gen. iv. 7, where sin,
+חטאת, appears as a masculine noun, on account of the image of a
+ravenous beast. Such personifications occur very frequently. Thus,
+nothing is more common in the Mosaic law than that Israel is addressed
+as one man. This has been frequently misunderstood, and, in
+consequence, that which refers to the whole people has been applied to
+the single individual. Thus it is even in the Decalogue. In Is. v. 7,
+the people of Judah appear as the _man_ Judah.
+
+The _littleness_ of Bethlehem is sufficiently evident from the
+circumstance of its being left out in the catalogue of the towns of the
+tribe of Judah, in Joshua (compare _Bachiene_, § 192). This induced the
+LXX. to insert it in Josh. xv. 60 along with several other towns which
+had been omitted; and, in doing so, they were probably guided, not so
+much by a regard to its outward [Pg 483] importance, as by the interest
+which attached to it from the recollection of an event of former times
+(compare Gen. xxxv.), from its being the birth-place of David, and
+still more, from the prophecy under consideration, by which the eyes of
+the whole nation were directed to this place, outwardly so unimportant.
+The assertion of _Jerome_, that the Jews omitted the name in the Hebrew
+text, in order that Christ might not appear as a descendant of the
+tribe of Judah, has received from _Reland_ (S. 643) a more thorough
+refutation than it deserved. _Keil_, in his commentary on Joshua, has
+lately renewed the attempt to prove, from internal reasons, the
+genuineness of the addition; but, from the whole condition of the Alex.
+Version, it is very dangerous to trust to such arguments. The very
+reasons which _Keil_ brings forward in support of the addition, are
+just those which might have induced the LXX. to make it. The
+circumstance that they added to Bethlehem the name Ephratah, plainly
+indicates the reason which induced them to introduce Bethlehem
+specially. Bethlehem is likewise omitted in the catalogue of the towns
+of Judah, in Neh. xi. 25 ff., and can therefore have occupied among
+them a very low place only, although it is mentioned in Ezra ii. 21,
+Neh. vii. 26. In the New Testament, it is called a mere village (κώμη,
+John vii. 42). _Josephus_, indeed, occasionally gives it the title of a
+town (compare Luke ii. 4, 11); but, in other passages, he designates it
+by χωρίον, _Ant._ v. 2, 8.--צעיר להיות means properly, "little in
+reference to being," instead of, "too little to be,"--the wider
+expression being used to indicate the relations of the town to the
+being, where we use the more limited expression.--Instead of the
+"thousands of Judah," שרי אלפים ought to have been employed, as it
+appears, in order strictly to maintain the personification. The
+representative of Bethlehem is too small to be numbered among the heads
+of Judah. Several expositors (_J. D. Michaelis_, _Justi_) have thereby
+been induced to point בְּאַלֻּפֵי instead of בְּאַלְפֵי. But this supposed
+emendation is set aside by the consideration that אַלּוּף is only the
+special designation of the Edomitish princes, and occurs in a general
+sense, only by way of _Catachresis_, in Zechariah, who lived at a time
+when the Hebrew language was nearly extinct. The most simple
+explanation is, that the prophet views the thousands, or the families
+of Judah, no less than the town Bethlehem, as _ideal_ existences; in
+which [Pg 484] case, the personification is maintained throughout.
+Moreover, there would not be any insurmountable difficulty in the way
+of supposing that the prophet had given up the personification; for
+these are frequently not strictly adhered to by the prophets, who
+constantly pass from the figure to the thing prefigured. This may be at
+once seen from the preceding verse, in the first clause of which, Zion
+appears personified as a woman, while immediately afterwards there
+follows, "against us."--אלף, "thousand," is frequently used for
+designating a family, because the number of its members usually
+consisted of about a thousand; compare Num. i. 16, where it is said of
+the twelve princes of the tribes: "Heads of the thousands of Israel are
+they;" Num. x. 4; Josh. xxii. 14, 21; Judg. vi. 15; 1 Sam. x. 19. On
+the division of Israel into thousands, hundreds, etc.--a division which
+existed before the time of Moses--compare what has been advanced in my
+Dissertations on the _Genuineness of the Pentateuch_, ii. p. 341 sqq.
+It is self-evident that the thought here is, that Bethlehem is too
+little to constitute a thousand _by itself_. Communities, however,
+which were not sufficiently numerous to constitute, by themselves, a
+generation or family, were reckoned with others, and formed with them
+an artificial generation, an artificial family; for the divisions of
+generations and families were, owing to the great significance which
+numbers had in ancient times, connected with numerical relations. An
+instance of this kind occurs in 1 Chron. xxiii. 11, 12, where it is
+said of four brothers that they had not sons enough, and were, for that
+reason, reckoned as one family only. Being merely _part_ of a
+generation, Bethlehem had no place among the generations. The sense is
+clearly this: Bethlehem occupies a very low rank among the towns of
+the Covenant-people,--can scarcely show herself in the company of
+her distinguished sisters, who proudly look down upon her.--It is
+altogether a matter of course that יָצָא, "to go out," may be used also
+of "being born," of "descent," inasmuch as this belongs to the general
+category of going out; compare, _e.g._, 2 Kings xx. 18. We must,
+however, confine ourselves to the general idea of "going forth,"
+"proceeding," and not consider Bethlehem as the father of the Messiah.
+In opposition to _Hofmann_, this is proved by _Caspari_, from Jer. xxx.
+21: "And their governor shall proceed from the midst of them;" and from
+Zech. x. 4.[Pg 485]--יֵצַא is without a definite subject. It is best to
+supply "one," which is evidently implied in what follows. The
+construction, which might otherwise appear somewhat strange, has been
+occasioned by the desire of making perceptible, by the very words, and
+their position, the contrast between the divine greatness and the
+natural littleness of Bethlehem:--
+
+     Thou art little to be among the thousands of Judah;--
+     From thee shall come forth unto me, to be a Ruler in Israel.
+
+From a place which is too little to form a single independent member
+of the body, the head proceeds. From this contrast appears also the
+reason why it is said, "Ruler in Israel," while we should have
+expected to hear of the Ruler of Israel κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν,--a circumstance
+on which _Paulus_ lays so much stress in opposing the Messianic
+interpretation.--Had the prophet adopted the latter expression, not
+only would this contrast have been less striking, but the other also,
+which is likewise intended, viz., the contrast with the Judge of
+Israel, in the preceding verse, who loses his dignity. The prophet was,
+in the first instance, concerned more about the _genus_ than the
+_individual_,--more about the idea of dominion in general, than about
+the mode and kind of it. The individual is, afterwards, however, partly
+in this verse itself, partly in the following verse, so distinctly
+characterized, that he cannot be by any means mistaken. Nothing more,
+it is true, is implied in these words, than that, at some future time,
+there would come forth from Bethlehem a Ruler over all Israel; and if
+these words stood isolated, and if it could be proved that, after the
+time of Micah, there came forth from Bethlehem a Ruler over all
+Israel, besides the Messiah--a thing which, however, cannot be
+proved--then, indeed, it might be questionable which of the two to
+choose. _Caspari's_ exposition, "Will _he_ come forth," has this
+against it, that, in the preceding verses, the Messiah was not yet
+spoken of, and, hence, that He cannot simply be supposed as known; and
+least of all--if the acquaintance with Him were to be supposed from
+other passages--could He have been introduced with a simple unaccented
+_he_: the היא could not have been omitted in this case. The case in iv.
+8 is but little analogous, for the subject in תאתה is there an
+indefinite one.--לי is, by several interpreters, referred to the
+prophet. Thus _Rosenmüller_, [Pg 486] following _Michaelis_, says, "_To
+me_, _i.e._, for my good, the prophet says, in the name of his whole
+people." But the reference to God is required by the contrast between
+human littleness and divine greatness. _Calvin_ remarks on it: "By this
+word, God declares that His decree to give up the people was not such,
+that Tie should not be willing to restore them after some time. He
+therefore calls the faithful back to Himself, and reminds them of His
+counsel, just as if He said, 'I have indeed rejected you for a time,
+but not so as that I am not filled with compassion for you.'" The
+import of the לי, viz., that God could exalt that which was low, the
+believer saw, in a type, in David; and there is no doubt that the
+prophet was anxious indirectly to refer them to this type, and thereby
+to strengthen their faith in the promise, which appeared almost
+incredible. He (David) had been a native of the humble, little
+Bethlehem, the youngest among his brothers, without power, without
+renown. In order that the לי might become the more evident, the Lord,
+at his election, gave such a direction to the circumstances, that this,
+his natural lowliness, might be most strikingly exhibited. It was God
+who raised him from being a shepherd of lambs, to be a shepherd of
+nations.
+
+In contrast with the Messiah's human and lowly origin. His divine and
+lofty dignity is prominently brought out in the last words of the
+verse,--a contrast similar to that in the case of Bethlehem, to which
+the prophet thereby refers. Here also, the prophet has so clearly
+expressed the contrast by the words themselves, that, upon the _homines
+bonæ voluntatis_ among the interpreters of all ages, it has most
+forcibly impressed itself. Thus, _e.g._, _Chrysostom_, _demonstratio
+adv. Judæos et Gentiles, quod Christus sit Deus_, opp. T. V., p. 739:
+"He exhibits both Godhead and manhood. For in the words, 'His goings
+forth are from the beginning, from the days of eternity,' His existence
+from all eternity is revealed; while in the words, 'Shall come forth
+the ruler who feeds My people Israel,' His origin according to the
+flesh is revealed." A more minute inquiry into the meaning of these
+words must begin with the investigation of מוצאתיו. The greater number
+of interpreters agree in this, that מוצאה, the feminine form of the
+more common מוצא here denotes the action of the going forth. But this
+is opposed by the following considerations. 1. The use of the plural.
+Those especially [Pg 487] who here think of the eternal going forth of
+the Son from the Father, cannot by any means Justify it. Several among
+them consider it as _plur. majest._ Thus, _e.g._, do _Tarnovius_
+and _Frischmuth_, in the _Dissert. de Nativitate Messiæ_, in the
+remarks on this passage, Jena 1661. But although such a plural exists,
+indeed, in Hebrew, and many traces of it are to be found (compare my
+_Dissertations on the Genuineness of the Pentateuch_, i. p. 267 ff.),
+it could appear here, of course, in the suffix only, not in the noun.
+Others suppose that the plural stands here simply for the singular.
+Now, there are, it is true, three cases in which such does apparently
+take place:--the first, when a definite individual out of the multitude
+is meant,--when accordingly, not the _number_, but the general idea
+only is concerned;--the second, when a noun in the plural gradually
+loses its plural signification, because the etymology and original
+signification have become indistinct;--the third, when the plural
+stands for the abstract. Not one of these cases, however, is applicable
+here. Those interpreters have most plausibly removed the difficulty who
+understand מוצאתיו to be really a repeated act of going forth, and
+refer it to the Old Testament doctrine of the Angel of the Lord. Thus
+_Jerome_: "Because He had always spoken to them through the prophets,
+and became in their hands the Word of God." _Tremellius_ and _Junius_:
+"The goings forth, _i.e._, the declarations and demonstrations of, as
+it were, a rising sun; He from the very beginning revealed and
+manifested Himself to all created things, by the light of His word, and
+the excellency of His works; just as the rising sun manifests himself
+from the moment of his rising, by the light and its effects."
+_Cocceius_: "I cannot, however, be persuaded to believe that the plural
+מוצאתיו is here used without emphasis. For the Son has not gone forth
+from the Father, like a man from a man, who begins to exist only when
+he is brought forth from a man, and when he goes forth, ceases to be
+brought forth and to go out. In all the days of eternity, the Son
+proceeds from the Father, and is the eternal ἀπαύγασμα τῆς δόξης
+αὐτοῦ." But this circumstance is, in general, against this explanation,
+that the contrast with the going forth from Bethlehem, which is
+completed in one act, does not admit of the mention of a manifold going
+forth, and that, in this contrast, the arising, the origin of the
+existence of the Messiah, can alone be thought of; while, more
+specially, _Jerome_, [Pg 488] _Tremellius_, and _Junius_, who, with
+_Piscator_ also, limit the going forth to the relation to created
+things only, are contradicted by מימי עולם, by which the going forth is
+placed beyond the beginning of creation; and _Cocceius_, by the fact
+that the מלאך יהוה in the Old Testament, differently from the Λόγος in
+the New Testament, appears always as going forth from God, in relation
+to the world only. But although the "time of old and the days of
+eternity" should be considered as the place of the going forth, yet the
+plural cannot be explained, as is done by _Caspari_, from the
+circumstance that "a person is always descended from several;" for the
+transferring of such a _usus loquendi_ to a relation, to which in
+itself it is not applicable, could be admitted only when it could be
+demonstrated to be altogether common and firmly established. But the
+plural might indeed, although only with some difficulty, be vindicated
+and accounted for from the circumstance, that two points of going forth
+are mentioned, which, as it were, suppose a twofold act. 2. But even if
+the singular were used, the explanation of the act of going forth would
+not be admissible. It is contrary to the idea of nouns with מ, that
+they could be used as _nomina actionis_. It is only with writers living
+at a time when the language was dying out, that a few instances of this
+erroneous use can be found. מ denotes the place where, the instrument
+wherewith, the time wherein, and perhaps the way and manner whereby,
+something is done, or is. _Further_--It may signify also the thing
+itself which is done, or is; but, in no writer of the living and
+flourishing language, does it ever denote the action itself. _Caspari_,
+indeed, attempts to prove that "there occurs in the older books a
+number, by no means inconsiderable, of nouns with מ, which undeniably
+denote an action;" but what he has advanced on this point requires
+still to be minutely sifted, and to be more closely examined; compare,
+_e.g._, on Num. x. 2, my pamphlet on "_The Day of the Lord_," S. 32.
+But we are quite satisfied with what is granted by _Caspari_ himself
+(compare _Ewald's Lehrbuch d. Hebr. Spr._ § 160), that it is against
+the nature and common use of this form to denote the action. Even by
+this concession, a presumption is raised against the correctness of an
+interpretation which would ascribe to מוצא, here, and in other
+passages, the signification of going forth, viewed as an action. The
+passages quoted by _Winer_ in favour of the signification, _egressus_,
+[Pg 489] are the following: 1. Hos. vi. 3, where it is said of the Lord
+כשחר נכון מוצאו, "firm like the morning-dawn is His going forth." But
+מוצא is there, not the action, but the place and the time of the going
+forth, as is evident from the word "firm" also. 2. Ezek. xii. 4: "And
+thou shalt go forth at even in their sight, כמוצאי גולה." Several
+interpreters agree that מוצא here signifies the kind and mode of the
+going forth. _Vatablus_ says, "It denotes the deportment of him who
+goes forth, and means, Thou shalt go forth in sorrow, and indignant."
+But it is better, with _Hävernick_, to refer it to the time: "According
+to the goings forth of prisoners, at the time when emigrants of this
+kind prefer to go forth from their places." 3. Num. xxxiii. 2: "And
+Moses wrote down את מוצאיהם, 'the places of their goings out.'" 4. Ps.
+xix. 7, it is said of the sun: מקצה השמים מוצאו, "from the end of the
+heaven is his going forth," which is tantamount to--The end of the
+heaven is the  place from which he goes forth. 5. 1 Kings x. 28: ומוצא
+הסוסים אשר לשלמה ממצרים, which _De Wette_ translates, "And the export
+of the horses which Solomon had, (was) from Egypt." But a more accurate
+translation is, "And the place of coming forth of the horses which
+Solomon had was Egypt," or, more literally still, "from Egypt,"--a
+concise mode of expression for, "The place from which the horses of
+Solomon came forth was Egypt,"--just as in the preceding example. In
+proof of the signification, "action of going out," _Ch. B. Michaelis_
+refers, moreover, to 2 Sam. iii. 25, where _De Wette_ translates, "Thou
+knowest Abner, the son of Ner; he came to deceive thee, and to see thy
+going out and thy coming in, and all that thou doest." But a more
+accurate translation would be, "The place from which thou goest out,
+and to which thou art going;" compare Ezek. xliii. 11. In all other
+passages--and these are rather numerous--the signification "place of
+going out," or "that which goes out," is quite obvious. Even _Caspari_
+grants that the signification "place of going out" has, _a priori_, the
+greatest probability in its favour.--To this it may be added, that the
+signification "place of going out" is recommended here, even by the
+contrast with what precedes, inasmuch as there Bethlehem, is mentioned
+as the place from which the Euler in Israel is to come forth. With this
+place of going out, another and a higher one is contrasted. This
+contrast also shows us how the מן [Pg 490] in מקדם and מימי עולם must
+be understood, viz., in the same manner as מן in ממך; for the evident
+reference of מוצאתיו to יצא לי shows that it must correspond with it.
+Hence the literal translation would be, "And His places of going out
+are from the times of old, from the days of eternity," which is
+equivalent to--The places from which He goes forth are the times of
+old, the days of eternity,--just as in the two passages, Ps. xix. 7; 1
+Kings x. 28. The מן might very well have been omitted; but its
+insertion here has arisen chiefly from a desire to make the reference
+to the corresponding clause outwardly also more perceptible. This
+reference shows also, that the explanation of מן by _præ_, which was
+proposed by _Pococke_ and others, is inadmissible, besides involving an
+absurdity, inasmuch as nothing can be _before_ eternity; while, on the
+other hand, this reference alone affords a satisfactory explanation of
+the plural. According to it, the words, "From the time of old, from the
+days of eternity," contain a gradation. _First_, the existence of the
+Messiah before His birth in time, in Bethlehem, is pointed out in
+general; and _then_, in contrast with all time, it is vindicated to
+eternity. This could not fail to afford a great consolation to Israel.
+He who hereafter, in a visible manifestation, was to deliver them from
+their misery, was already in existence,--during it, before it, and
+through all eternity.
+
+
+                     HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION.
+
+                           1. AMONG THE JEWS.
+
+This History, as to its essential features, might, _a priori_, be
+sketched with tolerable certainty. From the nature of the case, we
+could scarcely expect that the Jews should have adopted views
+altogether erroneous as to the subject of the prophecy in question;
+for the Messiah appears in it, not in His humiliation, but in His
+glory--rich in gifts and blessings, and Pelagian self-delusion will, _a
+priori_, return an affirmative answer to the question as to whether one
+is called to partake in them. But, on the other hand, the prophecy
+contains a twofold ground of offence which had to be removed, and
+explained away at any [Pg 491] expense. One of these, the eternity of
+the Messiah--which was in contradiction to the popular notions, and
+conceivable only from a knowledge of His Godhead--could not but exist
+at all times; while the second of these--the birth at Bethlehem--made
+its appearance, and exercised its influence, only after the birth of
+Christ. That this should be set aside, was demanded by two causes.
+_First_, there was the desire of depriving the Christians of the proof,
+which they derived from the birth at Bethlehem, for the proposition
+that He who had appeared was also He who was promised. And, _secondly_,
+there was the difficulty of any longer deriving from Bethlehem the
+descent of Christ, after, by an ordinance of Hadrian (compare _Reland_,
+S. 647), all the Jews had been expelled from Bethlehem and its
+neighbourhood. This difficulty was strongly urged against them by
+Christian controversialists; compare _Tertullian cont. Jud._ c. xiii.,
+"How then can the Ruler be descended from Judah, and how can He come
+forth from Bethlehem, as, in the present day, there is not one of
+Israel left there, of whose family Christ may be born?" The actual
+history furnishes facts and details which only confirm and enlarge
+what, in its essential features, we have sketched _a priori_.
+
+1. The reference to the Messiah was, at all times, not the private
+opinion of a few scholars, but was publicly received, and acknowledged
+with perfect unanimity. As respects the time of Christ, this is obvious
+from Matt. ii. 5. According to that passage, the whole Sanhedrim, when
+officially interrogated as to the birth-place of the Messiah, supposed
+this explanation to be the only correct one. But if this proof required
+a corroboration, it might be derived from John vii. 41, 42. In that
+passage, several who erroneously supposed Christ to be a native of
+Galilee, objected to His being the Messiah on the ground that Scripture
+says: ὅτι ἐκ τοῦ σπέρματος Δαβὶδ καὶ ἀπὸ Βηθλεὲμ τῆς κώμης, ὅπον ἦν
+Δαβίδ, ὁ Χριστὸς ἔρχεται. But even after Christ had appeared, the
+interest in depriving the Christians at once of the arguments which, in
+their controversies, they derived from this passage, was not
+sufficiently strong to blind the Jews to the evident indications
+contained in this passage, or to induce them to deprive themselves of
+the sweet hope which it afforded. This, it is true, would be the case
+nevertheless, if we were to rely upon, and believe in the assertion of
+_Chrysostom_ (_Hom._ 7, [Pg 492] in Matt. c. 2, in _Nov. Test._, t. i.
+p. 80, ed. Frcf.): "Some of them, in their impudence, assert that this
+prophecy has a reference to Zerubbabel;" of _Theodoret_ (on this
+passage): "The Jews have tried to refer this to Zerubbabel, which
+evidently fights against the truth;" of _Theophylact_ (on Matt. ii.);
+and of _Euthymius Zigabenus_ (in iv. _Evang._ t. 1, p. 61, ed. Mat.).
+But the supposition is here forced upon us--a supposition which, in
+another case also (compare remarks on Zech. ix. 9, 10), we must
+acknowledge to be well-founded--that the Fathers, having in their
+controversies with the Jews sometimes met a reference to Zerubbabel,
+forced it upon the Jews, even when the latter themselves refused it.
+And there can be the less difficulty in admitting this supposition, as
+the apparently fourfold testimony may be easily reduced to a single
+one, viz., to that of _Chrysostom_. If these statements had any truth
+in them, some traces, at least, of this interpretation must be found
+among the Jews themselves. This, however, is not the case. All the
+Jewish interpreters adhere to the Messianic interpretation, and in this
+they are headed by the Chaldee, who paraphrases the words ממך לי יצא in
+this way: מנך קדמי יפק משיחא, _i.e._, From thee Messiah shall go out
+before me.
+
+2. A twofold method has been tried to remove the first ground of
+objection mentioned above. In ancient times, they gave their full sense
+to the words, "Of (or from) the days of eternity," but substituted the
+name of the Messiah for His person. This we meet with as early as in
+the Chaldee, who says: דשמיה אמיר מלקדמין מיומי עלמא, _i.e._, "Whose
+name is said (or called) from the days of old, from the days of
+eternity." Thus also the _Pirke R. Elieser_, ch. iii., where, with a
+reference to the passage before us, the name of the Messiah is
+mentioned among the seven things created before the world existed,
+viz., along with the Law, Hell, Paradise, the Throne of Glory, the
+Temple, Repentance; compare _Schöttgen_ ii. S. 213. According to
+_Eisenmenger_ i. S. 317, the same, with some change, is found in the
+Talmud, _Tract. Pesachim_, fol. 54, col. i., and _Nedarim_ f. 39, c. 2.
+We cannot, in that explanation by the Chaldee, understand "name" in its
+emphatic signification, in which it often occurs in Scripture, viz., as
+an expression and image of the substance,--a signification in which the
+"name" of the Messiah would be equivalent to "the glory of the
+Messiah," or to "the Messiah [Pg 493] in His glory." This is evident
+from the אמיר, _i.e._, "said" or "spoken," of the Chaldee, which does
+not allow of our thinking of the creation of a substance; and not less
+from the consideration, that if this signification of "name" were
+assumed, the aim and object which he had in view in substituting "name"
+for "person" at all, would have been missed. The name of the Messiah
+expresses His nature, the idea of His existence. The creation or
+pronouncing of this name marks, accordingly, the rise of this idea in
+God,--His forming the decree of redemption by the Messiah. By this
+explanation--which we again meet with, afterwards, in _Calvin_, and
+which we shall then consider more minutely--a mere existence in
+thought, was substituted for the real existence of the Messiah,--His
+predestination, for His pre-existence.--But in aftertimes they came
+still further down. To supply "the name," was too arbitrary to admit of
+their resting satisfied with such an explanation. Almost unanimously
+they now came to the supposition, that the words of the passage under
+consideration merely marked the descent of the Messiah from the
+ancient, royal house of David. Thus _Abenezra_: "All this is said of
+David; the words also, 'His goings out are of old,' refer to David."
+_Aberbanel_ (_Praec. Sal._ p. 62): "The goings out of the family from
+which that Ruler is to be descended are of old, and of the days of
+eternity, _i.e._, of the seed of David, and the rod of Jesse, which is
+of Bethlehem-Judah." On the similar expositions of _Kimchi_ and others,
+compare _Frischmuth l.c._, and _Wichmannshausen_, _Dissert. on the
+pass._, Wittenb. 1722, S. 6 ff. We could not urge against this
+exposition that מוצאות is erroneously understood either as "going out,"
+or, as "family;" and that, in the latter signification, the _usus
+loquendi_, as well as the evident reference to יצא, are disregarded.
+For that might be given up, and yet the explanation would stand as to
+its substance. Even then, it might be translated: "His goings out (in
+the signification of 'places of going out') are the days of old, the
+days of eternity," _i.e._, the very ancient times; so that there would
+be ascribed to the time something which belongs to that which exists in
+it, viz., to the family of David. But the following reason is decisive
+against it. Every one will admit that the eternal origin of the Messiah
+forms a far more suitable contrast with His temporal origin from
+Bethlehem, than His descent from the ancient family of [Pg 494] David.
+The latter would come into consideration here, only on account of its
+antiquity; a reference to its dignity is not made by even a single
+word, nor is the family itself mentioned at all in the text; but the
+attribute of antiquity, and that alone, is nevertheless taken from
+it, and ascribed to the Messiah. But now, we cannot at all see what
+pre-eminence in this respect the family of David enjoyed above other
+families, and how, therefore, it could have been an honour for the
+Messiah to be descended from it. How strange would, according to this
+explanation, be the words, "of the days of eternity," which, as a
+climax, are added to, "of days of old!" What reason could there have
+existed for the prophet to exalt, by a hyperbolical expression, a
+limited time to eternity? As regards His human origin, the Messiah had
+not the slightest advantage over other mortals, as far as the age of
+the family was concerned. What, then, was the use of such a hyperbole
+in a matter which, in this connection, was of no consequence, and
+which could not in any way serve for His exaltation? It is just this,
+however, which after all is required by the contrast. What kind of
+consolation would thereby have been afforded to the people? Certainly
+no one doubted that the Messiah would have parents, and ancestors
+reaching back to a hoar antiquity. But was there anything gained by
+this, since He had it only in common with the lowest and feeblest
+among the people? How does this shallow, unmeaning, and yet so much
+pretending contrast in reference to the Messiah, suit the other
+contrast in reference to Bethlehem, which is so brilliant and exalted?
+And now what reason is there for preferring that explanation which is
+so unnatural, to the other, which is so natural, so obvious, which
+presents a contrast so beautiful, and opens up to the Covenant-people a
+source of consolation so rich? Is it this, perhaps, that the eternity
+of the Messiah is not mentioned anywhere else in the Old Testament? But
+the eternity of the Messiah is only a single feature of His divine
+nature, and just that feature which, according to the context, came
+here into special consideration. _Caspari_ very correctly remarks: "The
+prophet pointed out just the feature of the pre-existence, and of
+the eternal existence of the Messiah, and these only, because the
+announcement of His origin from the little Bethlehem led just to this,
+and to this alone." The intimation of the divine nature of the Messiah
+is, [Pg 495] however, as old as the Messianic prediction in general;
+compare, concerning this, my remarks on Gen. xlix. 10. In a more
+definite shape, and in a more distinct form, it appears as early as in
+the Messianic Psalms. But it is found, in sharply defined outlines, in
+Isaiah, and specially in ix. 5, where, just as in the passage before
+us, the divine glory of the Messiah is contrasted with the lower aspect
+of His existence; and the closer the points of contact are between
+Isaiah and Micah, the less can we refuse to acknowledge such here. This
+circumstance also must prevent us from doing so, that immediately
+afterwards, in ver. 3 (4), the divine dignity and nature of the Messiah
+meet us anew. This passage requires, as its foundation, the one upon
+which we are now commenting. Moreover, the eternity which, in contrast
+with His birth in time, is here ascribed to the Messiah, corresponds
+with the eternity of His existence and dominion after His birth, which
+is repeatedly ascribed to the Messiah, and, most prominently, in Is.
+ix. 5, where He receives the name "Father of eternity," _i.e._, He who
+will be Father in all eternity.--Some one, perhaps, would infer from
+the subjoined words, "of the days," that עילם is here to be understood
+in a limited sense. But who does not know that, when eternity is
+predicated in contrast with a limited duration of time, just to make
+the contrast the more striking, those measures of time, which are
+properly applicable to the latter only, are transferred to the former?
+For in order to be able to compare things, a certain resemblance
+between them must necessarily be first established. Thus in Dan. vii.
+9, God is called "the Ancient of Days;" thus it is said of Him in Ps.
+cii. 28, "Thy years have no end;" and the New Testament frequently
+speaks in the same way of eternal times. We are, in our thoughts,
+generally so much bound to time, that we can conceive of eternity only
+as "time without time." It cannot by any means be satisfactorily or
+incontrovertibly proved from vii. 14, 20, that קדם and ימי עילם here
+designate merely the ancient time. All which that passage proves is,
+that such a sense is possible--and this, no one probably has ever
+doubted--but not that it is applicable in this connection. If the
+connection be considered, Prov. viii. 22, 23, will then be acknowledged
+to be parallel,--a passage in which the eternal existence of Wisdom is
+spoken of in a similar manner.
+
+3. That, in the prophecy under consideration, Bethlehem is [Pg 496]
+marked out as the birth-place of the Messiah, was held as an undoubted
+truth by the ancient Jews. This appears from the confident reply of the
+Sanhedrim to the question of Herod as to the birth-place of Christ. And
+it is not less evident from John vii. 42. The circumstance that, after
+the tumult raised by Barcochba, not only Jerusalem, but Bethlehem also,
+was, by the Emperor Adrian, interdicted to the Jews as a residence,
+renders it probable that this interpretation was not given up
+immediately after the death of Christ. But even after this edict of
+Adrian, and after the difficulty had appeared in all its force, they
+did not, for a considerable time, venture to assert that the prophecy
+knew nothing of Bethlehem as the birth-place of the Messiah. It is with
+the later Rabbinical interpreters only, who were better skilled in the
+art of distorting, that this assertion is found. The ancient Jews
+endeavoured to evade the difficulty by the fable, dressed up in various
+ways, that the Messiah was indeed born at Bethlehem, on the day of the
+destruction of the temple, but that, on account of the sins of the
+people. He was afterwards carried away by a storm, and had, since that
+time, remained, unknown and concealed, in various places. Thus speak
+the Talmud, the very ancient commentary on Lamentations, _Echa
+Rabbati_, and the very old commentary on Genesis, _Breshith Rabba_
+(compare the passages in _Raim. Martini_, S. 348-50; _Carpzovius_ and
+_Frischmuth_, l.c.). Indeed, we can trace this fiction still farther
+back. Closely connected with it is the explanation of עפל בת־ציון by
+"darkness of the daughter of Zion" (עפל being confounded with אפל),
+_i.e._, hidden on account of Zion. This explanation is found as early
+as in Jonathan. The concealment of the Messiah is only an isolated
+feature of this fiction. The fiction itself, indeed, has its roots, not
+only in the passage under review, but also in the endeavour to remove
+the contradiction between the destruction of the temple, and the
+firm expectation of the Messiah's appearing during the time of its
+existence,--an expectation founded on passages of the Old Testament.
+This concealment of the Messiah is mentioned as early as in the
+_Dialogus cum Tryphone_ (No. 8 _Bened. Ven._; compare also p. 114):
+"Christ, even if he be born, and exist anywhere, is unknown, and
+neither manifests himself in any way, nor has he any power until Elijah
+come, etc." In order to be convinced that, at the time when this book
+was composed, [Pg 497] and hence in the second century, the fiction was
+already fully developed, we need only compare the account in _Breshith
+Rabba_. After Elijah, at the time of the birth of the Messiah, had
+visited his mother in Bethlehem Judah, and consoled her who was
+afflicted on account of the destruction of the temple, which was
+contemporaneous with her delivery, he withdraws. "After five years had
+elapsed, he said, I will go and see the Saviour of Israel, whether he
+be nursed up in the manner of kings or of ministering angels. He went
+and found the woman standing at the door of her house, and said to her:
+My daughter, in what state is that boy? And she answered him: Rabbi,
+did I not tell thee that it is a bad thing to nurse him, because, on
+the day on which he was born, the temple was destroyed? But this is not
+all; for _he has feet and walks not, he has eyes and sees not, he has
+ears and hears not, he has a mouth and does not speak at all, and there
+he lies like a stone._"
+
+The Rabbinical interpreters felt, however, that this fiction, being
+destitute of all warrant, was of no use to them in their controversies
+with Christians; and it was to these that their view was chiefly
+directed. Hence they sought to remove the difficulty by means of the
+interpretation; and as all had the same interest, the result was that
+the distorted explanation became as generally prevalent, as the correct
+one had formerly been. _Kimchi_, _Abenezra_, _Abendana_, _Abarbanel_,
+and, in general, all the later Rabbins (compare the passages in
+_Wichmannsh._ l. c. S. 9), maintain that Bethlehem is mentioned here as
+the birth-place of the Messiah indirectly only,--in so far only as the
+Messiah was to be descended from David the Bethlehemite. There cannot
+well be a prepossession in favour of this exposition. The circumstance
+that, formerly, no one ever thought that it was even possible to
+explain the passage under review in any other way than that, in it,
+Bethlehem is spoken of as the birth-place of the Messiah, and that this
+exposition was discovered and introduced, only at a time when the other
+could no longer be received, raises, _a priori_, strong suspicions
+against it. And this suspicion is fully confirmed by a closer
+examination. _Cæteris paribus_, that explanation which here finds
+Bethlehem mentioned as the birth-place of the Messiah, would deserve
+the preference, even for this reason, that the passage, as thus
+understood, fills up a blank [Pg 498] in the Messianic prophecy,--and
+that from the whole analogy, we are led to expect that no such blank
+would be left. Should the family from which Christ was to descend,
+the time at which He was to appear, the part of the country which
+was pre-eminently to enjoy His blessings, and so many other things
+concerning Him, have been so minutely foretold, and not the place where
+He was to be born? Even the question of Herod, ποῦ ὁ Χριστὸς γεννᾶται;
+shows how much reason we have, _a priori_, to expect such a prediction.
+He supposes that, as a matter of course, the birth-place of the Messiah
+must have been determined in the Old Testament; he only inquires about
+the place where. But the matter is not so, that there could be any
+choice at all betwixt the two explanations. If we suppose that it is
+only the descent of the Messiah from the family of David which is here
+announced, the contrast between the natural littleness of Bethlehem,
+and its divine greatness, would be very far from being appropriate.
+After the family of David had, for centuries, resided and ruled at
+Jerusalem, the natural littleness of Bethlehem came very little into
+further consideration. It was not this which could render improbable
+the appearance of the Messiah. It was only the downfall of Jerusalem,
+and the destruction of the King's Castle, which were in opposition to
+the belief in the Messiah's appearance. And, in like manner, the glory,
+resulting from His appearance, was not imparted to Bethlehem, but to
+Zion. Hence it is that, in iv. 8, where the prophet wishes to declare
+the descent of the Messiah from the family of David, he contrasts the
+glorification of Zion, and especially of the King's Castle, with its
+previous degradation.--_Further_--There is not a single instance to be
+found of a place, in which the ancestors of some one resided centuries
+ago, being spoken of as the place of his descent. Is there a single
+passage in which Bethlehem is mentioned as the native place of any of
+the kings from the Davidic dynasty who were born at Jerusalem, or as
+the native place of Zerubbabel who was born at Babylon? For further
+details concerning this argument, _Huetius_, _dem. Evang._ p 579 _ed.
+Amstel._ 1680, maybe compared.--_Further_--The relation of the passage
+under review to the parallel passage Is. viii. 23 (ix. 1) must not be
+overlooked. As in the latter text, the _province_ is marked out which,
+by the appearance of the Messiah, is to be raised from the deepest
+degradation [Pg 499] to the highest glory, so, in the passage under
+consideration, the _place_ is designated.--_Finally_--If any doubt yet
+remained, it must surely be removed by the fulfilment,--by the fact
+that Christ was actually born at Bethlehem; and this so much the more,
+that this fact cannot be looked upon as an accidental circumstance, for
+Bethlehem was not the residence of His parents.
+
+But the Jews endeavoured, in another way, to wrest from Christian
+controversialists the advantage afforded by this passage. They denied
+altogether that Christ was born at Bethlehem. Thus _Abr. Peritsol_
+(compare _Eisenmenger_, l. c. S. 259): "Since they called Him Jesus the
+Nazarene, and not Jesus the Bethlehemite, it is to be inferred that He
+was born at Nazareth, as it is written in the _Targum_ of Jerusalem."
+Upon this point, however, there existed no unanimity among them. _David
+Gans_, in the Book _Zemach David_, mentions, without any remark,
+Bethlehem as the birth-place of the Messiah (S. 105 of _Vorst's_
+translation).
+
+                        2. AMONG THE CHRISTIANS.
+
+The conviction that Christ is the subject of the prophecy under
+consideration was so much the prevailing one in the Christian Church,
+that the mention of any of its defenders is altogether superfluous. It
+were more interesting to learn who were the opponents of it. The
+assertion of _Huetius_, l. c., that _Chrysostom_, _Theophylact_, and
+_Euthymius Zigabenus_ attempted an explanation by which it was referred
+to Zerubbabel, rests on a misapprehension resulting from want of
+memory. _Huetius_ himself ascribes to them that very view which they
+most decidedly oppose as the one alleged to be held by the Jews.
+But this interpretation was actually advanced by _Theodorus_ of
+_Mopsueste_, whose exegetical tendencies it admirably suited. Along
+with several other interpretations, it was condemned by the Council at
+Rome, under Pope Vigilius; compare _H. Prado_ on Ezek. _prooem. Sect._
+3, and _Hippol. a Lapide in prophet. min. prooem._, and in the remarks
+on this passage. The immediate successor of _Theodorus_ was _Grotius_.
+His book _de veritate relig. Christ._--where in i. 5, § 17 (p. 266, ed.
+Oxon. 1820), he proves [Pg 500] against the Jews the Messianic dignity
+of Christ, from the circumstance that He was, in accordance with the
+passage, born at Bethlehem--might, indeed, entitle us to infer that he
+was not confirmed in this opinion. But perhaps he only imagined that,
+in a popular work, he needed not to be so careful, and that, even
+according to his own views, he had retained a certain right to this use
+of the passage, inasmuch as he considered Zerubbabel as a type of
+Christ, and the birth of the latter at Bethlehem as an outward
+representation of His descent from the Davidic family. It was at the
+commencement of the Rationalistic period, when an easier mode of
+evading the reference to Christ had not as yet been discovered, that
+the reference to Zerubbabel was seized upon. It is found in _Dathe_ and
+_Kuehnöl_ (_Mess. Weissagungen_, S. 88). The latter, however, changed
+his opinion (compare Commentary on Matt. ii.), after such a mode had
+been discovered, by referring the prophecy to the _ideal_ Christ. From
+that time onwards, the reference to the _ideal_ Christ is found in
+almost all the Rationalistic interpreters. The distinctness with which
+the marks here given, viz., the birth in time at Bethlehem, and the
+eternity of the origin, lead to the _historical_ Christ; and the
+difficulty of explaining these when the prophecy is referred to the
+_ideal_ Messiah, are rendered sufficiently evident by the efforts which
+all these interpreters, without exception, have made to explain these
+marks away. Who does not discover, in these very efforts, a confession
+of their force, on the supposition that they can be, as they have
+already been, demonstrated to have an actual existence? God Himself has
+borne witness by facts against this explanation; for He ordered the
+circumstance in such a manner that, by the birth of Christ at
+Bethlehem, the prophecy was fulfilled. But how can a fulfilment be
+spoken of by those who do not believe in prophecy, but see in it human
+conjectures only, since the very idea of prophecy necessarily implies
+divine inspiration? How should God have impressed His own seal upon
+mere human conjectures, as He would have done by effecting an apparent
+fulfilment? He would Himself have surely become the author of error by
+so doing. _Finally_,--We shall afterwards see that, in the New
+Testament, this passage has been explained in the strictest sense,
+of the historical Christ; and the attempts of the Rationalistic
+interpreters to divest that [Pg 501] quotation of its import, will
+furnish us with a proof, that it is not truth for which they are
+concerned, but the removal only, at any rate and cost, of a fact which
+is irreconcilable with their system. All that has been advanced by
+them (_e.g._, by _Justi_ and _Ammon_) against the reference to the
+historical Christ, rests on their misapprehension of Christ's Regal
+office. The Regal office of Christ is by no means a poetical image, but
+the most _real_ among all kingly offices; yea. His kingdom is that
+from which all others derive their existence and reality. It rests,
+_further_, on their ignorance as regards the final history of the
+Messianic kingdom. Of the whole history of Christ, they know a single
+fragment only, viz.. His first appearance in His humiliation; and even
+this they know, and can know, only very imperfectly. His invisible
+dominion existing even now, they do not recognise, because it is beheld
+with the eye of faith only; and His future visible manifestation of it
+they do not believe, because they have not experienced in their own
+hearts the invisible power of Christ, which is a pledge and earnest of
+this visible success. It rests, _finally_, on their ignorance of the
+prophetic vision, which necessarily requires that the kingdom of
+God under the Old Testament should serve as a substratum for the
+description of the kingdom of Christ. It can be demonstrated, from the
+intimations contained in this passage, in which the Messiah appears
+in His glory, how little it is contradictory to others, in which
+He is represented in His lowest humiliation. Through humiliation to
+glory,--this is the proposition which lies at the foundation of the
+announcements of the prophet concerning the destinies of the
+Covenant-people, and which he distinctly expresses in regard to
+Bethlehem. That this proposition is applicable to the Head not less
+than to the members,--to Him who was born, not less than to the place
+where He was born, appears from the circumstance that He was to be born
+at the time of the deepest degradation of the Davidic dynasty, iv. 8,
+and not at Jerusalem, where His Royal ancestors resided, but at
+Bethlehem.
+
+2. As regards the last words of this verse, the same twofold false
+interpretation which we noticed among Jewish interpreters, is found
+among Christian expositors also. One of these, which, besides in other
+Jewish interpreters, occurs in _Jarchi_ ("_and His goings out_, etc.;
+just as in Ps. lxxii. 17, it was said that His name [Pg 502] should
+continue as long as the sun;--thus _Jonathan_ also translated it"),
+changes the eternal origin of Christ into an eternal predestination.
+This view was held by _Calvin_: "These words," he says, "signify that
+the rising of the Prince who was to rule the nations would not be
+something sudden, but long ago decreed by God. I know that some
+pertinaciously insist that the prophet speaks here of Christ's eternal
+essence, and as far as I am concerned, I _willingly_ acknowledge that
+Christ's eternal Godhead is here proved to us; but as we shall never
+succeed in convincing the Jews of this, I prefer to hold that the words
+of the prophet signify that Christ would not thus suddenly proceed from
+Bethlehem, as if God had formerly decreed nothing concerning Him." He
+speaks indeed of his "_willingly_ acknowledging;" but that he was not
+very much in earnest in his willingness, appears from what follows:
+"Others advance a new and ingenious view," etc. It is only from the
+relation of _Calvin_ to the earlier interpreters, that we can account
+for his advancing an exposition so very arbitrary. These had, _ad
+majorem Dei gloriam_, advanced a multitude of forced expositions.
+Calvin, who very properly hated such interpretations ("I do not like
+such distorted explanations," he says, in his commentary on Joel ii.),
+always regarded them with suspicion; and whensoever there was the
+appearance of any motive which may possibly have guided them in
+adopting a certain explanation, he himself, rather than concur with
+them, falls upon the most unnatural explanations in return. The best
+refutation of his exposition is to be found in _Pococke_. It is absurd
+to suppose that the actual going forth of Christ from Bethlehem is here
+contrasted with one which is merely imaginary,--the action, with a
+mere decree. It is without any analogy that some one should be
+designated as actually existing, or going forth, who exists merely in
+the divine foreknowledge, or the divine predestination.--The other
+view, which regards the last words of this verse as referring to the
+Messiah's descent from the ancient family of David, is found among all
+interpreters who, from some cause, were prevented from adopting the
+sound one. It is thus with the Socinians (compare, _e.g._, _Volkel de
+vera religione_, l. 5, c. 2), some of whom, in order the more surely to
+set aside a passage so damaging to their system, supposed that,
+according to its proper sense, it did not refer to Christ at all;
+_e.g._, _Jo. Crellius_, who, in his exposition of Matt. ii., asserts
+that it refers indefinitely to [Pg 503] some one of the family of David
+who, after the Babylonish captivity, was to rule the nation. It is thus
+with _Grotius_ also, who says: "He (Zerubbabel) has his origin from the
+days of old, from ancient times, _i.e._, he has descended from a house,
+illustrious from ancient times, and governing for five hundred years."
+Thus it is with all the Rationalistic interpreters. Among recent
+faithful Christian expositors, _Jahn_ also (_Vatic. Mess._ 2, p. 147)
+has been led away to the adoption of this opinion. But that he felt
+strongly, at least, one of the difficulties which stood in its way,
+viz., that if the reference to the family of David be assumed, it is
+the mere age of the family, apart from every preference on the ground
+of its dignity, which is mentioned to magnify the Messiah--appears from
+the strange exegetical process which he employs for the purpose of
+removing it. He supplies at the end, _celebris est_:--"His origin or His
+family (thus he erroneously explains מוצאתיו) is _celebrated_ from
+ancient times." One may see in this case how much, in particulars, an
+individual still remains dependent upon a community, even although,
+upon the whole, he may have freed himself from such dependence. For it
+is certainly from this dependence alone that the fact can be accounted
+for, that this commentator rejected an exposition which must have been
+to him the most agreeable, which has everything in its favour, and
+nothing against it,--and chose another instead, the nakedness of which
+he was obliged to cover as well as he could, while, in so doing, he was
+violating his _exegetical convictions_. _Ewald_ also permits himself to
+introduce into the passage what is necessary for the sense which he has
+made up his mind to adopt. In place of the simple antiquity, he puts:
+"Descended from the ancient, venerable royal family of David." The view
+taken by _Hofmann_ is peculiar: "He comes from the family of David,
+just as it had happened long ago, when that family still belonged to
+the community of Bethlehem,--from the community of Bethlehem does He
+come." _Weiss. u. Erf._ 1, S. 251. In order to get at this rather
+superfluous repetition, he has substituted the manner in which the
+family of David formerly existed, for "the days of old, and eternity."
+The "origins" (this is the sense which he gives to מוצאתיו) cannot be
+attributed to that portion only of David's family which dwelt at
+Bethlehem; for He was descended from them indirectly only, through the
+royal family of David.
+
+[Pg 504]
+
+3. The Jewish assertion, that in the prophecy there is no allusion to
+the birth at Bethlehem of Him who was to come, could not fail to be
+repeated by _Grotius_ and his supporters, inasmuch as Zerubbabel was
+not born at Bethlehem. "Zerubbabel," he says, "is rightly said to have
+been born at Bethlehem, because he was of the family of David which had
+its origin there." This is, in like manner, repeated by the
+Rationalistic interpreters, in order to avoid the too close coincidence
+of the prophecy with the actual history of Christ, _e.g._, by _Paulus_
+and _Strauss_ (both, in their "Life of Jesus"), and by _Hitzig_. It is
+remarkable, however, that, in order the more securely to attain this
+object, some have gone so far even as to follow the example of several
+Jews, and of the infamous _Bodinus_ (_de abditis rerum sublimium
+arcanis_, l. 5, compare the refutation by _Huetius_, l.c. p. 701), and
+to characterize the evangelical account concerning the birth of Christ
+at Bethlehem as unworthy of credit. Such has been the case with _Ammon_
+especially.
+
+                      THE QUOTATION IN MATT. II. 6.
+
+Several interpreters, _Paulus_ especially, have asserted that the
+interpretation of Micah which is here given, was that of the Sanhedrim
+only, and not of the Evangelist, who merely recorded what happened and
+was said. But this assertion is at once refuted when we consider the
+object which Matthew has in view in his entire representation of the
+early life of Jesus. His object in recording the early life of Jesus is
+not like that of Luke, viz., to communicate historical information to
+his readers. The historical event which he could suppose to be already
+known to _his_ readers, comes into his view only in so far as it served
+for the confirmation of Old Testament prophecies. Hence it is that he
+touches upon any historical circumstance, just when the mention of it
+can serve for the attainment of this purpose. Thus, the design of the
+genealogy is to prove that, in accordance with the prophecies of the
+Old Testament, Christ was descended from Abraham, through David. Thus
+all which he mentions in chap. i. 18-21, serves only to prepare the way
+for the quotation of the prophecy of Isaiah, that the Messiah was to be
+born of a [Pg 505] virgin, which is subjoined in ver. 22, with the
+words: τοῦτο δὲ ὅλον γέγονεν ἵνα πληρωθῇ. Even the ὅλον proves that all
+which precedes is mentioned solely with a view to the prophecy. The
+παρερμηνεία of _Olshausen_ which refers the ὅλον to the whole, in
+contrast with the particular, can be accounted for only from the
+embarrassment into which this commentator could not here avoid falling
+by his interpretation of the prophecy of Isaiah, according to which a
+semblance of agreement is, with the utmost difficulty, made out betwixt
+it, and the event in which Matthew finds its fulfilment. Moreover, all
+the single features of the account have too distinct a reference to the
+prophecy which is to be afterwards quoted. It is from a regard to it,
+that he is most anxious to point out that Christ was conceived by a
+pure and immaculate virgin, that, in ver. 25, he expressly adds that
+before the birth of Jesus, Mary had had no connubial intercourse with
+Joseph, because Immanuel was not only to be conceived, but born of a
+virgin. The words, καλέσεις τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ Ἰησοῦν, correspond exactly
+with καὶ καλέσουσι τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ Ἐμμανουήλ. The Evangelist explains
+the latter name by μεθ᾽ ἡμῶν ὁ Θεός, which, again, cannot be without an
+object, for the name of Jesus (_Gottheil_, _God-Salvation_) has, with
+him, the same signification. We pass over, in the meantime, the section
+ii. 1-12. In ver. 13 there follows the account of the flight into Egypt
+with a reference to Hos. xi. 1. This passage refers, in the first
+instance, to Israel; but Israel does not here come into view according
+to its carnal condition, but only according to its divine destination
+and election,--as is evidently shown by the designation "Son of God."
+Israel was called to preserve the truth of God in the midst of error,
+to proclaim among the Gentiles the mighty acts of God, and to be His
+messenger and ambassador. In this respect Israel was a type of the
+Messiah, and the latter, as it were, a concentrated and exalted Israel.
+It is from this relation alone that many passages in the second part of
+Isaiah can be explained; and in Is. xlix. 3, the Messiah is expressly
+called Israel. If, then, there existed between Israel and the Messiah
+such a relation of type and Antitype;--if this relation was not
+accidental, but designed by God, it will, _a priori_, appear to us most
+probable that the abode of the children of Israel in Egypt, and the
+residence of Christ in the same country, have a relation to each other.
+This supposition rests upon the perception of the [Pg 506] remarkable
+coincidence which, by divine Providence, generally exists betwixt the
+destinies of typical persons, and those of the Antitype, so that the
+former may be considered as an actual prophecy of the latter. But this
+coincidence must here not be sought in the stay in the same country
+only; this circumstance served only to direct attention to the deeper
+unity, to represent it outwardly. It was not from their own choice, but
+from a series of the most remarkable dispensations of Providence, and
+on the express command of God, that Israel went to Egypt. They thereby
+escaped from the destruction which threatened them in the land for
+which they were really destined. They were there prepared for their
+destiny; and when that preparation was finished, they were, agreeably
+to the promise of God, which was given to them even before they went
+down into Egypt, introduced into that land in which their destiny was
+to be realized. The same providence of God which there chose the means
+for the preservation of His kingdom, which was at that time bound up
+with the existence of the typical Israel, chose the same means now also
+when their hopes concentrated themselves in the person of their future
+Head. It was necessary that Egypt should afford Him a safe abode until
+the danger was over.--There then follows, in vers. 16-19, the account
+of the murder of the children of Bethlehem, with a sole reference to
+Jer. xxxi. 15, and just on account of it. Here, too, we must not think
+of a simple simile only. In Jeremiah, the mother of Israel laments over
+the destruction of her children. The Lord appears and comforts her. Her
+grief is, at some future time, to be changed into joy. She is to see
+the salvation which the Lord will still bestow upon her sons. That
+which, therefore, constitutes the essence of that passage is the
+contrast of the merited punishment which Israel drew down upon
+themselves by their sins, with the unmerited salvation which the mercy
+of the Lord will bestow upon them. Now, quite the same contrast is
+perceptible in the event under consideration. In the same manner as the
+tyranny of the Chaldeans, so that of Herod also was a deserved
+punishment for the sins of the Covenant-people. Herod, by birth a
+foreigner, was, like Nebuchadnezzar, a rod of correction in the hand of
+the Lord. The cruel deed which, with divine permission, he committed at
+the very place in which the Saviour was born, was designed actually and
+visibly to remind the Covenant-people [Pg 507] of what they had
+deserved by their sins,--was intended also to be a matter-of-fact
+prophecy of the impending more comprehensive judgment, and thus to make
+it manifest that so much the more plainly, the sending of the Messiah
+was purely a work of divine mercy, destined for those only who would
+recognise it as such. From this it appears that the Old Testament
+event, to which the prophet, in the first instance, refers, viz., the
+carrying away into captivity, and the deliverance from it, were
+prophecies by deeds of those New Testament relations (in which,
+however, the typical relation of the murder of the children at
+Bethlehem, as we have stated it, must not be overlooked);--that both
+were subject to the same laws, that both were a necessary result of the
+working of the same divine mercy, and that hence, a declaration which,
+in the first instance, referred to the first event, might at the same
+time be considered as a prophecy of the second.--Vers. 19 and 20 have
+for their foundation Exod. iv. 19, where the Lord, after having ordered
+Moses to return to Egypt, subjoins the words: τεθνήκασι γὰρ πάντες οἱ
+ζητοῦντές σου τὴν ψυχήν. That which the Lord there speaks to Moses, and
+that which, here. He speaks to Joseph, proceed from the same cause.
+Like all servants of God under the Old Testament, Moses is a type of
+Christ. There is the same overruling by divine Providence, the same
+direction of all events for the good of the kingdom of God. Moses is
+first withdrawn from threatening danger by flight into distant regions.
+As soon as it is time that he should enter upon his vocation, the door
+for the return to the scene of his activity is opened to him. Just
+so is it with regard to Christ.--Vers. 21-23 have for their sole
+foundation the prophetic declaration: ὅτι Ναζωραῖος κληθήσεται
+(compare, on these words, the remarks on Is. xi.). The particular
+circumstances which are mentioned, viz., that Joseph had the intention
+of settling in Judea, but received from God the command to go into
+Galilee, are designed only to make it more perceptible that the
+fulfilment of this prophecy was willed by God.
+
+From this summary it sufficiently appears that the object of Matthew in
+chap. i. and ii. was by no means of an historical, but rather of a
+doctrinal nature; and since this is the case, all the objections fall
+to the ground, which _Sieffert_, solely by disregarding this object of
+the writer, has lately drawn from these [Pg 508] chapters against the
+genuineness of Matthew's Gospel. And if we apply this to the question
+before us, it follows that the section ii. 1-12 must likewise have an
+Old Testament foundation. That this foundation can, in the first
+instance, be sought for only in the prophecy of Micah, becomes evident
+from the circumstance, that Bethlehem is, in ver. 1, mentioned as
+Christ's birth-place. If we now take into consideration the fact that
+the Evangelist does not mention at all that the parents of Jesus
+formerly resided at Nazareth, just because it had no reference to any
+prophecy of the Old Testament (it is merely by designating, in the
+account of the birth of Jesus, Bethlehem as the place of His parents,
+that he intimates that that which had been previously reported had
+happened in a different place),--and that, on the other hand, he
+mentions the residence of the Holy Family at Nazareth, after their
+return from Egypt, evidently for the sole purpose of bringing it into
+connection with a prophecy,--it becomes quite evident that it is not
+from any historical interest that this circumstance, which was known to
+all his readers, is mentioned. To this it may be further added, that
+the account given in vers. 1-6, especially the communication of the
+answer of the Sanhedrim to the question of Herod, would, according to
+the proved object and aim of Matthew, stand altogether without a
+purpose, unless he had considered the answer of the Doctors as being in
+harmony with the truth, and hence as superseding his usual formula, ἵνα
+πληρωθῇ. In order to show how much Matthew was guided by a regard to
+the Old Testament, and how frequently, at the same time, he contented
+himself with a mere allusion, supposing his readers to be acquainted
+with the Old Testament--as is quite evident from vers. 20 and 23--we
+must further consider the second Old Testament reference which he has
+in view in vers. 1-12. The passages to which he refers are Ps. lxxii.
+10: "The kings of Sheba and Seba shall offer gifts;" and Is. lx. 6:
+"All they from Sheba shall come, they shall bring gold and incense, and
+they shall show forth the praises of the Lord." The representation, in
+these and other similar passages, is, in the first instance, a
+figurative one. Gifts are in the East a sign of allegiance. The
+fundamental thought is this: "The most distant, the wealthiest, and the
+most powerful nations of the earth shall do homage to the Messiah, and
+consecrate to Him themselves and all that they have." But that which is
+[Pg 509] prophesied by a figurative representation in these Old
+Testament passages began to be fulfilled by the symbolical action of
+the Magi, by which the image was represented externally; for the gold,
+incense, and myrrh which they consecrated to the new-born King of the
+Jews symbolized the homage which they offered to Him; and these gifts
+are certainly expressly mentioned by Matthew for this reason, that they
+occur in the Old Testament passages. As this event formed, in one
+respect, the beginning of the fulfilment, so, in another, it formed a
+new prophecy by deeds,--the type of a new, greater, and more proper
+fulfilment. The Apostles considered these Magi as the types and
+representatives of the whole mass of heathen nations who were, at a
+subsequent period, to do homage to the Messiah. They were the
+ambassadors, as it were, of the heathen world, to greet the new-born
+King, just as the shepherds, whom God Himself had chosen, were the
+deputies of the Jews. In my work on Balaam, pp. 480-482, I have proved
+that, even with these references, the contents of the passage are not
+yet exhausted,--that there still remains a prominent point, viz., the
+star which the Magi saw, and that this refers to Balaam's prophecy of
+the star proceeding from Jacob.
+
+But if it be established that the view of the prophecy under
+consideration, which the Evangelist reports as that of the Sanhedrim,
+must, at the same time, be considered as his own, we must also suppose
+that the quotation, even in its particulars, is approved by him, and
+that the view which was first advanced by _Jerome_ ("I believe that he
+wished to exhibit the negligence of the scribes and priests, and wrote
+it down as it had been spoken by them"), and recently by _Paulus_,
+cannot be made use of in order to justify the deviations,--if any
+should indeed be found. In order to ascertain this, we must examine
+more closely the quotation in its relation to the original text of the
+passage, Matt. ii. 6: Καὶ σὺ Βηθλεέμ, γῆ Ἰούδα οὐδαμῶς ἐλαχίστη εἶ ἐν
+τοῖς ἡγεμόσιν Ἰουδα· ἐκ σοῦ γὰρ ἐξελεύσεται ἡγούμενος, ὅστις ποιμανεῖ
+τὸν λαόν μου, τὸν Ἰσραήλ. The first thing which demands our attention
+is γῆ Ἰούδα for the Ephratah of the original. The reason of this
+deviation is to be sought for in the circumstance, that the place
+appears as Bethlehem Judah in 1 Sam. xvii. 12, where it is mentioned
+with a reference to David. The deviation at the beginning has,
+accordingly, the same purpose [Pg 510] as that at the close. As regards
+the grammatical exposition of γῆ Ἰούδα, it stands for: Bethlehem
+situated in the land of Judah,--a short mode of expression which is
+common in geographical and other similar designations, just as in the
+Old Testament also we find בית־לחם יהודה, for: Bethlehem situated in
+the land of Judah. The assertion of many interpreters, that γῆ  has
+here the signification "town," is as objectionable as the attempt to
+change the text, made by _Fritzsche_, who advances nothing on the whole
+verse that can stand examination. The Evangelist here as little follows
+the LXX. as he does the Hebrew text. The former has here: καὶ σὺ
+Βεθλεέμ, οἶκος Ἐφραθά (thus without an article. _Cod. Vatic._).
+_Fritzsche_ thinks that οἶκος had been brought into the text from the
+margin. But the translator evidently considered "Ephratah" to be the
+proper name of Caleb's wife (1 Chron. ii. 19, 50, iv. 4), from whom
+others also, _e.g._, _Adrichomius_ (compare _Bachiene_ ii. 2, § 190),
+derived the name of the place, and did nothing else than express more
+definitely, by the subjoined οἶκος, the relation of dependence which,
+as he supposed, was indicated by the Genitive. The apparent
+contradiction, that the prophet calls Bethlehem small, whereas the
+Evangelist speaks of it as by no means small, has already been so
+satisfactorily explained by ancient and modern interpreters (compare,
+_e.g._, _Euthymius Zigabenus_ _l. c._ p. 59: "Although in appearance
+thou art small, yet, truly, thou art by no means the least among the
+principalities of the tribe of Judah;" _Michaelis_: "Micah, looking to
+the outward condition, calls it small; Matthew, looking to the
+birth of the Messiah, calls it by no means small, inasmuch as, by
+that birth, that town was in a wonderful manner adorned and exalted"),
+that we need not dwell upon it. We only remark, that the supposition
+of _Paulus_, that the members of the Sanhedrim understood the verse
+interrogatively--"Art thou, perhaps, too small," etc.--receives no
+confirmation from the passage in _Pirke Eliezer_, c. 3, which he quotes
+in favour of it, but which he saw only in the Latin translation of
+_Wetzstein_; for, in the original text, the verse is quoted in literal
+agreement with the Hebrew original; compare _Eisenmenger_, i. p. 316. A
+comparison with the Chaldee, who with similar liberty paraphrases,
+"Thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, shalt soon be numbered," clearly shows that
+the deviation has arisen rather from an endeavour to express the sense
+more [Pg 511] clearly and definitely. On such deviations, _Calvin_
+strikingly remarks: "Let the reader always attend to the purpose
+for which the Evangelists quote Scripture passages, that they
+may not scrupulously insist upon single words, but be satisfied
+with this,--that the Scriptures are never distorted by them to a
+different sense."--Micah introduces Bethlehem in the person of its
+representative; but this figure Matthew has dropped at the beginning.
+Instead of the Masculine צעיר he puts the Feminine ἐλαχίστη; and, on
+the other hand, he renders באלפי by ἐν τοῖς ἡγεμόσι, which, in a way
+not to be mistaken, suggests this representation. _Fritzsche_ announces
+himself as the man who would heal this _fœdum solœcismum_ which had not
+hitherto been remarked by any one. He proposes to read: Καὶ σὺ Βεθλεὲμ
+τῆς Ἰουδαίας οὐδαμῶς ἐλαχίστη εἶ ἐν τοῖς ἡγεμόσιν Ἰούδα,--"and thou
+Bethlehem, by no means the smallest part of the land of Judah, art,"
+etc. But altogether apart from the arbitrary change of γῆ Ἰούδα,--which
+certainly no one could ever have been tempted to put for the more
+simple τῆς Ἰουδαίας,--the personification could even then not have been
+maintained, and the _fœdus solœcismus_ would still remain. Even
+although the ἐλαχίστη be understood in accordance with the
+"_elegantissimus Græcorum usus_," Bethlehem must, after all, be treated
+as a thing--as a town. Nor is the case much improved by the assistance
+which _Fritzsche_ immediately afterwards endeavours to give to the
+text: καὶ σὺ Βεθλεὲμ, γῆ Ἰουδα, οὐδαμῶς ἐλαχίστη εἶ ἐν ταῖς ἡγεμόσιν
+Ἰούδα, "among the principal towns of the families in Judea." Is there
+an instance in which αἱ ἡγεμόνες means the "principal towns?" Moreover,
+the relation of ἡγεμόσιν to the subsequent ἡγούμενος, which requires
+the Masculine, has been overlooked.--Micah personifies Bethlehem from
+the outset. Matthew first introduces Bethlehem as a town, but
+afterwards passes to the personification by speaking of the ἡγεμόνες;
+instead of the tribes. For this he had a special reason in the regard
+to the subsequent ἡγούμενος. Bethlehem, although outwardly small, is,
+notwithstanding, when regarded from a higher point of view, even in the
+present by no means small among the _leaders_ of Judah, for, from it,
+in the future, the great _leader_ of Judah shall proceed. This
+relation, which is so evident, must the rather be assumed, that in
+Micah also a contrast occurs which, as to the sense, is altogether
+similar. It serves, at the [Pg 512] same time, for a proof against the
+assumption that the Gospel of Matthew was originally written in the
+Aramean language,--a view which is, generally, opposed also by the free
+handling of the Old Testament text in the whole quotation. The
+inconsistency in the use of the personification is, further, the more
+easy of explanation, since it is altogether of an _ideal_ character,
+and, substantially, person and town are not distinguished.--The last
+words in Micah, "And His goings forth," etc., have been omitted by
+Matthew, because they were not needed for his purpose, which was to
+show that, according to the prophecies of the Old Testament, the
+Messiah was to be born at Bethlehem. On the other hand, the בישראל of
+Micah is paraphrased by: ὅστις ποιμανεῖ τὸν λαόν μου, τὸν Ἰσραήλ. These
+words refer to 2 Sam. v. 2: "And the Lord says to thee, _Thou shalt
+feed My people Israel_, and thou shalt be a prince over Israel." They
+point out the typical relation between the first David who was born at
+Bethlehem, and the second David, the Messiah.
+
+With respect to the relation betwixt prophecy and its fulfilment, we
+must here still make a general remark. It is everywhere evident
+(compare the remarks on Zech. ix. 9), that the fulfilment of the
+prophecies of the Old Testament forms a secondary purpose of the events
+of the New Testament, but that in none of the latter this fulfilment is
+the sole object. Every one, on the contrary, has its significance apart
+from the prophecy; and it is by this significance that prophecy and
+history are equally governed. This general remark is here also
+confirmed. The birth of Christ at Bethlehem testified, in one respect,
+for the divine origin of the prophecy of the Old Testament, and, in
+another, that Jesus is the Christ. But its main object, altogether
+independent of this, was to represent, outwardly also, the descent of
+Christ from David. This was recognised by the Jews even, at the time of
+Christ, as appears from the addition ὅπου ἦν Δαβίδ, John vii. 42. Of
+the two seats of the Davidic family, viz., Bethlehem and Jerusalem, the
+former is chosen, partly, because, from its external littleness, it
+was, generally, very suitable for prefiguring the lowliness of the
+Messiah at the outset--a circumstance which is expressly pointed out by
+the prophet himself--and partly, because it was peculiar to the family
+of David during its obscurity; whilst Jerusalem, on the contrary,
+belonged to their regal condition,--and the Messiah [Pg 513] was to be
+born in the fallen tabernacle of David, to be a rod from the cut off
+stem of Jesse, Is. xi. 1. That this reference also was in the view of
+the prophet, seems to be evident from a comparison of iii. 12, and iv.
+8, 9, 14. At all events he considered the family of David as having
+altogether sunk at the time of the Messiah's appearing. The very
+threatenings in chap. i.-iii. imply the destruction of the Davidic
+kingdom. This meets us, very distinctly, in chap. iv.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+Ver. 2. "_Therefore will He give them up until the time that she who is
+hearing hath brought forth; and then the remnant of his brethren shall
+return unto the sons of Israel._"
+
+The description of what the Messiah is to bestow upon the
+Covenant-people begins in this verse, and is carried on through the
+whole chapter. By לכן the close connection of v. 1 with vi. 9-14 is
+indicated. _Michaelis_ remarks: "Because this is the counsel of God,
+first to afflict Zion, on account of her sins, and, afterwards only, to
+restore her through the Messiah to be born at Bethlehem." In chap. iv.
+9-14, it is implied that the giving up will not terminate _before_ His
+birth; in v. 1, that it will come to an end _with_ His birth. The whole
+time described in iv. 9-14 is a time of affliction, of giving up Israel
+to the world's power in a threefold form of its manifestation. In iv.
+14, however, the affliction has reached its highest point, and the
+lucid interval, mentioned in vers. 12, 13, has fully expired. It is
+only when we look back to v. 1 alone, that the "therefore" with which
+our verse opens is not explained, inasmuch as there it is said only,
+that with the Messiah deliverance and salvation would come, but not
+that the affliction would continue until He should come.--נתן is
+similarly used in 2 Chron. xxx. 7: "And be not ye like your fathers,
+and like your brethren who trespassed against the Lord God of your
+fathers; therefore He gave them up to desolation (ויתנם לשמה), as you
+see." With respect to the words, "Until the time that she who is
+bearing hath brought forth," there is an essential difference of
+opinion as to the explanation of the main point. One class of
+interpreters--comprehending _Eusebius_ and _Cyril_, and by far the
+greatest number of the ancient Christian expositors; and among
+the more recent, _Rosenmüller_, _Ewald_, _Hitzig_, _Maurer_, and
+_Caspari_--understand [Pg 514] by "her who is bearing," the mother of
+the Messiah. Another class understands thereby the Congregation of
+Israel. The latter, however, differ from each other as to the
+signification and import of the figure of the birth. Some--_Abendana_,
+_Calvin_, and _Justi_--suppose the _tertium comparationis_ to be the
+joy following upon the pain. Others--_Theodoret_, _Tarnovius_ ("until
+Israel, like a fruitful mother, has brought forth a numerous progeny"),
+_Vitringa_ (in his _Commentary on Revel._ S. 534)--suppose it to be the
+great increase. Let us first decide between these two modifications of
+that view which refers the words to the Congregation of Israel. The
+former--the joy following after the pain--appears to be inadmissible
+for this single reason, that among the very numerous passages of the
+Old Testament where the image of a birth is employed, there does not
+occur even one, in which the joy following after the pain is made
+prominent, as is the case in the well-known passage in the New
+Testament. On the contrary, in all the passages which come into
+consideration on this point, it is rather the pain accompanying the
+birth which is considered. Thus Mic. iv. 10; Is. xxvi. 17; Jer. iv. 31:
+"For I hear a voice as of a woman in travail, anguish as of her that
+bringeth forth her first-born child, the voice of the daughter of
+Zion, she groaneth, spreadeth her hands: Woe to me, for my soul
+is wearied, through them that kill;" xxx. 6, xlix. 24; Hos. xiii. 13.
+To consider the pain alone, however, as the _tertium comparationis_, is
+inadmissible, because, in that case, we would obtain the absurd
+meaning: the suffering shall continue until the suffering cometh. It is
+likewise impossible to understand the bringing forth as the highest
+degree of affliction,--so that the sense would be: the Lord will give
+them up until the distress reaches its highest point,--because this
+meaning could apply only in the event of the lower degrees, the pains
+before the birth, being also mentioned. They who hold and defend the
+second modification of this view, can indeed refer to, and quote, a
+large number of parallel passages--almost all of them from the second
+part of Isaiah--where this image occurs with a similar signification.
+Thus, _e.g._. Is. liv. 1: "Shout for joy, O barren, thou that didst not
+bear; break forth into shouting and exult, thou that didst not travail;
+for more numerous are the sons of the desolate than the sons of the
+married wife, saith the Lord;" xlix. 21, 22, lxvi. 7-9. But we must
+nevertheless prefer [Pg 515] to this explanation, that which refers the
+words to the mother of the Messiah, for the following reasons. 1. If
+the words were to be referred to the Congregation of Israel, we should
+expect the Article before יולדה. For the Congregation of Israel is
+substantially mentioned in what immediately precedes; she is only a
+personification of those who are to be given up. 2. It is true that,
+frequently, the personification is not consistently carried out; but
+the circumstance that here, in the same sentence, the children
+of Israel are spoken of in the plural ("He will give _them_ up"), and
+that no trace of a personification is found in what follows, but that,
+on the contrary, the children of Israel are mentioned expressly, makes
+the pretended personification appear in rather an abrupt manner, so
+that such an assumption would be admissible in a case of necessity
+only. 3. If referred to the Congregation of Israel, the relation of the
+Messiah to that great event, and epoch, is not intimated by a single
+word. Of Him ver. 1 speaks, and of Him vers. 3-5. How then can it be
+that in ver. 2 there should all at once be a transition to the general
+Messianic representation? 4. The suffix in אחיו, which refers to the
+Messiah, requires that He should be indirectly mentioned in what
+precedes; and such is the case, only when the יולדה is she who is to
+bring forth the Ruler announced in ver. 1. 5. It appears from the
+reference to Gen. xxxv., which we have already pointed out and proved,
+that the prophet has in view one who is to bring forth in Bethlehem.
+Bethlehem, which had in ancient times already become remarkable by a
+birth, is in future to be ennobled by another birth, infinitely more
+important. 6. The comparison of Is. vii. 14, where likewise the mother
+of the Messiah is mentioned; compare the remarks on that passage. 7,
+and lastly--The evident reference of "Until the time that she who is
+bearing hath brought forth" to "From thee shall come forth," suggests
+the mother of the Messiah. That she is designated as "she who brings
+forth," may be explained from the circumstance that she comes into view
+here in a relation which is altogether one-sided, viz., only as regards
+the one event of the birth of the Messiah.--Among the blessings which
+the Messiah is to confer upon the Congregation of the Lord, there is
+first of all viewed the fundamental blessing, the condition of all
+others, viz., the change which He is to effect in the disposition of
+the Covenant-people. [Pg 516] It is this which, above and before
+everything else, needs to be changed, if Israel is not any more to be
+given up; for Israel which is so only by name and in appearance, is the
+legitimate prey of the world.--By the Brethren of the Messiah, the
+members of the Old Covenant-people, His brethren according to the
+flesh, can alone be understood. There is no Old Testament analogy for
+referring the expression to the Gentiles. We are led to the reference
+to Israel by the connection with the first member of the verse. The
+brethren are such as have become the Messiah's brethren by the
+circumstance that He has been born of the Bethlehemitish woman "who is
+to bring forth" (_Caspari_). We are led to it, _further_, by v. 1,
+according to which, the Messiah is to be Ruler in Israel; and, _still
+further_, by the fundamental passage in Ps. xxii. 23: "I will declare
+Thy name unto my brethren," where, according to the address in ver. 24,
+the brethren are all the descendants of Israel, among whom a great
+awakening is to be produced.--The construction of שוב with על may be
+explained by the remark of _Ewald_: "על stands in its primary local
+signification with verbs also, when the thing moves to another thing,
+and remains upon it." Of a material return the verb שוב with על is thus
+used in Prov. xxvi. 11, Eccles. i. 6;--of a spiritual return, 2 Chron.
+xxx. 9: בשובכם על יהוה "when ye return to the Lord," properly, "upon
+the Lord;" and Mal. iii. 24 (iv. 6): "And he makes return the hearts of
+the fathers to the sons, על בנים,"--which latter passage has a striking
+resemblance to the one under review. In the latter signification שוב
+must be taken here also.--By the "sons of Israel," here, as ordinarily,
+the whole of the Covenant-people are signified, and that by its highest
+and holiest name. From this holy communion, the wicked--the souls
+which, according to the expression of the Lord, are cut off from their
+people--are separated and dissevered; compare my commentary on Ps.
+lxxiii. 1. The whole description of the prevailing corruption, and
+especially vii. 1, 2, show us to what an extent this separation existed
+at the time of the prophet. But, by the Saviour, this separation is to
+be abolished, and the lost and wandering are to be brought back to the
+communion of the church,--a work which, according to Rom. xi., will be
+perfected in the future only.[1]
+
+[Pg 517]
+
+Ver. 3. "_And He stands and feeds in the strength of the Lord, in the
+majesty of the name of the Lord His God; and they dwell, for now shall
+He be great unto the ends of the earth._"
+
+In this verse we are told what the Saviour shall do for awakened
+and, thus, inwardly united Israel. "He stands," has here not the
+signification of "He abides," but belongs merely to the graphic
+description of the habit of the shepherd; compare Is. lxi. 5: "And
+strangers stand and feed your flocks." The shepherd stands, leaning
+upon his staff, and overlooks the flock. The connection of "He feeds"
+with "in the strength of the Lord," we cannot better express than
+_Calvin_ has done in the words: "The word 'to feed' expresses what
+Christ will be towards His people, _i.e._, towards the flock committed
+to Him. He does not exercise dominion in the Church like a formidable
+tyrant who keeps down his subjects through terror, but He is a
+Shepherd, and treats His sheep with all the gentleness which they can
+desire. But, inasmuch as we are surrounded on all sides by enemies, the
+prophet adds: 'He shall feed in the strength,' etc.; _i.e._, as much
+power as there is in God, so much protection there will be in Christ,
+when it is necessary to defend and protect His Church against enemies.
+We may learn, then, from this, that we may expect as much of salvation
+from Christ as there is strength in God." The great King is so closely
+united to God, that the whole fulness of divine power and majesty
+belongs to Him. Such attributes are never given to any earthly king.
+Such a king has, indeed, strength in the Lord, Is. xlv. 24; "The Lord
+giveth strength to His king, and exalteth the horn of His anointed," 1
+Sam. ii. 10; but the whole strength and majesty of God are not his
+possession. The passage [Pg 518] in Is. ix. 5 (6) is parallel,--where
+the Messiah is called אל גבור, God-hero.--The "name of God" points to
+the rich fulness in deeds, by which He has manifested the glory of His
+nature. The Messiah will be the brightness and image of this His
+glory,--a glory which is manifested by acts, and not a glory which
+is inactive and concealed. "They dwell" forms a contrast to the
+disquietude and scattering, and we are, therefore, not at liberty to
+supply "safely" before it. The last words are deprived of their meaning
+and significance by explanations such as that of _Dathe_: "His name
+shall attain to great renown and celebrity." The ground of the present
+rest and safety of the Congregation of the Lord rather is this,--that
+her Head has now extended His dominion beyond the narrow limits of
+Palestine, over the whole earth; compare iv. 3.--2 Sam. vii. 9 cannot
+here be compared, as there the _name_ of the Lord is not spoken of
+as it is here. That the "being great" here implies real dominion
+(_Maurer_: _auctoritate et potentia valebit_), which alone can afford a
+pledge for the dwelling in safety, is shown also by the fundamental
+passages Ps. ii. 8, lxxii. 8; compare Zech. ix. 10. In Luke i. 32 the
+passage before us is referred to. The "now" does not by any means form
+a contrast with a former condition of the Messiah, but with the former
+condition of the Congregation when she did not enjoy so powerful a
+Ruler.
+
+Ver. 4. "_And this_ (man) _is peace. When Asshur comes into our land,
+and when he treads in our palaces, we raise against him seven
+shepherds, and eight princes of men._ Ver. 5. _And they feed the land
+of Asshur with the sword, and the land of Nimrod in its gates; and He
+protects from Asshur when he comes into our land, and when he treads
+within our borders._"
+
+"And this man (He whose glory has just been described) is peace,"--He
+bestows that which we have so much needed, and longed for with so much
+anxiety in these troublous times before His appearing. In a similar
+manner, and with reference to the passage before us, it is said in
+Ephes. ii. 14: αὐτός ἐστιν ἡ εἰρήνη ἡμῶν, compare also Judges vi.
+24: "And Gideon built an altar there unto the Lord, and called it
+Jehovah-Peace, יהוה שלום." Abandoning this explanation, which is so
+natural, _Jonathan_, _Grotius_, _Rosenmüller_, and _Winer_ explain:
+"And _there_ will be peace to us,"--an interpretation, however, which
+is inadmissible even on philological grounds, זה  is nowhere used,
+either [Pg 519] as Adverb, loci = "here," or as Adverb, temp. = "then."
+As regards the latter, such passages as Gen. xxxi. 41--"These are to me
+twenty years," instead of, "twenty years have now elapsed"--are, of
+course, not at all to the purpose. But of such a kind are almost all
+the examples quoted by _Nolde_. In Esther ii. 13 בזה is used. The verb
+הציל in ver. 5 is likewise in favour of understanding זה personally;
+compare also Zech. ix. 10: "And He shall speak peace unto the
+nations."--There can scarcely be any doubt that the words allude to the
+name of Solomon, and that the Messiah is represented in them as the
+Antitype of Solomon. Upon this point there is the less room for doubt,
+because even Solomon himself called the Messiah by his name in the Song
+of Solomon; and in Is. ix. 5 (6) also, He is, with an evident allusion
+to the name of Solomon, called the Prince of Peace.--All which follows
+after these words, to the end of ver. 5, is only a particularizing
+expansion of the words: "And this (man) is peace." Interpreters have
+almost all agreed, that Asshur, the most dangerous enemy of the
+Covenant-people at the time of the prophet, stands here as a type of
+the enemies of the Covenant-people. Even _L. Baur_ has translated: "And
+though another Asshur," etc., with a reference to the passage in
+_Virgil_ to which allusion had already been made by _Castalio_: "_Alter
+erit tum Tiphys et altera quæ vehat Argo delectos heroas._" That the
+prophet, however, was fully conscious of his here using Asshur
+typically, appears from iv. 9, 10. For, according to these verses, the
+first of the three catastrophes which preceded the birth of the
+Messiah, proceeds from a new phase of the world's power, viz., from the
+Babylonian empire, the rising of which implies the overthrow of the
+Assyrian. But the figurative element in the representation goes still
+farther. From ver. 9 ff.--according to which the Lord makes His people
+outwardly defenceless, before they become, in Christ, the conquerors of
+the world--it is obvious that the spiritual struggle against the
+world's power is here represented under the image of the outward
+struggle, carried on with the sword. One might be tempted to confine
+the thought of the passage to this: "The Messiah affords to His people
+the same protection and security as would a large number of brave
+princes with their hosts," inasmuch as the bestowal of these was, under
+the Old Testament, the ordinary means by which the Lord delivered His
+people. If, however, the spiritual character [Pg 520] of the struggle
+only be maintained, there is no sufficient reason for considering the
+seven and more shepherds and the princes as mere imagery, because, in
+the kingdom of Christ also, the cause of the kingdom of God is carried
+on by human instruments, whom He furnishes with His own strength.
+The words, "This (man) is peace," and "He protects," in ver. 5,
+show indeed with sufficient distinctness, that, in the main, Christ
+is the only Saviour,--the shepherds, His instruments only,--and their
+world-conquering power, a derived one only. The apparent contradiction
+of the passage before us to iv. 1-3, vii. 12--according to which the
+heathen nations shall, in the time of the Messiah, spontaneously press
+towards the kingdom of God--is removed by the remark, that we have here
+before us two different streams which may as well flow together in
+prophecy as they do in history. The zeal with which the nations press
+towards the kingdom is, in part, greatly called forth by the fact,
+that, in attacking the kingdom of Christ, they have experienced its
+world-conquering power. The circumstance that the words, "This (man) is
+peace," stand at the beginning, proves that the main idea is the
+security of the kingdom of God against all hostile attacks. For the
+like reason it is, towards the end, resumed in the words, "And He
+protects," etc. But this affords no reason for saying, with _Caspari_:
+"It forms part of the defence, it is indeed its consummation, that the
+war is carried into Asshur." In the first hemistich of ver. 5, it is
+intimated rather, that, in the time of the Messiah, the positions of
+the world and of the people of God are changed,--that the latter
+becomes world-conquering; and for this reason, every thought of their
+own insecurity must so much the rather disappear. "The land of Nimrod"
+is, according to Gen. x. 11, Asshur. The "gates" are those of the
+cities and fortresses, corresponding with, "When he treads in our
+palaces," in ver. 4. It weakens the sense to think of the gates of the
+country, as such, _i.e._, the borders. The attack, on the contrary, is
+directed against, and strikes the real centre of the seat of the
+world's power, just as, formerly, the stroke was always directed
+against Zion.
+
+With regard to the remaining part of the chapter, we content ourselves
+with a mere statement of the contents. The Congregation of the Lord
+shall, at that time, not only be lovely and refreshing, ver. 6 (7),
+(this is the constant signification of the [Pg 521] image of the dew,
+compare Ps. cx. 3, cxxxiii. 3, lxxii. 6; the relative pronoun אשר must
+be referred to the grass, mentioned immediately before; that which the
+dew descending from heaven is to the grass, Israel will, in his
+heavenly mission, be to the heathen world), but at the same time
+fearful and irresistible, vers. 7, 8 (8, 9); the latter of these
+qualities shall show itself not only as a curse in the case of
+obstinate despisers, but also as a blessing in the case of those who
+are estranged from the kingdom of God, through ignorance only. Resuming
+then the last words of ver. 8 (9), "All thine enemies shall be cut
+off," the prophet declares that before this word shall be fulfilled,
+the destructive activity of the Lord will be manifested in Israel
+itself. He will cut off by His judgments, and by the catastrophes
+described in iv. 9-14, everything in which, in the present, they placed
+a carnal confidence, everything by which they became externally strong
+and powerful (_Caspari_: "A cutting off, in the first instance, of all
+wherewith elsewhere enemies are commonly cut off"), and so likewise all
+idolatry, to which the Chaldean catastrophe already put a violent end.
+It is only of such a termination by force, and not of a purely inward
+effect of the "gentle power of the Spirit then poured out upon them,"
+that the words here, as well as in reference to the horses, etc.,
+permit us to think. The two kinds of objects of false confidence are
+then, in conclusion, in ver. 13 (14) once more summed up,--when the
+cities, just as in ver. 10 (11), come into view as fortresses only. If
+thus the path be cleared and prepared for the Lord, He will, on behalf
+of His people, execute vengeance upon the heathen world.
+
+
+Footnote 1: After the example of _Hofmann_, _Caspari_ gives this
+exposition: "And the remnant of His brethren, viz., the inhabitants of
+Judah, shall return from the captivity to Canaan, along with the sons
+of Israel, _i.e._, the ten tribes." But the return from the captivity
+never appears in the prophets, as a work of the Messiah. It has here
+taken place long before His appearing: chap. iv. 10, iv. 11-14 supposes
+it to have taken place, and Zion to be in existence. The "brethren of
+the Messiah" can neither be the inhabitants of Judah especially, nor
+the sons of Israel, the ten tribes, unless the antithesis to Judah be
+distinctly expressed. It is absurd to suppose that the ten tribes
+should appear as those chiefly who are to be redeemed. שוב, which means
+"to return," cannot be used simply of a return to the country, while
+שוב with על can, according to the _usus loquendi_, be understood only
+in the sense of "to return to," etc., etc.
+
+
+
+                             CHAP. VI. VII.
+
+We shall now, in conclusion, give a survey of the third and closing
+discourse of the prophet. After an introduction in vi. 1, 2, where the
+mountains serve only to give greater solemnity to the scene (in the
+fundamental passages Deut. xxxii. 1, and in Is. 1, 2, "heaven and
+earth" are mentioned for the same purposes, inasmuch as they are the
+most venerable parts of creation; "contend _with_ the mountains" by
+taking them in and applying to [Pg 522] them as hearers), the prophet
+reminds the people of the benefits which they have repaid with
+ingratitude, vers. 3-5. (In ver. 5 those facts also which served as a
+proof of its truth, are considered as part of Balaam's answer.) He
+then, in vers. 6-8, shows the fallacy of the imagination that they
+could satisfy the Lord by the observance of the mere outward forms of
+worship, though such should be increased to the utmost, and performed
+in a manner totally different from that in which it was in the present,
+and points out the spiritual demands already made even by the law, and
+especially by Deut. x. 12, a compliance with which could alone be
+pleasing to the Lord. From vi. 9-vii. 6, he shows to how limited an
+extent these demands are complied with by the people,--how true and
+cordial piety and justice have disappeared from the midst of them,--and
+how, therefore, the threatenings of the law must, and shall be
+fulfilled upon them. The reproof and threatening are then followed by
+the announcement of salvation, which refers indeed to the Messianic
+times, but without any mention in it of the person of the Messiah, the
+brightness of which meets us only in the main body of the prophecy. The
+main thought here also is the entirely altered position of Israel in
+their relation to the heathen world. "A day is coming"--so it is said
+in ver. 11--"to build thy walls; in that day shall the law be far
+removed." גדר is used especially of the walls and fences of vineyards;
+and under the image of a vineyard, Israel appears as early as in the
+Song of Solomon. The wall around the vineyard of Israel is the
+protection against the heathen world; Is. v. 5. The "law" is, according
+to the context, in which the heathen oppressors are spoken of, that
+which is imposed by them upon the people of God; Ps. xciv. 20. Ver. 12.
+"_A day it is when they shall come to thee from Asshur, and from the
+cities of Egypt, and from Egypt to the river, and to sea from sea, and
+to mountain from mountain._" It is not enough that the people of God
+are freed from the servitude of the world. They shall become the
+objects of the longing of the nations, even the most powerful and
+hostile. They become the magnet which attracts them; compare iv. 1, 2.
+From among the heathen nations Asshur and Egypt are first specially
+mentioned, as the two principal representatives of hostility against
+the kingdom of God in the present and past, and, at the same time, as
+the two most powerful empires at the time of the prophet [Pg 523]--the
+latter quality being indicated by the circumstance of Egypt's appearing
+under the name מצור, "fortress." But then, by the expressions "from sea
+to sea," "from mountain to mountain," which are equivalent to "from
+every sea to every sea," etc., all barriers in general are completely
+removed; compare in v. 3 (4) the words: "He shall be great unto the
+ends of the earth." (The subject in יבוא can only be the inhabitants of
+these countries themselves, not the Jews living there. If the latter
+had been intended, a more distinct indication of it would have been
+required. The Masculine Suffix עָדֶיךָ "to thee," _i.e._, not to Zion but
+to Israel, is opposed to such a reference. This shows clearly that they
+who come are different from Israel. In entire harmony with this
+prophecy is Is. xix. 18-25.) But, before such glory can be bestowed
+upon the people of God, the irrevocable judgment must first have done
+its fearful work, ver. 13; compare the fundamental passage Lev. xxvi.
+33, and Is. i. 7. In ver. 14 the announcement of salvation takes a new
+start. Vers. 18-20 form the sublime close, not only of the last
+discourse, but also of the whole book, as is clearly indicated by the
+coincidence of the words, "Who is, O God, like unto Thee?" ver. 18,
+with the mention of Micah's name in the inscription. The name of the
+prophet, by which he is dedicated to the incomparable God, has been
+confirmed by the contents of his prophecy. The New Testament parallel
+passage is Rom. xi. 33-36: "_Who is, O God, like unto Thee; pardoning
+iniquity, and remitting transgression to the remnant of His heritage?
+He retaineth not His anger for ever, because He delighteth in mercy._"
+"Who is, O God, like unto Thee?" so the people once already sang after
+the redemption from Egypt. Thus it resounds still more loudly in the
+view of the antitypal redemption, by which the fundamental definition
+of the divine nature in Exod. xxxiv. 6, 7, and David's praise of divine
+mercy in Ps. ciii., are fully realized. "He will return and have
+compassion upon us (according to the promise in Deut. xxx. 3), will
+overcome our iniquities (which, like a cruel tyrant, like Pharaoh of
+old, subjected us to their power, Ps. xix. 14), and cast all their sins
+into the depth of the sea," as once He cast the proud Egyptians, Exod.
+xv. 5-10. "Thou wilt give truth to Jacob, and mercy to Abraham, as Thou
+hast sworn unto our fathers from the days of old."
+
+[Pg 524]
+[Blank page]
+
+[Pg 525]
+
+
+
+              Works Published by T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh.
+
+                               PROSPECTUS
+
+                                 OF THE
+
+                     ANTE-NICENE CHRISTIAN LIBRARY.
+
+MESSRS CLARK of Edinburgh, Publishers of the Foreign Theological
+Library, beg respectfully to invite attention to the Prospectus of a
+Collection of all the works of the Fathers of the Christian Church,
+prior to the Council of Nicæa, to be Edited by
+
+                      REV. ALEXANDER ROBERTS, D.D.,
+              Author of 'Discussions on the Gospels,' Etc.;
+
+                                  AND
+
+                         JAMES DONALDSON, LL.D.,
+   Author of 'A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine
+         from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council.'
+
+
+THE writings of the early Christians are allowed on all hands to be of
+great importance, and to be invested with a peculiar interest; and
+regrets have often been expressed that it should be so difficult to
+know their contents. Many of them are mere fragments; and where
+complete works exist, the text is often so corrupt, and the style is so
+involved, that even a good classical scholar is repelled from their
+perusal. If the student of Latin and Greek meets with obstacles, the
+merely English reader is absolutely without the means of information.
+The greater part of the most important writings have never been
+translated; and those translations which have been made are, with the
+exception of the few executed in recent times, for the most part loose,
+inaccurate, and difficult to procure. To supply this great want is the
+object of the Ante-Nicene Christian Library. All the Christian writings
+antecedent to the Nicene Council have been put into the hands of
+competent translators. These will make it their first and principal aim
+to produce translations as faithful as possible, uncoloured by any
+bias, dogmatic or ecclesiastical. They will also endeavour, in brief
+notes, to place the English reader in the position of those acquainted
+with the original languages. They will indicate important variations in
+the text; they will give different translations of the same passage
+where more than one have been proposed; they will note the various
+meanings attributed to the words in ecclesiastical controversies; and
+when the ancient documents appear in widely different forms, the
+various forms will be presented. At the same time, they will strive to
+combine with this strict accuracy and faithfulness as much elegance as
+may be consistent with the main aim. Short biographical [Pg 526] and
+explanatory notices will be prefixed to each translation; and in every
+case where there is variety of opinion, the writer will abstain from
+expressing his own sentiments, and confine himself simply to an
+impartial statement of the opinions of the most noteworthy critics on
+the point.
+
+The following are the works which are now being translated:--
+
+I. The Apostolical Fathers, including the Epistles of Clemens Romanus,
+the Epistles of Ignatius in their various forms, the Epistle of
+Barnabas, the Epistle of Polycarp, the Epistle to Diognetus, and the
+Pastor of Hermas, with the Martyria of Ignatius and Polycarp.
+
+II. The undoubted and doubtful works of Justin Martyr,--the Apologies,
+the Dialogue with Trypho, the Oratio ad Gentiles, the Cohortatio, the
+De Monarchia, and the fragments on the Resurrection, along with the
+Martyrium of one Justin.
+
+III. The works of Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, Hermias,
+and the fragments of the rest of the Apologists.
+
+IV. Irenaeus: All his extant works.
+
+V. Clemens Alexandrinus: All his extant works.
+
+VI. Origen. The Series will include the De Principiis, and the Contra
+Celsum. The rest of his works will be translated if the Series is
+successful.
+
+VII. The fragments of Julius Africanus, and of the other writers given
+in Dr Routh's Reliquiæ Sacræ.
+
+VIII. The works generally ascribed to Hippolytus, along with the
+recently discovered Refutatio Omnium Hæresium.
+
+IX. The works ascribed to Dionysius of Alexandria, Gregory
+Thaumaturgus, Methodius, and others of the same period.
+
+X. The Recognitions and the Clementine Homilies, the Letters of Clemens
+on Virginity, the Constitutions, the Canons of the Apostles, Decrees of
+Councils till the period of the Nicene Council, and the Martyria
+written within the period, and generally believed to be genuine.
+
+XI. The Apocryphal Gospels, and other Apocryphal Literature of the New
+Testament.
+
+XII. The Octavius of Minucius Felix.
+
+XIII. The entire works of Tertullian.
+
+XIV. All the genuine works of Cyprian.
+
+XV. Arnobius adversus Gentes.
+
+XVI. The works of Lactantius.
+
+XVII. The extant works of Novatian, Victorinus, Commodianus, and other
+Christian Latin writers preceding the Council of Nice.
+
+[Pg 527]
+
+It is intended to include in the Series every Christian writing and
+document produced before the Nicene Council, whether in Greek, Latin,
+Syriac, Arabic, Æthiopic, or in any other language. The list includes a
+number of works, some portions of which are generally believed to have
+been written after the Council of Nice; but as other portions were, or
+may have been, written before that time, it has been thought the safer
+course to give them fully. Only those works which are now allowed on
+every hand to have been written after the Nicene Council, will be
+excluded.
+
+
+It is believed that the writings comprised in the above Synopsis will
+form about sixteen or eighteen Volumes, in demy octavo, of a size
+similar to the Publishers' Foreign Theological Library; and the Series
+will be published at the same rate to Subscribers, namely--
+
+                      FOUR VOLUMES for ONE GUINEA.
+
+Each work will have a separate Index; and a very complete Index to the
+whole Series will be published in a separate Volume, especial care
+being taken hi its compilation.
+
+The Publishers' arrangements are such, that the publication, once
+commenced, will proceed very rapidly; so that, whilst no Subscriber
+will be required to take the work more rapidly than four Volumes
+annually, it is highly probable that the whole may be finished at a
+much earlier period, for the convenience of those who may desire to
+have their sets completed. The Volumes will be handsomely bound in
+cloth, with red edges; but Subscribers may have them with uncut edges,
+by intimating their wish with their order.
+
+They will be greatly obliged by intending Subscribers filling up the
+accompanying Slip, and returning it to them speedily, as this will very
+much facilitate their arrangements.
+
+** _When not paid in advance, the retail Bookseller is entitled to
+charge 24s_
+
+*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  * *  *  *  *
+
+
+                         .......................................186 .
+
+I request Messrs Clark to insert my name in their list of Subscribers
+to the ANTE-NICENE CHRISTIAN LIBRARY, and to forward the books as
+published, through my bookseller,
+
+  _Mr_ ........................................................
+
+    (_Signed_)...................................................
+
+If it is preferred to have the works forwarded direct per railway or
+book post (at cost of postage), It is requested that it be so stated.
+The Subscription is payable in advance, annually, on or before the
+FIRST Issue for each Year.
+
+[Pg 528]
+
+Now ready, in Four Volumes, demy 8vo, price 32s., handsomely bound in
+cloth,
+
+                        THE COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY
+
+                                   OF
+
+                               PALESTINE
+
+                                AND THE
+
+                           SINAITIC PENINSULA.
+
+                             By CARL RITTER,
+
+           PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN.
+
+       Translated and Adapted to the use of Biblical Students, by
+
+                            WILLIAM L. GAGE.
+
+
+
+CARL RITTER, the late Professor of Geography in the University of
+Berlin, is known by name to many who are comparatively uninformed
+respecting the extent and value of his labours. In portraying the
+connection of geography with the physical sciences, Alexander von
+Humboldt had no superior; while in establishing the relation between
+geography and history, CARL RITTER was as unquestionably pre-eminent. A
+chair was created for him in the Berlin University as early as 1820. He
+lived to occupy it for forty years, and to confer no less honour upon
+the city where he resided, and the institution in which he taught, than
+upon his own name. And though but slight glimpses of his career have
+been caught by the people of Great Britain, yet such references to him
+as that in the Preface to Robinson's _Biblical Researches_, and works
+of a similar character, will convince the readers of this country that
+whatever comes from his pen must have great and permanent value.
+
+Professor RITTER'S main work relates to Asia, and includes
+therefore all of that territory which is known as the Holy Land. To
+this,--including the Lebanon district, Palestine proper, the country
+east of the Jordan, and the Sinaitic Peninsula,--RITTER devotes a
+space equal to 6000 pages of the size employed in Messrs Clark's
+publications. To translate a mass so voluminous as this would be
+evidently impracticable; and yet the immense erudition and power of
+graphic description of Professor RITTER, conjoined with the fact that
+he brought to the study of the Holy Land, not the unbelief of a
+rationalist, but living faith of a genuine Christian, has convinced the
+publishers that a portion of his great work would be a welcome offering
+to all students of Biblical Geography.
+
+Messrs Clark accordingly now publish a translation executed by REV.
+WILLIAM L. GAGE, a pupil and friend of the lamented RITTER, comprising
+that portion of the volumes relating to the Holy Land, which, in his
+judgment as editor, shall be the most acceptable addition to our
+biblical literature. The work is comprised in four octavo volumes. MR
+GAGE has been engaged for several years in the study and interpretation
+of Professor RITTER'S writings, and has enjoyed the active co-operation
+of many of the most eminent living geographers.
+
+The main object which has been held in view in condensing and in
+selecting from the original, is to prepare the work for the use of
+biblical students. Everything illustrating the Bible bas been
+considered of prime importance, and everything has been retained,
+needful to maintain the unity of the work. Notes are added, indicative
+of discoveries made since RITTER wrote, and the object has never been
+lost from sight--to make the work worthy of taking the same place in
+English that it has already done in German literature.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Christology of the Old Testament: And
+a Commentary on the Messianic Predict, by Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRISTOLOGY OF OLD TESTAMENT, V.1 ***
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