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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30429 ***
+
+[Illustration: FOSSIL MAN OF MENTONE. (From Popular Science Monthly,
+October, 1874.)]
+
+
+
+
+WAS MAN CREATED?
+
+BY
+
+HENRY A. MOTT, JR., E.M., PH.D., ETC.,
+
+
+_Member of the American Chemical Society, Member of the Berlin Chemical
+Society, Member of the New York Academy of Sciences, Member of the
+American Association for the Advancement of Science, Member of the
+American Pharmaceutical Association, Fellow of the Geographical Society,
+Etc., Etc._
+
+
+AUTHOR OF THE "CHEMISTS' MANUAL," "ADULTERATION OF MILK," "ARTIFICIAL
+BUTTER," "TESTING THE VALUE OF RIFLES BY FIRING UNDER WATER," ETC., ETC.
+
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  GRISWOLD & COMPANY,
+  150 NASSAU STREET.
+  1880.
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT BY
+  HENRY A. MOTT, JR.,
+  1880.
+
+
+  TROW'S
+  PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING CO.,
+  _205-213 East 12th St._,
+  NEW YORK.
+
+Electrotyped by SMITH & MCDOUGAL, 82 Beekman Street, N. Y.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This work was originally written to be delivered as a lecture; but as
+its pages continued to multiply, it was suggested to the author by
+numerous friends that it ought to be published in book-form; this, at
+last, the author concluded to do. This work, therefore, does not claim
+to be an exhaustive discussion of the various departments of which it
+treats; but rather it has been the aim of the author to present the more
+interesting observations in each department in as concise a form as
+possible. The author has endeavored to give credit in every instance
+where he has taken advantage of the labors of others. This work is not
+intended for that class of people who are so absolutely certain of the
+truth of their religion and of the immortality that it teaches, that
+they have become unqualified to entertain or even perceive of any
+scientific objection; for such people may be likened unto those who,
+"_Seeing, they see, but will not perceive; and hearing, they hear, but
+will not understand._"
+
+This work is written for the man of culture who is seeking for
+truth--believing, as does the author, that all truth is God's truth, and
+therefore it becomes the duty of every scientific man to accept it;
+knowing, however, that it will surely modify the popular creeds and
+methods of interpretation, its final result can only be to the glory of
+God and to the establishment of a more exalted and purer religion. All
+facts are truths; it consequently follows that all scientific facts are
+truths--there is no half-way house--a statement is either a truth or it
+is not a truth, according to the _law of non-contradiction_. If,
+therefore, we find tabulated amongst scientific facts (or truths) a
+statement which is not a fact, it is not science; but all statements
+which are facts it naturally follows are truths, and as such must be
+accepted, no matter how repulsive they may at first seem to some of our
+poetical imaginings and pet theories. We cannot help but sympathize with
+the feelings which prompted President Barnard to write the following
+lines, still we will see he was too hasty: "Much as I love truth in the
+abstract," he says, "I love my hope of immortality more." * * * He
+maintained that it is better to close one's eyes to the evidences than
+to be convinced of the _truth_ of certain doctrines which _he regards_
+as subversive of the fundamentals of Christian faith. "If this (is all)
+is the best that science can give me, then I pray no more science. Let
+me live on in my simple ignorance, as my fathers lived before me; and
+when I shall at length be summoned to my final repose, let me still be
+able to fold the drapery of my couch about me, and lie down to pleasant,
+even though they be deceitful, dreams."[1] The limitations to the
+acceptance of truth that President Barnard makes is wrong; for, as
+Professor Winchell has said, "we think it is a higher aspiration to wish
+to know 'the truth and the whole truth.' At the same time, we have not
+the slightest apprehension that the whole truth can ever dissipate our
+faith in a future life."[2] Let us "Prove all things and hold fast unto
+that which is good," recognizing the fact that "the truth-seeker is the
+only God-seeker."
+
+  AUTHOR
+  JANUARY 25, 1880.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+                                         PAGE
+
+  PREFACE                               v, vi
+
+  CHART OF MAN'S DEVELOPMENT            10-13
+
+  PROTOPLASM                               18
+
+  CELLS                                    20
+
+  LIFE                                     22
+
+  VITAL FORCE                              24
+
+  ANALYSIS OF MAN                          26
+
+  UNITY OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC NATURE    28
+
+  SPONTANEOUS GENERATION                   30
+
+  THE COMING INTO EXISTENCE OF MAN         33
+
+  EVOLUTION                                58
+
+  THEORIES OF THE WORLD'S FORMATION        64
+
+  THE BIBLE                                70
+
+  KANT'S COSMOGONY                     76, 86
+
+  NATURE A PERPETUAL CREATION              82
+
+  LAWS OF EVOLUTION                        90
+
+  SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST                  92
+
+  RUDIMENTARY ORGANS                       94
+
+  REPRODUCTION BY MEANS OF EGGS            99
+
+  DOUBLE-SEXED INDIVIDUALS                 99
+
+  INHERITANCE                             100
+
+  ARTIFICIAL MONSTERS                     106
+
+  ACQUIRED QUALITIES                      106
+
+  GEOLOGICAL RECORD                       108
+
+  ONTOGENY                                110
+
+  THE ATTRIBUTES OF MAN                   115
+
+  MUSCULAR FORCE                          116
+
+  THOUGHT FORCE                           118
+
+  THE ATTRIBUTES OF ANIMALS               122
+
+  THE ATTRIBUTES OF A SAVAGE              126
+
+  LANGUAGE                                128
+
+  FAITH                                   130
+
+  TRUE CONSCIENCE                         132
+
+  BELIEF IN GOD                           136
+
+  PROOF OF THE EXISTENCE OF GOD           138
+
+  UNITY OF ALL NATURE                     140
+
+  SOUL                                    143
+
+  THE FINITE SENSES OF MAN                144
+
+  THE UNSEEN UNIVERSE                     148
+
+  MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD                   150
+
+  HOPE OF IMMORTALITY                 142-151
+
+
+
+
+WAS MAN CREATED?
+
+
+
+
+HAECKEL'S CHART OF MAN'S DEVELOPMENT, Arranged by HENRY A. MOTT, Jr.,
+Ph. D.
+
+  =9. Americans.= (_Indians._)
+       |
+       |         Esquimaux.
+       |             |
+       |       HYPERBOREANS.                        Magyars.
+       |                                                |
+       |       =8. Arctic Men.=                           |
+       |             |                                Fins.
+       +------+------+                                  |
+              |       Tungusians.  Calmucks. Tartars.   |    Samoides.
+              |           |            |       |        |      |
+              +-----------+-------+----+-------+        +---+--+
+                                  |                         |
+                              Altaians.                  Uralians.
+                                  |                         |
+                                  +-----------------+-------+
+          Japanese.   Chinese.         Siamese.     |
+              |           |     Tibet.    |         |
+              |           |       |       |    Ural-Altaians.
+           Coreans.       +-------+-------+         |
+              |                   |                 |
+              |             Indo-Chinese.           |
+       Coreo-Japanese.            |                 |
+              |                   |                 |
+              +----+--------------+-----------------+
+                   |                                Indo-Germanians.
+                   |             Semites.   Basques.       |    Caucasians.
+                   |                |          |           |            |
+                   |                +----------+--+--------+------------+
+                   |                              |
+                   |                     =12. Mediteranese.=
+                   |                              |
+                   |                   Singalese. |    Fulatians.
+                   |                       |      |        |
+                   |                    DECCANS.  |    DONGOLESE.
+                   |                              |
+                   |               =10. Dradidas.=  |  =11. Nubians.=
+                   |                      |       |        |
+                   |                      +----+--+--------+
+                   | Polynesians.              |
+                   |      |   Madagascars.   Euplocomi.     =4. Negroes.=
+                   |      |         |          |                  |
+                   |      +-----+---+          |    =3. Kaffirs.= |
+                   |            |              |         |        |
+                   |      Sundanesians.        |         +---+----+
+                   |            |              |             |
+             =7. Mongols=    =6. Malays=           |         ERIOCOMI.
+                   |            |              |             |
+                   +------------+--------------+             |
+                    Promalays.                =2. Hottentots=|
+                       |           =1. Papuans.=       |     |
+                       | =5. Australians.= |           |     |
+                       |     |           +---+-------+       |
+                       +--+--+               |               |
+                          |                  |               |
+                      EUTHYCOMI.        LOPHOCOMI.           |
+                          |                  |               |
+                          |                  +----+----------+
+                          |                       |
+              LISSOTRICHI (_straight-haired_)  ULOTRICHI (_woolly-haired_).
+                          |                       |
+                          +------------+----------+
+                                       |
+                                 =ALALI= (_speechless men_).
+                          =PITHECANTHROPI= (_ape-like men_).
+                                       |
+                                       V
+
+
+                                           |
+                                     PRIMEVAL MEN.
+                                           |
+                                           |      Satyrus
+      Engeco         Gorilla               |     (_Orang_).   Hylobates
+  (_Chimpanzee_).  (_Gorilla_).            |         |       (_Gibbon_).
+        |               |                  |         |            |
+        +---------------+                  +---------+------------+
+               |                                     |
+            African                               Asiatic
+      (_Man-like Apes_).                     (_Man-like Apes_).
+               |                                     |
+               +-------------------------------------+
+                                   |
+                                   |                            Nasalis
+                            ANTHROPOIDES      Semnopithecus  (_Nose Apes_).
+                         (_Man-like Apes_).   (_Tall Apes_).      |
+                                   |                |             |
+                                   |                +-------------+
+                                   |                        |
+  Arctopitheci     Labidocera      |  Cercopithecus    Cynocephalus
+  (_Silk-Apes_). (_Clutch-tails_). |   (_Sea-Cat_).     (_Pavian_).
+       |                |          |        |               |
+       +----------------+          +--------+---------------+
+               |                                |
+           Aphyocera                  Catarrhina Menocerca
+        (_Flap-tails_).           (_Tailed, Narrow-nosed Apes_).
+
+           Platyrhinæ                      Catarrhinæ
+      (_Flat-nosed Apes_).              (_Narrow-nosed_).
+               |                                |
+               +--------------------------------+
+                               |
+                             Simiæ
+                           (_Apes_).     Brachytarsi
+                               |         (_Lemurs_).
+                               |              |
+                               +--------------+
+                  Proboscidea         |                      Pinnipedia
+                 (_Elephants_).       |                  (_Marine Animals
+     Lamnungia        |               |                       of Prey_).
+  (_Rock-Conies_).    |               |    Nycterides             |
+        |             |               |     (_Bats_).         Carnivora
+        +-------------+               |        |           (_Land Animals
+               |                      |     Pterocynes        of Prey_).
+          Chelophora                  | (_Flying Foxes_).         |
+      (_Pseudo-hoofed_).              |        |              Carnaria
+               |                      |     Chiroptera       (_Animals
+           Rodentia                   | (_Flying Animals_).   of Prey_).
+     (_Gnawing Animals_).             |        |                  |
+               |                      |        +------------------+
+               |      Leptodactyla    |                  |
+               |      (_Fingered      |             Insectivora
+               |        Animals_).    |          (_Insect Eaters_).
+               |           |          |                  |
+               +-----------+          |                  |
+                     |                |                  |
+                     +----------------+------------------+
+                                                   |
+                                               PROSIMIÆ
+
+
+  Sarcoceta (_True Whales_).               PROSIMIÆ (_Brought forward_,)
+        |                                       (_Semi-Apes_).
+  Sirenia (_Sea-Cows_).
+  Cetacea (_Whales_).
+        |
+      Ungulata                 Edentata                   Deciduata
+  (_Hoofed Animals_).      (_Poor in teeth_).       (_Deciduous Animals_).
+        |                         |                             |
+        +--------+----------------+                             |
+                 |                                              |
+            Indeciduous                                         |
+           (_Indeciduata_).                                     |
+                 |                                              |
+                 +-------------------------------------+--------+
+                                                       |
+                                                  PLACENTALIA
+                                              (_Placental Animals_).
+                                                       |
+                       Marsupialia                     |        Marsupialia
+                       Botanophaga                     |          Zoophaga
+                      (_Herbivorous_                   |     (_Carnivorous_
+                       _Marsupials_).                  |     _Marsupials_).
+                            |                          |             |
+                            +--------------------------+-------------+
+                                                       |
+              Ornithostoma                       Marsupialia
+            (_Beaked Animals_).                    (_Marsupial_).
+                   |                                   |
+                   +---------------------------+-------+
+                                               |
+                                    PROMAMMALIA (_Glacal Animals_).
+
+                                                      MAMMALIA (_Mammals_).
+                                   Aves (_Birds_).                |
+                                        |                         |
+                                Reptilia (_Reptiles_).            |
+                                        |                         |
+                                        +---------------+---------+
+                                                        |
+    Teleostei                Halisauria                 |
+  (_Osseous Fish_).           (_Sea-Dragons_).  Amniota (_Amnion Animals_).
+       |          Dipneusta      |                      |
+       |         (_Mud-Fish_).   |            Amphibia (_Batrachians_).
+    Ganoidei          |          |                      |
+  (_Ganoid Fish_).      +----------+-------+--------------+
+       |                                 |
+       |                          Amphipneumones
+       |             (_Vertebrate Animals, breathing through lungs_).
+       |                                 |
+       +--+------------------------------+
+          |
+  SELACHII (_Primeval Fish_).
+          |
+       PISCES
+      (_Fishes_).
+          |
+          |
+     Amphirrhina                                             Cyclostoma
+  (_Double Nostrils_).                                   (_Round-mouthed_).
+          |                                                       |
+          +----------------------------------------------+--------+
+                                                         |
+                                                    Monorrhina
+                                               (_Single-nostriled_).
+
+                                                     Craniota
+                                              (_Animals with Skulls_).
+                                  Leptocardia            |
+                               (_Tube-hearted_).         |
+                                       |                 |
+     Thaliacea.                        +--------+--------+
+  (_Sea-Barrels_).     Ascidiæ.                 |
+         |                |                  Acrania
+         +--------+-------+           (_Skull-less Animals_).
+                  |
+              Tunicata                      Vertebrata
+        (_Tunicate Animals_).         (_Vertebrate Animals_).
+                  |                             |
+                  +-------------------+---------+
+                                      |
+                                    Vermes
+                                  (_Worms_).
+                                      |
+                      Zoophytes       |
+                  (_Animal Trees_).   |
+                          |           |
+                          +-----+-----+
+                                |
+                            Protozoa
+                      (_Primeval Animals_).
+
+                          ANIMAL MONERA.
+                                |
+                                |
+  VEGETABLE MONERA.             |            NEUTRAL MONERA.
+          |                     |                   |
+          +---------------------+-------------------+
+                                |
+                        ARCHIGONIC MONERA
+  (_Pieces of Protoplasm which have originated by Spontaneous Generation._)
+
+
+
+
+WAS MAN CREATED?
+
+WHAT SCIENCE CAN ANSWER.
+
+
+"The object of science is not to find out what we like or what we
+dislike--the object of science is Truth." In the discussion of the
+subject, "_Was Man Created?_" our object will be--not to study the many
+ways God might have created him, but the way he actually did create him,
+for all ways would be alike easy to an Omnipotent Being.
+
+Let us look at man and ask the question: What is there about him which
+would need an independent act of creation any more than about the
+"mountain of granite or the atom of sand"? The answer comes back:
+Besides life, man has many mental attributes. Let us direct our
+attention at first to the grand phenomena of life, and then to man's
+attributes.
+
+To discover the nature of life, to find out what life really is, it
+would be folly to commence by comparing man, the perfection of living
+beings, with an inorganic or inanimate substance like a brick, to
+discover the hidden secret; for, as Professor Orton says:[3] "That only
+is essential to life which is common to all forms of life. Our brains,
+stomach, livers, hands and feet are luxuries. They are necessary to make
+us human, but not living beings." Instead of man, then, it will be
+necessary for us to take the simplest being which possesses such a
+phenomena; and such are the little homogeneous specks of protoplasm,
+constituting the Group _Monera_, which are entirely destitute of
+structure, and to which the name "Cytode" has been given. In the fresh
+waters in the neighborhood of Jena minute lumps of protoplasm were
+discovered by Haeckel, which, on being examined under the most powerful
+lens of a microscope, were seen to have no constant form, their outlines
+being in a state of perpetual change, caused by the protrusion from
+various parts of their surface of broad lobes and thick finger-like
+projections, which, after remaining visible for a time, would be
+withdrawn, to make their appearance again on some other part of the
+surface. To this little mass of protoplasm Haeckel has given the name
+_Protanæba primitiva_. These little lumps multiply by spontaneous
+division into two pieces, which, on becoming dependent, increase in size
+and acquire all the characteristics of the parent. From this
+illustration, it will be seen that "reproduction is a form of nutrition
+and a growth of the individual to a size beyond that belonging to it as
+an individual, so that a part is thus elevated into a (new) whole."
+
+It is to this simple state of the monera the _fertilized_ egg of any
+animal is transformed--the germ vesicle; the original egg kernel
+disappears, and the parent kernel (cytococcus) forms itself anew; and it
+is in this condition, a non-nucleated ball of protoplasm, a true cytod,
+a homogeneous, structureless body, without different constituent parts,
+that the human child, as well as all other living beings, take their
+first steps in development. No matter how wonderful this may seem, the
+fact stares us in the face that the entire human child, as well as every
+animal with all their great future possibilities, are in their first
+stage a small ball of this complex homogeneous substance. Whether we
+consider "a mere infinitesimal ovoid particle which finds space and
+duration enough to multiply into countless millions in the body of a
+living fly, and then of the wealth of foliage, the luxuriance of flower
+and fruit which lies between this bald sketch of a plant and the
+gigantic pine of California, towering to the dimensions of a cathedral
+spire, or the Indian fig which covers acres with its profound shadow,
+and endures while nations and empires come and go around its vast
+circumference," or we look "at the other half of the world of life,
+picturing to ourselves the great finner whale, hugest of beasts that
+live or have lived, disporting his eighty or ninety feet of bone,
+muscle, and blubber, with easy roll, among the waves in which the
+stoutest ship that ever left dock-yard would founder hopelessly, and
+contrast him with the invisible animalcule, mere gelatinous specks,
+multitudes of which could in fact dance upon the point of a needle with
+the same ease as the angels of the schoolman could in imagination;--with
+these images before our minds, it would be strange if we did not ask
+what community of form or structure is there between the fungus and the
+fig-tree, the animalcule and the whale? and, _à fortiori_, between all
+four? Notwithstanding these apparent difficulties, a threefold
+unity--namely, a unity of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity
+of substantial composition--does pervade the whole living world."[4] And
+this unit is Protoplasm. So we see it is necessary for us to retreat to
+our protoplasm as a naked formless plasma, if we would find freed from
+all non-essential complications the agent to which has been assigned the
+duty of building up structure and of transforming the energy of lifeless
+matter into the living. Even Goethe (in 1807) almost stated this when he
+said: "Plants and animals, regarded in their most imperfect condition,
+are hardly distinguishable. This much, however, we may say, that from a
+condition in which plant is hardly to be distinguished from animal,
+creatures have appeared, gradually perfecting themselves in two
+opposite directions--the plant is finally glorified into the tree,
+enduring and motionless; the animal into the human being of the highest
+mobility and freedom."
+
+Let us examine for a moment this substance Protoplasm, and see in what
+way it differs from inorganic matter, or in what way the animate differs
+from the inanimate--the living from the dead.
+
+Felix Dujardin, a French zoologist (1835) pointed out that the only
+living substance in the body of rhizopods and other inferior primitive
+animals, is identical with protoplasm. He called it _sarcode_. Hugo von
+Mohl (1846) first applied the name protoplasm to the peculiar serus and
+mobile substance in the interior of vegetable cells; and he perceived
+its high importance, but was very far from understanding its
+significance in relation to all organisms. Not, however, until Ferdinand
+Cohn (1850) and more fully Franz Unger (1855) had established the
+identity of the animate and contractile protoplasm in vegetable cells
+and the sarcode of the lower animals, could Max Shultz in 1856-61
+elaborate the protoplasm theory of the sarcode so as to proclaim
+protoplasm to be the most essential and important constituent of all
+organic cells, and to show that the bag or husk of the cell, the
+cellular membrane and intercellular substance, are but secondary parts
+of the cell, and are frequently wanting. In a similar manner Lionel
+Beale (1862) gave to protoplasm, including the cellular germ, the name
+of "germinal matter," and to all the other substance entering into the
+composition of tissue, being secondary, and produced the name of "formed
+matter."
+
+"Wherever there is life there is protoplasm; wherever there is
+protoplasm, there, too, is life." The physical consistence of protoplasm
+varies with the amount of water with which it is combined, from the
+solid form in which we find it in the dormant state to the thin watery
+state in which it occurs in the leaves of valisneria.
+
+As to its composition, chemistry can as yet give but scanty information;
+it can tell that it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
+sulphur, and phosphorus, and it can also tell the percentage of each
+element, but it cannot give more than a formula that will express it as
+a whole, giving no information as to the nature of the numerous
+albuminoid substances which compose it. Edward Cope, in his article on
+Comparative Anatomy,[5] gives the formula for protoplasm (as a whole),
+C{24}H{17}N{3}O{8} + S and P, in small quantities under some circumstances.
+It is therefore, he says, a nitryl of cellulose: C{24}H{20}O{2} + 3NH{3}.
+According to Mulder the composition of albumen, one of the class of
+protein substances to which protoplasm belongs, is 10(C{40}H{31}N{5}O{12})
++ S{2}P. Protoplasm is identical in both the animal and vegetable kingdom;
+it behaves the same from whatever source it may be derived towards
+several re-agents, as also electricity. Is it possible, then, that the
+protoplasm which produces the mould is exactly the same composition as
+that which produces the human child? The answer is YES, so far as the
+elements are concerned, but the proportions of carbon, hydrogen, etc.,
+must enter into an infinite number of diverse stratifications and
+combination in the production of the various forms of life. Professor
+Frankland, speaking of protein, for instance, says it is capable of
+existing under probably at least a thousand isomeric forms. Protoplasm
+may be distinguished under the microscope from other members of the
+class to which it belongs, on account of the faculty it possesses of
+combining with certain coloring matters, as carmine and aniline; it is
+colored dark-red or yellowish-brown by iodine and nitric acid, and it is
+coagulated by alcohol and mineral acids as well as by heat. It possesses
+the quality of absorbing water in various quantities, which renders it
+sometimes extremely soft and nearly liquid, and sometimes hard and firm
+like leather. Its prominent physical properties are excitability and
+contractility, which Kühne and others have especially investigated. The
+motion of protoplasm in plants was first made known by Bonaventure Corti
+a century ago in the Charoe plants; but this important fact was
+forgotten, and it had to be discovered by Treviranus in 1807. The
+regular motion of the protoplasm, forming a perfect current, may be seen
+in the hairs of the nettle, and weighty evidence exists that similar
+currents occur in all young vegetable cells. "If such be the case," says
+Huxley, "the wonderful noonday silence of a tropical forest is, after
+all, due only to the dullness of our hearing, and could our ears catch
+the murmur of these tiny maelstroms, as they whirl in innumerable
+myriads of living cells, which constitute each tree, we should be
+stunned as with a roar of a great city."
+
+One step higher in the scale of life than the monera is the vegetable or
+animal cell, which arose out of the monera by the important process of
+segregation in their homogeneous viscid bodies, the differentiation of
+an inner kernel from the surrounding plasma. By this means the great
+progress from a simple cytod (without kernel) into a real cell (with
+kernel) was accomplished. Some of these cells at an early stage encased
+themselves by secreting a hardened membrane; they formed the first
+vegetable cells, while others remaining naked developed into the first
+aggregate of animal cells. The vegetable cell has usually two concentric
+coverings--cell-wall and primordial utricle. In animal cells the former
+is wanting, the membrane representing the utricle. As a general fact,
+also, animal cells are smaller than vegetable cells. Their size[6]
+varies greatly, but are generally invisible to the naked eye, ranging
+from 1/500 to 1/10000 of an inch in diameter. About four thousand of the
+smallest would be required to cover the dot put over the letter i in
+writing. The shape of cells varies greatly; the normal form, though, is
+spheroidal as in the cells of fat, but they often become[7]
+many-sided--sometimes flattened as in the cuticle, and sometimes
+elongated into a simple filament as in fibrous tissue or muscular fibre.
+
+The cell, therefore, is extremely interesting, since all animal and
+vegetable structure is but the multiplication of the cell as a unit, and
+the whole life of the plant or animal is that of the cells which compose
+them, and in them or by them all its vital processes are carried on. It
+may sound paradoxical to speak of an animal or plant being composed of
+millions of cells; but beyond the momentary shock of the paradox no harm
+is done.
+
+The cell, then, can be regarded as the basis of our physiological idea
+of the elementary organism; but in the animal as well as in the plant,
+neither cell-wall nor nucleus is an essential constituent of the cell,
+inasmuch as bodies which are unquestionably the equivalents of
+cells--true morphological units--may be mere masses of protoplasm,
+devoid alike of cell-wall or nucleus. For the whole living world, then,
+the primary and a mental form of life is merely an individual mass of
+protoplasm in which no further structure is discernible. Well, then, has
+protoplasm been called the "universal concomitant of every phenomena of
+life." Life is inseparable from this substance, but is dormant unless
+excited by some external stimulant, such as heat, light, electricity,
+food, water, and oxygen.
+
+Although we have seen that the life of the plant as well as of the
+animal is protoplasm, and that the protoplasm of the plant and that of
+the animal bear the closest resemblance, yet plants can manufacture
+protoplasm out of mineral compounds, whereas animals are obliged to
+procure it ready made, and hence in the end depend on plants. "Without
+plants," says Professor Orton, "animals would perish; without animals,
+plants had no need to be." The food of a plant is a matter whose energy
+is all expended--is a fallen weight. But the plant organism receives it,
+exposes it to the sun's rays, and in a way mysterious to us converts the
+actual energy of the sunlight into potential energy within it. It is for
+this reason that life has been termed "bottled-sunshine."
+
+The principal food of the plant consists of carbon united with oxygen to
+form carbonic acid, hydrogen united with oxygen to form water, and
+nitrogen united with hydrogen to form ammonia. These elements thus
+united, which in themselves are perfectly lifeless, the plant is able to
+convert into living protoplasm. "Plants are," says Huxley, "the
+accumulators of the power which animals distribute and disperse."
+Boussengault found long since that peas sown in pure sand, moistened
+with distilled water and fed by the air, obtained all the carbon
+necessary for their development, flowering, and fructification. Here we
+see a plant which not only maintains its vigor on these few substances,
+but grows until it has increased a millionfold or a million-millionfold
+the quantity of protoplasm it originally possessed, and this protoplasm
+exhibits the phenomena of life. This and other proof led M. Dumas to
+say: "From the loftiest point of view, and in connection with the
+physics of the globe, it would be imperative on us to say that in so far
+as their truly organic elements are concerned, plants and animals are
+the offspring of the air."
+
+Schleiden,[8] speaking of the haymakers of Switzerland and the Tyrol,
+says: "He mows his definite amount of grass every year on the Alps,
+inaccessible to cattle, and gives not back the smallest quantity of
+organic substance to the soil. Whence comes the hay, if not from the
+atmosphere."
+
+It has been seen, then, that plants can manufacture protoplasm, a
+faculty which animals are not possessed of; they at best can only
+convert dead protoplasm into living protoplasm. Thus when vegetable or
+meat is cooked their protoplasm dies, but is not rendered incompetent of
+resuming its old functions as a matter of life. "If I," says Huxley,
+"should eat a piece of cooked mutton, which was once the living
+protoplasm of a sheep, the protoplasm, rendered dead by cooking, will be
+changed into living protoplasm, and thus I would transubstantiate sheep
+into man; and were I to return to my own place by sea and undergo
+shipwreck, the crustacean might and probably would return the
+compliment, and demonstrate our common nature by turning my protoplasm
+into living lobster." As has been said before, where there are life
+manifestations there is protoplasm. Life is regarded by one class of
+thinkers as the principle or cause of organization; and according to the
+other, life is the product or effect of organization. We must, however,
+agree with Professor Orton, who says: "Life is the effect of
+organization, not the result of it. Animals do not live because they are
+organized, but are organized because they are alive." In whatever way it
+is looked at, life is but a forced condition. "The more advanced
+thinkers, then, in science to-day," says Barker, "therefore look upon
+the life of the living form as inseparable from its substance, and
+believe that the former is purely phenomenal and only a manifestation of
+the latter. During the existence of a special force as such, they retain
+the term only to express the sum of the phenomena of living beings. The
+word life must be regarded, then, as only a generalized expression
+signifying the sum-total of the properties of matter possessing such
+organization."
+
+In what manner, then, does this matter, possessing the phenomena of
+life, differ from inorganic matter, or in what manner does living matter
+differ from matter not living? The forces which are at work on the one
+side are at work on the other. The phenomena of life are all dependent
+upon the working of the same physical and chemical forces as those
+which are active in the rest of the world. It may be convenient to use
+the terms "vitality" and "vital force" to denote the cause of certain
+groups of natural operations, as we employ the names of "electricity"
+and "electrical force" to denote others; but it ceases to do so, if such
+a name implies the absurd assumption that either "electricity" or
+"vitality" is an entity, playing the part of a sufficient cause of
+electrical or vital phenomena. A mass of living protoplasm is simply a
+machine of great complexity, the total result of the work of which, or
+its vital phenomena, depend on the one hand upon its construction, and
+on the other upon the energy supplied to it; and to speak of "vitality"
+as anything but the names of a series of operations is as if one should
+talk of the "horologity" of a clock.[9]
+
+When hydrogen and oxygen are united by an electrical spark water is
+produced; certainly there is no parity between the liquid produced and
+the two gases. At 32° F., oxygen and hydrogen are elastic gaseous
+bodies, whose particles tend to fly away from one another; water at the
+same temperature is a strong though brittle solid. Such changes are
+called the properties of water. It is not assumed that a certain
+something called "acquosity" has entered into and taken possession of
+the oxide of hydrogen as soon as formed, and then guarded the particles
+in the facets of the crystal or amongst the leaflets of the hoar-frost.
+On the contrary, it is hoped molecular physics will in time explain the
+phenomena. "What better philosophical status," says Huxley,[10] "has
+vitality than acquosity. If the properties of water may be properly said
+to result from the nature and disposition of its molecules, I can find
+no intelligible ground for refusing to say that the properties of
+protoplasm result from the nature and disposition of its molecules."
+
+"To distinguish the living from the dead body," Herbert Spencer says,
+"the tree that puts out leaves when the spring brings change of
+temperature, the flower which opens and closes with the rising and
+setting of the sun, the plant that droops when the soil is dry and
+re-erects itself when watered, are considered alive because of these
+produced changes; in common with the zoophyte, which contracts on the
+passing of a cloud over the sun, the worm that comes to the ground when
+continually shaken, and the hedgehog which rolls itself up when
+attacked."
+
+"Seeds of wheat produced antecedent to the Pharaohs," says Bastain,[11]
+"remaining in Egyptian catacombs through century after century display
+of course no vital manifestations, but nevertheless retain the
+potentiality of growing into perfect plants whenever they may be brought
+into contact with suitable external conditions. We must presume that
+either (1) during this long lapse of centuries the 'vital principle' of
+the plant has been imprisoned in the most dreary and impenetrable of
+dungeons, whither no sister effluence from the general 'soul of nature'
+could affect it; or else (2) that the germ of the future living plant is
+there only in the form of an inherited structure, whose molecular
+complexities are of such a kind that, after moisture has restored
+mobility to its atoms, its potential life may pass into actual life.
+Some of the lowest forms of animals and plants have such a tenacity to
+life that their vital manifestation may be kept in abeyance for five,
+ten, fifteen, or even twenty years. Though not living any more than the
+wheat, they also retain the potentiality of manifestation of life; and
+for each alike, in order that this potentiality may pass into actuality,
+the first requisition is water with which to restore them to that
+possibility of molecular rearrangement under the influence of incident
+forces, of which the absence of water had deprived them, and without
+which, life in any real sense is impossible."
+
+
+  ANALYSIS OF A MAN.
+
+  (BY PROF. MILLER.)
+
+  A man 5 feet 8 inches high, weighing 154 pounds.
+
+                     lbs.         oz.          grs.
+  Oxygen             111           0            0
+  Hydrogen            14           0            0
+  Carbon              21           0            0
+  Nitrogen             3          10            0
+
+  Inorganic elements in the ash:
+
+  Phosphorus           1           2           88
+  Calcium              2           0            0
+  Sulphur              0           0          219
+  Chlorine             0           2           47
+
+  1 ounce = 437 grains.
+
+  Sodium               0           2          116
+  Iron                 0           0          100
+  Potassium            0           0          290
+  Magnesium            0           0           12
+  Silica               0           0            2
+
+  Total              154           0            0
+
+
+  The quantity of the substances found in a human body
+  weighing 154 pounds:
+
+                     lbs.         oz.        grs.
+  Water              111           0            0
+  Gelatin             15           0            0
+  Albumen              4           3            0
+  Fibrine              4           4            0
+  Fat                 12           0            0
+  Ashes                7           9            0
+
+  Total              154           0            0
+
+  (From the "CHEMISTS' MANUAL.")
+
+
+Professor Owen[12] says: "There are organisms (vibrieo, rotifer,
+macrobiotus, etc.) which we can devitalize and revitalize--devive and
+revive--many times. As the dried animalcule manifest no phenomena
+suggesting any idea contributing to form the complex one of 'life' in my
+mind, I regard it to be as completely lifeless as is the drowned man,
+whose breath and heat have gone, and whose blood has ceased to
+circulate. * * * The change of work consequent on drying or drowning
+forthwith begins to alter relations or compositions, and in time to a
+degree adverse to resumption of the vital form of force, a longer period
+being needed for this effect in the rotifer, a shorter one in the man,
+still shorter it may be in the amoeba."
+
+"There is," says Dumas,[13] "an eternal round in which death is
+quickened and life appears, but in which matter merely changes its place
+and form."
+
+Let us now compare the inorganic world with the organic--the inanimate
+with the animate--and see if there does exist an inseparable boundary
+between them. The fundamental properties of every natural body are
+matter, form, and force. One important point to be noticed is, that the
+elements which compose all animate bodies are the very elements that
+help to build up the inanimate bodies. No new elements appear in the
+vegetable or animal world which are not to be found in the inorganic
+world. The difference between animate and inanimate bodies, therefore,
+is certainly not in the elements which form them, but in the molecular
+combination of them; and it is to be hoped that molecular physics will,
+at some not far distant time, enlighten us as to the peculiar state of
+aggregation in which the molecules exist in living matter. As to the
+form, it is impossible to find any essential difference in the external
+form and inner structure between inorganic and organic bodies--for the
+simple monad, which is as much a living organism as the most complex
+being, is nothing but a homogeneous, structureless mass of protoplasm.
+But just as the inorganic substance, according to well-defined laws,
+elaborates its structure into a crystal of great beauty, so does the
+protoplasm elaborate itself into the most beautiful of all
+structures--the cell unit. Just as gold and copper crystallizes in a
+geometrical form, a cube--bismuth and antimony in a hexagonal, iodine
+and sulphur in a rhombic form--so we find among radiolaria, and among
+other protista and lower forms, that they "may be traced to a
+mathematical, fundamental form, and whose form in its whole, as well as
+in its parts, is bounded by definite geometrically determinable planes
+and angles." Now, as to the forces of the two different groups of
+bodies. Surely the constructive force of a crystal is due to the
+chemical composition, and to its material constitution. As the shape of
+the crystal and its size are influenced by surrounding circumstances,
+there is, therefore, an external constructive force at work. The only
+difference between the growth of an organism and that of a crystal is,
+that in the former case, in consequence of its semi-fluid state of
+aggregation, the newly added particles penetrate into the interior of
+the organism (inter-susception), whereas inorganic substances receive
+homogeneous matter from without, only by opposition or an addition of
+new particles to the surface. "If we, then, designate the growth and the
+formation of organisms as a process of life, we may with equal reason
+apply the same term with the developing crystal." It is for these and
+other reasons, demonstrating as they do the "unity of organic and
+inorganic nature," the essential agreement of inorganic and organic
+bodies in matter, form, and force, which led Tyndall[14] to say:
+"Abandoning all disguise, the confession that I feel bound to make
+before you is, that I prolong the vision backward across the boundary of
+experimental evidence, and discern in that matter which we in our
+ignorance, and notwithstanding our professed reverence for its Creator,
+have hitherto covered with opprobrium, the promise and potency of every
+form and quality of life."
+
+Returning now to our protoplasm, let us ask the question: Where did it
+come from? or, How did it come into existence? Though chemical synthesis
+has built up a number of organic substances which have been deemed the
+product of vitality, yet, up to the present day, the fact stands out
+before us that no one has ever built up one particle of living matter,
+however minute, from lifeless elements.
+
+The protoplasm of to-day is simply a continuation of the protoplasm of
+other ages, handed down to us through periods of undefinable and
+indeterminable time.
+
+The question of where protoplasm came from--how it arose--chemistry is
+unable to answer; but the question is answered, probably, by spontaneous
+generation. Only the merest particle of living protoplasm was necessary
+to be formed from lifeless matter in the beginning; for, in the eyes of
+any consistent evolutionist, any further independent formation would be
+sheer waste, as the hypothesis of evolution postulates the unlimited,
+though perhaps not, indefinite modifiability of such matter. As we have
+seen that there exists no absolute barrier between organic and inorganic
+bodies, it is not so difficult to conceive that the first particle of
+protoplasm may have originated, under suitable conditions, out of
+inorganic or lifeless matter. But the causes which have led to the
+origination of this particle, it may be said, we know absolutely
+nothing--as in the formation of the crystal and the cell--the ultimate
+causes remain in both cases concealed from us.
+
+At the time in the earth's history when water, in a liquid state, made
+its appearance on the cooled crust of the earth, the carbon probably
+existed as carbonic acid dispersed in the atmosphere; and from the very
+best of grounds, it is reasonable to assume that the density and
+electric condition of the atmosphere were quite different, as also the
+chemical and physical nature of the primeval ocean was quite different.
+In any case, therefore, even[15] if we do not know anything more about
+it, there remains the supposition, which can at least not be disputed,
+that at that time, under conditions quite different from those of
+to-day, a spontaneous generation, which is now perhaps no longer
+possible, may have taken place. This point is now conceded by most all
+of the advanced scientists of the day, and is absolutely necessary for
+the completion of the hypothesis of evolution.
+
+The answer may come to this--Well, suppose the first protoplasm did
+originate by spontaneous generation, where did the elements or force
+come from which compose it?
+
+Science has nothing to do with the coming into existence of matter or
+force, for she proves both to be indestructible; when they disappear,
+they do so only to reappear in some other form. The coming into
+existence of matter and force, as also the ultimate cause of all
+phenomena, is beyond the domain of scientific inquiry. Science has only
+to do with the coming in of the form of matter, not the coming in of its
+existence.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--A Moneron (Protamoeba) in act of reproduction;
+_A_, the whole Moneron, which moves like ordinary Amoeba, by means of
+variable processes: _B_, a contraction around its circumference parts it
+into two halves; _C_, the two halves separate, and each now forms
+independent individuals. (Much enlarged.)--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--_A_, is a crawling Amoeba (much
+enlarged).--_Haeckel._ The whole organism has the form-value of a naked
+cell and moves about by means of changeable processes, which are
+extended from the protoplasmic body and again drawn in. In the inside is
+the bright-colored, roundish cell-kernel or nucleus. _B_, Egg-cell of a
+Chalk Sponge (Olynthus).--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the next higher stage,
+Mulberry-germ or Morula (Synamoeba).--_Haeckel._]
+
+
+
+
+THE COMING INTO EXISTENCE OF MAN,
+
+BY THE SLOW PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
+
+
+It is necessary now to take up the little mass of living matter,
+admitting its coming into existence by spontaneous generation as
+probable, and so probable that it almost amounts to a certainty, and
+follow it through the many changes it is about to make under the
+influence of the laws which govern evolution until it has culminated in
+man, and these laws still acting on the brain of man, perfecting it, and
+leading him on to the comprehension of a grander and nobler conception
+of the Almighty and of his works.
+
+The start, then, must be made with a homogeneous mass of protoplasm,
+such as the existing _Protamoeba primitiva_ of the present day, which
+is a structureless organism without organs, and which came into
+existence during the Laurentian period. It is to this simplified
+condition, as I have previously stated, all fertilized eggs return
+before they commence to develop.
+
+The first process of adaptation effected by the monera must have been
+the condensation of an external crust, which, as a protecting covering,
+shut in the softer interior from the hostile influences of the outer
+world. As soon as, by condensation of the homogeneous moneron, a
+cell-kernel arose in the interior, and a membrane arose on the surface,
+all the fundamental parts of the unit were then furnished. Such a unit
+was an organism, similar to the white corpuscle of the blood, and
+called _amoebæ_. Here we have two different stages of evolution; the
+protoplasma (better plasson) of the cytod undergoes differentiation, and
+is split up into two kinds of albuminous substances--the inner
+cell-kernel (nucleus) and the outer cell-substance (protoplasma). Edward
+von Benden, in his work upon _Gregarinæ_, first clearly pointed out this
+fact, that we must distinguish thoroughly between the plasson of cytods
+and the protoplasm of cells.
+
+An irrefutable proof that such single-celled primæval animals like the
+amoeba really existed as the direct ancestors of man, is furnished,
+according to the fundamental law of biogeny, by the fact that the human
+egg is nothing more than a simple cell.
+
+The next step taken in advance is the division of the cell in
+two;--there arise from the single germinal spot two new kernel specks,
+and then, in like manner, out of the germinal vesicle two new
+cell-kernels. The same process of cell-division now repeats itself
+several times in succession, and the products of the division form a
+perfect union. This organism may be called a community of _amoebæ_
+(synamoebæ).
+
+From the community of amoeba morula, now arose ciliated larvæ. The
+cells lying on the surface extended hair-like processes or fringes of
+hair, which, by striking against the water, kept the whole body
+rotating--the lanceolate animals or amphioxus were thus first produced.
+Here we find from the synamoebæ which crept about slowly at the bottom
+of the Laurentian primeval ocean by means of movements like those of an
+amoeba, that the newly-formed planæa by the vibrating movements of the
+cilia, the entire multicellular body acquired a more rapid and stronger
+motion, and passed over from the creeping to the swimming mode of
+locomotion. The planæa consisted, then, of two kinds of cells--inner
+ones like the amoebæ, and external "ciliated cells." The ancestors of
+man, which possessed the form value of the ciliated larva, is, of
+course, extinct at the present day.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--The Norwegian Flimmer-ball (Magosphoera
+Planula), swimming by means of its vibratile fringes; seen from the
+surface.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--The same in section. The pear-shaped cells are
+seen bound together in the centre of the gelatinous sphere by a
+thread-like process. Each cell contains both a kernel and a contractile
+vesicle. (PLANÆA SERIES.)--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. III AND IV.--Represents GASTRÆA SERIES. The body
+consists merely of a simple primitive intestine, the wall of which is
+formed of two primary germ-layers.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. I and II.--Represents the next higher stage
+(Tubularia). Fig. I, a simple Gliding Worm (Rhabdocoelum); _m_, mouth;
+_sd_, throat-epithelium; _sm_, throat-muscles; _d_, stomach-intestine;
+_nc_, kidney-ducts; _nm_, opening of the kidneys; _au_, eye; _na_,
+nose-pit. Fig. II, the same Gliding Worm, showing the remaining organs;
+_g_, brain; _au_, eye; _na_, nose-pit; _n_, nerves; _h_, testes;
+[male symbol], male opening; [female symbol], female opening; _e_,
+ovary; _f_, ciliated outer-skin.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents Soft Worms (Scolecida) and is a
+young Acorn Worm (Balanoglossus), after _Agassiz_. _r_, acorn-like
+proboscis; _h_, collar; _k_, gill-openings and gill-arches of the
+anterior intestine, in a long row, one behind the other, on each side;
+_d_, digestive posterior intestine, filling the greater part of the body
+cavity; _v_, intestinal vessel, lying between two parallel folds of the
+skin; _a_, anus.]
+
+
+Out of the planula, then, develops an exceedingly important animal
+form--the gastrula (that is, larva with a stomach or intestine), which
+resembles the planula, but differs essentially in the fact that it
+encloses a cavity which opens to the outside by a mouth. The wall of the
+progaster (primary stomach) consists of two layers of cells: an outer
+layer of smaller ciliated cells (outer skin or ectoderm), and of an
+inner layer of large non-ciliated cells (inner skin or entoderm). This
+exceedingly important larval form, the "gastrula," makes its appearance
+in the ontogenesis of all tribes of animals. These gastræada must have
+existed during the older primordial period, and they must have also
+included the ancestors of man. A certain proof of this is furnished by
+the amphioxus, which, in spite of its blood relationship to man, still
+passes through the stage of the gastrula with a simple intestine and a
+double intestinal wall.[16] By motion of the cilia or fringes of the
+skin-layer, the gastræa swam freely about in the Laurentian ocean.
+
+The development of the gastræa now deviated in two directions--one
+branch of gastræads gave up free locomotion, adhered to the bottom of
+the sea, and thus, by adopting an adhesive mode of life, gave rise to
+the proascus, the common primary form of the animal plants (zoophyta).
+The other branch was originated by the formation of a middle germ-layer
+or muscular layer, and also by the further differentiation of the
+internal parts into various organs; more especially, the first formation
+of a nervous system, the simplest organs of sense, the simplest organs
+for secretion (kidneys), and generation (sexual organs)--this branch is
+the prothelmis, the common primary worms (vermes). Like the turbellaria
+of the present day, the whole surface of their body was covered with
+cilia, and they possessed a simple body of an oval shape, entirely
+without appendages. These acoelomatous worms did not as yet possess a
+true body cavity (coelom) nor blood. No member of the next higher
+animals are in existence, neither are there any fossil remains, owing to
+the soft nature of their body. They are therefore called soft worms, or
+scoleceda. They developed out of the turbellaria of the sixth stage by
+forming a true body cavity (a coelom) and blood in their interior. The
+nearest still living coelomati is probably the acorn worms
+(balanoglossus). The form value of this stage must, moreover, have been
+represented by several different intermediate stages.
+
+Out of the four different groups of the worm tribe, the four higher
+tribes of the animal kingdom were developed--the star-fishes
+(echinoderma) and insects (arthropoda) on the one hand, and the molluscs
+(mollusca) and vertebrated animals (vertebrata) on the other. Out of
+certain coelomati, the most ancient skull-less vertebrata were
+directly developed. Among the coelomati of the present day, the
+ascidians are the nearest relatives of this exceedingly remarkable worm,
+which connect the widely differing classes of invertebrate and
+vertebrate animals. To these animals have been given the name of
+sack-worms (himatega). They originated out of the worms of the seventh
+stage by the formation of a dorsal nerve marrow (medulla tube), and by
+the formation of the spinal rod (chorda dorsalis) which lies below it.
+It is just the position of this central spinal rod or axial skeleton,
+between the dorsal marrow on the dorsal side and the intestinal canal on
+the ventral side, which is most characteristic of all vertebrate
+animals, including man, but also of the larvæ of the ascidia.
+
+We now come to the second half of the series of human ancestors. The
+skull-less animal lancelet, which is still living, affords a faint idea
+of the members of this group (acrania). Since this little animal, in its
+earliest embryonic state, entirely agrees with the ascidia, and in its
+further development shows itself to be a true vertebrate animal, it forms
+a direct transition from the vertebrata to the invertebrata.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Appendicularia, seen from the left side, _m_,
+mouth; _k_, gill intestine; _o_, oesophagus; _v_, stomach; _a_, anus;
+_n_, nerve ganglia (upper throat-knots); _g_, ear vesicle; _f_, ciliated
+groove under the gill; _h_, heart; _e_, ovary; _c_, notochord; _s_,
+tail.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents Sack Worms (Himatega), and is the
+structure of an Ascidian, seen from the left. _sb_, gill-sac; _v_,
+stomach; _i_, large intestine; _c_, heart; _t_, testes; _vd_, seed duct;
+_o_, ovary; _o'_, matured eggs in the body cavity. After
+_Milne-Edwards_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the ACRANIA SERIES. Lancelet
+(Amhioxus Lanceolatus), twice the actual size, seen from the left. _a_,
+mouth-opening, surrounded by cilia; _b_, anal-opening; _c_,
+ventral-opening (Porus abdominalis); _d_, gill-body; _e_, stomach; _f_,
+liver-coecum; _g_, large intestine; _h_, coelum; _i_, notochord
+(under it the aorta); _k_, arches of the aorta; _l_, main gill-artery;
+_m_, swellings on its branches; _n_, hollow vein; _o_, intestinal
+vein.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents the MONORHINA SERIES. Lamprey
+(Petromyzon Americanus) from the Atlantic--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents the Selachii. Shark (Carcharias
+vulgaris) from the Atlantic--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the Mud-fish (Dipneusta).
+Lepidosiren annecteus, one-fourth natural size; African
+rivers.--_Orton._ Form a link between typical fishes and the
+Amphibians.]
+
+
+At this stage, most probably, the separation of the two sexes began. The
+simpler and most ancient form of sexual propagation is through
+double-sexed individuals (hermaphroditismus). It occurs in the great
+majority of plants, but only in a minority of animals; for example, in
+the garden-snails, leeches, earth-worms and many other worms. Every
+single individual among hermaphrodites produces within itself materials
+of both sexes--egg and sperm. In most of the higher plants every blossom
+contains both the male organs (stamen and anther) and the female organs
+(style and germ). Every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual
+gland eggs, and in another sperm. Many hermaphrodites can fructify
+themselves; in others, however, copulation and reciprocal fructification
+of both hermaphrodites are necessary for causing the development of the
+eggs. This latter case is evidently a transition to sexual separation
+(gonoehorismus).
+
+Out of the members of the last group arose animals with skulls or
+craniata, having round mouths, and which are divided into hags and
+lampreys. The hags (myxinoides) have long cylindrical worm-like bodies.
+The lampreys (petromyxontes) includes those well known "nine eyes"
+common at the seaside.
+
+These single-nostril animals (monorrhina) arose during the primordial
+period out of the skull-less animals by the anterior end of the dorsal
+marrow developing into the brain, and the anterior end of the dorsal
+skull into the skull. By the division of the single nostril of the
+members of the last group into two lateral halves, by the formation of a
+sympathetic nervous system, a jaw skeleton, a swimming bladder and two
+pairs of legs (breast fins or fore-legs, and ventral fins or
+hind-legs), arose the primæval fish (selachii), which is best
+represented by the still-living shark (squalacei).
+
+Out of the primæval fish arose the mud-fish (dipneusta), which is very
+imperfectly represented by the still-living salamander fish; the
+primæval fish adapting itself to land, and by the transforming of the
+swimming bladder into an air-breathing lung, and of the nasal cavity
+(which was now open into the mouth cavity) into air-passages. Their
+organization _might_, in some respect, be like the ceratodus and
+proloptems; but this is not certain.
+
+The dipneusta is an intermediate stage between the selachii and
+amphibia. Out of the dipneusta arose the class of amphibia, having five
+toes (the pentadactyla). The gill amphibians are man's most ancient
+ancestors of the class amphibia. Besides possessing lungs as well as the
+mud-fish, they retain throughout life regular gills like the
+still-living proteus and axolotl. Most gilled batrachia live in North
+America. The paddle-fins of the dipneusta changed into five-toed legs,
+which were afterwards transmitted to the higher vertebrata up to man.
+
+The gilled amphibia (sozobrachia) of the last group finally lost their
+gills but retained their tail, and tailed amphibians (sozura) were
+produced, such as the salamander and newt of the present day. Out of the
+sozura originated the primæval amniota (protamnia) by the complete loss
+of the gills by the formation of the amnion of the cochlea, and of the
+round window in the auditory organ, and of the organ of tears. Out of
+the protamnia originated the primary mammals (promammalia). The most
+closely related were the ornithostoma; they differed through having
+teeth in their jaws.
+
+No fossil remains of the primary mammals have as yet been found,
+although they lived during the trias period--they possessed a very
+highly developed jaw. From the primary mammal arose the pouched animals
+(marsupialia). Numerous representatives of this group still exist:
+kangaroos, pouched rats and pouched dogs. The marsupial animals
+developed, very probably, in the mesolithic epoch (during the Jura) out
+of the cloacal animals; by the division of the cloaca into the rectum
+and the urogenital sinus, by the formation of a nipple on the mammary
+gland, and the partial suppression of the clavicles.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. I and II.--The Ceratodus Forsteri occur in the
+swamps of Southern Australia. Form transition between fishes and
+Amphibia.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents the Gilled Amphibians (Soyobranchia).
+The Axolotl (Siredon pisciforme), after Tegetmeier. The ordinary form
+with persistent branchiæ.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Proteus Anguinus. Europe.--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the Tailed Amphibians (Soyura).
+Great Water-Newt (Triton cristatus), after _Bell._]
+
+
+From the marsupialia originated a most interesting small group of
+semi-apes (prosimiæ), for they are the primary forms of genuine apes and
+consequently of man. They developed out of handed or ape-footed
+marsupials (pedumana), of rat-like appearance, by the formation of a
+placenta, the loss of the marsupium and the marsupial bones, and by the
+higher development of the commissures of the brain. The still-living
+short-footed semi-ape (brachytarsi), especially the muki, indie and
+lori, possess possibly a faint resemblance.
+
+Out of the semi-apes developed two classes of genuine apes; but as the
+narrow-nosed or catarrhini class are the only ones related to man, the
+others will not be considered. These narrow-nosed apes originated by the
+transformation of the jaw, and by the claws on the toes changing into
+nails. The still-living long-tail nose-apes and holy apes
+(semnopithecus) probably resembled the oldest ancestors of this group.
+
+The tailed apes by the loss of their tail and some of their hair
+covering, and by the excessive development of that portion of their
+brain above the facial portion of the skull, developed into the man-like
+apes (anthropoides)--such as the gorilla and chimpanzee of Africa, and
+the orang and gibbon of Asia. The human ancestors of this group existed
+during the miocene period. From the anthropoides developed the ape-like
+men (pithecanthropi) during the tertiary period. The speechless
+primæval men (alali), then, is the connecting link between the man-like
+apes and man. The fore-hand of the anthropoides became the human hand,
+their hinder-hand a foot for walking. They did not possess the
+articulate human language of words and the higher developments, as
+consciousness and the formation of ideas must have been very imperfect.
+
+Out of the pithecanthropi men developed genuine man, by the development
+of the animal language of sounds into a connected or articulate language
+of words--the brain also developed higher and higher. This transition
+took place, probably, at the beginning of the quaternary period, or
+possibly in the tertiary.
+
+We have now very briefly reviewed the principal outlines of the
+ancestors of man, showing that man has developed from the little mass of
+protoplasm, as have all animals and plants. He therefore was not
+_spontaneously_ created, but was developed. The question is often asked
+by simple-minded people, with much delight, Why do we not behold the
+interesting spectacle of the transformation of a chimpanzee into a man,
+or conversely of a man by retrogression into an orang?--it only shows
+that they are not acquainted with the first principles of the Doctrine
+of Descent. "Not one of the apes," says Schmidt, "can revert to the
+state of his primordial ancestors, except by retrogression--by which a
+primordial condition is by no means attained--he cannot divest himself
+of his acquired characters fixed by heredity, nor can he exceed himself
+and become man; for man does not stand in the direct line of development
+from the ape. The development of the anthropoid apes has taken a lateral
+course from the nearest human progenitors, and man can as little be
+transformed into a gorilla as a squirrel can be changed into a rat."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Salamandra Maculata.--_Haeckel_. The Water Newts
+and Salamanders were the next higher stage after the Proteus and the
+Axolotl.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Primæval Amniota (Protamnia). Lizard
+(Lacerta), after _Orton_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents Primary Mammals (Promammalia).
+AMNIOTA SERIES. Duck-billed Platypus (Ornithorhynchus
+paradoxus).--_Haeckel_.]
+
+
+"Feeling evidently,"[17] says Haeckel, "rather than understanding,
+induces most people to combat the theory of their 'descent from apes.'
+It is simply because the organism of the ape appears a caricature of
+man, a distorted likeness of ourselves in a not very attractive form;
+because the customary æsthetic ideas and self-glorification of man are
+touched by this in so sensitive a point, that most men shrink from
+recognizing their descent from apes. It seems much pleasanter to be
+descended from a more highly developed divine being, and hence, as is
+well known, human vanity has from the earliest times flattered itself by
+assuming the original descent of the race from gods or demi-gods."
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION.
+
+
+In the last chapter a description was given of the various stages in
+man's development, from the microscopic monad up. It will be necessary
+now to describe briefly the various laws which have governed this
+evolutionary chain from the monad to man. But before proceeding directly
+to the subject, let us look at the doctrine of evolution as a whole, and
+trace it first in the formation of the world.
+
+The doctrine of evolution is also called the theory of development--it
+must not, however, be confused with Darwinism--for they are not exactly
+synonymous. Darwinism is an attempt to explain the laws or manner of
+evolution. Strictly speaking, only the theory of selection should be
+called Darwinism, which was established in 1859. The theory of descent,
+or transmutation theory, or doctrine of filiation, should properly be
+called Lamarckism, who for the first time worked out the theory of
+descent as an independent scientific theory of the first order, and as
+the philosophical foundation of the whole science of biology.
+
+"According to the theory of development (evolution) in its simplest
+form," says Henry Hartshorne,[18] "the universe as it now exists is a
+result of 'an immense series of changes,' related to and dependent upon
+each other as successive steps, or rather growths, constituting a
+progress; analogous to the unfolding or evolving of the parts of a
+growing organism." Herbert Spencer defined evolution as consisting
+in a progress from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from general to
+special, from the simple to the complex; and this process is considered
+to be traceable in the formation of worlds in space, in the
+multiplication of the types and species of plants and animals on the
+globe, in the origination and diversity of languages, literature, arts
+and sciences, and in all changes of human institutions and society.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Skeleton of Platypus.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Pouched Animals (Marsupialia).
+Kangaroo. (Popular Science Monthly, Feb., 1876.)]
+
+
+Let us now apply this theory of evolution to the physical world. No
+determined opposition by the mass of people is likely to be manifested
+to the doctrine of evolution as applied to the physical world, or even
+to the vegetable or animal world up to man; but the minute man is
+included--then is a voice raised up against it, and it was for this
+reason that Darwin in his first work on the "Theory of Descent" did not
+mention man as being included in the evolutionary series. He knew too
+well the foolish human weakness that existed.
+
+In a recent work by Prof. Challes, he states that he regards the
+material universe as "a vast and wonderful mechanism of which the least
+wonderful thing is its being so constructed that we can understand it."
+
+The following is a brief description of the various theories of the
+world's formation:
+
+_First Theory._--By the first theory the world is supposed to have
+existed from eternity under its actual form. Aristotle embraced this
+doctrine, and conceived the universe to be the eternal effect of an
+eternal cause; maintaining that not only the heavens and the earth, but
+all animate and inanimate beings, are without beginning. To use Huxley's
+illustration: If you can imagine a spectator on the earth, however far
+back in time, he would have seen a world "essentially similar, though
+not perhaps in all its details, to that which now exists. The animals
+which existed would be the ancestors of those which now exist, and like
+them; the plants in like manner would be such as we have now, and like
+them; and the supposition is that, at however distant a period of time
+you place your observer, he would still find mountains, lands, and
+waters, with animal and vegetable products flourishing upon them and
+sporting in them just as he finds now." This theory being perfectly
+inconsistent with facts, had to be abandoned.
+
+_Second Theory._--The second theory considers the universe eternal, but
+not its form. This was the system of Epicurus and most of the ancient
+philosophers and poets, who imagined the world either to be produced by
+fortuitous concourse of atoms existing from all eternity, or to have
+sprung out of the chaotic form which preceded its present state.
+
+_Third Theory._--By this theory the matter and form of the earth is
+ascribed to the direct agency of a spiritual cause. It is needless to
+say that this last theory has for its basis the popular account,
+generally credited to Moses in the first chapter of Genesis. I say
+popular, for it certainly is not a scientific account, nor was it the
+intention of the writer to make it so. The supposed object was to show
+the relation between the Creator and his works. If it had been an
+ultimate scientific account, the ablest minds of to-day would be unable
+to comprehend it, as science is progressive and constantly changing; in
+fifty thousand years to come, it would still appear utterly absurd. It
+cannot be said for this fact that the account is any the less true
+because it is not presented in scientific phraseology; for instance,
+when we remark in popular language "the sun rises," who shall say that
+though the expression is not astronomically true, we do not, for all
+practical purposes, utter as important a truth, as when we say, "The
+earth by its revolution brings us to that point where the sun becomes
+visible?" The language, also, in which the writer wrote was very
+imperfect; it had no equivalent to our word "air" or "atmosphere,"
+properly speaking, for they knew not the words. "Their nearest
+approaches," according to J. Pye Smith, "were with words that denoted
+watery vapor condensed, and thus rendered visible, whether floating
+around them or seen in the breathing of animals; and words for smoke
+from substances burning; and for air in motion, wind, a zephyr whisper
+or a storm." It must also be remembered, "that the Hebrews had no term
+for the abstract ideas which we express by 'fluid' or 'matter.' If the
+writer had designed to express the idea, 'In the beginning God created
+_matter_,' he could not have found words to serve his purpose" (Phin).
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Skeleton of Kangaroo. (Popular Science
+Monthly.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Semi-Apes (Prosimiæ). The Slow Loris,
+after _Tickel_ and _Alp. Miln-Edwards_. (Natural History, by _Duncan_.)]
+
+
+It is unnecessary to state how the Bible, which contains the so-called
+Mosaic account, is regarded by the different church denominations, as
+undoubtedly that is familiar to every one. But with respect to the view
+entertained by the scientist and critical school of Biblical scholars,
+represented chiefly by modern Germans, I may state briefly: "They regard
+the Bible as the human record of a divine revelation; not absolutely
+infallible, since there is no book written in any human language but
+must partake in a measure of the imperfections of that language. Many of
+this school, while admitting the Bible to contain the record of a true
+supernatural revelation, do not consider it to be without positive error
+of historical fact, not without false coloring from popular legend and
+tradition, but nevertheless a record as good as human hands could make a
+truly divine revelation."[19]
+
+There is, though, a class of thinkers that altogether reject the Bible;
+that is to say, refuse to believe it to be a divine revelation. Hume,
+whom Huxley calls "the most acute thinker of the eighteenth century,"
+thus ends one of his essays: "If we take in hand any volume of divinity
+or school metaphysics, for instance, let us ask, _Does it contain any
+abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?_ No. _Does it contain
+any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?_ No.
+Commit it, then, to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry
+and illusion." To this Huxley says: "Permit me to enforce this wise
+advice, Why trouble ourselves about matters of which, however important
+they may be, we do know nothing, and can know nothing? We live in a
+world which is full of misery and ignorance, and the plain duty of each
+and all of us is to try to make the little corner he can influence
+somewhat less miserable and somewhat less ignorant than it was before he
+entered it. To do this effectually, it is necessary to be fully
+possessed of only two beliefs: the first, that the order of nature is
+ascertainable by our faculties to an extent which is practically
+unlimited; the second, that our volitions count for something as a
+condition of the course of events. Each of these beliefs can be verified
+experimentally, as often as we like to try. Each, therefore, stands upon
+the strongest foundation upon which any belief can rest, and forms one
+of our highest truths."
+
+The first words in the Mosaic account are:[20] "In the beginning God
+created the heaven and the earth."[21] It is seen, then, that the
+so-called revelation points to a beginning. The beginning referred to is
+an absolute beginning, for we find: "In the beginning was the Word, and
+the Word was with God, and the Word was God."[22] * * * "All things were
+made by Him; and without Him was not anything made that was made."[23]
+Science points also to a beginning.
+
+Geology points to a time when man did not inhabit the earth; when for
+him there was a beginning. So, too, for lower organisms; so, too, for
+the rocky minerals; so, too, for the round world itself. But the
+beginning that science points to is not an absolute beginning. Science
+has to start from some point, and that point must have a scientific
+foundation--the foundation of science is matter, which is inseparable
+from form and force. Natural science teaches that matter is eternal and
+imperishable; for experience has never shown us that even the smallest
+particle of matter has come into existence or passed away. "A
+naturalist," says Haeckel, "can no more imagine the coming into
+existence of matter than he can imagine its disappearance, and he
+therefore looks upon the existing quantity of matter in the universe as
+a given fact." "The creation of matter, if, indeed," says Haeckel,[24]
+"it ever took place, is completely beyond human comprehension, and can
+therefore never become a subject of scientific inquiry. We can as little
+imagine a _first beginning_ of the eternal phenomena of the motion of
+the universe as of its final end."[25] It is evident, then, that the
+absolute beginning of the universe and its absolute end are not
+questions of science, and can be known only as revealed by faith. Paul
+says: "By faith we understand that the world was framed by the word of
+God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which
+appeared."[26]
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Tailed Apes (Menocerca). Proboscis
+Monkey (Presbytes larvatus). (Mammalia.)--_Louis Figuier._
+
+The natives of Borneo pretend that these monkeys, or, as sometimes
+called, Kahan, are men who have retired to the woods to avoid paying
+taxes; and they entertain the greatest respect for a being who has found
+such ready means of evading the responsibilities of society.--_Figuier._]
+
+
+[Illustration: GIBBON. ORANG. CHIMPANZEE. GORILLA. MAN.
+
+FIG. I.--Photographically reduced from diagrams of the natural size
+(except that of the Gibbon, which was twice as large as nature), drawn
+by _Waterhouse Hawkins_, from specimens in the museum of the Royal
+College of Surgeons. (_Huxley's_ "Man's Place in Nature.")]
+
+
+If, therefore, science makes the "history of creation" its highest and
+most difficult and most comprehensible problem, it must deal with "_the
+coming into being of the form_ of natural bodies." Let us look for a
+minute at Kant's Cosmogony, or, as Haeckel says,[27] Kant's Cosmological
+Gas Theory: "This wonderful theory," says Haeckel, "harmonizes with all
+the general series of phenomena at present known to us, and stands in no
+irreconcilable contradiction to any one of them. Moreover, it is purely
+mechanical and monistic, makes use exclusively of the inherent forces
+of eternal matter, and entirely excludes every supernatural process,
+every prearranged and conscious action of a personal creator." Compare
+this last statement with the following: "I will, however," says
+Haeckel,[28] "not deny that Kant's grand cosmogony has some weak
+points." * * * "A great unsolved difficulty lies in the fact that the
+cosmological gas theory furnishes no starting-point at all in
+explanation of the first impulse which caused the rotary motion in the
+gas-filled universe."
+
+Whewell[29] has pointed out, that the nebular hypothesis is null without
+a creative act to produce the inequality of distribution of cosmic
+matter in space.
+
+It is seen, then, that according to Kant's theory we are to suppose that
+millions of years ago there appeared a nebulous mass possessing a rotary
+motion, and unequally distributed through space. This is what science
+calls a beginning, and may assert that every physical event of a hundred
+million of ages existed potentially in that nebulous mass. But this is
+really no explanation of the ultimate and real cause of anything. Reason
+demands the cause of this beginning, the source that gave to the
+nebulous mass its rotary motion; the power that distributed the matter
+in space; the antecedents of the cosmical vapor. In absence of
+antecedents, what was the cause of this fire-mist--of these forces
+active in it? Reason will never remain satisfied until these questions
+are answered. But physical science can trace the thread no further back,
+and must be dumb to all ulterior inquiries. It is true, then, as
+physicists assert, "that their science does not mount actually to God."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Man-like Apes (Anthropoides). The
+Male Gorilla. (Natural History, by _Duncan_.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents Ape-like Men (Pithecanthropi).
+Imaginative. (From Scientific American.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Men (Homines). From Woolly-haired Men
+developed the Papuans. (Scientific American, March 11, 1876.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--The Monkey Men of Dourga Strait. (Natural
+History, by _Rev. Dr. Wood_.)]
+
+
+To God then, in strict accordance with our reason, is to be attributed
+not only the origination of matter, but all its future developments.
+When I speak of matter, it must be understood that I mean force;
+for "if matter were not force, and immediately known as force, it could
+not be known at all, could not be rationally inferred. The operation of
+force could furnish no evidence of the existence of forceless matter. If
+force is not matter, then force can exist and operate without matter;
+its existence and operation are no evidence of the existence of matter.
+And as matter is forceless, it can itself give no evidence of its own
+existence, for that would be an exercise of force. If force cannot exist
+and operate without matter, then force depends for its existence and
+operation on the forceless, which destroys itself; or force depends for
+its existence on matter as some property or force, and so matter and
+force are identified, and force depends on itself only, as it must."[30]
+The idea, then, that force is an attribute of matter and inherent in it,
+is absurd, for there is not a shadow of evidence that force is or can be
+an attribute of matter. We have no knowledge of the origin of any force
+save of that which emanates from human volition. All our knowledge of
+force presents it as an effort of intelligent will. "We are driven,"
+says Winchell, "by the necessary laws of thought, to pronounce those
+energies styled gravitation, heat, chemical affinity and their
+correlates, nothing less than intelligent will. But as it is not human
+will which energizes in whirlwind and the comet, it must be divine
+will." "In all cases, the creative power of God is an act of power, and
+the power does not perish with its inception, but continues to operate
+until the act is reversed and undone; so that everything that God has
+created constitutes a positive and intrinsic force, though borrowed from
+Him. Every incident runs back to God as its originator and real cause.
+The true philosophical doctrine makes God distinct from all his works,
+and yet acting in them. This doctrine has been held by the greatest
+thinkers the world has ever produced, such as Descartes, Lerbrisky,
+Berkeley, Herschel, Faraday, and a multitude of others." "It seems to be
+required," says Dr. McCosh, "by that deep law of causation which not
+only prompts us to seek for a law in everything but an adequate cause,
+to be found only in an intelligent mind." "Our greatest American
+thinker, Jonathan Edwards," says Dr. McCosh, (whom I can claim as my
+predecessor,) "maintains that, as an image in a mirror is kept up by a
+constant succession of rays of light, so nature is sustained by a
+constant forth-putting of the divine power. In this view Nature is a
+perpetual creation. God is to be seen not only in creation at first, but
+in the continuance of all things." "They continue to this day according
+to Thine ordinances."
+
+Returning now to the history of the creation given by Moses, Haeckel
+says, "Although Moses looks upon the results of the great laws of
+organic development as the direct actions of a constructing Creator, yet
+in his theory there lies hidden the ruling idea of a progressive
+development and a differentiation of the originally simple matter. We
+can therefore bestow our just and sincere admiration on the Jewish
+lawgiver's grand insight into nature, without discovering in it a
+so-called 'divine revelation.' That it cannot be such is clear from the
+fact that two great fundamental errors are asserted in it, namely, first
+the _geocentric_ error, that the earth is the fixed central point of the
+whole universe, round which the sun, moon and stars move; and secondly,
+the _anthropocentric_ error that man is the premeditated aim of the
+creation of the world, for whose service alone all the rest of nature is
+said to have been created. The former of these errors was demolished by
+Copernicus' System of the Universe in the beginning of the sixteenth
+century, the latter by Lamarck's Doctrine of Descent in the beginning of
+the nineteenth century."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Australian Savage.--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Skull of Orang-utan (Simia satyrus).--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Skull of Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. IV.--Skull of Gorilla.--_Duncan._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. V.--Skull of European.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. VI.--Skull of Negro.--_Orton._]
+
+
+Prof. Huxley, in his lecture on "Evidences of Evolution," spoke of the
+Mosaic account as Milton's hypothesis. First, "because," says Huxley,
+"we are now assured upon the authority of the highest critics, and even
+of dignitaries of the church, that there is no evidence whatever that
+Moses ever wrote this chapter, or knew anything about it;" and second,
+as this hypothesis is presented in Milton's work on "Paradise Lost," it
+is appropriate to call it the Miltonic Hypothesis. "In the Miltonic
+account," says Huxley, "the order in which animals should have made
+their appearance in the stratified rocks would be this: Fishes,
+including the great whale, and birds; after that all the varieties of
+terrestrial animals. Nothing could be further from the facts as we find
+them. As a matter of fact we know of not the slightest evidence of the
+existence of birds before the jurassic and perhaps the triassic
+formations. If there were any parallel between the Miltonic account and
+the circumstantial evidence, we ought to have abundant evidence in the
+devonian, the silurian, and carboniferous rocks. I need not tell you
+that this is not the case, and that not a trace of birds makes its
+appearance until the far later period which I have mentioned. And again,
+if it be true that all varieties of fishes, and the great whales and the
+like, made their appearance on the fifth day, then we ought to find the
+remains of these things in the older rocks--in those which preceded the
+carboniferous epoch. Fishes, it is true, we find, and numerous ones; but
+the great whales are absent, and the fishes are not such as now live.
+Not one solitary species of fish now in existence is to be found there,
+and hence you are introduced again to the difficulty, to the dilemma,
+that either the creatures that were created then, which came into
+existence the sixth day, were not those which are found at present, or
+are not the direct and immediate predecessors of those which now exist;
+but in that case you must either have had a fresh species of which
+nothing has been said, or else the whole story must be given up as
+absolutely devoid of any circumstantial evidence."
+
+It is for these and many other reasons that I feel bound to omit the
+Mosaic account, no matter how near some portions of it coincide with the
+facts the earth has opened out to the scientist.
+
+
+KANT'S COSMOGONY.
+
+It is maintained by Kant's Cosmogony that every substance, be it solid
+or liquid, constituting the entire universe, was, inconceivable ages
+ago, in their homogeneous gaseous or nebulous condition. Owing to an
+impulse being given to the nebulous mass, it acquired a rotary movement,
+which divided the nebulous mass up into a number of masses which, owing
+to the rotation, acquired greater density than the remaining gaseous
+mass, and then acted on the latter as central points of attraction. Our
+solar system was thus a gigantic gaseous or nebulous ball, all the
+particles of which revolved around a common central point--the solar
+nucleus. This nebulous ball assumed by its continual rotation a more or
+less flattened spheroidal form. By the continual revolution of this
+mass, under the influence of the centripetal and centrifugal forces, a
+circular nebular ring separated (like the present ring around Saturn)
+from the rotating ball. In time the nebulous ring condensed to a planet,
+which began to revolve around its own axis. When the centrifugal force
+became more powerful than the centripetal force in the planet, rings
+were formed, which, in turn, formed planets which revolved around their
+axes, as also around their planets, as the latter moved around the sun,
+and thus arose the moons, only one of which moves around our earth,
+while four move around Jupiter and six around Uranus. This order of
+things was repeated over and over again until thereby arose the
+different solar systems--the planets rotating around their central suns,
+and the satellites or moons moving around their planets. By a continuous
+increasing of refrigeration and condensation, a fiery fluid or molten
+state occurred in these rotating bodies. They then emitted an enormous
+amount of heat by rapid condensation, and the rotating bodies--suns,
+planets, and moons--soon became glowing balls of fire, emitting light
+and heat. The 1/1000 part of a pound of magnesium wire, burning in the
+open air, will give a light which will last during one second, and can
+be seen at a distance of thirty miles; imagine, then, what the light
+would be from these huge balls of fire floating through space. The earth
+forms a small part--nay, even the sun whose mass is equal to 354,936
+earths like ours, is but an infinitesimal portion of the whole. By the
+continual emitting of heat, however, these fiery balls had a crust form
+on the outside, which enclosed a fiery fluid nucleus. The crust for a
+time must have been a smooth sheet, but afterward very uneven, having
+protuberances and cavities form over its surface, owing to the molten
+mass within becoming condensed and contracted; the crust not following
+this change sufficiently close, must have fallen in, and thus produced
+the cavities.
+
+
+[Illustration: Mongolian.]
+
+[Illustration: Malay.]
+
+[Illustration: Ethiopian.]
+
+[Illustration: American Indian.]
+
+[Illustration: FACIAL ANGLE, by _Prof. Nelson Sizer_. 1, Snake; 2, Dog;
+3, Elephant; 4, Ape; 5, Human Idiot; 6, The Bushman; 7, The
+Uncultivated; 8, The Improved; 9, The Civilized; 10, The Enlightened;
+11, The Caucasian (highest type).]
+
+[Illustration: Caucasian (after _Van Evrie_).]
+
+[Illustration: Head of Nose-Ape (after _Brehm_).]
+
+[Illustration: Julia Pastrana (Photographed by _Hintye_).]
+
+[Illustration: Living Idiot (on Blackwell's Island).]
+
+
+All the time, by the condensation, the diameter of the earth was being
+diminished. The irregular cooling of the crust caused irregular
+contractions on the surface, and as the diameter of the molten mass
+within was continually diminishing, many elevations and depressions were
+caused, which were the foundations of mountains and valleys.
+
+After the temperature of the earth had been reduced by the thickening of
+the crust--when it became sufficiently cool--the water which existed in
+steam was condensed and precipitated, falling in torrents, washing down
+the elevations, filling the depressions with the mud carried along, and
+depositing it in layers. It was not until the earth became covered with
+water that life was possible in any form, as both animals and plants
+consist to a very great extent of water. At this stage in the history of
+the earth, then, the little mass of protoplasm, which we have spoken so
+much about, came into existence in all probability, as has been stated,
+by spontaneous generation.
+
+
+LAWS OF EVOLUTION.
+
+Let us now examine some of the laws of evolution, as also some of the
+connecting links which blend one stage of man's development with
+another, which at first thought would seem unexplainable.
+
+Haeckel[31] summarizes the inductive evidences of Darwinism as follows:
+1. Paleontological series (phylogeny); 2. Embryological development of
+the individual (ontogeny); 3. The correspondence in the terms of these
+two series; 4. Comparative anatomy (typical forms and structures); 5.
+Correspondence between comparative anatomy and ontogeny; 6. Rudimentary
+organs (dipeliology); 7. The natural system of organisms (classification);
+8. Geographical distribution (chorology); 9. Adaptation to the environment
+(oecology); 10. The unity of biological phenomena.
+
+It will of course be impossible to consider even hastily all of the
+inductive evidence belonging to the several groups mentioned above, for
+the scope of this work would not permit of it. Only such facts as
+present themselves most forcibly to the mind will be considered.
+
+Darwinism, as has already been stated, is not the doctrine of evolution;
+it is, however, a successful attempt to explain the law or manner of
+evolution. The _law of natural selection_, pointed out by Darwin, is
+called by Herbert Spencer, _The struggle for existence_. Darwin
+discovered that natural selection produces fitness between organisms and
+their circumstances, which explains the law of _the survival of the
+fittest_.
+
+It is a well-known fact that man can, by pursuing a certain method of
+breeding or cultivation, improve and in various ways modify the
+character of the different domestic animals and plants. By always
+selecting the best specimen from which to propagate the race, those
+features which it is desired to perpetuate become more and more
+developed; so that what are admitted to be real varieties sometimes
+acquire, in the course of successive generations, a character as
+strikingly distinct, to all appearances, from those of the varieties, as
+one species is from another species of the same genus. It is evident
+that both natural and artificial selection depends on adaptation and
+inheritance. The difference between the two forms of selection is that,
+in the first case, the will of man makes the selection according to a
+plan, whereas in natural selection the struggle for life and the
+survival of the fittest acts without a plan other than that the most
+adaptable organism shall survive which is most fit to contend with the
+circumstances under which it is placed. Natural selection acts,
+therefore, much more slowly than artificial selection, although it
+brings about the same end. Adaptation in the struggle for life is an
+absolute necessity.
+
+In every act of breeding, a certain amount of protoplasm is transferred
+from the parents to the child, and along with it there is transferred
+the individual peculiar molecular motion. Adaptation or transmutation
+depends upon the material influence which organism experiences from its
+surroundings, or its conditions of existence; while the transmission
+from inheritance is due to the partial identity of producing and
+produced organisms.
+
+Organized beings, as a rule, are gifted with enormous powers of
+increase. Wild plants yield their crop of seed annually, and most wild
+animals bring forth their young yearly or oftener. Should this process
+go on unchecked, in a short time the earth would be completely overrun
+with living beings. It has been calculated that if a plant produces
+fifty seeds (which is far below the reproductive capacity of many
+plants) the first year, each of these seeds growing up into a plant
+which produces fifty seeds, or altogether two thousand five hundred
+seeds the next year, and so on, it would under favorable conditions of
+growth give rise in nine years to more plants by five hundred trillions
+than there are square feet of dry land upon the surface of the earth.
+
+Slow-breeding man has been known to double his number in twenty-five
+years, and according to Euler, this might occur in little over twelve
+years. But assuming the former rate of increase, and taking the
+population of the United States at only thirty millions, in six hundred
+and eighty-five years their living progeny would have each but a square
+foot to stand upon, were they spread over the entire globe, land and
+water included. But millions of species are doing the same thing, so
+that the inevitable result of this strife cannot be a matter of chance.
+Evidently those individuals or varieties having some advantage over
+their competitors will stand the best chance to live, while those
+destitute of these advantages will be liable to destruction. Nature may
+be said (metaphorically) to choose (like the will of man in artificial
+selection) which shall be preserved and which destroyed.
+
+That portion of the theory of development which maintains the common
+descent of all species of animals and plants from the simplest common
+origin, I have already stated with full justice should be called
+Lamarckism. Progress is recognized by all scientists to be a law of
+nature. Some of the more important facts which sustain the theory of
+development, I propose now to present as briefly as possible.
+
+
+RUDIMENTARY ORGANS.
+
+One of the strongest arguments in favor of the hypothesis of a genetic
+connection among all animals (including man), at least among all those
+belonging to the same great types, is the presence of rudimentary parts.
+By rudiments in anatomy are meant organs or structures imperfectly
+developed, so as to be almost or entirely without functional use. "Each
+of them represents in germ, as it were, in one animal (or plant), that
+which is perfect and useful in another type."
+
+For a few examples: The little fold of caruncle at the inner margin of
+the eye in man, represents the nictitating membrane of birds. Eyes which
+do not see form a striking example. These are found in very many animals
+which live in the dark, as in caves or underground. Their eyes are often
+perfectly developed but are covered by a membrane, so that no ray of
+light can enter and they can never see. Such eyes, without the function
+of sight, are found in several species of moles and mice which live
+underground, in serpents and lizards, in amphibious animals (proteus,
+cæcilia) and in fishes; also in numerous invertebrate animals which pass
+their lives in the dark, as do many beetles, crabs, snails, worms, etc.
+
+Other rudimentary organs are the wings of animals which cannot fly. For
+example, the wings of the running birds, like the ostrich, emeu,
+cassowary, etc., the legs of which become exceedingly developed. The
+muscles which move the ears of animals are still present in man, but of
+course are of no use; by continual practice persons have been able to
+move their ears by these muscles. The rudiment of the tail of animals
+which man possesses in his 3-5 tail vertebræ, is another rudimentary
+part--in the human embryo it stands out prominently during the first two
+months of its development; it afterwards becomes hidden. "The
+rudimentary little tail of man is irrefutable proof that he is descended
+from tailed ancestors." In woman the tail is generally, by one vertebra,
+longer than in man. There still exists rudimentary muscles in the human
+tail which formerly moved it.
+
+Another case of human rudimentary organs, only belonging to the male,
+and which obtains in like manner in all mammals, is furnished by the
+mammary glands on the breast, which, as a rule, are active only in the
+female sex. However, cases of different mammals are known, especially of
+men, sheep and goats, in which the mammary glands were fully developed
+in the male sex, and yield milk as food for their offspring. The
+vermiform appendix of the large intestine in man, is another
+illustration of a part which has no use, but in one marsupial is three
+times the length of its body. The rudimentary covering of hair over
+certain portions of the body, is not without interest. Over the body we
+find but a scanty covering, which is thick only on the head, in the
+armpits, and on some other parts of the body. The short hairs on the
+greater part of the body are entirely useless, and are the last scanty
+remains of the hairy covering of our ape ancestors. Both on the upper
+and lower arm the hairs are directed toward the elbow, where they meet
+at an obtuse angle--this striking arrangement is only found in man and
+the anthropoid apes, the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, and several species
+of gibbons. The fine short hairs on the body become developed into
+"thickset, long, and rather coarse dark hairs," when abnormally
+nourished near old-standing inflamed surfaces.[32] The fine wool-like
+hair or so-called lanugo with which the human foetus, during the fifth
+and sixth months, is thickly covered, offers another proof that man
+is descended from an animal which was born hairy, and remained so during
+life. This covering is first developed during the fifth month, on the
+eyebrows and face, and especially around the mouth, where it is much
+longer than that on the head. Three or four cases have been recorded of
+persons born with their whole bodies and faces thickly covered with fine
+long hairs. Prof. Alex. Brandt compared the hair from the face of a man
+thus characterized, aged thirty-five, with the lanugo of a foetus, and
+finds it quite similar in texture. Eschricht[33] has devoted great
+attention to this rudimentary covering, and has thrown much light on the
+subject. He showed that the female as well as the male foetus
+possessed this hairy covering, showing that both are descended from
+progenitors, both sexes of whom were hairy. Eschricht also showed, as
+stated above, that the hair on the face of the fifth month foetus is
+longer on the face than on the head, which indicates that our semi-human
+progenitors were not furnished with long tresses, which must therefore
+have been a late acquisition. The question naturally arises, is there
+any explanation for the loss of hair covering?
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--The Hairy-Faced Burmese Family. (From Scientific
+American, Feb. 20, 1875.)]
+
+
+Darwin is of the opinion that the absence of hair on the body is, to a
+certain extent, a secondary sexual character; for, in all parts of the
+world, women are less hairy than men. He says: "Therefore we may
+reasonably suspect that this character has been gained through sexual
+selection." As the body in woman is less hairy than in man, and as this
+character is common to all races, we may conclude that it was our female
+semi-human ancestors who were first divested of hair.
+
+Professor Grant Allen[34] has given much study to the subject of the
+loss of hair in the human being; and his investigations are worthy of
+careful consideration. He shows conclusively that those parts of an
+animal which are in constant contact with other objects are specially
+liable to lose their hair. This is noticeable on the under surface of
+the body of all animals which habitually lie on the stomach. The soles
+of the feet of all mammals where they touch the ground are quite
+hairless; the palms of the hands in the quadrumana present the same
+appearance. The knees of those species which frequently kneel, such as
+camels and other ruminants, are apt to become bare and hard-skinned. The
+friction of the water has been the means of removing the hair from many
+aquatic mammals--the whales, porpoises, dugongs, and manatees are
+examples.
+
+As the back of man forms the specially hairless region of his body, we
+must conclude that it is in all probability the first part which became
+entirely denuded of hair. The gorilla, according to Professor Gervais,
+is the only mammal which agrees with man in having the hair thinner on
+the back, where it is partly rubbed off, than on the lower surface. Du
+Chaillu states that he has "himself come upon fresh traces of a
+gorilla's bed on several occasions, and could see that the male had
+seated himself with his back against a tree-trunk." He also says: "In
+both male and female the hair is found worn off the back; but this is
+only found in very old females. This is occasioned, I suppose, by their
+resting at night against trees, at whose base they sleep." The gorilla
+has only very partially acquired the erect position, and probably sits
+but little in the attitude common to man. In man the case is different;
+in proportion as his progenitors grew more and more erect, he must have
+lain less and less upon his stomach, and more and more upon his back or
+sides, and this is seen in the savage man during his lazy hours--who
+stretches himself on the ground in the sun, with his back propped, where
+possible, by a slight mound or the wall of his hut. The continual
+friction of the surface of the back would arrest the growth of hair; for
+hair grows where there is normally less friction, and _vice versâ_.
+
+As man became more and more hairless, especially among savage and naked
+races, we should conclude that such a modification would be considered a
+beauty, and women would select such men in preference to more hairy
+individuals. The New Zealand proverb is: "There is no woman for a hairy
+man." Sexual selection, then, would play a very important part; and the
+difficulty of understanding how man became divested of hair is readily
+explained.
+
+Haeckel says: "Even if we knew absolutely nothing of the other phenomena
+of development, we should be obliged to believe in the truth of the
+theory of descent, solely on the ground of the existence of rudimentary
+organs."
+
+
+REPRODUCTION BY MEANS OF EGGS.
+
+It might be thought there existed a missing link between animals which
+lay eggs and those which do not; this, however, is done away with in
+many instances--one, for example, is found in our commonest indigenous
+snake. The ringed snake lays eggs which require three weeks time to
+develop; but when it is kept in captivity, and no sand is strewn in the
+cage, it does not lay eggs, but retains them until the young ones are
+developed. This only shows how powerfully influences affect the habit of
+animals.
+
+
+DOUBLE-SEXED INDIVIDUALS.
+
+Another difficulty might be supposed to arise between animals which
+produce themselves other than by sexual reproduction. This has already
+been slightly touched upon; and it has been shown that numerous plants
+and animals propagate themselves through their double-sexed organs. It
+occurs in a great majority of plants, but only in a minority of animals;
+for example, the garden-snail, leeches, earth-worms, and many other
+worms. Every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual gland eggs,
+and in another part sperm.
+
+Parthenogenesis offers an interesting form of transition from sexual
+reproduction to the non-sexual formation of germ-cells (which most
+resembles it). It has been demonstrated to occur in many cases among
+insects, especially by Seebold's excellent investigations. Among the
+common bees, a male individual (a drone) arises out of the eggs of the
+queen, if the eggs have not been fructified; a female (a queen or
+working bee), if the egg has been fructified.
+
+Gonochorismus or sexual separation, which characterizes the more
+complicated of the two kinds of sexual reproduction, has evidently been
+developed from the condition of hermaphroditism at a late period of the
+organic history of the world. In this case the female individual in both
+animal and plant produces eggs or egg-cells. In animals, the male
+individual secretes the fructifying sperm (sperma); in plants, the
+corpuscles, which correspond to the sperm.
+
+
+INHERITANCE.
+
+The remarkable facts of inheritance, extending to the reproduction of
+unimportant peculiarities of parts or organs (rudimentary parts)
+mentioned above, and the occasional outbreak of ancestral characters
+that have been dormant through several generations (some of which I will
+mention further on), might be thought perfectly unexplainable; but they
+are readily accounted for by the supposition that each part of an
+organism contributes its constituent and effective molecules to the germ
+and sperm particles. Mr. Sorby made numerous investigations with
+relation to the number of molecules in the germinal matter of eggs, and
+the spermatic matter supplied by the male. Omitting the alkali, Mr.
+Sorby takes the formula, C{72}H{112}N{18}SO{22}, as representing the
+composition of albumen. In a 1/2000 of an inch cube, he reckons--
+
+  Albumen     18,000,000,000,000 molecules.
+  Water      992,000,000,000,000     "
+           --------------------------------
+           1,010,000,000,000,000 molecules.
+
+Or, in a sphere of the same diameter, 530,000,000,000,000 of the two
+components. Taking a single mammalian spermatozoon, having a mean
+diameter of 1/6000 of an inch; "it might contain two and a half million
+of such gemmules. If these were lost, destroyed, or fully developed at
+the rate of one in each second, this number would be exhausted in about
+one month; but since a number of spermatozoa appears to be necessary to
+produce perfect fertilization, it is quite easy to understand that the
+number of gemmules introduced into the ovum may be so great that the
+influence of the male parent may be very marked, even after having been,
+as regards particular character, apparently dormant for many years." The
+germinal vesicle of a mammalian ovum being about 1/1000 of an inch, mean
+diameter, might contain five hundred million of gemmules, which, if used
+up at the rate of one per second, would last more than seventeen years.
+If the whole ovum, about 1/150 in diameter, were all gemmules, the
+number would be sufficient to last, at this rate, one per second for
+5,600 years! This, however, is not probable; but Mr. Sorby's remarks has
+completely removed all doubt as to its physical possibility from the
+Darwinian theory; "and they prompt us," says Slack, "to a wonderful
+conception of the powers residing in minute quantities of matter."
+
+The laws of inheritance are divisible into two series, conservative and
+progressive transmission; the laws of adaptation to direct (active) or
+indirect (potential) adaptation.
+
+External causes often influence the reproductive system, especially in
+organism propagating in a sexual way. This can be strikingly shown in
+artificially produced monstrosities. Monstrosities can be produced by
+subjecting the parental organism to certain extraordinary conditions of
+life; and curiously enough, such an extraordinary condition of life does
+not produce a change of the organism itself, but a change in its
+descendants. The new formation exists in the parental organism only as a
+possibility (potential); in the descendants it becomes a reality
+(actual). Most commonly, monstrosities with very abnormal forms are
+sterile, but there are instances where they reproduce their kind and
+become a species.[35] Geoffroy St. Hilaire, who perhaps made the deepest
+investigations ever conducted into the nature and causes of their
+production, first conceived the idea of artificially producing them, and
+to this end he began modifications of the physical conditions of the
+evolution of the chicken during natural and artificial incubation. He
+determined the fact that monsters could be produced in this way, but
+scarcely carried his investigation further. This work has been taken up
+by M. Dareste, and he has lately published a volume in Paris which
+recounts the results of a quarter of a century's experimenting. Eggs, he
+states, were submitted to incubation in a vertical instead of a
+horizontal position; they were covered with varnish in certain places so
+as to stop or modify evaporation and respiration. The evolution of the
+chick was rendered slower by a temperature below that of the normal heat
+of incubation. Finally, eggs were warmed only at one point, so that
+the young animal, during development, was submitted at different
+parts to variable temperatures.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+
+These perturbations resulted in the most curious and unlooked for
+deformities in the embryo, some being not alone peculiar to the bird,
+but being similar to those which have been recognized in many other
+animals, and even in the human species. The data obtained have been
+deemed so important that M. Dareste has recently received the Lacaze
+prize for physiology from the French Academy of Sciences.
+
+It would be impossible to review even a fraction of the many forms of
+monstrosities which M. Dareste has discovered. Those that we give will,
+however, suffice to convey an idea of the wonderful variations produced.
+Fig. 1 is a chick embryo with the encephalon entirely outside the head,
+the heart, liver, and gizzard outside the umbilical opening, right wing
+lifted up beside the head, and the development of the left one stopped.
+In Fig. 2 the encephalon is herniated and marked with blood spots, the
+eye is rudimentary and replaced by a spot of pigment, the upper beak is
+shorter than the lower one, while the heart, liver, etc., are all
+outside. In Figs. 3 and 4 the head is compressed, eyes well developed,
+but in the back instead of in the sides of the head; the body is bent,
+abdominal intestines not closed, heart largely developed and herniated.
+The literal references to the foregoing are: _am_, amnion; _al_,
+allantois; _v_, vitellus; _h_, encephalon; _i_, eye; _c_, heart; _f_,
+liver; _g_, gizzard; _ms_, upper, and _mi_, lower member.
+
+The commonest case of monstrosity observed by M. Dareste has been that
+of the head protruding from the navel, and the heart or hearts above the
+head. This is a most extraordinary and new monster, and, if it persist,
+a chicken with its heart on its back, like a hump, may be expected. A
+curious fact discovered is the duplicity of the heart at the beginning
+of incubation, two hearts, beating separately, being clearly seen.
+Another anomaly consists in heads with a frontal swelling, which is
+filled by the cerebral hemispheres.
+
+M. Dareste's artificial monsters are all produced from the single germ
+or cicatricule (as the white circular spot seen in the yellow of the
+egg, and from which the embryo springs, is termed). He has not yet been
+able to determine artificially the production of monsters, the origin of
+which takes place in a peculiar state of the cicatricule before
+incubation. But having submitted to incubation some 10,000 eggs, he has
+obtained several remarkable examples of double monstrosities in process
+of formation, some representations of which are given herewith. Fig. 5
+shows three embryos, all derived from a single cicatricule. Fig. 6
+represents three embryos from two cicatricules. On one side of the line
+of junction are two imperfectly developed embryos, one having no heart.
+The single embryo on the other side is generally normal, but has a heart
+on the right side. In Fig. 7 are twins, one well formed, the heart
+circulating colorless blood, the other having no heart and a rudimentary
+head. Fig. 8 exhibits a double monster with lateral union. The heads are
+separate, and there are three upper and three lower members, those of
+the latter on the median line belonging equally to each of the pair.
+
+
+ACQUIRED QUALITIES.
+
+When an organism has been subjected to abnormal conditions in life it
+can transmit any peculiarity it may have acquired. This is, however, not
+always possible, otherwise descendants of men who have lost their arm or
+leg would be born without the corresponding arm or leg--this shows that
+some acquired qualities are more easily transmitted than
+others--although there are cases, as, for instance, a race of dogs
+without tails has been produced by cutting off the tails of both sexes
+of the dog, during several generations. "A few years ago," says Haeckel,
+"a case occurred on an estate near Jena in which, by the careless
+slamming of a stable-door, the tail of a bull was wrenched off, and the
+calves begotten by this bull were all born without a tail. This is
+certainly an exception; but it is very important to note the fact that
+under certain unknown conditions such violent changes are transmitted in
+the same manner as many diseases." The transmission of diseases such as
+consumption, madness, and albinism form examples. Albinoes are those
+individuals who are distinguished by the absence of coloring matter from
+their skins; they are of frequent occurrence among men, animals and
+plants. Among many animals, such as rabbits and mice, albinoes with
+white fur and red eyes are so much liked that they are propagated. This
+would be impossible were it not for the law of the transmission of
+adaptations. Hornless cattle have descended from a single bull born in
+1770 of horned parents, but whose absence of horns was the result of
+some unknown cause.
+
+The law of interrupted or latent transmission, as illustrated in
+grandchildren who are like the grandparents, but quite unlike the
+parents. Animals often resume a form which have not existed for many
+generations. One of the most remarkable instances of this kind of
+reversion, or "atavism," is the fact that in some horses there sometimes
+appear singular dark stripes similar to those of the zebra, quagga, and
+other wild species of African horse.
+
+Nutrition directly modifies adaptation, as is well illustrated by
+animals which have been bred for domestic or other purposes. If a farmer
+is breeding for fine wool he gives much different food to the sheep than
+he would if he wished to obtain flesh or an abundance of fat. Even the
+bodily form of man is quite different according to its nutrition. Food
+containing much nitrogen produces little fat, that containing little
+nitrogen produces a great deal of fat. People who by means of Banting's
+system, at present so popular, wish to become thin, eat only meat and
+eggs--no bread, no potatoes.
+
+Man can breed for milk in cattle, for feathers in pigeons, for colored
+flowers in plants, and, in fact, for almost any desirable quality.
+
+
+GEOLOGICAL RECORD.
+
+_The Geological Record_ (palæontology) furnishes weighty evidence of
+man's descent; for the circumstantial evidence derived from this source
+is written without the possibility of a mistake, with no chance of
+error, on the stratified rocks. It is true that the geological record
+must be incomplete, because it can only preserve remains found in
+certain favorable localities, and under particular conditions; that this
+valuable record must be destroyed by processes of denudation, and
+obliterated by processes of metamorphosis, it cannot be doubted. "Beds
+of rock of any thickness, crammed full of organic remains, may yet,"
+says Huxley, "by the percolation of water through them, or the influence
+of subterranean heat (if they descend far enough toward the centre of
+the earth), lose all trace of these remains, and present the appearance
+of beds of rock formed under conditions in which there was no trace of
+living forms. Such metamorphic rocks occur in formations of all ages;
+and we know with perfect certainty, when they do appear, that they have
+contained organic remains, and that those remains have been absolutely
+obliterated." If we look at the geological record, we find:
+
+THE FIRST EPOCH.--_The Archilithic_, or Primordial Epoch, constitutes
+the _Age of Skull-less Animals and Sea-weed Forests_, and is made up of
+the Laurentian, Cambrian, and Silurian Period.
+
+THE SECOND EPOCH.--_The Palæolithic_, or Primary Epoch, constitutes the
+_Age of Fishes and Fern Forests_, and is made up of the Devonian, Coal,
+and Permian Period.
+
+THE THIRD EPOCH.--_The Mesolithic_, or Secondary Epoch, constitutes the
+_Age of Reptiles and Pine Forests, Coniferæ_, and is made up of the
+Triassic, Jurassic, and Chalk Period.
+
+THE FOURTH EPOCH.--_The Cænolithic_, or Tertiary Epoch, constitutes the
+_Age of Mammals and Leaf Forests_, and is made up of the Eocene,
+Miocene, and Phocene Period.
+
+THE FIFTH EPOCH.--The _Anthropolithic_, or Quaternary Epoch, constitutes
+the _Age of Man and Cultivated Forests,_ and is made up of the Glacial
+and Postglacial Period, and the Period of Culture.
+
+During the archilithic epoch the inhabitants of our planet, as has been
+already stated, consisted of skull-less animals, or aquatic forms. No
+remains of terrestrial animals or plants, dated from this period, have
+as yet been found.
+
+The archilithic period was longer than the whole long period between the
+close of the archilithic and the present time; for if the total
+thickness of all sedimentary strata be estimated as about one hundred
+and thirty thousand feet, then seventy thousand feet belong to this
+epoch. It was during this epoch that the little mass of protoplasm,
+which has been so often spoken of, came into existence.
+
+It has been stated above that palæontology is quite deficient. This is
+not only true of the record, but of the lack as yet of sufficient
+investigations. The greatest fields of investigation in this department
+have never been explored. The whole of the petrifactions accurately
+known do not probably amount to a hundredth part of those which, by more
+elaborate explorations, are yet to be discovered. The most ancient of
+all distinctly preserved petrifactions is the Eozoon Canadense, which
+was found in the lowest Laurentian strata in the Ottawa formation.
+
+Probably no discovery in palæontology ranks higher than the discovery of
+the descendants of the horse. The horse, for example, as far as his
+limbs and teeth go, differs far more from extant graminivora than man
+differs from the ape. Had not fossil ungulates been found, which
+demonstrate the common origin of the horse with didactyles and
+multidactyles, some would have deemed the horse a special miraculous
+creation. But now the links are complete, and the descent of the horse
+is found to follow exactly what the doctrine of evolution could have
+predicted.
+
+
+ONTOGENY.
+
+It has been stated that the palæontological record is quite incomplete,
+owing to many facts, some of which have been mentioned; fortunately, the
+history of the development of the organic individual, or ontogeny, comes
+in to fill up many deficiencies.
+
+Ontogeny is a repetition of the principal forms through which the
+respective individuals have passed from the beginning of their tribe,
+and its great advantage is that it reveals a field of information which
+it was impossible for the rocks to retain; for the petrification of the
+ancient ancestors of all the different animal and vegetable species,
+which were soft, tender bodies, was not possible.
+
+The annexed plate illustrates the dog, rabbit, and man in their first
+stages of development. Illustrations of a fish, an amphibious animal, a
+reptile, a bird, or any mammal, could also be given; for all vertebrate
+animals of the most different classes, in their early stages of
+development, cannot be distinguished, and the nearer the animal
+approaches man in the ascending scale, the longer does this similarity
+continue to exist--when reptiles and birds are distinctly different from
+mammals, the dog and the man are almost identical.
+
+The gill-arches of the fish exist in man, in dogs, in fowls, in
+reptiles, and in other vertebrate animals during the first stages of
+their development. Man also possesses, in his first stages, a real tail,
+as well as his nearest kindred--the tailless apes (orang-outang,
+chimpanzee, gorilla), and vertebrate animals in general. The tail, as
+has been stated, man still retains, though hidden as a rudiment.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Human Embryo.--_Ecker._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Embryo of Dog.--_Bischoff._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Dog Embryo.--_Huxley._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. IV, V, and VI.--Embryo of Rabbit in three stages of
+development.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. VII, VIII, and IX.--Embryo of Man in three stages
+of development.--_Haeckel._ _v_, fore brain; _z_, twix brain; _m_,
+middle brain; _h_, hind brain; _n_, after brain; _r_, spinal marrow;
+_e_, nose; _a_, eye; _o_, ear; _k_, gillarches; _g_, heart; _w_,
+vertebral column; _f_, fore limbs; _b_, hind limbs; _s_, tail.]
+
+
+"Man presents in his earliest stages of embryonic growth, a skeleton of
+cartilage, like that of the lamprey; also, five origins of the aorta and
+five slits on the neck, like the _lamprey_ and the _shark_. Later, he
+has but four aortic origins, and a heart now divided into two chambers,
+like _bony fishes_; the optic lobes of his brain also having a very
+fish-like predominance in size. Three chambers of the heart and three
+aortic origins follow, presenting a condition permanent in the
+_batrachia_; then two origins with enlarged hemispheres of the brain, as
+in _reptiles_. Four heart chambers and one aortic root on each side,
+with slight development of the cerebellum, agree with the characters of
+the _crocodiles_, and immediately present the special mammalian
+conditions, single aortic root, and the full development of the
+cerebellum. Later comes that of the cerebrum, also in its higher
+mammalian or human traits." At no time in the development of the egg,
+save at the start, do the embryos of the various vertebra assume the
+_exact_ or _entire_ characteristics of one another, but they assimilate
+so closely that it requires the eye of the expert to distinguish them;
+and, as has already been stated, the more closely an animal resembles
+another, the longer and the more intimately do their embryos resemble
+one another; so that, for example, the embryo of the snake and of a
+lizard remain like one another longer than do those of a snake and of a
+bird; and the embryo of a dog and of a cat remain like one another for a
+far longer period than do those of a dog and a bird, or a dog and an
+opossum, or even those of a dog and a monkey.
+
+Surely it must be admitted that the short brief history given by the
+development of the egg, is far more wonderful than phylogeny or the long
+and slow history of the development of the tribe, which has taken
+thousands of years. Compare this time with the time required for the
+development of the smallest mammals--the harvest mice which develops in
+three weeks, or the smallest of all birds, the humming-bird, which quits
+the egg on the twelfth day, or with man who passes through the whole
+course of his development in forty weeks, or with the rhinoceros who
+requires 1-1/2 years, or the elephant who requires ninety weeks. How
+insignificant are these various periods to the long period originally
+required; yet in these short periods the whole phylogeny is run through
+in the ontogeny or the history of the development of the egg.
+
+
+
+
+THE ATTRIBUTES OF MAN.
+
+
+We must now consider briefly some of the attributes of man, and see if
+he really possesses attributes which are in no inferior degree possessed
+by animals. Before proceeding directly to the consideration of the
+attributes of man, it will be best to show the correlation that exists
+between what are called man's vital forces and the physical forces of
+nature. To do this let us choose three forms of its manifestation: these
+shall be heat evolved within the body; muscular energy or motion; and
+lastly, nervous energy or that form of force which, on the one hand,
+stimulates a muscle to contract, and on the other appears in forms
+called mental. It will not take any extensive argument to demonstrate
+that the heat of the body does not differ from heat from any other
+source. It is known that the food taken into the body contains potential
+energy, which is capable of being in part converted into actual heat by
+oxidation; and since we know that the food taken into the body is
+oxidized by the oxygen of the air supplied by the lungs, the heat of the
+body must be due to the slow oxidation of the carbon, perhaps also
+hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus in the food. Now since this so-called
+vital heat is developed by oxidation, is recognized by the same tests
+and applied to the same purposes as any other heat, it is as truly
+correlated to the other forces as when it has a purely physical origin.
+The amoeboid activity of a white blood corpuscle is stimulated within
+certain limits by heat. Hatching of eggs and the germination of seeds
+may be likewise hastened or retarded by access or deprivation of heat.
+It was considerations such as these which led to the doctrine of
+correlation of the vital and physical forces.
+
+With respect to the muscular force exerted by an animal, it was supposed
+that it was created by the animal. Dr. Frankland[36] says to this: "An
+animal can no more generate an amount of force capable of moving a grain
+of sand, than a stone can fall upwards or a locomotive drive a train
+without fuel." As the amount of CO{2} exhaled by the lungs is increased
+in the exact ratio of work done by the muscle, it cannot be doubted that
+the actual force of the muscle is due to the converted potential energy
+of the food. Since every exertion of a muscle and nerves involves the
+death and decay of those tissues to a certain extent, as shown by the
+excretions, Prof. Orton[37] has been led to say: "An animal begins to
+die the moment it begins to live." "A muscle," says Barker,[38] "is like
+a steam-engine, is a machine for converting the potential energy of
+carbon into motion; but unlike a steam-engine, the muscle accomplishes
+this conversion directly, the energy not passing through the
+intermediate stages of heat. For this reason the muscle is the most
+economical producer of mechanical force known." The muscles which give
+the downward stroke of the wing of a bird are fastened to the
+breastbone, and their power in proportion to the weight of the bird is
+as 10,000 to 1. This great power is needed, for the air is 770 times
+lighter than water; the hawk being able to travel 150 miles an hour.
+
+The last of the so-called vital forces under consideration, is that
+produced by the nerves and nervous centres. Barker says: "In the nerve
+which stimulates a muscle to contract, this force is undeniably motion,
+since it is propagated along this nerve from one extremity to the
+other." This force has been likened unto electricity, the gray or
+cellular matter being the battery, the white or fibrous matter the
+conductors. Du Bois Reymond[39] has demonstrated that this force is not
+electricity, though by showing that its velocity is only ninety-seven
+feet a second. The velocity varies, though, in different animals; it is,
+according to Prof. Orton,[40] "more rapid in warm-blooded than in
+cold-blooded animals, being nearly twice as fast in man as in the frog."
+Wheatstone, by his method, gives the velocity of electricity in copper
+wire at 62,000 geographical miles per second; but as neither Fizeau,
+Gould, Gonnelle and others could arrive at the same result, the method
+was shown to be incorrect, and it remained for Dr. Siemen[41] to
+discover the true method, which gives the velocity just one-half that of
+Wheatstone's estimate, or 31,000 geographical miles per second. In the
+opinion of Bence Jones, the propagation of a nervous impulse is a sort
+"of successive molecular polarization, like magnetism." But that this
+agent is a force as analogous to electricity as is magnetism, is shown
+not only by the fact that the transmission of electricity along a nerve
+will cause the contraction of a muscle to which it leads, but also by
+the important fact discovered by Marshall, that the contraction of a
+muscle is excited by diminishing its normal electrical current,[42] a
+result which could take place only with a stimulus, says Barker,
+"closely allied to electricity. Nerve force must therefore be transmuted
+potential energy." Prof. Huxley says,[43] "the results of recent
+inquiries into the structure of the nervous system of animals, converge
+toward the conclusion that the nerve-fibres which we have hitherto
+regarded as ultimate elements of nervous tissue, are not such, but are
+simply the visible aggregations of vastly more attenuated filaments, the
+diameter of which dwindles down to the limits of our present microscopic
+vision, greatly as these have been extended by modern improvements of
+the microscope; and that a nerve is, in its essence, nothing but a
+linear tract of specially modified protoplasm between two points of an
+organism, one of which is able to affect the other by means of the
+communication so established. Hence it is conceivable that even the
+simplest living being may possess a nervous system."
+
+Herbert Spencer[44] says all direct and indirect evidence "justifies us
+in concluding that the nervous system consists of _one_ kind of matter.
+In the gray tissue this matter exists in masses containing _corpuscles_,
+which are soft and have granules dispersed through them, and which,
+besides being thus unstably composed, are placed so as to be liable to
+disturbances to the greatest degree. In the white tissue this matter is
+collected together in extremely slender _threads_ that are denser, that
+are uniform in texture, and that are shielded in an unusual manner from
+disturbing forces, except at their two extremities."
+
+The last consideration is that form of force (thought power) which
+appears in manifestations called mental. It must be noticed at the
+outset, that every external manifestation of thought force is a muscular
+one, as a word spoken or written, a gesture, or an expression of the
+face always takes place; hence this force must be intimately correlated
+to nerve force. It is very certain, then, that thought force is capable
+in external manifestations of converting itself into actual motion. But
+here the question arises, can it be manifested inwardly without such a
+transformation of energy? Or is the evolution of thought entirely
+independent of the matter of the brain?
+
+This question can be answered by actual experiment, strange as it may
+appear. Experiments have demonstrated that any change of temperature
+within the skull was soonest manifested externally in that depression
+which exists just above the occipital protuberance. Here Lombard[45]
+fastened to the head at this point two little bars, one made of bismuth,
+the other of an alloy of antimony and zinc, which were connected with a
+delicate galvanometer;[46] to neutralize the result of a gradual rise of
+temperature over the whole body, a second pair of bars, reversed in
+direction, was attached to the leg or arm, so that if a like increase of
+heat came to both, the electricity developed by one would be neutralized
+by the other, and no effect would be produced by the needle unless only
+one was affected. By long practice it was ascertained that a mental
+torpor could be induced, lasting for hours, in which the needle remained
+stationary. But let a person knock on the door outside of the room, or
+speak a single word, even though the experimenter remained absolutely
+passive, the reception of the intelligence caused the needle to swing
+twenty degrees. "In explanation of this production of heat," says
+Barker,[47] "the analogy of the muscle at once suggests itself. No
+conversion of energy is complete, and as the heat of muscular action
+represents force which has escaped conversion into motion, so the heat
+evolved during the reception of an idea is energy which has escaped
+conversion into thought, from precisely the same cause." Dr. Lombard's
+experiments have shown that the amount of heat developed by the
+recitation to one's self of emotional poetry, was in every case less
+when recitation was oral; this is of course accounted for by the
+muscular expression. Chemistry teaches that thought-force, like
+muscle-force, comes from the food, and demonstrates that the force
+evolved by the brain, like that produced by the muscle, comes not from
+the disintegration of its own tissue, but is the converted energy of
+burning carbon.[48] "Can we longer doubt," says Barker,[49] "that the
+brain too, is a machine for the conversion of energy? Can we longer
+refuse to believe that even thought force is in some mysterious way
+correlated to the other natural forces? and this even in the face of the
+fact that it has never yet been measured.[50] Have we not a right to ask
+'why a special force (vital force) should be needed to effect the
+transformation of physical forces into those modes of energy which are
+active in the manifestation of living beings, while no peculiar force is
+deemed necessary to effect the transformation of one mode of physical
+force into any other mode of physical force?"
+
+Richard Owen says:[51] "In the endeavor to clearly comprehend and
+explain the functions of the combination of forces called 'brain,' the
+physiologist is hindered and troubled by the views of the nature of
+those cerebral forces which the needs of dogmatic theology have imposed
+on mankind. * * * Religion, pure and undefiled, can best answer how far
+it is righteous or just to charge a neighbor with being unsound in his
+principles who holds the term 'life' to be a sound expressing the sum of
+living phenomena, and who maintains these phenomena to be modes of
+force into which other forms of force have passed from potential to
+active states, and reciprocally, through the agency of the sums or
+combinations of forces impressing the mind with the ideas signified by
+the terms 'monad,' 'moss,' 'plant,' or 'animal.'"
+
+We have now shown that the very forces which give vent to the attributes
+of man, are correlated to the physical forces. Let us now consider his
+attributes as manifested by his mental powers. There is no doubt the
+difference between the mental faculties of the ape and that of the
+lowest savage, who cannot express any number higher than four and who
+uses hardly any abstract terms for common objects or for the
+affections,[52] is still very great and would still be great, says
+Darwin, "even if one of the higher apes had been improved or civilized
+as much as a dog has been in comparison with its parent form, the wolf
+or jackal." But when we examine the interval of mental power between one
+of the lowest fishes, as a lamprey or a lancelet, and one of the higher
+apes, and recognize the fact that this interval is filled up by
+numberless gradations, it does not become so difficult to understand the
+interval between an ape and man, which is not by far so great. As in
+finding out what is peculiar to a living body in distinction to a body
+not living, we found it absurd to take man as the perfection of the
+animal scale--the microscopic monad possessing life as well as him--so
+in the case of man's mental attributes, which have always been
+increasing, always perfecting, since the first genuine man came into
+existence, it would be equally absurd to compare the intellectual man of
+to-day with an ape to see what attributes he possesses which the ape
+does not possess; but if we go down in the scale and compare the savage
+with the ape, the difficulty is not by far so great. It will be found
+on close examination, though, that man and the higher animals,
+especially the primates, have many instincts in common. "All," says
+Darwin, "have the same senses, intuitions and sensations; similar
+passions, affections, and emotions; even the more complex ones, such as
+jealousy, suspicion, emulation, gratitude and magnanimity; they practice
+deceit and are revengeful; they are sometimes susceptible to ridicule
+and even have a sense of humor; they feel wonder and curiosity; they
+possess the same faculties of imitation, attention, deliberation,
+choice, memory, imagination, the association of ideas, and reason,
+though in very different degrees. The individuals of the same species
+graduate in intellect from absolute imbecility to high excellence; they
+are also liable to insanity, though far less often than in the case of
+man."[53] Nevertheless, in the face of these facts, many authors have
+insisted that man is divided by an inseparable barrier from all the
+lower animals in his mental faculties. It only shows the improper or
+imperfect consideration of the subject they have under discussion.
+
+It may be thought at first that some of the mental attributes mentioned
+above are not possessed by animals. I therefore will briefly consider a
+few of the more complex ones. We can dismiss the consideration of such
+attributes as happiness, terror, suspicion, courage, timidity, jealousy,
+shame, and wonder, as well-known attributes. _Curiosity_ in animals is
+often observed. An instance mentioned by Brehm will serve to illustrate:
+Brehm gives a curious account of the instinctive dread which his monkeys
+exhibited for snakes; but their curiosity was so great that they could
+not desist from occasionally satiating their horror in a most human
+fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were kept.
+_Imitation_ is also found among the action of animals, especially among
+monkeys, which are well known to be ridiculous mockers.
+
+It is unnecessary to refer to the faculty of attention, as it is common
+to almost all animals, and the same may be said of memory as for persons
+or places.
+
+One would hesitate to believe an animal possesses _imagination_, but
+such is the case. Dreaming, it will be admitted, gives us the best
+notion of this power. Now as dogs, cats, horses, and probably all the
+higher animals, even birds, have vivid dreams--this is shown by their
+movements and the sounds uttered--"we must admit," says Darwin, "they
+possess some power of imagination. There must be something special which
+causes dogs to howl in the night, and especially during moonlight, in
+that remarkable and melancholy manner, called baying. All dogs do not do
+so; and, according to Housyeau,[54] they do not look at the moon, but at
+some fixed point near the horizon. Housyeau thinks that their
+imaginations are disturbed by the vague outlines of the surrounding
+objects, and conjure up before them fantastic images; if this be so,
+their feelings may almost be called superstitious."
+
+The next mental faculty is _reason_, which stands at the summit; but
+still there are few persons who will deny that animals possess some
+power of reasoning. A few illustrations will be all that is necessary to
+satisfy the inquiring mind on this point. Reugger, a most careful
+observer, states that when he first gave eggs to his monkey in Paraguay
+they smashed them, and thus lost much of their contents; afterward they
+gently hit one end against some hard body, and picked off the bits of
+shell with their fingers. After cutting themselves _once_ with any sharp
+tool, they would not touch it again, or would handle it with the
+greatest caution. Lumps of sugar were often given them, wrapped up in
+paper; and Reugger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that in
+hastily unfolding it they got stung; after this had _once_ happened,
+they afterward first held the packet to their ears to detect any
+movement within.
+
+The following cases relating to dogs are described by Darwin: Mr.
+Colquhoun winged two wild ducks, which fell on the farther side of a
+stream; his retriever tried to bring over both at once, but could not
+succeed; she then, though never before known to ruffle a feather,
+deliberately killed one, brought over the other, and returned for the
+dead bird. Colonel Hutchinson relates that two partridges were shot at
+once--one being killed, the other wounded; the latter ran away, and was
+caught by the retriever, who, on her return, came across the dead bird;
+"she stopped, evidently greatly puzzled, and after one or two trials,
+finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of the
+winged bird, she considered a moment, then deliberately murdered it by
+giving it a severe crunch, and afterward brought away both together.
+This was the only known instance of her ever having wilfully injured any
+game. Here we have reason, though not quite perfect; for the retriever
+might have brought the wounded bird first, and then returned for the
+dead one, as in the case of the two wild ducks. I give the above cases
+as resting on the evidence of two independent witnesses; and because in
+both instances the retrievers, after deliberation, broke through a habit
+which was inherited by them (that of not killing the game retrieved),
+and because they show how strong their reasoning faculty must have been
+to overcome a fixed habit."[55]
+
+It has often been said that no animal uses any tool, but this can be so
+easily refuted on reflection, that it is hardly worth while considering;
+for illustration, though, the chimpanzee in a state of nature cracks
+nuts with a stone; Darwin saw a young orang put a stick in a crevice,
+slip his hand to the other end, and use it in a proper manner as a
+lever. The baboons in Abyssinia descend in troops from the mountains to
+plunder fields, and when they meet troops of another species a fight
+ensues. They commence by rolling great stones at their enemies, as they
+often do when attacked with fire-arms.
+
+The Duke of Argyll remarks that the fashioning of an implement for a
+special purpose is absolutely peculiar to man; and he considers this
+forms an immeasurable gulf between him and the brutes. "This is no
+doubt," says Darwin, "a very important distinction; but there appears to
+me much truth in Sir J. Lubbock's suggestion,[56] that when primeval man
+first used flint-stones for any purpose, he would have accidentally
+splintered them, and would then have used the sharp fragments. From this
+step it would be a small one to break the flints on purpose, and not a
+very wide step to fashion them rudely. The later advance, however, may
+have taken long ages, if we may judge by the immense interval of time
+which elapsed before the men of the neolithic period took to grinding
+and polishing their stone tools. In breaking the flints, as Sir J.
+Lubbock likewise remarks, sparks would have been emitted, and in
+grinding them heat would have been evolved; thus the two usual methods
+of 'obtaining fire may have originated.' The nature of fire would have
+been known in many volcanic regions where lava occasionally flows
+through forests."
+
+It becomes a difficult task to determine how far animals exhibit any
+traces of such high faculties as _abstraction_, _general conception_,
+_self-consciousness_, _mental individuality_. There can be no doubt, if
+the mental faculties of an animal can be improved, that the higher
+complex faculties such as abstraction and self-consciousness have
+developed from a combination of the simpler ones; this seems to be well
+illustrated in the young child, as such faculties are developed by
+imperceptible degrees. These high faculties are very sparingly possessed
+by the savage; as Buchner[57] has remarked, how little can the
+hard-worked wife of a degraded Australian savage, who uses very few
+abstract words and cannot count above four, exert her self-consciousness
+or reflect on the nature of her own existence. If there exist a class of
+people so inferior in their mental faculties as these, it is not
+difficult for us to understand how the educated animal who possesses
+memory, attention, association, and even some imagination and reason,
+can become capable of abstraction, &c., in an inferior degree even to
+the savage. It certainly cannot be doubted that an animal possesses
+mental individuality--as when a master returns to a dog which he has not
+seen for years, and the dog recognizes him at once.
+
+One of the chief distinctions between man and animals is the faculty of
+language. Let us look at this for a moment. "The essential differences,"
+says Prof. Whitney, "which separate man's means of communication in kind
+as well as degree from that of the other animals is that, while the
+latter is instinctive, the former is in all its parts arbitrary and
+conventional. No man can become possessed of any language without
+learning it; no animal (that we know of) has any expression which he
+learns, which is not the direct gift of nature to him." Any child of
+parents living in a foreign country grows up to speak the foreign
+speech, unless carefully guarded from doing so; or it speaks both this
+and the tongue of its parent with equal readiness. A child must learn to
+observe and distinguish before speech is possible, and every child
+begins to know things by their name before he begins to call them. "If
+it were not for the added push," says Prof. Whitney, "given by the
+desire of communication, the great and wonderful power of the human
+soul would never move in this particular direction; but when this leads
+the way, all the rest follows." No philologist now supposes that any
+language has been deliberately invented; it has been slowly and
+unconsciously developed by many steps.
+
+There can be no question that language owes its origin to the imitation
+and modification of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals,
+and man's own instinctive cries, aided by signs and gestures; and this
+is the opinion of Max Müller. And Prof. Whitney remarks that "spoken
+language began, we may say, when a cry of pain, formally wrung out by
+real suffering, and seen to be understood and sympathized with, was
+repeated in imitation, no longer as a mere instinctive utterance, but
+for the purpose of intimating to another." Darwin says that "the early
+progenitor of man probably first used his voice in producing true
+musical cadences, that is, in singing, as do some gibbon-apes at the
+present day. It is therefore probable that the imitation of musical
+cries by articulate sounds may have given rise to words expressive of
+very complex emotions."
+
+The nearest approach to language are the sounds uttered by birds. All
+that sing exert their power instinctively, but the actual song, and even
+the call notes, are learned from their parents or foster-parents. These
+sounds are no more innate than language is in man, as has been proved by
+Davies Barrington.[58] The first attempt to sing "may be compared to the
+imperfect endeavor in a child to babble." Prof. Whitney says, if the
+last transition forms of man "could be restored, we should find the
+transition forms toward our speech to be, not at all a minor provision
+of natural articulate signs, but an inferior system of conventional
+signs, in tone, gesture, and grimace. As between these three natural
+means of expression, it is simply by a kind of process of natural
+selection and survival of the fittest that the voice has gained the
+upper hand, and come to be so much the most prominent that we give the
+name of language (tonguiness) to all expression." A single utterance or
+two at first had to do the duty of a whole clause; afterward man learned
+to piece together parts of speech, and thus arose sentences.
+
+Although no language, as has already been said, has been deliberately
+invented, "still each word may not be unfitly compared to an invention;
+it has its own place, mode, and circumstances of devisal, its
+preparation in the previous habits of speech, its influence in
+determining the after progress of speech development; but every language
+in the gross is an institution, on which scores or hundreds of
+generations and unnumbered thousands of individual workers have
+labored."[59]
+
+There is no question at all but that the mental powers in the earliest
+progenitors of man must have been more highly developed than in the ape,
+before even the most imperfect form of speech could have come into use;
+but the constant advancement of this power would have reacted on the
+mind to enable it to carry on longer trains of thought. "A complex train
+of thought," says Darwin, "can no more be carried on without the aid of
+words, whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the use
+of figures in algebra. It appears also that even an ordinary train of
+thought almost requires or is greatly facilitated by some form of
+language; for the dumb, deaf, and blind girl, Laura Bridgman, was
+observed to use her fingers while dreaming.[60] Nevertheless a long
+succession of vivid ideas may pass through the mind, without the aid of
+any form of language, as we may infer from the movements of dogs during
+their dreams."
+
+The struggle for existence is going on in every language; one after
+another will be swept out of existence, and the languages best fitted
+for the practical uses of the masses of people will alone survive. Max
+Müller has well remarked: "A struggle for life is constantly going on
+amongst the words and grammatical forms in each language. The better the
+shorter; the easier forms are constantly gaining the upper hand, and
+they owe their success to their own inherent virtue."[61]
+
+It must not be thought for a moment that that which distinguishes a man
+from the lower animals is the understanding of articulate sounds--for,
+as every one knows, dogs understand many words and sentences; and Darwin
+says, at this stage they are at the same stage of development as
+infants, between the ages of ten and twelve months, who understand many
+words and sentences, but still cannot utter a single word. It is not the
+mere articulation which is our distinguishing character; for parrots and
+other birds possess the power. Nor is it the mere capacity of connecting
+definite sounds with definite ideas; for it is certain that some
+parrots, which have been taught to speak, connect unerringly words with
+things, and persons with events." The lower animals, as has already been
+stated, differ from man solely in his almost infinitely larger power of
+associating together the most diversified sounds and ideas; and this
+obviously depends on the high development of his mental powers.
+
+We now come to the consideration of a very delicate subject--a subject
+which is certainly at best very unsatisfactory to handle, as far as
+popular sentiment is concerned; for, no matter how successfully it may
+be handled, according to one class of thinkers, to another class of more
+orthodox thinkers it would be entirely at fault. The subject is, _Man's
+Moral Sense, Belief in God, Religion, Conscience, and Hope of
+Immortality_.
+
+It has been stated by some writers that where "faith commences science
+ends." How erroneous is such a statement as this! for, as Krauth has
+said, "The great body of scientific facts is actually the object of
+knowledge to a few, and is supposed to be a part of the knowledge of the
+many, only because the many have faith in the statements of the few,
+though they can neither verify them, nor even understand the processes
+by which they are reached."[62]
+
+"We believe," says Lewes, "that the sensation of violet is produced by
+the striking of the ethereal waves against the retina more than seven
+hundred billions of times in a second. * * * These statements are
+accepted _on trust_ by us who know that there are thinkers for whom they
+are irresistible conclusions." It is evident that it is to faith that
+science owes, to a very great extent, her progress and development; for
+it is impossible for man to prove by experimental demonstration all the
+facts of science, and since a certain number of facts have got to be
+accepted before a new experiment can be attempted, he has to accept on
+faith that such and such a statement is a fact, because such and such a
+scientist has claimed to have demonstrated it. "We are not _responsible_
+for the fact," says Krauth, "that under the conditions of knowledge we
+_know_, or in defect of them do not know; we are responsible if, under
+the conditions of a well-grounded faith, we disbelieve."[63]
+
+Let us look, then, at the belief in God. The question under
+consideration at first will not be whether there exists a God, the
+creator and ruler of the universe--for this will be afterward
+considered--but is there any evidence that man was aboriginally endowed
+with the ennobling belief in the existence of an Omnipotent God.
+
+Schweinfurth relates that the Niam-niam, that highly interesting dwarf
+people of Central Africa, have no word for God, and therefore, it must
+be supposed, no idea; and Moritz Wagner has given a whole selection of
+reports on the absence of religious consciousness in inferior nations.
+The idea that conscience is a sort of permanent inspiration or dwelling
+of God in the soul, I think, on consideration, any reasonable man will
+not assume. "It is a purely human faculty," says Savage, "like the
+faculty for art or music; and it gets its authority, as they do by being
+true, and just in so far as it is true. Consciousness is our own
+knowledge of ourselves and of the relation between our own faculties and
+powers. Conscience is our recognition of the relations, as right or
+wrong, in which we stand to those about us, God and our fellows.
+_Con-scio_ is to know with, in relation.
+
+There is such a thing, of course, as a _false conscience_ and a _true
+conscience_. All the false "conscientiousness grows out of the fact that
+men suppose they stand in certain relationships that do not really
+exist. Thus they imagined duties that are not duties at all." The
+virtues which must be practised by rude men, so that they can hold
+together in tribes, are of course important. No tribe could hold
+together if robbery, murder, treachery, etc., were common; in other
+words, there must be honor among thieves. "A North-American Indian is
+well pleased with himself, and is honored by others, when he scalps a
+man of another tribe; and a Dyak cuts off the head of an unoffending
+person, and dries it as a trophy. The murder of infants has prevailed on
+the largest scale throughout the world, and has been met with no
+reproach; but infanticide, especially of females, has been thought to be
+good for the tribe, or at least not injurious. Suicide during former
+times was not generally considered as a crime, but rather, from the
+courage displayed, as an honorable act; and it is still practised by
+some semi-civilized and savage nations without reproach, for it does not
+obviously concern others of the tribe. It has been recorded that an
+Indian Thug conscientiously regretted that he had not robbed and
+strangled as many travelers as did his father before him."[64]
+
+See how weak the conscience of even more highly civilized men are in
+their dealings with the brute creation; how the sportsman delights in
+hunting-scenes, Spanish bull-fights, cock-fights, etc.; how indignant
+was the sensitive Cowper, if any one should "needlessly set foot upon a
+worm"! The rights of the worm are as sacred in his degree as ours are,
+and a true conscience will recognize them. What, then, is a true
+conscience? Savage states in a few words, it is "one that knows and is
+adjusted to the realities of life. When men know the truth about God,
+about themselves--body and mind and spirit--about the real relations of
+equity in which they stand to their fellow-men in state and church and
+society, and when they appreciate these, and adjust their conscience to
+them, then they will have a true conscience. An absolutely true
+conscience, of course, cannot exist so long as our knowledge of the
+reality of things is only partial."
+
+It is evident, then, that the conscience of man depends on his education
+and environments, and therefore is the subject of improvement. It
+becomes, then, the duty of every man to search for truth, for his
+conscience is not infallible, and by so doing he will bring it to accord
+with the real facts of God. "Throw away," says Savage, "prejudice and
+conceit, seek to make your conscience like the magnetic needle. The
+needle ever and naturally seeking the unchanging pole." As conscience,
+then, is but a faculty capable of development, it is not so difficult to
+understand a race of people whose conscience was in just the first
+stages of development; and, finally, a race which did not possess this
+faculty at all, as in the inferior nations which Wagner speaks of.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Butcher's Shop of the Anziques, Anno 1598.
+
+(From Man's Place in Nature, by _Huxley_.)]
+
+
+What kind of conscience and intelligence had the people near Cape Lopez,
+called the Anziques, which M. du Chaillu describes. They had incredible
+ferocity; for they ate one another, sparing neither friends nor
+relations. Their butcher-shops were filled with human flesh, instead of
+that of oxen or sheep, for they ate the enemies they captured in battle.
+They fattened, slayed, and devoured their slaves also, unless they
+thought they could get a good price for them; and moreover, for
+weariness of life or desire for glory (for they thought it a great thing
+and a sign of a generous soul to despise life), or for love of their
+rulers, offered themselves up for food. There were, indeed, many
+cannibals, as in the East Indies and Brazil and elsewhere, but none such
+as these, since the others only ate their enemies, but these their own
+blood relations.
+
+There is therefore, combining the fact mentioned by Wagner with the fact
+that some nations have no idea of one or more gods, not even a word to
+express it (proving that they have no idea), I say, there is therefore
+no evidence that man was aboriginally endowed with any such belief as
+the existence of an Omnipotent God; and in this assertion almost all the
+learned men concur. "If, however," says Darwin, "we include under the
+term religion, the belief in unseen or spiritual agencies, the case is
+wholly different; for this belief seems to be universal with the less
+civilized races. Nor is it difficult to understand how it arose."
+
+The savage has a stronger belief in bad spirits than in good ones. "The
+same high mental faculties which first led man to believe in unseen
+spiritual agencies, then in fetishism, polytheism, and ultimately in
+monotheism, would infallibly lead him, as long as his reasoning powers
+remained poorly developed, to very strange superstitions and customs.
+Many of these are terrible to think of: such as the sacrifice of human
+beings to a blood-loving god, the trial of innocent persons by the
+ordeal of poison, of fire, of witchcraft, etc.; yet it is well
+occasionally to reflect on these superstitions, for they show us what an
+infinite debt of gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason, to
+science, and to our accumulated knowledge."[65] As Sir J. Lubbock has
+well observed: "It is not too much to say that the possible dread of
+unknown evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life, and embitters
+every pleasure. These miserable and indirect consequences of our highest
+faculties may be compared with the incidental and occasional mistakes of
+the instincts of the lower animals."
+
+The belief, then, of the existence of an Omnipotent God came with the
+development of the mental faculties; and although there does exist such
+a belief in the minds of men whose conscience is in a normal condition,
+still there are temptations to unbelief, and these have led men to
+atheism. I cannot think of an atheist unless I associate in my thoughts
+the words:
+
+  "The ruling passion, be it what it may--
+  The ruling passion conquers reason still."
+
+The atheist has decided not to believe in the existence of a God, unless
+he can see Him and understand Him; in other words, the finite would
+comprehend the infinite. Following the logical method of reasoning of an
+atheist, the simple fact of seeing God in no way ought to prove his
+existence. For when you say you see a person, and that you have not the
+least doubt about it, I answer, that what you are really conscious of is
+an affection of your retina. And if you urge that you can check your
+sight of the person by touching him, I would answer, that you are
+equally transgressing the limits of fact; for what you are really
+conscious of is, not that he is there, but that the nerves of your hand
+have undergone a change. All you hear and see and touch and taste and
+smell are mere variations of your own condition, beyond which, even to
+the extent of a hair's-breadth, you cannot go. That anything answering
+to your impression exists outside of yourself is not a _fact_, but an
+_inference_, to which all validity would be denied by an idealist like
+Berkeley, or by a skeptic like Hume.[66]
+
+Thomas Cooper[67] said:
+
+  "I do not say--there is no God;
+  But this I say--I KNOW NOT."
+
+
+Mr. Bradlaugh says: "The atheist does not say, 'There is no God'; but he
+says, I know not what you mean by God; I am without idea of God; the
+word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation.
+I do not deny God, because I cannot deny that of which I have no
+conception, and the conception of which, by its affirmer, is so
+imperfect that he is unable to define it to me."
+
+Austin Holyoake[68] says: "The only way of proving the fallacy of
+atheism is by _proving_ the existence of a God."
+
+If it is logical proof that is wanted, there is plenty. The following
+arguments, although not all meeting my approbation, are still of
+interest:
+
+The _Ontological Argument_ has been presented in different forms. 1.
+Anselm,[69] Archbishop of Canterbury (1093-1109), states this argument
+thus: We have an idea of an infinitely perfect being. But real existence
+is an element of infinite perfection. Therefore an infinitely perfect
+being exists; otherwise the infinitely perfect, as we conceive it, would
+lack an essential element of perfection.
+
+2. Descartes[70] (1596-1650) states the argument thus: The idea of an
+infinitely perfect being which we possess could not have originated in a
+finite source, and therefore must have been communicated by an
+infinitely perfect being.
+
+3. Dr. Samuel Clark[71] (1705) argues that time and space are infinite
+and necessarily existent, but they are not substances. Therefore there
+must exist an eternal and infinite substance of which they are
+properties.
+
+4. Cousin[72] maintained that the idea of the finite implies the idea of
+the infinite as inevitably as the idea of the "me" implies that of the
+"not me."
+
+The _Cosmological Argument_ may be stated thus: "Every new thing and
+every change in a previously existing thing must have a cause sufficient
+and pre-existing. The universe consists of a series of changes.
+Therefore the universe must have a cause exterior and anterior to
+itself.
+
+The _Teleological Argument_, or argument from design or final causes, is
+as follows: Design, or the adaptation of means to effect an end, implies
+the exercise of intelligence and free choice. The universe is full of
+traces of design. Therefore the "First Cause" must have been a personal
+spirit.
+
+The _Moral Argument_ may be thus stated: "In looking at the works of God
+there is," says Rev. Dr. Hopkins, "I suppose, evidence enough,
+especially if interpreted by the moral consciousness, to prove to a
+candid man the being of God." The educated man is a religious being. The
+instinct of prayer and worship, the longing for and faith in divine love
+and help, are inseparable from human nature under normal conditions, as
+known in history.
+
+It is evident from the above that it is not for logical reasoning or
+arguments that the atheist is led to say, "that up to this moment the
+world has remained without knowledge of a God."[73] It is from the folly
+of his heart; and, as Solomon says, that "though you bray him and his
+false logic in the mortar of reason, among the wheat of facts, with the
+pestle of argument, yet will not his folly depart from him."[74] I fully
+agree with Hobbes when he says, "where there is no reason for our
+belief, there is no reason we should believe," but I think the several
+arguments given above, which could be greatly expanded, affords
+sufficient reason for a perfect belief in an Infinite God. For--
+
+  "God is a being, and that you may see
+  In the fold of the flower, in the leaf of the tree,
+  In the storm-cloud of darkness, in the rainbow of life,
+  In the sunlight at noontide, in the darkness of night,
+  In the wave of the ocean, in the furrow of land,
+  In the mountain of granite, in the atom of sand;
+  Gaze where ye may from the sky to the sod--
+  Where can you gaze and not see a God."
+
+Yes, the infinite God must include all. If he is not in the dust of our
+streets, in the bricks of our house, in the beat of our hearts, then he
+is not infinite, but is finite, having boundaries. Yes, God's power it
+was that set the nebulous mass into vibration, and caused the world to
+be formed; it was His force which first shaped the atoms into molecules,
+and then into more complex chemical products, till finally "organizable
+protoplasm" was reached, which, by evolution, climbed up to man. 'Tis
+God we see in the family, in society, in the state, in all religions, up
+to the highest outflowings of Christianity. 'Tis Him we see in art,
+literature, and science; and so proclaims Evolution. "God is the
+universal causal law; God is the source of all force and all matter."
+"For us," says Haeckel, "all nature is animated, _i. e._, penetrated
+with Divine spirit, with law, and with necessity." We know of no matter
+without this Divine spirit.
+
+The "ultimate repulsion, constituting the extension and impenetrability
+of the atoms of matter," says Dr. Samuel Brown, "could be conceived of
+in no other way than as the persistent existence of the will of God
+himself, in whom we live and move and have our being, and which, if but
+for an instant withdrawn, the whole material universe and its forces in
+all their vastness, glory, and beauty, would collapse and sink in a
+moment into their original nothingness."
+
+The advancement of science, instead of depriving man of his God, only
+deprives men of their earlier and ruder conceptions of Deity, only to
+impart a larger and grander thought of Him. "It is true, in the
+educational process some few minds have lost sight of Him altogether,
+but these are the exceptional, and therefore notable instances; with the
+great body of men, the conception of God has steadily enlarged with the
+progress of science."[75] If science can demonstrate that Evolution is
+true, then it is God's truth, and as such it is man's religious duty to
+accept it; if he rejects it, superstitiously or unreasonably, he not
+only defrauds himself but insults the Author of truth.
+
+What, then, has science demonstrated? Science has demonstrated the UNITY
+OF THE FORCES: Light, heat, electricity, magnetism, motion, are all
+correlated to one another, and are all mutually convertible one into
+another. Heat may be said to produce electricity--electricity to produce
+heat; magnetism to produce electricity--electricity, magnetism, and so
+on for the rest.
+
+UNITY OF MATTER AND FORCE.--"For if matter were not force, and
+immediately known as force, it could not be known at all--could not be
+rationally inferred."
+
+UNITY OF THE LIFE SUBSTANCE IN ALL ORGANIC AND ANIMAL BODIES.--"A unity
+of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity of substantial
+composition."
+
+UNITY OF ANIMATE AND INANIMATE NATURE IN MATTER, FORM, AND FORCE.
+
+UNITY OF THE LAWS OF DEVELOPMENT.--Hence we can proclaim the unity of
+all nature and of her laws of development.
+
+In the beautiful words of Giordano Bruno: "A spirit exists in all
+things, and no body is so small but contains a part of the divine
+substance within itself, by which it is animated." Hence we arrive at
+the sublime idea, since we can in no other way account for the ultimate
+cause of anything, that it is God's spirit which pervades and sustains
+all nature. By this admission we are not led to say: "There is no God
+but force;" but rather, "There is no force but God." God is infinite,
+and therefore includes nature; but is nature all? It is all that our
+finite minds can discover, 'tis true; but can there not exist another
+nature or world unknown to us; and if so, since God is infinite, he will
+include that world also. Let us look to this and see what science can
+answer.
+
+It will be necessary for us to consider before proceeding, what is meant
+by the term soul; and this becomes a somewhat difficult task, as the
+term has been variously applied to signify the principle of life in an
+organic body, or the first and most undeveloped stages of individualized
+spiritual being, or finally, all stages of spiritual individuality,
+incorporeal as well as corporeal.[76] The popular belief is, that the
+soul is not material but substantial, a divine gift to the highest alone
+of God's creatures; but scientific men, such as Carl Vogt, Moleschott,
+Büchner, Schmidt, Haeckel, consider the phenomena of the soul to be
+functions of the brain and nerves. Schmidt says: "The soul of the
+new-born infant is, in its manifestations, in no way different from that
+of the young animal. These are the functions of the infantine nervous
+system, with this they grow and are developed together with speech."
+
+The idea of the immortality of the soul was not aboriginal with mankind,
+as Sir J. Lubbock has shown that the barbarous races possess no clear
+belief of this kind, and Rajah Brook, at a missionary meeting in
+Liverpool, told his hearers there that the Dyaks, a people with whom he
+was connected, had no knowledge of God, of a soul, or of any future
+state.
+
+Darwin remarks, that "man may be excused for feeling some pride at
+having risen, though not through his own exertions, to the very summit
+of the organic scale; and the fact of his having thus risen, instead of
+having been aboriginally placed there, may give hope for a still higher
+destiny in the distant future."
+
+The belief in a future life amongst the civilized race of mankind is
+almost universally prevalent. The proofs of immortality are various. The
+desire that man has to live forever and his horror of annihilation is
+one; the good suffer in this world and the wicked triumph--this would
+indicate the necessity of future retribution. The infinite
+perfectibility of the human mind never reaches its full capacity in this
+life; the faculty of insight which sees in an individual all its past
+history at a glance is the immortal attribute and is continually on the
+increase; and it is possible that Aristotle was right so far as he
+stated that the lower faculties of the soul, such as sensation,
+imagination, feeling, memory, etc., are perishable. No matter if this be
+so or not, it is certain that in the next life, where all is perfection,
+only the fittest attributes will exist, the others would have perished.
+The doctrine of the immortality of the soul has been defended by
+Marhemeke, Blasche, Weisse, Hinnichs, Fecham, J. H. Fichte, and others.
+
+Let us look for a moment at the visible universe and see if it is not
+reasonable, on a scientific basis, to admit of the existence of another
+universe, although it remains unseen to us. One can not help but be
+struck with the fact that energy is being dissipated in this visible
+universe, that the visible universe is apparently very wasteful. Look at
+the sun which pours her vast store of high-class energy into space, at
+the rate of 185,000 miles per second. What will be the result of this?
+The answer is simple: The inevitable destruction of the visible
+universe. Yes, just as the visible universe had its beginning it will
+have its end. But there existed a power before the visible universe came
+into existence, and which is acting in the visible universe as the
+ultimate cause of all phenomena. "For we are obliged," says Herbert
+Spencer in his First Principles, "to regard every phenomenon as a
+manifestation of some power by which we are acted upon; though
+omnipresence is unthinkable, yet, as experience discloses no bounds to
+the diffusion of phenomena, we are unable to think of limits to the
+presence of this power, while the criticisms of science teaches us that
+this power is incomprehensible." And so we should expect, for a finite
+cannot comprehend an infinite. It is for this and other reasons one is
+led to believe that the visible universe is only an infinitesimal part
+of "that stupendous whole which is alone entitled to be called THE
+UNIVERSE."[77] As there existed an invisible universe before the visible
+one came into existence, we can conclude that there still exists an
+invisible universe now, and that this invisible universe will still
+exist when the present visible one has passed away. Let us see what
+light our finite senses can throw on this. It is well known that all our
+senses have only a certain narrow gauge within which they are able to
+bring us into sensible contact with the world about us. All outside this
+range we are unable to reach. For example, we do not see all forms and
+colors; we do not hear all sounds; we do not smell all odors; we cannot
+conscientiously touch all substances; we cannot taste all flavors. Vision
+depends on the wave motion of light. The length of a wave of mean red
+light is about 1/39000th of an inch, that of violet 1/57500th of an inch.
+But the number of oscillations of ether in a second, necessary to produce
+the sensation of red, are 477,000,000,000,000, all of which enter the eye
+in one second. For the sensation of violet, the eye must receive
+699,000,000,000,000 oscillations in one second, as light travels 185,000
+miles in one second. But when waves of light having all possible lengths
+act on the eye simultaneously, the sensation of white is produced. So, as
+has been previously stated, without eyes the world would be wrapped in
+darkness, there being no light and color outside of one's eye. So we see
+our sense of sight has its limits, and we know how finite these are. That
+there are vibrations of the ether on each side of our limits of vision
+cannot be doubted; and if our eyes were acute enough to receive them, we
+could have the sensation of some color, which must under present
+conditions remain forever blank. The owl and bat can see when we cannot;
+their eyes can receive oscillations of ether, which pass by without
+affecting us. So with sound, which "is a sensation produced when
+vibrations of a certain character are excited in the auditory apparatus of
+the ear."[78] The longest wave which can give an impression has a length
+of about 66 ft., which is equal to 16-1/2 vibrations per second; when the
+wave is reduced to three or four tenths of an inch, equal to from 38,000
+to 40,000 vibrations per second, sound becomes again inaudible. The piano,
+for instance, only runs between 27-1/2 vibrations in a second up to 3,520.
+Sound travels about 1,093 feet per second, and the human voice can be
+heard 460 feet away, whilst a rifle can be heard 16,000 feet (3.02 miles),
+and very strong cannonading 575,840 feet, or 90 miles. That there are
+vibrations above and below 16-1/2 and 40,000, there is no room to doubt,
+as there exist ears which can hear them, such as the hare; but to us they
+are as though they did not exist.
+
+Of all our senses, the sense of smell far surpasses that of the other
+sense. Valentine has calculated that we are able to perceive about the
+three one-hundred-millionth of a grain of musk. The minute particle
+which we perceive by smell, no chemical reaction can detect, and even
+spectrum analysis, which can recognize fifteen-millionths of a grain, is
+far surpassed. But this sense in man is far surpassed by the hound.
+
+Our sense of taste is also limited, and as has been already stated,
+cannot distinguish all flavors. We can recognize by taste one part of
+sulphuric acid in 1000 parts of water; one drop of this on the tongue
+would contain 1/2000 of a grain (3/400 of a grain) of sulphuric acid.
+The length of time needed for reaction in sensation has been determined
+by Vintschgau and Hougschmied, and in a person whose sense of taste was
+highly developed, the reaction time was, for common salt, 0.159 second;
+for sugar, 0.1639 second; for acid, 0.1676 second; and for quinine,
+0.2351 second.
+
+Reviewing, then, the above, it is evident there are eyes which can see
+what we cannot, there are ears which can hear what we cannot, and there
+are animals who can smell and touch what we cannot. "For anything we
+know to the contrary, then," says Savage, "a refined and spiritualized
+order of existences may be the inhabitants of another and unseen world
+all about us." As Milton has said:
+
+  "Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth
+  Unseen, both when we wake and when we sleep."
+
+If there is a life very much different from and very much higher than
+our present one, it is not strange we are ignorant of it. It is
+impossible to make a person understand anything which is entirely unlike
+all that has ever been seen or heard, for every idea in the world that
+man has came to him by nature. Man[79] cannot conceive of anything the
+hint of which has not been received from his surroundings. He can
+imagine an animal with the hoof of a bison, with the pouch of a
+kangaroo, with the wings of an eagle, with the beak of a bird, and with
+the tail of a lion; and yet every point of this monster he borrowed from
+nature. Everything he can think of, everything he can dream of, is
+borrowed from his surroundings--everything. "So, if an angel should come
+and tell of another life, it would mean nothing to us, unless we could
+translate it into terms of our own experience. We could not understand a
+'light that never was on land or sea.' Our ignorance is not even then a
+probability against our belief."[80]
+
+As has already been stated, the visible universe must have its doom,
+must end as it began, by consisting of a single mass of matter; but is
+there not a more primitive state of matter than the matter such as we
+know it? Yes; and the so-called ether is that matter. It is unlike any
+of the forms of matter which we can weigh and measure. It is in some
+respects like unto a fluid, and in some respects like unto a solid. It
+is both hard and elastic to an almost inconceivable degree. "It fills
+all material bodies like a sea in which the atoms of the material bodies
+are as islands, and it occupies the whole of what we call empty space.
+It is so sensitive that a disturbance in any part of it causes a 'tremor
+which is felt on the surface of countless worlds.' It exerts frictions;
+and although the friction is infinitely small, yet as it has an almost
+infinite time to work in, it will diminish the momentum of the planets,
+and diminish their ability to maintain their distance from the sun, the
+consequence of which will be the planets will fall into the sun, and the
+solar system will end where it begun."[81]
+
+According to Sir William Thompson, the ultimate atoms of matter are
+vortex rings, which Professor Clifford describes as being more closely
+packed together (finer grained) in ether than in matter. And he says,
+"whatever may turn out to be the ultimate nature of the ether and of
+molecules, we know that to some extent at least they obey the same
+dynamic laws, and that they act on one another in accordance with these
+laws. Until therefore it is absolutely disproved, it must remain the
+simplest and most probable assumption that they are finally made of the
+same stuff, that the material molecule is in some kind of knot or
+coagulation of ether."[82]
+
+The molecule of matter such as we know, then, may have been, and very
+probably was, produced by evolution from the atoms or vortex rings of
+ether, according to the theory advanced by the authors of the work
+called the "Unseen Universe," which I have referred to. The world of
+ether is to be regarded in some sort the obverse complement of the world
+of sensible matter, so that whatever energy is dissipated in the one is
+by the same act accumulated in the other; or, as Fiske describes it, "it
+is like the negative plate in photography, where light answers to shadow
+and shadow to light." Every act of consciousness is accompanied by
+molecular displacements in the brain, and these of course are responded
+to by movements in the ethereal world. Views of this kind were long ago
+entertained by Babbage, and they have since recommended themselves to
+other men of science, and amongst others to Jevon, who says: "Mr.
+Babbage has pointed out that if we had power to follow and detect the
+manifest effects of any disturbance, each particle of existing matter
+must be a register of all that has happened. * * * The air itself is one
+vast library on whose pages are forever written all that man has ever
+said or whispered. There in their mutable but unerring characters,
+mixed with, the earliest as well as the latest sighs of mortality, stand
+forever recorded vows unredeemed, promises unfulfilled, perpetuating in
+the united movements of each particle the testimony of man's changeful
+will."[83]
+
+So thought affects the substance of the present visible universe; it
+produces a material organ of memory. "But the motions which accompany
+thought," say the authors,[84] "will also affect the invisible order of
+things," and thus it follows that "thought conceived to affect the
+matter of another universe, simultaneously with this, may explain a
+future state."[85]
+
+Death, then, is for the individual but a transfer from one physical
+state of existence to another, according to the "authors'"[86] idea; and
+so, on the largest scale, the death or final loss of energy by the whole
+visible universe has its counterpart in the acquirement of a maximum of
+life, the correlative unseen world. According to this theory, therefore,
+as the psychical or spiritual phenomena of the visible world only begins
+to be manifested with some complex aggregate of material phenomena,
+therefore it is necessary for the continuance of mind in a future state
+to have some sort of material vehicle also, which the ether is supposed
+to supply. "The essential weakness of such a theory as this," says
+Fiske, "lies in the fact that it is thoroughly materialistic in
+character. We have reason for thinking it probable that ether and
+ordinary matter are alike composed of vortex rings in a
+quasi-frictionless fluid; but whatever be the fate of this subtle
+hypothesis, we may be sure that no theory will ever be entertained in
+which analysis of ether shall require different symbols from that of
+ordinary matter. In our authors' theory, therefore, the putting on of
+immortality is in nowise the passage from a material to a spiritual
+state. It is the passage of one kind of materially conditioned state to
+another." This theory, dealing with matter, should receive support by
+actual experience, as matter is a subject of investigation. To accept
+it, therefore, as being possible without any positive evidence for its
+support, it remains but a weak speculation, no matter how ingenious it
+may seem.
+
+To support an after life, which is not materially conditioned, I agree
+with Mr. Fiske, that although it will be unsupported by any item of
+experience whatever, it may nevertheless be an impregnable assertion.
+
+If all were to agree, what we call matter is really force, as it
+certainly is, for if matter were not force it would be unthinkable,
+being force it becomes thinkable; this point I have touched on before,
+but it may be well to elaborate on it a little just here. The great
+lesson that Berkeley taught mankind was that what we call material
+phenomena are really the products of consciousness co-operating with
+some unknown power (not material) existing beyond consciousness. "We do
+very well to speak of matter," says Fiske, "in common parlance, but all
+that the word really means is a group of qualities which have no
+existence apart from our minds." The ablest modern thinkers, then,
+believe that the only real things that exist are the mind and God, and
+that the universe is only the infinitely varied manifestation of God in
+the human conscience. It is evident, then, that _matter_, the only thing
+the materialist concedes real existence, is simply an orderly
+phantasmagoria; and God and soul, which materialists regard as mere
+fictions of the imagination, are the only conceptions that answer to
+real existence.[87]
+
+For instance, let us see what it is we know about a table. You say you
+can see it; I can respond that all you are conscious of is that the
+nerves of your eye have undergone a change. You say, I can check my
+sight of it by touching it; to this I reply, all that you are really
+conscious of is a sensation, and that something outside of you has
+produced it. But that all that is outside of me is anything more than
+the manifestation to me of a power or of God, is an inference and cannot
+be proven. To constant manifestations of this power, always assuming the
+same form and characters which can be studied, different names have been
+given; but that the dust of the street or beat of our heart is anything
+else but that peculiar manifestation of the infinite God, cannot be
+contradicted.
+
+Mr. Savage says, "The movement of electricity along a telegraph-line is
+accompanied by certain molecular changes in the wire itself; but the
+wire is not electricity, neither does it produce it. Thus modern science
+has found it utterly impossible to explain mind either as a part or a
+product of matter. It is perfectly reasonable, then, for any man to
+believe in a purely intellectual and spiritual existence, apart from any
+material form or substance."
+
+To comprehend the immortal life is an impossibility; it transcends any
+earthly experience of man. The caterpillar probably knows nothing about
+any life higher than that of his toilsome crawling on the ground; but
+that is no proof against the fact that we know he is to become a
+butterfly. The boy knows nothing about manhood, and cannot know. Though
+he sees men and their labors all about him, he has and can have no
+conception whatever of what it means to be a man; it transcends all
+experience.[88] "The existence," says Fiske, "of a single soul, or
+congeries of psychical phenomena, unaccompanied by a material body,
+would be evidence sufficient to demonstrate this hypothesis. But in the
+nature of things, even were there a million such souls round about us,
+we could not become aware of the existence of one of them; for we have
+no organ or faculty for the perception of soul apart from the material
+structure and activities in which it has been manifested throughout the
+whole course of our experience. Even our own self-consciousness involves
+the consciousness of ourselves as partly material bodies. These
+considerations show that our hypothesis is very different from the
+ordinary hypothesis with which science deals. _The entire absence of
+testimony does not raise a negative presumption, except in cases where
+testimony is accessible._"
+
+My object has not been to prove the purely spiritual theory of a future
+life, but to show that it is a theory that intelligent people can
+entertain as a foundation for their belief "in the hope of immortality."
+But that the spiritual life instead of the material life is the state in
+which we can hope for immortality, I think there can be no question; and
+such was the opinion of Paul[89] when he wrote: "Now this I say,
+brethren, that flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God,
+neither does corruption inherit incorruption.... So when this
+corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortal shall have
+put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying that is
+written, 'Death is swallowed up in victory.'
+
+  O death, where is thy sting?
+  O grave, where is thy victory?"
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] The Law of Disease, in College Courant, Vol. XIV.
+
+[2] Winchell. Evolution, p. 113.
+
+[3] Comparative Zoology, p. 43. 1876.
+
+[4] Huxley. Physical Basis of Life.
+
+[5] Johnson, Ency.
+
+[6] Comparative Anatomy--Orton, p. 32.
+
+[7] Analytical Anatomy and Phys.--Cutter, p. 16.
+
+[8] Biography of a Plant.
+
+[9] See Huxley--Invertebrate Animals, Anatomy of.
+
+[10] Phys. Basis of Life.
+
+[11] Beginnings of Life, p. 104, Vol. I.
+
+[12] Monthly Micros. Jour., May 1, '69, p. 294.
+
+[13] Chem. and Phys. Balance of Organic Nature, 1848, p. 48 (trans.).
+
+[14] Inaugural Address, Aug. 19, 1874.
+
+[15] Haeckel--Hist. of Creation.
+
+[16] See Haeckel--Evol. of Man.
+
+[17] Evolution of Man, Vol. II, p. 445.
+
+[18] Johnson's Cyclopedia, Article "Evolution."
+
+[19] Sumner, in Johnson's Cyc.
+
+[20] Christian Union, Vol. XIII, No. 17, p. 322.
+
+[21] Gen. i. 1.
+
+[22] St. John i. 1.
+
+[23] St. John i. 3.
+
+[24] Hist. of Creation, p. 8.
+
+[25] _Ibid._, p. 324.
+
+[26] Heb. xi. 3. Revised English Ed.
+
+[27] _Loc. cit._, Vol. I, p. 323.
+
+[28] _Loc. cit._, Vol. I, p. 324.
+
+[29] Indications of the Creator.
+
+[30] Evolution and Progress, p. 26, Rev. Wm. I. Gill.
+
+[31] Natürl. Schöpfungsgesch., pp. 643-5.
+
+[32] Paget, Lectures on Surgical Pathology, 1853, Vol. I, p. 71.
+
+[33] Ueber die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen Körper.
+
+[34] Pop. Sci. Monthly, June, 1879, p. 250.
+
+[35] See Sci. Am., May 18, 1878.
+
+[36] Source of Muscular Power, Proc. Roy. Inst., June 8, 1866. Am. I.
+Sci., II, xlii, 393, Nov. 1866.
+
+[37] Comparative Zoology, p. 45.
+
+[38] Correlation of the Vital and Physical Forces, p. 54.
+
+[39] On the time required for the transmission of volition and sensation
+through the nerves, Proc. Roy. Inst.
+
+[40] Comparative Zoology, p. 165.
+
+[41] Sci. Amer., Nov. 13, 1876, p. 328.
+
+[42] Marshall, Outline of Physiology. Amer. Ed., 1868, p. 227.
+
+[43] Macmillon's Magazine, Pop. Sci. Monthly, April, 1876.
+
+[44] "Principles of Psychology," 1869, No. 20, p. 24.
+
+[45] J. S. Lombard, N. Y. Med. Jour., Vol. V, 198, June, 1867.
+
+[46] _Loc. cit._, p. 23.
+
+[47] The apparatus employed is illustrated and fully described in
+Brown-Sequard's Archives de Phys., Vol. I, 498, June, 1868. By it the
+1-4000th of a degree Centigrade may be indicated.
+
+[48] L. H. Wood, "On the influence of mental activity on the excretion
+of phosphoric acid by the kidneys." Proc. Conn. Med. Soc., Nov., 1869,
+p. 197.
+
+[49] _Loc. cit._, p. 24.
+
+[50] Address of Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, as retiring president, before the
+Am. Ass. for Adv. of Sci., Chicago meeting, Aug. 1868. "Thought cannot
+be a physical force, because thought admits of no measure."
+
+[51] Derivation hypothesis of life and species, forming fortieth chapter
+of his Anatomy of Vertebrates, republished in Am. Jour. Sci., II, xlvii,
+33, Jan. 1869.
+
+[52] Prehistoric Times, p. 354, by Lubbock.
+
+[53] Madness in Animals, Jour. Mental Sci., July, 1871. Dr. W. L.
+Lindsay.
+
+[54] Facultés Mentales des Animaux, 1872, Tom. XI, p. 181.
+
+[55] Primeval Man, 1869, pp. 145-147.
+
+[56] Prehistoric Times, 1865, p. 473.
+
+[57] "Conferences ser les Théorie Darwinienne," 1869, p. 132.
+
+[58] Philosoph. Trans., 1773, p. 262.
+
+[59] Prof. Whitney, p. 309.
+
+[60] Phys. and Pathol. of Mind. Dr. Maudsley. 3d ed., 1868, p. 199.
+
+[61] Nature, January 6, 1870, p. 257.
+
+[62] Problems i. 21.
+
+[63] Johnson's Cyc. Article "Faith." C. P. Krauth.
+
+[64] Darwin's Descent of Man, p. 117.
+
+[65] See Descent of Man, p. 96.
+
+[66] See Tyndall's Belfast Address.
+
+[67] Purgatory of Suicides.
+
+[68] Thoughts on Atheism, p. 4.
+
+[69] Monologium and Proslogium.
+
+[70] Meditations de Primaphilosophia Prop. 2, p. 89.
+
+[71] Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God.
+
+[72] Elements of Psychology.
+
+[73] Thoughts on Atheism, by Holyoake, p. 4.
+
+[74] Proverbs xvii. 22.
+
+[75] Henry Ward Beecher.
+
+[76] See W. T. Harris. Johnson's Encyc. "Soul."
+
+[77] Unseen Universe.
+
+[78] Rood. "Sound," Johnson's Encyc.
+
+[79] See R. G. Ingersoll's Lecture on Hell.
+
+[80] Savage.
+
+[81] "The Unseen World." John Fiske, p. 21.
+
+[82] Fortnightly Review, June 1875, p. 784.
+
+[83] Ninth Bridgewater Treatise.
+
+[84] Of the Unseen Universe.
+
+[85] Anagram. Nature, Oct. 15, 1874.
+
+[86] Of the Unseen Universe.
+
+[87] Fiske. Unseen World, p. 52.
+
+[88] Savage. Relig. of Evol., p. 246.
+
+[89] 1 Corinthians, xv., verses 50-54 (Part of). _Revised English Ed._,
+1877.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_.
+
+Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=.
+
+Numbers enclosed in {brackets} are subscripted in the original text.
+
+Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate
+both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as
+presented in the original text.
+
+Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest
+paragraph break.
+
+The following misprints have been addressed:
+  "Hæckel" standardized to "Haeckel" (page 57)
+  missing "the" added (page 91)
+  "paleontology" standardized to "palæontology" (page 108)
+  "cerebelbellum" corrected to "cerebellum" (page 113)
+
+Some quotation marks in the original are not paired. Obvious errors have
+been silently closed, while those requiring interpretation have been
+left open.
+
+Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies in
+spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been retained.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Was Man Created?, by Henry A. Mott
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30429 ***
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30429 ***</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i002.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center">FOSSIL MAN OF MENTONE. (From Popular Science Monthly, October, 1874.)</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h1>WAS MAN CREATED?</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>HENRY A. MOTT, <span class="smcap">Jr.</span>, E.M., <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span>, <span class="smcap">Etc.</span>,</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><i>Member of the American Chemical Society, Member of the Berlin Chemical
+Society, Member of the New York Academy of Sciences, Member of the
+American Association for the Advancement of Science, Member of the
+American Pharmaceutical Association, Fellow of the Geographical Society, Etc., Etc.</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Author of the "Chemists' Manual," "Adulteration of Milk," "Artificial Butter,"
+"Testing the Value of Rifles by Firing under Water," Etc., Etc.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>NEW YORK:<br />GRISWOLD &amp; COMPANY,<br />150 <span class="smcap">Nassau Street</span>.<br />1880.</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Copyright by</span><br />HENRY A. MOTT, <span class="smcap">Jr.</span>,<br />1880.</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Trow's<br />Printing and Bookbinding Co.</span>,<br /><i>205-213 East 12th St.</i>,<br />NEW YORK.</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>Electrotyped by <span class="smcap">Smith &amp; McDougal</span>, 82 Beekman Street, N. Y.</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">This</span> work was originally written to be delivered as a lecture; but as
+its pages continued to multiply, it was suggested to the author by
+numerous friends that it ought to be published in book-form; this, at
+last, the author concluded to do. This work, therefore, does not claim
+to be an exhaustive discussion of the various departments of which it
+treats; but rather it has been the aim of the author to present the more
+interesting observations in each department in as concise a form as
+possible. The author has endeavored to give credit in every instance
+where he has taken advantage of the labors of others. This work is not
+intended for that class of people who are so absolutely certain of the
+truth of their religion and of the immortality that it teaches, that
+they have become unqualified to entertain or even perceive of any
+scientific objection; for such people may be likened unto those who,
+"<i>Seeing, they see, but will not perceive; and hearing, they hear, but will not understand.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>This work is written for the man of culture who is seeking for
+truth&mdash;believing, as does the author, that all truth is God's truth, and
+therefore it becomes the duty of every scientific man to accept it;
+knowing, however, that it will surely modify the popular creeds and
+methods of interpretation, its final result can only be to the glory of
+God and to the establishment of a more exalted and purer religion. All
+facts are truths; it consequently follows that all scientific facts are
+truths&mdash;there is no half-way house&mdash;a statement is either a truth or it
+is not a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> truth, according to the <i>law of non-contradiction</i>. If,
+therefore, we find tabulated amongst scientific facts (or truths) a
+statement which is not a fact, it is not science; but all statements
+which are facts it naturally follows are truths, and as such must be
+accepted, no matter how repulsive they may at first seem to some of our
+poetical imaginings and pet theories. We cannot help but sympathize with
+the feelings which prompted President Barnard to write the following
+lines, still we will see he was too hasty: "Much as I love truth in the
+abstract," he says, "I love my hope of immortality more." *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* He
+maintained that it is better to close one's eyes to the evidences than
+to be convinced of the <i>truth</i> of certain doctrines which <i>he regards</i>
+as subversive of the fundamentals of Christian faith. "If this (is all)
+is the best that science can give me, then I pray no more science. Let
+me live on in my simple ignorance, as my fathers lived before me; and
+when I shall at length be summoned to my final repose, let me still be
+able to fold the drapery of my couch about me, and lie down to pleasant,
+even though they be deceitful, dreams."<small><a name="f1.1" id="f1.1" href="#f1">[1]</a></small> The limitations to the
+acceptance of truth that President Barnard makes is wrong; for, as
+Professor Winchell has said, "we think it is a higher aspiration to wish
+to know 'the truth and the whole truth.' At the same time, we have not
+the slightest apprehension that the whole truth can ever dissipate our
+faith in a future life."<small><a name="f2.1" id="f2.1" href="#f2">[2]</a></small> Let us "Prove all things and hold fast unto
+that which is good," recognizing the fact that "the truth-seeker is the
+only God-seeker."</p>
+
+<p class="right">AUTHOR</p>
+<p><small><span class="smcap">January 25, 1880</span>.</small></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Chart of Man's Development</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10-13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Protoplasm</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Cells</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Life</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Vital Force</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Analysis of Man</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Unity of Organic and Inorganic Nature</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Spontaneous Generation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Coming into Existence of Man</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Evolution</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Theories of the World's Formation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Bible</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Kant's Cosmogony</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Nature a Perpetual Creation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Laws of Evolution</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Survival of the Fittest</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Rudimentary Organs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Reproduction by Means of Eggs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Double-Sexed Individuals</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Inheritance</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Artificial Monsters</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Acquired Qualities</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Geological Record</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Ontogeny</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span><span class="smcap">The Attributes of Man</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Muscular Force</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Thought Force</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Attributes of Animals</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Attributes of a Savage</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Language</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Faith</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">True Conscience</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Belief in God</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Proof of the Existence of God</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Unity of all Nature</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Soul</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Finite Senses of Man</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Unseen Universe</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Manifestations of God</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Hope of Immortality</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142-151</a></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>WAS MAN CREATED?</h1>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+<h3>HAECKEL'S CHART OF MAN'S DEVELOPMENT, Arranged by HENRY A. MOTT, Jr., Ph. D.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i010.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i011.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i012.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i013.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+<h2>WAS MAN CREATED?</h2>
+
+<h3>WHAT SCIENCE CAN ANSWER.</h3>
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">"The</span> object of science is not to find out what we like or what we
+dislike&mdash;the object of science is Truth." In the discussion of the
+subject, "<i>Was Man Created?</i>" our object will be&mdash;not to study the many
+ways God might have created him, but the way he actually did create him,
+for all ways would be alike easy to an Omnipotent Being.</p>
+
+<p>Let us look at man and ask the question: What is there about him which
+would need an independent act of creation any more than about the
+"mountain of granite or the atom of sand"? The answer comes back:
+Besides life, man has many mental attributes. Let us direct our
+attention at first to the grand phenomena of life, and then to man's
+attributes.</p>
+
+<p>To discover the nature of life, to find out what life really is, it
+would be folly to commence by comparing man, the perfection of living
+beings, with an inorganic or inanimate substance like a brick, to
+discover the hidden secret; for, as Professor Orton says:<small><a name="f3.1" id="f3.1" href="#f3">[3]</a></small> "That only
+is essential to life which is common to all forms of life. Our brains,
+stomach, livers, hands and feet are luxuries. They are necessary to make
+us human, but not living beings." Instead of man, then, it will be
+necessary for us to take the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> simplest being which possesses such a
+phenomena; and such are the little homogeneous specks of protoplasm,
+constituting the Group <i>Monera</i>, which are entirely destitute of
+structure, and to which the name "Cytode" has been given. In the fresh
+waters in the neighborhood of Jena minute lumps of protoplasm were
+discovered by Haeckel, which, on being examined under the most powerful
+lens of a microscope, were seen to have no constant form, their outlines
+being in a state of perpetual change, caused by the protrusion from
+various parts of their surface of broad lobes and thick finger-like
+projections, which, after remaining visible for a time, would be
+withdrawn, to make their appearance again on some other part of the
+surface. To this little mass of protoplasm Haeckel has given the name
+<i>Protan&aelig;ba primitiva</i>. These little lumps multiply by spontaneous
+division into two pieces, which, on becoming dependent, increase in size
+and acquire all the characteristics of the parent. From this
+illustration, it will be seen that "reproduction is a form of nutrition
+and a growth of the individual to a size beyond that belonging to it as
+an individual, so that a part is thus elevated into a (new) whole."</p>
+
+<p>It is to this simple state of the monera the <i>fertilized</i> egg of any
+animal is transformed&mdash;the germ vesicle; the original egg kernel
+disappears, and the parent kernel (cytococcus) forms itself anew; and it
+is in this condition, a non-nucleated ball of protoplasm, a true cytod,
+a homogeneous, structureless body, without different constituent parts,
+that the human child, as well as all other living beings, take their
+first steps in development. No matter how wonderful this may seem, the
+fact stares us in the face that the entire human child, as well as every
+animal with all their great future possibilities, are in their first
+stage a small ball of this complex homogeneous substance. Whether we
+consider "a mere infinitesimal ovoid particle which finds space and
+duration enough to multiply into countless millions in the body of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+living fly, and then of the wealth of foliage, the luxuriance of flower
+and fruit which lies between this bald sketch of a plant and the
+gigantic pine of California, towering to the dimensions of a cathedral
+spire, or the Indian fig which covers acres with its profound shadow,
+and endures while nations and empires come and go around its vast
+circumference," or we look "at the other half of the world of life,
+picturing to ourselves the great finner whale, hugest of beasts that
+live or have lived, disporting his eighty or ninety feet of bone,
+muscle, and blubber, with easy roll, among the waves in which the
+stoutest ship that ever left dock-yard would founder hopelessly, and
+contrast him with the invisible animalcule, mere gelatinous specks,
+multitudes of which could in fact dance upon the point of a needle with
+the same ease as the angels of the schoolman could in imagination;&mdash;with
+these images before our minds, it would be strange if we did not ask
+what community of form or structure is there between the fungus and the
+fig-tree, the animalcule and the whale? and, <i>&agrave; fortiori</i>, between all
+four? Notwithstanding these apparent difficulties, a threefold
+unity&mdash;namely, a unity of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity
+of substantial composition&mdash;does pervade the whole living world."<small><a name="f4.1" id="f4.1" href="#f4">[4]</a></small> And
+this unit is Protoplasm. So we see it is necessary for us to retreat to
+our protoplasm as a naked formless plasma, if we would find freed from
+all non-essential complications the agent to which has been assigned the
+duty of building up structure and of transforming the energy of lifeless
+matter into the living. Even Goethe (in 1807) almost stated this when he
+said: "Plants and animals, regarded in their most imperfect condition,
+are hardly distinguishable. This much, however, we may say, that from a
+condition in which plant is hardly to be distinguished from animal,
+creatures have appeared, gradually perfecting themselves in two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+opposite directions&mdash;the plant is finally glorified into the tree,
+enduring and motionless; the animal into the human being of the highest
+mobility and freedom."</p>
+
+<p>Let us examine for a moment this substance Protoplasm, and see in what
+way it differs from inorganic matter, or in what way the animate differs
+from the inanimate&mdash;the living from the dead.</p>
+
+<p>Felix Dujardin, a French zoologist (1835) pointed out that the only
+living substance in the body of rhizopods and other inferior primitive
+animals, is identical with protoplasm. He called it <i>sarcode</i>. Hugo von
+Mohl (1846) first applied the name protoplasm to the peculiar serus and
+mobile substance in the interior of vegetable cells; and he perceived
+its high importance, but was very far from understanding its
+significance in relation to all organisms. Not, however, until Ferdinand
+Cohn (1850) and more fully Franz Unger (1855) had established the
+identity of the animate and contractile protoplasm in vegetable cells
+and the sarcode of the lower animals, could Max Shultz in 1856-61
+elaborate the protoplasm theory of the sarcode so as to proclaim
+protoplasm to be the most essential and important constituent of all
+organic cells, and to show that the bag or husk of the cell, the
+cellular membrane and intercellular substance, are but secondary parts
+of the cell, and are frequently wanting. In a similar manner Lionel
+Beale (1862) gave to protoplasm, including the cellular germ, the name
+of "germinal matter," and to all the other substance entering into the
+composition of tissue, being secondary, and produced the name of "formed
+matter."</p>
+
+<p>"Wherever there is life there is protoplasm; wherever there is
+protoplasm, there, too, is life." The physical consistence of protoplasm
+varies with the amount of water with which it is combined, from the
+solid form in which we find it in the dormant state to the thin watery
+state in which it occurs in the leaves of valisneria.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>As to its composition, chemistry can as yet give but scanty information;
+it can tell that it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
+sulphur, and phosphorus, and it can also tell the percentage of each
+element, but it cannot give more than a formula that will express it as
+a whole, giving no information as to the nature of the numerous
+albuminoid substances which compose it. Edward Cope, in his article on
+Comparative Anatomy,<small><a name="f5.1" id="f5.1" href="#f5">[5]</a></small> gives the formula for protoplasm (as a whole),
+C<sub>24</sub>H<sub>17</sub>N<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub> + S and P, in small quantities under some circumstances.
+It is therefore, he says, a nitryl of cellulose: C<sub>24</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>2</sub> + 3NH<sub>3</sub>.
+According to Mulder the composition of albumen, one of the class of
+protein substances to which protoplasm belongs, is 10(C<sub>40</sub>H<sub>31</sub>N<sub>5</sub>O<sub>12</sub>) +
+S<sub>2</sub>P. Protoplasm is identical in both the animal and vegetable kingdom;
+it behaves the same from whatever source it may be derived towards
+several re-agents, as also electricity. Is it possible, then, that the
+protoplasm which produces the mould is exactly the same composition as
+that which produces the human child? The answer is <span class="smcap">Yes</span>, so far as the
+elements are concerned, but the proportions of carbon, hydrogen, etc.,
+must enter into an infinite number of diverse stratifications and
+combination in the production of the various forms of life. Professor
+Frankland, speaking of protein, for instance, says it is capable of
+existing under probably at least a thousand isomeric forms. Protoplasm
+may be distinguished under the microscope from other members of the
+class to which it belongs, on account of the faculty it possesses of
+combining with certain coloring matters, as carmine and aniline; it is
+colored dark-red or yellowish-brown by iodine and nitric acid, and it is
+coagulated by alcohol and mineral acids as well as by heat. It possesses
+the quality of absorbing water in various quantities, which renders it
+sometimes extremely soft and nearly liquid, and sometimes hard and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> firm
+like leather. Its prominent physical properties are excitability and
+contractility, which K&uuml;hne and others have especially investigated. The
+motion of protoplasm in plants was first made known by Bonaventure Corti
+a century ago in the Char&oelig; plants; but this important fact was
+forgotten, and it had to be discovered by Treviranus in 1807. The
+regular motion of the protoplasm, forming a perfect current, may be seen
+in the hairs of the nettle, and weighty evidence exists that similar
+currents occur in all young vegetable cells. "If such be the case," says
+Huxley, "the wonderful noonday silence of a tropical forest is, after
+all, due only to the dullness of our hearing, and could our ears catch
+the murmur of these tiny maelstroms, as they whirl in innumerable
+myriads of living cells, which constitute each tree, we should be
+stunned as with a roar of a great city."</p>
+
+<p>One step higher in the scale of life than the monera is the vegetable or
+animal cell, which arose out of the monera by the important process of
+segregation in their homogeneous viscid bodies, the differentiation of
+an inner kernel from the surrounding plasma. By this means the great
+progress from a simple cytod (without kernel) into a real cell (with
+kernel) was accomplished. Some of these cells at an early stage encased
+themselves by secreting a hardened membrane; they formed the first
+vegetable cells, while others remaining naked developed into the first
+aggregate of animal cells. The vegetable cell has usually two concentric
+coverings&mdash;cell-wall and primordial utricle. In animal cells the former
+is wanting, the membrane representing the utricle. As a general fact,
+also, animal cells are smaller than vegetable cells. Their size<small><a name="f6.1" id="f6.1" href="#f6">[6]</a></small>
+varies greatly, but are generally invisible to the naked eye, ranging
+from <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">500</span>
+to <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">10000</span> of an inch in diameter. About four thousand of the
+smallest would be required to cover the dot put over the letter i in
+writing. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> shape of cells varies greatly; the normal form, though, is
+spheroidal as in the cells of fat, but they often become<small><a name="f7.1" id="f7.1" href="#f7">[7]</a></small>
+many-sided&mdash;sometimes flattened as in the cuticle, and sometimes
+elongated into a simple filament as in fibrous tissue or muscular fibre.</p>
+
+<p>The cell, therefore, is extremely interesting, since all animal and
+vegetable structure is but the multiplication of the cell as a unit, and
+the whole life of the plant or animal is that of the cells which compose
+them, and in them or by them all its vital processes are carried on. It
+may sound paradoxical to speak of an animal or plant being composed of
+millions of cells; but beyond the momentary shock of the paradox no harm is done.</p>
+
+<p>The cell, then, can be regarded as the basis of our physiological idea
+of the elementary organism; but in the animal as well as in the plant,
+neither cell-wall nor nucleus is an essential constituent of the cell,
+inasmuch as bodies which are unquestionably the equivalents of
+cells&mdash;true morphological units&mdash;may be mere masses of protoplasm,
+devoid alike of cell-wall or nucleus. For the whole living world, then,
+the primary and a mental form of life is merely an individual mass of
+protoplasm in which no further structure is discernible. Well, then, has
+protoplasm been called the "universal concomitant of every phenomena of
+life." Life is inseparable from this substance, but is dormant unless
+excited by some external stimulant, such as heat, light, electricity,
+food, water, and oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>Although we have seen that the life of the plant as well as of the
+animal is protoplasm, and that the protoplasm of the plant and that of
+the animal bear the closest resemblance, yet plants can manufacture
+protoplasm out of mineral compounds, whereas animals are obliged to
+procure it ready made, and hence in the end depend on plants. "Without
+plants," says Professor Orton, "animals would perish; without animals,
+plants had no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> need to be." The food of a plant is a matter whose energy
+is all expended&mdash;is a fallen weight. But the plant organism receives it,
+exposes it to the sun's rays, and in a way mysterious to us converts the
+actual energy of the sunlight into potential energy within it. It is for
+this reason that life has been termed "bottled-sunshine."</p>
+
+<p>The principal food of the plant consists of carbon united with oxygen to
+form carbonic acid, hydrogen united with oxygen to form water, and
+nitrogen united with hydrogen to form ammonia. These elements thus
+united, which in themselves are perfectly lifeless, the plant is able to
+convert into living protoplasm. "Plants are," says Huxley, "the
+accumulators of the power which animals distribute and disperse."
+Boussengault found long since that peas sown in pure sand, moistened
+with distilled water and fed by the air, obtained all the carbon
+necessary for their development, flowering, and fructification. Here we
+see a plant which not only maintains its vigor on these few substances,
+but grows until it has increased a millionfold or a million-millionfold
+the quantity of protoplasm it originally possessed, and this protoplasm
+exhibits the phenomena of life. This and other proof led M. Dumas to
+say: "From the loftiest point of view, and in connection with the
+physics of the globe, it would be imperative on us to say that in so far
+as their truly organic elements are concerned, plants and animals are
+the offspring of the air."</p>
+
+<p>Schleiden,<small><a name="f8.1" id="f8.1" href="#f8">[8]</a></small> speaking of the haymakers of Switzerland and the Tyrol,
+says: "He mows his definite amount of grass every year on the Alps,
+inaccessible to cattle, and gives not back the smallest quantity of
+organic substance to the soil. Whence comes the hay, if not from the
+atmosphere."</p>
+
+<p>It has been seen, then, that plants can manufacture protoplasm, a
+faculty which animals are not possessed of; they at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> best can only
+convert dead protoplasm into living protoplasm. Thus when vegetable or
+meat is cooked their protoplasm dies, but is not rendered incompetent of
+resuming its old functions as a matter of life. "If I," says Huxley,
+"should eat a piece of cooked mutton, which was once the living
+protoplasm of a sheep, the protoplasm, rendered dead by cooking, will be
+changed into living protoplasm, and thus I would transubstantiate sheep
+into man; and were I to return to my own place by sea and undergo
+shipwreck, the crustacean might and probably would return the
+compliment, and demonstrate our common nature by turning my protoplasm
+into living lobster." As has been said before, where there are life
+manifestations there is protoplasm. Life is regarded by one class of
+thinkers as the principle or cause of organization; and according to the
+other, life is the product or effect of organization. We must, however,
+agree with Professor Orton, who says: "Life is the effect of
+organization, not the result of it. Animals do not live because they are
+organized, but are organized because they are alive." In whatever way it
+is looked at, life is but a forced condition. "The more advanced
+thinkers, then, in science to-day," says Barker, "therefore look upon
+the life of the living form as inseparable from its substance, and
+believe that the former is purely phenomenal and only a manifestation of
+the latter. During the existence of a special force as such, they retain
+the term only to express the sum of the phenomena of living beings. The
+word life must be regarded, then, as only a generalized expression
+signifying the sum-total of the properties of matter possessing such
+organization."</p>
+
+<p>In what manner, then, does this matter, possessing the phenomena of
+life, differ from inorganic matter, or in what manner does living matter
+differ from matter not living? The forces which are at work on the one
+side are at work on the other. The phenomena of life are all dependent
+upon the working of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> same physical and chemical forces as those
+which are active in the rest of the world. It may be convenient to use
+the terms "vitality" and "vital force" to denote the cause of certain
+groups of natural operations, as we employ the names of "electricity"
+and "electrical force" to denote others; but it ceases to do so, if such
+a name implies the absurd assumption that either "electricity" or
+"vitality" is an entity, playing the part of a sufficient cause of
+electrical or vital phenomena. A mass of living protoplasm is simply a
+machine of great complexity, the total result of the work of which, or
+its vital phenomena, depend on the one hand upon its construction, and
+on the other upon the energy supplied to it; and to speak of "vitality"
+as anything but the names of a series of operations is as if one should
+talk of the "horologity" of a clock.<small><a name="f9.1" id="f9.1" href="#f9">[9]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>When hydrogen and oxygen are united by an electrical spark water is
+produced; certainly there is no parity between the liquid produced and
+the two gases. At 32&deg;&nbsp;F., oxygen and hydrogen are elastic gaseous
+bodies, whose particles tend to fly away from one another; water at the
+same temperature is a strong though brittle solid. Such changes are
+called the properties of water. It is not assumed that a certain
+something called "acquosity" has entered into and taken possession of
+the oxide of hydrogen as soon as formed, and then guarded the particles
+in the facets of the crystal or amongst the leaflets of the hoar-frost.
+On the contrary, it is hoped molecular physics will in time explain the
+phenomena. "What better philosophical status," says Huxley,<small><a name="f10.1" id="f10.1" href="#f10">[10]</a></small> "has
+vitality than acquosity. If the properties of water may be properly said
+to result from the nature and disposition of its molecules, I can find
+no intelligible ground for refusing to say that the properties of
+protoplasm result from the nature and disposition of its molecules."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>"To distinguish the living from the dead body," Herbert Spencer says,
+"the tree that puts out leaves when the spring brings change of
+temperature, the flower which opens and closes with the rising and
+setting of the sun, the plant that droops when the soil is dry and
+re-erects itself when watered, are considered alive because of these
+produced changes; in common with the zoophyte, which contracts on the
+passing of a cloud over the sun, the worm that comes to the ground when
+continually shaken, and the hedgehog which rolls itself up when
+attacked."</p>
+
+<p>"Seeds of wheat produced antecedent to the Pharaohs," says Bastain,<small><a name="f11.1" id="f11.1" href="#f11">[11]</a></small>
+"remaining in Egyptian catacombs through century after century display
+of course no vital manifestations, but nevertheless retain the
+potentiality of growing into perfect plants whenever they may be brought
+into contact with suitable external conditions. We must presume that
+either (1) during this long lapse of centuries the 'vital principle' of
+the plant has been imprisoned in the most dreary and impenetrable of
+dungeons, whither no sister effluence from the general 'soul of nature'
+could affect it; or else (2) that the germ of the future living plant is
+there only in the form of an inherited structure, whose molecular
+complexities are of such a kind that, after moisture has restored
+mobility to its atoms, its potential life may pass into actual life.
+Some of the lowest forms of animals and plants have such a tenacity to
+life that their vital manifestation may be kept in abeyance for five,
+ten, fifteen, or even twenty years. Though not living any more than the
+wheat, they also retain the potentiality of manifestation of life; and
+for each alike, in order that this potentiality may pass into actuality,
+the first requisition is water with which to restore them to that
+possibility of molecular rearrangement under the influence of incident
+forces, of which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>the absence of water had deprived them, and without
+which, life in any real sense is impossible."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>ANALYSIS OF A MAN.</h3>
+<p class="center">(<span class="smcap">By Prof. Miller.</span>)</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">A man 5 feet 8 inches high, weighing 154 pounds.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="18" summary="a man">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="center">oz.</td><td align="center">grs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Oxygen</td><td align="right">111</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hydrogen</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Carbon</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Nitrogen</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Inorganic elements in the ash:</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Phosphorus</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">88</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Calcium</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sulphur</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">219</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chlorine</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">47</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1 ounce = 437 grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sodium</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">116</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Iron</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Potassium</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">290</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Magnesium</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Silica</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total</span></td><td align="right">154</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p class="center">The quantity of the substances found in a human body weighing 154 pounds:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="18" summary="quantity">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="center">oz.</td><td align="center">grs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water</td><td align="right">111</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gelatin</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Albumen</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Fibrine</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Fat</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Ashes</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total</span></td><td align="right">154</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">(From the "<span class="smcap">Chemists' Manual</span>.")</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>Professor Owen<small><a name="f12.1" id="f12.1" href="#f12">[12]</a></small> says:
+"There are organisms (vibrieo, rotifer,
+macrobiotus, etc.) which we can devitalize and revitalize&mdash;devive and
+revive&mdash;many times. As the dried animalcule manifest no phenomena
+suggesting any idea contributing to form the complex one of 'life' in my
+mind, I regard it to be as completely lifeless as is the drowned man,
+whose breath and heat have gone, and whose blood has ceased to
+circulate. *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* The change of work consequent on drying or drowning
+forthwith begins to alter relations or compositions, and in time to a
+degree adverse to resumption of the vital form of force, a longer period
+being needed for this effect in the rotifer, a shorter one in the man,
+still shorter it may be in the am&oelig;ba."</p>
+
+<p>"There is," says Dumas,<small><a name="f13.1" id="f13.1" href="#f13">[13]</a></small> "an eternal round in which death is
+quickened and life appears, but in which matter merely changes its place
+and form."</p>
+
+<p>Let us now compare the inorganic world with the organic&mdash;the inanimate
+with the animate&mdash;and see if there does exist an inseparable boundary
+between them. The fundamental properties of every natural body are
+matter, form, and force. One important point to be noticed is, that the
+elements which compose all animate bodies are the very elements that
+help to build up the inanimate bodies. No new elements appear in the
+vegetable or animal world which are not to be found in the inorganic
+world. The difference between animate and inanimate bodies, therefore,
+is certainly not in the elements which form them, but in the molecular
+combination of them; and it is to be hoped that molecular physics will,
+at some not far distant time, enlighten us as to the peculiar state of
+aggregation in which the molecules exist in living <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>matter. As to the
+form, it is impossible to find any essential difference in the external
+form and inner structure between inorganic and organic bodies&mdash;for the
+simple monad, which is as much a living organism as the most complex
+being, is nothing but a homogeneous, structureless mass of protoplasm.
+But just as the inorganic substance, according to well-defined laws,
+elaborates its structure into a crystal of great beauty, so does the
+protoplasm elaborate itself into the most beautiful of all
+structures&mdash;the cell unit. Just as gold and copper crystallizes in a
+geometrical form, a cube&mdash;bismuth and antimony in a hexagonal, iodine
+and sulphur in a rhombic form&mdash;so we find among radiolaria, and among
+other protista and lower forms, that they "may be traced to a
+mathematical, fundamental form, and whose form in its whole, as well as
+in its parts, is bounded by definite geometrically determinable planes
+and angles." Now, as to the forces of the two different groups of
+bodies. Surely the constructive force of a crystal is due to the
+chemical composition, and to its material constitution. As the shape of
+the crystal and its size are influenced by surrounding circumstances,
+there is, therefore, an external constructive force at work. The only
+difference between the growth of an organism and that of a crystal is,
+that in the former case, in consequence of its semi-fluid state of
+aggregation, the newly added particles penetrate into the interior of
+the organism (inter-susception), whereas inorganic substances receive
+homogeneous matter from without, only by opposition or an addition of
+new particles to the surface. "If we, then, designate the growth and the
+formation of organisms as a process of life, we may with equal reason
+apply the same term with the developing crystal." It is for these and
+other reasons, demonstrating as they do the "unity of organic and
+inorganic nature," the essential agreement of inorganic and organic
+bodies in matter, form, and force, which led Tyndall<small><a name="f14.1" id="f14.1" href="#f14">[14]</a></small> to say:
+"Abandoning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> all disguise, the confession that I feel bound to make
+before you is, that I prolong the vision backward across the boundary of
+experimental evidence, and discern in that matter which we in our
+ignorance, and notwithstanding our professed reverence for its Creator,
+have hitherto covered with opprobrium, the promise and potency of every
+form and quality of life."</p>
+
+<p>Returning now to our protoplasm, let us ask the question: Where did it
+come from? or, How did it come into existence? Though chemical synthesis
+has built up a number of organic substances which have been deemed the
+product of vitality, yet, up to the present day, the fact stands out
+before us that no one has ever built up one particle of living matter,
+however minute, from lifeless elements.</p>
+
+<p>The protoplasm of to-day is simply a continuation of the protoplasm of
+other ages, handed down to us through periods of undefinable and
+indeterminable time.</p>
+
+<p>The question of where protoplasm came from&mdash;how it arose&mdash;chemistry is
+unable to answer; but the question is answered, probably, by spontaneous
+generation. Only the merest particle of living protoplasm was necessary
+to be formed from lifeless matter in the beginning; for, in the eyes of
+any consistent evolutionist, any further independent formation would be
+sheer waste, as the hypothesis of evolution postulates the unlimited,
+though perhaps not, indefinite modifiability of such matter. As we have
+seen that there exists no absolute barrier between organic and inorganic
+bodies, it is not so difficult to conceive that the first particle of
+protoplasm may have originated, under suitable conditions, out of
+inorganic or lifeless matter. But the causes which have led to the
+origination of this particle, it may be said, we know absolutely
+nothing&mdash;as in the formation of the crystal and the cell&mdash;the ultimate
+causes remain in both cases concealed from us.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>At the time in the earth's history when water, in a liquid state, made
+its appearance on the cooled crust of the earth, the carbon probably
+existed as carbonic acid dispersed in the atmosphere; and from the very
+best of grounds, it is reasonable to assume that the density and
+electric condition of the atmosphere were quite different, as also the
+chemical and physical nature of the primeval ocean was quite different.
+In any case, therefore, even<small><a name="f15.1" id="f15.1" href="#f15">[15]</a></small> if we do not know anything more about
+it, there remains the supposition, which can at least not be disputed,
+that at that time, under conditions quite different from those of
+to-day, a spontaneous generation, which is now perhaps no longer
+possible, may have taken place. This point is now conceded by most all
+of the advanced scientists of the day, and is absolutely necessary for
+the completion of the hypothesis of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The answer may come to this&mdash;Well, suppose the first protoplasm did
+originate by spontaneous generation, where did the elements or force
+come from which compose it?</p>
+
+<p>Science has nothing to do with the coming into existence of matter or
+force, for she proves both to be indestructible; when they disappear,
+they do so only to reappear in some other form. The coming into
+existence of matter and force, as also the ultimate cause of all
+phenomena, is beyond the domain of scientific inquiry. Science has only
+to do with the coming in of the form of matter, not the coming in of its
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i031fig1.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;A Moneron (Protam&oelig;ba) in act of reproduction;
+<i>A</i>, the whole Moneron, which moves like ordinary Am&oelig;ba, by means of
+variable processes: <i>B</i>, a contraction around its circumference parts it
+into two halves; <i>C</i>, the two halves separate, and each now forms independent individuals. (Much enlarged.)&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i031fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i>, is a crawling Am&oelig;ba (much
+enlarged).&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i> The whole organism has the form-value of a naked
+cell and moves about by means of changeable processes, which are extended from the protoplasmic body and again drawn in. In the inside is
+the bright-colored, roundish cell-kernel or nucleus. <i>B</i>, Egg-cell of a Chalk Sponge (Olynthus).&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i031fig3.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Represents the next higher stage, Mulberry-germ or Morula (Synam&oelig;ba).&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+<h3>THE COMING INTO EXISTENCE OF MAN,<br />
+BY THE SLOW PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT.</h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">It</span> is necessary now to take up the little mass of living matter,
+admitting its coming into existence by spontaneous generation as
+probable, and so probable that it almost amounts to a certainty, and
+follow it through the many changes it is about to make under the
+influence of the laws which govern evolution until it has culminated in
+man, and these laws still acting on the brain of man, perfecting it, and
+leading him on to the comprehension of a grander and nobler conception
+of the Almighty and of his works.</p>
+
+<p>The start, then, must be made with a homogeneous mass of protoplasm,
+such as the existing <i>Protam&oelig;ba primitiva</i> of the present day, which
+is a structureless organism without organs, and which came into
+existence during the Laurentian period. It is to this simplified
+condition, as I have previously stated, all fertilized eggs return
+before they commence to develop.</p>
+
+<p>The first process of adaptation effected by the monera must have been
+the condensation of an external crust, which, as a protecting covering,
+shut in the softer interior from the hostile influences of the outer
+world. As soon as, by condensation of the homogeneous moneron, a
+cell-kernel arose in the interior, and a membrane arose on the surface,
+all the fundamental parts of the unit were then furnished. Such a unit
+was an organism,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> similar to the white corpuscle of the blood, and
+called <i>am&oelig;b&aelig;</i>. Here we have two different stages of evolution; the
+protoplasma (better plasson) of the cytod undergoes differentiation, and
+is split up into two kinds of albuminous substances&mdash;the inner
+cell-kernel (nucleus) and the outer cell-substance (protoplasma). Edward
+von Benden, in his work upon <i>Gregarin&aelig;</i>, first clearly pointed out this
+fact, that we must distinguish thoroughly between the plasson of cytods
+and the protoplasm of cells.</p>
+
+<p>An irrefutable proof that such single-celled prim&aelig;val animals like the
+am&oelig;ba really existed as the direct ancestors of man, is furnished,
+according to the fundamental law of biogeny, by the fact that the human
+egg is nothing more than a simple cell.</p>
+
+<p>The next step taken in advance is the division of the cell in
+two;&mdash;there arise from the single germinal spot two new kernel specks,
+and then, in like manner, out of the germinal vesicle two new
+cell-kernels. The same process of cell-division now repeats itself
+several times in succession, and the products of the division form a
+perfect union. This organism may be called a community of <i>am&oelig;b&aelig;</i>
+(synam&oelig;b&aelig;).</p>
+
+<p>From the community of am&oelig;ba morula, now arose ciliated larv&aelig;. The
+cells lying on the surface extended hair-like processes or fringes of
+hair, which, by striking against the water, kept the whole body
+rotating&mdash;the lanceolate animals or amphioxus were thus first produced.
+Here we find from the synam&oelig;b&aelig; which crept about slowly at the bottom
+of the Laurentian primeval ocean by means of movements like those of an
+am&oelig;ba, that the newly-formed plan&aelig;a by the vibrating movements of the
+cilia, the entire multicellular body acquired a more rapid and stronger
+motion, and passed over from the creeping to the swimming mode of
+locomotion. The plan&aelig;a consisted, then, of two kinds of cells&mdash;inner
+ones like the am&oelig;b&aelig;, and external "ciliated cells." The ancestors of
+man, which possessed the form value of the ciliated larva, is, of course, extinct at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 35">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig I.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i035fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i035fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;The Norwegian Flimmer-ball (Magosph&oelig;ra
+Planula), swimming by means of its vibratile fringes; seen from the surface.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;The same in section. The pear-shaped cells are
+seen bound together in the centre of the gelatinous sphere by a
+thread-like process. Each cell contains both a kernel and a contractile vesicle. (<span class="smcap">Plan&aelig;a Series.</span>)&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i>]</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 35">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig III.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. IV.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i035fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i035fig4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. III and IV.</span>&mdash;Represents <span class="smcap">Gastr&aelig;a Series</span>. The body
+consists merely of a simple primitive intestine, the wall of which is formed of two primary germ-layers.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 37">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig I.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/i037fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/i037fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i037fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> I and II.&mdash;Represents the next higher stage
+(Tubularia). Fig. I, a simple Gliding Worm (Rhabdoc&oelig;lum); <i>m</i>, mouth; <i>sd</i>, throat-epithelium; <i>sm</i>, throat-muscles; <i>d</i>, stomach-intestine;
+<i>nc</i>, kidney-ducts; <i>nm</i>, opening of the kidneys; <i>au</i>, eye; <i>na</i>, nose-pit. Fig. II, the same Gliding Worm, showing the remaining organs;
+<i>g</i>, brain; <i>au</i>, eye; <i>na</i>, nose-pit; <i>n</i>, nerves; <i>h</i>, testes; &#9794;, male opening; &#9792;, female opening; <i>e</i>,
+ovary; <i>f</i>, ciliated outer-skin.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> III.&mdash;Represents Soft Worms (Scolecida) and is a
+young Acorn Worm (Balanoglossus), after <i>Agassiz</i>. <i>r</i>, acorn-like proboscis; <i>h</i>, collar; <i>k</i>, gill-openings and gill-arches of the
+anterior intestine, in a long row, one behind the other, on each side; <i>d</i>, digestive posterior intestine, filling the greater part of the body
+cavity; <i>v</i>, intestinal vessel, lying between two parallel folds of the skin; <i>a</i>, anus.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>Out of the planula, then, develops an exceedingly important animal
+form&mdash;the gastrula (that is, larva with a stomach or intestine), which
+resembles the planula, but differs essentially in the fact that it
+encloses a cavity which opens to the outside by a mouth. The wall of the
+progaster (primary stomach) consists of two layers of cells: an outer
+layer of smaller ciliated cells (outer skin or ectoderm), and of an
+inner layer of large non-ciliated cells (inner skin or entoderm). This
+exceedingly important larval form, the "gastrula," makes its appearance
+in the ontogenesis of all tribes of animals. These gastr&aelig;ada must have
+existed during the older primordial period, and they must have also
+included the ancestors of man. A certain proof of this is furnished by
+the amphioxus, which, in spite of its blood relationship to man, still
+passes through the stage of the gastrula with a simple intestine and a
+double intestinal wall.<small><a name="f16.1" id="f16.1" href="#f16">[16]</a></small> By motion of the cilia or fringes of the
+skin-layer, the gastr&aelig;a swam freely about in the Laurentian ocean.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the gastr&aelig;a now deviated in two directions&mdash;one
+branch of gastr&aelig;ads gave up free locomotion, adhered to the bottom of
+the sea, and thus, by adopting an adhesive mode of life, gave rise to
+the proascus, the common primary form of the animal plants (zoophyta).
+The other branch was originated by the formation of a middle germ-layer
+or muscular layer, and also by the further differentiation of the
+internal parts into various organs; more especially, the first formation
+of a nervous system, the simplest organs of sense, the simplest organs
+for secretion (kidneys), and generation (sexual organs)&mdash;this branch is
+the prothelmis, the common primary worms (vermes). Like the turbellaria
+of the present day, the whole surface of their body<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> was covered with
+cilia, and they possessed a simple body of an oval shape, entirely
+without appendages. These ac&oelig;lomatous worms did not as yet possess a
+true body cavity (c&oelig;lom) nor blood. No member of the next higher
+animals are in existence, neither are there any fossil remains, owing to
+the soft nature of their body. They are therefore called soft worms, or
+scoleceda. They developed out of the turbellaria of the sixth stage by
+forming a true body cavity (a c&oelig;lom) and blood in their interior. The
+nearest still living c&oelig;lomati is probably the acorn worms
+(balanoglossus). The form value of this stage must, moreover, have been
+represented by several different intermediate stages.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the four different groups of the worm tribe, the four higher
+tribes of the animal kingdom were developed&mdash;the star-fishes
+(echinoderma) and insects (arthropoda) on the one hand, and the molluscs
+(mollusca) and vertebrated animals (vertebrata) on the other. Out of
+certain c&oelig;lomati, the most ancient skull-less vertebrata were
+directly developed. Among the c&oelig;lomati of the present day, the
+ascidians are the nearest relatives of this exceedingly remarkable worm,
+which connect the widely differing classes of invertebrate and
+vertebrate animals. To these animals have been given the name of
+sack-worms (himatega). They originated out of the worms of the seventh
+stage by the formation of a dorsal nerve marrow (medulla tube), and by
+the formation of the spinal rod (chorda dorsalis) which lies below it.
+It is just the position of this central spinal rod or axial skeleton,
+between the dorsal marrow on the dorsal side and the intestinal canal on
+the ventral side, which is most characteristic of all vertebrate
+animals, including man, but also of the larv&aelig; of the ascidia.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the second half of the series of human ancestors. The
+skull-less animal lancelet, which is still living, affords a faint idea
+of the members of this group (acrania). Since this little animal, in its earliest embryonic state, entirely
+agrees with the ascidia, and in its further development shows itself to
+be a true vertebrate animal, it forms a direct transition from the
+vertebrata to the invertebrata.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 41">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig I.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/i041fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/i041fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/i041fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Appendicularia, seen from the left side, <i>m</i>,
+mouth; <i>k</i>, gill intestine; <i>o</i>, &oelig;sophagus; <i>v</i>, stomach; <i>a</i>, anus;
+<i>n</i>, nerve ganglia (upper throat-knots); <i>g</i>, ear vesicle; <i>f</i>, ciliated
+groove under the gill; <i>h</i>, heart; <i>e</i>, ovary; <i>c</i>, notochord; <i>s</i>, tail.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;Represents Sack Worms (Himatega), and is the
+structure of an Ascidian, seen from the left. <i>sb</i>, gill-sac; <i>v</i>,
+stomach; <i>i</i>, large intestine; <i>c</i>, heart; <i>t</i>, testes; <i>vd</i>, seed duct;
+<i>o</i>, ovary; <i>o'</i>, matured eggs in the body cavity. After <i>Milne-Edwards</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Represents the <span class="smcap">Acrania Series</span>. Lancelet
+(Amhioxus Lanceolatus), twice the actual size, seen from the left. <i>a</i>, mouth-opening, surrounded by cilia; <i>b</i>, anal-opening; <i>c</i>,
+ventral-opening (Porus abdominalis); <i>d</i>, gill-body; <i>e</i>, stomach; <i>f</i>,
+liver-c&oelig;cum; <i>g</i>, large intestine; <i>h</i>, c&oelig;lum; <i>i</i>, notochord
+(under it the aorta); <i>k</i>, arches of the aorta; <i>l</i>, main gill-artery;
+<i>m</i>, swellings on its branches; <i>n</i>, hollow vein; <i>o</i>, intestinal vein.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i>]</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i043fig1.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents the <span class="smcap">Monorhina Series</span>. Lamprey
+(Petromyzon Americanus) from the Atlantic&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i043fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;Represents the Selachii. Shark (Carcharias vulgaris) from the Atlantic&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i043fig3.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Represents the Mud-fish (Dipneusta).
+Lepidosiren annecteus, one-fourth natural size; African rivers.&mdash;<i>Orton.</i> Form a link between typical fishes and the Amphibians.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>At this stage, most probably, the separation of the two sexes began. The
+simpler and most ancient form of sexual propagation is through
+double-sexed individuals (hermaphroditismus). It occurs in the great
+majority of plants, but only in a minority of animals; for example, in
+the garden-snails, leeches, earth-worms and many other worms. Every
+single individual among hermaphrodites produces within itself materials
+of both sexes&mdash;egg and sperm. In most of the higher plants every blossom
+contains both the male organs (stamen and anther) and the female organs
+(style and germ). Every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual
+gland eggs, and in another sperm. Many hermaphrodites can fructify
+themselves; in others, however, copulation and reciprocal fructification
+of both hermaphrodites are necessary for causing the development of the
+eggs. This latter case is evidently a transition to sexual separation
+(gon&oelig;horismus).</p>
+
+<p>Out of the members of the last group arose animals with skulls or
+craniata, having round mouths, and which are divided into hags and
+lampreys. The hags (myxinoides) have long cylindrical worm-like bodies.
+The lampreys (petromyxontes) includes those well known "nine eyes"
+common at the seaside.</p>
+
+<p>These single-nostril animals (monorrhina) arose during the primordial
+period out of the skull-less animals by the anterior end of the dorsal
+marrow developing into the brain, and the anterior end of the dorsal
+skull into the skull. By the division of the single nostril of the
+members of the last group into two lateral halves, by the formation of a
+sympathetic nervous system, a jaw skeleton, a swimming bladder and two
+pairs of legs (breast fins or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> fore-legs, and ventral fins or
+hind-legs), arose the prim&aelig;val fish (selachii), which is best
+represented by the still-living shark (squalacei).</p>
+
+<p>Out of the prim&aelig;val fish arose the mud-fish (dipneusta), which is very
+imperfectly represented by the still-living salamander fish; the
+prim&aelig;val fish adapting itself to land, and by the transforming of the
+swimming bladder into an air-breathing lung, and of the nasal cavity
+(which was now open into the mouth cavity) into air-passages. Their
+organization <i>might</i>, in some respect, be like the ceratodus and
+proloptems; but this is not certain.</p>
+
+<p>The dipneusta is an intermediate stage between the selachii and
+amphibia. Out of the dipneusta arose the class of amphibia, having five
+toes (the pentadactyla). The gill amphibians are man's most ancient
+ancestors of the class amphibia. Besides possessing lungs as well as the
+mud-fish, they retain throughout life regular gills like the
+still-living proteus and axolotl. Most gilled batrachia live in North
+America. The paddle-fins of the dipneusta changed into five-toed legs,
+which were afterwards transmitted to the higher vertebrata up to man.</p>
+
+<p>The gilled amphibia (sozobrachia) of the last group finally lost their
+gills but retained their tail, and tailed amphibians (sozura) were
+produced, such as the salamander and newt of the present day. Out of the
+sozura originated the prim&aelig;val amniota (protamnia) by the complete loss
+of the gills by the formation of the amnion of the cochlea, and of the
+round window in the auditory organ, and of the organ of tears. Out of
+the protamnia originated the primary mammals (promammalia). The most
+closely related were the ornithostoma; they differed through having
+teeth in their jaws.</p>
+
+<p>No fossil remains of the primary mammals have as yet been found,
+although they lived during the trias period&mdash;they possessed a very
+highly developed jaw. From the primary mammal arose the pouched animals
+(marsupialia). Numerous representatives of this group still exist:
+kangaroos, pouched rats and pouched dogs. The marsupial animals
+developed, very probably, in the mesolithic epoch (during the Jura) out
+of the cloacal animals; by the division of the cloaca into the rectum
+and the urogenital sinus, by the formation of a nipple on the mammary
+gland, and the partial suppression of the clavicles.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 47">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="middle"><b><i>Fig. 1</i></b></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i047fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td valign="bottom" align="center"><i><b>Ceratodus</b></i><br /><i><b>Forsteri</b></i></td>
+<td align="center" valign="middle"><b><i>Fig. 2</i></b></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i047fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> I and II.&mdash;The Ceratodus Forsteri occur in the
+swamps of Southern Australia. Form transition between fishes and Amphibia.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i049fig1.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents the Gilled Amphibians (Soyobranchia).
+The Axolotl (Siredon pisciforme), after Tegetmeier. The ordinary form with persistent branchi&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i049fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;Proteus Anguinus. Europe.&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i049fig3.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Represents the Tailed Amphibians (Soyura). Great Water-Newt (Triton cristatus), after <i>Bell.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>From the marsupialia originated a most interesting small group of
+semi-apes (prosimi&aelig;), for they are the primary forms of genuine apes and
+consequently of man. They developed out of handed or ape-footed
+marsupials (pedumana), of rat-like appearance, by the formation of a
+placenta, the loss of the marsupium and the marsupial bones, and by the
+higher development of the commissures of the brain. The still-living
+short-footed semi-ape (brachytarsi), especially the muki, indie and
+lori, possess possibly a faint resemblance.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the semi-apes developed two classes of genuine apes; but as the
+narrow-nosed or catarrhini class are the only ones related to man, the
+others will not be considered. These narrow-nosed apes originated by the
+transformation of the jaw, and by the claws on the toes changing into
+nails. The still-living long-tail nose-apes and holy apes
+(semnopithecus) probably resembled the oldest ancestors of this group.</p>
+
+<p>The tailed apes by the loss of their tail and some of their hair
+covering, and by the excessive development of that portion of their
+brain above the facial portion of the skull, developed into the man-like
+apes (anthropoides)&mdash;such as the gorilla and chimpanzee of Africa, and
+the orang and gibbon of Asia. The human ancestors of this group existed
+during the miocene period. From the anthropoides developed the ape-like
+men (pithecanthropi) during the tertiary period. The speechless
+prim&aelig;val<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> men (alali), then, is the connecting link between the man-like
+apes and man. The fore-hand of the anthropoides became the human hand,
+their hinder-hand a foot for walking. They did not possess the
+articulate human language of words and the higher developments, as
+consciousness and the formation of ideas must have been very imperfect.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the pithecanthropi men developed genuine man, by the development
+of the animal language of sounds into a connected or articulate language
+of words&mdash;the brain also developed higher and higher. This transition
+took place, probably, at the beginning of the quaternary period, or
+possibly in the tertiary.</p>
+
+<p>We have now very briefly reviewed the principal outlines of the
+ancestors of man, showing that man has developed from the little mass of
+protoplasm, as have all animals and plants. He therefore was not
+<i>spontaneously</i> created, but was developed. The question is often asked
+by simple-minded people, with much delight, Why do we not behold the
+interesting spectacle of the transformation of a chimpanzee into a man,
+or conversely of a man by retrogression into an orang?&mdash;it only shows
+that they are not acquainted with the first principles of the Doctrine
+of Descent. "Not one of the apes," says Schmidt, "can revert to the
+state of his primordial ancestors, except by retrogression&mdash;by which a
+primordial condition is by no means attained&mdash;he cannot divest himself
+of his acquired characters fixed by heredity, nor can he exceed himself
+and become man; for man does not stand in the direct line of development
+from the ape. The development of the anthropoid apes has taken a lateral
+course from the nearest human progenitors, and man can as little be
+transformed into a gorilla as a squirrel can be changed into a rat."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i053.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. I.&mdash;Salamandra Maculata.&mdash;<i>Haeckel</i>. The Water Newts
+and Salamanders were the next higher stage after the Proteus and the Axolotl.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i055fig1.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. I.&mdash;Represents Prim&aelig;val Amniota (Protamnia). Lizard (Lacerta), after <i>Orton</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i055fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. II.&mdash;Represents Primary Mammals (Promammalia).
+<span class="smcap">Amniota Series.</span> Duck-billed Platypus (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus).&mdash;<i>Haeckel</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>"Feeling evidently,"<small><a name="f17.1" id="f17.1" href="#f17">[17]</a></small>
+says <ins class="correction" title="original reads 'H&aelig;ckel'">Haeckel</ins>, "rather than understanding,
+induces most people to combat the theory of their 'descent from apes.'
+It is simply because the organism of the ape appears a caricature of
+man, a distorted likeness of ourselves in a not very attractive form;
+because the customary &aelig;sthetic ideas and self-glorification of man are
+touched by this in so sensitive a point, that most men shrink from
+recognizing their descent from apes. It seems much pleasanter to be
+descended from a more highly developed divine being, and hence, as is
+well known, human vanity has from the earliest times flattered itself by
+assuming the original descent of the race from gods or demi-gods."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="EVOLUTION" id="EVOLUTION"></a>EVOLUTION.</h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">In</span> the last chapter a description was given of the various stages in
+man's development, from the microscopic monad up. It will be necessary
+now to describe briefly the various laws which have governed this
+evolutionary chain from the monad to man. But before proceeding directly
+to the subject, let us look at the doctrine of evolution as a whole, and
+trace it first in the formation of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of evolution is also called the theory of development&mdash;it
+must not, however, be confused with Darwinism&mdash;for they are not exactly
+synonymous. Darwinism is an attempt to explain the laws or manner of
+evolution. Strictly speaking, only the theory of selection should be
+called Darwinism, which was established in 1859. The theory of descent,
+or transmutation theory, or doctrine of filiation, should properly be
+called Lamarckism, who for the first time worked out the theory of
+descent as an independent scientific theory of the first order, and as
+the philosophical foundation of the whole science of biology.</p>
+
+<p>"According to the theory of development (evolution) in its simplest
+form," says Henry Hartshorne,<small><a name="f18.1" id="f18.1" href="#f18">[18]</a></small> "the universe as it now exists is a
+result of 'an immense series of changes,' related to and dependent upon
+each other as successive steps, or rather growths, constituting a
+progress; analogous to the unfolding or evolving of the parts of a
+growing organism." Herbert Spencer defined evolution as consisting
+in a progress from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from general to
+special, from the simple to the complex; and this process is considered
+to be traceable in the formation of worlds in space, in the
+multiplication of the types and species of plants and animals on the
+globe, in the origination and diversity of languages, literature, arts
+and sciences, and in all changes of human institutions and society.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i059.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Skeleton of Platypus.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i061.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents Pouched Animals (Marsupialia). Kangaroo. (Popular Science Monthly, Feb., 1876.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>Let us now apply this theory of evolution to the physical world. No
+determined opposition by the mass of people is likely to be manifested
+to the doctrine of evolution as applied to the physical world, or even
+to the vegetable or animal world up to man; but the minute man is
+included&mdash;then is a voice raised up against it, and it was for this
+reason that Darwin in his first work on the "Theory of Descent" did not
+mention man as being included in the evolutionary series. He knew too
+well the foolish human weakness that existed.</p>
+
+<p>In a recent work by Prof. Challes, he states that he regards the
+material universe as "a vast and wonderful mechanism of which the least
+wonderful thing is its being so constructed that we can understand it."</p>
+
+<p>The following is a brief description of the various theories of the
+world's formation:</p>
+
+<p><i>First Theory.</i>&mdash;By the first theory the world is supposed to have
+existed from eternity under its actual form. Aristotle embraced this
+doctrine, and conceived the universe to be the eternal effect of an
+eternal cause; maintaining that not only the heavens and the earth, but
+all animate and inanimate beings, are without beginning. To use Huxley's
+illustration: If you can imagine a spectator on the earth, however far
+back in time, he would have seen a world "essentially similar, though
+not perhaps in all its details, to that which now exists. The animals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+which existed would be the ancestors of those which now exist, and like
+them; the plants in like manner would be such as we have now, and like
+them; and the supposition is that, at however distant a period of time
+you place your observer, he would still find mountains, lands, and
+waters, with animal and vegetable products flourishing upon them and
+sporting in them just as he finds now." This theory being perfectly
+inconsistent with facts, had to be abandoned.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second Theory.</i>&mdash;The second theory considers the universe eternal, but
+not its form. This was the system of Epicurus and most of the ancient
+philosophers and poets, who imagined the world either to be produced by
+fortuitous concourse of atoms existing from all eternity, or to have
+sprung out of the chaotic form which preceded its present state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third Theory.</i>&mdash;By this theory the matter and form of the earth is
+ascribed to the direct agency of a spiritual cause. It is needless to
+say that this last theory has for its basis the popular account,
+generally credited to Moses in the first chapter of Genesis. I say
+popular, for it certainly is not a scientific account, nor was it the
+intention of the writer to make it so. The supposed object was to show
+the relation between the Creator and his works. If it had been an
+ultimate scientific account, the ablest minds of to-day would be unable
+to comprehend it, as science is progressive and constantly changing; in
+fifty thousand years to come, it would still appear utterly absurd. It
+cannot be said for this fact that the account is any the less true
+because it is not presented in scientific phraseology; for instance,
+when we remark in popular language "the sun rises," who shall say that
+though the expression is not astronomically true, we do not, for all
+practical purposes, utter as important a truth, as when we say, "The
+earth by its revolution brings us to that point where the sun becomes
+visible?" The language, also, in which the writer wrote was very
+imperfect; it had no equivalent to our word "air" or "atmosphere,"
+properly speaking, for they knew not the words. "Their nearest
+approaches," according to J. Pye Smith, "were with words that denoted
+watery vapor condensed, and thus rendered visible, whether floating
+around them or seen in the breathing of animals; and words for smoke
+from substances burning; and for air in motion, wind, a zephyr whisper
+or a storm." It must also be remembered, "that the Hebrews had no term
+for the abstract ideas which we express by 'fluid' or 'matter.' If the
+writer had designed to express the idea, 'In the beginning God created
+<i>matter</i>,' he could not have found words to serve his purpose" (Phin).</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i065.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Skeleton of Kangaroo. (Popular Science Monthly.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i067.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents Semi-Apes (Prosimi&aelig;). The Slow Loris, after
+<i>Tickel</i> and <i>Alp. Miln-Edwards</i>. (Natural History, by <i>Duncan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>It is unnecessary to state how the Bible, which contains the so-called
+Mosaic account, is regarded by the different church denominations, as
+undoubtedly that is familiar to every one. But with respect to the view
+entertained by the scientist and critical school of Biblical scholars,
+represented chiefly by modern Germans, I may state briefly: "They regard
+the Bible as the human record of a divine revelation; not absolutely
+infallible, since there is no book written in any human language but
+must partake in a measure of the imperfections of that language. Many of
+this school, while admitting the Bible to contain the record of a true
+supernatural revelation, do not consider it to be without positive error
+of historical fact, not without false coloring from popular legend and
+tradition, but nevertheless a record as good as human hands could make a
+truly divine revelation."<small><a name="f19.1" id="f19.1" href="#f19">[19]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>There is, though, a class of thinkers that altogether reject the Bible;
+that is to say, refuse to believe it to be a divine revelation. Hume,
+whom Huxley calls "the most acute thinker of the eighteenth century,"
+thus ends one of his essays: "If we take in hand any volume of divinity
+or school metaphysics, for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> instance, let us ask, <i>Does it contain any
+abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?</i> No. <i>Does it contain
+any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?</i> No.
+Commit it, then, to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry
+and illusion." To this Huxley says: "Permit me to enforce this wise
+advice, Why trouble ourselves about matters of which, however important
+they may be, we do know nothing, and can know nothing? We live in a
+world which is full of misery and ignorance, and the plain duty of each
+and all of us is to try to make the little corner he can influence
+somewhat less miserable and somewhat less ignorant than it was before he
+entered it. To do this effectually, it is necessary to be fully
+possessed of only two beliefs: the first, that the order of nature is
+ascertainable by our faculties to an extent which is practically
+unlimited; the second, that our volitions count for something as a
+condition of the course of events. Each of these beliefs can be verified
+experimentally, as often as we like to try. Each, therefore, stands upon
+the strongest foundation upon which any belief can rest, and forms one
+of our highest truths."</p>
+
+<p>The first words in the Mosaic account are:<small><a name="f20.1" id="f20.1" href="#f20">[20]</a></small> "In the beginning God
+created the heaven and the earth."<small><a name="f21.1" id="f21.1" href="#f21">[21]</a></small> It is seen, then, that the
+so-called revelation points to a beginning. The beginning referred to is
+an absolute beginning, for we find: "In the beginning was the Word, and
+the Word was with God, and the Word was God."<small><a name="f22.1" id="f22.1" href="#f22">[22]</a></small> *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* "All things were
+made by Him; and without Him was not anything made that was made."<small><a name="f23.1" id="f23.1" href="#f23">[23]</a></small>
+Science points also to a beginning.</p>
+
+<p>Geology points to a time when man did not inhabit the earth; when for
+him there was a beginning. So, too, for lower organisms; so, too, for
+the rocky minerals; so, too, for the round <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>world itself. But the
+beginning that science points to is not an absolute beginning. Science
+has to start from some point, and that point must have a scientific
+foundation&mdash;the foundation of science is matter, which is inseparable
+from form and force. Natural science teaches that matter is eternal and
+imperishable; for experience has never shown us that even the smallest
+particle of matter has come into existence or passed away. "A
+naturalist," says Haeckel, "can no more imagine the coming into
+existence of matter than he can imagine its disappearance, and he
+therefore looks upon the existing quantity of matter in the universe as
+a given fact." "The creation of matter, if, indeed," says Haeckel,<small><a name="f24.1" id="f24.1" href="#f24">[24]</a></small>
+"it ever took place, is completely beyond human comprehension, and can
+therefore never become a subject of scientific inquiry. We can as little
+imagine a <i>first beginning</i> of the eternal phenomena of the motion of
+the universe as of its final end."<small><a name="f25.1" id="f25.1" href="#f25">[25]</a></small> It is evident, then, that the
+absolute beginning of the universe and its absolute end are not
+questions of science, and can be known only as revealed by faith. Paul
+says: "By faith we understand that the world was framed by the word of
+God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which
+appeared."<small><a name="f26.1" id="f26.1" href="#f26">[26]</a></small></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i071.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents Tailed Apes (Menocerca). Proboscis
+Monkey (Presbytes larvatus). (Mammalia.)&mdash;<i>Louis Figuier.</i></p>
+
+<p class="caption">The natives of Borneo pretend that these monkeys, or, as sometimes
+called, Kahan, are men who have retired to the woods to avoid paying
+taxes; and they entertain the greatest respect for a being who has found
+such ready means of evading the responsibilities of
+society.&mdash;<i>Figuier.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i073.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Photographically reduced from diagrams of the natural size
+(except that of the Gibbon, which was twice as large as nature), drawn
+by <i>Waterhouse Hawkins</i>, from specimens in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. (<i>Huxley's</i> "Man's Place in Nature.")</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If, therefore, science makes the "history of creation" its highest and
+most difficult and most comprehensible problem, it must deal with "<i>the
+coming into being of the form</i> of natural bodies." Let us look for a
+minute at Kant's Cosmogony, or, as Haeckel says,<small><a name="f27.1" id="f27.1" href="#f27">[27]</a></small> Kant's Cosmological
+Gas Theory: "This wonderful theory," says Haeckel, "harmonizes with all
+the general series of phenomena at present known to us, and stands in no
+irreconcilable contradiction to any one of them. Moreover, it is purely
+mechanical and monistic, makes use exclusively of the in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>herent forces
+of eternal matter, and entirely excludes every supernatural process,
+every prearranged and conscious action of a personal creator." Compare
+this last statement with the following: "I will, however," says
+Haeckel,<small><a name="f28.1" id="f28.1" href="#f28">[28]</a></small> "not deny that Kant's grand cosmogony has some weak
+points." *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* "A great unsolved difficulty lies in the fact that the
+cosmological gas theory furnishes no starting-point at all in
+explanation of the first impulse which caused the rotary motion in the
+gas-filled universe."</p>
+
+<p>Whewell<small><a name="f29.1" id="f29.1" href="#f29">[29]</a></small> has pointed out, that the nebular hypothesis is null without
+a creative act to produce the inequality of distribution of cosmic
+matter in space.</p>
+
+<p>It is seen, then, that according to Kant's theory we are to suppose that
+millions of years ago there appeared a nebulous mass possessing a rotary
+motion, and unequally distributed through space. This is what science
+calls a beginning, and may assert that every physical event of a hundred
+million of ages existed potentially in that nebulous mass. But this is
+really no explanation of the ultimate and real cause of anything. Reason
+demands the cause of this beginning, the source that gave to the
+nebulous mass its rotary motion; the power that distributed the matter
+in space; the antecedents of the cosmical vapor. In absence of
+antecedents, what was the cause of this fire-mist&mdash;of these forces
+active in it? Reason will never remain satisfied until these questions
+are answered. But physical science can trace the thread no further back,
+and must be dumb to all ulterior inquiries. It is true, then, as
+physicists assert, "that their science does not mount actually to God."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 77">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i077fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i077fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i077fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents Man-like Apes (Anthropoides).<br />The Male Gorilla. (Natural History, by <i>Duncan</i>.)</td>
+<td align="center" valign="top"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;Represents Ape-like Men (Pithecanthropi).<br />Imaginative. (From Scientific American.)</td>
+<td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Men (Homines). From Woolly-haired Men developed the Papuans.<br />(Scientific American, March 11, 1876.)</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i079.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;The Monkey Men of Dourga Strait. (Natural History, by <i>Rev. Dr. Wood</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>To God then, in strict accordance with our reason, is to be attributed
+not only the origination of matter, but all its future developments.
+When I speak of matter, it must be understood <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>that I mean force;
+for "if matter were not force, and immediately known as force, it could
+not be known at all, could not be rationally inferred. The operation of
+force could furnish no evidence of the existence of forceless matter. If
+force is not matter, then force can exist and operate without matter;
+its existence and operation are no evidence of the existence of matter.
+And as matter is forceless, it can itself give no evidence of its own
+existence, for that would be an exercise of force. If force cannot exist
+and operate without matter, then force depends for its existence and
+operation on the forceless, which destroys itself; or force depends for
+its existence on matter as some property or force, and so matter and
+force are identified, and force depends on itself only, as it must."<small><a name="f30.1" id="f30.1" href="#f30">[30]</a></small>
+The idea, then, that force is an attribute of matter and inherent in it,
+is absurd, for there is not a shadow of evidence that force is or can be
+an attribute of matter. We have no knowledge of the origin of any force
+save of that which emanates from human volition. All our knowledge of
+force presents it as an effort of intelligent will. "We are driven,"
+says Winchell, "by the necessary laws of thought, to pronounce those
+energies styled gravitation, heat, chemical affinity and their
+correlates, nothing less than intelligent will. But as it is not human
+will which energizes in whirlwind and the comet, it must be divine
+will." "In all cases, the creative power of God is an act of power, and
+the power does not perish with its inception, but continues to operate
+until the act is reversed and undone; so that everything that God has
+created constitutes a positive and intrinsic force, though borrowed from
+Him. Every incident runs back to God as its originator and real cause.
+The true philosophical doctrine makes God distinct from all his works,
+and yet acting in them. This doctrine has been held by the greatest
+thinkers <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>the world has ever produced, such as Descartes, Lerbrisky,
+Berkeley, Herschel, Faraday, and a multitude of others." "It seems to be
+required," says Dr. McCosh, "by that deep law of causation which not
+only prompts us to seek for a law in everything but an adequate cause,
+to be found only in an intelligent mind." "Our greatest American
+thinker, Jonathan Edwards," says Dr. McCosh, (whom I can claim as my
+predecessor,) "maintains that, as an image in a mirror is kept up by a
+constant succession of rays of light, so nature is sustained by a
+constant forth-putting of the divine power. In this view Nature is a
+perpetual creation. God is to be seen not only in creation at first, but
+in the continuance of all things." "They continue to this day according
+to Thine ordinances."</p>
+
+<p>Returning now to the history of the creation given by Moses, Haeckel
+says, "Although Moses looks upon the results of the great laws of
+organic development as the direct actions of a constructing Creator, yet
+in his theory there lies hidden the ruling idea of a progressive
+development and a differentiation of the originally simple matter. We
+can therefore bestow our just and sincere admiration on the Jewish
+lawgiver's grand insight into nature, without discovering in it a
+so-called 'divine revelation.' That it cannot be such is clear from the
+fact that two great fundamental errors are asserted in it, namely, first
+the <i>geocentric</i> error, that the earth is the fixed central point of the
+whole universe, round which the sun, moon and stars move; and secondly,
+the <i>anthropocentric</i> error that man is the premeditated aim of the
+creation of the world, for whose service alone all the rest of nature is
+said to have been created. The former of these errors was demolished by
+Copernicus' System of the Universe in the beginning of the sixteenth
+century, the latter by Lamarck's Doctrine of Descent in the beginning of
+the nineteenth century."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 83">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Australian Savage.&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;Skull of Orang-utan (Simia satyrus).&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><b>Fig. IV.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Skull of Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger).</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. IV.</span>&mdash;Skull of Gorilla.&mdash;<i>Duncan.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig. V.</b></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><b>Fig. VI.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig5.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig6.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. V.</span>&mdash;Skull of European.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. VI.</span>&mdash;Skull of Negro.&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>Prof. Huxley, in his lecture on "Evidences of Evolution," spoke of the
+Mosaic account as Milton's hypothesis. First, "because," says Huxley,
+"we are now assured upon the authority of the highest critics, and even
+of dignitaries of the church, that there is no evidence whatever that
+Moses ever wrote this chapter, or knew anything about it;" and second,
+as this hypothesis is presented in Milton's work on "Paradise Lost," it
+is appropriate to call it the Miltonic Hypothesis. "In the Miltonic
+account," says Huxley, "the order in which animals should have made
+their appearance in the stratified rocks would be this: Fishes,
+including the great whale, and birds; after that all the varieties of
+terrestrial animals. Nothing could be further from the facts as we find
+them. As a matter of fact we know of not the slightest evidence of the
+existence of birds before the jurassic and perhaps the triassic
+formations. If there were any parallel between the Miltonic account and
+the circumstantial evidence, we ought to have abundant evidence in the
+devonian, the silurian, and carboniferous rocks. I need not tell you
+that this is not the case, and that not a trace of birds makes its
+appearance until the far later period which I have mentioned. And again,
+if it be true that all varieties of fishes, and the great whales and the
+like, made their appearance on the fifth day, then we ought to find the
+remains of these things in the older rocks&mdash;in those which preceded the
+carboniferous epoch. Fishes, it is true, we find, and numerous ones; but
+the great whales are absent, and the fishes are not such as now live.
+Not one solitary species of fish now in existence is to be found there,
+and hence you are introduced again to the difficulty, to the dilemma,
+that either the creatures that were created then, which came into
+existence the sixth day, were not those which are found at present, or
+are not the direct and immediate predecessors of those which now exist;
+but in that case you must either have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> had a fresh species of which
+nothing has been said, or else the whole story must be given up as
+absolutely devoid of any circumstantial evidence."</p>
+
+<p>It is for these and many other reasons that I feel bound to omit the
+Mosaic account, no matter how near some portions of it coincide with the
+facts the earth has opened out to the scientist.</p>
+
+
+<h3>KANT'S COSMOGONY.</h3>
+
+<p>It is maintained by Kant's Cosmogony that every substance, be it solid
+or liquid, constituting the entire universe, was, inconceivable ages
+ago, in their homogeneous gaseous or nebulous condition. Owing to an
+impulse being given to the nebulous mass, it acquired a rotary movement,
+which divided the nebulous mass up into a number of masses which, owing
+to the rotation, acquired greater density than the remaining gaseous
+mass, and then acted on the latter as central points of attraction. Our
+solar system was thus a gigantic gaseous or nebulous ball, all the
+particles of which revolved around a common central point&mdash;the solar
+nucleus. This nebulous ball assumed by its continual rotation a more or
+less flattened spheroidal form. By the continual revolution of this
+mass, under the influence of the centripetal and centrifugal forces, a
+circular nebular ring separated (like the present ring around Saturn)
+from the rotating ball. In time the nebulous ring condensed to a planet,
+which began to revolve around its own axis. When the centrifugal force
+became more powerful than the centripetal force in the planet, rings
+were formed, which, in turn, formed planets which revolved around their
+axes, as also around their planets, as the latter moved around the sun,
+and thus arose the moons, only one of which moves around our earth,
+while four move around Jupiter and six around Uranus. This order of
+things was repeated over and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> over again until thereby arose the
+different solar systems&mdash;the planets rotating around their central suns,
+and the satellites or moons moving around their planets. By a continuous
+increasing of refrigeration and condensation, a fiery fluid or molten
+state occurred in these rotating bodies. They then emitted an enormous
+amount of heat by rapid condensation, and the rotating bodies&mdash;suns,
+planets, and moons&mdash;soon became glowing balls of fire, emitting light
+and heat. The <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">1000</span> part of a pound of magnesium wire, burning in the
+open air, will give a light which will last during one second, and can
+be seen at a distance of thirty miles; imagine, then, what the light
+would be from these huge balls of fire floating through space. The earth
+forms a small part&mdash;nay, even the sun whose mass is equal to 354,936
+earths like ours, is but an infinitesimal portion of the whole. By the
+continual emitting of heat, however, these fiery balls had a crust form
+on the outside, which enclosed a fiery fluid nucleus. The crust for a
+time must have been a smooth sheet, but afterward very uneven, having
+protuberances and cavities form over its surface, owing to the molten
+mass within becoming condensed and contracted; the crust not following
+this change sufficiently close, must have fallen in, and thus produced
+the cavities.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="heads">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i087mongolian.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087malay.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087ethiopian.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087amer_indi.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Mongolian.</td>
+<td align="center">Malay.</td>
+<td align="center">Ethiopian.</td>
+<td align="center">American Indian.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"><img src="images/i087central.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"><span class="smcap">Facial Angle</span>, by <i>Prof. Nelson Sizer</i>.<br />1, Snake; 2, Dog; 3, Elephant; 4, Ape;<br />5, Human Idiot;
+6, The Bushman; 7, The Uncultivated; 8, The Improved;<br />9, The Civilized; 10, The Enlightened; 11, The Caucasian (highest type).</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i087caucasian.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087noseape.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087julia.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087idiot.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Caucasian<br />(after <i>Van Evrie</i>).</td>
+<td align="center">Head of Nose-Ape<br />(after <i>Brehm</i>).</td>
+<td align="center">Julia Pastrana<br />(Photographed by <i>Hintye</i>).</td>
+<td align="center">Living Idiot<br />(on Blackwell's Island).</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>All the time, by the condensation, the diameter of the earth was being
+diminished. The irregular cooling of the crust caused irregular
+contractions on the surface, and as the diameter of the molten mass
+within was continually diminishing, many elevations and depressions were
+caused, which were the foundations of mountains and valleys.</p>
+
+<p>After the temperature of the earth had been reduced by the thickening of
+the crust&mdash;when it became sufficiently cool&mdash;the water which existed in
+steam was condensed and precipitated, falling in torrents, washing down
+the elevations, filling the depressions with the mud carried along, and
+depositing it in layers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> It was not until the earth became covered with
+water that life was possible in any form, as both animals and plants
+consist to a very great extent of water. At this stage in the history of
+the earth, then, the little mass of protoplasm, which we have spoken so
+much about, came into existence in all probability, as has been stated,
+by spontaneous generation.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LAWS OF EVOLUTION.</h3>
+
+<p>Let us now examine some of the laws of evolution, as also some of the
+connecting links which blend one stage of man's development with
+another, which at first thought would seem unexplainable.</p>
+
+<p>Haeckel<small><a name="f31.1" id="f31.1" href="#f31">[31]</a></small> summarizes the inductive evidences of Darwinism as follows:
+1. Paleontological series (phylogeny); 2. Embryological development of
+the individual (ontogeny); 3. The correspondence in the terms of these
+two series; 4. Comparative anatomy (typical forms and structures); 5.
+Correspondence between comparative anatomy and ontogeny; 6. Rudimentary
+organs (dipeliology); 7. The natural system of organisms
+(classification); 8. Geographical distribution (chorology); 9.
+Adaptation to the environment (&oelig;cology); 10. The unity of biological
+phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>It will of course be impossible to consider even hastily all of the
+inductive evidence belonging to the several groups mentioned above, for
+the scope of this work would not permit of it. Only such facts as
+present themselves most forcibly to the mind will be considered.</p>
+
+<p>Darwinism, as has already been stated, is not the doctrine of evolution;
+it is, however, a successful attempt to explain the law or manner of
+evolution. The <i>law of natural selection</i>, pointed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> out by Darwin, is
+called by Herbert Spencer, <i>The struggle for existence</i>. Darwin
+discovered that natural selection produces fitness between organisms and
+their circumstances, which explains the law of <i>the survival of the
+fittest</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well-known fact that man can, by pursuing a certain method of
+breeding or cultivation, improve and in various ways modify the
+character of the different domestic animals and plants. By always
+selecting the best specimen from which to propagate the race, those
+features which it is desired to perpetuate become more and more
+developed; so that what are admitted to be real varieties sometimes
+acquire, in the course of successive generations, a character as
+strikingly distinct, to all appearances, from those of the varieties, as
+one species is from another species of the same genus. It is evident
+that both natural and artificial selection depends on adaptation and
+inheritance. The difference between the two forms of selection is that,
+in the first case, the will of man makes the selection according to a
+plan, whereas in natural selection the struggle for life and the
+survival of the fittest acts without a plan other than that the most
+adaptable organism shall survive which is most fit to contend with the
+circumstances under which it is placed. Natural selection acts,
+therefore, much more slowly than artificial selection, although it
+brings about the same end. Adaptation in the struggle for life is an
+absolute necessity.</p>
+
+<p>In every act of breeding, a certain amount of protoplasm is transferred
+from the parents to the child, and along with it there is transferred
+the individual peculiar molecular motion. Adaptation or transmutation
+depends upon the material influence which <ins class="correction" title="Not in the original.">the</ins> organism experiences from its
+surroundings, or its conditions of existence; while the transmission
+from inheritance is due to the partial identity of producing and
+produced organisms.</p>
+
+<p>Organized beings, as a rule, are gifted with enormous powers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> of
+increase. Wild plants yield their crop of seed annually, and most wild
+animals bring forth their young yearly or oftener. Should this process
+go on unchecked, in a short time the earth would be completely overrun
+with living beings. It has been calculated that if a plant produces
+fifty seeds (which is far below the reproductive capacity of many
+plants) the first year, each of these seeds growing up into a plant
+which produces fifty seeds, or altogether two thousand five hundred
+seeds the next year, and so on, it would under favorable conditions of
+growth give rise in nine years to more plants by five hundred trillions
+than there are square feet of dry land upon the surface of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Slow-breeding man has been known to double his number in twenty-five
+years, and according to Euler, this might occur in little over twelve
+years. But assuming the former rate of increase, and taking the
+population of the United States at only thirty millions, in six hundred
+and eighty-five years their living progeny would have each but a square
+foot to stand upon, were they spread over the entire globe, land and
+water included. But millions of species are doing the same thing, so
+that the inevitable result of this strife cannot be a matter of chance.
+Evidently those individuals or varieties having some advantage over
+their competitors will stand the best chance to live, while those
+destitute of these advantages will be liable to destruction. Nature may
+be said (metaphorically) to choose (like the will of man in artificial
+selection) which shall be preserved and which destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>That portion of the theory of development which maintains the common
+descent of all species of animals and plants from the simplest common
+origin, I have already stated with full justice should be called
+Lamarckism. Progress is recognized by all scientists to be a law of
+nature. Some of the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> important facts which sustain the theory of
+development, I propose now to present as briefly as possible.</p>
+
+
+<h3>RUDIMENTARY ORGANS.</h3>
+
+<p>One of the strongest arguments in favor of the hypothesis of a genetic
+connection among all animals (including man), at least among all those
+belonging to the same great types, is the presence of rudimentary parts.
+By rudiments in anatomy are meant organs or structures imperfectly
+developed, so as to be almost or entirely without functional use. "Each
+of them represents in germ, as it were, in one animal (or plant), that
+which is perfect and useful in another type."</p>
+
+<p>For a few examples: The little fold of caruncle at the inner margin of
+the eye in man, represents the nictitating membrane of birds. Eyes which
+do not see form a striking example. These are found in very many animals
+which live in the dark, as in caves or underground. Their eyes are often
+perfectly developed but are covered by a membrane, so that no ray of
+light can enter and they can never see. Such eyes, without the function
+of sight, are found in several species of moles and mice which live
+underground, in serpents and lizards, in amphibious animals (proteus,
+c&aelig;cilia) and in fishes; also in numerous invertebrate animals which pass
+their lives in the dark, as do many beetles, crabs, snails, worms, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Other rudimentary organs are the wings of animals which cannot fly. For
+example, the wings of the running birds, like the ostrich, emeu,
+cassowary, etc., the legs of which become exceedingly developed. The
+muscles which move the ears of animals are still present in man, but of
+course are of no use; by continual practice persons have been able to
+move their ears by these muscles. The rudiment of the tail of animals
+which man<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> possesses in his 3-5 tail vertebr&aelig;, is another rudimentary
+part&mdash;in the human embryo it stands out prominently during the first two
+months of its development; it afterwards becomes hidden. "The
+rudimentary little tail of man is irrefutable proof that he is descended
+from tailed ancestors." In woman the tail is generally, by one vertebra,
+longer than in man. There still exists rudimentary muscles in the human
+tail which formerly moved it.</p>
+
+<p>Another case of human rudimentary organs, only belonging to the male,
+and which obtains in like manner in all mammals, is furnished by the
+mammary glands on the breast, which, as a rule, are active only in the
+female sex. However, cases of different mammals are known, especially of
+men, sheep and goats, in which the mammary glands were fully developed
+in the male sex, and yield milk as food for their offspring. The
+vermiform appendix of the large intestine in man, is another
+illustration of a part which has no use, but in one marsupial is three
+times the length of its body. The rudimentary covering of hair over
+certain portions of the body, is not without interest. Over the body we
+find but a scanty covering, which is thick only on the head, in the
+armpits, and on some other parts of the body. The short hairs on the
+greater part of the body are entirely useless, and are the last scanty
+remains of the hairy covering of our ape ancestors. Both on the upper
+and lower arm the hairs are directed toward the elbow, where they meet
+at an obtuse angle&mdash;this striking arrangement is only found in man and
+the anthropoid apes, the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, and several species
+of gibbons. The fine short hairs on the body become developed into
+"thickset, long, and rather coarse dark hairs," when abnormally
+nourished near old-standing inflamed surfaces.<small><a name="f32.1" id="f32.1" href="#f32">[32]</a></small> The fine wool-like
+hair or so-called lanugo with which the human f&oelig;tus, during the fifth
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> sixth months, is thickly covered, offers another proof that man
+is descended from an animal which was born hairy, and remained so during
+life. This covering is first developed during the fifth month, on the
+eyebrows and face, and especially around the mouth, where it is much
+longer than that on the head. Three or four cases have been recorded of
+persons born with their whole bodies and faces thickly covered with fine
+long hairs. Prof. Alex. Brandt compared the hair from the face of a man
+thus characterized, aged thirty-five, with the lanugo of a f&oelig;tus, and
+finds it quite similar in texture. Eschricht<small><a name="f33.1" id="f33.1" href="#f33">[33]</a></small> has devoted great
+attention to this rudimentary covering, and has thrown much light on the
+subject. He showed that the female as well as the male f&oelig;tus
+possessed this hairy covering, showing that both are descended from
+progenitors, both sexes of whom were hairy. Eschricht also showed, as
+stated above, that the hair on the face of the fifth month f&oelig;tus is
+longer on the face than on the head, which indicates that our semi-human
+progenitors were not furnished with long tresses, which must therefore
+have been a late acquisition. The question naturally arises, is there
+any explanation for the loss of hair covering?</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i096.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;The Hairy-Faced Burmese Family. (From Scientific American, Feb. 20, 1875.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Darwin is of the opinion that the absence of hair on the body is, to a
+certain extent, a secondary sexual character; for, in all parts of the
+world, women are less hairy than men. He says: "Therefore we may
+reasonably suspect that this character has been gained through sexual
+selection." As the body in woman is less hairy than in man, and as this
+character is common to all races, we may conclude that it was our female
+semi-human ancestors who were first divested of hair.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Grant Allen<small><a name="f34.1" id="f34.1" href="#f34">[34]</a></small> has given much study to the subject of the
+loss of hair in the human being; and his investigations <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>are worthy of
+careful consideration. He shows conclusively that those parts of an
+animal which are in constant contact with other objects are specially
+liable to lose their hair. This is noticeable on the under surface of
+the body of all animals which habitually lie on the stomach. The soles
+of the feet of all mammals where they touch the ground are quite
+hairless; the palms of the hands in the quadrumana present the same
+appearance. The knees of those species which frequently kneel, such as
+camels and other ruminants, are apt to become bare and hard-skinned. The
+friction of the water has been the means of removing the hair from many
+aquatic mammals&mdash;the whales, porpoises, dugongs, and manatees are
+examples.</p>
+
+<p>As the back of man forms the specially hairless region of his body, we
+must conclude that it is in all probability the first part which became
+entirely denuded of hair. The gorilla, according to Professor Gervais,
+is the only mammal which agrees with man in having the hair thinner on
+the back, where it is partly rubbed off, than on the lower surface. Du
+Chaillu states that he has "himself come upon fresh traces of a
+gorilla's bed on several occasions, and could see that the male had
+seated himself with his back against a tree-trunk." He also says: "In
+both male and female the hair is found worn off the back; but this is
+only found in very old females. This is occasioned, I suppose, by their
+resting at night against trees, at whose base they sleep." The gorilla
+has only very partially acquired the erect position, and probably sits
+but little in the attitude common to man. In man the case is different;
+in proportion as his progenitors grew more and more erect, he must have
+lain less and less upon his stomach, and more and more upon his back or
+sides, and this is seen in the savage man during his lazy hours&mdash;who
+stretches himself on the ground in the sun, with his back propped, where
+possible, by a slight mound or the wall of his hut. The con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>tinual
+friction of the surface of the back would arrest the growth of hair; for
+hair grows where there is normally less friction, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As man became more and more hairless, especially among savage and naked
+races, we should conclude that such a modification would be considered a
+beauty, and women would select such men in preference to more hairy
+individuals. The New Zealand proverb is: "There is no woman for a hairy
+man." Sexual selection, then, would play a very important part; and the
+difficulty of understanding how man became divested of hair is readily
+explained.</p>
+
+<p>Haeckel says: "Even if we knew absolutely nothing of the other phenomena
+of development, we should be obliged to believe in the truth of the
+theory of descent, solely on the ground of the existence of rudimentary
+organs."</p>
+
+
+<h3>REPRODUCTION BY MEANS OF EGGS.</h3>
+
+<p>It might be thought there existed a missing link between animals which
+lay eggs and those which do not; this, however, is done away with in
+many instances&mdash;one, for example, is found in our commonest indigenous
+snake. The ringed snake lays eggs which require three weeks time to
+develop; but when it is kept in captivity, and no sand is strewn in the
+cage, it does not lay eggs, but retains them until the young ones are
+developed. This only shows how powerfully influences affect the habit of
+animals.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DOUBLE-SEXED INDIVIDUALS.</h3>
+
+<p>Another difficulty might be supposed to arise between animals which
+produce themselves other than by sexual reproduction. This has already
+been slightly touched upon; and it has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> shown that numerous plants
+and animals propagate themselves through their double-sexed organs. It
+occurs in a great majority of plants, but only in a minority of animals;
+for example, the garden-snail, leeches, earth-worms, and many other
+worms. Every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual gland eggs,
+and in another part sperm.</p>
+
+<p>Parthenogenesis offers an interesting form of transition from sexual
+reproduction to the non-sexual formation of germ-cells (which most
+resembles it). It has been demonstrated to occur in many cases among
+insects, especially by Seebold's excellent investigations. Among the
+common bees, a male individual (a drone) arises out of the eggs of the
+queen, if the eggs have not been fructified; a female (a queen or
+working bee), if the egg has been fructified.</p>
+
+<p>Gonochorismus or sexual separation, which characterizes the more
+complicated of the two kinds of sexual reproduction, has evidently been
+developed from the condition of hermaphroditism at a late period of the
+organic history of the world. In this case the female individual in both
+animal and plant produces eggs or egg-cells. In animals, the male
+individual secretes the fructifying sperm (sperma); in plants, the
+corpuscles, which correspond to the sperm.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INHERITANCE.</h3>
+
+<p>The remarkable facts of inheritance, extending to the reproduction of
+unimportant peculiarities of parts or organs (rudimentary parts)
+mentioned above, and the occasional outbreak of ancestral characters
+that have been dormant through several generations (some of which I will
+mention further on), might be thought perfectly unexplainable; but they
+are readily accounted for by the supposition that each part of an
+organism contributes its constituent and effective molecules to the germ
+and sperm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> particles. Mr. Sorby made numerous investigations with
+relation to the number of molecules in the germinal matter of eggs, and
+the spermatic matter supplied by the male. Omitting the alkali, Mr.
+Sorby takes the formula, C<sub>72</sub>H<sub>112</sub>N<sub>18</sub>SO<sub>22</sub>, as representing the
+composition of albumen. In a <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">2000</span> of an inch cube, he reckons&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="albumen">
+<tr><td>Albumen</td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="right">18,000,000,000,000</td><td align="right">&nbsp;molecules.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water</td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="right">992,000,000,000,000</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td colspan="2" align="right">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">1,010,000,000,000,000</td><td align="right">molecules.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Or, in a sphere of the same diameter, 530,000,000,000,000 of the two
+components. Taking a single mammalian spermatozoon, having a mean
+diameter of <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">6000</span> of an inch; "it might contain two and a half million
+of such gemmules. If these were lost, destroyed, or fully developed at
+the rate of one in each second, this number would be exhausted in about
+one month; but since a number of spermatozoa appears to be necessary to
+produce perfect fertilization, it is quite easy to understand that the
+number of gemmules introduced into the ovum may be so great that the
+influence of the male parent may be very marked, even after having been,
+as regards particular character, apparently dormant for many years." The
+germinal vesicle of a mammalian ovum being about <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">1000</span> of an inch, mean
+diameter, might contain five hundred million of gemmules, which, if used
+up at the rate of one per second, would last more than seventeen years.
+If the whole ovum, about <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">150</span> in diameter, were all gemmules, the
+number would be sufficient to last, at this rate, one per second for
+5,600 years! This, however, is not probable; but Mr. Sorby's remarks has
+completely removed all doubt as to its physical possibility from the
+Darwinian theory; "and they prompt us," says Slack, "to a wonderful
+conception of the powers residing in minute quantities of matter."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>The laws of inheritance are divisible into two series, conservative and
+progressive transmission; the laws of adaptation to direct (active) or
+indirect (potential) adaptation.</p>
+
+<p>External causes often influence the reproductive system, especially in
+organism propagating in a sexual way. This can be strikingly shown in
+artificially produced monstrosities. Monstrosities can be produced by
+subjecting the parental organism to certain extraordinary conditions of
+life; and curiously enough, such an extraordinary condition of life does
+not produce a change of the organism itself, but a change in its
+descendants. The new formation exists in the parental organism only as a
+possibility (potential); in the descendants it becomes a reality
+(actual). Most commonly, monstrosities with very abnormal forms are
+sterile, but there are instances where they reproduce their kind and
+become a species.<small><a name="f35.1" id="f35.1" href="#f35">[35]</a></small> Geoffroy St. Hilaire, who perhaps made the deepest
+investigations ever conducted into the nature and causes of their
+production, first conceived the idea of artificially producing them, and
+to this end he began modifications of the physical conditions of the
+evolution of the chicken during natural and artificial incubation. He
+determined the fact that monsters could be produced in this way, but
+scarcely carried his investigation further. This work has been taken up
+by M. Dareste, and he has lately published a volume in Paris which
+recounts the results of a quarter of a century's experimenting. Eggs, he
+states, were submitted to incubation in a vertical instead of a
+horizontal position; they were covered with varnish in certain places so
+as to stop or modify evaporation and respiration. The evolution of the
+chick was rendered slower by a temperature below that of the normal heat
+of incubation. Finally, eggs were warmed only at one point, so that the
+young animal, during development, was submitted at different
+parts to variable temperatures.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><b>Fig. 1.</b></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><b>Fig. 2.</b></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><b>Fig. 3.</b></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><b>Fig. 4.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="12" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig5.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr><tr><td colspan="12" align="center"><b>Fig. 5.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"><b>Fig. 6.</b></td><td colspan="4" align="center"><b>Fig. 7.</b></td><td colspan="4" align="center"><b>Fig. 8.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig6.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="4" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig7.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td colspan="4" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig8.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>These perturbations resulted in the most curious and unlooked for
+deformities in the embryo, some being not alone peculiar to the bird,
+but being similar to those which have been recognized in many other
+animals, and even in the human species. The data obtained have been
+deemed so important that M. Dareste has recently received the Lacaze
+prize for physiology from the French Academy of Sciences.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible to review even a fraction of the many forms of
+monstrosities which M. Dareste has discovered. Those that we give will,
+however, suffice to convey an idea of the wonderful variations produced.
+Fig. 1 is a chick embryo with the encephalon entirely outside the head,
+the heart, liver, and gizzard outside the umbilical opening, right wing
+lifted up beside the head, and the development of the left one stopped.
+In Fig. 2 the encephalon is herniated and marked with blood spots, the
+eye is rudimentary and replaced by a spot of pigment, the upper beak is
+shorter than the lower one, while the heart, liver, etc., are all
+outside. In Figs. 3 and 4 the head is compressed, eyes well developed,
+but in the back instead of in the sides of the head; the body is bent,
+abdominal intestines not closed, heart largely developed and herniated.
+The literal references to the foregoing are: <i>am</i>, amnion; <i>al</i>,
+allantois; <i>v</i>, vitellus; <i>h</i>, encephalon; <i>i</i>, eye; <i>c</i>, heart; <i>f</i>,
+liver; <i>g</i>, gizzard; <i>ms</i>, upper, and <i>mi</i>, lower member.</p>
+
+<p>The commonest case of monstrosity observed by M. Dareste has been that
+of the head protruding from the navel, and the heart or hearts above the
+head. This is a most extraordinary and new monster, and, if it persist,
+a chicken with its heart on its back, like a hump, may be expected. A
+curious fact discovered is the duplicity of the heart at the beginning
+of incubation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> two hearts, beating separately, being clearly seen.
+Another anomaly consists in heads with a frontal swelling, which is
+filled by the cerebral hemispheres.</p>
+
+<p>M. Dareste's artificial monsters are all produced from the single germ
+or cicatricule (as the white circular spot seen in the yellow of the
+egg, and from which the embryo springs, is termed). He has not yet been
+able to determine artificially the production of monsters, the origin of
+which takes place in a peculiar state of the cicatricule before
+incubation. But having submitted to incubation some 10,000 eggs, he has
+obtained several remarkable examples of double monstrosities in process
+of formation, some representations of which are given herewith. Fig. 5
+shows three embryos, all derived from a single cicatricule. Fig. 6
+represents three embryos from two cicatricules. On one side of the line
+of junction are two imperfectly developed embryos, one having no heart.
+The single embryo on the other side is generally normal, but has a heart
+on the right side. In Fig. 7 are twins, one well formed, the heart
+circulating colorless blood, the other having no heart and a rudimentary
+head. Fig. 8 exhibits a double monster with lateral union. The heads are
+separate, and there are three upper and three lower members, those of
+the latter on the median line belonging equally to each of the pair.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ACQUIRED QUALITIES.</h3>
+
+<p>When an organism has been subjected to abnormal conditions in life it
+can transmit any peculiarity it may have acquired. This is, however, not
+always possible, otherwise descendants of men who have lost their arm or
+leg would be born without the corresponding arm or leg&mdash;this shows that
+some acquired qualities are more easily transmitted than
+others&mdash;although there are cases, as, for instance, a race of dogs
+without tails has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> been produced by cutting off the tails of both sexes
+of the dog, during several generations. "A few years ago," says Haeckel,
+"a case occurred on an estate near Jena in which, by the careless
+slamming of a stable-door, the tail of a bull was wrenched off, and the
+calves begotten by this bull were all born without a tail. This is
+certainly an exception; but it is very important to note the fact that
+under certain unknown conditions such violent changes are transmitted in
+the same manner as many diseases." The transmission of diseases such as
+consumption, madness, and albinism form examples. Albinoes are those
+individuals who are distinguished by the absence of coloring matter from
+their skins; they are of frequent occurrence among men, animals and
+plants. Among many animals, such as rabbits and mice, albinoes with
+white fur and red eyes are so much liked that they are propagated. This
+would be impossible were it not for the law of the transmission of
+adaptations. Hornless cattle have descended from a single bull born in
+1770 of horned parents, but whose absence of horns was the result of
+some unknown cause.</p>
+
+<p>The law of interrupted or latent transmission, as illustrated in
+grandchildren who are like the grandparents, but quite unlike the
+parents. Animals often resume a form which have not existed for many
+generations. One of the most remarkable instances of this kind of
+reversion, or "atavism," is the fact that in some horses there sometimes
+appear singular dark stripes similar to those of the zebra, quagga, and
+other wild species of African horse.</p>
+
+<p>Nutrition directly modifies adaptation, as is well illustrated by
+animals which have been bred for domestic or other purposes. If a farmer
+is breeding for fine wool he gives much different food to the sheep than
+he would if he wished to obtain flesh or an abundance of fat. Even the
+bodily form of man is quite different according to its nutrition. Food
+containing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> much nitrogen produces little fat, that containing little
+nitrogen produces a great deal of fat. People who by means of Banting's
+system, at present so popular, wish to become thin, eat only meat and
+eggs&mdash;no bread, no potatoes.</p>
+
+<p>Man can breed for milk in cattle, for feathers in pigeons, for colored
+flowers in plants, and, in fact, for almost any desirable quality.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GEOLOGICAL RECORD.</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Geological Record</i> (<ins class="correction" title="original reads 'paleontology'">pal&aelig;ontology</ins>) furnishes weighty evidence of
+man's descent; for the circumstantial evidence derived from this source
+is written without the possibility of a mistake, with no chance of
+error, on the stratified rocks. It is true that the geological record
+must be incomplete, because it can only preserve remains found in
+certain favorable localities, and under particular conditions; that this
+valuable record must be destroyed by processes of denudation, and
+obliterated by processes of metamorphosis, it cannot be doubted. "Beds
+of rock of any thickness, crammed full of organic remains, may yet,"
+says Huxley, "by the percolation of water through them, or the influence
+of subterranean heat (if they descend far enough toward the centre of
+the earth), lose all trace of these remains, and present the appearance
+of beds of rock formed under conditions in which there was no trace of
+living forms. Such metamorphic rocks occur in formations of all ages;
+and we know with perfect certainty, when they do appear, that they have
+contained organic remains, and that those remains have been absolutely
+obliterated." If we look at the geological record, we find:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The First Epoch.</span>&mdash;<i>The Archilithic</i>, or Primordial Epoch, constitutes
+the <i>Age of Skull-less Animals and Sea-weed Forests</i>, and is made up of
+the Laurentian, Cambrian, and Silurian Period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Second Epoch.</span>&mdash;<i>The Pal&aelig;olithic</i>, or Primary Epoch,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> constitutes the
+<i>Age of Fishes and Fern Forests</i>, and is made up of the Devonian, Coal,
+and Permian Period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Third Epoch.</span>&mdash;<i>The Mesolithic</i>, or Secondary Epoch, constitutes the
+<i>Age of Reptiles and Pine Forests, Conifer&aelig;</i>, and is made up of the
+Triassic, Jurassic, and Chalk Period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Fourth Epoch.</span>&mdash;<i>The C&aelig;nolithic</i>, or Tertiary Epoch, constitutes the
+<i>Age of Mammals and Leaf Forests</i>, and is made up of the Eocene,
+Miocene, and Phocene Period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Fifth Epoch.</span>&mdash;The <i>Anthropolithic</i>, or Quaternary Epoch, constitutes
+the <i>Age of Man and Cultivated Forests,</i> and is made up of the Glacial
+and Postglacial Period, and the Period of Culture.</p>
+
+<p>During the archilithic epoch the inhabitants of our planet, as has been
+already stated, consisted of skull-less animals, or aquatic forms. No
+remains of terrestrial animals or plants, dated from this period, have
+as yet been found.</p>
+
+<p>The archilithic period was longer than the whole long period between the
+close of the archilithic and the present time; for if the total
+thickness of all sedimentary strata be estimated as about one hundred
+and thirty thousand feet, then seventy thousand feet belong to this
+epoch. It was during this epoch that the little mass of protoplasm,
+which has been so often spoken of, came into existence.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated above that pal&aelig;ontology is quite deficient. This is
+not only true of the record, but of the lack as yet of sufficient
+investigations. The greatest fields of investigation in this department
+have never been explored. The whole of the petrifactions accurately
+known do not probably amount to a hundredth part of those which, by more
+elaborate explorations, are yet to be discovered. The most ancient of
+all distinctly preserved petrifactions is the Eozoon Canadense, which
+was found in the lowest Laurentian strata in the Ottawa formation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>Probably no discovery in pal&aelig;ontology ranks higher than the discovery of
+the descendants of the horse. The horse, for example, as far as his
+limbs and teeth go, differs far more from extant graminivora than man
+differs from the ape. Had not fossil ungulates been found, which
+demonstrate the common origin of the horse with didactyles and
+multidactyles, some would have deemed the horse a special miraculous
+creation. But now the links are complete, and the descent of the horse
+is found to follow exactly what the doctrine of evolution could have
+predicted.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ONTOGENY.</h3>
+
+<p>It has been stated that the pal&aelig;ontological record is quite incomplete,
+owing to many facts, some of which have been mentioned; fortunately, the
+history of the development of the organic individual, or ontogeny, comes
+in to fill up many deficiencies.</p>
+
+<p>Ontogeny is a repetition of the principal forms through which the
+respective individuals have passed from the beginning of their tribe,
+and its great advantage is that it reveals a field of information which
+it was impossible for the rocks to retain; for the petrification of the
+ancient ancestors of all the different animal and vegetable species,
+which were soft, tender bodies, was not possible.</p>
+
+<p>The annexed plate illustrates the dog, rabbit, and man in their first
+stages of development. Illustrations of a fish, an amphibious animal, a
+reptile, a bird, or any mammal, could also be given; for all vertebrate
+animals of the most different classes, in their early stages of
+development, cannot be distinguished, and the nearer the animal
+approaches man in the ascending scale, the longer does this similarity
+continue to exist&mdash;when reptiles and birds are distinctly different from
+mammals, the dog and the man are almost identical.</p>
+
+<p>The gill-arches of the fish exist in man, in dogs, in fowls, in
+reptiles, and in other vertebrate animals during the first stages of
+their development. Man also possesses, in his first stages, a real tail,
+as well as his nearest kindred&mdash;the tailless apes (orang-outang,
+chimpanzee, gorilla), and vertebrate animals in general. The tail, as
+has been stated, man still retains, though hidden as a rudiment.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="embryo">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. IV.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. VII.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig4_7.png" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. V.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. VIII.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig5_8.png" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. VI.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. IX.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig6_9.png" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> I.&mdash;Human Embryo.&mdash;<i>Ecker.</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> II.&mdash;Embryo of Dog.&mdash;<i>Bischoff.</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> III.&mdash;Dog Embryo.&mdash;<i>Huxley.</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Figs.</span> IV, V, and VI.&mdash;Embryo of Rabbit in three stages of development.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Figs.</span> VII, VIII, and IX.&mdash;Embryo of Man in three stages
+of development.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i> <i>v</i>, fore brain; <i>z</i>, twix brain; <i>m</i>,
+middle brain; <i>h</i>, hind brain; <i>n</i>, after brain; <i>r</i>, spinal marrow;
+<i>e</i>, nose; <i>a</i>, eye; <i>o</i>, ear; <i>k</i>, gillarches; <i>g</i>, heart; <i>w</i>,
+vertebral column; <i>f</i>, fore limbs; <i>b</i>, hind limbs; <i>s</i>, tail.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>"Man presents in his earliest stages of embryonic growth, a skeleton of
+cartilage, like that of the lamprey; also, five origins of the aorta and
+five slits on the neck, like the <i>lamprey</i> and the <i>shark</i>. Later, he
+has but four aortic origins, and a heart now divided into two chambers,
+like <i>bony fishes</i>; the optic lobes of his brain also having a very
+fish-like predominance in size. Three chambers of the heart and three
+aortic origins follow, presenting a condition permanent in the
+<i>batrachia</i>; then two origins with enlarged hemispheres of the brain, as
+in <i>reptiles</i>. Four heart chambers and one aortic root on each side,
+with slight development of the cerebellum, agree with the characters of
+the <i>crocodiles</i>, and immediately present the special mammalian
+conditions, single aortic root, and the full development of the
+<ins class="correction" title="original reads 'cerebelbellum'">cerebellum</ins>. Later comes that of the cerebrum, also in its higher
+mammalian or human traits." At no time in the development of the egg,
+save at the start, do the embryos of the various vertebra assume the
+<i>exact</i> or <i>entire</i> characteristics of one another, but they assimilate
+so closely that it requires the eye of the expert to distinguish them;
+and, as has already been stated, the more closely an animal resembles
+another, the longer and the more intimately do their embryos resemble
+one another; so that, for example, the embryo of the snake and of a
+lizard remain like one another longer than do those of a snake and of a
+bird; and the embryo of a dog and of a cat remain like one another for a
+far longer period than do those of a dog and a bird, or a dog and an
+opossum, or even those of a dog and a monkey.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>Surely it must be admitted that the short brief history given by the
+development of the egg, is far more wonderful than phylogeny or the long
+and slow history of the development of the tribe, which has taken
+thousands of years. Compare this time with the time required for the
+development of the smallest mammals&mdash;the harvest mice which develops in
+three weeks, or the smallest of all birds, the humming-bird, which quits
+the egg on the twelfth day, or with man who passes through the whole
+course of his development in forty weeks, or with the rhinoceros who
+requires 1&#189; years, or the elephant who requires ninety weeks. How
+insignificant are these various periods to the long period originally
+required; yet in these short periods the whole phylogeny is run through
+in the ontogeny or the history of the development of the egg.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="THE_ATTRIBUTES_OF_MAN" id="THE_ATTRIBUTES_OF_MAN"></a>THE ATTRIBUTES OF MAN.</h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">We</span> must now consider briefly some of the attributes of man, and see if
+he really possesses attributes which are in no inferior degree possessed
+by animals. Before proceeding directly to the consideration of the
+attributes of man, it will be best to show the correlation that exists
+between what are called man's vital forces and the physical forces of
+nature. To do this let us choose three forms of its manifestation: these
+shall be heat evolved within the body; muscular energy or motion; and
+lastly, nervous energy or that form of force which, on the one hand,
+stimulates a muscle to contract, and on the other appears in forms
+called mental. It will not take any extensive argument to demonstrate
+that the heat of the body does not differ from heat from any other
+source. It is known that the food taken into the body contains potential
+energy, which is capable of being in part converted into actual heat by
+oxidation; and since we know that the food taken into the body is
+oxidized by the oxygen of the air supplied by the lungs, the heat of the
+body must be due to the slow oxidation of the carbon, perhaps also
+hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus in the food. Now since this so-called
+vital heat is developed by oxidation, is recognized by the same tests
+and applied to the same purposes as any other heat, it is as truly
+correlated to the other forces as when it has a purely physical origin.
+The am&oelig;boid activity of a white blood corpuscle is stimulated within
+certain limits by heat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> Hatching of eggs and the germination of seeds
+may be likewise hastened or retarded by access or deprivation of heat.
+It was considerations such as these which led to the doctrine of
+correlation of the vital and physical forces.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the muscular force exerted by an animal, it was supposed
+that it was created by the animal. Dr. Frankland<small><a name="f36.1" id="f36.1" href="#f36">[36]</a></small> says to this: "An
+animal can no more generate an amount of force capable of moving a grain
+of sand, than a stone can fall upwards or a locomotive drive a train
+without fuel." As the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> exhaled by the lungs is increased
+in the exact ratio of work done by the muscle, it cannot be doubted that
+the actual force of the muscle is due to the converted potential energy
+of the food. Since every exertion of a muscle and nerves involves the
+death and decay of those tissues to a certain extent, as shown by the
+excretions, Prof. Orton<small><a name="f37.1" id="f37.1" href="#f37">[37]</a></small> has been led to say: "An animal begins to
+die the moment it begins to live." "A muscle," says Barker,<small><a name="f38.1" id="f38.1" href="#f38">[38]</a></small> "is like
+a steam-engine, is a machine for converting the potential energy of
+carbon into motion; but unlike a steam-engine, the muscle accomplishes
+this conversion directly, the energy not passing through the
+intermediate stages of heat. For this reason the muscle is the most
+economical producer of mechanical force known." The muscles which give
+the downward stroke of the wing of a bird are fastened to the
+breastbone, and their power in proportion to the weight of the bird is
+as 10,000 to 1. This great power is needed, for the air is 770 times
+lighter than water; the hawk being able to travel 150 miles an hour.</p>
+
+<p>The last of the so-called vital forces under consideration, is that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+produced by the nerves and nervous centres. Barker says: "In the nerve
+which stimulates a muscle to contract, this force is undeniably motion,
+since it is propagated along this nerve from one extremity to the
+other." This force has been likened unto electricity, the gray or
+cellular matter being the battery, the white or fibrous matter the
+conductors. Du Bois Reymond<small><a name="f39.1" id="f39.1" href="#f39">[39]</a></small> has demonstrated that this force is not
+electricity, though by showing that its velocity is only ninety-seven
+feet a second. The velocity varies, though, in different animals; it is,
+according to Prof. Orton,<small><a name="f40.1" id="f40.1" href="#f40">[40]</a></small> "more rapid in warm-blooded than in
+cold-blooded animals, being nearly twice as fast in man as in the frog."
+Wheatstone, by his method, gives the velocity of electricity in copper
+wire at 62,000 geographical miles per second; but as neither Fizeau,
+Gould, Gonnelle and others could arrive at the same result, the method
+was shown to be incorrect, and it remained for Dr. Siemen<small><a name="f41.1" id="f41.1" href="#f41">[41]</a></small> to
+discover the true method, which gives the velocity just one-half that of
+Wheatstone's estimate, or 31,000 geographical miles per second. In the
+opinion of Bence Jones, the propagation of a nervous impulse is a sort
+"of successive molecular polarization, like magnetism." But that this
+agent is a force as analogous to electricity as is magnetism, is shown
+not only by the fact that the transmission of electricity along a nerve
+will cause the contraction of a muscle to which it leads, but also by
+the important fact discovered by Marshall, that the contraction of a
+muscle is excited by diminishing its normal electrical current,<small><a name="f42.1" id="f42.1" href="#f42">[42]</a></small> a
+result which could take place only with a stimulus, says Barker,
+"closely allied to electricity. Nerve force must therefore be transmuted
+potential energy." Prof. Huxley says,<small><a name="f43.1" id="f43.1" href="#f43">[43]</a></small> "the
+results <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>of recent
+inquiries into the structure of the nervous system of animals, converge
+toward the conclusion that the nerve-fibres which we have hitherto
+regarded as ultimate elements of nervous tissue, are not such, but are
+simply the visible aggregations of vastly more attenuated filaments, the
+diameter of which dwindles down to the limits of our present microscopic
+vision, greatly as these have been extended by modern improvements of
+the microscope; and that a nerve is, in its essence, nothing but a
+linear tract of specially modified protoplasm between two points of an
+organism, one of which is able to affect the other by means of the
+communication so established. Hence it is conceivable that even the
+simplest living being may possess a nervous system."</p>
+
+<p>Herbert Spencer<small><a name="f44.1" id="f44.1" href="#f44">[44]</a></small> says all direct and indirect evidence "justifies us
+in concluding that the nervous system consists of <i>one</i> kind of matter.
+In the gray tissue this matter exists in masses containing <i>corpuscles</i>,
+which are soft and have granules dispersed through them, and which,
+besides being thus unstably composed, are placed so as to be liable to
+disturbances to the greatest degree. In the white tissue this matter is
+collected together in extremely slender <i>threads</i> that are denser, that
+are uniform in texture, and that are shielded in an unusual manner from
+disturbing forces, except at their two extremities."</p>
+
+<p>The last consideration is that form of force (thought power) which
+appears in manifestations called mental. It must be noticed at the
+outset, that every external manifestation of thought force is a muscular
+one, as a word spoken or written, a gesture, or an expression of the
+face always takes place; hence this force must be intimately correlated
+to nerve force. It is very certain, then, that thought force is capable
+in external manifestations of converting itself into actual motion. But
+here the question arises, can it be manifested inwardly without such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> a
+transformation of energy? Or is the evolution of thought entirely
+independent of the matter of the brain?</p>
+
+<p>This question can be answered by actual experiment, strange as it may
+appear. Experiments have demonstrated that any change of temperature
+within the skull was soonest manifested externally in that depression
+which exists just above the occipital protuberance. Here Lombard<small><a name="f45.1" id="f45.1" href="#f45">[45]</a></small>
+fastened to the head at this point two little bars, one made of bismuth,
+the other of an alloy of antimony and zinc, which were connected with a
+delicate galvanometer;<small><a name="f46.1" id="f46.1" href="#f46">[46]</a></small> to neutralize the result of a gradual rise of
+temperature over the whole body, a second pair of bars, reversed in
+direction, was attached to the leg or arm, so that if a like increase of
+heat came to both, the electricity developed by one would be neutralized
+by the other, and no effect would be produced by the needle unless only
+one was affected. By long practice it was ascertained that a mental
+torpor could be induced, lasting for hours, in which the needle remained
+stationary. But let a person knock on the door outside of the room, or
+speak a single word, even though the experimenter remained absolutely
+passive, the reception of the intelligence caused the needle to swing
+twenty degrees. "In explanation of this production of heat," says
+Barker,<small><a name="f47.1" id="f47.1" href="#f47">[47]</a></small> "the analogy of the muscle at once suggests itself. No
+conversion of energy is complete, and as the heat of muscular action
+represents force which has escaped conversion into motion, so the heat
+evolved during the reception of an idea is energy which has escaped
+conversion into thought, from precisely the same cause." Dr. Lombard's
+experiments have shown that the amount of heat developed by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>the
+recitation to one's self of emotional poetry, was in every case less
+when recitation was oral; this is of course accounted for by the
+muscular expression. Chemistry teaches that thought-force, like
+muscle-force, comes from the food, and demonstrates that the force
+evolved by the brain, like that produced by the muscle, comes not from
+the disintegration of its own tissue, but is the converted energy of
+burning carbon.<small><a name="f48.1" id="f48.1" href="#f48">[48]</a></small> "Can we longer doubt," says
+Barker,<small><a name="f49.1" id="f49.1" href="#f49">[49]</a></small> "that the
+brain too, is a machine for the conversion of energy? Can we longer
+refuse to believe that even thought force is in some mysterious way
+correlated to the other natural forces? and this even in the face of the
+fact that it has never yet been measured.<small><a name="f50.1" id="f50.1" href="#f50">[50]</a></small> Have we not a right to ask
+'why a special force (vital force) should be needed to effect the
+transformation of physical forces into those modes of energy which are
+active in the manifestation of living beings, while no peculiar force is
+deemed necessary to effect the transformation of one mode of physical
+force into any other mode of physical force?"</p>
+
+<p>Richard Owen says:<small><a name="f51.1" id="f51.1" href="#f51">[51]</a></small> "In the endeavor to clearly comprehend and
+explain the functions of the combination of forces called 'brain,' the
+physiologist is hindered and troubled by the views of the nature of
+those cerebral forces which the needs of dogmatic theology have imposed
+on mankind. *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* Religion, pure and undefiled, can best answer how far
+it is righteous or just to charge a neighbor with being unsound in his
+principles who holds the term 'life' to be a sound expressing the sum of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>living phenomena, and who maintains these phenomena to be modes of
+force into which other forms of force have passed from potential to
+active states, and reciprocally, through the agency of the sums or
+combinations of forces impressing the mind with the ideas signified by
+the terms 'monad,' 'moss,' 'plant,' or 'animal.'"</p>
+
+<p>We have now shown that the very forces which give vent to the attributes
+of man, are correlated to the physical forces. Let us now consider his
+attributes as manifested by his mental powers. There is no doubt the
+difference between the mental faculties of the ape and that of the
+lowest savage, who cannot express any number higher than four and who
+uses hardly any abstract terms for common objects or for the
+affections,<small><a name="f52.1" id="f52.1" href="#f52">[52]</a></small> is still very great and would still be great, says
+Darwin, "even if one of the higher apes had been improved or civilized
+as much as a dog has been in comparison with its parent form, the wolf
+or jackal." But when we examine the interval of mental power between one
+of the lowest fishes, as a lamprey or a lancelet, and one of the higher
+apes, and recognize the fact that this interval is filled up by
+numberless gradations, it does not become so difficult to understand the
+interval between an ape and man, which is not by far so great. As in
+finding out what is peculiar to a living body in distinction to a body
+not living, we found it absurd to take man as the perfection of the
+animal scale&mdash;the microscopic monad possessing life as well as him&mdash;so
+in the case of man's mental attributes, which have always been
+increasing, always perfecting, since the first genuine man came into
+existence, it would be equally absurd to compare the intellectual man of
+to-day with an ape to see what attributes he possesses which the ape
+does not possess; but if we go down in the scale and compare the savage
+with the ape, the difficulty is not by far so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> great. It will be found
+on close examination, though, that man and the higher animals,
+especially the primates, have many instincts in common. "All," says
+Darwin, "have the same senses, intuitions and sensations; similar
+passions, affections, and emotions; even the more complex ones, such as
+jealousy, suspicion, emulation, gratitude and magnanimity; they practice
+deceit and are revengeful; they are sometimes susceptible to ridicule
+and even have a sense of humor; they feel wonder and curiosity; they
+possess the same faculties of imitation, attention, deliberation,
+choice, memory, imagination, the association of ideas, and reason,
+though in very different degrees. The individuals of the same species
+graduate in intellect from absolute imbecility to high excellence; they
+are also liable to insanity, though far less often than in the case of
+man."<small><a name="f53.1" id="f53.1" href="#f53">[53]</a></small> Nevertheless, in the face of these facts, many authors have
+insisted that man is divided by an inseparable barrier from all the
+lower animals in his mental faculties. It only shows the improper or
+imperfect consideration of the subject they have under discussion.</p>
+
+<p>It may be thought at first that some of the mental attributes mentioned
+above are not possessed by animals. I therefore will briefly consider a
+few of the more complex ones. We can dismiss the consideration of such
+attributes as happiness, terror, suspicion, courage, timidity, jealousy,
+shame, and wonder, as well-known attributes. <i>Curiosity</i> in animals is
+often observed. An instance mentioned by Brehm will serve to illustrate:
+Brehm gives a curious account of the instinctive dread which his monkeys
+exhibited for snakes; but their curiosity was so great that they could
+not desist from occasionally satiating their horror in a most human
+fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were kept.
+<i>Imitation</i> is also found among the action of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> animals, especially among
+monkeys, which are well known to be ridiculous mockers.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to refer to the faculty of attention, as it is common
+to almost all animals, and the same may be said of memory as for persons
+or places.</p>
+
+<p>One would hesitate to believe an animal possesses <i>imagination</i>, but
+such is the case. Dreaming, it will be admitted, gives us the best
+notion of this power. Now as dogs, cats, horses, and probably all the
+higher animals, even birds, have vivid dreams&mdash;this is shown by their
+movements and the sounds uttered&mdash;"we must admit," says Darwin, "they
+possess some power of imagination. There must be something special which
+causes dogs to howl in the night, and especially during moonlight, in
+that remarkable and melancholy manner, called baying. All dogs do not do
+so; and, according to Housyeau,<small><a name="f54.1" id="f54.1" href="#f54">[54]</a></small> they do not look at the moon, but at
+some fixed point near the horizon. Housyeau thinks that their
+imaginations are disturbed by the vague outlines of the surrounding
+objects, and conjure up before them fantastic images; if this be so,
+their feelings may almost be called superstitious."</p>
+
+<p>The next mental faculty is <i>reason</i>, which stands at the summit; but
+still there are few persons who will deny that animals possess some
+power of reasoning. A few illustrations will be all that is necessary to
+satisfy the inquiring mind on this point. Reugger, a most careful
+observer, states that when he first gave eggs to his monkey in Paraguay
+they smashed them, and thus lost much of their contents; afterward they
+gently hit one end against some hard body, and picked off the bits of
+shell with their fingers. After cutting themselves <i>once</i> with any sharp
+tool, they would not touch it again, or would handle it with the
+greatest caution. Lumps of sugar were often given them, wrapped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> up in
+paper; and Reugger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that in
+hastily unfolding it they got stung; after this had <i>once</i> happened,
+they afterward first held the packet to their ears to detect any
+movement within.</p>
+
+<p>The following cases relating to dogs are described by Darwin: Mr.
+Colquhoun winged two wild ducks, which fell on the farther side of a
+stream; his retriever tried to bring over both at once, but could not
+succeed; she then, though never before known to ruffle a feather,
+deliberately killed one, brought over the other, and returned for the
+dead bird. Colonel Hutchinson relates that two partridges were shot at
+once&mdash;one being killed, the other wounded; the latter ran away, and was
+caught by the retriever, who, on her return, came across the dead bird;
+"she stopped, evidently greatly puzzled, and after one or two trials,
+finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of the
+winged bird, she considered a moment, then deliberately murdered it by
+giving it a severe crunch, and afterward brought away both together.
+This was the only known instance of her ever having wilfully injured any
+game. Here we have reason, though not quite perfect; for the retriever
+might have brought the wounded bird first, and then returned for the
+dead one, as in the case of the two wild ducks. I give the above cases
+as resting on the evidence of two independent witnesses; and because in
+both instances the retrievers, after deliberation, broke through a habit
+which was inherited by them (that of not killing the game retrieved),
+and because they show how strong their reasoning faculty must have been
+to overcome a fixed habit."<small><a name="f55.1" id="f55.1" href="#f55">[55]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>It has often been said that no animal uses any tool, but this can be so
+easily refuted on reflection, that it is hardly worth while considering;
+for illustration, though, the chimpanzee in a state of nature cracks
+nuts with a stone; Darwin saw a young orang put a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> stick in a crevice,
+slip his hand to the other end, and use it in a proper manner as a
+lever. The baboons in Abyssinia descend in troops from the mountains to
+plunder fields, and when they meet troops of another species a fight
+ensues. They commence by rolling great stones at their enemies, as they
+often do when attacked with fire-arms.</p>
+
+<p>The Duke of Argyll remarks that the fashioning of an implement for a
+special purpose is absolutely peculiar to man; and he considers this
+forms an immeasurable gulf between him and the brutes. "This is no
+doubt," says Darwin, "a very important distinction; but there appears to
+me much truth in Sir J. Lubbock's suggestion,<small><a name="f56.1" id="f56.1" href="#f56">[56]</a></small> that when primeval man
+first used flint-stones for any purpose, he would have accidentally
+splintered them, and would then have used the sharp fragments. From this
+step it would be a small one to break the flints on purpose, and not a
+very wide step to fashion them rudely. The later advance, however, may
+have taken long ages, if we may judge by the immense interval of time
+which elapsed before the men of the neolithic period took to grinding
+and polishing their stone tools. In breaking the flints, as Sir J.
+Lubbock likewise remarks, sparks would have been emitted, and in
+grinding them heat would have been evolved; thus the two usual methods
+of 'obtaining fire may have originated.' The nature of fire would have
+been known in many volcanic regions where lava occasionally flows
+through forests."</p>
+
+<p>It becomes a difficult task to determine how far animals exhibit any
+traces of such high faculties as <i>abstraction</i>, <i>general conception</i>,
+<i>self-consciousness</i>, <i>mental individuality</i>. There can be no doubt, if
+the mental faculties of an animal can be improved, that the higher
+complex faculties such as abstraction and self-consciousness have
+developed from a combination of the simpler ones; this seems to be well
+illustrated in the young child, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> such faculties are developed by
+imperceptible degrees. These high faculties are very sparingly possessed
+by the savage; as Buchner<small><a name="f57.1" id="f57.1" href="#f57">[57]</a></small> has remarked, how little can the
+hard-worked wife of a degraded Australian savage, who uses very few
+abstract words and cannot count above four, exert her self-consciousness
+or reflect on the nature of her own existence. If there exist a class of
+people so inferior in their mental faculties as these, it is not
+difficult for us to understand how the educated animal who possesses
+memory, attention, association, and even some imagination and reason,
+can become capable of abstraction, &amp;c., in an inferior degree even to
+the savage. It certainly cannot be doubted that an animal possesses
+mental individuality&mdash;as when a master returns to a dog which he has not
+seen for years, and the dog recognizes him at once.</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief distinctions between man and animals is the faculty of
+language. Let us look at this for a moment. "The essential differences,"
+says Prof. Whitney, "which separate man's means of communication in kind
+as well as degree from that of the other animals is that, while the
+latter is instinctive, the former is in all its parts arbitrary and
+conventional. No man can become possessed of any language without
+learning it; no animal (that we know of) has any expression which he
+learns, which is not the direct gift of nature to him." Any child of
+parents living in a foreign country grows up to speak the foreign
+speech, unless carefully guarded from doing so; or it speaks both this
+and the tongue of its parent with equal readiness. A child must learn to
+observe and distinguish before speech is possible, and every child
+begins to know things by their name before he begins to call them. "If
+it were not for the added push," says Prof. Whitney, "given by the
+desire of communication, the great and wonderful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> power of the human
+soul would never move in this particular direction; but when this leads
+the way, all the rest follows." No philologist now supposes that any
+language has been deliberately invented; it has been slowly and
+unconsciously developed by many steps.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no question that language owes its origin to the imitation
+and modification of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals,
+and man's own instinctive cries, aided by signs and gestures; and this
+is the opinion of Max M&uuml;ller. And Prof. Whitney remarks that "spoken
+language began, we may say, when a cry of pain, formally wrung out by
+real suffering, and seen to be understood and sympathized with, was
+repeated in imitation, no longer as a mere instinctive utterance, but
+for the purpose of intimating to another." Darwin says that "the early
+progenitor of man probably first used his voice in producing true
+musical cadences, that is, in singing, as do some gibbon-apes at the
+present day. It is therefore probable that the imitation of musical
+cries by articulate sounds may have given rise to words expressive of
+very complex emotions."</p>
+
+<p>The nearest approach to language are the sounds uttered by birds. All
+that sing exert their power instinctively, but the actual song, and even
+the call notes, are learned from their parents or foster-parents. These
+sounds are no more innate than language is in man, as has been proved by
+Davies Barrington.<small><a name="f58.1" id="f58.1" href="#f58">[58]</a></small> The first attempt to sing "may be compared to the
+imperfect endeavor in a child to babble." Prof. Whitney says, if the
+last transition forms of man "could be restored, we should find the
+transition forms toward our speech to be, not at all a minor provision
+of natural articulate signs, but an inferior system of conventional
+signs, in tone, gesture, and grimace. As between these three natural
+means of expression, it is simply by a kind of process of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> natural
+selection and survival of the fittest that the voice has gained the
+upper hand, and come to be so much the most prominent that we give the
+name of language (tonguiness) to all expression." A single utterance or
+two at first had to do the duty of a whole clause; afterward man learned
+to piece together parts of speech, and thus arose sentences.</p>
+
+<p>Although no language, as has already been said, has been deliberately
+invented, "still each word may not be unfitly compared to an invention;
+it has its own place, mode, and circumstances of devisal, its
+preparation in the previous habits of speech, its influence in
+determining the after progress of speech development; but every language
+in the gross is an institution, on which scores or hundreds of
+generations and unnumbered thousands of individual workers have
+labored."<small><a name="f59.1" id="f59.1" href="#f59">[59]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>There is no question at all but that the mental powers in the earliest
+progenitors of man must have been more highly developed than in the ape,
+before even the most imperfect form of speech could have come into use;
+but the constant advancement of this power would have reacted on the
+mind to enable it to carry on longer trains of thought. "A complex train
+of thought," says Darwin, "can no more be carried on without the aid of
+words, whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the use
+of figures in algebra. It appears also that even an ordinary train of
+thought almost requires or is greatly facilitated by some form of
+language; for the dumb, deaf, and blind girl, Laura Bridgman, was
+observed to use her fingers while dreaming.<small><a name="f60.1" id="f60.1" href="#f60">[60]</a></small> Nevertheless a long
+succession of vivid ideas may pass through the mind, without the aid of
+any form of language, as we may infer from the movements of dogs during
+their dreams."</p>
+
+<p>The struggle for existence is going on in every language; one <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>after
+another will be swept out of existence, and the languages best fitted
+for the practical uses of the masses of people will alone survive. Max
+M&uuml;ller has well remarked: "A struggle for life is constantly going on
+amongst the words and grammatical forms in each language. The better the
+shorter; the easier forms are constantly gaining the upper hand, and
+they owe their success to their own inherent virtue."<small><a name="f61.1" id="f61.1" href="#f61">[61]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>It must not be thought for a moment that that which distinguishes a man
+from the lower animals is the understanding of articulate sounds&mdash;for,
+as every one knows, dogs understand many words and sentences; and Darwin
+says, at this stage they are at the same stage of development as
+infants, between the ages of ten and twelve months, who understand many
+words and sentences, but still cannot utter a single word. It is not the
+mere articulation which is our distinguishing character; for parrots and
+other birds possess the power. Nor is it the mere capacity of connecting
+definite sounds with definite ideas; for it is certain that some
+parrots, which have been taught to speak, connect unerringly words with
+things, and persons with events." The lower animals, as has already been
+stated, differ from man solely in his almost infinitely larger power of
+associating together the most diversified sounds and ideas; and this
+obviously depends on the high development of his mental powers.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the consideration of a very delicate subject&mdash;a subject
+which is certainly at best very unsatisfactory to handle, as far as
+popular sentiment is concerned; for, no matter how successfully it may
+be handled, according to one class of thinkers, to another class of more
+orthodox thinkers it would be entirely at fault. The subject is, <i>Man's
+Moral Sense, Belief in God, Religion, Conscience, and Hope of
+Immortality</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated by some writers that where "faith com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>mences science
+ends." How erroneous is such a statement as this! for, as Krauth has
+said, "The great body of scientific facts is actually the object of
+knowledge to a few, and is supposed to be a part of the knowledge of the
+many, only because the many have faith in the statements of the few,
+though they can neither verify them, nor even understand the processes
+by which they are reached."<small><a name="f62.1" id="f62.1" href="#f62">[62]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>"We believe," says Lewes, "that the sensation of violet is produced by
+the striking of the ethereal waves against the retina more than seven
+hundred billions of times in a second. *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* These statements are
+accepted <i>on trust</i> by us who know that there are thinkers for whom they
+are irresistible conclusions." It is evident that it is to faith that
+science owes, to a very great extent, her progress and development; for
+it is impossible for man to prove by experimental demonstration all the
+facts of science, and since a certain number of facts have got to be
+accepted before a new experiment can be attempted, he has to accept on
+faith that such and such a statement is a fact, because such and such a
+scientist has claimed to have demonstrated it. "We are not <i>responsible</i>
+for the fact," says Krauth, "that under the conditions of knowledge we
+<i>know</i>, or in defect of them do not know; we are responsible if, under
+the conditions of a well-grounded faith, we disbelieve."<small><a name="f631" id="f63.1" href="#f63">[63]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Let us look, then, at the belief in God. The question under
+consideration at first will not be whether there exists a God, the
+creator and ruler of the universe&mdash;for this will be afterward
+considered&mdash;but is there any evidence that man was aboriginally endowed
+with the ennobling belief in the existence of an Omnipotent God.</p>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth relates that the Niam-niam, that highly inter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>esting dwarf
+people of Central Africa, have no word for God, and therefore, it must
+be supposed, no idea; and Moritz Wagner has given a whole selection of
+reports on the absence of religious consciousness in inferior nations.
+The idea that conscience is a sort of permanent inspiration or dwelling
+of God in the soul, I think, on consideration, any reasonable man will
+not assume. "It is a purely human faculty," says Savage, "like the
+faculty for art or music; and it gets its authority, as they do by being
+true, and just in so far as it is true. Consciousness is our own
+knowledge of ourselves and of the relation between our own faculties and
+powers. Conscience is our recognition of the relations, as right or
+wrong, in which we stand to those about us, God and our fellows.
+<i>Con-scio</i> is to know with, in relation.</p>
+
+<p>There is such a thing, of course, as a <i>false conscience</i> and a <i>true
+conscience</i>. All the false "conscientiousness grows out of the fact that
+men suppose they stand in certain relationships that do not really
+exist. Thus they imagined duties that are not duties at all." The
+virtues which must be practised by rude men, so that they can hold
+together in tribes, are of course important. No tribe could hold
+together if robbery, murder, treachery, etc., were common; in other
+words, there must be honor among thieves. "A North-American Indian is
+well pleased with himself, and is honored by others, when he scalps a
+man of another tribe; and a Dyak cuts off the head of an unoffending
+person, and dries it as a trophy. The murder of infants has prevailed on
+the largest scale throughout the world, and has been met with no
+reproach; but infanticide, especially of females, has been thought to be
+good for the tribe, or at least not injurious. Suicide during former
+times was not generally considered as a crime, but rather, from the
+courage displayed, as an honorable act; and it is still practised by
+some semi-civilized and savage nations without reproach, for it does not
+obviously concern others<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> of the tribe. It has been recorded that an
+Indian Thug conscientiously regretted that he had not robbed and
+strangled as many travelers as did his father before him."<small><a name="f64.1" id="f64.1" href="#f64">[64]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>See how weak the conscience of even more highly civilized men are in
+their dealings with the brute creation; how the sportsman delights in
+hunting-scenes, Spanish bull-fights, cock-fights, etc.; how indignant
+was the sensitive Cowper, if any one should "needlessly set foot upon a
+worm"! The rights of the worm are as sacred in his degree as ours are,
+and a true conscience will recognize them. What, then, is a true
+conscience? Savage states in a few words, it is "one that knows and is
+adjusted to the realities of life. When men know the truth about God,
+about themselves&mdash;body and mind and spirit&mdash;about the real relations of
+equity in which they stand to their fellow-men in state and church and
+society, and when they appreciate these, and adjust their conscience to
+them, then they will have a true conscience. An absolutely true
+conscience, of course, cannot exist so long as our knowledge of the
+reality of things is only partial."</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, then, that the conscience of man depends on his education
+and environments, and therefore is the subject of improvement. It
+becomes, then, the duty of every man to search for truth, for his
+conscience is not infallible, and by so doing he will bring it to accord
+with the real facts of God. "Throw away," says Savage, "prejudice and
+conceit, seek to make your conscience like the magnetic needle. The
+needle ever and naturally seeking the unchanging pole." As conscience,
+then, is but a faculty capable of development, it is not so difficult to
+understand a race of people whose conscience was in just the first
+stages of development; and, finally, a race which did not possess this
+faculty at all, as in the inferior nations which Wagner speaks of.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i134.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> I.&mdash;Butcher's Shop of the Anziques, Anno 1598.<br />(From Man's Place in Nature, by <i>Huxley</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>What kind of conscience and intelligence had the people near Cape Lopez,
+called the Anziques, which M. du Chaillu describes. They had incredible
+ferocity; for they ate one another, sparing neither friends nor
+relations. Their butcher-shops were filled with human flesh, instead of
+that of oxen or sheep, for they ate the enemies they captured in battle.
+They fattened, slayed, and devoured their slaves also, unless they
+thought they could get a good price for them; and moreover, for
+weariness of life or desire for glory (for they thought it a great thing
+and a sign of a generous soul to despise life), or for love of their
+rulers, offered themselves up for food. There were, indeed, many
+cannibals, as in the East Indies and Brazil and elsewhere, but none such
+as these, since the others only ate their enemies, but these their own
+blood relations.</p>
+
+<p>There is therefore, combining the fact mentioned by Wagner with the fact
+that some nations have no idea of one or more gods, not even a word to
+express it (proving that they have no idea), I say, there is therefore
+no evidence that man was aboriginally endowed with any such belief as
+the existence of an Omnipotent God; and in this assertion almost all the
+learned men concur. "If, however," says Darwin, "we include under the
+term religion, the belief in unseen or spiritual agencies, the case is
+wholly different; for this belief seems to be universal with the less
+civilized races. Nor is it difficult to understand how it arose."</p>
+
+<p>The savage has a stronger belief in bad spirits than in good ones. "The
+same high mental faculties which first led man to believe in unseen
+spiritual agencies, then in fetishism, polytheism, and ultimately in
+monotheism, would infallibly lead him, as long as his reasoning powers
+remained poorly developed, to very strange superstitions and customs.
+Many of these are terrible to think of: such as the sacrifice of human
+beings to a blood-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>loving god, the trial of innocent persons by the
+ordeal of poison, of fire, of witchcraft, etc.; yet it is well
+occasionally to reflect on these superstitions, for they show us what an
+infinite debt of gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason, to
+science, and to our accumulated knowledge."<small><a name="f65.1" id="f65.1" href="#f65">[65]</a></small> As Sir J. Lubbock has
+well observed: "It is not too much to say that the possible dread of
+unknown evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life, and embitters
+every pleasure. These miserable and indirect consequences of our highest
+faculties may be compared with the incidental and occasional mistakes of
+the instincts of the lower animals."</p>
+
+<p>The belief, then, of the existence of an Omnipotent God came with the
+development of the mental faculties; and although there does exist such
+a belief in the minds of men whose conscience is in a normal condition,
+still there are temptations to unbelief, and these have led men to
+atheism. I cannot think of an atheist unless I associate in my thoughts
+the words:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">"The ruling passion, be it what it may&mdash;<br />
+The ruling passion conquers reason still."</p>
+
+<p>The atheist has decided not to believe in the existence of a God, unless
+he can see Him and understand Him; in other words, the finite would
+comprehend the infinite. Following the logical method of reasoning of an
+atheist, the simple fact of seeing God in no way ought to prove his
+existence. For when you say you see a person, and that you have not the
+least doubt about it, I answer, that what you are really conscious of is
+an affection of your retina. And if you urge that you can check your
+sight of the person by touching him, I would answer, that you are
+equally transgressing the limits of fact; for what you are really
+conscious of is, not that he is there, but that the nerves of your hand
+have undergone a change. All you hear and see and touch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> and taste and
+smell are mere variations of your own condition, beyond which, even to
+the extent of a hair's-breadth, you cannot go. That anything answering
+to your impression exists outside of yourself is not a <i>fact</i>, but an
+<i>inference</i>, to which all validity would be denied by an idealist like
+Berkeley, or by a skeptic like Hume.<small><a name="f66.1" id="f66.1" href="#f66">[66]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Thomas Cooper<small><a name="f67.1" id="f67.1" href="#f67">[67]</a></small> said:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">"I do not say&mdash;there is no God;<br />
+But this I say&mdash;<span class="smcap">I know not</span>."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Mr. Bradlaugh says: "The atheist does not say, 'There is no God'; but he
+says, I know not what you mean by God; I am without idea of God; the
+word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation.
+I do not deny God, because I cannot deny that of which I have no
+conception, and the conception of which, by its affirmer, is so
+imperfect that he is unable to define it to me."</p>
+
+<p>Austin Holyoake<small><a name="f68.1" id="f68.1" href="#f68">[68]</a></small> says: "The only way of proving the fallacy of
+atheism is by <i>proving</i> the existence of a God."</p>
+
+<p>If it is logical proof that is wanted, there is plenty. The following
+arguments, although not all meeting my approbation, are still of
+interest:</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ontological Argument</i> has been presented in different forms. 1.
+Anselm,<small><a name="f69.1" id="f69.1" href="#f69">[69]</a></small> Archbishop of Canterbury (1093-1109), states this argument
+thus: We have an idea of an infinitely perfect being. But real existence
+is an element of infinite perfection. Therefore an infinitely perfect
+being exists; otherwise the infinitely perfect, as we conceive it, would
+lack an essential element of perfection.</p>
+
+<p>2. Descartes<small><a name="f70.1" id="f70.1" href="#f70">[70]</a></small> (1596-1650) states the argument thus:
+The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>idea of an
+infinitely perfect being which we possess could not have originated in a
+finite source, and therefore must have been communicated by an
+infinitely perfect being.</p>
+
+<p>3. Dr. Samuel Clark<small><a name="f71.1" id="f71.1" href="#f71">[71]</a></small> (1705) argues that time and space are infinite
+and necessarily existent, but they are not substances. Therefore there
+must exist an eternal and infinite substance of which they are
+properties.</p>
+
+<p>4. Cousin<small><a name="f72.1" id="f72.1" href="#f72">[72]</a></small> maintained that the idea of the finite implies the idea of
+the infinite as inevitably as the idea of the "me" implies that of the
+"not me."</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Cosmological Argument</i> may be stated thus: "Every new thing and
+every change in a previously existing thing must have a cause sufficient
+and pre-existing. The universe consists of a series of changes.
+Therefore the universe must have a cause exterior and anterior to
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Teleological Argument</i>, or argument from design or final causes, is
+as follows: Design, or the adaptation of means to effect an end, implies
+the exercise of intelligence and free choice. The universe is full of
+traces of design. Therefore the "First Cause" must have been a personal
+spirit.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Moral Argument</i> may be thus stated: "In looking at the works of God
+there is," says Rev. Dr. Hopkins, "I suppose, evidence enough,
+especially if interpreted by the moral consciousness, to prove to a
+candid man the being of God." The educated man is a religious being. The
+instinct of prayer and worship, the longing for and faith in divine love
+and help, are inseparable from human nature under normal conditions, as
+known in history.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident from the above that it is not for logical reasoning or
+arguments that the atheist is led to say, "that up to this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>moment the
+world has remained without knowledge of a God."<small><a name="f73.1" id="f73.1" href="#f73">[73]</a></small> It is from the folly
+of his heart; and, as Solomon says, that "though you bray him and his
+false logic in the mortar of reason, among the wheat of facts, with the
+pestle of argument, yet will not his folly depart from him."<small><a name="f74.1" id="f74.1" href="#f74">[74]</a></small> I fully
+agree with Hobbes when he says, "where there is no reason for our
+belief, there is no reason we should believe," but I think the several
+arguments given above, which could be greatly expanded, affords
+sufficient reason for a perfect belief in an Infinite God. For&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">"God is a being, and that you may see<br />
+In the fold of the flower, in the leaf of the tree,<br />
+In the storm-cloud of darkness, in the rainbow of life,<br />
+In the sunlight at noontide, in the darkness of night,<br />
+In the wave of the ocean, in the furrow of land,<br />
+In the mountain of granite, in the atom of sand;<br />
+Gaze where ye may from the sky to the sod&mdash;<br />
+Where can you gaze and not see a God."</p>
+
+<p>Yes, the infinite God must include all. If he is not in the dust of our
+streets, in the bricks of our house, in the beat of our hearts, then he
+is not infinite, but is finite, having boundaries. Yes, God's power it
+was that set the nebulous mass into vibration, and caused the world to
+be formed; it was His force which first shaped the atoms into molecules,
+and then into more complex chemical products, till finally "organizable
+protoplasm" was reached, which, by evolution, climbed up to man. 'Tis
+God we see in the family, in society, in the state, in all religions, up
+to the highest outflowings of Christianity. 'Tis Him we see in art,
+literature, and science; and so proclaims Evolution. "God is the
+universal causal law; God is the source of all force and all matter."
+"For us," says Haeckel, "all nature is animated, <i>i. e.</i>, penetrated
+with Divine spirit, with law, and with necessity." We know of no matter
+without this Divine spirit.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p><p>The "ultimate repulsion, constituting the extension and impenetrability
+of the atoms of matter," says Dr. Samuel Brown, "could be conceived of
+in no other way than as the persistent existence of the will of God
+himself, in whom we live and move and have our being, and which, if but
+for an instant withdrawn, the whole material universe and its forces in
+all their vastness, glory, and beauty, would collapse and sink in a
+moment into their original nothingness."</p>
+
+<p>The advancement of science, instead of depriving man of his God, only
+deprives men of their earlier and ruder conceptions of Deity, only to
+impart a larger and grander thought of Him. "It is true, in the
+educational process some few minds have lost sight of Him altogether,
+but these are the exceptional, and therefore notable instances; with the
+great body of men, the conception of God has steadily enlarged with the
+progress of science."<small><a name="f75.1" id="f75.1" href="#f75">[75]</a></small> If science can demonstrate that Evolution is
+true, then it is God's truth, and as such it is man's religious duty to
+accept it; if he rejects it, superstitiously or unreasonably, he not
+only defrauds himself but insults the Author of truth.</p>
+
+<p>What, then, has science demonstrated? Science has demonstrated the <span class="smcap">Unity
+of the Forces</span>: Light, heat, electricity, magnetism, motion, are all
+correlated to one another, and are all mutually convertible one into
+another. Heat may be said to produce electricity&mdash;electricity to produce
+heat; magnetism to produce electricity&mdash;electricity, magnetism, and so
+on for the rest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Unity of Matter and Force.</span>&mdash;"For if matter were not force, and
+immediately known as force, it could not be known at all&mdash;could not be
+rationally inferred."</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Unity of the Life Substance in all Organic and Animal Bodies.</span>&mdash;"A unity
+of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity of substantial
+composition."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span><span class="smcap">Unity of Animate and Inanimate Nature in Matter, Form, and Force.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Unity of the Laws of Development.</span>&mdash;Hence we can proclaim the unity of
+all nature and of her laws of development.</p>
+
+<p>In the beautiful words of Giordano Bruno: "A spirit exists in all
+things, and no body is so small but contains a part of the divine
+substance within itself, by which it is animated." Hence we arrive at
+the sublime idea, since we can in no other way account for the ultimate
+cause of anything, that it is God's spirit which pervades and sustains
+all nature. By this admission we are not led to say: "There is no God
+but force;" but rather, "There is no force but God." God is infinite,
+and therefore includes nature; but is nature all? It is all that our
+finite minds can discover, 'tis true; but can there not exist another
+nature or world unknown to us; and if so, since God is infinite, he will
+include that world also. Let us look to this and see what science can
+answer.</p>
+
+<p>It will be necessary for us to consider before proceeding, what is meant
+by the term soul; and this becomes a somewhat difficult task, as the
+term has been variously applied to signify the principle of life in an
+organic body, or the first and most undeveloped stages of individualized
+spiritual being, or finally, all stages of spiritual individuality,
+incorporeal as well as corporeal.<small><a name="f76.1" id="f76.1" href="#f76">[76]</a></small> The popular belief is, that the
+soul is not material but substantial, a divine gift to the highest alone
+of God's creatures; but scientific men, such as Carl Vogt, Moleschott,
+B&uuml;chner, Schmidt, Haeckel, consider the phenomena of the soul to be
+functions of the brain and nerves. Schmidt says: "The soul of the
+new-born infant is, in its manifestations, in no way different from that
+of the young animal. These are the functions of the infantine nervous
+system, with this they grow and are developed together with speech."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>The idea of the immortality of the soul was not aboriginal with mankind,
+as Sir J. Lubbock has shown that the barbarous races possess no clear
+belief of this kind, and Rajah Brook, at a missionary meeting in
+Liverpool, told his hearers there that the Dyaks, a people with whom he
+was connected, had no knowledge of God, of a soul, or of any future
+state.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin remarks, that "man may be excused for feeling some pride at
+having risen, though not through his own exertions, to the very summit
+of the organic scale; and the fact of his having thus risen, instead of
+having been aboriginally placed there, may give hope for a still higher
+destiny in the distant future."</p>
+
+<p>The belief in a future life amongst the civilized race of mankind is
+almost universally prevalent. The proofs of immortality are various. The
+desire that man has to live forever and his horror of annihilation is
+one; the good suffer in this world and the wicked triumph&mdash;this would
+indicate the necessity of future retribution. The infinite
+perfectibility of the human mind never reaches its full capacity in this
+life; the faculty of insight which sees in an individual all its past
+history at a glance is the immortal attribute and is continually on the
+increase; and it is possible that Aristotle was right so far as he
+stated that the lower faculties of the soul, such as sensation,
+imagination, feeling, memory, etc., are perishable. No matter if this be
+so or not, it is certain that in the next life, where all is perfection,
+only the fittest attributes will exist, the others would have perished.
+The doctrine of the immortality of the soul has been defended by
+Marhemeke, Blasche, Weisse, Hinnichs, Fecham, J. H. Fichte, and others.</p>
+
+<p>Let us look for a moment at the visible universe and see if it is not
+reasonable, on a scientific basis, to admit of the existence of another
+universe, although it remains unseen to us. One can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> not help but be
+struck with the fact that energy is being dissipated in this visible
+universe, that the visible universe is apparently very wasteful. Look at
+the sun which pours her vast store of high-class energy into space, at
+the rate of 185,000 miles per second. What will be the result of this?
+The answer is simple: The inevitable destruction of the visible
+universe. Yes, just as the visible universe had its beginning it will
+have its end. But there existed a power before the visible universe came
+into existence, and which is acting in the visible universe as the
+ultimate cause of all phenomena. "For we are obliged," says Herbert
+Spencer in his First Principles, "to regard every phenomenon as a
+manifestation of some power by which we are acted upon; though
+omnipresence is unthinkable, yet, as experience discloses no bounds to
+the diffusion of phenomena, we are unable to think of limits to the
+presence of this power, while the criticisms of science teaches us that
+this power is incomprehensible." And so we should expect, for a finite
+cannot comprehend an infinite. It is for this and other reasons one is
+led to believe that the visible universe is only an infinitesimal part
+of "that stupendous whole which is alone entitled to be called <span class="smcap">The
+Universe</span>."<small><a name="f77.1" id="f77.1" href="#f77">[77]</a></small> As there existed an invisible universe before the visible
+one came into existence, we can conclude that there still exists an
+invisible universe now, and that this invisible universe will still
+exist when the present visible one has passed away. Let us see what
+light our finite senses can throw on this. It is well known that all our
+senses have only a certain narrow gauge within which they are able to
+bring us into sensible contact with the world about us. All outside this
+range we are unable to reach. For example, we do not see all forms and
+colors; we do not hear all sounds; we do not smell all odors; we cannot
+conscientiously touch all substances; we cannot taste all flavors.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+Vision depends on the wave motion of light. The length of a wave of mean
+red light is about <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">39000</span>th of an inch, that of violet
+<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">57500</span>th of an
+inch. But the number of oscillations of ether in a second, necessary to
+produce the sensation of red, are 477,000,000,000,000, all of which
+enter the eye in one second. For the sensation of violet, the eye must
+receive 699,000,000,000,000 oscillations in one second, as light travels
+185,000 miles in one second. But when waves of light having all possible
+lengths act on the eye simultaneously, the sensation of white is
+produced. So, as has been previously stated, without eyes the world
+would be wrapped in darkness, there being no light and color outside of
+one's eye. So we see our sense of sight has its limits, and we know how
+finite these are. That there are vibrations of the ether on each side of
+our limits of vision cannot be doubted; and if our eyes were acute
+enough to receive them, we could have the sensation of some color, which
+must under present conditions remain forever blank. The owl and bat can
+see when we cannot; their eyes can receive oscillations of ether, which
+pass by without affecting us. So with sound, which "is a sensation
+produced when vibrations of a certain character are excited in the
+auditory apparatus of the ear."<small><a name="f78.1" id="f78.1" href="#f78">[78]</a></small> The longest wave which can give an
+impression has a length of about 66 ft., which is equal to 16&#189;
+vibrations per second; when the wave is reduced to three or four tenths
+of an inch, equal to from 38,000 to 40,000 vibrations per second, sound
+becomes again inaudible. The piano, for instance, only runs between
+27&#189; vibrations in a second up to 3,520. Sound travels about 1,093
+feet per second, and the human voice can be heard 460 feet away, whilst
+a rifle can be heard 16,000 feet (3.02 miles), and very strong
+cannonading 575,840 feet, or 90 miles. That there are vibrations above
+and below 16&#189; and 40,000, there is no room to doubt, as there exist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+ears which can hear them, such as the hare; but to us they are as though
+they did not exist.</p>
+
+<p>Of all our senses, the sense of smell far surpasses that of the other
+sense. Valentine has calculated that we are able to perceive about the
+three one-hundred-millionth of a grain of musk. The minute particle
+which we perceive by smell, no chemical reaction can detect, and even
+spectrum analysis, which can recognize fifteen-millionths of a grain, is
+far surpassed. But this sense in man is far surpassed by the hound.</p>
+
+<p>Our sense of taste is also limited, and as has been already stated,
+cannot distinguish all flavors. We can recognize by taste one part of
+sulphuric acid in 1000 parts of water; one drop of this on the tongue
+would contain <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">2000</span>
+of a grain (<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>3</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">400</span> of a grain) of sulphuric acid.
+The length of time needed for reaction in sensation has been determined
+by Vintschgau and Hougschmied, and in a person whose sense of taste was
+highly developed, the reaction time was, for common salt, 0.159 second;
+for sugar, 0.1639 second; for acid, 0.1676 second; and for quinine,
+0.2351 second.</p>
+
+<p>Reviewing, then, the above, it is evident there are eyes which can see
+what we cannot, there are ears which can hear what we cannot, and there
+are animals who can smell and touch what we cannot. "For anything we
+know to the contrary, then," says Savage, "a refined and spiritualized
+order of existences may be the inhabitants of another and unseen world
+all about us." As Milton has said:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">"Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth<br />
+Unseen, both when we wake and when we sleep."</p>
+
+<p>If there is a life very much different from and very much higher than
+our present one, it is not strange we are ignorant of it. It is
+impossible to make a person understand anything which is entirely unlike
+all that has ever been seen or heard, for every idea<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> in the world that
+man has came to him by nature. Man<small><a name="f79.1" id="f79.1" href="#f79">[79]</a></small> cannot conceive of anything the
+hint of which has not been received from his surroundings. He can
+imagine an animal with the hoof of a bison, with the pouch of a
+kangaroo, with the wings of an eagle, with the beak of a bird, and with
+the tail of a lion; and yet every point of this monster he borrowed from
+nature. Everything he can think of, everything he can dream of, is
+borrowed from his surroundings&mdash;everything. "So, if an angel should come
+and tell of another life, it would mean nothing to us, unless we could
+translate it into terms of our own experience. We could not understand a
+'light that never was on land or sea.' Our ignorance is not even then a
+probability against our belief."<small><a name="f80.1" id="f80.1" href="#f80">[80]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>As has already been stated, the visible universe must have its doom,
+must end as it began, by consisting of a single mass of matter; but is
+there not a more primitive state of matter than the matter such as we
+know it? Yes; and the so-called ether is that matter. It is unlike any
+of the forms of matter which we can weigh and measure. It is in some
+respects like unto a fluid, and in some respects like unto a solid. It
+is both hard and elastic to an almost inconceivable degree. "It fills
+all material bodies like a sea in which the atoms of the material bodies
+are as islands, and it occupies the whole of what we call empty space.
+It is so sensitive that a disturbance in any part of it causes a 'tremor
+which is felt on the surface of countless worlds.' It exerts frictions;
+and although the friction is infinitely small, yet as it has an almost
+infinite time to work in, it will diminish the momentum of the planets,
+and diminish their ability to maintain their distance from the sun, the
+consequence of which will be the planets will fall into the sun, and the
+solar system will end where it begun."<small><a name="f81.1" id="f81.1" href="#f81">[81]</a></small></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>According to Sir William Thompson, the ultimate atoms of matter are
+vortex rings, which Professor Clifford describes as being more closely
+packed together (finer grained) in ether than in matter. And he says,
+"whatever may turn out to be the ultimate nature of the ether and of
+molecules, we know that to some extent at least they obey the same
+dynamic laws, and that they act on one another in accordance with these
+laws. Until therefore it is absolutely disproved, it must remain the
+simplest and most probable assumption that they are finally made of the
+same stuff, that the material molecule is in some kind of knot or
+coagulation of ether."<small><a name="f82.1" id="f82.1" href="#f82">[82]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>The molecule of matter such as we know, then, may have been, and very
+probably was, produced by evolution from the atoms or vortex rings of
+ether, according to the theory advanced by the authors of the work
+called the "Unseen Universe," which I have referred to. The world of
+ether is to be regarded in some sort the obverse complement of the world
+of sensible matter, so that whatever energy is dissipated in the one is
+by the same act accumulated in the other; or, as Fiske describes it, "it
+is like the negative plate in photography, where light answers to shadow
+and shadow to light." Every act of consciousness is accompanied by
+molecular displacements in the brain, and these of course are responded
+to by movements in the ethereal world. Views of this kind were long ago
+entertained by Babbage, and they have since recommended themselves to
+other men of science, and amongst others to Jevon, who says: "Mr.
+Babbage has pointed out that if we had power to follow and detect the
+manifest effects of any disturbance, each particle of existing matter
+must be a register of all that has happened. *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* The air itself is one
+vast library on whose pages are forever written all that man has ever
+said or whispered. There in their mutable but unerring charac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>ters,
+mixed with, the earliest as well as the latest sighs of mortality, stand
+forever recorded vows unredeemed, promises unfulfilled, perpetuating in
+the united movements of each particle the testimony of man's changeful
+will."<small><a name="f83.1" id="f83.1" href="#f83">[83]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>So thought affects the substance of the present visible universe; it
+produces a material organ of memory. "But the motions which accompany
+thought," say the authors,<small><a name="f84.1" id="f84.1" href="#f84">[84]</a></small> "will also affect the invisible order of
+things," and thus it follows that "thought conceived to affect the
+matter of another universe, simultaneously with this, may explain a
+future state."<small><a name="f85.1" id="f85.1" href="#f85">[85]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Death, then, is for the individual but a transfer from one physical
+state of existence to another, according to the "authors'"<small><a name="f86.1" id="f86.1" href="#f86">[86]</a></small> idea; and
+so, on the largest scale, the death or final loss of energy by the whole
+visible universe has its counterpart in the acquirement of a maximum of
+life, the correlative unseen world. According to this theory, therefore,
+as the psychical or spiritual phenomena of the visible world only begins
+to be manifested with some complex aggregate of material phenomena,
+therefore it is necessary for the continuance of mind in a future state
+to have some sort of material vehicle also, which the ether is supposed
+to supply. "The essential weakness of such a theory as this," says
+Fiske, "lies in the fact that it is thoroughly materialistic in
+character. We have reason for thinking it probable that ether and
+ordinary matter are alike composed of vortex rings in a
+quasi-frictionless fluid; but whatever be the fate of this subtle
+hypothesis, we may be sure that no theory will ever be entertained in
+which analysis of ether shall require different symbols from that of
+ordinary matter. In our authors' theory, therefore, the putting on of
+immortality is in nowise the passage from a material to a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>spiritual
+state. It is the passage of one kind of materially conditioned state to
+another." This theory, dealing with matter, should receive support by
+actual experience, as matter is a subject of investigation. To accept
+it, therefore, as being possible without any positive evidence for its
+support, it remains but a weak speculation, no matter how ingenious it
+may seem.</p>
+
+<p>To support an after life, which is not materially conditioned, I agree
+with Mr. Fiske, that although it will be unsupported by any item of
+experience whatever, it may nevertheless be an impregnable assertion.</p>
+
+<p>If all were to agree, what we call matter is really force, as it
+certainly is, for if matter were not force it would be unthinkable,
+being force it becomes thinkable; this point I have touched on before,
+but it may be well to elaborate on it a little just here. The great
+lesson that Berkeley taught mankind was that what we call material
+phenomena are really the products of consciousness co-operating with
+some unknown power (not material) existing beyond consciousness. "We do
+very well to speak of matter," says Fiske, "in common parlance, but all
+that the word really means is a group of qualities which have no
+existence apart from our minds." The ablest modern thinkers, then,
+believe that the only real things that exist are the mind and God, and
+that the universe is only the infinitely varied manifestation of God in
+the human conscience. It is evident, then, that <i>matter</i>, the only thing
+the materialist concedes real existence, is simply an orderly
+phantasmagoria; and God and soul, which materialists regard as mere
+fictions of the imagination, are the only conceptions that answer to
+real existence.<small><a name="f87.1" id="f87.1" href="#f87">[87]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>For instance, let us see what it is we know about a table. You say you
+can see it; I can respond that all you are conscious of is that the
+nerves of your eye have undergone a change. You<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> say, I can check my
+sight of it by touching it; to this I reply, all that you are really
+conscious of is a sensation, and that something outside of you has
+produced it. But that all that is outside of me is anything more than
+the manifestation to me of a power or of God, is an inference and cannot
+be proven. To constant manifestations of this power, always assuming the
+same form and characters which can be studied, different names have been
+given; but that the dust of the street or beat of our heart is anything
+else but that peculiar manifestation of the infinite God, cannot be
+contradicted.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Savage says, "The movement of electricity along a telegraph-line is
+accompanied by certain molecular changes in the wire itself; but the
+wire is not electricity, neither does it produce it. Thus modern science
+has found it utterly impossible to explain mind either as a part or a
+product of matter. It is perfectly reasonable, then, for any man to
+believe in a purely intellectual and spiritual existence, apart from any
+material form or substance."</p>
+
+<p>To comprehend the immortal life is an impossibility; it transcends any
+earthly experience of man. The caterpillar probably knows nothing about
+any life higher than that of his toilsome crawling on the ground; but
+that is no proof against the fact that we know he is to become a
+butterfly. The boy knows nothing about manhood, and cannot know. Though
+he sees men and their labors all about him, he has and can have no
+conception whatever of what it means to be a man; it transcends all
+experience.<small><a name="f88.1" id="f88.1" href="#f88">[88]</a></small> "The existence," says Fiske, "of a single soul, or
+congeries of psychical phenomena, unaccompanied by a material body,
+would be evidence sufficient to demonstrate this hypothesis. But in the
+nature of things, even were there a million such souls round about us,
+we could not become aware<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> of the existence of one of them; for we have
+no organ or faculty for the perception of soul apart from the material
+structure and activities in which it has been manifested throughout the
+whole course of our experience. Even our own self-consciousness involves
+the consciousness of ourselves as partly material bodies. These
+considerations show that our hypothesis is very different from the
+ordinary hypothesis with which science deals. <i>The entire absence of
+testimony does not raise a negative presumption, except in cases where
+testimony is accessible.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>My object has not been to prove the purely spiritual theory of a future
+life, but to show that it is a theory that intelligent people can
+entertain as a foundation for their belief "in the hope of immortality."
+But that the spiritual life instead of the material life is the state in
+which we can hope for immortality, I think there can be no question; and
+such was the opinion of Paul<small><a name="f89.1" id="f89.1" href="#f89">[89]</a></small> when he wrote: "Now this I say,
+brethren, that flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God,
+neither does corruption inherit incorruption.... So when this
+corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortal shall have
+put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying that is
+written, 'Death is swallowed up in victory.'</p>
+
+<p class="poem">O death, where is thy sting?<br />
+O grave, where is thy victory?"</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
+
+<p><a name="f1" id="f1" href="#f1.1">[1]</a> The Law of Disease, in College Courant, Vol. XIV.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f2" id="f2" href="#f2.1">[2]</a> Winchell. Evolution, p. 113.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f3" id="f3" href="#f3.1">[3]</a> Comparative Zoology, p. 43. 1876.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f4" id="f4" href="#f4.1">[4]</a> Huxley. Physical Basis of Life.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f5" id="f5" href="#f5.1">[5]</a> Johnson, Ency.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f6" id="f6" href="#f6.1">[6]</a> Comparative Anatomy&mdash;Orton, p. 32.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f7" id="f7" href="#f7.1">[7]</a> Analytical Anatomy and Phys.&mdash;Cutter, p. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f8" id="f8" href="#f8.1">[8]</a> Biography of a Plant.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f9" id="f9" href="#f9.1">[9]</a> See Huxley&mdash;Invertebrate Animals, Anatomy of.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f10" id="f10" href="#f10.1">[10]</a> Phys. Basis of Life.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f11" id="f11" href="#f11.1">[11]</a> Beginnings of Life, p. 104, Vol. I.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f12" id="f12" href="#f12.1">[12]</a> Monthly Micros. Jour., May 1, '69, p. 294.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f13" id="f13" href="#f13.1">[13]</a> Chem. and Phys. Balance of Organic Nature, 1848, p. 48 (trans.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="f14" id="f14" href="#f14.1">[14]</a> Inaugural Address, Aug. 19, 1874.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f15" id="f15" href="#f15.1">[15]</a> Haeckel&mdash;Hist. of Creation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f16" id="f16" href="#f16.1">[16]</a> See Haeckel&mdash;Evol. of Man.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f17" id="f17" href="#f17.1">[17]</a> Evolution of Man, Vol. II, p. 445.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f18" id="f18" href="#f18.1">[18]</a> Johnson's Cyclopedia, Article "Evolution."</p>
+
+<p><a name="f19" id="f19" href="#f19.1">[19]</a> Sumner, in Johnson's Cyc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f20" id="f20" href="#f20.1">[20]</a> Christian Union, Vol. XIII, No. 17, p. 322.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f21" id="f21" href="#f21.1">[21]</a> Gen. i. 1.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f22" id="f22" href="#f22.1">[22]</a> St. John i. 1.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f23" id="f23" href="#f23.1">[23]</a> St. John i. 3.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f24" id="f24" href="#f24.1">[24]</a> Hist. of Creation, p. 8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f25" id="f25" href="#f25.1">[25]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 324.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f26" id="f26" href="#f26.1">[26]</a> Heb. xi. 3. Revised English Ed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f27" id="f27" href="#f27.1">[27]</a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, Vol. I, p. 323.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f28" id="f28" href="#f28.1">[28]</a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, Vol. I, p. 324.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f29" id="f29" href="#f29.1">[29]</a> Indications of the Creator.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f30" id="f30" href="#f30.1">[30]</a> Evolution and Progress, p. 26, Rev. Wm. I. Gill.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f31" id="f31" href="#f31.1">[31]</a> Nat&uuml;rl. Sch&ouml;pfungsgesch., pp. 643-5.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f32" id="f32" href="#f32.1">[32]</a> Paget, Lectures on Surgical Pathology, 1853, Vol. I, p. 71.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f33" id="f33" href="#f33.1">[33]</a> Ueber die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen K&ouml;rper.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f34" id="f34" href="#f34.1">[34]</a> Pop. Sci. Monthly, June, 1879, p. 250.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f35" id="f35" href="#f35.1">[35]</a> See Sci. Am., May 18, 1878.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f36" id="f36" href="#f36.1">[36]</a> Source of Muscular Power, Proc. Roy. Inst., June 8, 1866. Am. I. Sci., II, xlii, 393, Nov. 1866.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f37" id="f37" href="#f37.1">[37]</a> Comparative Zoology, p. 45.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f38" id="f38" href="#f38.1">[38]</a> Correlation of the Vital and Physical Forces, p. 54.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f39" id="f39" href="#f39.1">[39]</a> On the time required for the transmission of volition and sensation through the nerves, Proc. Roy. Inst.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f40" id="f40" href="#f40.1">[40]</a> Comparative Zoology, p. 165.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f41" id="f41" href="#f41.1">[41]</a> Sci. Amer., Nov. 13, 1876, p. 328.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f42" id="f42" href="#f42.1">[42]</a> Marshall, Outline of Physiology. Amer. Ed., 1868, p. 227.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f43" id="f43" href="#f43.1">[43]</a> Macmillon's Magazine, Pop. Sci. Monthly, April, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f44" id="f44" href="#f44.1">[44]</a> "Principles of Psychology," 1869, No. 20, p. 24.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f45" id="f45" href="#f45.1">[45]</a> J. S. Lombard, N. Y. Med. Jour., Vol. V, 198, June, 1867.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f46" id="f46" href="#f46.1">[46]</a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, p. 23.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><a name="f47" id="f47" href="#f47.1">[47]</a> The apparatus employed is illustrated and fully described in
+Brown-Sequard's Archives de Phys., Vol. I, 498, June, 1868. By it the 1-4000th of a degree Centigrade may be indicated.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><a name="f48" id="f48" href="#f48.1">[48]</a> L. H. Wood, "On the influence of mental activity on the excretion
+of phosphoric acid by the kidneys." Proc. Conn. Med. Soc., Nov., 1869, p. 197.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f49" id="f49" href="#f49.1">[49]</a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, p. 24.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><a name="f50" id="f50" href="#f50.1">[50]</a> Address of Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, as retiring president, before the
+Am. Ass. for Adv. of Sci., Chicago meeting, Aug. 1868. "Thought cannot be a physical force, because thought admits of no measure."</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><a name="f51" id="f51" href="#f51.1">[51]</a> Derivation hypothesis of life and species, forming fortieth chapter
+of his Anatomy of Vertebrates, republished in Am. Jour. Sci., II, xlvii, 33, Jan. 1869.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f52" id="f52" href="#f52.1">[52]</a> Prehistoric Times, p. 354, by Lubbock.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f53" id="f53" href="#f53.1">[53]</a> Madness in Animals, Jour. Mental Sci., July, 1871. Dr. W. L. Lindsay.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f54" id="f54" href="#f54.1">[54]</a> Facult&eacute;s Mentales des Animaux, 1872, Tom. XI, p. 181.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f55" id="f55" href="#f55.1">[55]</a> Primeval Man, 1869, pp. 145-147.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f56" id="f56" href="#f56.1">[56]</a> Prehistoric Times, 1865, p. 473.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f57" id="f57" href="#f57.1">[57]</a> "Conferences ser les Th&eacute;orie Darwinienne," 1869, p. 132.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f58" id="f58" href="#f58.1">[58]</a> Philosoph. Trans., 1773, p. 262.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f59" id="f59" href="#f59.1">[59]</a> Prof. Whitney, p. 309.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f60" id="f60" href="#f60.1">[60]</a> Phys. and Pathol. of Mind. Dr. Maudsley. 3d ed., 1868, p. 199.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f61" id="f61" href="#f61.1">[61]</a> Nature, January 6, 1870, p. 257.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f62" id="f62" href="#f62.1">[62]</a> Problems i. 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f63" id="f63" href="#f63.1">[63]</a> Johnson's Cyc. Article "Faith." C. P. Krauth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f64" id="f64" href="#f64.1">[64]</a> Darwin's Descent of Man, p. 117.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f65" id="f65" href="#f65.1">[65]</a> See Descent of Man, p. 96.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f66" id="f66" href="#f66.1">[66]</a> See Tyndall's Belfast Address.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f67" id="f67" href="#f67.1">[67]</a> Purgatory of Suicides.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f68" id="f68" href="#f68.1">[68]</a> Thoughts on Atheism, p. 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f69" id="f69" href="#f69.1">[69]</a> Monologium and Proslogium.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f70" id="f70" href="#f70.1">[70]</a> Meditations de Primaphilosophia Prop. 2, p. 89.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f71" id="f71" href="#f71.1">[71]</a> Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f72" id="f72" href="#f72.1">[72]</a> Elements of Psychology.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f73" id="f73" href="#f73.1">[73]</a> Thoughts on Atheism, by Holyoake, p. 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f74" id="f74" href="#f74.1">[74]</a> Proverbs xvii. 22.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f75" id="f75" href="#f75.1">[75]</a> Henry Ward Beecher.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f76" id="f76" href="#f76.1">[76]</a> See W. T. Harris. Johnson's Encyc. "Soul."</p>
+
+<p><a name="f77" id="f77" href="#f77.1">[77]</a> Unseen Universe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f78" id="f78" href="#f78.1">[78]</a> Rood. "Sound," Johnson's Encyc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f79" id="f79" href="#f79.1">[79]</a> See R. G. Ingersoll's Lecture on Hell.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f80" id="f80" href="#f80.1">[80]</a> Savage.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f81" id="f81" href="#f81.1">[81]</a> "The Unseen World." John Fiske, p. 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f82" id="f82" href="#f82.1">[82]</a> Fortnightly Review, June 1875, p. 784.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f83" id="f83" href="#f83.1">[83]</a> Ninth Bridgewater Treatise.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f84" id="f84" href="#f84.1">[84]</a> Of the Unseen Universe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f85" id="f85" href="#f85.1">[85]</a> Anagram. Nature, Oct. 15, 1874.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f86" id="f86" href="#f86.1">[86]</a> Of the Unseen Universe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f87" id="f87" href="#f87.1">[87]</a> Fiske. Unseen World, p. 52.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f88" id="f88" href="#f88.1">[88]</a> Savage. Relig. of Evol., p. 246.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f89" id="f89" href="#f89.1">[89]</a> 1 Corinthians, xv., verses 50-54 (Part of). <i>Revised English Ed.</i>, 1877.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><b>Transcriber's Notes:</b></p>
+<p>Some quotes in the original are opened with marks but are not closed. Obvious errors have been silently closed, while those requiring interpretation have been left open.</p>
+<p>Other than the corrections noted by hover information, printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been retained.</p>
+<p>Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate
+both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as presented in the original text.</p>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30429 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
+
+
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #30429 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/30429)
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Was Man Created?, by Henry A. Mott
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Was Man Created?
+
+Author: Henry A. Mott
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2009 [EBook #30429]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAS MAN CREATED? ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Stephanie Eason,
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FOSSIL MAN OF MENTONE. (From Popular Science Monthly,
+October, 1874.)]
+
+
+
+
+WAS MAN CREATED?
+
+BY
+
+HENRY A. MOTT, JR., E.M., PH.D., ETC.,
+
+
+_Member of the American Chemical Society, Member of the Berlin Chemical
+Society, Member of the New York Academy of Sciences, Member of the
+American Association for the Advancement of Science, Member of the
+American Pharmaceutical Association, Fellow of the Geographical Society,
+Etc., Etc._
+
+
+AUTHOR OF THE "CHEMISTS' MANUAL," "ADULTERATION OF MILK," "ARTIFICIAL
+BUTTER," "TESTING THE VALUE OF RIFLES BY FIRING UNDER WATER," ETC., ETC.
+
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  GRISWOLD & COMPANY,
+  150 NASSAU STREET.
+  1880.
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT BY
+  HENRY A. MOTT, JR.,
+  1880.
+
+
+  TROW'S
+  PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING CO.,
+  _205-213 East 12th St._,
+  NEW YORK.
+
+Electrotyped by SMITH & MCDOUGAL, 82 Beekman Street, N. Y.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This work was originally written to be delivered as a lecture; but as
+its pages continued to multiply, it was suggested to the author by
+numerous friends that it ought to be published in book-form; this, at
+last, the author concluded to do. This work, therefore, does not claim
+to be an exhaustive discussion of the various departments of which it
+treats; but rather it has been the aim of the author to present the more
+interesting observations in each department in as concise a form as
+possible. The author has endeavored to give credit in every instance
+where he has taken advantage of the labors of others. This work is not
+intended for that class of people who are so absolutely certain of the
+truth of their religion and of the immortality that it teaches, that
+they have become unqualified to entertain or even perceive of any
+scientific objection; for such people may be likened unto those who,
+"_Seeing, they see, but will not perceive; and hearing, they hear, but
+will not understand._"
+
+This work is written for the man of culture who is seeking for
+truth--believing, as does the author, that all truth is God's truth, and
+therefore it becomes the duty of every scientific man to accept it;
+knowing, however, that it will surely modify the popular creeds and
+methods of interpretation, its final result can only be to the glory of
+God and to the establishment of a more exalted and purer religion. All
+facts are truths; it consequently follows that all scientific facts are
+truths--there is no half-way house--a statement is either a truth or it
+is not a truth, according to the _law of non-contradiction_. If,
+therefore, we find tabulated amongst scientific facts (or truths) a
+statement which is not a fact, it is not science; but all statements
+which are facts it naturally follows are truths, and as such must be
+accepted, no matter how repulsive they may at first seem to some of our
+poetical imaginings and pet theories. We cannot help but sympathize with
+the feelings which prompted President Barnard to write the following
+lines, still we will see he was too hasty: "Much as I love truth in the
+abstract," he says, "I love my hope of immortality more." * * * He
+maintained that it is better to close one's eyes to the evidences than
+to be convinced of the _truth_ of certain doctrines which _he regards_
+as subversive of the fundamentals of Christian faith. "If this (is all)
+is the best that science can give me, then I pray no more science. Let
+me live on in my simple ignorance, as my fathers lived before me; and
+when I shall at length be summoned to my final repose, let me still be
+able to fold the drapery of my couch about me, and lie down to pleasant,
+even though they be deceitful, dreams."[1] The limitations to the
+acceptance of truth that President Barnard makes is wrong; for, as
+Professor Winchell has said, "we think it is a higher aspiration to wish
+to know 'the truth and the whole truth.' At the same time, we have not
+the slightest apprehension that the whole truth can ever dissipate our
+faith in a future life."[2] Let us "Prove all things and hold fast unto
+that which is good," recognizing the fact that "the truth-seeker is the
+only God-seeker."
+
+  AUTHOR
+  JANUARY 25, 1880.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+                                         PAGE
+
+  PREFACE                               v, vi
+
+  CHART OF MAN'S DEVELOPMENT            10-13
+
+  PROTOPLASM                               18
+
+  CELLS                                    20
+
+  LIFE                                     22
+
+  VITAL FORCE                              24
+
+  ANALYSIS OF MAN                          26
+
+  UNITY OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC NATURE    28
+
+  SPONTANEOUS GENERATION                   30
+
+  THE COMING INTO EXISTENCE OF MAN         33
+
+  EVOLUTION                                58
+
+  THEORIES OF THE WORLD'S FORMATION        64
+
+  THE BIBLE                                70
+
+  KANT'S COSMOGONY                     76, 86
+
+  NATURE A PERPETUAL CREATION              82
+
+  LAWS OF EVOLUTION                        90
+
+  SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST                  92
+
+  RUDIMENTARY ORGANS                       94
+
+  REPRODUCTION BY MEANS OF EGGS            99
+
+  DOUBLE-SEXED INDIVIDUALS                 99
+
+  INHERITANCE                             100
+
+  ARTIFICIAL MONSTERS                     106
+
+  ACQUIRED QUALITIES                      106
+
+  GEOLOGICAL RECORD                       108
+
+  ONTOGENY                                110
+
+  THE ATTRIBUTES OF MAN                   115
+
+  MUSCULAR FORCE                          116
+
+  THOUGHT FORCE                           118
+
+  THE ATTRIBUTES OF ANIMALS               122
+
+  THE ATTRIBUTES OF A SAVAGE              126
+
+  LANGUAGE                                128
+
+  FAITH                                   130
+
+  TRUE CONSCIENCE                         132
+
+  BELIEF IN GOD                           136
+
+  PROOF OF THE EXISTENCE OF GOD           138
+
+  UNITY OF ALL NATURE                     140
+
+  SOUL                                    143
+
+  THE FINITE SENSES OF MAN                144
+
+  THE UNSEEN UNIVERSE                     148
+
+  MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD                   150
+
+  HOPE OF IMMORTALITY                 142-151
+
+
+
+
+WAS MAN CREATED?
+
+
+
+
+HAECKEL'S CHART OF MAN'S DEVELOPMENT, Arranged by HENRY A. MOTT, Jr.,
+Ph. D.
+
+  =9. Americans.= (_Indians._)
+       |
+       |         Esquimaux.
+       |             |
+       |       HYPERBOREANS.                        Magyars.
+       |                                                |
+       |       =8. Arctic Men.=                           |
+       |             |                                Fins.
+       +------+------+                                  |
+              |       Tungusians.  Calmucks. Tartars.   |    Samoides.
+              |           |            |       |        |      |
+              +-----------+-------+----+-------+        +---+--+
+                                  |                         |
+                              Altaians.                  Uralians.
+                                  |                         |
+                                  +-----------------+-------+
+          Japanese.   Chinese.         Siamese.     |
+              |           |     Tibet.    |         |
+              |           |       |       |    Ural-Altaians.
+           Coreans.       +-------+-------+         |
+              |                   |                 |
+              |             Indo-Chinese.           |
+       Coreo-Japanese.            |                 |
+              |                   |                 |
+              +----+--------------+-----------------+
+                   |                                Indo-Germanians.
+                   |             Semites.   Basques.       |    Caucasians.
+                   |                |          |           |            |
+                   |                +----------+--+--------+------------+
+                   |                              |
+                   |                     =12. Mediteranese.=
+                   |                              |
+                   |                   Singalese. |    Fulatians.
+                   |                       |      |        |
+                   |                    DECCANS.  |    DONGOLESE.
+                   |                              |
+                   |               =10. Dradidas.=  |  =11. Nubians.=
+                   |                      |       |        |
+                   |                      +----+--+--------+
+                   | Polynesians.              |
+                   |      |   Madagascars.   Euplocomi.     =4. Negroes.=
+                   |      |         |          |                  |
+                   |      +-----+---+          |    =3. Kaffirs.= |
+                   |            |              |         |        |
+                   |      Sundanesians.        |         +---+----+
+                   |            |              |             |
+             =7. Mongols=    =6. Malays=           |         ERIOCOMI.
+                   |            |              |             |
+                   +------------+--------------+             |
+                    Promalays.                =2. Hottentots=|
+                       |           =1. Papuans.=       |     |
+                       | =5. Australians.= |           |     |
+                       |     |           +---+-------+       |
+                       +--+--+               |               |
+                          |                  |               |
+                      EUTHYCOMI.        LOPHOCOMI.           |
+                          |                  |               |
+                          |                  +----+----------+
+                          |                       |
+              LISSOTRICHI (_straight-haired_)  ULOTRICHI (_woolly-haired_).
+                          |                       |
+                          +------------+----------+
+                                       |
+                                 =ALALI= (_speechless men_).
+                          =PITHECANTHROPI= (_ape-like men_).
+                                       |
+                                       V
+
+
+                                           |
+                                     PRIMEVAL MEN.
+                                           |
+                                           |      Satyrus
+      Engeco         Gorilla               |     (_Orang_).   Hylobates
+  (_Chimpanzee_).  (_Gorilla_).            |         |       (_Gibbon_).
+        |               |                  |         |            |
+        +---------------+                  +---------+------------+
+               |                                     |
+            African                               Asiatic
+      (_Man-like Apes_).                     (_Man-like Apes_).
+               |                                     |
+               +-------------------------------------+
+                                   |
+                                   |                            Nasalis
+                            ANTHROPOIDES      Semnopithecus  (_Nose Apes_).
+                         (_Man-like Apes_).   (_Tall Apes_).      |
+                                   |                |             |
+                                   |                +-------------+
+                                   |                        |
+  Arctopitheci     Labidocera      |  Cercopithecus    Cynocephalus
+  (_Silk-Apes_). (_Clutch-tails_). |   (_Sea-Cat_).     (_Pavian_).
+       |                |          |        |               |
+       +----------------+          +--------+---------------+
+               |                                |
+           Aphyocera                  Catarrhina Menocerca
+        (_Flap-tails_).           (_Tailed, Narrow-nosed Apes_).
+
+           Platyrhinæ                      Catarrhinæ
+      (_Flat-nosed Apes_).              (_Narrow-nosed_).
+               |                                |
+               +--------------------------------+
+                               |
+                             Simiæ
+                           (_Apes_).     Brachytarsi
+                               |         (_Lemurs_).
+                               |              |
+                               +--------------+
+                  Proboscidea         |                      Pinnipedia
+                 (_Elephants_).       |                  (_Marine Animals
+     Lamnungia        |               |                       of Prey_).
+  (_Rock-Conies_).    |               |    Nycterides             |
+        |             |               |     (_Bats_).         Carnivora
+        +-------------+               |        |           (_Land Animals
+               |                      |     Pterocynes        of Prey_).
+          Chelophora                  | (_Flying Foxes_).         |
+      (_Pseudo-hoofed_).              |        |              Carnaria
+               |                      |     Chiroptera       (_Animals
+           Rodentia                   | (_Flying Animals_).   of Prey_).
+     (_Gnawing Animals_).             |        |                  |
+               |                      |        +------------------+
+               |      Leptodactyla    |                  |
+               |      (_Fingered      |             Insectivora
+               |        Animals_).    |          (_Insect Eaters_).
+               |           |          |                  |
+               +-----------+          |                  |
+                     |                |                  |
+                     +----------------+------------------+
+                                                   |
+                                               PROSIMIÆ
+
+
+  Sarcoceta (_True Whales_).               PROSIMIÆ (_Brought forward_,)
+        |                                       (_Semi-Apes_).
+  Sirenia (_Sea-Cows_).
+  Cetacea (_Whales_).
+        |
+      Ungulata                 Edentata                   Deciduata
+  (_Hoofed Animals_).      (_Poor in teeth_).       (_Deciduous Animals_).
+        |                         |                             |
+        +--------+----------------+                             |
+                 |                                              |
+            Indeciduous                                         |
+           (_Indeciduata_).                                     |
+                 |                                              |
+                 +-------------------------------------+--------+
+                                                       |
+                                                  PLACENTALIA
+                                              (_Placental Animals_).
+                                                       |
+                       Marsupialia                     |        Marsupialia
+                       Botanophaga                     |          Zoophaga
+                      (_Herbivorous_                   |     (_Carnivorous_
+                       _Marsupials_).                  |     _Marsupials_).
+                            |                          |             |
+                            +--------------------------+-------------+
+                                                       |
+              Ornithostoma                       Marsupialia
+            (_Beaked Animals_).                    (_Marsupial_).
+                   |                                   |
+                   +---------------------------+-------+
+                                               |
+                                    PROMAMMALIA (_Glacal Animals_).
+
+                                                      MAMMALIA (_Mammals_).
+                                   Aves (_Birds_).                |
+                                        |                         |
+                                Reptilia (_Reptiles_).            |
+                                        |                         |
+                                        +---------------+---------+
+                                                        |
+    Teleostei                Halisauria                 |
+  (_Osseous Fish_).           (_Sea-Dragons_).  Amniota (_Amnion Animals_).
+       |          Dipneusta      |                      |
+       |         (_Mud-Fish_).   |            Amphibia (_Batrachians_).
+    Ganoidei          |          |                      |
+  (_Ganoid Fish_).      +----------+-------+--------------+
+       |                                 |
+       |                          Amphipneumones
+       |             (_Vertebrate Animals, breathing through lungs_).
+       |                                 |
+       +--+------------------------------+
+          |
+  SELACHII (_Primeval Fish_).
+          |
+       PISCES
+      (_Fishes_).
+          |
+          |
+     Amphirrhina                                             Cyclostoma
+  (_Double Nostrils_).                                   (_Round-mouthed_).
+          |                                                       |
+          +----------------------------------------------+--------+
+                                                         |
+                                                    Monorrhina
+                                               (_Single-nostriled_).
+
+                                                     Craniota
+                                              (_Animals with Skulls_).
+                                  Leptocardia            |
+                               (_Tube-hearted_).         |
+                                       |                 |
+     Thaliacea.                        +--------+--------+
+  (_Sea-Barrels_).     Ascidiæ.                 |
+         |                |                  Acrania
+         +--------+-------+           (_Skull-less Animals_).
+                  |
+              Tunicata                      Vertebrata
+        (_Tunicate Animals_).         (_Vertebrate Animals_).
+                  |                             |
+                  +-------------------+---------+
+                                      |
+                                    Vermes
+                                  (_Worms_).
+                                      |
+                      Zoophytes       |
+                  (_Animal Trees_).   |
+                          |           |
+                          +-----+-----+
+                                |
+                            Protozoa
+                      (_Primeval Animals_).
+
+                          ANIMAL MONERA.
+                                |
+                                |
+  VEGETABLE MONERA.             |            NEUTRAL MONERA.
+          |                     |                   |
+          +---------------------+-------------------+
+                                |
+                        ARCHIGONIC MONERA
+  (_Pieces of Protoplasm which have originated by Spontaneous Generation._)
+
+
+
+
+WAS MAN CREATED?
+
+WHAT SCIENCE CAN ANSWER.
+
+
+"The object of science is not to find out what we like or what we
+dislike--the object of science is Truth." In the discussion of the
+subject, "_Was Man Created?_" our object will be--not to study the many
+ways God might have created him, but the way he actually did create him,
+for all ways would be alike easy to an Omnipotent Being.
+
+Let us look at man and ask the question: What is there about him which
+would need an independent act of creation any more than about the
+"mountain of granite or the atom of sand"? The answer comes back:
+Besides life, man has many mental attributes. Let us direct our
+attention at first to the grand phenomena of life, and then to man's
+attributes.
+
+To discover the nature of life, to find out what life really is, it
+would be folly to commence by comparing man, the perfection of living
+beings, with an inorganic or inanimate substance like a brick, to
+discover the hidden secret; for, as Professor Orton says:[3] "That only
+is essential to life which is common to all forms of life. Our brains,
+stomach, livers, hands and feet are luxuries. They are necessary to make
+us human, but not living beings." Instead of man, then, it will be
+necessary for us to take the simplest being which possesses such a
+phenomena; and such are the little homogeneous specks of protoplasm,
+constituting the Group _Monera_, which are entirely destitute of
+structure, and to which the name "Cytode" has been given. In the fresh
+waters in the neighborhood of Jena minute lumps of protoplasm were
+discovered by Haeckel, which, on being examined under the most powerful
+lens of a microscope, were seen to have no constant form, their outlines
+being in a state of perpetual change, caused by the protrusion from
+various parts of their surface of broad lobes and thick finger-like
+projections, which, after remaining visible for a time, would be
+withdrawn, to make their appearance again on some other part of the
+surface. To this little mass of protoplasm Haeckel has given the name
+_Protanæba primitiva_. These little lumps multiply by spontaneous
+division into two pieces, which, on becoming dependent, increase in size
+and acquire all the characteristics of the parent. From this
+illustration, it will be seen that "reproduction is a form of nutrition
+and a growth of the individual to a size beyond that belonging to it as
+an individual, so that a part is thus elevated into a (new) whole."
+
+It is to this simple state of the monera the _fertilized_ egg of any
+animal is transformed--the germ vesicle; the original egg kernel
+disappears, and the parent kernel (cytococcus) forms itself anew; and it
+is in this condition, a non-nucleated ball of protoplasm, a true cytod,
+a homogeneous, structureless body, without different constituent parts,
+that the human child, as well as all other living beings, take their
+first steps in development. No matter how wonderful this may seem, the
+fact stares us in the face that the entire human child, as well as every
+animal with all their great future possibilities, are in their first
+stage a small ball of this complex homogeneous substance. Whether we
+consider "a mere infinitesimal ovoid particle which finds space and
+duration enough to multiply into countless millions in the body of a
+living fly, and then of the wealth of foliage, the luxuriance of flower
+and fruit which lies between this bald sketch of a plant and the
+gigantic pine of California, towering to the dimensions of a cathedral
+spire, or the Indian fig which covers acres with its profound shadow,
+and endures while nations and empires come and go around its vast
+circumference," or we look "at the other half of the world of life,
+picturing to ourselves the great finner whale, hugest of beasts that
+live or have lived, disporting his eighty or ninety feet of bone,
+muscle, and blubber, with easy roll, among the waves in which the
+stoutest ship that ever left dock-yard would founder hopelessly, and
+contrast him with the invisible animalcule, mere gelatinous specks,
+multitudes of which could in fact dance upon the point of a needle with
+the same ease as the angels of the schoolman could in imagination;--with
+these images before our minds, it would be strange if we did not ask
+what community of form or structure is there between the fungus and the
+fig-tree, the animalcule and the whale? and, _à fortiori_, between all
+four? Notwithstanding these apparent difficulties, a threefold
+unity--namely, a unity of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity
+of substantial composition--does pervade the whole living world."[4] And
+this unit is Protoplasm. So we see it is necessary for us to retreat to
+our protoplasm as a naked formless plasma, if we would find freed from
+all non-essential complications the agent to which has been assigned the
+duty of building up structure and of transforming the energy of lifeless
+matter into the living. Even Goethe (in 1807) almost stated this when he
+said: "Plants and animals, regarded in their most imperfect condition,
+are hardly distinguishable. This much, however, we may say, that from a
+condition in which plant is hardly to be distinguished from animal,
+creatures have appeared, gradually perfecting themselves in two
+opposite directions--the plant is finally glorified into the tree,
+enduring and motionless; the animal into the human being of the highest
+mobility and freedom."
+
+Let us examine for a moment this substance Protoplasm, and see in what
+way it differs from inorganic matter, or in what way the animate differs
+from the inanimate--the living from the dead.
+
+Felix Dujardin, a French zoologist (1835) pointed out that the only
+living substance in the body of rhizopods and other inferior primitive
+animals, is identical with protoplasm. He called it _sarcode_. Hugo von
+Mohl (1846) first applied the name protoplasm to the peculiar serus and
+mobile substance in the interior of vegetable cells; and he perceived
+its high importance, but was very far from understanding its
+significance in relation to all organisms. Not, however, until Ferdinand
+Cohn (1850) and more fully Franz Unger (1855) had established the
+identity of the animate and contractile protoplasm in vegetable cells
+and the sarcode of the lower animals, could Max Shultz in 1856-61
+elaborate the protoplasm theory of the sarcode so as to proclaim
+protoplasm to be the most essential and important constituent of all
+organic cells, and to show that the bag or husk of the cell, the
+cellular membrane and intercellular substance, are but secondary parts
+of the cell, and are frequently wanting. In a similar manner Lionel
+Beale (1862) gave to protoplasm, including the cellular germ, the name
+of "germinal matter," and to all the other substance entering into the
+composition of tissue, being secondary, and produced the name of "formed
+matter."
+
+"Wherever there is life there is protoplasm; wherever there is
+protoplasm, there, too, is life." The physical consistence of protoplasm
+varies with the amount of water with which it is combined, from the
+solid form in which we find it in the dormant state to the thin watery
+state in which it occurs in the leaves of valisneria.
+
+As to its composition, chemistry can as yet give but scanty information;
+it can tell that it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
+sulphur, and phosphorus, and it can also tell the percentage of each
+element, but it cannot give more than a formula that will express it as
+a whole, giving no information as to the nature of the numerous
+albuminoid substances which compose it. Edward Cope, in his article on
+Comparative Anatomy,[5] gives the formula for protoplasm (as a whole),
+C{24}H{17}N{3}O{8} + S and P, in small quantities under some circumstances.
+It is therefore, he says, a nitryl of cellulose: C{24}H{20}O{2} + 3NH{3}.
+According to Mulder the composition of albumen, one of the class of
+protein substances to which protoplasm belongs, is 10(C{40}H{31}N{5}O{12})
++ S{2}P. Protoplasm is identical in both the animal and vegetable kingdom;
+it behaves the same from whatever source it may be derived towards
+several re-agents, as also electricity. Is it possible, then, that the
+protoplasm which produces the mould is exactly the same composition as
+that which produces the human child? The answer is YES, so far as the
+elements are concerned, but the proportions of carbon, hydrogen, etc.,
+must enter into an infinite number of diverse stratifications and
+combination in the production of the various forms of life. Professor
+Frankland, speaking of protein, for instance, says it is capable of
+existing under probably at least a thousand isomeric forms. Protoplasm
+may be distinguished under the microscope from other members of the
+class to which it belongs, on account of the faculty it possesses of
+combining with certain coloring matters, as carmine and aniline; it is
+colored dark-red or yellowish-brown by iodine and nitric acid, and it is
+coagulated by alcohol and mineral acids as well as by heat. It possesses
+the quality of absorbing water in various quantities, which renders it
+sometimes extremely soft and nearly liquid, and sometimes hard and firm
+like leather. Its prominent physical properties are excitability and
+contractility, which Kühne and others have especially investigated. The
+motion of protoplasm in plants was first made known by Bonaventure Corti
+a century ago in the Charoe plants; but this important fact was
+forgotten, and it had to be discovered by Treviranus in 1807. The
+regular motion of the protoplasm, forming a perfect current, may be seen
+in the hairs of the nettle, and weighty evidence exists that similar
+currents occur in all young vegetable cells. "If such be the case," says
+Huxley, "the wonderful noonday silence of a tropical forest is, after
+all, due only to the dullness of our hearing, and could our ears catch
+the murmur of these tiny maelstroms, as they whirl in innumerable
+myriads of living cells, which constitute each tree, we should be
+stunned as with a roar of a great city."
+
+One step higher in the scale of life than the monera is the vegetable or
+animal cell, which arose out of the monera by the important process of
+segregation in their homogeneous viscid bodies, the differentiation of
+an inner kernel from the surrounding plasma. By this means the great
+progress from a simple cytod (without kernel) into a real cell (with
+kernel) was accomplished. Some of these cells at an early stage encased
+themselves by secreting a hardened membrane; they formed the first
+vegetable cells, while others remaining naked developed into the first
+aggregate of animal cells. The vegetable cell has usually two concentric
+coverings--cell-wall and primordial utricle. In animal cells the former
+is wanting, the membrane representing the utricle. As a general fact,
+also, animal cells are smaller than vegetable cells. Their size[6]
+varies greatly, but are generally invisible to the naked eye, ranging
+from 1/500 to 1/10000 of an inch in diameter. About four thousand of the
+smallest would be required to cover the dot put over the letter i in
+writing. The shape of cells varies greatly; the normal form, though, is
+spheroidal as in the cells of fat, but they often become[7]
+many-sided--sometimes flattened as in the cuticle, and sometimes
+elongated into a simple filament as in fibrous tissue or muscular fibre.
+
+The cell, therefore, is extremely interesting, since all animal and
+vegetable structure is but the multiplication of the cell as a unit, and
+the whole life of the plant or animal is that of the cells which compose
+them, and in them or by them all its vital processes are carried on. It
+may sound paradoxical to speak of an animal or plant being composed of
+millions of cells; but beyond the momentary shock of the paradox no harm
+is done.
+
+The cell, then, can be regarded as the basis of our physiological idea
+of the elementary organism; but in the animal as well as in the plant,
+neither cell-wall nor nucleus is an essential constituent of the cell,
+inasmuch as bodies which are unquestionably the equivalents of
+cells--true morphological units--may be mere masses of protoplasm,
+devoid alike of cell-wall or nucleus. For the whole living world, then,
+the primary and a mental form of life is merely an individual mass of
+protoplasm in which no further structure is discernible. Well, then, has
+protoplasm been called the "universal concomitant of every phenomena of
+life." Life is inseparable from this substance, but is dormant unless
+excited by some external stimulant, such as heat, light, electricity,
+food, water, and oxygen.
+
+Although we have seen that the life of the plant as well as of the
+animal is protoplasm, and that the protoplasm of the plant and that of
+the animal bear the closest resemblance, yet plants can manufacture
+protoplasm out of mineral compounds, whereas animals are obliged to
+procure it ready made, and hence in the end depend on plants. "Without
+plants," says Professor Orton, "animals would perish; without animals,
+plants had no need to be." The food of a plant is a matter whose energy
+is all expended--is a fallen weight. But the plant organism receives it,
+exposes it to the sun's rays, and in a way mysterious to us converts the
+actual energy of the sunlight into potential energy within it. It is for
+this reason that life has been termed "bottled-sunshine."
+
+The principal food of the plant consists of carbon united with oxygen to
+form carbonic acid, hydrogen united with oxygen to form water, and
+nitrogen united with hydrogen to form ammonia. These elements thus
+united, which in themselves are perfectly lifeless, the plant is able to
+convert into living protoplasm. "Plants are," says Huxley, "the
+accumulators of the power which animals distribute and disperse."
+Boussengault found long since that peas sown in pure sand, moistened
+with distilled water and fed by the air, obtained all the carbon
+necessary for their development, flowering, and fructification. Here we
+see a plant which not only maintains its vigor on these few substances,
+but grows until it has increased a millionfold or a million-millionfold
+the quantity of protoplasm it originally possessed, and this protoplasm
+exhibits the phenomena of life. This and other proof led M. Dumas to
+say: "From the loftiest point of view, and in connection with the
+physics of the globe, it would be imperative on us to say that in so far
+as their truly organic elements are concerned, plants and animals are
+the offspring of the air."
+
+Schleiden,[8] speaking of the haymakers of Switzerland and the Tyrol,
+says: "He mows his definite amount of grass every year on the Alps,
+inaccessible to cattle, and gives not back the smallest quantity of
+organic substance to the soil. Whence comes the hay, if not from the
+atmosphere."
+
+It has been seen, then, that plants can manufacture protoplasm, a
+faculty which animals are not possessed of; they at best can only
+convert dead protoplasm into living protoplasm. Thus when vegetable or
+meat is cooked their protoplasm dies, but is not rendered incompetent of
+resuming its old functions as a matter of life. "If I," says Huxley,
+"should eat a piece of cooked mutton, which was once the living
+protoplasm of a sheep, the protoplasm, rendered dead by cooking, will be
+changed into living protoplasm, and thus I would transubstantiate sheep
+into man; and were I to return to my own place by sea and undergo
+shipwreck, the crustacean might and probably would return the
+compliment, and demonstrate our common nature by turning my protoplasm
+into living lobster." As has been said before, where there are life
+manifestations there is protoplasm. Life is regarded by one class of
+thinkers as the principle or cause of organization; and according to the
+other, life is the product or effect of organization. We must, however,
+agree with Professor Orton, who says: "Life is the effect of
+organization, not the result of it. Animals do not live because they are
+organized, but are organized because they are alive." In whatever way it
+is looked at, life is but a forced condition. "The more advanced
+thinkers, then, in science to-day," says Barker, "therefore look upon
+the life of the living form as inseparable from its substance, and
+believe that the former is purely phenomenal and only a manifestation of
+the latter. During the existence of a special force as such, they retain
+the term only to express the sum of the phenomena of living beings. The
+word life must be regarded, then, as only a generalized expression
+signifying the sum-total of the properties of matter possessing such
+organization."
+
+In what manner, then, does this matter, possessing the phenomena of
+life, differ from inorganic matter, or in what manner does living matter
+differ from matter not living? The forces which are at work on the one
+side are at work on the other. The phenomena of life are all dependent
+upon the working of the same physical and chemical forces as those
+which are active in the rest of the world. It may be convenient to use
+the terms "vitality" and "vital force" to denote the cause of certain
+groups of natural operations, as we employ the names of "electricity"
+and "electrical force" to denote others; but it ceases to do so, if such
+a name implies the absurd assumption that either "electricity" or
+"vitality" is an entity, playing the part of a sufficient cause of
+electrical or vital phenomena. A mass of living protoplasm is simply a
+machine of great complexity, the total result of the work of which, or
+its vital phenomena, depend on the one hand upon its construction, and
+on the other upon the energy supplied to it; and to speak of "vitality"
+as anything but the names of a series of operations is as if one should
+talk of the "horologity" of a clock.[9]
+
+When hydrogen and oxygen are united by an electrical spark water is
+produced; certainly there is no parity between the liquid produced and
+the two gases. At 32° F., oxygen and hydrogen are elastic gaseous
+bodies, whose particles tend to fly away from one another; water at the
+same temperature is a strong though brittle solid. Such changes are
+called the properties of water. It is not assumed that a certain
+something called "acquosity" has entered into and taken possession of
+the oxide of hydrogen as soon as formed, and then guarded the particles
+in the facets of the crystal or amongst the leaflets of the hoar-frost.
+On the contrary, it is hoped molecular physics will in time explain the
+phenomena. "What better philosophical status," says Huxley,[10] "has
+vitality than acquosity. If the properties of water may be properly said
+to result from the nature and disposition of its molecules, I can find
+no intelligible ground for refusing to say that the properties of
+protoplasm result from the nature and disposition of its molecules."
+
+"To distinguish the living from the dead body," Herbert Spencer says,
+"the tree that puts out leaves when the spring brings change of
+temperature, the flower which opens and closes with the rising and
+setting of the sun, the plant that droops when the soil is dry and
+re-erects itself when watered, are considered alive because of these
+produced changes; in common with the zoophyte, which contracts on the
+passing of a cloud over the sun, the worm that comes to the ground when
+continually shaken, and the hedgehog which rolls itself up when
+attacked."
+
+"Seeds of wheat produced antecedent to the Pharaohs," says Bastain,[11]
+"remaining in Egyptian catacombs through century after century display
+of course no vital manifestations, but nevertheless retain the
+potentiality of growing into perfect plants whenever they may be brought
+into contact with suitable external conditions. We must presume that
+either (1) during this long lapse of centuries the 'vital principle' of
+the plant has been imprisoned in the most dreary and impenetrable of
+dungeons, whither no sister effluence from the general 'soul of nature'
+could affect it; or else (2) that the germ of the future living plant is
+there only in the form of an inherited structure, whose molecular
+complexities are of such a kind that, after moisture has restored
+mobility to its atoms, its potential life may pass into actual life.
+Some of the lowest forms of animals and plants have such a tenacity to
+life that their vital manifestation may be kept in abeyance for five,
+ten, fifteen, or even twenty years. Though not living any more than the
+wheat, they also retain the potentiality of manifestation of life; and
+for each alike, in order that this potentiality may pass into actuality,
+the first requisition is water with which to restore them to that
+possibility of molecular rearrangement under the influence of incident
+forces, of which the absence of water had deprived them, and without
+which, life in any real sense is impossible."
+
+
+  ANALYSIS OF A MAN.
+
+  (BY PROF. MILLER.)
+
+  A man 5 feet 8 inches high, weighing 154 pounds.
+
+                     lbs.         oz.          grs.
+  Oxygen             111           0            0
+  Hydrogen            14           0            0
+  Carbon              21           0            0
+  Nitrogen             3          10            0
+
+  Inorganic elements in the ash:
+
+  Phosphorus           1           2           88
+  Calcium              2           0            0
+  Sulphur              0           0          219
+  Chlorine             0           2           47
+
+  1 ounce = 437 grains.
+
+  Sodium               0           2          116
+  Iron                 0           0          100
+  Potassium            0           0          290
+  Magnesium            0           0           12
+  Silica               0           0            2
+
+  Total              154           0            0
+
+
+  The quantity of the substances found in a human body
+  weighing 154 pounds:
+
+                     lbs.         oz.        grs.
+  Water              111           0            0
+  Gelatin             15           0            0
+  Albumen              4           3            0
+  Fibrine              4           4            0
+  Fat                 12           0            0
+  Ashes                7           9            0
+
+  Total              154           0            0
+
+  (From the "CHEMISTS' MANUAL.")
+
+
+Professor Owen[12] says: "There are organisms (vibrieo, rotifer,
+macrobiotus, etc.) which we can devitalize and revitalize--devive and
+revive--many times. As the dried animalcule manifest no phenomena
+suggesting any idea contributing to form the complex one of 'life' in my
+mind, I regard it to be as completely lifeless as is the drowned man,
+whose breath and heat have gone, and whose blood has ceased to
+circulate. * * * The change of work consequent on drying or drowning
+forthwith begins to alter relations or compositions, and in time to a
+degree adverse to resumption of the vital form of force, a longer period
+being needed for this effect in the rotifer, a shorter one in the man,
+still shorter it may be in the amoeba."
+
+"There is," says Dumas,[13] "an eternal round in which death is
+quickened and life appears, but in which matter merely changes its place
+and form."
+
+Let us now compare the inorganic world with the organic--the inanimate
+with the animate--and see if there does exist an inseparable boundary
+between them. The fundamental properties of every natural body are
+matter, form, and force. One important point to be noticed is, that the
+elements which compose all animate bodies are the very elements that
+help to build up the inanimate bodies. No new elements appear in the
+vegetable or animal world which are not to be found in the inorganic
+world. The difference between animate and inanimate bodies, therefore,
+is certainly not in the elements which form them, but in the molecular
+combination of them; and it is to be hoped that molecular physics will,
+at some not far distant time, enlighten us as to the peculiar state of
+aggregation in which the molecules exist in living matter. As to the
+form, it is impossible to find any essential difference in the external
+form and inner structure between inorganic and organic bodies--for the
+simple monad, which is as much a living organism as the most complex
+being, is nothing but a homogeneous, structureless mass of protoplasm.
+But just as the inorganic substance, according to well-defined laws,
+elaborates its structure into a crystal of great beauty, so does the
+protoplasm elaborate itself into the most beautiful of all
+structures--the cell unit. Just as gold and copper crystallizes in a
+geometrical form, a cube--bismuth and antimony in a hexagonal, iodine
+and sulphur in a rhombic form--so we find among radiolaria, and among
+other protista and lower forms, that they "may be traced to a
+mathematical, fundamental form, and whose form in its whole, as well as
+in its parts, is bounded by definite geometrically determinable planes
+and angles." Now, as to the forces of the two different groups of
+bodies. Surely the constructive force of a crystal is due to the
+chemical composition, and to its material constitution. As the shape of
+the crystal and its size are influenced by surrounding circumstances,
+there is, therefore, an external constructive force at work. The only
+difference between the growth of an organism and that of a crystal is,
+that in the former case, in consequence of its semi-fluid state of
+aggregation, the newly added particles penetrate into the interior of
+the organism (inter-susception), whereas inorganic substances receive
+homogeneous matter from without, only by opposition or an addition of
+new particles to the surface. "If we, then, designate the growth and the
+formation of organisms as a process of life, we may with equal reason
+apply the same term with the developing crystal." It is for these and
+other reasons, demonstrating as they do the "unity of organic and
+inorganic nature," the essential agreement of inorganic and organic
+bodies in matter, form, and force, which led Tyndall[14] to say:
+"Abandoning all disguise, the confession that I feel bound to make
+before you is, that I prolong the vision backward across the boundary of
+experimental evidence, and discern in that matter which we in our
+ignorance, and notwithstanding our professed reverence for its Creator,
+have hitherto covered with opprobrium, the promise and potency of every
+form and quality of life."
+
+Returning now to our protoplasm, let us ask the question: Where did it
+come from? or, How did it come into existence? Though chemical synthesis
+has built up a number of organic substances which have been deemed the
+product of vitality, yet, up to the present day, the fact stands out
+before us that no one has ever built up one particle of living matter,
+however minute, from lifeless elements.
+
+The protoplasm of to-day is simply a continuation of the protoplasm of
+other ages, handed down to us through periods of undefinable and
+indeterminable time.
+
+The question of where protoplasm came from--how it arose--chemistry is
+unable to answer; but the question is answered, probably, by spontaneous
+generation. Only the merest particle of living protoplasm was necessary
+to be formed from lifeless matter in the beginning; for, in the eyes of
+any consistent evolutionist, any further independent formation would be
+sheer waste, as the hypothesis of evolution postulates the unlimited,
+though perhaps not, indefinite modifiability of such matter. As we have
+seen that there exists no absolute barrier between organic and inorganic
+bodies, it is not so difficult to conceive that the first particle of
+protoplasm may have originated, under suitable conditions, out of
+inorganic or lifeless matter. But the causes which have led to the
+origination of this particle, it may be said, we know absolutely
+nothing--as in the formation of the crystal and the cell--the ultimate
+causes remain in both cases concealed from us.
+
+At the time in the earth's history when water, in a liquid state, made
+its appearance on the cooled crust of the earth, the carbon probably
+existed as carbonic acid dispersed in the atmosphere; and from the very
+best of grounds, it is reasonable to assume that the density and
+electric condition of the atmosphere were quite different, as also the
+chemical and physical nature of the primeval ocean was quite different.
+In any case, therefore, even[15] if we do not know anything more about
+it, there remains the supposition, which can at least not be disputed,
+that at that time, under conditions quite different from those of
+to-day, a spontaneous generation, which is now perhaps no longer
+possible, may have taken place. This point is now conceded by most all
+of the advanced scientists of the day, and is absolutely necessary for
+the completion of the hypothesis of evolution.
+
+The answer may come to this--Well, suppose the first protoplasm did
+originate by spontaneous generation, where did the elements or force
+come from which compose it?
+
+Science has nothing to do with the coming into existence of matter or
+force, for she proves both to be indestructible; when they disappear,
+they do so only to reappear in some other form. The coming into
+existence of matter and force, as also the ultimate cause of all
+phenomena, is beyond the domain of scientific inquiry. Science has only
+to do with the coming in of the form of matter, not the coming in of its
+existence.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--A Moneron (Protamoeba) in act of reproduction;
+_A_, the whole Moneron, which moves like ordinary Amoeba, by means of
+variable processes: _B_, a contraction around its circumference parts it
+into two halves; _C_, the two halves separate, and each now forms
+independent individuals. (Much enlarged.)--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--_A_, is a crawling Amoeba (much
+enlarged).--_Haeckel._ The whole organism has the form-value of a naked
+cell and moves about by means of changeable processes, which are
+extended from the protoplasmic body and again drawn in. In the inside is
+the bright-colored, roundish cell-kernel or nucleus. _B_, Egg-cell of a
+Chalk Sponge (Olynthus).--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the next higher stage,
+Mulberry-germ or Morula (Synamoeba).--_Haeckel._]
+
+
+
+
+THE COMING INTO EXISTENCE OF MAN,
+
+BY THE SLOW PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
+
+
+It is necessary now to take up the little mass of living matter,
+admitting its coming into existence by spontaneous generation as
+probable, and so probable that it almost amounts to a certainty, and
+follow it through the many changes it is about to make under the
+influence of the laws which govern evolution until it has culminated in
+man, and these laws still acting on the brain of man, perfecting it, and
+leading him on to the comprehension of a grander and nobler conception
+of the Almighty and of his works.
+
+The start, then, must be made with a homogeneous mass of protoplasm,
+such as the existing _Protamoeba primitiva_ of the present day, which
+is a structureless organism without organs, and which came into
+existence during the Laurentian period. It is to this simplified
+condition, as I have previously stated, all fertilized eggs return
+before they commence to develop.
+
+The first process of adaptation effected by the monera must have been
+the condensation of an external crust, which, as a protecting covering,
+shut in the softer interior from the hostile influences of the outer
+world. As soon as, by condensation of the homogeneous moneron, a
+cell-kernel arose in the interior, and a membrane arose on the surface,
+all the fundamental parts of the unit were then furnished. Such a unit
+was an organism, similar to the white corpuscle of the blood, and
+called _amoebæ_. Here we have two different stages of evolution; the
+protoplasma (better plasson) of the cytod undergoes differentiation, and
+is split up into two kinds of albuminous substances--the inner
+cell-kernel (nucleus) and the outer cell-substance (protoplasma). Edward
+von Benden, in his work upon _Gregarinæ_, first clearly pointed out this
+fact, that we must distinguish thoroughly between the plasson of cytods
+and the protoplasm of cells.
+
+An irrefutable proof that such single-celled primæval animals like the
+amoeba really existed as the direct ancestors of man, is furnished,
+according to the fundamental law of biogeny, by the fact that the human
+egg is nothing more than a simple cell.
+
+The next step taken in advance is the division of the cell in
+two;--there arise from the single germinal spot two new kernel specks,
+and then, in like manner, out of the germinal vesicle two new
+cell-kernels. The same process of cell-division now repeats itself
+several times in succession, and the products of the division form a
+perfect union. This organism may be called a community of _amoebæ_
+(synamoebæ).
+
+From the community of amoeba morula, now arose ciliated larvæ. The
+cells lying on the surface extended hair-like processes or fringes of
+hair, which, by striking against the water, kept the whole body
+rotating--the lanceolate animals or amphioxus were thus first produced.
+Here we find from the synamoebæ which crept about slowly at the bottom
+of the Laurentian primeval ocean by means of movements like those of an
+amoeba, that the newly-formed planæa by the vibrating movements of the
+cilia, the entire multicellular body acquired a more rapid and stronger
+motion, and passed over from the creeping to the swimming mode of
+locomotion. The planæa consisted, then, of two kinds of cells--inner
+ones like the amoebæ, and external "ciliated cells." The ancestors of
+man, which possessed the form value of the ciliated larva, is, of
+course, extinct at the present day.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--The Norwegian Flimmer-ball (Magosphoera
+Planula), swimming by means of its vibratile fringes; seen from the
+surface.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--The same in section. The pear-shaped cells are
+seen bound together in the centre of the gelatinous sphere by a
+thread-like process. Each cell contains both a kernel and a contractile
+vesicle. (PLANÆA SERIES.)--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. III AND IV.--Represents GASTRÆA SERIES. The body
+consists merely of a simple primitive intestine, the wall of which is
+formed of two primary germ-layers.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. I and II.--Represents the next higher stage
+(Tubularia). Fig. I, a simple Gliding Worm (Rhabdocoelum); _m_, mouth;
+_sd_, throat-epithelium; _sm_, throat-muscles; _d_, stomach-intestine;
+_nc_, kidney-ducts; _nm_, opening of the kidneys; _au_, eye; _na_,
+nose-pit. Fig. II, the same Gliding Worm, showing the remaining organs;
+_g_, brain; _au_, eye; _na_, nose-pit; _n_, nerves; _h_, testes;
+[male symbol], male opening; [female symbol], female opening; _e_,
+ovary; _f_, ciliated outer-skin.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents Soft Worms (Scolecida) and is a
+young Acorn Worm (Balanoglossus), after _Agassiz_. _r_, acorn-like
+proboscis; _h_, collar; _k_, gill-openings and gill-arches of the
+anterior intestine, in a long row, one behind the other, on each side;
+_d_, digestive posterior intestine, filling the greater part of the body
+cavity; _v_, intestinal vessel, lying between two parallel folds of the
+skin; _a_, anus.]
+
+
+Out of the planula, then, develops an exceedingly important animal
+form--the gastrula (that is, larva with a stomach or intestine), which
+resembles the planula, but differs essentially in the fact that it
+encloses a cavity which opens to the outside by a mouth. The wall of the
+progaster (primary stomach) consists of two layers of cells: an outer
+layer of smaller ciliated cells (outer skin or ectoderm), and of an
+inner layer of large non-ciliated cells (inner skin or entoderm). This
+exceedingly important larval form, the "gastrula," makes its appearance
+in the ontogenesis of all tribes of animals. These gastræada must have
+existed during the older primordial period, and they must have also
+included the ancestors of man. A certain proof of this is furnished by
+the amphioxus, which, in spite of its blood relationship to man, still
+passes through the stage of the gastrula with a simple intestine and a
+double intestinal wall.[16] By motion of the cilia or fringes of the
+skin-layer, the gastræa swam freely about in the Laurentian ocean.
+
+The development of the gastræa now deviated in two directions--one
+branch of gastræads gave up free locomotion, adhered to the bottom of
+the sea, and thus, by adopting an adhesive mode of life, gave rise to
+the proascus, the common primary form of the animal plants (zoophyta).
+The other branch was originated by the formation of a middle germ-layer
+or muscular layer, and also by the further differentiation of the
+internal parts into various organs; more especially, the first formation
+of a nervous system, the simplest organs of sense, the simplest organs
+for secretion (kidneys), and generation (sexual organs)--this branch is
+the prothelmis, the common primary worms (vermes). Like the turbellaria
+of the present day, the whole surface of their body was covered with
+cilia, and they possessed a simple body of an oval shape, entirely
+without appendages. These acoelomatous worms did not as yet possess a
+true body cavity (coelom) nor blood. No member of the next higher
+animals are in existence, neither are there any fossil remains, owing to
+the soft nature of their body. They are therefore called soft worms, or
+scoleceda. They developed out of the turbellaria of the sixth stage by
+forming a true body cavity (a coelom) and blood in their interior. The
+nearest still living coelomati is probably the acorn worms
+(balanoglossus). The form value of this stage must, moreover, have been
+represented by several different intermediate stages.
+
+Out of the four different groups of the worm tribe, the four higher
+tribes of the animal kingdom were developed--the star-fishes
+(echinoderma) and insects (arthropoda) on the one hand, and the molluscs
+(mollusca) and vertebrated animals (vertebrata) on the other. Out of
+certain coelomati, the most ancient skull-less vertebrata were
+directly developed. Among the coelomati of the present day, the
+ascidians are the nearest relatives of this exceedingly remarkable worm,
+which connect the widely differing classes of invertebrate and
+vertebrate animals. To these animals have been given the name of
+sack-worms (himatega). They originated out of the worms of the seventh
+stage by the formation of a dorsal nerve marrow (medulla tube), and by
+the formation of the spinal rod (chorda dorsalis) which lies below it.
+It is just the position of this central spinal rod or axial skeleton,
+between the dorsal marrow on the dorsal side and the intestinal canal on
+the ventral side, which is most characteristic of all vertebrate
+animals, including man, but also of the larvæ of the ascidia.
+
+We now come to the second half of the series of human ancestors. The
+skull-less animal lancelet, which is still living, affords a faint idea
+of the members of this group (acrania). Since this little animal, in its
+earliest embryonic state, entirely agrees with the ascidia, and in its
+further development shows itself to be a true vertebrate animal, it forms
+a direct transition from the vertebrata to the invertebrata.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Appendicularia, seen from the left side, _m_,
+mouth; _k_, gill intestine; _o_, oesophagus; _v_, stomach; _a_, anus;
+_n_, nerve ganglia (upper throat-knots); _g_, ear vesicle; _f_, ciliated
+groove under the gill; _h_, heart; _e_, ovary; _c_, notochord; _s_,
+tail.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents Sack Worms (Himatega), and is the
+structure of an Ascidian, seen from the left. _sb_, gill-sac; _v_,
+stomach; _i_, large intestine; _c_, heart; _t_, testes; _vd_, seed duct;
+_o_, ovary; _o'_, matured eggs in the body cavity. After
+_Milne-Edwards_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the ACRANIA SERIES. Lancelet
+(Amhioxus Lanceolatus), twice the actual size, seen from the left. _a_,
+mouth-opening, surrounded by cilia; _b_, anal-opening; _c_,
+ventral-opening (Porus abdominalis); _d_, gill-body; _e_, stomach; _f_,
+liver-coecum; _g_, large intestine; _h_, coelum; _i_, notochord
+(under it the aorta); _k_, arches of the aorta; _l_, main gill-artery;
+_m_, swellings on its branches; _n_, hollow vein; _o_, intestinal
+vein.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents the MONORHINA SERIES. Lamprey
+(Petromyzon Americanus) from the Atlantic--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents the Selachii. Shark (Carcharias
+vulgaris) from the Atlantic--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the Mud-fish (Dipneusta).
+Lepidosiren annecteus, one-fourth natural size; African
+rivers.--_Orton._ Form a link between typical fishes and the
+Amphibians.]
+
+
+At this stage, most probably, the separation of the two sexes began. The
+simpler and most ancient form of sexual propagation is through
+double-sexed individuals (hermaphroditismus). It occurs in the great
+majority of plants, but only in a minority of animals; for example, in
+the garden-snails, leeches, earth-worms and many other worms. Every
+single individual among hermaphrodites produces within itself materials
+of both sexes--egg and sperm. In most of the higher plants every blossom
+contains both the male organs (stamen and anther) and the female organs
+(style and germ). Every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual
+gland eggs, and in another sperm. Many hermaphrodites can fructify
+themselves; in others, however, copulation and reciprocal fructification
+of both hermaphrodites are necessary for causing the development of the
+eggs. This latter case is evidently a transition to sexual separation
+(gonoehorismus).
+
+Out of the members of the last group arose animals with skulls or
+craniata, having round mouths, and which are divided into hags and
+lampreys. The hags (myxinoides) have long cylindrical worm-like bodies.
+The lampreys (petromyxontes) includes those well known "nine eyes"
+common at the seaside.
+
+These single-nostril animals (monorrhina) arose during the primordial
+period out of the skull-less animals by the anterior end of the dorsal
+marrow developing into the brain, and the anterior end of the dorsal
+skull into the skull. By the division of the single nostril of the
+members of the last group into two lateral halves, by the formation of a
+sympathetic nervous system, a jaw skeleton, a swimming bladder and two
+pairs of legs (breast fins or fore-legs, and ventral fins or
+hind-legs), arose the primæval fish (selachii), which is best
+represented by the still-living shark (squalacei).
+
+Out of the primæval fish arose the mud-fish (dipneusta), which is very
+imperfectly represented by the still-living salamander fish; the
+primæval fish adapting itself to land, and by the transforming of the
+swimming bladder into an air-breathing lung, and of the nasal cavity
+(which was now open into the mouth cavity) into air-passages. Their
+organization _might_, in some respect, be like the ceratodus and
+proloptems; but this is not certain.
+
+The dipneusta is an intermediate stage between the selachii and
+amphibia. Out of the dipneusta arose the class of amphibia, having five
+toes (the pentadactyla). The gill amphibians are man's most ancient
+ancestors of the class amphibia. Besides possessing lungs as well as the
+mud-fish, they retain throughout life regular gills like the
+still-living proteus and axolotl. Most gilled batrachia live in North
+America. The paddle-fins of the dipneusta changed into five-toed legs,
+which were afterwards transmitted to the higher vertebrata up to man.
+
+The gilled amphibia (sozobrachia) of the last group finally lost their
+gills but retained their tail, and tailed amphibians (sozura) were
+produced, such as the salamander and newt of the present day. Out of the
+sozura originated the primæval amniota (protamnia) by the complete loss
+of the gills by the formation of the amnion of the cochlea, and of the
+round window in the auditory organ, and of the organ of tears. Out of
+the protamnia originated the primary mammals (promammalia). The most
+closely related were the ornithostoma; they differed through having
+teeth in their jaws.
+
+No fossil remains of the primary mammals have as yet been found,
+although they lived during the trias period--they possessed a very
+highly developed jaw. From the primary mammal arose the pouched animals
+(marsupialia). Numerous representatives of this group still exist:
+kangaroos, pouched rats and pouched dogs. The marsupial animals
+developed, very probably, in the mesolithic epoch (during the Jura) out
+of the cloacal animals; by the division of the cloaca into the rectum
+and the urogenital sinus, by the formation of a nipple on the mammary
+gland, and the partial suppression of the clavicles.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. I and II.--The Ceratodus Forsteri occur in the
+swamps of Southern Australia. Form transition between fishes and
+Amphibia.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents the Gilled Amphibians (Soyobranchia).
+The Axolotl (Siredon pisciforme), after Tegetmeier. The ordinary form
+with persistent branchiæ.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Proteus Anguinus. Europe.--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the Tailed Amphibians (Soyura).
+Great Water-Newt (Triton cristatus), after _Bell._]
+
+
+From the marsupialia originated a most interesting small group of
+semi-apes (prosimiæ), for they are the primary forms of genuine apes and
+consequently of man. They developed out of handed or ape-footed
+marsupials (pedumana), of rat-like appearance, by the formation of a
+placenta, the loss of the marsupium and the marsupial bones, and by the
+higher development of the commissures of the brain. The still-living
+short-footed semi-ape (brachytarsi), especially the muki, indie and
+lori, possess possibly a faint resemblance.
+
+Out of the semi-apes developed two classes of genuine apes; but as the
+narrow-nosed or catarrhini class are the only ones related to man, the
+others will not be considered. These narrow-nosed apes originated by the
+transformation of the jaw, and by the claws on the toes changing into
+nails. The still-living long-tail nose-apes and holy apes
+(semnopithecus) probably resembled the oldest ancestors of this group.
+
+The tailed apes by the loss of their tail and some of their hair
+covering, and by the excessive development of that portion of their
+brain above the facial portion of the skull, developed into the man-like
+apes (anthropoides)--such as the gorilla and chimpanzee of Africa, and
+the orang and gibbon of Asia. The human ancestors of this group existed
+during the miocene period. From the anthropoides developed the ape-like
+men (pithecanthropi) during the tertiary period. The speechless
+primæval men (alali), then, is the connecting link between the man-like
+apes and man. The fore-hand of the anthropoides became the human hand,
+their hinder-hand a foot for walking. They did not possess the
+articulate human language of words and the higher developments, as
+consciousness and the formation of ideas must have been very imperfect.
+
+Out of the pithecanthropi men developed genuine man, by the development
+of the animal language of sounds into a connected or articulate language
+of words--the brain also developed higher and higher. This transition
+took place, probably, at the beginning of the quaternary period, or
+possibly in the tertiary.
+
+We have now very briefly reviewed the principal outlines of the
+ancestors of man, showing that man has developed from the little mass of
+protoplasm, as have all animals and plants. He therefore was not
+_spontaneously_ created, but was developed. The question is often asked
+by simple-minded people, with much delight, Why do we not behold the
+interesting spectacle of the transformation of a chimpanzee into a man,
+or conversely of a man by retrogression into an orang?--it only shows
+that they are not acquainted with the first principles of the Doctrine
+of Descent. "Not one of the apes," says Schmidt, "can revert to the
+state of his primordial ancestors, except by retrogression--by which a
+primordial condition is by no means attained--he cannot divest himself
+of his acquired characters fixed by heredity, nor can he exceed himself
+and become man; for man does not stand in the direct line of development
+from the ape. The development of the anthropoid apes has taken a lateral
+course from the nearest human progenitors, and man can as little be
+transformed into a gorilla as a squirrel can be changed into a rat."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Salamandra Maculata.--_Haeckel_. The Water Newts
+and Salamanders were the next higher stage after the Proteus and the
+Axolotl.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Primæval Amniota (Protamnia). Lizard
+(Lacerta), after _Orton_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents Primary Mammals (Promammalia).
+AMNIOTA SERIES. Duck-billed Platypus (Ornithorhynchus
+paradoxus).--_Haeckel_.]
+
+
+"Feeling evidently,"[17] says Haeckel, "rather than understanding,
+induces most people to combat the theory of their 'descent from apes.'
+It is simply because the organism of the ape appears a caricature of
+man, a distorted likeness of ourselves in a not very attractive form;
+because the customary æsthetic ideas and self-glorification of man are
+touched by this in so sensitive a point, that most men shrink from
+recognizing their descent from apes. It seems much pleasanter to be
+descended from a more highly developed divine being, and hence, as is
+well known, human vanity has from the earliest times flattered itself by
+assuming the original descent of the race from gods or demi-gods."
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION.
+
+
+In the last chapter a description was given of the various stages in
+man's development, from the microscopic monad up. It will be necessary
+now to describe briefly the various laws which have governed this
+evolutionary chain from the monad to man. But before proceeding directly
+to the subject, let us look at the doctrine of evolution as a whole, and
+trace it first in the formation of the world.
+
+The doctrine of evolution is also called the theory of development--it
+must not, however, be confused with Darwinism--for they are not exactly
+synonymous. Darwinism is an attempt to explain the laws or manner of
+evolution. Strictly speaking, only the theory of selection should be
+called Darwinism, which was established in 1859. The theory of descent,
+or transmutation theory, or doctrine of filiation, should properly be
+called Lamarckism, who for the first time worked out the theory of
+descent as an independent scientific theory of the first order, and as
+the philosophical foundation of the whole science of biology.
+
+"According to the theory of development (evolution) in its simplest
+form," says Henry Hartshorne,[18] "the universe as it now exists is a
+result of 'an immense series of changes,' related to and dependent upon
+each other as successive steps, or rather growths, constituting a
+progress; analogous to the unfolding or evolving of the parts of a
+growing organism." Herbert Spencer defined evolution as consisting
+in a progress from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from general to
+special, from the simple to the complex; and this process is considered
+to be traceable in the formation of worlds in space, in the
+multiplication of the types and species of plants and animals on the
+globe, in the origination and diversity of languages, literature, arts
+and sciences, and in all changes of human institutions and society.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Skeleton of Platypus.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Pouched Animals (Marsupialia).
+Kangaroo. (Popular Science Monthly, Feb., 1876.)]
+
+
+Let us now apply this theory of evolution to the physical world. No
+determined opposition by the mass of people is likely to be manifested
+to the doctrine of evolution as applied to the physical world, or even
+to the vegetable or animal world up to man; but the minute man is
+included--then is a voice raised up against it, and it was for this
+reason that Darwin in his first work on the "Theory of Descent" did not
+mention man as being included in the evolutionary series. He knew too
+well the foolish human weakness that existed.
+
+In a recent work by Prof. Challes, he states that he regards the
+material universe as "a vast and wonderful mechanism of which the least
+wonderful thing is its being so constructed that we can understand it."
+
+The following is a brief description of the various theories of the
+world's formation:
+
+_First Theory._--By the first theory the world is supposed to have
+existed from eternity under its actual form. Aristotle embraced this
+doctrine, and conceived the universe to be the eternal effect of an
+eternal cause; maintaining that not only the heavens and the earth, but
+all animate and inanimate beings, are without beginning. To use Huxley's
+illustration: If you can imagine a spectator on the earth, however far
+back in time, he would have seen a world "essentially similar, though
+not perhaps in all its details, to that which now exists. The animals
+which existed would be the ancestors of those which now exist, and like
+them; the plants in like manner would be such as we have now, and like
+them; and the supposition is that, at however distant a period of time
+you place your observer, he would still find mountains, lands, and
+waters, with animal and vegetable products flourishing upon them and
+sporting in them just as he finds now." This theory being perfectly
+inconsistent with facts, had to be abandoned.
+
+_Second Theory._--The second theory considers the universe eternal, but
+not its form. This was the system of Epicurus and most of the ancient
+philosophers and poets, who imagined the world either to be produced by
+fortuitous concourse of atoms existing from all eternity, or to have
+sprung out of the chaotic form which preceded its present state.
+
+_Third Theory._--By this theory the matter and form of the earth is
+ascribed to the direct agency of a spiritual cause. It is needless to
+say that this last theory has for its basis the popular account,
+generally credited to Moses in the first chapter of Genesis. I say
+popular, for it certainly is not a scientific account, nor was it the
+intention of the writer to make it so. The supposed object was to show
+the relation between the Creator and his works. If it had been an
+ultimate scientific account, the ablest minds of to-day would be unable
+to comprehend it, as science is progressive and constantly changing; in
+fifty thousand years to come, it would still appear utterly absurd. It
+cannot be said for this fact that the account is any the less true
+because it is not presented in scientific phraseology; for instance,
+when we remark in popular language "the sun rises," who shall say that
+though the expression is not astronomically true, we do not, for all
+practical purposes, utter as important a truth, as when we say, "The
+earth by its revolution brings us to that point where the sun becomes
+visible?" The language, also, in which the writer wrote was very
+imperfect; it had no equivalent to our word "air" or "atmosphere,"
+properly speaking, for they knew not the words. "Their nearest
+approaches," according to J. Pye Smith, "were with words that denoted
+watery vapor condensed, and thus rendered visible, whether floating
+around them or seen in the breathing of animals; and words for smoke
+from substances burning; and for air in motion, wind, a zephyr whisper
+or a storm." It must also be remembered, "that the Hebrews had no term
+for the abstract ideas which we express by 'fluid' or 'matter.' If the
+writer had designed to express the idea, 'In the beginning God created
+_matter_,' he could not have found words to serve his purpose" (Phin).
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Skeleton of Kangaroo. (Popular Science
+Monthly.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Semi-Apes (Prosimiæ). The Slow Loris,
+after _Tickel_ and _Alp. Miln-Edwards_. (Natural History, by _Duncan_.)]
+
+
+It is unnecessary to state how the Bible, which contains the so-called
+Mosaic account, is regarded by the different church denominations, as
+undoubtedly that is familiar to every one. But with respect to the view
+entertained by the scientist and critical school of Biblical scholars,
+represented chiefly by modern Germans, I may state briefly: "They regard
+the Bible as the human record of a divine revelation; not absolutely
+infallible, since there is no book written in any human language but
+must partake in a measure of the imperfections of that language. Many of
+this school, while admitting the Bible to contain the record of a true
+supernatural revelation, do not consider it to be without positive error
+of historical fact, not without false coloring from popular legend and
+tradition, but nevertheless a record as good as human hands could make a
+truly divine revelation."[19]
+
+There is, though, a class of thinkers that altogether reject the Bible;
+that is to say, refuse to believe it to be a divine revelation. Hume,
+whom Huxley calls "the most acute thinker of the eighteenth century,"
+thus ends one of his essays: "If we take in hand any volume of divinity
+or school metaphysics, for instance, let us ask, _Does it contain any
+abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?_ No. _Does it contain
+any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?_ No.
+Commit it, then, to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry
+and illusion." To this Huxley says: "Permit me to enforce this wise
+advice, Why trouble ourselves about matters of which, however important
+they may be, we do know nothing, and can know nothing? We live in a
+world which is full of misery and ignorance, and the plain duty of each
+and all of us is to try to make the little corner he can influence
+somewhat less miserable and somewhat less ignorant than it was before he
+entered it. To do this effectually, it is necessary to be fully
+possessed of only two beliefs: the first, that the order of nature is
+ascertainable by our faculties to an extent which is practically
+unlimited; the second, that our volitions count for something as a
+condition of the course of events. Each of these beliefs can be verified
+experimentally, as often as we like to try. Each, therefore, stands upon
+the strongest foundation upon which any belief can rest, and forms one
+of our highest truths."
+
+The first words in the Mosaic account are:[20] "In the beginning God
+created the heaven and the earth."[21] It is seen, then, that the
+so-called revelation points to a beginning. The beginning referred to is
+an absolute beginning, for we find: "In the beginning was the Word, and
+the Word was with God, and the Word was God."[22] * * * "All things were
+made by Him; and without Him was not anything made that was made."[23]
+Science points also to a beginning.
+
+Geology points to a time when man did not inhabit the earth; when for
+him there was a beginning. So, too, for lower organisms; so, too, for
+the rocky minerals; so, too, for the round world itself. But the
+beginning that science points to is not an absolute beginning. Science
+has to start from some point, and that point must have a scientific
+foundation--the foundation of science is matter, which is inseparable
+from form and force. Natural science teaches that matter is eternal and
+imperishable; for experience has never shown us that even the smallest
+particle of matter has come into existence or passed away. "A
+naturalist," says Haeckel, "can no more imagine the coming into
+existence of matter than he can imagine its disappearance, and he
+therefore looks upon the existing quantity of matter in the universe as
+a given fact." "The creation of matter, if, indeed," says Haeckel,[24]
+"it ever took place, is completely beyond human comprehension, and can
+therefore never become a subject of scientific inquiry. We can as little
+imagine a _first beginning_ of the eternal phenomena of the motion of
+the universe as of its final end."[25] It is evident, then, that the
+absolute beginning of the universe and its absolute end are not
+questions of science, and can be known only as revealed by faith. Paul
+says: "By faith we understand that the world was framed by the word of
+God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which
+appeared."[26]
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Tailed Apes (Menocerca). Proboscis
+Monkey (Presbytes larvatus). (Mammalia.)--_Louis Figuier._
+
+The natives of Borneo pretend that these monkeys, or, as sometimes
+called, Kahan, are men who have retired to the woods to avoid paying
+taxes; and they entertain the greatest respect for a being who has found
+such ready means of evading the responsibilities of society.--_Figuier._]
+
+
+[Illustration: GIBBON. ORANG. CHIMPANZEE. GORILLA. MAN.
+
+FIG. I.--Photographically reduced from diagrams of the natural size
+(except that of the Gibbon, which was twice as large as nature), drawn
+by _Waterhouse Hawkins_, from specimens in the museum of the Royal
+College of Surgeons. (_Huxley's_ "Man's Place in Nature.")]
+
+
+If, therefore, science makes the "history of creation" its highest and
+most difficult and most comprehensible problem, it must deal with "_the
+coming into being of the form_ of natural bodies." Let us look for a
+minute at Kant's Cosmogony, or, as Haeckel says,[27] Kant's Cosmological
+Gas Theory: "This wonderful theory," says Haeckel, "harmonizes with all
+the general series of phenomena at present known to us, and stands in no
+irreconcilable contradiction to any one of them. Moreover, it is purely
+mechanical and monistic, makes use exclusively of the inherent forces
+of eternal matter, and entirely excludes every supernatural process,
+every prearranged and conscious action of a personal creator." Compare
+this last statement with the following: "I will, however," says
+Haeckel,[28] "not deny that Kant's grand cosmogony has some weak
+points." * * * "A great unsolved difficulty lies in the fact that the
+cosmological gas theory furnishes no starting-point at all in
+explanation of the first impulse which caused the rotary motion in the
+gas-filled universe."
+
+Whewell[29] has pointed out, that the nebular hypothesis is null without
+a creative act to produce the inequality of distribution of cosmic
+matter in space.
+
+It is seen, then, that according to Kant's theory we are to suppose that
+millions of years ago there appeared a nebulous mass possessing a rotary
+motion, and unequally distributed through space. This is what science
+calls a beginning, and may assert that every physical event of a hundred
+million of ages existed potentially in that nebulous mass. But this is
+really no explanation of the ultimate and real cause of anything. Reason
+demands the cause of this beginning, the source that gave to the
+nebulous mass its rotary motion; the power that distributed the matter
+in space; the antecedents of the cosmical vapor. In absence of
+antecedents, what was the cause of this fire-mist--of these forces
+active in it? Reason will never remain satisfied until these questions
+are answered. But physical science can trace the thread no further back,
+and must be dumb to all ulterior inquiries. It is true, then, as
+physicists assert, "that their science does not mount actually to God."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Man-like Apes (Anthropoides). The
+Male Gorilla. (Natural History, by _Duncan_.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents Ape-like Men (Pithecanthropi).
+Imaginative. (From Scientific American.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Men (Homines). From Woolly-haired Men
+developed the Papuans. (Scientific American, March 11, 1876.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--The Monkey Men of Dourga Strait. (Natural
+History, by _Rev. Dr. Wood_.)]
+
+
+To God then, in strict accordance with our reason, is to be attributed
+not only the origination of matter, but all its future developments.
+When I speak of matter, it must be understood that I mean force;
+for "if matter were not force, and immediately known as force, it could
+not be known at all, could not be rationally inferred. The operation of
+force could furnish no evidence of the existence of forceless matter. If
+force is not matter, then force can exist and operate without matter;
+its existence and operation are no evidence of the existence of matter.
+And as matter is forceless, it can itself give no evidence of its own
+existence, for that would be an exercise of force. If force cannot exist
+and operate without matter, then force depends for its existence and
+operation on the forceless, which destroys itself; or force depends for
+its existence on matter as some property or force, and so matter and
+force are identified, and force depends on itself only, as it must."[30]
+The idea, then, that force is an attribute of matter and inherent in it,
+is absurd, for there is not a shadow of evidence that force is or can be
+an attribute of matter. We have no knowledge of the origin of any force
+save of that which emanates from human volition. All our knowledge of
+force presents it as an effort of intelligent will. "We are driven,"
+says Winchell, "by the necessary laws of thought, to pronounce those
+energies styled gravitation, heat, chemical affinity and their
+correlates, nothing less than intelligent will. But as it is not human
+will which energizes in whirlwind and the comet, it must be divine
+will." "In all cases, the creative power of God is an act of power, and
+the power does not perish with its inception, but continues to operate
+until the act is reversed and undone; so that everything that God has
+created constitutes a positive and intrinsic force, though borrowed from
+Him. Every incident runs back to God as its originator and real cause.
+The true philosophical doctrine makes God distinct from all his works,
+and yet acting in them. This doctrine has been held by the greatest
+thinkers the world has ever produced, such as Descartes, Lerbrisky,
+Berkeley, Herschel, Faraday, and a multitude of others." "It seems to be
+required," says Dr. McCosh, "by that deep law of causation which not
+only prompts us to seek for a law in everything but an adequate cause,
+to be found only in an intelligent mind." "Our greatest American
+thinker, Jonathan Edwards," says Dr. McCosh, (whom I can claim as my
+predecessor,) "maintains that, as an image in a mirror is kept up by a
+constant succession of rays of light, so nature is sustained by a
+constant forth-putting of the divine power. In this view Nature is a
+perpetual creation. God is to be seen not only in creation at first, but
+in the continuance of all things." "They continue to this day according
+to Thine ordinances."
+
+Returning now to the history of the creation given by Moses, Haeckel
+says, "Although Moses looks upon the results of the great laws of
+organic development as the direct actions of a constructing Creator, yet
+in his theory there lies hidden the ruling idea of a progressive
+development and a differentiation of the originally simple matter. We
+can therefore bestow our just and sincere admiration on the Jewish
+lawgiver's grand insight into nature, without discovering in it a
+so-called 'divine revelation.' That it cannot be such is clear from the
+fact that two great fundamental errors are asserted in it, namely, first
+the _geocentric_ error, that the earth is the fixed central point of the
+whole universe, round which the sun, moon and stars move; and secondly,
+the _anthropocentric_ error that man is the premeditated aim of the
+creation of the world, for whose service alone all the rest of nature is
+said to have been created. The former of these errors was demolished by
+Copernicus' System of the Universe in the beginning of the sixteenth
+century, the latter by Lamarck's Doctrine of Descent in the beginning of
+the nineteenth century."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Australian Savage.--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Skull of Orang-utan (Simia satyrus).--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Skull of Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. IV.--Skull of Gorilla.--_Duncan._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. V.--Skull of European.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. VI.--Skull of Negro.--_Orton._]
+
+
+Prof. Huxley, in his lecture on "Evidences of Evolution," spoke of the
+Mosaic account as Milton's hypothesis. First, "because," says Huxley,
+"we are now assured upon the authority of the highest critics, and even
+of dignitaries of the church, that there is no evidence whatever that
+Moses ever wrote this chapter, or knew anything about it;" and second,
+as this hypothesis is presented in Milton's work on "Paradise Lost," it
+is appropriate to call it the Miltonic Hypothesis. "In the Miltonic
+account," says Huxley, "the order in which animals should have made
+their appearance in the stratified rocks would be this: Fishes,
+including the great whale, and birds; after that all the varieties of
+terrestrial animals. Nothing could be further from the facts as we find
+them. As a matter of fact we know of not the slightest evidence of the
+existence of birds before the jurassic and perhaps the triassic
+formations. If there were any parallel between the Miltonic account and
+the circumstantial evidence, we ought to have abundant evidence in the
+devonian, the silurian, and carboniferous rocks. I need not tell you
+that this is not the case, and that not a trace of birds makes its
+appearance until the far later period which I have mentioned. And again,
+if it be true that all varieties of fishes, and the great whales and the
+like, made their appearance on the fifth day, then we ought to find the
+remains of these things in the older rocks--in those which preceded the
+carboniferous epoch. Fishes, it is true, we find, and numerous ones; but
+the great whales are absent, and the fishes are not such as now live.
+Not one solitary species of fish now in existence is to be found there,
+and hence you are introduced again to the difficulty, to the dilemma,
+that either the creatures that were created then, which came into
+existence the sixth day, were not those which are found at present, or
+are not the direct and immediate predecessors of those which now exist;
+but in that case you must either have had a fresh species of which
+nothing has been said, or else the whole story must be given up as
+absolutely devoid of any circumstantial evidence."
+
+It is for these and many other reasons that I feel bound to omit the
+Mosaic account, no matter how near some portions of it coincide with the
+facts the earth has opened out to the scientist.
+
+
+KANT'S COSMOGONY.
+
+It is maintained by Kant's Cosmogony that every substance, be it solid
+or liquid, constituting the entire universe, was, inconceivable ages
+ago, in their homogeneous gaseous or nebulous condition. Owing to an
+impulse being given to the nebulous mass, it acquired a rotary movement,
+which divided the nebulous mass up into a number of masses which, owing
+to the rotation, acquired greater density than the remaining gaseous
+mass, and then acted on the latter as central points of attraction. Our
+solar system was thus a gigantic gaseous or nebulous ball, all the
+particles of which revolved around a common central point--the solar
+nucleus. This nebulous ball assumed by its continual rotation a more or
+less flattened spheroidal form. By the continual revolution of this
+mass, under the influence of the centripetal and centrifugal forces, a
+circular nebular ring separated (like the present ring around Saturn)
+from the rotating ball. In time the nebulous ring condensed to a planet,
+which began to revolve around its own axis. When the centrifugal force
+became more powerful than the centripetal force in the planet, rings
+were formed, which, in turn, formed planets which revolved around their
+axes, as also around their planets, as the latter moved around the sun,
+and thus arose the moons, only one of which moves around our earth,
+while four move around Jupiter and six around Uranus. This order of
+things was repeated over and over again until thereby arose the
+different solar systems--the planets rotating around their central suns,
+and the satellites or moons moving around their planets. By a continuous
+increasing of refrigeration and condensation, a fiery fluid or molten
+state occurred in these rotating bodies. They then emitted an enormous
+amount of heat by rapid condensation, and the rotating bodies--suns,
+planets, and moons--soon became glowing balls of fire, emitting light
+and heat. The 1/1000 part of a pound of magnesium wire, burning in the
+open air, will give a light which will last during one second, and can
+be seen at a distance of thirty miles; imagine, then, what the light
+would be from these huge balls of fire floating through space. The earth
+forms a small part--nay, even the sun whose mass is equal to 354,936
+earths like ours, is but an infinitesimal portion of the whole. By the
+continual emitting of heat, however, these fiery balls had a crust form
+on the outside, which enclosed a fiery fluid nucleus. The crust for a
+time must have been a smooth sheet, but afterward very uneven, having
+protuberances and cavities form over its surface, owing to the molten
+mass within becoming condensed and contracted; the crust not following
+this change sufficiently close, must have fallen in, and thus produced
+the cavities.
+
+
+[Illustration: Mongolian.]
+
+[Illustration: Malay.]
+
+[Illustration: Ethiopian.]
+
+[Illustration: American Indian.]
+
+[Illustration: FACIAL ANGLE, by _Prof. Nelson Sizer_. 1, Snake; 2, Dog;
+3, Elephant; 4, Ape; 5, Human Idiot; 6, The Bushman; 7, The
+Uncultivated; 8, The Improved; 9, The Civilized; 10, The Enlightened;
+11, The Caucasian (highest type).]
+
+[Illustration: Caucasian (after _Van Evrie_).]
+
+[Illustration: Head of Nose-Ape (after _Brehm_).]
+
+[Illustration: Julia Pastrana (Photographed by _Hintye_).]
+
+[Illustration: Living Idiot (on Blackwell's Island).]
+
+
+All the time, by the condensation, the diameter of the earth was being
+diminished. The irregular cooling of the crust caused irregular
+contractions on the surface, and as the diameter of the molten mass
+within was continually diminishing, many elevations and depressions were
+caused, which were the foundations of mountains and valleys.
+
+After the temperature of the earth had been reduced by the thickening of
+the crust--when it became sufficiently cool--the water which existed in
+steam was condensed and precipitated, falling in torrents, washing down
+the elevations, filling the depressions with the mud carried along, and
+depositing it in layers. It was not until the earth became covered with
+water that life was possible in any form, as both animals and plants
+consist to a very great extent of water. At this stage in the history of
+the earth, then, the little mass of protoplasm, which we have spoken so
+much about, came into existence in all probability, as has been stated,
+by spontaneous generation.
+
+
+LAWS OF EVOLUTION.
+
+Let us now examine some of the laws of evolution, as also some of the
+connecting links which blend one stage of man's development with
+another, which at first thought would seem unexplainable.
+
+Haeckel[31] summarizes the inductive evidences of Darwinism as follows:
+1. Paleontological series (phylogeny); 2. Embryological development of
+the individual (ontogeny); 3. The correspondence in the terms of these
+two series; 4. Comparative anatomy (typical forms and structures); 5.
+Correspondence between comparative anatomy and ontogeny; 6. Rudimentary
+organs (dipeliology); 7. The natural system of organisms (classification);
+8. Geographical distribution (chorology); 9. Adaptation to the environment
+(oecology); 10. The unity of biological phenomena.
+
+It will of course be impossible to consider even hastily all of the
+inductive evidence belonging to the several groups mentioned above, for
+the scope of this work would not permit of it. Only such facts as
+present themselves most forcibly to the mind will be considered.
+
+Darwinism, as has already been stated, is not the doctrine of evolution;
+it is, however, a successful attempt to explain the law or manner of
+evolution. The _law of natural selection_, pointed out by Darwin, is
+called by Herbert Spencer, _The struggle for existence_. Darwin
+discovered that natural selection produces fitness between organisms and
+their circumstances, which explains the law of _the survival of the
+fittest_.
+
+It is a well-known fact that man can, by pursuing a certain method of
+breeding or cultivation, improve and in various ways modify the
+character of the different domestic animals and plants. By always
+selecting the best specimen from which to propagate the race, those
+features which it is desired to perpetuate become more and more
+developed; so that what are admitted to be real varieties sometimes
+acquire, in the course of successive generations, a character as
+strikingly distinct, to all appearances, from those of the varieties, as
+one species is from another species of the same genus. It is evident
+that both natural and artificial selection depends on adaptation and
+inheritance. The difference between the two forms of selection is that,
+in the first case, the will of man makes the selection according to a
+plan, whereas in natural selection the struggle for life and the
+survival of the fittest acts without a plan other than that the most
+adaptable organism shall survive which is most fit to contend with the
+circumstances under which it is placed. Natural selection acts,
+therefore, much more slowly than artificial selection, although it
+brings about the same end. Adaptation in the struggle for life is an
+absolute necessity.
+
+In every act of breeding, a certain amount of protoplasm is transferred
+from the parents to the child, and along with it there is transferred
+the individual peculiar molecular motion. Adaptation or transmutation
+depends upon the material influence which organism experiences from its
+surroundings, or its conditions of existence; while the transmission
+from inheritance is due to the partial identity of producing and
+produced organisms.
+
+Organized beings, as a rule, are gifted with enormous powers of
+increase. Wild plants yield their crop of seed annually, and most wild
+animals bring forth their young yearly or oftener. Should this process
+go on unchecked, in a short time the earth would be completely overrun
+with living beings. It has been calculated that if a plant produces
+fifty seeds (which is far below the reproductive capacity of many
+plants) the first year, each of these seeds growing up into a plant
+which produces fifty seeds, or altogether two thousand five hundred
+seeds the next year, and so on, it would under favorable conditions of
+growth give rise in nine years to more plants by five hundred trillions
+than there are square feet of dry land upon the surface of the earth.
+
+Slow-breeding man has been known to double his number in twenty-five
+years, and according to Euler, this might occur in little over twelve
+years. But assuming the former rate of increase, and taking the
+population of the United States at only thirty millions, in six hundred
+and eighty-five years their living progeny would have each but a square
+foot to stand upon, were they spread over the entire globe, land and
+water included. But millions of species are doing the same thing, so
+that the inevitable result of this strife cannot be a matter of chance.
+Evidently those individuals or varieties having some advantage over
+their competitors will stand the best chance to live, while those
+destitute of these advantages will be liable to destruction. Nature may
+be said (metaphorically) to choose (like the will of man in artificial
+selection) which shall be preserved and which destroyed.
+
+That portion of the theory of development which maintains the common
+descent of all species of animals and plants from the simplest common
+origin, I have already stated with full justice should be called
+Lamarckism. Progress is recognized by all scientists to be a law of
+nature. Some of the more important facts which sustain the theory of
+development, I propose now to present as briefly as possible.
+
+
+RUDIMENTARY ORGANS.
+
+One of the strongest arguments in favor of the hypothesis of a genetic
+connection among all animals (including man), at least among all those
+belonging to the same great types, is the presence of rudimentary parts.
+By rudiments in anatomy are meant organs or structures imperfectly
+developed, so as to be almost or entirely without functional use. "Each
+of them represents in germ, as it were, in one animal (or plant), that
+which is perfect and useful in another type."
+
+For a few examples: The little fold of caruncle at the inner margin of
+the eye in man, represents the nictitating membrane of birds. Eyes which
+do not see form a striking example. These are found in very many animals
+which live in the dark, as in caves or underground. Their eyes are often
+perfectly developed but are covered by a membrane, so that no ray of
+light can enter and they can never see. Such eyes, without the function
+of sight, are found in several species of moles and mice which live
+underground, in serpents and lizards, in amphibious animals (proteus,
+cæcilia) and in fishes; also in numerous invertebrate animals which pass
+their lives in the dark, as do many beetles, crabs, snails, worms, etc.
+
+Other rudimentary organs are the wings of animals which cannot fly. For
+example, the wings of the running birds, like the ostrich, emeu,
+cassowary, etc., the legs of which become exceedingly developed. The
+muscles which move the ears of animals are still present in man, but of
+course are of no use; by continual practice persons have been able to
+move their ears by these muscles. The rudiment of the tail of animals
+which man possesses in his 3-5 tail vertebræ, is another rudimentary
+part--in the human embryo it stands out prominently during the first two
+months of its development; it afterwards becomes hidden. "The
+rudimentary little tail of man is irrefutable proof that he is descended
+from tailed ancestors." In woman the tail is generally, by one vertebra,
+longer than in man. There still exists rudimentary muscles in the human
+tail which formerly moved it.
+
+Another case of human rudimentary organs, only belonging to the male,
+and which obtains in like manner in all mammals, is furnished by the
+mammary glands on the breast, which, as a rule, are active only in the
+female sex. However, cases of different mammals are known, especially of
+men, sheep and goats, in which the mammary glands were fully developed
+in the male sex, and yield milk as food for their offspring. The
+vermiform appendix of the large intestine in man, is another
+illustration of a part which has no use, but in one marsupial is three
+times the length of its body. The rudimentary covering of hair over
+certain portions of the body, is not without interest. Over the body we
+find but a scanty covering, which is thick only on the head, in the
+armpits, and on some other parts of the body. The short hairs on the
+greater part of the body are entirely useless, and are the last scanty
+remains of the hairy covering of our ape ancestors. Both on the upper
+and lower arm the hairs are directed toward the elbow, where they meet
+at an obtuse angle--this striking arrangement is only found in man and
+the anthropoid apes, the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, and several species
+of gibbons. The fine short hairs on the body become developed into
+"thickset, long, and rather coarse dark hairs," when abnormally
+nourished near old-standing inflamed surfaces.[32] The fine wool-like
+hair or so-called lanugo with which the human foetus, during the fifth
+and sixth months, is thickly covered, offers another proof that man
+is descended from an animal which was born hairy, and remained so during
+life. This covering is first developed during the fifth month, on the
+eyebrows and face, and especially around the mouth, where it is much
+longer than that on the head. Three or four cases have been recorded of
+persons born with their whole bodies and faces thickly covered with fine
+long hairs. Prof. Alex. Brandt compared the hair from the face of a man
+thus characterized, aged thirty-five, with the lanugo of a foetus, and
+finds it quite similar in texture. Eschricht[33] has devoted great
+attention to this rudimentary covering, and has thrown much light on the
+subject. He showed that the female as well as the male foetus
+possessed this hairy covering, showing that both are descended from
+progenitors, both sexes of whom were hairy. Eschricht also showed, as
+stated above, that the hair on the face of the fifth month foetus is
+longer on the face than on the head, which indicates that our semi-human
+progenitors were not furnished with long tresses, which must therefore
+have been a late acquisition. The question naturally arises, is there
+any explanation for the loss of hair covering?
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--The Hairy-Faced Burmese Family. (From Scientific
+American, Feb. 20, 1875.)]
+
+
+Darwin is of the opinion that the absence of hair on the body is, to a
+certain extent, a secondary sexual character; for, in all parts of the
+world, women are less hairy than men. He says: "Therefore we may
+reasonably suspect that this character has been gained through sexual
+selection." As the body in woman is less hairy than in man, and as this
+character is common to all races, we may conclude that it was our female
+semi-human ancestors who were first divested of hair.
+
+Professor Grant Allen[34] has given much study to the subject of the
+loss of hair in the human being; and his investigations are worthy of
+careful consideration. He shows conclusively that those parts of an
+animal which are in constant contact with other objects are specially
+liable to lose their hair. This is noticeable on the under surface of
+the body of all animals which habitually lie on the stomach. The soles
+of the feet of all mammals where they touch the ground are quite
+hairless; the palms of the hands in the quadrumana present the same
+appearance. The knees of those species which frequently kneel, such as
+camels and other ruminants, are apt to become bare and hard-skinned. The
+friction of the water has been the means of removing the hair from many
+aquatic mammals--the whales, porpoises, dugongs, and manatees are
+examples.
+
+As the back of man forms the specially hairless region of his body, we
+must conclude that it is in all probability the first part which became
+entirely denuded of hair. The gorilla, according to Professor Gervais,
+is the only mammal which agrees with man in having the hair thinner on
+the back, where it is partly rubbed off, than on the lower surface. Du
+Chaillu states that he has "himself come upon fresh traces of a
+gorilla's bed on several occasions, and could see that the male had
+seated himself with his back against a tree-trunk." He also says: "In
+both male and female the hair is found worn off the back; but this is
+only found in very old females. This is occasioned, I suppose, by their
+resting at night against trees, at whose base they sleep." The gorilla
+has only very partially acquired the erect position, and probably sits
+but little in the attitude common to man. In man the case is different;
+in proportion as his progenitors grew more and more erect, he must have
+lain less and less upon his stomach, and more and more upon his back or
+sides, and this is seen in the savage man during his lazy hours--who
+stretches himself on the ground in the sun, with his back propped, where
+possible, by a slight mound or the wall of his hut. The continual
+friction of the surface of the back would arrest the growth of hair; for
+hair grows where there is normally less friction, and _vice versâ_.
+
+As man became more and more hairless, especially among savage and naked
+races, we should conclude that such a modification would be considered a
+beauty, and women would select such men in preference to more hairy
+individuals. The New Zealand proverb is: "There is no woman for a hairy
+man." Sexual selection, then, would play a very important part; and the
+difficulty of understanding how man became divested of hair is readily
+explained.
+
+Haeckel says: "Even if we knew absolutely nothing of the other phenomena
+of development, we should be obliged to believe in the truth of the
+theory of descent, solely on the ground of the existence of rudimentary
+organs."
+
+
+REPRODUCTION BY MEANS OF EGGS.
+
+It might be thought there existed a missing link between animals which
+lay eggs and those which do not; this, however, is done away with in
+many instances--one, for example, is found in our commonest indigenous
+snake. The ringed snake lays eggs which require three weeks time to
+develop; but when it is kept in captivity, and no sand is strewn in the
+cage, it does not lay eggs, but retains them until the young ones are
+developed. This only shows how powerfully influences affect the habit of
+animals.
+
+
+DOUBLE-SEXED INDIVIDUALS.
+
+Another difficulty might be supposed to arise between animals which
+produce themselves other than by sexual reproduction. This has already
+been slightly touched upon; and it has been shown that numerous plants
+and animals propagate themselves through their double-sexed organs. It
+occurs in a great majority of plants, but only in a minority of animals;
+for example, the garden-snail, leeches, earth-worms, and many other
+worms. Every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual gland eggs,
+and in another part sperm.
+
+Parthenogenesis offers an interesting form of transition from sexual
+reproduction to the non-sexual formation of germ-cells (which most
+resembles it). It has been demonstrated to occur in many cases among
+insects, especially by Seebold's excellent investigations. Among the
+common bees, a male individual (a drone) arises out of the eggs of the
+queen, if the eggs have not been fructified; a female (a queen or
+working bee), if the egg has been fructified.
+
+Gonochorismus or sexual separation, which characterizes the more
+complicated of the two kinds of sexual reproduction, has evidently been
+developed from the condition of hermaphroditism at a late period of the
+organic history of the world. In this case the female individual in both
+animal and plant produces eggs or egg-cells. In animals, the male
+individual secretes the fructifying sperm (sperma); in plants, the
+corpuscles, which correspond to the sperm.
+
+
+INHERITANCE.
+
+The remarkable facts of inheritance, extending to the reproduction of
+unimportant peculiarities of parts or organs (rudimentary parts)
+mentioned above, and the occasional outbreak of ancestral characters
+that have been dormant through several generations (some of which I will
+mention further on), might be thought perfectly unexplainable; but they
+are readily accounted for by the supposition that each part of an
+organism contributes its constituent and effective molecules to the germ
+and sperm particles. Mr. Sorby made numerous investigations with
+relation to the number of molecules in the germinal matter of eggs, and
+the spermatic matter supplied by the male. Omitting the alkali, Mr.
+Sorby takes the formula, C{72}H{112}N{18}SO{22}, as representing the
+composition of albumen. In a 1/2000 of an inch cube, he reckons--
+
+  Albumen     18,000,000,000,000 molecules.
+  Water      992,000,000,000,000     "
+           --------------------------------
+           1,010,000,000,000,000 molecules.
+
+Or, in a sphere of the same diameter, 530,000,000,000,000 of the two
+components. Taking a single mammalian spermatozoon, having a mean
+diameter of 1/6000 of an inch; "it might contain two and a half million
+of such gemmules. If these were lost, destroyed, or fully developed at
+the rate of one in each second, this number would be exhausted in about
+one month; but since a number of spermatozoa appears to be necessary to
+produce perfect fertilization, it is quite easy to understand that the
+number of gemmules introduced into the ovum may be so great that the
+influence of the male parent may be very marked, even after having been,
+as regards particular character, apparently dormant for many years." The
+germinal vesicle of a mammalian ovum being about 1/1000 of an inch, mean
+diameter, might contain five hundred million of gemmules, which, if used
+up at the rate of one per second, would last more than seventeen years.
+If the whole ovum, about 1/150 in diameter, were all gemmules, the
+number would be sufficient to last, at this rate, one per second for
+5,600 years! This, however, is not probable; but Mr. Sorby's remarks has
+completely removed all doubt as to its physical possibility from the
+Darwinian theory; "and they prompt us," says Slack, "to a wonderful
+conception of the powers residing in minute quantities of matter."
+
+The laws of inheritance are divisible into two series, conservative and
+progressive transmission; the laws of adaptation to direct (active) or
+indirect (potential) adaptation.
+
+External causes often influence the reproductive system, especially in
+organism propagating in a sexual way. This can be strikingly shown in
+artificially produced monstrosities. Monstrosities can be produced by
+subjecting the parental organism to certain extraordinary conditions of
+life; and curiously enough, such an extraordinary condition of life does
+not produce a change of the organism itself, but a change in its
+descendants. The new formation exists in the parental organism only as a
+possibility (potential); in the descendants it becomes a reality
+(actual). Most commonly, monstrosities with very abnormal forms are
+sterile, but there are instances where they reproduce their kind and
+become a species.[35] Geoffroy St. Hilaire, who perhaps made the deepest
+investigations ever conducted into the nature and causes of their
+production, first conceived the idea of artificially producing them, and
+to this end he began modifications of the physical conditions of the
+evolution of the chicken during natural and artificial incubation. He
+determined the fact that monsters could be produced in this way, but
+scarcely carried his investigation further. This work has been taken up
+by M. Dareste, and he has lately published a volume in Paris which
+recounts the results of a quarter of a century's experimenting. Eggs, he
+states, were submitted to incubation in a vertical instead of a
+horizontal position; they were covered with varnish in certain places so
+as to stop or modify evaporation and respiration. The evolution of the
+chick was rendered slower by a temperature below that of the normal heat
+of incubation. Finally, eggs were warmed only at one point, so that
+the young animal, during development, was submitted at different
+parts to variable temperatures.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+
+These perturbations resulted in the most curious and unlooked for
+deformities in the embryo, some being not alone peculiar to the bird,
+but being similar to those which have been recognized in many other
+animals, and even in the human species. The data obtained have been
+deemed so important that M. Dareste has recently received the Lacaze
+prize for physiology from the French Academy of Sciences.
+
+It would be impossible to review even a fraction of the many forms of
+monstrosities which M. Dareste has discovered. Those that we give will,
+however, suffice to convey an idea of the wonderful variations produced.
+Fig. 1 is a chick embryo with the encephalon entirely outside the head,
+the heart, liver, and gizzard outside the umbilical opening, right wing
+lifted up beside the head, and the development of the left one stopped.
+In Fig. 2 the encephalon is herniated and marked with blood spots, the
+eye is rudimentary and replaced by a spot of pigment, the upper beak is
+shorter than the lower one, while the heart, liver, etc., are all
+outside. In Figs. 3 and 4 the head is compressed, eyes well developed,
+but in the back instead of in the sides of the head; the body is bent,
+abdominal intestines not closed, heart largely developed and herniated.
+The literal references to the foregoing are: _am_, amnion; _al_,
+allantois; _v_, vitellus; _h_, encephalon; _i_, eye; _c_, heart; _f_,
+liver; _g_, gizzard; _ms_, upper, and _mi_, lower member.
+
+The commonest case of monstrosity observed by M. Dareste has been that
+of the head protruding from the navel, and the heart or hearts above the
+head. This is a most extraordinary and new monster, and, if it persist,
+a chicken with its heart on its back, like a hump, may be expected. A
+curious fact discovered is the duplicity of the heart at the beginning
+of incubation, two hearts, beating separately, being clearly seen.
+Another anomaly consists in heads with a frontal swelling, which is
+filled by the cerebral hemispheres.
+
+M. Dareste's artificial monsters are all produced from the single germ
+or cicatricule (as the white circular spot seen in the yellow of the
+egg, and from which the embryo springs, is termed). He has not yet been
+able to determine artificially the production of monsters, the origin of
+which takes place in a peculiar state of the cicatricule before
+incubation. But having submitted to incubation some 10,000 eggs, he has
+obtained several remarkable examples of double monstrosities in process
+of formation, some representations of which are given herewith. Fig. 5
+shows three embryos, all derived from a single cicatricule. Fig. 6
+represents three embryos from two cicatricules. On one side of the line
+of junction are two imperfectly developed embryos, one having no heart.
+The single embryo on the other side is generally normal, but has a heart
+on the right side. In Fig. 7 are twins, one well formed, the heart
+circulating colorless blood, the other having no heart and a rudimentary
+head. Fig. 8 exhibits a double monster with lateral union. The heads are
+separate, and there are three upper and three lower members, those of
+the latter on the median line belonging equally to each of the pair.
+
+
+ACQUIRED QUALITIES.
+
+When an organism has been subjected to abnormal conditions in life it
+can transmit any peculiarity it may have acquired. This is, however, not
+always possible, otherwise descendants of men who have lost their arm or
+leg would be born without the corresponding arm or leg--this shows that
+some acquired qualities are more easily transmitted than
+others--although there are cases, as, for instance, a race of dogs
+without tails has been produced by cutting off the tails of both sexes
+of the dog, during several generations. "A few years ago," says Haeckel,
+"a case occurred on an estate near Jena in which, by the careless
+slamming of a stable-door, the tail of a bull was wrenched off, and the
+calves begotten by this bull were all born without a tail. This is
+certainly an exception; but it is very important to note the fact that
+under certain unknown conditions such violent changes are transmitted in
+the same manner as many diseases." The transmission of diseases such as
+consumption, madness, and albinism form examples. Albinoes are those
+individuals who are distinguished by the absence of coloring matter from
+their skins; they are of frequent occurrence among men, animals and
+plants. Among many animals, such as rabbits and mice, albinoes with
+white fur and red eyes are so much liked that they are propagated. This
+would be impossible were it not for the law of the transmission of
+adaptations. Hornless cattle have descended from a single bull born in
+1770 of horned parents, but whose absence of horns was the result of
+some unknown cause.
+
+The law of interrupted or latent transmission, as illustrated in
+grandchildren who are like the grandparents, but quite unlike the
+parents. Animals often resume a form which have not existed for many
+generations. One of the most remarkable instances of this kind of
+reversion, or "atavism," is the fact that in some horses there sometimes
+appear singular dark stripes similar to those of the zebra, quagga, and
+other wild species of African horse.
+
+Nutrition directly modifies adaptation, as is well illustrated by
+animals which have been bred for domestic or other purposes. If a farmer
+is breeding for fine wool he gives much different food to the sheep than
+he would if he wished to obtain flesh or an abundance of fat. Even the
+bodily form of man is quite different according to its nutrition. Food
+containing much nitrogen produces little fat, that containing little
+nitrogen produces a great deal of fat. People who by means of Banting's
+system, at present so popular, wish to become thin, eat only meat and
+eggs--no bread, no potatoes.
+
+Man can breed for milk in cattle, for feathers in pigeons, for colored
+flowers in plants, and, in fact, for almost any desirable quality.
+
+
+GEOLOGICAL RECORD.
+
+_The Geological Record_ (palæontology) furnishes weighty evidence of
+man's descent; for the circumstantial evidence derived from this source
+is written without the possibility of a mistake, with no chance of
+error, on the stratified rocks. It is true that the geological record
+must be incomplete, because it can only preserve remains found in
+certain favorable localities, and under particular conditions; that this
+valuable record must be destroyed by processes of denudation, and
+obliterated by processes of metamorphosis, it cannot be doubted. "Beds
+of rock of any thickness, crammed full of organic remains, may yet,"
+says Huxley, "by the percolation of water through them, or the influence
+of subterranean heat (if they descend far enough toward the centre of
+the earth), lose all trace of these remains, and present the appearance
+of beds of rock formed under conditions in which there was no trace of
+living forms. Such metamorphic rocks occur in formations of all ages;
+and we know with perfect certainty, when they do appear, that they have
+contained organic remains, and that those remains have been absolutely
+obliterated." If we look at the geological record, we find:
+
+THE FIRST EPOCH.--_The Archilithic_, or Primordial Epoch, constitutes
+the _Age of Skull-less Animals and Sea-weed Forests_, and is made up of
+the Laurentian, Cambrian, and Silurian Period.
+
+THE SECOND EPOCH.--_The Palæolithic_, or Primary Epoch, constitutes the
+_Age of Fishes and Fern Forests_, and is made up of the Devonian, Coal,
+and Permian Period.
+
+THE THIRD EPOCH.--_The Mesolithic_, or Secondary Epoch, constitutes the
+_Age of Reptiles and Pine Forests, Coniferæ_, and is made up of the
+Triassic, Jurassic, and Chalk Period.
+
+THE FOURTH EPOCH.--_The Cænolithic_, or Tertiary Epoch, constitutes the
+_Age of Mammals and Leaf Forests_, and is made up of the Eocene,
+Miocene, and Phocene Period.
+
+THE FIFTH EPOCH.--The _Anthropolithic_, or Quaternary Epoch, constitutes
+the _Age of Man and Cultivated Forests,_ and is made up of the Glacial
+and Postglacial Period, and the Period of Culture.
+
+During the archilithic epoch the inhabitants of our planet, as has been
+already stated, consisted of skull-less animals, or aquatic forms. No
+remains of terrestrial animals or plants, dated from this period, have
+as yet been found.
+
+The archilithic period was longer than the whole long period between the
+close of the archilithic and the present time; for if the total
+thickness of all sedimentary strata be estimated as about one hundred
+and thirty thousand feet, then seventy thousand feet belong to this
+epoch. It was during this epoch that the little mass of protoplasm,
+which has been so often spoken of, came into existence.
+
+It has been stated above that palæontology is quite deficient. This is
+not only true of the record, but of the lack as yet of sufficient
+investigations. The greatest fields of investigation in this department
+have never been explored. The whole of the petrifactions accurately
+known do not probably amount to a hundredth part of those which, by more
+elaborate explorations, are yet to be discovered. The most ancient of
+all distinctly preserved petrifactions is the Eozoon Canadense, which
+was found in the lowest Laurentian strata in the Ottawa formation.
+
+Probably no discovery in palæontology ranks higher than the discovery of
+the descendants of the horse. The horse, for example, as far as his
+limbs and teeth go, differs far more from extant graminivora than man
+differs from the ape. Had not fossil ungulates been found, which
+demonstrate the common origin of the horse with didactyles and
+multidactyles, some would have deemed the horse a special miraculous
+creation. But now the links are complete, and the descent of the horse
+is found to follow exactly what the doctrine of evolution could have
+predicted.
+
+
+ONTOGENY.
+
+It has been stated that the palæontological record is quite incomplete,
+owing to many facts, some of which have been mentioned; fortunately, the
+history of the development of the organic individual, or ontogeny, comes
+in to fill up many deficiencies.
+
+Ontogeny is a repetition of the principal forms through which the
+respective individuals have passed from the beginning of their tribe,
+and its great advantage is that it reveals a field of information which
+it was impossible for the rocks to retain; for the petrification of the
+ancient ancestors of all the different animal and vegetable species,
+which were soft, tender bodies, was not possible.
+
+The annexed plate illustrates the dog, rabbit, and man in their first
+stages of development. Illustrations of a fish, an amphibious animal, a
+reptile, a bird, or any mammal, could also be given; for all vertebrate
+animals of the most different classes, in their early stages of
+development, cannot be distinguished, and the nearer the animal
+approaches man in the ascending scale, the longer does this similarity
+continue to exist--when reptiles and birds are distinctly different from
+mammals, the dog and the man are almost identical.
+
+The gill-arches of the fish exist in man, in dogs, in fowls, in
+reptiles, and in other vertebrate animals during the first stages of
+their development. Man also possesses, in his first stages, a real tail,
+as well as his nearest kindred--the tailless apes (orang-outang,
+chimpanzee, gorilla), and vertebrate animals in general. The tail, as
+has been stated, man still retains, though hidden as a rudiment.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Human Embryo.--_Ecker._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Embryo of Dog.--_Bischoff._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Dog Embryo.--_Huxley._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. IV, V, and VI.--Embryo of Rabbit in three stages of
+development.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. VII, VIII, and IX.--Embryo of Man in three stages
+of development.--_Haeckel._ _v_, fore brain; _z_, twix brain; _m_,
+middle brain; _h_, hind brain; _n_, after brain; _r_, spinal marrow;
+_e_, nose; _a_, eye; _o_, ear; _k_, gillarches; _g_, heart; _w_,
+vertebral column; _f_, fore limbs; _b_, hind limbs; _s_, tail.]
+
+
+"Man presents in his earliest stages of embryonic growth, a skeleton of
+cartilage, like that of the lamprey; also, five origins of the aorta and
+five slits on the neck, like the _lamprey_ and the _shark_. Later, he
+has but four aortic origins, and a heart now divided into two chambers,
+like _bony fishes_; the optic lobes of his brain also having a very
+fish-like predominance in size. Three chambers of the heart and three
+aortic origins follow, presenting a condition permanent in the
+_batrachia_; then two origins with enlarged hemispheres of the brain, as
+in _reptiles_. Four heart chambers and one aortic root on each side,
+with slight development of the cerebellum, agree with the characters of
+the _crocodiles_, and immediately present the special mammalian
+conditions, single aortic root, and the full development of the
+cerebellum. Later comes that of the cerebrum, also in its higher
+mammalian or human traits." At no time in the development of the egg,
+save at the start, do the embryos of the various vertebra assume the
+_exact_ or _entire_ characteristics of one another, but they assimilate
+so closely that it requires the eye of the expert to distinguish them;
+and, as has already been stated, the more closely an animal resembles
+another, the longer and the more intimately do their embryos resemble
+one another; so that, for example, the embryo of the snake and of a
+lizard remain like one another longer than do those of a snake and of a
+bird; and the embryo of a dog and of a cat remain like one another for a
+far longer period than do those of a dog and a bird, or a dog and an
+opossum, or even those of a dog and a monkey.
+
+Surely it must be admitted that the short brief history given by the
+development of the egg, is far more wonderful than phylogeny or the long
+and slow history of the development of the tribe, which has taken
+thousands of years. Compare this time with the time required for the
+development of the smallest mammals--the harvest mice which develops in
+three weeks, or the smallest of all birds, the humming-bird, which quits
+the egg on the twelfth day, or with man who passes through the whole
+course of his development in forty weeks, or with the rhinoceros who
+requires 1-1/2 years, or the elephant who requires ninety weeks. How
+insignificant are these various periods to the long period originally
+required; yet in these short periods the whole phylogeny is run through
+in the ontogeny or the history of the development of the egg.
+
+
+
+
+THE ATTRIBUTES OF MAN.
+
+
+We must now consider briefly some of the attributes of man, and see if
+he really possesses attributes which are in no inferior degree possessed
+by animals. Before proceeding directly to the consideration of the
+attributes of man, it will be best to show the correlation that exists
+between what are called man's vital forces and the physical forces of
+nature. To do this let us choose three forms of its manifestation: these
+shall be heat evolved within the body; muscular energy or motion; and
+lastly, nervous energy or that form of force which, on the one hand,
+stimulates a muscle to contract, and on the other appears in forms
+called mental. It will not take any extensive argument to demonstrate
+that the heat of the body does not differ from heat from any other
+source. It is known that the food taken into the body contains potential
+energy, which is capable of being in part converted into actual heat by
+oxidation; and since we know that the food taken into the body is
+oxidized by the oxygen of the air supplied by the lungs, the heat of the
+body must be due to the slow oxidation of the carbon, perhaps also
+hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus in the food. Now since this so-called
+vital heat is developed by oxidation, is recognized by the same tests
+and applied to the same purposes as any other heat, it is as truly
+correlated to the other forces as when it has a purely physical origin.
+The amoeboid activity of a white blood corpuscle is stimulated within
+certain limits by heat. Hatching of eggs and the germination of seeds
+may be likewise hastened or retarded by access or deprivation of heat.
+It was considerations such as these which led to the doctrine of
+correlation of the vital and physical forces.
+
+With respect to the muscular force exerted by an animal, it was supposed
+that it was created by the animal. Dr. Frankland[36] says to this: "An
+animal can no more generate an amount of force capable of moving a grain
+of sand, than a stone can fall upwards or a locomotive drive a train
+without fuel." As the amount of CO{2} exhaled by the lungs is increased
+in the exact ratio of work done by the muscle, it cannot be doubted that
+the actual force of the muscle is due to the converted potential energy
+of the food. Since every exertion of a muscle and nerves involves the
+death and decay of those tissues to a certain extent, as shown by the
+excretions, Prof. Orton[37] has been led to say: "An animal begins to
+die the moment it begins to live." "A muscle," says Barker,[38] "is like
+a steam-engine, is a machine for converting the potential energy of
+carbon into motion; but unlike a steam-engine, the muscle accomplishes
+this conversion directly, the energy not passing through the
+intermediate stages of heat. For this reason the muscle is the most
+economical producer of mechanical force known." The muscles which give
+the downward stroke of the wing of a bird are fastened to the
+breastbone, and their power in proportion to the weight of the bird is
+as 10,000 to 1. This great power is needed, for the air is 770 times
+lighter than water; the hawk being able to travel 150 miles an hour.
+
+The last of the so-called vital forces under consideration, is that
+produced by the nerves and nervous centres. Barker says: "In the nerve
+which stimulates a muscle to contract, this force is undeniably motion,
+since it is propagated along this nerve from one extremity to the
+other." This force has been likened unto electricity, the gray or
+cellular matter being the battery, the white or fibrous matter the
+conductors. Du Bois Reymond[39] has demonstrated that this force is not
+electricity, though by showing that its velocity is only ninety-seven
+feet a second. The velocity varies, though, in different animals; it is,
+according to Prof. Orton,[40] "more rapid in warm-blooded than in
+cold-blooded animals, being nearly twice as fast in man as in the frog."
+Wheatstone, by his method, gives the velocity of electricity in copper
+wire at 62,000 geographical miles per second; but as neither Fizeau,
+Gould, Gonnelle and others could arrive at the same result, the method
+was shown to be incorrect, and it remained for Dr. Siemen[41] to
+discover the true method, which gives the velocity just one-half that of
+Wheatstone's estimate, or 31,000 geographical miles per second. In the
+opinion of Bence Jones, the propagation of a nervous impulse is a sort
+"of successive molecular polarization, like magnetism." But that this
+agent is a force as analogous to electricity as is magnetism, is shown
+not only by the fact that the transmission of electricity along a nerve
+will cause the contraction of a muscle to which it leads, but also by
+the important fact discovered by Marshall, that the contraction of a
+muscle is excited by diminishing its normal electrical current,[42] a
+result which could take place only with a stimulus, says Barker,
+"closely allied to electricity. Nerve force must therefore be transmuted
+potential energy." Prof. Huxley says,[43] "the results of recent
+inquiries into the structure of the nervous system of animals, converge
+toward the conclusion that the nerve-fibres which we have hitherto
+regarded as ultimate elements of nervous tissue, are not such, but are
+simply the visible aggregations of vastly more attenuated filaments, the
+diameter of which dwindles down to the limits of our present microscopic
+vision, greatly as these have been extended by modern improvements of
+the microscope; and that a nerve is, in its essence, nothing but a
+linear tract of specially modified protoplasm between two points of an
+organism, one of which is able to affect the other by means of the
+communication so established. Hence it is conceivable that even the
+simplest living being may possess a nervous system."
+
+Herbert Spencer[44] says all direct and indirect evidence "justifies us
+in concluding that the nervous system consists of _one_ kind of matter.
+In the gray tissue this matter exists in masses containing _corpuscles_,
+which are soft and have granules dispersed through them, and which,
+besides being thus unstably composed, are placed so as to be liable to
+disturbances to the greatest degree. In the white tissue this matter is
+collected together in extremely slender _threads_ that are denser, that
+are uniform in texture, and that are shielded in an unusual manner from
+disturbing forces, except at their two extremities."
+
+The last consideration is that form of force (thought power) which
+appears in manifestations called mental. It must be noticed at the
+outset, that every external manifestation of thought force is a muscular
+one, as a word spoken or written, a gesture, or an expression of the
+face always takes place; hence this force must be intimately correlated
+to nerve force. It is very certain, then, that thought force is capable
+in external manifestations of converting itself into actual motion. But
+here the question arises, can it be manifested inwardly without such a
+transformation of energy? Or is the evolution of thought entirely
+independent of the matter of the brain?
+
+This question can be answered by actual experiment, strange as it may
+appear. Experiments have demonstrated that any change of temperature
+within the skull was soonest manifested externally in that depression
+which exists just above the occipital protuberance. Here Lombard[45]
+fastened to the head at this point two little bars, one made of bismuth,
+the other of an alloy of antimony and zinc, which were connected with a
+delicate galvanometer;[46] to neutralize the result of a gradual rise of
+temperature over the whole body, a second pair of bars, reversed in
+direction, was attached to the leg or arm, so that if a like increase of
+heat came to both, the electricity developed by one would be neutralized
+by the other, and no effect would be produced by the needle unless only
+one was affected. By long practice it was ascertained that a mental
+torpor could be induced, lasting for hours, in which the needle remained
+stationary. But let a person knock on the door outside of the room, or
+speak a single word, even though the experimenter remained absolutely
+passive, the reception of the intelligence caused the needle to swing
+twenty degrees. "In explanation of this production of heat," says
+Barker,[47] "the analogy of the muscle at once suggests itself. No
+conversion of energy is complete, and as the heat of muscular action
+represents force which has escaped conversion into motion, so the heat
+evolved during the reception of an idea is energy which has escaped
+conversion into thought, from precisely the same cause." Dr. Lombard's
+experiments have shown that the amount of heat developed by the
+recitation to one's self of emotional poetry, was in every case less
+when recitation was oral; this is of course accounted for by the
+muscular expression. Chemistry teaches that thought-force, like
+muscle-force, comes from the food, and demonstrates that the force
+evolved by the brain, like that produced by the muscle, comes not from
+the disintegration of its own tissue, but is the converted energy of
+burning carbon.[48] "Can we longer doubt," says Barker,[49] "that the
+brain too, is a machine for the conversion of energy? Can we longer
+refuse to believe that even thought force is in some mysterious way
+correlated to the other natural forces? and this even in the face of the
+fact that it has never yet been measured.[50] Have we not a right to ask
+'why a special force (vital force) should be needed to effect the
+transformation of physical forces into those modes of energy which are
+active in the manifestation of living beings, while no peculiar force is
+deemed necessary to effect the transformation of one mode of physical
+force into any other mode of physical force?"
+
+Richard Owen says:[51] "In the endeavor to clearly comprehend and
+explain the functions of the combination of forces called 'brain,' the
+physiologist is hindered and troubled by the views of the nature of
+those cerebral forces which the needs of dogmatic theology have imposed
+on mankind. * * * Religion, pure and undefiled, can best answer how far
+it is righteous or just to charge a neighbor with being unsound in his
+principles who holds the term 'life' to be a sound expressing the sum of
+living phenomena, and who maintains these phenomena to be modes of
+force into which other forms of force have passed from potential to
+active states, and reciprocally, through the agency of the sums or
+combinations of forces impressing the mind with the ideas signified by
+the terms 'monad,' 'moss,' 'plant,' or 'animal.'"
+
+We have now shown that the very forces which give vent to the attributes
+of man, are correlated to the physical forces. Let us now consider his
+attributes as manifested by his mental powers. There is no doubt the
+difference between the mental faculties of the ape and that of the
+lowest savage, who cannot express any number higher than four and who
+uses hardly any abstract terms for common objects or for the
+affections,[52] is still very great and would still be great, says
+Darwin, "even if one of the higher apes had been improved or civilized
+as much as a dog has been in comparison with its parent form, the wolf
+or jackal." But when we examine the interval of mental power between one
+of the lowest fishes, as a lamprey or a lancelet, and one of the higher
+apes, and recognize the fact that this interval is filled up by
+numberless gradations, it does not become so difficult to understand the
+interval between an ape and man, which is not by far so great. As in
+finding out what is peculiar to a living body in distinction to a body
+not living, we found it absurd to take man as the perfection of the
+animal scale--the microscopic monad possessing life as well as him--so
+in the case of man's mental attributes, which have always been
+increasing, always perfecting, since the first genuine man came into
+existence, it would be equally absurd to compare the intellectual man of
+to-day with an ape to see what attributes he possesses which the ape
+does not possess; but if we go down in the scale and compare the savage
+with the ape, the difficulty is not by far so great. It will be found
+on close examination, though, that man and the higher animals,
+especially the primates, have many instincts in common. "All," says
+Darwin, "have the same senses, intuitions and sensations; similar
+passions, affections, and emotions; even the more complex ones, such as
+jealousy, suspicion, emulation, gratitude and magnanimity; they practice
+deceit and are revengeful; they are sometimes susceptible to ridicule
+and even have a sense of humor; they feel wonder and curiosity; they
+possess the same faculties of imitation, attention, deliberation,
+choice, memory, imagination, the association of ideas, and reason,
+though in very different degrees. The individuals of the same species
+graduate in intellect from absolute imbecility to high excellence; they
+are also liable to insanity, though far less often than in the case of
+man."[53] Nevertheless, in the face of these facts, many authors have
+insisted that man is divided by an inseparable barrier from all the
+lower animals in his mental faculties. It only shows the improper or
+imperfect consideration of the subject they have under discussion.
+
+It may be thought at first that some of the mental attributes mentioned
+above are not possessed by animals. I therefore will briefly consider a
+few of the more complex ones. We can dismiss the consideration of such
+attributes as happiness, terror, suspicion, courage, timidity, jealousy,
+shame, and wonder, as well-known attributes. _Curiosity_ in animals is
+often observed. An instance mentioned by Brehm will serve to illustrate:
+Brehm gives a curious account of the instinctive dread which his monkeys
+exhibited for snakes; but their curiosity was so great that they could
+not desist from occasionally satiating their horror in a most human
+fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were kept.
+_Imitation_ is also found among the action of animals, especially among
+monkeys, which are well known to be ridiculous mockers.
+
+It is unnecessary to refer to the faculty of attention, as it is common
+to almost all animals, and the same may be said of memory as for persons
+or places.
+
+One would hesitate to believe an animal possesses _imagination_, but
+such is the case. Dreaming, it will be admitted, gives us the best
+notion of this power. Now as dogs, cats, horses, and probably all the
+higher animals, even birds, have vivid dreams--this is shown by their
+movements and the sounds uttered--"we must admit," says Darwin, "they
+possess some power of imagination. There must be something special which
+causes dogs to howl in the night, and especially during moonlight, in
+that remarkable and melancholy manner, called baying. All dogs do not do
+so; and, according to Housyeau,[54] they do not look at the moon, but at
+some fixed point near the horizon. Housyeau thinks that their
+imaginations are disturbed by the vague outlines of the surrounding
+objects, and conjure up before them fantastic images; if this be so,
+their feelings may almost be called superstitious."
+
+The next mental faculty is _reason_, which stands at the summit; but
+still there are few persons who will deny that animals possess some
+power of reasoning. A few illustrations will be all that is necessary to
+satisfy the inquiring mind on this point. Reugger, a most careful
+observer, states that when he first gave eggs to his monkey in Paraguay
+they smashed them, and thus lost much of their contents; afterward they
+gently hit one end against some hard body, and picked off the bits of
+shell with their fingers. After cutting themselves _once_ with any sharp
+tool, they would not touch it again, or would handle it with the
+greatest caution. Lumps of sugar were often given them, wrapped up in
+paper; and Reugger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that in
+hastily unfolding it they got stung; after this had _once_ happened,
+they afterward first held the packet to their ears to detect any
+movement within.
+
+The following cases relating to dogs are described by Darwin: Mr.
+Colquhoun winged two wild ducks, which fell on the farther side of a
+stream; his retriever tried to bring over both at once, but could not
+succeed; she then, though never before known to ruffle a feather,
+deliberately killed one, brought over the other, and returned for the
+dead bird. Colonel Hutchinson relates that two partridges were shot at
+once--one being killed, the other wounded; the latter ran away, and was
+caught by the retriever, who, on her return, came across the dead bird;
+"she stopped, evidently greatly puzzled, and after one or two trials,
+finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of the
+winged bird, she considered a moment, then deliberately murdered it by
+giving it a severe crunch, and afterward brought away both together.
+This was the only known instance of her ever having wilfully injured any
+game. Here we have reason, though not quite perfect; for the retriever
+might have brought the wounded bird first, and then returned for the
+dead one, as in the case of the two wild ducks. I give the above cases
+as resting on the evidence of two independent witnesses; and because in
+both instances the retrievers, after deliberation, broke through a habit
+which was inherited by them (that of not killing the game retrieved),
+and because they show how strong their reasoning faculty must have been
+to overcome a fixed habit."[55]
+
+It has often been said that no animal uses any tool, but this can be so
+easily refuted on reflection, that it is hardly worth while considering;
+for illustration, though, the chimpanzee in a state of nature cracks
+nuts with a stone; Darwin saw a young orang put a stick in a crevice,
+slip his hand to the other end, and use it in a proper manner as a
+lever. The baboons in Abyssinia descend in troops from the mountains to
+plunder fields, and when they meet troops of another species a fight
+ensues. They commence by rolling great stones at their enemies, as they
+often do when attacked with fire-arms.
+
+The Duke of Argyll remarks that the fashioning of an implement for a
+special purpose is absolutely peculiar to man; and he considers this
+forms an immeasurable gulf between him and the brutes. "This is no
+doubt," says Darwin, "a very important distinction; but there appears to
+me much truth in Sir J. Lubbock's suggestion,[56] that when primeval man
+first used flint-stones for any purpose, he would have accidentally
+splintered them, and would then have used the sharp fragments. From this
+step it would be a small one to break the flints on purpose, and not a
+very wide step to fashion them rudely. The later advance, however, may
+have taken long ages, if we may judge by the immense interval of time
+which elapsed before the men of the neolithic period took to grinding
+and polishing their stone tools. In breaking the flints, as Sir J.
+Lubbock likewise remarks, sparks would have been emitted, and in
+grinding them heat would have been evolved; thus the two usual methods
+of 'obtaining fire may have originated.' The nature of fire would have
+been known in many volcanic regions where lava occasionally flows
+through forests."
+
+It becomes a difficult task to determine how far animals exhibit any
+traces of such high faculties as _abstraction_, _general conception_,
+_self-consciousness_, _mental individuality_. There can be no doubt, if
+the mental faculties of an animal can be improved, that the higher
+complex faculties such as abstraction and self-consciousness have
+developed from a combination of the simpler ones; this seems to be well
+illustrated in the young child, as such faculties are developed by
+imperceptible degrees. These high faculties are very sparingly possessed
+by the savage; as Buchner[57] has remarked, how little can the
+hard-worked wife of a degraded Australian savage, who uses very few
+abstract words and cannot count above four, exert her self-consciousness
+or reflect on the nature of her own existence. If there exist a class of
+people so inferior in their mental faculties as these, it is not
+difficult for us to understand how the educated animal who possesses
+memory, attention, association, and even some imagination and reason,
+can become capable of abstraction, &c., in an inferior degree even to
+the savage. It certainly cannot be doubted that an animal possesses
+mental individuality--as when a master returns to a dog which he has not
+seen for years, and the dog recognizes him at once.
+
+One of the chief distinctions between man and animals is the faculty of
+language. Let us look at this for a moment. "The essential differences,"
+says Prof. Whitney, "which separate man's means of communication in kind
+as well as degree from that of the other animals is that, while the
+latter is instinctive, the former is in all its parts arbitrary and
+conventional. No man can become possessed of any language without
+learning it; no animal (that we know of) has any expression which he
+learns, which is not the direct gift of nature to him." Any child of
+parents living in a foreign country grows up to speak the foreign
+speech, unless carefully guarded from doing so; or it speaks both this
+and the tongue of its parent with equal readiness. A child must learn to
+observe and distinguish before speech is possible, and every child
+begins to know things by their name before he begins to call them. "If
+it were not for the added push," says Prof. Whitney, "given by the
+desire of communication, the great and wonderful power of the human
+soul would never move in this particular direction; but when this leads
+the way, all the rest follows." No philologist now supposes that any
+language has been deliberately invented; it has been slowly and
+unconsciously developed by many steps.
+
+There can be no question that language owes its origin to the imitation
+and modification of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals,
+and man's own instinctive cries, aided by signs and gestures; and this
+is the opinion of Max Müller. And Prof. Whitney remarks that "spoken
+language began, we may say, when a cry of pain, formally wrung out by
+real suffering, and seen to be understood and sympathized with, was
+repeated in imitation, no longer as a mere instinctive utterance, but
+for the purpose of intimating to another." Darwin says that "the early
+progenitor of man probably first used his voice in producing true
+musical cadences, that is, in singing, as do some gibbon-apes at the
+present day. It is therefore probable that the imitation of musical
+cries by articulate sounds may have given rise to words expressive of
+very complex emotions."
+
+The nearest approach to language are the sounds uttered by birds. All
+that sing exert their power instinctively, but the actual song, and even
+the call notes, are learned from their parents or foster-parents. These
+sounds are no more innate than language is in man, as has been proved by
+Davies Barrington.[58] The first attempt to sing "may be compared to the
+imperfect endeavor in a child to babble." Prof. Whitney says, if the
+last transition forms of man "could be restored, we should find the
+transition forms toward our speech to be, not at all a minor provision
+of natural articulate signs, but an inferior system of conventional
+signs, in tone, gesture, and grimace. As between these three natural
+means of expression, it is simply by a kind of process of natural
+selection and survival of the fittest that the voice has gained the
+upper hand, and come to be so much the most prominent that we give the
+name of language (tonguiness) to all expression." A single utterance or
+two at first had to do the duty of a whole clause; afterward man learned
+to piece together parts of speech, and thus arose sentences.
+
+Although no language, as has already been said, has been deliberately
+invented, "still each word may not be unfitly compared to an invention;
+it has its own place, mode, and circumstances of devisal, its
+preparation in the previous habits of speech, its influence in
+determining the after progress of speech development; but every language
+in the gross is an institution, on which scores or hundreds of
+generations and unnumbered thousands of individual workers have
+labored."[59]
+
+There is no question at all but that the mental powers in the earliest
+progenitors of man must have been more highly developed than in the ape,
+before even the most imperfect form of speech could have come into use;
+but the constant advancement of this power would have reacted on the
+mind to enable it to carry on longer trains of thought. "A complex train
+of thought," says Darwin, "can no more be carried on without the aid of
+words, whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the use
+of figures in algebra. It appears also that even an ordinary train of
+thought almost requires or is greatly facilitated by some form of
+language; for the dumb, deaf, and blind girl, Laura Bridgman, was
+observed to use her fingers while dreaming.[60] Nevertheless a long
+succession of vivid ideas may pass through the mind, without the aid of
+any form of language, as we may infer from the movements of dogs during
+their dreams."
+
+The struggle for existence is going on in every language; one after
+another will be swept out of existence, and the languages best fitted
+for the practical uses of the masses of people will alone survive. Max
+Müller has well remarked: "A struggle for life is constantly going on
+amongst the words and grammatical forms in each language. The better the
+shorter; the easier forms are constantly gaining the upper hand, and
+they owe their success to their own inherent virtue."[61]
+
+It must not be thought for a moment that that which distinguishes a man
+from the lower animals is the understanding of articulate sounds--for,
+as every one knows, dogs understand many words and sentences; and Darwin
+says, at this stage they are at the same stage of development as
+infants, between the ages of ten and twelve months, who understand many
+words and sentences, but still cannot utter a single word. It is not the
+mere articulation which is our distinguishing character; for parrots and
+other birds possess the power. Nor is it the mere capacity of connecting
+definite sounds with definite ideas; for it is certain that some
+parrots, which have been taught to speak, connect unerringly words with
+things, and persons with events." The lower animals, as has already been
+stated, differ from man solely in his almost infinitely larger power of
+associating together the most diversified sounds and ideas; and this
+obviously depends on the high development of his mental powers.
+
+We now come to the consideration of a very delicate subject--a subject
+which is certainly at best very unsatisfactory to handle, as far as
+popular sentiment is concerned; for, no matter how successfully it may
+be handled, according to one class of thinkers, to another class of more
+orthodox thinkers it would be entirely at fault. The subject is, _Man's
+Moral Sense, Belief in God, Religion, Conscience, and Hope of
+Immortality_.
+
+It has been stated by some writers that where "faith commences science
+ends." How erroneous is such a statement as this! for, as Krauth has
+said, "The great body of scientific facts is actually the object of
+knowledge to a few, and is supposed to be a part of the knowledge of the
+many, only because the many have faith in the statements of the few,
+though they can neither verify them, nor even understand the processes
+by which they are reached."[62]
+
+"We believe," says Lewes, "that the sensation of violet is produced by
+the striking of the ethereal waves against the retina more than seven
+hundred billions of times in a second. * * * These statements are
+accepted _on trust_ by us who know that there are thinkers for whom they
+are irresistible conclusions." It is evident that it is to faith that
+science owes, to a very great extent, her progress and development; for
+it is impossible for man to prove by experimental demonstration all the
+facts of science, and since a certain number of facts have got to be
+accepted before a new experiment can be attempted, he has to accept on
+faith that such and such a statement is a fact, because such and such a
+scientist has claimed to have demonstrated it. "We are not _responsible_
+for the fact," says Krauth, "that under the conditions of knowledge we
+_know_, or in defect of them do not know; we are responsible if, under
+the conditions of a well-grounded faith, we disbelieve."[63]
+
+Let us look, then, at the belief in God. The question under
+consideration at first will not be whether there exists a God, the
+creator and ruler of the universe--for this will be afterward
+considered--but is there any evidence that man was aboriginally endowed
+with the ennobling belief in the existence of an Omnipotent God.
+
+Schweinfurth relates that the Niam-niam, that highly interesting dwarf
+people of Central Africa, have no word for God, and therefore, it must
+be supposed, no idea; and Moritz Wagner has given a whole selection of
+reports on the absence of religious consciousness in inferior nations.
+The idea that conscience is a sort of permanent inspiration or dwelling
+of God in the soul, I think, on consideration, any reasonable man will
+not assume. "It is a purely human faculty," says Savage, "like the
+faculty for art or music; and it gets its authority, as they do by being
+true, and just in so far as it is true. Consciousness is our own
+knowledge of ourselves and of the relation between our own faculties and
+powers. Conscience is our recognition of the relations, as right or
+wrong, in which we stand to those about us, God and our fellows.
+_Con-scio_ is to know with, in relation.
+
+There is such a thing, of course, as a _false conscience_ and a _true
+conscience_. All the false "conscientiousness grows out of the fact that
+men suppose they stand in certain relationships that do not really
+exist. Thus they imagined duties that are not duties at all." The
+virtues which must be practised by rude men, so that they can hold
+together in tribes, are of course important. No tribe could hold
+together if robbery, murder, treachery, etc., were common; in other
+words, there must be honor among thieves. "A North-American Indian is
+well pleased with himself, and is honored by others, when he scalps a
+man of another tribe; and a Dyak cuts off the head of an unoffending
+person, and dries it as a trophy. The murder of infants has prevailed on
+the largest scale throughout the world, and has been met with no
+reproach; but infanticide, especially of females, has been thought to be
+good for the tribe, or at least not injurious. Suicide during former
+times was not generally considered as a crime, but rather, from the
+courage displayed, as an honorable act; and it is still practised by
+some semi-civilized and savage nations without reproach, for it does not
+obviously concern others of the tribe. It has been recorded that an
+Indian Thug conscientiously regretted that he had not robbed and
+strangled as many travelers as did his father before him."[64]
+
+See how weak the conscience of even more highly civilized men are in
+their dealings with the brute creation; how the sportsman delights in
+hunting-scenes, Spanish bull-fights, cock-fights, etc.; how indignant
+was the sensitive Cowper, if any one should "needlessly set foot upon a
+worm"! The rights of the worm are as sacred in his degree as ours are,
+and a true conscience will recognize them. What, then, is a true
+conscience? Savage states in a few words, it is "one that knows and is
+adjusted to the realities of life. When men know the truth about God,
+about themselves--body and mind and spirit--about the real relations of
+equity in which they stand to their fellow-men in state and church and
+society, and when they appreciate these, and adjust their conscience to
+them, then they will have a true conscience. An absolutely true
+conscience, of course, cannot exist so long as our knowledge of the
+reality of things is only partial."
+
+It is evident, then, that the conscience of man depends on his education
+and environments, and therefore is the subject of improvement. It
+becomes, then, the duty of every man to search for truth, for his
+conscience is not infallible, and by so doing he will bring it to accord
+with the real facts of God. "Throw away," says Savage, "prejudice and
+conceit, seek to make your conscience like the magnetic needle. The
+needle ever and naturally seeking the unchanging pole." As conscience,
+then, is but a faculty capable of development, it is not so difficult to
+understand a race of people whose conscience was in just the first
+stages of development; and, finally, a race which did not possess this
+faculty at all, as in the inferior nations which Wagner speaks of.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Butcher's Shop of the Anziques, Anno 1598.
+
+(From Man's Place in Nature, by _Huxley_.)]
+
+
+What kind of conscience and intelligence had the people near Cape Lopez,
+called the Anziques, which M. du Chaillu describes. They had incredible
+ferocity; for they ate one another, sparing neither friends nor
+relations. Their butcher-shops were filled with human flesh, instead of
+that of oxen or sheep, for they ate the enemies they captured in battle.
+They fattened, slayed, and devoured their slaves also, unless they
+thought they could get a good price for them; and moreover, for
+weariness of life or desire for glory (for they thought it a great thing
+and a sign of a generous soul to despise life), or for love of their
+rulers, offered themselves up for food. There were, indeed, many
+cannibals, as in the East Indies and Brazil and elsewhere, but none such
+as these, since the others only ate their enemies, but these their own
+blood relations.
+
+There is therefore, combining the fact mentioned by Wagner with the fact
+that some nations have no idea of one or more gods, not even a word to
+express it (proving that they have no idea), I say, there is therefore
+no evidence that man was aboriginally endowed with any such belief as
+the existence of an Omnipotent God; and in this assertion almost all the
+learned men concur. "If, however," says Darwin, "we include under the
+term religion, the belief in unseen or spiritual agencies, the case is
+wholly different; for this belief seems to be universal with the less
+civilized races. Nor is it difficult to understand how it arose."
+
+The savage has a stronger belief in bad spirits than in good ones. "The
+same high mental faculties which first led man to believe in unseen
+spiritual agencies, then in fetishism, polytheism, and ultimately in
+monotheism, would infallibly lead him, as long as his reasoning powers
+remained poorly developed, to very strange superstitions and customs.
+Many of these are terrible to think of: such as the sacrifice of human
+beings to a blood-loving god, the trial of innocent persons by the
+ordeal of poison, of fire, of witchcraft, etc.; yet it is well
+occasionally to reflect on these superstitions, for they show us what an
+infinite debt of gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason, to
+science, and to our accumulated knowledge."[65] As Sir J. Lubbock has
+well observed: "It is not too much to say that the possible dread of
+unknown evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life, and embitters
+every pleasure. These miserable and indirect consequences of our highest
+faculties may be compared with the incidental and occasional mistakes of
+the instincts of the lower animals."
+
+The belief, then, of the existence of an Omnipotent God came with the
+development of the mental faculties; and although there does exist such
+a belief in the minds of men whose conscience is in a normal condition,
+still there are temptations to unbelief, and these have led men to
+atheism. I cannot think of an atheist unless I associate in my thoughts
+the words:
+
+  "The ruling passion, be it what it may--
+  The ruling passion conquers reason still."
+
+The atheist has decided not to believe in the existence of a God, unless
+he can see Him and understand Him; in other words, the finite would
+comprehend the infinite. Following the logical method of reasoning of an
+atheist, the simple fact of seeing God in no way ought to prove his
+existence. For when you say you see a person, and that you have not the
+least doubt about it, I answer, that what you are really conscious of is
+an affection of your retina. And if you urge that you can check your
+sight of the person by touching him, I would answer, that you are
+equally transgressing the limits of fact; for what you are really
+conscious of is, not that he is there, but that the nerves of your hand
+have undergone a change. All you hear and see and touch and taste and
+smell are mere variations of your own condition, beyond which, even to
+the extent of a hair's-breadth, you cannot go. That anything answering
+to your impression exists outside of yourself is not a _fact_, but an
+_inference_, to which all validity would be denied by an idealist like
+Berkeley, or by a skeptic like Hume.[66]
+
+Thomas Cooper[67] said:
+
+  "I do not say--there is no God;
+  But this I say--I KNOW NOT."
+
+
+Mr. Bradlaugh says: "The atheist does not say, 'There is no God'; but he
+says, I know not what you mean by God; I am without idea of God; the
+word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation.
+I do not deny God, because I cannot deny that of which I have no
+conception, and the conception of which, by its affirmer, is so
+imperfect that he is unable to define it to me."
+
+Austin Holyoake[68] says: "The only way of proving the fallacy of
+atheism is by _proving_ the existence of a God."
+
+If it is logical proof that is wanted, there is plenty. The following
+arguments, although not all meeting my approbation, are still of
+interest:
+
+The _Ontological Argument_ has been presented in different forms. 1.
+Anselm,[69] Archbishop of Canterbury (1093-1109), states this argument
+thus: We have an idea of an infinitely perfect being. But real existence
+is an element of infinite perfection. Therefore an infinitely perfect
+being exists; otherwise the infinitely perfect, as we conceive it, would
+lack an essential element of perfection.
+
+2. Descartes[70] (1596-1650) states the argument thus: The idea of an
+infinitely perfect being which we possess could not have originated in a
+finite source, and therefore must have been communicated by an
+infinitely perfect being.
+
+3. Dr. Samuel Clark[71] (1705) argues that time and space are infinite
+and necessarily existent, but they are not substances. Therefore there
+must exist an eternal and infinite substance of which they are
+properties.
+
+4. Cousin[72] maintained that the idea of the finite implies the idea of
+the infinite as inevitably as the idea of the "me" implies that of the
+"not me."
+
+The _Cosmological Argument_ may be stated thus: "Every new thing and
+every change in a previously existing thing must have a cause sufficient
+and pre-existing. The universe consists of a series of changes.
+Therefore the universe must have a cause exterior and anterior to
+itself.
+
+The _Teleological Argument_, or argument from design or final causes, is
+as follows: Design, or the adaptation of means to effect an end, implies
+the exercise of intelligence and free choice. The universe is full of
+traces of design. Therefore the "First Cause" must have been a personal
+spirit.
+
+The _Moral Argument_ may be thus stated: "In looking at the works of God
+there is," says Rev. Dr. Hopkins, "I suppose, evidence enough,
+especially if interpreted by the moral consciousness, to prove to a
+candid man the being of God." The educated man is a religious being. The
+instinct of prayer and worship, the longing for and faith in divine love
+and help, are inseparable from human nature under normal conditions, as
+known in history.
+
+It is evident from the above that it is not for logical reasoning or
+arguments that the atheist is led to say, "that up to this moment the
+world has remained without knowledge of a God."[73] It is from the folly
+of his heart; and, as Solomon says, that "though you bray him and his
+false logic in the mortar of reason, among the wheat of facts, with the
+pestle of argument, yet will not his folly depart from him."[74] I fully
+agree with Hobbes when he says, "where there is no reason for our
+belief, there is no reason we should believe," but I think the several
+arguments given above, which could be greatly expanded, affords
+sufficient reason for a perfect belief in an Infinite God. For--
+
+  "God is a being, and that you may see
+  In the fold of the flower, in the leaf of the tree,
+  In the storm-cloud of darkness, in the rainbow of life,
+  In the sunlight at noontide, in the darkness of night,
+  In the wave of the ocean, in the furrow of land,
+  In the mountain of granite, in the atom of sand;
+  Gaze where ye may from the sky to the sod--
+  Where can you gaze and not see a God."
+
+Yes, the infinite God must include all. If he is not in the dust of our
+streets, in the bricks of our house, in the beat of our hearts, then he
+is not infinite, but is finite, having boundaries. Yes, God's power it
+was that set the nebulous mass into vibration, and caused the world to
+be formed; it was His force which first shaped the atoms into molecules,
+and then into more complex chemical products, till finally "organizable
+protoplasm" was reached, which, by evolution, climbed up to man. 'Tis
+God we see in the family, in society, in the state, in all religions, up
+to the highest outflowings of Christianity. 'Tis Him we see in art,
+literature, and science; and so proclaims Evolution. "God is the
+universal causal law; God is the source of all force and all matter."
+"For us," says Haeckel, "all nature is animated, _i. e._, penetrated
+with Divine spirit, with law, and with necessity." We know of no matter
+without this Divine spirit.
+
+The "ultimate repulsion, constituting the extension and impenetrability
+of the atoms of matter," says Dr. Samuel Brown, "could be conceived of
+in no other way than as the persistent existence of the will of God
+himself, in whom we live and move and have our being, and which, if but
+for an instant withdrawn, the whole material universe and its forces in
+all their vastness, glory, and beauty, would collapse and sink in a
+moment into their original nothingness."
+
+The advancement of science, instead of depriving man of his God, only
+deprives men of their earlier and ruder conceptions of Deity, only to
+impart a larger and grander thought of Him. "It is true, in the
+educational process some few minds have lost sight of Him altogether,
+but these are the exceptional, and therefore notable instances; with the
+great body of men, the conception of God has steadily enlarged with the
+progress of science."[75] If science can demonstrate that Evolution is
+true, then it is God's truth, and as such it is man's religious duty to
+accept it; if he rejects it, superstitiously or unreasonably, he not
+only defrauds himself but insults the Author of truth.
+
+What, then, has science demonstrated? Science has demonstrated the UNITY
+OF THE FORCES: Light, heat, electricity, magnetism, motion, are all
+correlated to one another, and are all mutually convertible one into
+another. Heat may be said to produce electricity--electricity to produce
+heat; magnetism to produce electricity--electricity, magnetism, and so
+on for the rest.
+
+UNITY OF MATTER AND FORCE.--"For if matter were not force, and
+immediately known as force, it could not be known at all--could not be
+rationally inferred."
+
+UNITY OF THE LIFE SUBSTANCE IN ALL ORGANIC AND ANIMAL BODIES.--"A unity
+of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity of substantial
+composition."
+
+UNITY OF ANIMATE AND INANIMATE NATURE IN MATTER, FORM, AND FORCE.
+
+UNITY OF THE LAWS OF DEVELOPMENT.--Hence we can proclaim the unity of
+all nature and of her laws of development.
+
+In the beautiful words of Giordano Bruno: "A spirit exists in all
+things, and no body is so small but contains a part of the divine
+substance within itself, by which it is animated." Hence we arrive at
+the sublime idea, since we can in no other way account for the ultimate
+cause of anything, that it is God's spirit which pervades and sustains
+all nature. By this admission we are not led to say: "There is no God
+but force;" but rather, "There is no force but God." God is infinite,
+and therefore includes nature; but is nature all? It is all that our
+finite minds can discover, 'tis true; but can there not exist another
+nature or world unknown to us; and if so, since God is infinite, he will
+include that world also. Let us look to this and see what science can
+answer.
+
+It will be necessary for us to consider before proceeding, what is meant
+by the term soul; and this becomes a somewhat difficult task, as the
+term has been variously applied to signify the principle of life in an
+organic body, or the first and most undeveloped stages of individualized
+spiritual being, or finally, all stages of spiritual individuality,
+incorporeal as well as corporeal.[76] The popular belief is, that the
+soul is not material but substantial, a divine gift to the highest alone
+of God's creatures; but scientific men, such as Carl Vogt, Moleschott,
+Büchner, Schmidt, Haeckel, consider the phenomena of the soul to be
+functions of the brain and nerves. Schmidt says: "The soul of the
+new-born infant is, in its manifestations, in no way different from that
+of the young animal. These are the functions of the infantine nervous
+system, with this they grow and are developed together with speech."
+
+The idea of the immortality of the soul was not aboriginal with mankind,
+as Sir J. Lubbock has shown that the barbarous races possess no clear
+belief of this kind, and Rajah Brook, at a missionary meeting in
+Liverpool, told his hearers there that the Dyaks, a people with whom he
+was connected, had no knowledge of God, of a soul, or of any future
+state.
+
+Darwin remarks, that "man may be excused for feeling some pride at
+having risen, though not through his own exertions, to the very summit
+of the organic scale; and the fact of his having thus risen, instead of
+having been aboriginally placed there, may give hope for a still higher
+destiny in the distant future."
+
+The belief in a future life amongst the civilized race of mankind is
+almost universally prevalent. The proofs of immortality are various. The
+desire that man has to live forever and his horror of annihilation is
+one; the good suffer in this world and the wicked triumph--this would
+indicate the necessity of future retribution. The infinite
+perfectibility of the human mind never reaches its full capacity in this
+life; the faculty of insight which sees in an individual all its past
+history at a glance is the immortal attribute and is continually on the
+increase; and it is possible that Aristotle was right so far as he
+stated that the lower faculties of the soul, such as sensation,
+imagination, feeling, memory, etc., are perishable. No matter if this be
+so or not, it is certain that in the next life, where all is perfection,
+only the fittest attributes will exist, the others would have perished.
+The doctrine of the immortality of the soul has been defended by
+Marhemeke, Blasche, Weisse, Hinnichs, Fecham, J. H. Fichte, and others.
+
+Let us look for a moment at the visible universe and see if it is not
+reasonable, on a scientific basis, to admit of the existence of another
+universe, although it remains unseen to us. One can not help but be
+struck with the fact that energy is being dissipated in this visible
+universe, that the visible universe is apparently very wasteful. Look at
+the sun which pours her vast store of high-class energy into space, at
+the rate of 185,000 miles per second. What will be the result of this?
+The answer is simple: The inevitable destruction of the visible
+universe. Yes, just as the visible universe had its beginning it will
+have its end. But there existed a power before the visible universe came
+into existence, and which is acting in the visible universe as the
+ultimate cause of all phenomena. "For we are obliged," says Herbert
+Spencer in his First Principles, "to regard every phenomenon as a
+manifestation of some power by which we are acted upon; though
+omnipresence is unthinkable, yet, as experience discloses no bounds to
+the diffusion of phenomena, we are unable to think of limits to the
+presence of this power, while the criticisms of science teaches us that
+this power is incomprehensible." And so we should expect, for a finite
+cannot comprehend an infinite. It is for this and other reasons one is
+led to believe that the visible universe is only an infinitesimal part
+of "that stupendous whole which is alone entitled to be called THE
+UNIVERSE."[77] As there existed an invisible universe before the visible
+one came into existence, we can conclude that there still exists an
+invisible universe now, and that this invisible universe will still
+exist when the present visible one has passed away. Let us see what
+light our finite senses can throw on this. It is well known that all our
+senses have only a certain narrow gauge within which they are able to
+bring us into sensible contact with the world about us. All outside this
+range we are unable to reach. For example, we do not see all forms and
+colors; we do not hear all sounds; we do not smell all odors; we cannot
+conscientiously touch all substances; we cannot taste all flavors. Vision
+depends on the wave motion of light. The length of a wave of mean red
+light is about 1/39000th of an inch, that of violet 1/57500th of an inch.
+But the number of oscillations of ether in a second, necessary to produce
+the sensation of red, are 477,000,000,000,000, all of which enter the eye
+in one second. For the sensation of violet, the eye must receive
+699,000,000,000,000 oscillations in one second, as light travels 185,000
+miles in one second. But when waves of light having all possible lengths
+act on the eye simultaneously, the sensation of white is produced. So, as
+has been previously stated, without eyes the world would be wrapped in
+darkness, there being no light and color outside of one's eye. So we see
+our sense of sight has its limits, and we know how finite these are. That
+there are vibrations of the ether on each side of our limits of vision
+cannot be doubted; and if our eyes were acute enough to receive them, we
+could have the sensation of some color, which must under present
+conditions remain forever blank. The owl and bat can see when we cannot;
+their eyes can receive oscillations of ether, which pass by without
+affecting us. So with sound, which "is a sensation produced when
+vibrations of a certain character are excited in the auditory apparatus of
+the ear."[78] The longest wave which can give an impression has a length
+of about 66 ft., which is equal to 16-1/2 vibrations per second; when the
+wave is reduced to three or four tenths of an inch, equal to from 38,000
+to 40,000 vibrations per second, sound becomes again inaudible. The piano,
+for instance, only runs between 27-1/2 vibrations in a second up to 3,520.
+Sound travels about 1,093 feet per second, and the human voice can be
+heard 460 feet away, whilst a rifle can be heard 16,000 feet (3.02 miles),
+and very strong cannonading 575,840 feet, or 90 miles. That there are
+vibrations above and below 16-1/2 and 40,000, there is no room to doubt,
+as there exist ears which can hear them, such as the hare; but to us they
+are as though they did not exist.
+
+Of all our senses, the sense of smell far surpasses that of the other
+sense. Valentine has calculated that we are able to perceive about the
+three one-hundred-millionth of a grain of musk. The minute particle
+which we perceive by smell, no chemical reaction can detect, and even
+spectrum analysis, which can recognize fifteen-millionths of a grain, is
+far surpassed. But this sense in man is far surpassed by the hound.
+
+Our sense of taste is also limited, and as has been already stated,
+cannot distinguish all flavors. We can recognize by taste one part of
+sulphuric acid in 1000 parts of water; one drop of this on the tongue
+would contain 1/2000 of a grain (3/400 of a grain) of sulphuric acid.
+The length of time needed for reaction in sensation has been determined
+by Vintschgau and Hougschmied, and in a person whose sense of taste was
+highly developed, the reaction time was, for common salt, 0.159 second;
+for sugar, 0.1639 second; for acid, 0.1676 second; and for quinine,
+0.2351 second.
+
+Reviewing, then, the above, it is evident there are eyes which can see
+what we cannot, there are ears which can hear what we cannot, and there
+are animals who can smell and touch what we cannot. "For anything we
+know to the contrary, then," says Savage, "a refined and spiritualized
+order of existences may be the inhabitants of another and unseen world
+all about us." As Milton has said:
+
+  "Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth
+  Unseen, both when we wake and when we sleep."
+
+If there is a life very much different from and very much higher than
+our present one, it is not strange we are ignorant of it. It is
+impossible to make a person understand anything which is entirely unlike
+all that has ever been seen or heard, for every idea in the world that
+man has came to him by nature. Man[79] cannot conceive of anything the
+hint of which has not been received from his surroundings. He can
+imagine an animal with the hoof of a bison, with the pouch of a
+kangaroo, with the wings of an eagle, with the beak of a bird, and with
+the tail of a lion; and yet every point of this monster he borrowed from
+nature. Everything he can think of, everything he can dream of, is
+borrowed from his surroundings--everything. "So, if an angel should come
+and tell of another life, it would mean nothing to us, unless we could
+translate it into terms of our own experience. We could not understand a
+'light that never was on land or sea.' Our ignorance is not even then a
+probability against our belief."[80]
+
+As has already been stated, the visible universe must have its doom,
+must end as it began, by consisting of a single mass of matter; but is
+there not a more primitive state of matter than the matter such as we
+know it? Yes; and the so-called ether is that matter. It is unlike any
+of the forms of matter which we can weigh and measure. It is in some
+respects like unto a fluid, and in some respects like unto a solid. It
+is both hard and elastic to an almost inconceivable degree. "It fills
+all material bodies like a sea in which the atoms of the material bodies
+are as islands, and it occupies the whole of what we call empty space.
+It is so sensitive that a disturbance in any part of it causes a 'tremor
+which is felt on the surface of countless worlds.' It exerts frictions;
+and although the friction is infinitely small, yet as it has an almost
+infinite time to work in, it will diminish the momentum of the planets,
+and diminish their ability to maintain their distance from the sun, the
+consequence of which will be the planets will fall into the sun, and the
+solar system will end where it begun."[81]
+
+According to Sir William Thompson, the ultimate atoms of matter are
+vortex rings, which Professor Clifford describes as being more closely
+packed together (finer grained) in ether than in matter. And he says,
+"whatever may turn out to be the ultimate nature of the ether and of
+molecules, we know that to some extent at least they obey the same
+dynamic laws, and that they act on one another in accordance with these
+laws. Until therefore it is absolutely disproved, it must remain the
+simplest and most probable assumption that they are finally made of the
+same stuff, that the material molecule is in some kind of knot or
+coagulation of ether."[82]
+
+The molecule of matter such as we know, then, may have been, and very
+probably was, produced by evolution from the atoms or vortex rings of
+ether, according to the theory advanced by the authors of the work
+called the "Unseen Universe," which I have referred to. The world of
+ether is to be regarded in some sort the obverse complement of the world
+of sensible matter, so that whatever energy is dissipated in the one is
+by the same act accumulated in the other; or, as Fiske describes it, "it
+is like the negative plate in photography, where light answers to shadow
+and shadow to light." Every act of consciousness is accompanied by
+molecular displacements in the brain, and these of course are responded
+to by movements in the ethereal world. Views of this kind were long ago
+entertained by Babbage, and they have since recommended themselves to
+other men of science, and amongst others to Jevon, who says: "Mr.
+Babbage has pointed out that if we had power to follow and detect the
+manifest effects of any disturbance, each particle of existing matter
+must be a register of all that has happened. * * * The air itself is one
+vast library on whose pages are forever written all that man has ever
+said or whispered. There in their mutable but unerring characters,
+mixed with, the earliest as well as the latest sighs of mortality, stand
+forever recorded vows unredeemed, promises unfulfilled, perpetuating in
+the united movements of each particle the testimony of man's changeful
+will."[83]
+
+So thought affects the substance of the present visible universe; it
+produces a material organ of memory. "But the motions which accompany
+thought," say the authors,[84] "will also affect the invisible order of
+things," and thus it follows that "thought conceived to affect the
+matter of another universe, simultaneously with this, may explain a
+future state."[85]
+
+Death, then, is for the individual but a transfer from one physical
+state of existence to another, according to the "authors'"[86] idea; and
+so, on the largest scale, the death or final loss of energy by the whole
+visible universe has its counterpart in the acquirement of a maximum of
+life, the correlative unseen world. According to this theory, therefore,
+as the psychical or spiritual phenomena of the visible world only begins
+to be manifested with some complex aggregate of material phenomena,
+therefore it is necessary for the continuance of mind in a future state
+to have some sort of material vehicle also, which the ether is supposed
+to supply. "The essential weakness of such a theory as this," says
+Fiske, "lies in the fact that it is thoroughly materialistic in
+character. We have reason for thinking it probable that ether and
+ordinary matter are alike composed of vortex rings in a
+quasi-frictionless fluid; but whatever be the fate of this subtle
+hypothesis, we may be sure that no theory will ever be entertained in
+which analysis of ether shall require different symbols from that of
+ordinary matter. In our authors' theory, therefore, the putting on of
+immortality is in nowise the passage from a material to a spiritual
+state. It is the passage of one kind of materially conditioned state to
+another." This theory, dealing with matter, should receive support by
+actual experience, as matter is a subject of investigation. To accept
+it, therefore, as being possible without any positive evidence for its
+support, it remains but a weak speculation, no matter how ingenious it
+may seem.
+
+To support an after life, which is not materially conditioned, I agree
+with Mr. Fiske, that although it will be unsupported by any item of
+experience whatever, it may nevertheless be an impregnable assertion.
+
+If all were to agree, what we call matter is really force, as it
+certainly is, for if matter were not force it would be unthinkable,
+being force it becomes thinkable; this point I have touched on before,
+but it may be well to elaborate on it a little just here. The great
+lesson that Berkeley taught mankind was that what we call material
+phenomena are really the products of consciousness co-operating with
+some unknown power (not material) existing beyond consciousness. "We do
+very well to speak of matter," says Fiske, "in common parlance, but all
+that the word really means is a group of qualities which have no
+existence apart from our minds." The ablest modern thinkers, then,
+believe that the only real things that exist are the mind and God, and
+that the universe is only the infinitely varied manifestation of God in
+the human conscience. It is evident, then, that _matter_, the only thing
+the materialist concedes real existence, is simply an orderly
+phantasmagoria; and God and soul, which materialists regard as mere
+fictions of the imagination, are the only conceptions that answer to
+real existence.[87]
+
+For instance, let us see what it is we know about a table. You say you
+can see it; I can respond that all you are conscious of is that the
+nerves of your eye have undergone a change. You say, I can check my
+sight of it by touching it; to this I reply, all that you are really
+conscious of is a sensation, and that something outside of you has
+produced it. But that all that is outside of me is anything more than
+the manifestation to me of a power or of God, is an inference and cannot
+be proven. To constant manifestations of this power, always assuming the
+same form and characters which can be studied, different names have been
+given; but that the dust of the street or beat of our heart is anything
+else but that peculiar manifestation of the infinite God, cannot be
+contradicted.
+
+Mr. Savage says, "The movement of electricity along a telegraph-line is
+accompanied by certain molecular changes in the wire itself; but the
+wire is not electricity, neither does it produce it. Thus modern science
+has found it utterly impossible to explain mind either as a part or a
+product of matter. It is perfectly reasonable, then, for any man to
+believe in a purely intellectual and spiritual existence, apart from any
+material form or substance."
+
+To comprehend the immortal life is an impossibility; it transcends any
+earthly experience of man. The caterpillar probably knows nothing about
+any life higher than that of his toilsome crawling on the ground; but
+that is no proof against the fact that we know he is to become a
+butterfly. The boy knows nothing about manhood, and cannot know. Though
+he sees men and their labors all about him, he has and can have no
+conception whatever of what it means to be a man; it transcends all
+experience.[88] "The existence," says Fiske, "of a single soul, or
+congeries of psychical phenomena, unaccompanied by a material body,
+would be evidence sufficient to demonstrate this hypothesis. But in the
+nature of things, even were there a million such souls round about us,
+we could not become aware of the existence of one of them; for we have
+no organ or faculty for the perception of soul apart from the material
+structure and activities in which it has been manifested throughout the
+whole course of our experience. Even our own self-consciousness involves
+the consciousness of ourselves as partly material bodies. These
+considerations show that our hypothesis is very different from the
+ordinary hypothesis with which science deals. _The entire absence of
+testimony does not raise a negative presumption, except in cases where
+testimony is accessible._"
+
+My object has not been to prove the purely spiritual theory of a future
+life, but to show that it is a theory that intelligent people can
+entertain as a foundation for their belief "in the hope of immortality."
+But that the spiritual life instead of the material life is the state in
+which we can hope for immortality, I think there can be no question; and
+such was the opinion of Paul[89] when he wrote: "Now this I say,
+brethren, that flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God,
+neither does corruption inherit incorruption.... So when this
+corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortal shall have
+put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying that is
+written, 'Death is swallowed up in victory.'
+
+  O death, where is thy sting?
+  O grave, where is thy victory?"
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] The Law of Disease, in College Courant, Vol. XIV.
+
+[2] Winchell. Evolution, p. 113.
+
+[3] Comparative Zoology, p. 43. 1876.
+
+[4] Huxley. Physical Basis of Life.
+
+[5] Johnson, Ency.
+
+[6] Comparative Anatomy--Orton, p. 32.
+
+[7] Analytical Anatomy and Phys.--Cutter, p. 16.
+
+[8] Biography of a Plant.
+
+[9] See Huxley--Invertebrate Animals, Anatomy of.
+
+[10] Phys. Basis of Life.
+
+[11] Beginnings of Life, p. 104, Vol. I.
+
+[12] Monthly Micros. Jour., May 1, '69, p. 294.
+
+[13] Chem. and Phys. Balance of Organic Nature, 1848, p. 48 (trans.).
+
+[14] Inaugural Address, Aug. 19, 1874.
+
+[15] Haeckel--Hist. of Creation.
+
+[16] See Haeckel--Evol. of Man.
+
+[17] Evolution of Man, Vol. II, p. 445.
+
+[18] Johnson's Cyclopedia, Article "Evolution."
+
+[19] Sumner, in Johnson's Cyc.
+
+[20] Christian Union, Vol. XIII, No. 17, p. 322.
+
+[21] Gen. i. 1.
+
+[22] St. John i. 1.
+
+[23] St. John i. 3.
+
+[24] Hist. of Creation, p. 8.
+
+[25] _Ibid._, p. 324.
+
+[26] Heb. xi. 3. Revised English Ed.
+
+[27] _Loc. cit._, Vol. I, p. 323.
+
+[28] _Loc. cit._, Vol. I, p. 324.
+
+[29] Indications of the Creator.
+
+[30] Evolution and Progress, p. 26, Rev. Wm. I. Gill.
+
+[31] Natürl. Schöpfungsgesch., pp. 643-5.
+
+[32] Paget, Lectures on Surgical Pathology, 1853, Vol. I, p. 71.
+
+[33] Ueber die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen Körper.
+
+[34] Pop. Sci. Monthly, June, 1879, p. 250.
+
+[35] See Sci. Am., May 18, 1878.
+
+[36] Source of Muscular Power, Proc. Roy. Inst., June 8, 1866. Am. I.
+Sci., II, xlii, 393, Nov. 1866.
+
+[37] Comparative Zoology, p. 45.
+
+[38] Correlation of the Vital and Physical Forces, p. 54.
+
+[39] On the time required for the transmission of volition and sensation
+through the nerves, Proc. Roy. Inst.
+
+[40] Comparative Zoology, p. 165.
+
+[41] Sci. Amer., Nov. 13, 1876, p. 328.
+
+[42] Marshall, Outline of Physiology. Amer. Ed., 1868, p. 227.
+
+[43] Macmillon's Magazine, Pop. Sci. Monthly, April, 1876.
+
+[44] "Principles of Psychology," 1869, No. 20, p. 24.
+
+[45] J. S. Lombard, N. Y. Med. Jour., Vol. V, 198, June, 1867.
+
+[46] _Loc. cit._, p. 23.
+
+[47] The apparatus employed is illustrated and fully described in
+Brown-Sequard's Archives de Phys., Vol. I, 498, June, 1868. By it the
+1-4000th of a degree Centigrade may be indicated.
+
+[48] L. H. Wood, "On the influence of mental activity on the excretion
+of phosphoric acid by the kidneys." Proc. Conn. Med. Soc., Nov., 1869,
+p. 197.
+
+[49] _Loc. cit._, p. 24.
+
+[50] Address of Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, as retiring president, before the
+Am. Ass. for Adv. of Sci., Chicago meeting, Aug. 1868. "Thought cannot
+be a physical force, because thought admits of no measure."
+
+[51] Derivation hypothesis of life and species, forming fortieth chapter
+of his Anatomy of Vertebrates, republished in Am. Jour. Sci., II, xlvii,
+33, Jan. 1869.
+
+[52] Prehistoric Times, p. 354, by Lubbock.
+
+[53] Madness in Animals, Jour. Mental Sci., July, 1871. Dr. W. L.
+Lindsay.
+
+[54] Facultés Mentales des Animaux, 1872, Tom. XI, p. 181.
+
+[55] Primeval Man, 1869, pp. 145-147.
+
+[56] Prehistoric Times, 1865, p. 473.
+
+[57] "Conferences ser les Théorie Darwinienne," 1869, p. 132.
+
+[58] Philosoph. Trans., 1773, p. 262.
+
+[59] Prof. Whitney, p. 309.
+
+[60] Phys. and Pathol. of Mind. Dr. Maudsley. 3d ed., 1868, p. 199.
+
+[61] Nature, January 6, 1870, p. 257.
+
+[62] Problems i. 21.
+
+[63] Johnson's Cyc. Article "Faith." C. P. Krauth.
+
+[64] Darwin's Descent of Man, p. 117.
+
+[65] See Descent of Man, p. 96.
+
+[66] See Tyndall's Belfast Address.
+
+[67] Purgatory of Suicides.
+
+[68] Thoughts on Atheism, p. 4.
+
+[69] Monologium and Proslogium.
+
+[70] Meditations de Primaphilosophia Prop. 2, p. 89.
+
+[71] Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God.
+
+[72] Elements of Psychology.
+
+[73] Thoughts on Atheism, by Holyoake, p. 4.
+
+[74] Proverbs xvii. 22.
+
+[75] Henry Ward Beecher.
+
+[76] See W. T. Harris. Johnson's Encyc. "Soul."
+
+[77] Unseen Universe.
+
+[78] Rood. "Sound," Johnson's Encyc.
+
+[79] See R. G. Ingersoll's Lecture on Hell.
+
+[80] Savage.
+
+[81] "The Unseen World." John Fiske, p. 21.
+
+[82] Fortnightly Review, June 1875, p. 784.
+
+[83] Ninth Bridgewater Treatise.
+
+[84] Of the Unseen Universe.
+
+[85] Anagram. Nature, Oct. 15, 1874.
+
+[86] Of the Unseen Universe.
+
+[87] Fiske. Unseen World, p. 52.
+
+[88] Savage. Relig. of Evol., p. 246.
+
+[89] 1 Corinthians, xv., verses 50-54 (Part of). _Revised English Ed._,
+1877.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
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+  "Hæckel" standardized to "Haeckel" (page 57)
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+  "paleontology" standardized to "palæontology" (page 108)
+  "cerebelbellum" corrected to "cerebellum" (page 113)
+
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+been silently closed, while those requiring interpretation have been
+left open.
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Was Man Created?, by Henry A. Mott
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+Title: Was Man Created?
+
+Author: Henry A. Mott
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2009 [EBook #30429]
+
+Language: English
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+</pre>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i002.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center">FOSSIL MAN OF MENTONE. (From Popular Science Monthly, October, 1874.)</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h1>WAS MAN CREATED?</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>HENRY A. MOTT, <span class="smcap">Jr.</span>, E.M., <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span>, <span class="smcap">Etc.</span>,</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><i>Member of the American Chemical Society, Member of the Berlin Chemical
+Society, Member of the New York Academy of Sciences, Member of the
+American Association for the Advancement of Science, Member of the
+American Pharmaceutical Association, Fellow of the Geographical Society, Etc., Etc.</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Author of the "Chemists' Manual," "Adulteration of Milk," "Artificial Butter,"
+"Testing the Value of Rifles by Firing under Water," Etc., Etc.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>NEW YORK:<br />GRISWOLD &amp; COMPANY,<br />150 <span class="smcap">Nassau Street</span>.<br />1880.</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Copyright by</span><br />HENRY A. MOTT, <span class="smcap">Jr.</span>,<br />1880.</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Trow's<br />Printing and Bookbinding Co.</span>,<br /><i>205-213 East 12th St.</i>,<br />NEW YORK.</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>Electrotyped by <span class="smcap">Smith &amp; McDougal</span>, 82 Beekman Street, N. Y.</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">This</span> work was originally written to be delivered as a lecture; but as
+its pages continued to multiply, it was suggested to the author by
+numerous friends that it ought to be published in book-form; this, at
+last, the author concluded to do. This work, therefore, does not claim
+to be an exhaustive discussion of the various departments of which it
+treats; but rather it has been the aim of the author to present the more
+interesting observations in each department in as concise a form as
+possible. The author has endeavored to give credit in every instance
+where he has taken advantage of the labors of others. This work is not
+intended for that class of people who are so absolutely certain of the
+truth of their religion and of the immortality that it teaches, that
+they have become unqualified to entertain or even perceive of any
+scientific objection; for such people may be likened unto those who,
+"<i>Seeing, they see, but will not perceive; and hearing, they hear, but will not understand.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>This work is written for the man of culture who is seeking for
+truth&mdash;believing, as does the author, that all truth is God's truth, and
+therefore it becomes the duty of every scientific man to accept it;
+knowing, however, that it will surely modify the popular creeds and
+methods of interpretation, its final result can only be to the glory of
+God and to the establishment of a more exalted and purer religion. All
+facts are truths; it consequently follows that all scientific facts are
+truths&mdash;there is no half-way house&mdash;a statement is either a truth or it
+is not a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> truth, according to the <i>law of non-contradiction</i>. If,
+therefore, we find tabulated amongst scientific facts (or truths) a
+statement which is not a fact, it is not science; but all statements
+which are facts it naturally follows are truths, and as such must be
+accepted, no matter how repulsive they may at first seem to some of our
+poetical imaginings and pet theories. We cannot help but sympathize with
+the feelings which prompted President Barnard to write the following
+lines, still we will see he was too hasty: "Much as I love truth in the
+abstract," he says, "I love my hope of immortality more." *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* He
+maintained that it is better to close one's eyes to the evidences than
+to be convinced of the <i>truth</i> of certain doctrines which <i>he regards</i>
+as subversive of the fundamentals of Christian faith. "If this (is all)
+is the best that science can give me, then I pray no more science. Let
+me live on in my simple ignorance, as my fathers lived before me; and
+when I shall at length be summoned to my final repose, let me still be
+able to fold the drapery of my couch about me, and lie down to pleasant,
+even though they be deceitful, dreams."<small><a name="f1.1" id="f1.1" href="#f1">[1]</a></small> The limitations to the
+acceptance of truth that President Barnard makes is wrong; for, as
+Professor Winchell has said, "we think it is a higher aspiration to wish
+to know 'the truth and the whole truth.' At the same time, we have not
+the slightest apprehension that the whole truth can ever dissipate our
+faith in a future life."<small><a name="f2.1" id="f2.1" href="#f2">[2]</a></small> Let us "Prove all things and hold fast unto
+that which is good," recognizing the fact that "the truth-seeker is the
+only God-seeker."</p>
+
+<p class="right">AUTHOR</p>
+<p><small><span class="smcap">January 25, 1880</span>.</small></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Chart of Man's Development</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10-13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Protoplasm</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Cells</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Life</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Vital Force</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Analysis of Man</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Unity of Organic and Inorganic Nature</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Spontaneous Generation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Coming into Existence of Man</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Evolution</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Theories of the World's Formation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Bible</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Kant's Cosmogony</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Nature a Perpetual Creation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Laws of Evolution</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Survival of the Fittest</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Rudimentary Organs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Reproduction by Means of Eggs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Double-Sexed Individuals</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Inheritance</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Artificial Monsters</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Acquired Qualities</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Geological Record</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Ontogeny</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span><span class="smcap">The Attributes of Man</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Muscular Force</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Thought Force</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Attributes of Animals</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Attributes of a Savage</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Language</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Faith</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">True Conscience</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Belief in God</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Proof of the Existence of God</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Unity of all Nature</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Soul</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Finite Senses of Man</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Unseen Universe</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Manifestations of God</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Hope of Immortality</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142-151</a></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>WAS MAN CREATED?</h1>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+<h3>HAECKEL'S CHART OF MAN'S DEVELOPMENT, Arranged by HENRY A. MOTT, Jr., Ph. D.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i010.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i011.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i012.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i013.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+<h2>WAS MAN CREATED?</h2>
+
+<h3>WHAT SCIENCE CAN ANSWER.</h3>
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">"The</span> object of science is not to find out what we like or what we
+dislike&mdash;the object of science is Truth." In the discussion of the
+subject, "<i>Was Man Created?</i>" our object will be&mdash;not to study the many
+ways God might have created him, but the way he actually did create him,
+for all ways would be alike easy to an Omnipotent Being.</p>
+
+<p>Let us look at man and ask the question: What is there about him which
+would need an independent act of creation any more than about the
+"mountain of granite or the atom of sand"? The answer comes back:
+Besides life, man has many mental attributes. Let us direct our
+attention at first to the grand phenomena of life, and then to man's
+attributes.</p>
+
+<p>To discover the nature of life, to find out what life really is, it
+would be folly to commence by comparing man, the perfection of living
+beings, with an inorganic or inanimate substance like a brick, to
+discover the hidden secret; for, as Professor Orton says:<small><a name="f3.1" id="f3.1" href="#f3">[3]</a></small> "That only
+is essential to life which is common to all forms of life. Our brains,
+stomach, livers, hands and feet are luxuries. They are necessary to make
+us human, but not living beings." Instead of man, then, it will be
+necessary for us to take the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> simplest being which possesses such a
+phenomena; and such are the little homogeneous specks of protoplasm,
+constituting the Group <i>Monera</i>, which are entirely destitute of
+structure, and to which the name "Cytode" has been given. In the fresh
+waters in the neighborhood of Jena minute lumps of protoplasm were
+discovered by Haeckel, which, on being examined under the most powerful
+lens of a microscope, were seen to have no constant form, their outlines
+being in a state of perpetual change, caused by the protrusion from
+various parts of their surface of broad lobes and thick finger-like
+projections, which, after remaining visible for a time, would be
+withdrawn, to make their appearance again on some other part of the
+surface. To this little mass of protoplasm Haeckel has given the name
+<i>Protan&aelig;ba primitiva</i>. These little lumps multiply by spontaneous
+division into two pieces, which, on becoming dependent, increase in size
+and acquire all the characteristics of the parent. From this
+illustration, it will be seen that "reproduction is a form of nutrition
+and a growth of the individual to a size beyond that belonging to it as
+an individual, so that a part is thus elevated into a (new) whole."</p>
+
+<p>It is to this simple state of the monera the <i>fertilized</i> egg of any
+animal is transformed&mdash;the germ vesicle; the original egg kernel
+disappears, and the parent kernel (cytococcus) forms itself anew; and it
+is in this condition, a non-nucleated ball of protoplasm, a true cytod,
+a homogeneous, structureless body, without different constituent parts,
+that the human child, as well as all other living beings, take their
+first steps in development. No matter how wonderful this may seem, the
+fact stares us in the face that the entire human child, as well as every
+animal with all their great future possibilities, are in their first
+stage a small ball of this complex homogeneous substance. Whether we
+consider "a mere infinitesimal ovoid particle which finds space and
+duration enough to multiply into countless millions in the body of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+living fly, and then of the wealth of foliage, the luxuriance of flower
+and fruit which lies between this bald sketch of a plant and the
+gigantic pine of California, towering to the dimensions of a cathedral
+spire, or the Indian fig which covers acres with its profound shadow,
+and endures while nations and empires come and go around its vast
+circumference," or we look "at the other half of the world of life,
+picturing to ourselves the great finner whale, hugest of beasts that
+live or have lived, disporting his eighty or ninety feet of bone,
+muscle, and blubber, with easy roll, among the waves in which the
+stoutest ship that ever left dock-yard would founder hopelessly, and
+contrast him with the invisible animalcule, mere gelatinous specks,
+multitudes of which could in fact dance upon the point of a needle with
+the same ease as the angels of the schoolman could in imagination;&mdash;with
+these images before our minds, it would be strange if we did not ask
+what community of form or structure is there between the fungus and the
+fig-tree, the animalcule and the whale? and, <i>&agrave; fortiori</i>, between all
+four? Notwithstanding these apparent difficulties, a threefold
+unity&mdash;namely, a unity of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity
+of substantial composition&mdash;does pervade the whole living world."<small><a name="f4.1" id="f4.1" href="#f4">[4]</a></small> And
+this unit is Protoplasm. So we see it is necessary for us to retreat to
+our protoplasm as a naked formless plasma, if we would find freed from
+all non-essential complications the agent to which has been assigned the
+duty of building up structure and of transforming the energy of lifeless
+matter into the living. Even Goethe (in 1807) almost stated this when he
+said: "Plants and animals, regarded in their most imperfect condition,
+are hardly distinguishable. This much, however, we may say, that from a
+condition in which plant is hardly to be distinguished from animal,
+creatures have appeared, gradually perfecting themselves in two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+opposite directions&mdash;the plant is finally glorified into the tree,
+enduring and motionless; the animal into the human being of the highest
+mobility and freedom."</p>
+
+<p>Let us examine for a moment this substance Protoplasm, and see in what
+way it differs from inorganic matter, or in what way the animate differs
+from the inanimate&mdash;the living from the dead.</p>
+
+<p>Felix Dujardin, a French zoologist (1835) pointed out that the only
+living substance in the body of rhizopods and other inferior primitive
+animals, is identical with protoplasm. He called it <i>sarcode</i>. Hugo von
+Mohl (1846) first applied the name protoplasm to the peculiar serus and
+mobile substance in the interior of vegetable cells; and he perceived
+its high importance, but was very far from understanding its
+significance in relation to all organisms. Not, however, until Ferdinand
+Cohn (1850) and more fully Franz Unger (1855) had established the
+identity of the animate and contractile protoplasm in vegetable cells
+and the sarcode of the lower animals, could Max Shultz in 1856-61
+elaborate the protoplasm theory of the sarcode so as to proclaim
+protoplasm to be the most essential and important constituent of all
+organic cells, and to show that the bag or husk of the cell, the
+cellular membrane and intercellular substance, are but secondary parts
+of the cell, and are frequently wanting. In a similar manner Lionel
+Beale (1862) gave to protoplasm, including the cellular germ, the name
+of "germinal matter," and to all the other substance entering into the
+composition of tissue, being secondary, and produced the name of "formed
+matter."</p>
+
+<p>"Wherever there is life there is protoplasm; wherever there is
+protoplasm, there, too, is life." The physical consistence of protoplasm
+varies with the amount of water with which it is combined, from the
+solid form in which we find it in the dormant state to the thin watery
+state in which it occurs in the leaves of valisneria.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>As to its composition, chemistry can as yet give but scanty information;
+it can tell that it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
+sulphur, and phosphorus, and it can also tell the percentage of each
+element, but it cannot give more than a formula that will express it as
+a whole, giving no information as to the nature of the numerous
+albuminoid substances which compose it. Edward Cope, in his article on
+Comparative Anatomy,<small><a name="f5.1" id="f5.1" href="#f5">[5]</a></small> gives the formula for protoplasm (as a whole),
+C<sub>24</sub>H<sub>17</sub>N<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub> + S and P, in small quantities under some circumstances.
+It is therefore, he says, a nitryl of cellulose: C<sub>24</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>2</sub> + 3NH<sub>3</sub>.
+According to Mulder the composition of albumen, one of the class of
+protein substances to which protoplasm belongs, is 10(C<sub>40</sub>H<sub>31</sub>N<sub>5</sub>O<sub>12</sub>) +
+S<sub>2</sub>P. Protoplasm is identical in both the animal and vegetable kingdom;
+it behaves the same from whatever source it may be derived towards
+several re-agents, as also electricity. Is it possible, then, that the
+protoplasm which produces the mould is exactly the same composition as
+that which produces the human child? The answer is <span class="smcap">Yes</span>, so far as the
+elements are concerned, but the proportions of carbon, hydrogen, etc.,
+must enter into an infinite number of diverse stratifications and
+combination in the production of the various forms of life. Professor
+Frankland, speaking of protein, for instance, says it is capable of
+existing under probably at least a thousand isomeric forms. Protoplasm
+may be distinguished under the microscope from other members of the
+class to which it belongs, on account of the faculty it possesses of
+combining with certain coloring matters, as carmine and aniline; it is
+colored dark-red or yellowish-brown by iodine and nitric acid, and it is
+coagulated by alcohol and mineral acids as well as by heat. It possesses
+the quality of absorbing water in various quantities, which renders it
+sometimes extremely soft and nearly liquid, and sometimes hard and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> firm
+like leather. Its prominent physical properties are excitability and
+contractility, which K&uuml;hne and others have especially investigated. The
+motion of protoplasm in plants was first made known by Bonaventure Corti
+a century ago in the Char&oelig; plants; but this important fact was
+forgotten, and it had to be discovered by Treviranus in 1807. The
+regular motion of the protoplasm, forming a perfect current, may be seen
+in the hairs of the nettle, and weighty evidence exists that similar
+currents occur in all young vegetable cells. "If such be the case," says
+Huxley, "the wonderful noonday silence of a tropical forest is, after
+all, due only to the dullness of our hearing, and could our ears catch
+the murmur of these tiny maelstroms, as they whirl in innumerable
+myriads of living cells, which constitute each tree, we should be
+stunned as with a roar of a great city."</p>
+
+<p>One step higher in the scale of life than the monera is the vegetable or
+animal cell, which arose out of the monera by the important process of
+segregation in their homogeneous viscid bodies, the differentiation of
+an inner kernel from the surrounding plasma. By this means the great
+progress from a simple cytod (without kernel) into a real cell (with
+kernel) was accomplished. Some of these cells at an early stage encased
+themselves by secreting a hardened membrane; they formed the first
+vegetable cells, while others remaining naked developed into the first
+aggregate of animal cells. The vegetable cell has usually two concentric
+coverings&mdash;cell-wall and primordial utricle. In animal cells the former
+is wanting, the membrane representing the utricle. As a general fact,
+also, animal cells are smaller than vegetable cells. Their size<small><a name="f6.1" id="f6.1" href="#f6">[6]</a></small>
+varies greatly, but are generally invisible to the naked eye, ranging
+from <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">500</span>
+to <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">10000</span> of an inch in diameter. About four thousand of the
+smallest would be required to cover the dot put over the letter i in
+writing. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> shape of cells varies greatly; the normal form, though, is
+spheroidal as in the cells of fat, but they often become<small><a name="f7.1" id="f7.1" href="#f7">[7]</a></small>
+many-sided&mdash;sometimes flattened as in the cuticle, and sometimes
+elongated into a simple filament as in fibrous tissue or muscular fibre.</p>
+
+<p>The cell, therefore, is extremely interesting, since all animal and
+vegetable structure is but the multiplication of the cell as a unit, and
+the whole life of the plant or animal is that of the cells which compose
+them, and in them or by them all its vital processes are carried on. It
+may sound paradoxical to speak of an animal or plant being composed of
+millions of cells; but beyond the momentary shock of the paradox no harm is done.</p>
+
+<p>The cell, then, can be regarded as the basis of our physiological idea
+of the elementary organism; but in the animal as well as in the plant,
+neither cell-wall nor nucleus is an essential constituent of the cell,
+inasmuch as bodies which are unquestionably the equivalents of
+cells&mdash;true morphological units&mdash;may be mere masses of protoplasm,
+devoid alike of cell-wall or nucleus. For the whole living world, then,
+the primary and a mental form of life is merely an individual mass of
+protoplasm in which no further structure is discernible. Well, then, has
+protoplasm been called the "universal concomitant of every phenomena of
+life." Life is inseparable from this substance, but is dormant unless
+excited by some external stimulant, such as heat, light, electricity,
+food, water, and oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>Although we have seen that the life of the plant as well as of the
+animal is protoplasm, and that the protoplasm of the plant and that of
+the animal bear the closest resemblance, yet plants can manufacture
+protoplasm out of mineral compounds, whereas animals are obliged to
+procure it ready made, and hence in the end depend on plants. "Without
+plants," says Professor Orton, "animals would perish; without animals,
+plants had no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> need to be." The food of a plant is a matter whose energy
+is all expended&mdash;is a fallen weight. But the plant organism receives it,
+exposes it to the sun's rays, and in a way mysterious to us converts the
+actual energy of the sunlight into potential energy within it. It is for
+this reason that life has been termed "bottled-sunshine."</p>
+
+<p>The principal food of the plant consists of carbon united with oxygen to
+form carbonic acid, hydrogen united with oxygen to form water, and
+nitrogen united with hydrogen to form ammonia. These elements thus
+united, which in themselves are perfectly lifeless, the plant is able to
+convert into living protoplasm. "Plants are," says Huxley, "the
+accumulators of the power which animals distribute and disperse."
+Boussengault found long since that peas sown in pure sand, moistened
+with distilled water and fed by the air, obtained all the carbon
+necessary for their development, flowering, and fructification. Here we
+see a plant which not only maintains its vigor on these few substances,
+but grows until it has increased a millionfold or a million-millionfold
+the quantity of protoplasm it originally possessed, and this protoplasm
+exhibits the phenomena of life. This and other proof led M. Dumas to
+say: "From the loftiest point of view, and in connection with the
+physics of the globe, it would be imperative on us to say that in so far
+as their truly organic elements are concerned, plants and animals are
+the offspring of the air."</p>
+
+<p>Schleiden,<small><a name="f8.1" id="f8.1" href="#f8">[8]</a></small> speaking of the haymakers of Switzerland and the Tyrol,
+says: "He mows his definite amount of grass every year on the Alps,
+inaccessible to cattle, and gives not back the smallest quantity of
+organic substance to the soil. Whence comes the hay, if not from the
+atmosphere."</p>
+
+<p>It has been seen, then, that plants can manufacture protoplasm, a
+faculty which animals are not possessed of; they at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> best can only
+convert dead protoplasm into living protoplasm. Thus when vegetable or
+meat is cooked their protoplasm dies, but is not rendered incompetent of
+resuming its old functions as a matter of life. "If I," says Huxley,
+"should eat a piece of cooked mutton, which was once the living
+protoplasm of a sheep, the protoplasm, rendered dead by cooking, will be
+changed into living protoplasm, and thus I would transubstantiate sheep
+into man; and were I to return to my own place by sea and undergo
+shipwreck, the crustacean might and probably would return the
+compliment, and demonstrate our common nature by turning my protoplasm
+into living lobster." As has been said before, where there are life
+manifestations there is protoplasm. Life is regarded by one class of
+thinkers as the principle or cause of organization; and according to the
+other, life is the product or effect of organization. We must, however,
+agree with Professor Orton, who says: "Life is the effect of
+organization, not the result of it. Animals do not live because they are
+organized, but are organized because they are alive." In whatever way it
+is looked at, life is but a forced condition. "The more advanced
+thinkers, then, in science to-day," says Barker, "therefore look upon
+the life of the living form as inseparable from its substance, and
+believe that the former is purely phenomenal and only a manifestation of
+the latter. During the existence of a special force as such, they retain
+the term only to express the sum of the phenomena of living beings. The
+word life must be regarded, then, as only a generalized expression
+signifying the sum-total of the properties of matter possessing such
+organization."</p>
+
+<p>In what manner, then, does this matter, possessing the phenomena of
+life, differ from inorganic matter, or in what manner does living matter
+differ from matter not living? The forces which are at work on the one
+side are at work on the other. The phenomena of life are all dependent
+upon the working of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> same physical and chemical forces as those
+which are active in the rest of the world. It may be convenient to use
+the terms "vitality" and "vital force" to denote the cause of certain
+groups of natural operations, as we employ the names of "electricity"
+and "electrical force" to denote others; but it ceases to do so, if such
+a name implies the absurd assumption that either "electricity" or
+"vitality" is an entity, playing the part of a sufficient cause of
+electrical or vital phenomena. A mass of living protoplasm is simply a
+machine of great complexity, the total result of the work of which, or
+its vital phenomena, depend on the one hand upon its construction, and
+on the other upon the energy supplied to it; and to speak of "vitality"
+as anything but the names of a series of operations is as if one should
+talk of the "horologity" of a clock.<small><a name="f9.1" id="f9.1" href="#f9">[9]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>When hydrogen and oxygen are united by an electrical spark water is
+produced; certainly there is no parity between the liquid produced and
+the two gases. At 32&deg;&nbsp;F., oxygen and hydrogen are elastic gaseous
+bodies, whose particles tend to fly away from one another; water at the
+same temperature is a strong though brittle solid. Such changes are
+called the properties of water. It is not assumed that a certain
+something called "acquosity" has entered into and taken possession of
+the oxide of hydrogen as soon as formed, and then guarded the particles
+in the facets of the crystal or amongst the leaflets of the hoar-frost.
+On the contrary, it is hoped molecular physics will in time explain the
+phenomena. "What better philosophical status," says Huxley,<small><a name="f10.1" id="f10.1" href="#f10">[10]</a></small> "has
+vitality than acquosity. If the properties of water may be properly said
+to result from the nature and disposition of its molecules, I can find
+no intelligible ground for refusing to say that the properties of
+protoplasm result from the nature and disposition of its molecules."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>"To distinguish the living from the dead body," Herbert Spencer says,
+"the tree that puts out leaves when the spring brings change of
+temperature, the flower which opens and closes with the rising and
+setting of the sun, the plant that droops when the soil is dry and
+re-erects itself when watered, are considered alive because of these
+produced changes; in common with the zoophyte, which contracts on the
+passing of a cloud over the sun, the worm that comes to the ground when
+continually shaken, and the hedgehog which rolls itself up when
+attacked."</p>
+
+<p>"Seeds of wheat produced antecedent to the Pharaohs," says Bastain,<small><a name="f11.1" id="f11.1" href="#f11">[11]</a></small>
+"remaining in Egyptian catacombs through century after century display
+of course no vital manifestations, but nevertheless retain the
+potentiality of growing into perfect plants whenever they may be brought
+into contact with suitable external conditions. We must presume that
+either (1) during this long lapse of centuries the 'vital principle' of
+the plant has been imprisoned in the most dreary and impenetrable of
+dungeons, whither no sister effluence from the general 'soul of nature'
+could affect it; or else (2) that the germ of the future living plant is
+there only in the form of an inherited structure, whose molecular
+complexities are of such a kind that, after moisture has restored
+mobility to its atoms, its potential life may pass into actual life.
+Some of the lowest forms of animals and plants have such a tenacity to
+life that their vital manifestation may be kept in abeyance for five,
+ten, fifteen, or even twenty years. Though not living any more than the
+wheat, they also retain the potentiality of manifestation of life; and
+for each alike, in order that this potentiality may pass into actuality,
+the first requisition is water with which to restore them to that
+possibility of molecular rearrangement under the influence of incident
+forces, of which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>the absence of water had deprived them, and without
+which, life in any real sense is impossible."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>ANALYSIS OF A MAN.</h3>
+<p class="center">(<span class="smcap">By Prof. Miller.</span>)</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">A man 5 feet 8 inches high, weighing 154 pounds.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="18" summary="a man">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="center">oz.</td><td align="center">grs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Oxygen</td><td align="right">111</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hydrogen</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Carbon</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Nitrogen</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Inorganic elements in the ash:</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Phosphorus</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">88</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Calcium</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sulphur</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">219</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chlorine</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">47</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1 ounce = 437 grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sodium</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">116</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Iron</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Potassium</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">290</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Magnesium</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Silica</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total</span></td><td align="right">154</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p class="center">The quantity of the substances found in a human body weighing 154 pounds:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="18" summary="quantity">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="center">oz.</td><td align="center">grs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water</td><td align="right">111</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gelatin</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Albumen</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Fibrine</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Fat</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Ashes</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total</span></td><td align="right">154</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">(From the "<span class="smcap">Chemists' Manual</span>.")</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>Professor Owen<small><a name="f12.1" id="f12.1" href="#f12">[12]</a></small> says:
+"There are organisms (vibrieo, rotifer,
+macrobiotus, etc.) which we can devitalize and revitalize&mdash;devive and
+revive&mdash;many times. As the dried animalcule manifest no phenomena
+suggesting any idea contributing to form the complex one of 'life' in my
+mind, I regard it to be as completely lifeless as is the drowned man,
+whose breath and heat have gone, and whose blood has ceased to
+circulate. *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* The change of work consequent on drying or drowning
+forthwith begins to alter relations or compositions, and in time to a
+degree adverse to resumption of the vital form of force, a longer period
+being needed for this effect in the rotifer, a shorter one in the man,
+still shorter it may be in the am&oelig;ba."</p>
+
+<p>"There is," says Dumas,<small><a name="f13.1" id="f13.1" href="#f13">[13]</a></small> "an eternal round in which death is
+quickened and life appears, but in which matter merely changes its place
+and form."</p>
+
+<p>Let us now compare the inorganic world with the organic&mdash;the inanimate
+with the animate&mdash;and see if there does exist an inseparable boundary
+between them. The fundamental properties of every natural body are
+matter, form, and force. One important point to be noticed is, that the
+elements which compose all animate bodies are the very elements that
+help to build up the inanimate bodies. No new elements appear in the
+vegetable or animal world which are not to be found in the inorganic
+world. The difference between animate and inanimate bodies, therefore,
+is certainly not in the elements which form them, but in the molecular
+combination of them; and it is to be hoped that molecular physics will,
+at some not far distant time, enlighten us as to the peculiar state of
+aggregation in which the molecules exist in living <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>matter. As to the
+form, it is impossible to find any essential difference in the external
+form and inner structure between inorganic and organic bodies&mdash;for the
+simple monad, which is as much a living organism as the most complex
+being, is nothing but a homogeneous, structureless mass of protoplasm.
+But just as the inorganic substance, according to well-defined laws,
+elaborates its structure into a crystal of great beauty, so does the
+protoplasm elaborate itself into the most beautiful of all
+structures&mdash;the cell unit. Just as gold and copper crystallizes in a
+geometrical form, a cube&mdash;bismuth and antimony in a hexagonal, iodine
+and sulphur in a rhombic form&mdash;so we find among radiolaria, and among
+other protista and lower forms, that they "may be traced to a
+mathematical, fundamental form, and whose form in its whole, as well as
+in its parts, is bounded by definite geometrically determinable planes
+and angles." Now, as to the forces of the two different groups of
+bodies. Surely the constructive force of a crystal is due to the
+chemical composition, and to its material constitution. As the shape of
+the crystal and its size are influenced by surrounding circumstances,
+there is, therefore, an external constructive force at work. The only
+difference between the growth of an organism and that of a crystal is,
+that in the former case, in consequence of its semi-fluid state of
+aggregation, the newly added particles penetrate into the interior of
+the organism (inter-susception), whereas inorganic substances receive
+homogeneous matter from without, only by opposition or an addition of
+new particles to the surface. "If we, then, designate the growth and the
+formation of organisms as a process of life, we may with equal reason
+apply the same term with the developing crystal." It is for these and
+other reasons, demonstrating as they do the "unity of organic and
+inorganic nature," the essential agreement of inorganic and organic
+bodies in matter, form, and force, which led Tyndall<small><a name="f14.1" id="f14.1" href="#f14">[14]</a></small> to say:
+"Abandoning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> all disguise, the confession that I feel bound to make
+before you is, that I prolong the vision backward across the boundary of
+experimental evidence, and discern in that matter which we in our
+ignorance, and notwithstanding our professed reverence for its Creator,
+have hitherto covered with opprobrium, the promise and potency of every
+form and quality of life."</p>
+
+<p>Returning now to our protoplasm, let us ask the question: Where did it
+come from? or, How did it come into existence? Though chemical synthesis
+has built up a number of organic substances which have been deemed the
+product of vitality, yet, up to the present day, the fact stands out
+before us that no one has ever built up one particle of living matter,
+however minute, from lifeless elements.</p>
+
+<p>The protoplasm of to-day is simply a continuation of the protoplasm of
+other ages, handed down to us through periods of undefinable and
+indeterminable time.</p>
+
+<p>The question of where protoplasm came from&mdash;how it arose&mdash;chemistry is
+unable to answer; but the question is answered, probably, by spontaneous
+generation. Only the merest particle of living protoplasm was necessary
+to be formed from lifeless matter in the beginning; for, in the eyes of
+any consistent evolutionist, any further independent formation would be
+sheer waste, as the hypothesis of evolution postulates the unlimited,
+though perhaps not, indefinite modifiability of such matter. As we have
+seen that there exists no absolute barrier between organic and inorganic
+bodies, it is not so difficult to conceive that the first particle of
+protoplasm may have originated, under suitable conditions, out of
+inorganic or lifeless matter. But the causes which have led to the
+origination of this particle, it may be said, we know absolutely
+nothing&mdash;as in the formation of the crystal and the cell&mdash;the ultimate
+causes remain in both cases concealed from us.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>At the time in the earth's history when water, in a liquid state, made
+its appearance on the cooled crust of the earth, the carbon probably
+existed as carbonic acid dispersed in the atmosphere; and from the very
+best of grounds, it is reasonable to assume that the density and
+electric condition of the atmosphere were quite different, as also the
+chemical and physical nature of the primeval ocean was quite different.
+In any case, therefore, even<small><a name="f15.1" id="f15.1" href="#f15">[15]</a></small> if we do not know anything more about
+it, there remains the supposition, which can at least not be disputed,
+that at that time, under conditions quite different from those of
+to-day, a spontaneous generation, which is now perhaps no longer
+possible, may have taken place. This point is now conceded by most all
+of the advanced scientists of the day, and is absolutely necessary for
+the completion of the hypothesis of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The answer may come to this&mdash;Well, suppose the first protoplasm did
+originate by spontaneous generation, where did the elements or force
+come from which compose it?</p>
+
+<p>Science has nothing to do with the coming into existence of matter or
+force, for she proves both to be indestructible; when they disappear,
+they do so only to reappear in some other form. The coming into
+existence of matter and force, as also the ultimate cause of all
+phenomena, is beyond the domain of scientific inquiry. Science has only
+to do with the coming in of the form of matter, not the coming in of its
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i031fig1.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;A Moneron (Protam&oelig;ba) in act of reproduction;
+<i>A</i>, the whole Moneron, which moves like ordinary Am&oelig;ba, by means of
+variable processes: <i>B</i>, a contraction around its circumference parts it
+into two halves; <i>C</i>, the two halves separate, and each now forms independent individuals. (Much enlarged.)&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i031fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i>, is a crawling Am&oelig;ba (much
+enlarged).&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i> The whole organism has the form-value of a naked
+cell and moves about by means of changeable processes, which are extended from the protoplasmic body and again drawn in. In the inside is
+the bright-colored, roundish cell-kernel or nucleus. <i>B</i>, Egg-cell of a Chalk Sponge (Olynthus).&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i031fig3.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Represents the next higher stage, Mulberry-germ or Morula (Synam&oelig;ba).&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+<h3>THE COMING INTO EXISTENCE OF MAN,<br />
+BY THE SLOW PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT.</h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">It</span> is necessary now to take up the little mass of living matter,
+admitting its coming into existence by spontaneous generation as
+probable, and so probable that it almost amounts to a certainty, and
+follow it through the many changes it is about to make under the
+influence of the laws which govern evolution until it has culminated in
+man, and these laws still acting on the brain of man, perfecting it, and
+leading him on to the comprehension of a grander and nobler conception
+of the Almighty and of his works.</p>
+
+<p>The start, then, must be made with a homogeneous mass of protoplasm,
+such as the existing <i>Protam&oelig;ba primitiva</i> of the present day, which
+is a structureless organism without organs, and which came into
+existence during the Laurentian period. It is to this simplified
+condition, as I have previously stated, all fertilized eggs return
+before they commence to develop.</p>
+
+<p>The first process of adaptation effected by the monera must have been
+the condensation of an external crust, which, as a protecting covering,
+shut in the softer interior from the hostile influences of the outer
+world. As soon as, by condensation of the homogeneous moneron, a
+cell-kernel arose in the interior, and a membrane arose on the surface,
+all the fundamental parts of the unit were then furnished. Such a unit
+was an organism,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> similar to the white corpuscle of the blood, and
+called <i>am&oelig;b&aelig;</i>. Here we have two different stages of evolution; the
+protoplasma (better plasson) of the cytod undergoes differentiation, and
+is split up into two kinds of albuminous substances&mdash;the inner
+cell-kernel (nucleus) and the outer cell-substance (protoplasma). Edward
+von Benden, in his work upon <i>Gregarin&aelig;</i>, first clearly pointed out this
+fact, that we must distinguish thoroughly between the plasson of cytods
+and the protoplasm of cells.</p>
+
+<p>An irrefutable proof that such single-celled prim&aelig;val animals like the
+am&oelig;ba really existed as the direct ancestors of man, is furnished,
+according to the fundamental law of biogeny, by the fact that the human
+egg is nothing more than a simple cell.</p>
+
+<p>The next step taken in advance is the division of the cell in
+two;&mdash;there arise from the single germinal spot two new kernel specks,
+and then, in like manner, out of the germinal vesicle two new
+cell-kernels. The same process of cell-division now repeats itself
+several times in succession, and the products of the division form a
+perfect union. This organism may be called a community of <i>am&oelig;b&aelig;</i>
+(synam&oelig;b&aelig;).</p>
+
+<p>From the community of am&oelig;ba morula, now arose ciliated larv&aelig;. The
+cells lying on the surface extended hair-like processes or fringes of
+hair, which, by striking against the water, kept the whole body
+rotating&mdash;the lanceolate animals or amphioxus were thus first produced.
+Here we find from the synam&oelig;b&aelig; which crept about slowly at the bottom
+of the Laurentian primeval ocean by means of movements like those of an
+am&oelig;ba, that the newly-formed plan&aelig;a by the vibrating movements of the
+cilia, the entire multicellular body acquired a more rapid and stronger
+motion, and passed over from the creeping to the swimming mode of
+locomotion. The plan&aelig;a consisted, then, of two kinds of cells&mdash;inner
+ones like the am&oelig;b&aelig;, and external "ciliated cells." The ancestors of
+man, which possessed the form value of the ciliated larva, is, of course, extinct at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 35">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig I.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i035fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i035fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;The Norwegian Flimmer-ball (Magosph&oelig;ra
+Planula), swimming by means of its vibratile fringes; seen from the surface.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;The same in section. The pear-shaped cells are
+seen bound together in the centre of the gelatinous sphere by a
+thread-like process. Each cell contains both a kernel and a contractile vesicle. (<span class="smcap">Plan&aelig;a Series.</span>)&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i>]</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 35">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig III.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. IV.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i035fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i035fig4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. III and IV.</span>&mdash;Represents <span class="smcap">Gastr&aelig;a Series</span>. The body
+consists merely of a simple primitive intestine, the wall of which is formed of two primary germ-layers.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 37">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig I.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/i037fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/i037fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i037fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> I and II.&mdash;Represents the next higher stage
+(Tubularia). Fig. I, a simple Gliding Worm (Rhabdoc&oelig;lum); <i>m</i>, mouth; <i>sd</i>, throat-epithelium; <i>sm</i>, throat-muscles; <i>d</i>, stomach-intestine;
+<i>nc</i>, kidney-ducts; <i>nm</i>, opening of the kidneys; <i>au</i>, eye; <i>na</i>, nose-pit. Fig. II, the same Gliding Worm, showing the remaining organs;
+<i>g</i>, brain; <i>au</i>, eye; <i>na</i>, nose-pit; <i>n</i>, nerves; <i>h</i>, testes; &#9794;, male opening; &#9792;, female opening; <i>e</i>,
+ovary; <i>f</i>, ciliated outer-skin.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> III.&mdash;Represents Soft Worms (Scolecida) and is a
+young Acorn Worm (Balanoglossus), after <i>Agassiz</i>. <i>r</i>, acorn-like proboscis; <i>h</i>, collar; <i>k</i>, gill-openings and gill-arches of the
+anterior intestine, in a long row, one behind the other, on each side; <i>d</i>, digestive posterior intestine, filling the greater part of the body
+cavity; <i>v</i>, intestinal vessel, lying between two parallel folds of the skin; <i>a</i>, anus.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>Out of the planula, then, develops an exceedingly important animal
+form&mdash;the gastrula (that is, larva with a stomach or intestine), which
+resembles the planula, but differs essentially in the fact that it
+encloses a cavity which opens to the outside by a mouth. The wall of the
+progaster (primary stomach) consists of two layers of cells: an outer
+layer of smaller ciliated cells (outer skin or ectoderm), and of an
+inner layer of large non-ciliated cells (inner skin or entoderm). This
+exceedingly important larval form, the "gastrula," makes its appearance
+in the ontogenesis of all tribes of animals. These gastr&aelig;ada must have
+existed during the older primordial period, and they must have also
+included the ancestors of man. A certain proof of this is furnished by
+the amphioxus, which, in spite of its blood relationship to man, still
+passes through the stage of the gastrula with a simple intestine and a
+double intestinal wall.<small><a name="f16.1" id="f16.1" href="#f16">[16]</a></small> By motion of the cilia or fringes of the
+skin-layer, the gastr&aelig;a swam freely about in the Laurentian ocean.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the gastr&aelig;a now deviated in two directions&mdash;one
+branch of gastr&aelig;ads gave up free locomotion, adhered to the bottom of
+the sea, and thus, by adopting an adhesive mode of life, gave rise to
+the proascus, the common primary form of the animal plants (zoophyta).
+The other branch was originated by the formation of a middle germ-layer
+or muscular layer, and also by the further differentiation of the
+internal parts into various organs; more especially, the first formation
+of a nervous system, the simplest organs of sense, the simplest organs
+for secretion (kidneys), and generation (sexual organs)&mdash;this branch is
+the prothelmis, the common primary worms (vermes). Like the turbellaria
+of the present day, the whole surface of their body<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> was covered with
+cilia, and they possessed a simple body of an oval shape, entirely
+without appendages. These ac&oelig;lomatous worms did not as yet possess a
+true body cavity (c&oelig;lom) nor blood. No member of the next higher
+animals are in existence, neither are there any fossil remains, owing to
+the soft nature of their body. They are therefore called soft worms, or
+scoleceda. They developed out of the turbellaria of the sixth stage by
+forming a true body cavity (a c&oelig;lom) and blood in their interior. The
+nearest still living c&oelig;lomati is probably the acorn worms
+(balanoglossus). The form value of this stage must, moreover, have been
+represented by several different intermediate stages.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the four different groups of the worm tribe, the four higher
+tribes of the animal kingdom were developed&mdash;the star-fishes
+(echinoderma) and insects (arthropoda) on the one hand, and the molluscs
+(mollusca) and vertebrated animals (vertebrata) on the other. Out of
+certain c&oelig;lomati, the most ancient skull-less vertebrata were
+directly developed. Among the c&oelig;lomati of the present day, the
+ascidians are the nearest relatives of this exceedingly remarkable worm,
+which connect the widely differing classes of invertebrate and
+vertebrate animals. To these animals have been given the name of
+sack-worms (himatega). They originated out of the worms of the seventh
+stage by the formation of a dorsal nerve marrow (medulla tube), and by
+the formation of the spinal rod (chorda dorsalis) which lies below it.
+It is just the position of this central spinal rod or axial skeleton,
+between the dorsal marrow on the dorsal side and the intestinal canal on
+the ventral side, which is most characteristic of all vertebrate
+animals, including man, but also of the larv&aelig; of the ascidia.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the second half of the series of human ancestors. The
+skull-less animal lancelet, which is still living, affords a faint idea
+of the members of this group (acrania). Since this little animal, in its earliest embryonic state, entirely
+agrees with the ascidia, and in its further development shows itself to
+be a true vertebrate animal, it forms a direct transition from the
+vertebrata to the invertebrata.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 41">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig I.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/i041fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/i041fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/i041fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Appendicularia, seen from the left side, <i>m</i>,
+mouth; <i>k</i>, gill intestine; <i>o</i>, &oelig;sophagus; <i>v</i>, stomach; <i>a</i>, anus;
+<i>n</i>, nerve ganglia (upper throat-knots); <i>g</i>, ear vesicle; <i>f</i>, ciliated
+groove under the gill; <i>h</i>, heart; <i>e</i>, ovary; <i>c</i>, notochord; <i>s</i>, tail.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;Represents Sack Worms (Himatega), and is the
+structure of an Ascidian, seen from the left. <i>sb</i>, gill-sac; <i>v</i>,
+stomach; <i>i</i>, large intestine; <i>c</i>, heart; <i>t</i>, testes; <i>vd</i>, seed duct;
+<i>o</i>, ovary; <i>o'</i>, matured eggs in the body cavity. After <i>Milne-Edwards</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Represents the <span class="smcap">Acrania Series</span>. Lancelet
+(Amhioxus Lanceolatus), twice the actual size, seen from the left. <i>a</i>, mouth-opening, surrounded by cilia; <i>b</i>, anal-opening; <i>c</i>,
+ventral-opening (Porus abdominalis); <i>d</i>, gill-body; <i>e</i>, stomach; <i>f</i>,
+liver-c&oelig;cum; <i>g</i>, large intestine; <i>h</i>, c&oelig;lum; <i>i</i>, notochord
+(under it the aorta); <i>k</i>, arches of the aorta; <i>l</i>, main gill-artery;
+<i>m</i>, swellings on its branches; <i>n</i>, hollow vein; <i>o</i>, intestinal vein.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i>]</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i043fig1.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents the <span class="smcap">Monorhina Series</span>. Lamprey
+(Petromyzon Americanus) from the Atlantic&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i043fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;Represents the Selachii. Shark (Carcharias vulgaris) from the Atlantic&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i043fig3.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Represents the Mud-fish (Dipneusta).
+Lepidosiren annecteus, one-fourth natural size; African rivers.&mdash;<i>Orton.</i> Form a link between typical fishes and the Amphibians.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>At this stage, most probably, the separation of the two sexes began. The
+simpler and most ancient form of sexual propagation is through
+double-sexed individuals (hermaphroditismus). It occurs in the great
+majority of plants, but only in a minority of animals; for example, in
+the garden-snails, leeches, earth-worms and many other worms. Every
+single individual among hermaphrodites produces within itself materials
+of both sexes&mdash;egg and sperm. In most of the higher plants every blossom
+contains both the male organs (stamen and anther) and the female organs
+(style and germ). Every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual
+gland eggs, and in another sperm. Many hermaphrodites can fructify
+themselves; in others, however, copulation and reciprocal fructification
+of both hermaphrodites are necessary for causing the development of the
+eggs. This latter case is evidently a transition to sexual separation
+(gon&oelig;horismus).</p>
+
+<p>Out of the members of the last group arose animals with skulls or
+craniata, having round mouths, and which are divided into hags and
+lampreys. The hags (myxinoides) have long cylindrical worm-like bodies.
+The lampreys (petromyxontes) includes those well known "nine eyes"
+common at the seaside.</p>
+
+<p>These single-nostril animals (monorrhina) arose during the primordial
+period out of the skull-less animals by the anterior end of the dorsal
+marrow developing into the brain, and the anterior end of the dorsal
+skull into the skull. By the division of the single nostril of the
+members of the last group into two lateral halves, by the formation of a
+sympathetic nervous system, a jaw skeleton, a swimming bladder and two
+pairs of legs (breast fins or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> fore-legs, and ventral fins or
+hind-legs), arose the prim&aelig;val fish (selachii), which is best
+represented by the still-living shark (squalacei).</p>
+
+<p>Out of the prim&aelig;val fish arose the mud-fish (dipneusta), which is very
+imperfectly represented by the still-living salamander fish; the
+prim&aelig;val fish adapting itself to land, and by the transforming of the
+swimming bladder into an air-breathing lung, and of the nasal cavity
+(which was now open into the mouth cavity) into air-passages. Their
+organization <i>might</i>, in some respect, be like the ceratodus and
+proloptems; but this is not certain.</p>
+
+<p>The dipneusta is an intermediate stage between the selachii and
+amphibia. Out of the dipneusta arose the class of amphibia, having five
+toes (the pentadactyla). The gill amphibians are man's most ancient
+ancestors of the class amphibia. Besides possessing lungs as well as the
+mud-fish, they retain throughout life regular gills like the
+still-living proteus and axolotl. Most gilled batrachia live in North
+America. The paddle-fins of the dipneusta changed into five-toed legs,
+which were afterwards transmitted to the higher vertebrata up to man.</p>
+
+<p>The gilled amphibia (sozobrachia) of the last group finally lost their
+gills but retained their tail, and tailed amphibians (sozura) were
+produced, such as the salamander and newt of the present day. Out of the
+sozura originated the prim&aelig;val amniota (protamnia) by the complete loss
+of the gills by the formation of the amnion of the cochlea, and of the
+round window in the auditory organ, and of the organ of tears. Out of
+the protamnia originated the primary mammals (promammalia). The most
+closely related were the ornithostoma; they differed through having
+teeth in their jaws.</p>
+
+<p>No fossil remains of the primary mammals have as yet been found,
+although they lived during the trias period&mdash;they possessed a very
+highly developed jaw. From the primary mammal arose the pouched animals
+(marsupialia). Numerous representatives of this group still exist:
+kangaroos, pouched rats and pouched dogs. The marsupial animals
+developed, very probably, in the mesolithic epoch (during the Jura) out
+of the cloacal animals; by the division of the cloaca into the rectum
+and the urogenital sinus, by the formation of a nipple on the mammary
+gland, and the partial suppression of the clavicles.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 47">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="middle"><b><i>Fig. 1</i></b></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i047fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td valign="bottom" align="center"><i><b>Ceratodus</b></i><br /><i><b>Forsteri</b></i></td>
+<td align="center" valign="middle"><b><i>Fig. 2</i></b></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i047fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> I and II.&mdash;The Ceratodus Forsteri occur in the
+swamps of Southern Australia. Form transition between fishes and Amphibia.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i049fig1.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents the Gilled Amphibians (Soyobranchia).
+The Axolotl (Siredon pisciforme), after Tegetmeier. The ordinary form with persistent branchi&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i049fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;Proteus Anguinus. Europe.&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i049fig3.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Represents the Tailed Amphibians (Soyura). Great Water-Newt (Triton cristatus), after <i>Bell.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>From the marsupialia originated a most interesting small group of
+semi-apes (prosimi&aelig;), for they are the primary forms of genuine apes and
+consequently of man. They developed out of handed or ape-footed
+marsupials (pedumana), of rat-like appearance, by the formation of a
+placenta, the loss of the marsupium and the marsupial bones, and by the
+higher development of the commissures of the brain. The still-living
+short-footed semi-ape (brachytarsi), especially the muki, indie and
+lori, possess possibly a faint resemblance.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the semi-apes developed two classes of genuine apes; but as the
+narrow-nosed or catarrhini class are the only ones related to man, the
+others will not be considered. These narrow-nosed apes originated by the
+transformation of the jaw, and by the claws on the toes changing into
+nails. The still-living long-tail nose-apes and holy apes
+(semnopithecus) probably resembled the oldest ancestors of this group.</p>
+
+<p>The tailed apes by the loss of their tail and some of their hair
+covering, and by the excessive development of that portion of their
+brain above the facial portion of the skull, developed into the man-like
+apes (anthropoides)&mdash;such as the gorilla and chimpanzee of Africa, and
+the orang and gibbon of Asia. The human ancestors of this group existed
+during the miocene period. From the anthropoides developed the ape-like
+men (pithecanthropi) during the tertiary period. The speechless
+prim&aelig;val<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> men (alali), then, is the connecting link between the man-like
+apes and man. The fore-hand of the anthropoides became the human hand,
+their hinder-hand a foot for walking. They did not possess the
+articulate human language of words and the higher developments, as
+consciousness and the formation of ideas must have been very imperfect.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the pithecanthropi men developed genuine man, by the development
+of the animal language of sounds into a connected or articulate language
+of words&mdash;the brain also developed higher and higher. This transition
+took place, probably, at the beginning of the quaternary period, or
+possibly in the tertiary.</p>
+
+<p>We have now very briefly reviewed the principal outlines of the
+ancestors of man, showing that man has developed from the little mass of
+protoplasm, as have all animals and plants. He therefore was not
+<i>spontaneously</i> created, but was developed. The question is often asked
+by simple-minded people, with much delight, Why do we not behold the
+interesting spectacle of the transformation of a chimpanzee into a man,
+or conversely of a man by retrogression into an orang?&mdash;it only shows
+that they are not acquainted with the first principles of the Doctrine
+of Descent. "Not one of the apes," says Schmidt, "can revert to the
+state of his primordial ancestors, except by retrogression&mdash;by which a
+primordial condition is by no means attained&mdash;he cannot divest himself
+of his acquired characters fixed by heredity, nor can he exceed himself
+and become man; for man does not stand in the direct line of development
+from the ape. The development of the anthropoid apes has taken a lateral
+course from the nearest human progenitors, and man can as little be
+transformed into a gorilla as a squirrel can be changed into a rat."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i053.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. I.&mdash;Salamandra Maculata.&mdash;<i>Haeckel</i>. The Water Newts
+and Salamanders were the next higher stage after the Proteus and the Axolotl.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i055fig1.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. I.&mdash;Represents Prim&aelig;val Amniota (Protamnia). Lizard (Lacerta), after <i>Orton</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i055fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. II.&mdash;Represents Primary Mammals (Promammalia).
+<span class="smcap">Amniota Series.</span> Duck-billed Platypus (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus).&mdash;<i>Haeckel</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>"Feeling evidently,"<small><a name="f17.1" id="f17.1" href="#f17">[17]</a></small>
+says <ins class="correction" title="original reads 'H&aelig;ckel'">Haeckel</ins>, "rather than understanding,
+induces most people to combat the theory of their 'descent from apes.'
+It is simply because the organism of the ape appears a caricature of
+man, a distorted likeness of ourselves in a not very attractive form;
+because the customary &aelig;sthetic ideas and self-glorification of man are
+touched by this in so sensitive a point, that most men shrink from
+recognizing their descent from apes. It seems much pleasanter to be
+descended from a more highly developed divine being, and hence, as is
+well known, human vanity has from the earliest times flattered itself by
+assuming the original descent of the race from gods or demi-gods."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="EVOLUTION" id="EVOLUTION"></a>EVOLUTION.</h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">In</span> the last chapter a description was given of the various stages in
+man's development, from the microscopic monad up. It will be necessary
+now to describe briefly the various laws which have governed this
+evolutionary chain from the monad to man. But before proceeding directly
+to the subject, let us look at the doctrine of evolution as a whole, and
+trace it first in the formation of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of evolution is also called the theory of development&mdash;it
+must not, however, be confused with Darwinism&mdash;for they are not exactly
+synonymous. Darwinism is an attempt to explain the laws or manner of
+evolution. Strictly speaking, only the theory of selection should be
+called Darwinism, which was established in 1859. The theory of descent,
+or transmutation theory, or doctrine of filiation, should properly be
+called Lamarckism, who for the first time worked out the theory of
+descent as an independent scientific theory of the first order, and as
+the philosophical foundation of the whole science of biology.</p>
+
+<p>"According to the theory of development (evolution) in its simplest
+form," says Henry Hartshorne,<small><a name="f18.1" id="f18.1" href="#f18">[18]</a></small> "the universe as it now exists is a
+result of 'an immense series of changes,' related to and dependent upon
+each other as successive steps, or rather growths, constituting a
+progress; analogous to the unfolding or evolving of the parts of a
+growing organism." Herbert Spencer defined evolution as consisting
+in a progress from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from general to
+special, from the simple to the complex; and this process is considered
+to be traceable in the formation of worlds in space, in the
+multiplication of the types and species of plants and animals on the
+globe, in the origination and diversity of languages, literature, arts
+and sciences, and in all changes of human institutions and society.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i059.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Skeleton of Platypus.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i061.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents Pouched Animals (Marsupialia). Kangaroo. (Popular Science Monthly, Feb., 1876.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>Let us now apply this theory of evolution to the physical world. No
+determined opposition by the mass of people is likely to be manifested
+to the doctrine of evolution as applied to the physical world, or even
+to the vegetable or animal world up to man; but the minute man is
+included&mdash;then is a voice raised up against it, and it was for this
+reason that Darwin in his first work on the "Theory of Descent" did not
+mention man as being included in the evolutionary series. He knew too
+well the foolish human weakness that existed.</p>
+
+<p>In a recent work by Prof. Challes, he states that he regards the
+material universe as "a vast and wonderful mechanism of which the least
+wonderful thing is its being so constructed that we can understand it."</p>
+
+<p>The following is a brief description of the various theories of the
+world's formation:</p>
+
+<p><i>First Theory.</i>&mdash;By the first theory the world is supposed to have
+existed from eternity under its actual form. Aristotle embraced this
+doctrine, and conceived the universe to be the eternal effect of an
+eternal cause; maintaining that not only the heavens and the earth, but
+all animate and inanimate beings, are without beginning. To use Huxley's
+illustration: If you can imagine a spectator on the earth, however far
+back in time, he would have seen a world "essentially similar, though
+not perhaps in all its details, to that which now exists. The animals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+which existed would be the ancestors of those which now exist, and like
+them; the plants in like manner would be such as we have now, and like
+them; and the supposition is that, at however distant a period of time
+you place your observer, he would still find mountains, lands, and
+waters, with animal and vegetable products flourishing upon them and
+sporting in them just as he finds now." This theory being perfectly
+inconsistent with facts, had to be abandoned.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second Theory.</i>&mdash;The second theory considers the universe eternal, but
+not its form. This was the system of Epicurus and most of the ancient
+philosophers and poets, who imagined the world either to be produced by
+fortuitous concourse of atoms existing from all eternity, or to have
+sprung out of the chaotic form which preceded its present state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third Theory.</i>&mdash;By this theory the matter and form of the earth is
+ascribed to the direct agency of a spiritual cause. It is needless to
+say that this last theory has for its basis the popular account,
+generally credited to Moses in the first chapter of Genesis. I say
+popular, for it certainly is not a scientific account, nor was it the
+intention of the writer to make it so. The supposed object was to show
+the relation between the Creator and his works. If it had been an
+ultimate scientific account, the ablest minds of to-day would be unable
+to comprehend it, as science is progressive and constantly changing; in
+fifty thousand years to come, it would still appear utterly absurd. It
+cannot be said for this fact that the account is any the less true
+because it is not presented in scientific phraseology; for instance,
+when we remark in popular language "the sun rises," who shall say that
+though the expression is not astronomically true, we do not, for all
+practical purposes, utter as important a truth, as when we say, "The
+earth by its revolution brings us to that point where the sun becomes
+visible?" The language, also, in which the writer wrote was very
+imperfect; it had no equivalent to our word "air" or "atmosphere,"
+properly speaking, for they knew not the words. "Their nearest
+approaches," according to J. Pye Smith, "were with words that denoted
+watery vapor condensed, and thus rendered visible, whether floating
+around them or seen in the breathing of animals; and words for smoke
+from substances burning; and for air in motion, wind, a zephyr whisper
+or a storm." It must also be remembered, "that the Hebrews had no term
+for the abstract ideas which we express by 'fluid' or 'matter.' If the
+writer had designed to express the idea, 'In the beginning God created
+<i>matter</i>,' he could not have found words to serve his purpose" (Phin).</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i065.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Skeleton of Kangaroo. (Popular Science Monthly.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i067.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents Semi-Apes (Prosimi&aelig;). The Slow Loris, after
+<i>Tickel</i> and <i>Alp. Miln-Edwards</i>. (Natural History, by <i>Duncan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>It is unnecessary to state how the Bible, which contains the so-called
+Mosaic account, is regarded by the different church denominations, as
+undoubtedly that is familiar to every one. But with respect to the view
+entertained by the scientist and critical school of Biblical scholars,
+represented chiefly by modern Germans, I may state briefly: "They regard
+the Bible as the human record of a divine revelation; not absolutely
+infallible, since there is no book written in any human language but
+must partake in a measure of the imperfections of that language. Many of
+this school, while admitting the Bible to contain the record of a true
+supernatural revelation, do not consider it to be without positive error
+of historical fact, not without false coloring from popular legend and
+tradition, but nevertheless a record as good as human hands could make a
+truly divine revelation."<small><a name="f19.1" id="f19.1" href="#f19">[19]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>There is, though, a class of thinkers that altogether reject the Bible;
+that is to say, refuse to believe it to be a divine revelation. Hume,
+whom Huxley calls "the most acute thinker of the eighteenth century,"
+thus ends one of his essays: "If we take in hand any volume of divinity
+or school metaphysics, for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> instance, let us ask, <i>Does it contain any
+abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?</i> No. <i>Does it contain
+any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?</i> No.
+Commit it, then, to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry
+and illusion." To this Huxley says: "Permit me to enforce this wise
+advice, Why trouble ourselves about matters of which, however important
+they may be, we do know nothing, and can know nothing? We live in a
+world which is full of misery and ignorance, and the plain duty of each
+and all of us is to try to make the little corner he can influence
+somewhat less miserable and somewhat less ignorant than it was before he
+entered it. To do this effectually, it is necessary to be fully
+possessed of only two beliefs: the first, that the order of nature is
+ascertainable by our faculties to an extent which is practically
+unlimited; the second, that our volitions count for something as a
+condition of the course of events. Each of these beliefs can be verified
+experimentally, as often as we like to try. Each, therefore, stands upon
+the strongest foundation upon which any belief can rest, and forms one
+of our highest truths."</p>
+
+<p>The first words in the Mosaic account are:<small><a name="f20.1" id="f20.1" href="#f20">[20]</a></small> "In the beginning God
+created the heaven and the earth."<small><a name="f21.1" id="f21.1" href="#f21">[21]</a></small> It is seen, then, that the
+so-called revelation points to a beginning. The beginning referred to is
+an absolute beginning, for we find: "In the beginning was the Word, and
+the Word was with God, and the Word was God."<small><a name="f22.1" id="f22.1" href="#f22">[22]</a></small> *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* "All things were
+made by Him; and without Him was not anything made that was made."<small><a name="f23.1" id="f23.1" href="#f23">[23]</a></small>
+Science points also to a beginning.</p>
+
+<p>Geology points to a time when man did not inhabit the earth; when for
+him there was a beginning. So, too, for lower organisms; so, too, for
+the rocky minerals; so, too, for the round <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>world itself. But the
+beginning that science points to is not an absolute beginning. Science
+has to start from some point, and that point must have a scientific
+foundation&mdash;the foundation of science is matter, which is inseparable
+from form and force. Natural science teaches that matter is eternal and
+imperishable; for experience has never shown us that even the smallest
+particle of matter has come into existence or passed away. "A
+naturalist," says Haeckel, "can no more imagine the coming into
+existence of matter than he can imagine its disappearance, and he
+therefore looks upon the existing quantity of matter in the universe as
+a given fact." "The creation of matter, if, indeed," says Haeckel,<small><a name="f24.1" id="f24.1" href="#f24">[24]</a></small>
+"it ever took place, is completely beyond human comprehension, and can
+therefore never become a subject of scientific inquiry. We can as little
+imagine a <i>first beginning</i> of the eternal phenomena of the motion of
+the universe as of its final end."<small><a name="f25.1" id="f25.1" href="#f25">[25]</a></small> It is evident, then, that the
+absolute beginning of the universe and its absolute end are not
+questions of science, and can be known only as revealed by faith. Paul
+says: "By faith we understand that the world was framed by the word of
+God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which
+appeared."<small><a name="f26.1" id="f26.1" href="#f26">[26]</a></small></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i071.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents Tailed Apes (Menocerca). Proboscis
+Monkey (Presbytes larvatus). (Mammalia.)&mdash;<i>Louis Figuier.</i></p>
+
+<p class="caption">The natives of Borneo pretend that these monkeys, or, as sometimes
+called, Kahan, are men who have retired to the woods to avoid paying
+taxes; and they entertain the greatest respect for a being who has found
+such ready means of evading the responsibilities of
+society.&mdash;<i>Figuier.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i073.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Photographically reduced from diagrams of the natural size
+(except that of the Gibbon, which was twice as large as nature), drawn
+by <i>Waterhouse Hawkins</i>, from specimens in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. (<i>Huxley's</i> "Man's Place in Nature.")</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If, therefore, science makes the "history of creation" its highest and
+most difficult and most comprehensible problem, it must deal with "<i>the
+coming into being of the form</i> of natural bodies." Let us look for a
+minute at Kant's Cosmogony, or, as Haeckel says,<small><a name="f27.1" id="f27.1" href="#f27">[27]</a></small> Kant's Cosmological
+Gas Theory: "This wonderful theory," says Haeckel, "harmonizes with all
+the general series of phenomena at present known to us, and stands in no
+irreconcilable contradiction to any one of them. Moreover, it is purely
+mechanical and monistic, makes use exclusively of the in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>herent forces
+of eternal matter, and entirely excludes every supernatural process,
+every prearranged and conscious action of a personal creator." Compare
+this last statement with the following: "I will, however," says
+Haeckel,<small><a name="f28.1" id="f28.1" href="#f28">[28]</a></small> "not deny that Kant's grand cosmogony has some weak
+points." *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* "A great unsolved difficulty lies in the fact that the
+cosmological gas theory furnishes no starting-point at all in
+explanation of the first impulse which caused the rotary motion in the
+gas-filled universe."</p>
+
+<p>Whewell<small><a name="f29.1" id="f29.1" href="#f29">[29]</a></small> has pointed out, that the nebular hypothesis is null without
+a creative act to produce the inequality of distribution of cosmic
+matter in space.</p>
+
+<p>It is seen, then, that according to Kant's theory we are to suppose that
+millions of years ago there appeared a nebulous mass possessing a rotary
+motion, and unequally distributed through space. This is what science
+calls a beginning, and may assert that every physical event of a hundred
+million of ages existed potentially in that nebulous mass. But this is
+really no explanation of the ultimate and real cause of anything. Reason
+demands the cause of this beginning, the source that gave to the
+nebulous mass its rotary motion; the power that distributed the matter
+in space; the antecedents of the cosmical vapor. In absence of
+antecedents, what was the cause of this fire-mist&mdash;of these forces
+active in it? Reason will never remain satisfied until these questions
+are answered. But physical science can trace the thread no further back,
+and must be dumb to all ulterior inquiries. It is true, then, as
+physicists assert, "that their science does not mount actually to God."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 77">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i077fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i077fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i077fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Represents Man-like Apes (Anthropoides).<br />The Male Gorilla. (Natural History, by <i>Duncan</i>.)</td>
+<td align="center" valign="top"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;Represents Ape-like Men (Pithecanthropi).<br />Imaginative. (From Scientific American.)</td>
+<td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Men (Homines). From Woolly-haired Men developed the Papuans.<br />(Scientific American, March 11, 1876.)</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i079.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;The Monkey Men of Dourga Strait. (Natural History, by <i>Rev. Dr. Wood</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>To God then, in strict accordance with our reason, is to be attributed
+not only the origination of matter, but all its future developments.
+When I speak of matter, it must be understood <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>that I mean force;
+for "if matter were not force, and immediately known as force, it could
+not be known at all, could not be rationally inferred. The operation of
+force could furnish no evidence of the existence of forceless matter. If
+force is not matter, then force can exist and operate without matter;
+its existence and operation are no evidence of the existence of matter.
+And as matter is forceless, it can itself give no evidence of its own
+existence, for that would be an exercise of force. If force cannot exist
+and operate without matter, then force depends for its existence and
+operation on the forceless, which destroys itself; or force depends for
+its existence on matter as some property or force, and so matter and
+force are identified, and force depends on itself only, as it must."<small><a name="f30.1" id="f30.1" href="#f30">[30]</a></small>
+The idea, then, that force is an attribute of matter and inherent in it,
+is absurd, for there is not a shadow of evidence that force is or can be
+an attribute of matter. We have no knowledge of the origin of any force
+save of that which emanates from human volition. All our knowledge of
+force presents it as an effort of intelligent will. "We are driven,"
+says Winchell, "by the necessary laws of thought, to pronounce those
+energies styled gravitation, heat, chemical affinity and their
+correlates, nothing less than intelligent will. But as it is not human
+will which energizes in whirlwind and the comet, it must be divine
+will." "In all cases, the creative power of God is an act of power, and
+the power does not perish with its inception, but continues to operate
+until the act is reversed and undone; so that everything that God has
+created constitutes a positive and intrinsic force, though borrowed from
+Him. Every incident runs back to God as its originator and real cause.
+The true philosophical doctrine makes God distinct from all his works,
+and yet acting in them. This doctrine has been held by the greatest
+thinkers <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>the world has ever produced, such as Descartes, Lerbrisky,
+Berkeley, Herschel, Faraday, and a multitude of others." "It seems to be
+required," says Dr. McCosh, "by that deep law of causation which not
+only prompts us to seek for a law in everything but an adequate cause,
+to be found only in an intelligent mind." "Our greatest American
+thinker, Jonathan Edwards," says Dr. McCosh, (whom I can claim as my
+predecessor,) "maintains that, as an image in a mirror is kept up by a
+constant succession of rays of light, so nature is sustained by a
+constant forth-putting of the divine power. In this view Nature is a
+perpetual creation. God is to be seen not only in creation at first, but
+in the continuance of all things." "They continue to this day according
+to Thine ordinances."</p>
+
+<p>Returning now to the history of the creation given by Moses, Haeckel
+says, "Although Moses looks upon the results of the great laws of
+organic development as the direct actions of a constructing Creator, yet
+in his theory there lies hidden the ruling idea of a progressive
+development and a differentiation of the originally simple matter. We
+can therefore bestow our just and sincere admiration on the Jewish
+lawgiver's grand insight into nature, without discovering in it a
+so-called 'divine revelation.' That it cannot be such is clear from the
+fact that two great fundamental errors are asserted in it, namely, first
+the <i>geocentric</i> error, that the earth is the fixed central point of the
+whole universe, round which the sun, moon and stars move; and secondly,
+the <i>anthropocentric</i> error that man is the premeditated aim of the
+creation of the world, for whose service alone all the rest of nature is
+said to have been created. The former of these errors was demolished by
+Copernicus' System of the Universe in the beginning of the sixteenth
+century, the latter by Lamarck's Doctrine of Descent in the beginning of
+the nineteenth century."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Page 83">
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;Australian Savage.&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. II.</span>&mdash;Skull of Orang-utan (Simia satyrus).&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><b>Fig. IV.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. III.</span>&mdash;Skull of Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger).</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. IV.</span>&mdash;Skull of Gorilla.&mdash;<i>Duncan.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><b>Fig. V.</b></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><b>Fig. VI.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig5.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><img src="images/i083fig6.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. V.</span>&mdash;Skull of European.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. VI.</span>&mdash;Skull of Negro.&mdash;<i>Orton.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>Prof. Huxley, in his lecture on "Evidences of Evolution," spoke of the
+Mosaic account as Milton's hypothesis. First, "because," says Huxley,
+"we are now assured upon the authority of the highest critics, and even
+of dignitaries of the church, that there is no evidence whatever that
+Moses ever wrote this chapter, or knew anything about it;" and second,
+as this hypothesis is presented in Milton's work on "Paradise Lost," it
+is appropriate to call it the Miltonic Hypothesis. "In the Miltonic
+account," says Huxley, "the order in which animals should have made
+their appearance in the stratified rocks would be this: Fishes,
+including the great whale, and birds; after that all the varieties of
+terrestrial animals. Nothing could be further from the facts as we find
+them. As a matter of fact we know of not the slightest evidence of the
+existence of birds before the jurassic and perhaps the triassic
+formations. If there were any parallel between the Miltonic account and
+the circumstantial evidence, we ought to have abundant evidence in the
+devonian, the silurian, and carboniferous rocks. I need not tell you
+that this is not the case, and that not a trace of birds makes its
+appearance until the far later period which I have mentioned. And again,
+if it be true that all varieties of fishes, and the great whales and the
+like, made their appearance on the fifth day, then we ought to find the
+remains of these things in the older rocks&mdash;in those which preceded the
+carboniferous epoch. Fishes, it is true, we find, and numerous ones; but
+the great whales are absent, and the fishes are not such as now live.
+Not one solitary species of fish now in existence is to be found there,
+and hence you are introduced again to the difficulty, to the dilemma,
+that either the creatures that were created then, which came into
+existence the sixth day, were not those which are found at present, or
+are not the direct and immediate predecessors of those which now exist;
+but in that case you must either have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> had a fresh species of which
+nothing has been said, or else the whole story must be given up as
+absolutely devoid of any circumstantial evidence."</p>
+
+<p>It is for these and many other reasons that I feel bound to omit the
+Mosaic account, no matter how near some portions of it coincide with the
+facts the earth has opened out to the scientist.</p>
+
+
+<h3>KANT'S COSMOGONY.</h3>
+
+<p>It is maintained by Kant's Cosmogony that every substance, be it solid
+or liquid, constituting the entire universe, was, inconceivable ages
+ago, in their homogeneous gaseous or nebulous condition. Owing to an
+impulse being given to the nebulous mass, it acquired a rotary movement,
+which divided the nebulous mass up into a number of masses which, owing
+to the rotation, acquired greater density than the remaining gaseous
+mass, and then acted on the latter as central points of attraction. Our
+solar system was thus a gigantic gaseous or nebulous ball, all the
+particles of which revolved around a common central point&mdash;the solar
+nucleus. This nebulous ball assumed by its continual rotation a more or
+less flattened spheroidal form. By the continual revolution of this
+mass, under the influence of the centripetal and centrifugal forces, a
+circular nebular ring separated (like the present ring around Saturn)
+from the rotating ball. In time the nebulous ring condensed to a planet,
+which began to revolve around its own axis. When the centrifugal force
+became more powerful than the centripetal force in the planet, rings
+were formed, which, in turn, formed planets which revolved around their
+axes, as also around their planets, as the latter moved around the sun,
+and thus arose the moons, only one of which moves around our earth,
+while four move around Jupiter and six around Uranus. This order of
+things was repeated over and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> over again until thereby arose the
+different solar systems&mdash;the planets rotating around their central suns,
+and the satellites or moons moving around their planets. By a continuous
+increasing of refrigeration and condensation, a fiery fluid or molten
+state occurred in these rotating bodies. They then emitted an enormous
+amount of heat by rapid condensation, and the rotating bodies&mdash;suns,
+planets, and moons&mdash;soon became glowing balls of fire, emitting light
+and heat. The <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">1000</span> part of a pound of magnesium wire, burning in the
+open air, will give a light which will last during one second, and can
+be seen at a distance of thirty miles; imagine, then, what the light
+would be from these huge balls of fire floating through space. The earth
+forms a small part&mdash;nay, even the sun whose mass is equal to 354,936
+earths like ours, is but an infinitesimal portion of the whole. By the
+continual emitting of heat, however, these fiery balls had a crust form
+on the outside, which enclosed a fiery fluid nucleus. The crust for a
+time must have been a smooth sheet, but afterward very uneven, having
+protuberances and cavities form over its surface, owing to the molten
+mass within becoming condensed and contracted; the crust not following
+this change sufficiently close, must have fallen in, and thus produced
+the cavities.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="heads">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i087mongolian.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087malay.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087ethiopian.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087amer_indi.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Mongolian.</td>
+<td align="center">Malay.</td>
+<td align="center">Ethiopian.</td>
+<td align="center">American Indian.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"><img src="images/i087central.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"><span class="smcap">Facial Angle</span>, by <i>Prof. Nelson Sizer</i>.<br />1, Snake; 2, Dog; 3, Elephant; 4, Ape;<br />5, Human Idiot;
+6, The Bushman; 7, The Uncultivated; 8, The Improved;<br />9, The Civilized; 10, The Enlightened; 11, The Caucasian (highest type).</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/i087caucasian.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087noseape.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087julia.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td align="center"><img src="images/i087idiot.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Caucasian<br />(after <i>Van Evrie</i>).</td>
+<td align="center">Head of Nose-Ape<br />(after <i>Brehm</i>).</td>
+<td align="center">Julia Pastrana<br />(Photographed by <i>Hintye</i>).</td>
+<td align="center">Living Idiot<br />(on Blackwell's Island).</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>All the time, by the condensation, the diameter of the earth was being
+diminished. The irregular cooling of the crust caused irregular
+contractions on the surface, and as the diameter of the molten mass
+within was continually diminishing, many elevations and depressions were
+caused, which were the foundations of mountains and valleys.</p>
+
+<p>After the temperature of the earth had been reduced by the thickening of
+the crust&mdash;when it became sufficiently cool&mdash;the water which existed in
+steam was condensed and precipitated, falling in torrents, washing down
+the elevations, filling the depressions with the mud carried along, and
+depositing it in layers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> It was not until the earth became covered with
+water that life was possible in any form, as both animals and plants
+consist to a very great extent of water. At this stage in the history of
+the earth, then, the little mass of protoplasm, which we have spoken so
+much about, came into existence in all probability, as has been stated,
+by spontaneous generation.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LAWS OF EVOLUTION.</h3>
+
+<p>Let us now examine some of the laws of evolution, as also some of the
+connecting links which blend one stage of man's development with
+another, which at first thought would seem unexplainable.</p>
+
+<p>Haeckel<small><a name="f31.1" id="f31.1" href="#f31">[31]</a></small> summarizes the inductive evidences of Darwinism as follows:
+1. Paleontological series (phylogeny); 2. Embryological development of
+the individual (ontogeny); 3. The correspondence in the terms of these
+two series; 4. Comparative anatomy (typical forms and structures); 5.
+Correspondence between comparative anatomy and ontogeny; 6. Rudimentary
+organs (dipeliology); 7. The natural system of organisms
+(classification); 8. Geographical distribution (chorology); 9.
+Adaptation to the environment (&oelig;cology); 10. The unity of biological
+phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>It will of course be impossible to consider even hastily all of the
+inductive evidence belonging to the several groups mentioned above, for
+the scope of this work would not permit of it. Only such facts as
+present themselves most forcibly to the mind will be considered.</p>
+
+<p>Darwinism, as has already been stated, is not the doctrine of evolution;
+it is, however, a successful attempt to explain the law or manner of
+evolution. The <i>law of natural selection</i>, pointed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> out by Darwin, is
+called by Herbert Spencer, <i>The struggle for existence</i>. Darwin
+discovered that natural selection produces fitness between organisms and
+their circumstances, which explains the law of <i>the survival of the
+fittest</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well-known fact that man can, by pursuing a certain method of
+breeding or cultivation, improve and in various ways modify the
+character of the different domestic animals and plants. By always
+selecting the best specimen from which to propagate the race, those
+features which it is desired to perpetuate become more and more
+developed; so that what are admitted to be real varieties sometimes
+acquire, in the course of successive generations, a character as
+strikingly distinct, to all appearances, from those of the varieties, as
+one species is from another species of the same genus. It is evident
+that both natural and artificial selection depends on adaptation and
+inheritance. The difference between the two forms of selection is that,
+in the first case, the will of man makes the selection according to a
+plan, whereas in natural selection the struggle for life and the
+survival of the fittest acts without a plan other than that the most
+adaptable organism shall survive which is most fit to contend with the
+circumstances under which it is placed. Natural selection acts,
+therefore, much more slowly than artificial selection, although it
+brings about the same end. Adaptation in the struggle for life is an
+absolute necessity.</p>
+
+<p>In every act of breeding, a certain amount of protoplasm is transferred
+from the parents to the child, and along with it there is transferred
+the individual peculiar molecular motion. Adaptation or transmutation
+depends upon the material influence which <ins class="correction" title="Not in the original.">the</ins> organism experiences from its
+surroundings, or its conditions of existence; while the transmission
+from inheritance is due to the partial identity of producing and
+produced organisms.</p>
+
+<p>Organized beings, as a rule, are gifted with enormous powers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> of
+increase. Wild plants yield their crop of seed annually, and most wild
+animals bring forth their young yearly or oftener. Should this process
+go on unchecked, in a short time the earth would be completely overrun
+with living beings. It has been calculated that if a plant produces
+fifty seeds (which is far below the reproductive capacity of many
+plants) the first year, each of these seeds growing up into a plant
+which produces fifty seeds, or altogether two thousand five hundred
+seeds the next year, and so on, it would under favorable conditions of
+growth give rise in nine years to more plants by five hundred trillions
+than there are square feet of dry land upon the surface of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Slow-breeding man has been known to double his number in twenty-five
+years, and according to Euler, this might occur in little over twelve
+years. But assuming the former rate of increase, and taking the
+population of the United States at only thirty millions, in six hundred
+and eighty-five years their living progeny would have each but a square
+foot to stand upon, were they spread over the entire globe, land and
+water included. But millions of species are doing the same thing, so
+that the inevitable result of this strife cannot be a matter of chance.
+Evidently those individuals or varieties having some advantage over
+their competitors will stand the best chance to live, while those
+destitute of these advantages will be liable to destruction. Nature may
+be said (metaphorically) to choose (like the will of man in artificial
+selection) which shall be preserved and which destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>That portion of the theory of development which maintains the common
+descent of all species of animals and plants from the simplest common
+origin, I have already stated with full justice should be called
+Lamarckism. Progress is recognized by all scientists to be a law of
+nature. Some of the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> important facts which sustain the theory of
+development, I propose now to present as briefly as possible.</p>
+
+
+<h3>RUDIMENTARY ORGANS.</h3>
+
+<p>One of the strongest arguments in favor of the hypothesis of a genetic
+connection among all animals (including man), at least among all those
+belonging to the same great types, is the presence of rudimentary parts.
+By rudiments in anatomy are meant organs or structures imperfectly
+developed, so as to be almost or entirely without functional use. "Each
+of them represents in germ, as it were, in one animal (or plant), that
+which is perfect and useful in another type."</p>
+
+<p>For a few examples: The little fold of caruncle at the inner margin of
+the eye in man, represents the nictitating membrane of birds. Eyes which
+do not see form a striking example. These are found in very many animals
+which live in the dark, as in caves or underground. Their eyes are often
+perfectly developed but are covered by a membrane, so that no ray of
+light can enter and they can never see. Such eyes, without the function
+of sight, are found in several species of moles and mice which live
+underground, in serpents and lizards, in amphibious animals (proteus,
+c&aelig;cilia) and in fishes; also in numerous invertebrate animals which pass
+their lives in the dark, as do many beetles, crabs, snails, worms, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Other rudimentary organs are the wings of animals which cannot fly. For
+example, the wings of the running birds, like the ostrich, emeu,
+cassowary, etc., the legs of which become exceedingly developed. The
+muscles which move the ears of animals are still present in man, but of
+course are of no use; by continual practice persons have been able to
+move their ears by these muscles. The rudiment of the tail of animals
+which man<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> possesses in his 3-5 tail vertebr&aelig;, is another rudimentary
+part&mdash;in the human embryo it stands out prominently during the first two
+months of its development; it afterwards becomes hidden. "The
+rudimentary little tail of man is irrefutable proof that he is descended
+from tailed ancestors." In woman the tail is generally, by one vertebra,
+longer than in man. There still exists rudimentary muscles in the human
+tail which formerly moved it.</p>
+
+<p>Another case of human rudimentary organs, only belonging to the male,
+and which obtains in like manner in all mammals, is furnished by the
+mammary glands on the breast, which, as a rule, are active only in the
+female sex. However, cases of different mammals are known, especially of
+men, sheep and goats, in which the mammary glands were fully developed
+in the male sex, and yield milk as food for their offspring. The
+vermiform appendix of the large intestine in man, is another
+illustration of a part which has no use, but in one marsupial is three
+times the length of its body. The rudimentary covering of hair over
+certain portions of the body, is not without interest. Over the body we
+find but a scanty covering, which is thick only on the head, in the
+armpits, and on some other parts of the body. The short hairs on the
+greater part of the body are entirely useless, and are the last scanty
+remains of the hairy covering of our ape ancestors. Both on the upper
+and lower arm the hairs are directed toward the elbow, where they meet
+at an obtuse angle&mdash;this striking arrangement is only found in man and
+the anthropoid apes, the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, and several species
+of gibbons. The fine short hairs on the body become developed into
+"thickset, long, and rather coarse dark hairs," when abnormally
+nourished near old-standing inflamed surfaces.<small><a name="f32.1" id="f32.1" href="#f32">[32]</a></small> The fine wool-like
+hair or so-called lanugo with which the human f&oelig;tus, during the fifth
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> sixth months, is thickly covered, offers another proof that man
+is descended from an animal which was born hairy, and remained so during
+life. This covering is first developed during the fifth month, on the
+eyebrows and face, and especially around the mouth, where it is much
+longer than that on the head. Three or four cases have been recorded of
+persons born with their whole bodies and faces thickly covered with fine
+long hairs. Prof. Alex. Brandt compared the hair from the face of a man
+thus characterized, aged thirty-five, with the lanugo of a f&oelig;tus, and
+finds it quite similar in texture. Eschricht<small><a name="f33.1" id="f33.1" href="#f33">[33]</a></small> has devoted great
+attention to this rudimentary covering, and has thrown much light on the
+subject. He showed that the female as well as the male f&oelig;tus
+possessed this hairy covering, showing that both are descended from
+progenitors, both sexes of whom were hairy. Eschricht also showed, as
+stated above, that the hair on the face of the fifth month f&oelig;tus is
+longer on the face than on the head, which indicates that our semi-human
+progenitors were not furnished with long tresses, which must therefore
+have been a late acquisition. The question naturally arises, is there
+any explanation for the loss of hair covering?</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i096.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. I.</span>&mdash;The Hairy-Faced Burmese Family. (From Scientific American, Feb. 20, 1875.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Darwin is of the opinion that the absence of hair on the body is, to a
+certain extent, a secondary sexual character; for, in all parts of the
+world, women are less hairy than men. He says: "Therefore we may
+reasonably suspect that this character has been gained through sexual
+selection." As the body in woman is less hairy than in man, and as this
+character is common to all races, we may conclude that it was our female
+semi-human ancestors who were first divested of hair.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Grant Allen<small><a name="f34.1" id="f34.1" href="#f34">[34]</a></small> has given much study to the subject of the
+loss of hair in the human being; and his investigations <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>are worthy of
+careful consideration. He shows conclusively that those parts of an
+animal which are in constant contact with other objects are specially
+liable to lose their hair. This is noticeable on the under surface of
+the body of all animals which habitually lie on the stomach. The soles
+of the feet of all mammals where they touch the ground are quite
+hairless; the palms of the hands in the quadrumana present the same
+appearance. The knees of those species which frequently kneel, such as
+camels and other ruminants, are apt to become bare and hard-skinned. The
+friction of the water has been the means of removing the hair from many
+aquatic mammals&mdash;the whales, porpoises, dugongs, and manatees are
+examples.</p>
+
+<p>As the back of man forms the specially hairless region of his body, we
+must conclude that it is in all probability the first part which became
+entirely denuded of hair. The gorilla, according to Professor Gervais,
+is the only mammal which agrees with man in having the hair thinner on
+the back, where it is partly rubbed off, than on the lower surface. Du
+Chaillu states that he has "himself come upon fresh traces of a
+gorilla's bed on several occasions, and could see that the male had
+seated himself with his back against a tree-trunk." He also says: "In
+both male and female the hair is found worn off the back; but this is
+only found in very old females. This is occasioned, I suppose, by their
+resting at night against trees, at whose base they sleep." The gorilla
+has only very partially acquired the erect position, and probably sits
+but little in the attitude common to man. In man the case is different;
+in proportion as his progenitors grew more and more erect, he must have
+lain less and less upon his stomach, and more and more upon his back or
+sides, and this is seen in the savage man during his lazy hours&mdash;who
+stretches himself on the ground in the sun, with his back propped, where
+possible, by a slight mound or the wall of his hut. The con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>tinual
+friction of the surface of the back would arrest the growth of hair; for
+hair grows where there is normally less friction, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As man became more and more hairless, especially among savage and naked
+races, we should conclude that such a modification would be considered a
+beauty, and women would select such men in preference to more hairy
+individuals. The New Zealand proverb is: "There is no woman for a hairy
+man." Sexual selection, then, would play a very important part; and the
+difficulty of understanding how man became divested of hair is readily
+explained.</p>
+
+<p>Haeckel says: "Even if we knew absolutely nothing of the other phenomena
+of development, we should be obliged to believe in the truth of the
+theory of descent, solely on the ground of the existence of rudimentary
+organs."</p>
+
+
+<h3>REPRODUCTION BY MEANS OF EGGS.</h3>
+
+<p>It might be thought there existed a missing link between animals which
+lay eggs and those which do not; this, however, is done away with in
+many instances&mdash;one, for example, is found in our commonest indigenous
+snake. The ringed snake lays eggs which require three weeks time to
+develop; but when it is kept in captivity, and no sand is strewn in the
+cage, it does not lay eggs, but retains them until the young ones are
+developed. This only shows how powerfully influences affect the habit of
+animals.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DOUBLE-SEXED INDIVIDUALS.</h3>
+
+<p>Another difficulty might be supposed to arise between animals which
+produce themselves other than by sexual reproduction. This has already
+been slightly touched upon; and it has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> shown that numerous plants
+and animals propagate themselves through their double-sexed organs. It
+occurs in a great majority of plants, but only in a minority of animals;
+for example, the garden-snail, leeches, earth-worms, and many other
+worms. Every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual gland eggs,
+and in another part sperm.</p>
+
+<p>Parthenogenesis offers an interesting form of transition from sexual
+reproduction to the non-sexual formation of germ-cells (which most
+resembles it). It has been demonstrated to occur in many cases among
+insects, especially by Seebold's excellent investigations. Among the
+common bees, a male individual (a drone) arises out of the eggs of the
+queen, if the eggs have not been fructified; a female (a queen or
+working bee), if the egg has been fructified.</p>
+
+<p>Gonochorismus or sexual separation, which characterizes the more
+complicated of the two kinds of sexual reproduction, has evidently been
+developed from the condition of hermaphroditism at a late period of the
+organic history of the world. In this case the female individual in both
+animal and plant produces eggs or egg-cells. In animals, the male
+individual secretes the fructifying sperm (sperma); in plants, the
+corpuscles, which correspond to the sperm.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INHERITANCE.</h3>
+
+<p>The remarkable facts of inheritance, extending to the reproduction of
+unimportant peculiarities of parts or organs (rudimentary parts)
+mentioned above, and the occasional outbreak of ancestral characters
+that have been dormant through several generations (some of which I will
+mention further on), might be thought perfectly unexplainable; but they
+are readily accounted for by the supposition that each part of an
+organism contributes its constituent and effective molecules to the germ
+and sperm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> particles. Mr. Sorby made numerous investigations with
+relation to the number of molecules in the germinal matter of eggs, and
+the spermatic matter supplied by the male. Omitting the alkali, Mr.
+Sorby takes the formula, C<sub>72</sub>H<sub>112</sub>N<sub>18</sub>SO<sub>22</sub>, as representing the
+composition of albumen. In a <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">2000</span> of an inch cube, he reckons&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="albumen">
+<tr><td>Albumen</td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="right">18,000,000,000,000</td><td align="right">&nbsp;molecules.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water</td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="right">992,000,000,000,000</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td colspan="2" align="right">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">1,010,000,000,000,000</td><td align="right">molecules.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Or, in a sphere of the same diameter, 530,000,000,000,000 of the two
+components. Taking a single mammalian spermatozoon, having a mean
+diameter of <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">6000</span> of an inch; "it might contain two and a half million
+of such gemmules. If these were lost, destroyed, or fully developed at
+the rate of one in each second, this number would be exhausted in about
+one month; but since a number of spermatozoa appears to be necessary to
+produce perfect fertilization, it is quite easy to understand that the
+number of gemmules introduced into the ovum may be so great that the
+influence of the male parent may be very marked, even after having been,
+as regards particular character, apparently dormant for many years." The
+germinal vesicle of a mammalian ovum being about <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">1000</span> of an inch, mean
+diameter, might contain five hundred million of gemmules, which, if used
+up at the rate of one per second, would last more than seventeen years.
+If the whole ovum, about <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">150</span> in diameter, were all gemmules, the
+number would be sufficient to last, at this rate, one per second for
+5,600 years! This, however, is not probable; but Mr. Sorby's remarks has
+completely removed all doubt as to its physical possibility from the
+Darwinian theory; "and they prompt us," says Slack, "to a wonderful
+conception of the powers residing in minute quantities of matter."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>The laws of inheritance are divisible into two series, conservative and
+progressive transmission; the laws of adaptation to direct (active) or
+indirect (potential) adaptation.</p>
+
+<p>External causes often influence the reproductive system, especially in
+organism propagating in a sexual way. This can be strikingly shown in
+artificially produced monstrosities. Monstrosities can be produced by
+subjecting the parental organism to certain extraordinary conditions of
+life; and curiously enough, such an extraordinary condition of life does
+not produce a change of the organism itself, but a change in its
+descendants. The new formation exists in the parental organism only as a
+possibility (potential); in the descendants it becomes a reality
+(actual). Most commonly, monstrosities with very abnormal forms are
+sterile, but there are instances where they reproduce their kind and
+become a species.<small><a name="f35.1" id="f35.1" href="#f35">[35]</a></small> Geoffroy St. Hilaire, who perhaps made the deepest
+investigations ever conducted into the nature and causes of their
+production, first conceived the idea of artificially producing them, and
+to this end he began modifications of the physical conditions of the
+evolution of the chicken during natural and artificial incubation. He
+determined the fact that monsters could be produced in this way, but
+scarcely carried his investigation further. This work has been taken up
+by M. Dareste, and he has lately published a volume in Paris which
+recounts the results of a quarter of a century's experimenting. Eggs, he
+states, were submitted to incubation in a vertical instead of a
+horizontal position; they were covered with varnish in certain places so
+as to stop or modify evaporation and respiration. The evolution of the
+chick was rendered slower by a temperature below that of the normal heat
+of incubation. Finally, eggs were warmed only at one point, so that the
+young animal, during development, was submitted at different
+parts to variable temperatures.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><b>Fig. 1.</b></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><b>Fig. 2.</b></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><b>Fig. 3.</b></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><b>Fig. 4.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="12" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig5.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr><tr><td colspan="12" align="center"><b>Fig. 5.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"><b>Fig. 6.</b></td><td colspan="4" align="center"><b>Fig. 7.</b></td><td colspan="4" align="center"><b>Fig. 8.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig6.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="4" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig7.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td colspan="4" align="center"><img src="images/i104fig8.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>These perturbations resulted in the most curious and unlooked for
+deformities in the embryo, some being not alone peculiar to the bird,
+but being similar to those which have been recognized in many other
+animals, and even in the human species. The data obtained have been
+deemed so important that M. Dareste has recently received the Lacaze
+prize for physiology from the French Academy of Sciences.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible to review even a fraction of the many forms of
+monstrosities which M. Dareste has discovered. Those that we give will,
+however, suffice to convey an idea of the wonderful variations produced.
+Fig. 1 is a chick embryo with the encephalon entirely outside the head,
+the heart, liver, and gizzard outside the umbilical opening, right wing
+lifted up beside the head, and the development of the left one stopped.
+In Fig. 2 the encephalon is herniated and marked with blood spots, the
+eye is rudimentary and replaced by a spot of pigment, the upper beak is
+shorter than the lower one, while the heart, liver, etc., are all
+outside. In Figs. 3 and 4 the head is compressed, eyes well developed,
+but in the back instead of in the sides of the head; the body is bent,
+abdominal intestines not closed, heart largely developed and herniated.
+The literal references to the foregoing are: <i>am</i>, amnion; <i>al</i>,
+allantois; <i>v</i>, vitellus; <i>h</i>, encephalon; <i>i</i>, eye; <i>c</i>, heart; <i>f</i>,
+liver; <i>g</i>, gizzard; <i>ms</i>, upper, and <i>mi</i>, lower member.</p>
+
+<p>The commonest case of monstrosity observed by M. Dareste has been that
+of the head protruding from the navel, and the heart or hearts above the
+head. This is a most extraordinary and new monster, and, if it persist,
+a chicken with its heart on its back, like a hump, may be expected. A
+curious fact discovered is the duplicity of the heart at the beginning
+of incubation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> two hearts, beating separately, being clearly seen.
+Another anomaly consists in heads with a frontal swelling, which is
+filled by the cerebral hemispheres.</p>
+
+<p>M. Dareste's artificial monsters are all produced from the single germ
+or cicatricule (as the white circular spot seen in the yellow of the
+egg, and from which the embryo springs, is termed). He has not yet been
+able to determine artificially the production of monsters, the origin of
+which takes place in a peculiar state of the cicatricule before
+incubation. But having submitted to incubation some 10,000 eggs, he has
+obtained several remarkable examples of double monstrosities in process
+of formation, some representations of which are given herewith. Fig. 5
+shows three embryos, all derived from a single cicatricule. Fig. 6
+represents three embryos from two cicatricules. On one side of the line
+of junction are two imperfectly developed embryos, one having no heart.
+The single embryo on the other side is generally normal, but has a heart
+on the right side. In Fig. 7 are twins, one well formed, the heart
+circulating colorless blood, the other having no heart and a rudimentary
+head. Fig. 8 exhibits a double monster with lateral union. The heads are
+separate, and there are three upper and three lower members, those of
+the latter on the median line belonging equally to each of the pair.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ACQUIRED QUALITIES.</h3>
+
+<p>When an organism has been subjected to abnormal conditions in life it
+can transmit any peculiarity it may have acquired. This is, however, not
+always possible, otherwise descendants of men who have lost their arm or
+leg would be born without the corresponding arm or leg&mdash;this shows that
+some acquired qualities are more easily transmitted than
+others&mdash;although there are cases, as, for instance, a race of dogs
+without tails has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> been produced by cutting off the tails of both sexes
+of the dog, during several generations. "A few years ago," says Haeckel,
+"a case occurred on an estate near Jena in which, by the careless
+slamming of a stable-door, the tail of a bull was wrenched off, and the
+calves begotten by this bull were all born without a tail. This is
+certainly an exception; but it is very important to note the fact that
+under certain unknown conditions such violent changes are transmitted in
+the same manner as many diseases." The transmission of diseases such as
+consumption, madness, and albinism form examples. Albinoes are those
+individuals who are distinguished by the absence of coloring matter from
+their skins; they are of frequent occurrence among men, animals and
+plants. Among many animals, such as rabbits and mice, albinoes with
+white fur and red eyes are so much liked that they are propagated. This
+would be impossible were it not for the law of the transmission of
+adaptations. Hornless cattle have descended from a single bull born in
+1770 of horned parents, but whose absence of horns was the result of
+some unknown cause.</p>
+
+<p>The law of interrupted or latent transmission, as illustrated in
+grandchildren who are like the grandparents, but quite unlike the
+parents. Animals often resume a form which have not existed for many
+generations. One of the most remarkable instances of this kind of
+reversion, or "atavism," is the fact that in some horses there sometimes
+appear singular dark stripes similar to those of the zebra, quagga, and
+other wild species of African horse.</p>
+
+<p>Nutrition directly modifies adaptation, as is well illustrated by
+animals which have been bred for domestic or other purposes. If a farmer
+is breeding for fine wool he gives much different food to the sheep than
+he would if he wished to obtain flesh or an abundance of fat. Even the
+bodily form of man is quite different according to its nutrition. Food
+containing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> much nitrogen produces little fat, that containing little
+nitrogen produces a great deal of fat. People who by means of Banting's
+system, at present so popular, wish to become thin, eat only meat and
+eggs&mdash;no bread, no potatoes.</p>
+
+<p>Man can breed for milk in cattle, for feathers in pigeons, for colored
+flowers in plants, and, in fact, for almost any desirable quality.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GEOLOGICAL RECORD.</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Geological Record</i> (<ins class="correction" title="original reads 'paleontology'">pal&aelig;ontology</ins>) furnishes weighty evidence of
+man's descent; for the circumstantial evidence derived from this source
+is written without the possibility of a mistake, with no chance of
+error, on the stratified rocks. It is true that the geological record
+must be incomplete, because it can only preserve remains found in
+certain favorable localities, and under particular conditions; that this
+valuable record must be destroyed by processes of denudation, and
+obliterated by processes of metamorphosis, it cannot be doubted. "Beds
+of rock of any thickness, crammed full of organic remains, may yet,"
+says Huxley, "by the percolation of water through them, or the influence
+of subterranean heat (if they descend far enough toward the centre of
+the earth), lose all trace of these remains, and present the appearance
+of beds of rock formed under conditions in which there was no trace of
+living forms. Such metamorphic rocks occur in formations of all ages;
+and we know with perfect certainty, when they do appear, that they have
+contained organic remains, and that those remains have been absolutely
+obliterated." If we look at the geological record, we find:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The First Epoch.</span>&mdash;<i>The Archilithic</i>, or Primordial Epoch, constitutes
+the <i>Age of Skull-less Animals and Sea-weed Forests</i>, and is made up of
+the Laurentian, Cambrian, and Silurian Period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Second Epoch.</span>&mdash;<i>The Pal&aelig;olithic</i>, or Primary Epoch,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> constitutes the
+<i>Age of Fishes and Fern Forests</i>, and is made up of the Devonian, Coal,
+and Permian Period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Third Epoch.</span>&mdash;<i>The Mesolithic</i>, or Secondary Epoch, constitutes the
+<i>Age of Reptiles and Pine Forests, Conifer&aelig;</i>, and is made up of the
+Triassic, Jurassic, and Chalk Period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Fourth Epoch.</span>&mdash;<i>The C&aelig;nolithic</i>, or Tertiary Epoch, constitutes the
+<i>Age of Mammals and Leaf Forests</i>, and is made up of the Eocene,
+Miocene, and Phocene Period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Fifth Epoch.</span>&mdash;The <i>Anthropolithic</i>, or Quaternary Epoch, constitutes
+the <i>Age of Man and Cultivated Forests,</i> and is made up of the Glacial
+and Postglacial Period, and the Period of Culture.</p>
+
+<p>During the archilithic epoch the inhabitants of our planet, as has been
+already stated, consisted of skull-less animals, or aquatic forms. No
+remains of terrestrial animals or plants, dated from this period, have
+as yet been found.</p>
+
+<p>The archilithic period was longer than the whole long period between the
+close of the archilithic and the present time; for if the total
+thickness of all sedimentary strata be estimated as about one hundred
+and thirty thousand feet, then seventy thousand feet belong to this
+epoch. It was during this epoch that the little mass of protoplasm,
+which has been so often spoken of, came into existence.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated above that pal&aelig;ontology is quite deficient. This is
+not only true of the record, but of the lack as yet of sufficient
+investigations. The greatest fields of investigation in this department
+have never been explored. The whole of the petrifactions accurately
+known do not probably amount to a hundredth part of those which, by more
+elaborate explorations, are yet to be discovered. The most ancient of
+all distinctly preserved petrifactions is the Eozoon Canadense, which
+was found in the lowest Laurentian strata in the Ottawa formation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>Probably no discovery in pal&aelig;ontology ranks higher than the discovery of
+the descendants of the horse. The horse, for example, as far as his
+limbs and teeth go, differs far more from extant graminivora than man
+differs from the ape. Had not fossil ungulates been found, which
+demonstrate the common origin of the horse with didactyles and
+multidactyles, some would have deemed the horse a special miraculous
+creation. But now the links are complete, and the descent of the horse
+is found to follow exactly what the doctrine of evolution could have
+predicted.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ONTOGENY.</h3>
+
+<p>It has been stated that the pal&aelig;ontological record is quite incomplete,
+owing to many facts, some of which have been mentioned; fortunately, the
+history of the development of the organic individual, or ontogeny, comes
+in to fill up many deficiencies.</p>
+
+<p>Ontogeny is a repetition of the principal forms through which the
+respective individuals have passed from the beginning of their tribe,
+and its great advantage is that it reveals a field of information which
+it was impossible for the rocks to retain; for the petrification of the
+ancient ancestors of all the different animal and vegetable species,
+which were soft, tender bodies, was not possible.</p>
+
+<p>The annexed plate illustrates the dog, rabbit, and man in their first
+stages of development. Illustrations of a fish, an amphibious animal, a
+reptile, a bird, or any mammal, could also be given; for all vertebrate
+animals of the most different classes, in their early stages of
+development, cannot be distinguished, and the nearer the animal
+approaches man in the ascending scale, the longer does this similarity
+continue to exist&mdash;when reptiles and birds are distinctly different from
+mammals, the dog and the man are almost identical.</p>
+
+<p>The gill-arches of the fish exist in man, in dogs, in fowls, in
+reptiles, and in other vertebrate animals during the first stages of
+their development. Man also possesses, in his first stages, a real tail,
+as well as his nearest kindred&mdash;the tailless apes (orang-outang,
+chimpanzee, gorilla), and vertebrate animals in general. The tail, as
+has been stated, man still retains, though hidden as a rudiment.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="embryo">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Fig. I.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. IV.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. VII.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig4_7.png" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Fig. II.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. V.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. VIII.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig2.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig5_8.png" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Fig. III.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. VI.</b></td><td align="center"><b>Fig. IX.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/i111fig6_9.png" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> I.&mdash;Human Embryo.&mdash;<i>Ecker.</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> II.&mdash;Embryo of Dog.&mdash;<i>Bischoff.</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> III.&mdash;Dog Embryo.&mdash;<i>Huxley.</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Figs.</span> IV, V, and VI.&mdash;Embryo of Rabbit in three stages of development.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Figs.</span> VII, VIII, and IX.&mdash;Embryo of Man in three stages
+of development.&mdash;<i>Haeckel.</i> <i>v</i>, fore brain; <i>z</i>, twix brain; <i>m</i>,
+middle brain; <i>h</i>, hind brain; <i>n</i>, after brain; <i>r</i>, spinal marrow;
+<i>e</i>, nose; <i>a</i>, eye; <i>o</i>, ear; <i>k</i>, gillarches; <i>g</i>, heart; <i>w</i>,
+vertebral column; <i>f</i>, fore limbs; <i>b</i>, hind limbs; <i>s</i>, tail.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>"Man presents in his earliest stages of embryonic growth, a skeleton of
+cartilage, like that of the lamprey; also, five origins of the aorta and
+five slits on the neck, like the <i>lamprey</i> and the <i>shark</i>. Later, he
+has but four aortic origins, and a heart now divided into two chambers,
+like <i>bony fishes</i>; the optic lobes of his brain also having a very
+fish-like predominance in size. Three chambers of the heart and three
+aortic origins follow, presenting a condition permanent in the
+<i>batrachia</i>; then two origins with enlarged hemispheres of the brain, as
+in <i>reptiles</i>. Four heart chambers and one aortic root on each side,
+with slight development of the cerebellum, agree with the characters of
+the <i>crocodiles</i>, and immediately present the special mammalian
+conditions, single aortic root, and the full development of the
+<ins class="correction" title="original reads 'cerebelbellum'">cerebellum</ins>. Later comes that of the cerebrum, also in its higher
+mammalian or human traits." At no time in the development of the egg,
+save at the start, do the embryos of the various vertebra assume the
+<i>exact</i> or <i>entire</i> characteristics of one another, but they assimilate
+so closely that it requires the eye of the expert to distinguish them;
+and, as has already been stated, the more closely an animal resembles
+another, the longer and the more intimately do their embryos resemble
+one another; so that, for example, the embryo of the snake and of a
+lizard remain like one another longer than do those of a snake and of a
+bird; and the embryo of a dog and of a cat remain like one another for a
+far longer period than do those of a dog and a bird, or a dog and an
+opossum, or even those of a dog and a monkey.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>Surely it must be admitted that the short brief history given by the
+development of the egg, is far more wonderful than phylogeny or the long
+and slow history of the development of the tribe, which has taken
+thousands of years. Compare this time with the time required for the
+development of the smallest mammals&mdash;the harvest mice which develops in
+three weeks, or the smallest of all birds, the humming-bird, which quits
+the egg on the twelfth day, or with man who passes through the whole
+course of his development in forty weeks, or with the rhinoceros who
+requires 1&#189; years, or the elephant who requires ninety weeks. How
+insignificant are these various periods to the long period originally
+required; yet in these short periods the whole phylogeny is run through
+in the ontogeny or the history of the development of the egg.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="THE_ATTRIBUTES_OF_MAN" id="THE_ATTRIBUTES_OF_MAN"></a>THE ATTRIBUTES OF MAN.</h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">We</span> must now consider briefly some of the attributes of man, and see if
+he really possesses attributes which are in no inferior degree possessed
+by animals. Before proceeding directly to the consideration of the
+attributes of man, it will be best to show the correlation that exists
+between what are called man's vital forces and the physical forces of
+nature. To do this let us choose three forms of its manifestation: these
+shall be heat evolved within the body; muscular energy or motion; and
+lastly, nervous energy or that form of force which, on the one hand,
+stimulates a muscle to contract, and on the other appears in forms
+called mental. It will not take any extensive argument to demonstrate
+that the heat of the body does not differ from heat from any other
+source. It is known that the food taken into the body contains potential
+energy, which is capable of being in part converted into actual heat by
+oxidation; and since we know that the food taken into the body is
+oxidized by the oxygen of the air supplied by the lungs, the heat of the
+body must be due to the slow oxidation of the carbon, perhaps also
+hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus in the food. Now since this so-called
+vital heat is developed by oxidation, is recognized by the same tests
+and applied to the same purposes as any other heat, it is as truly
+correlated to the other forces as when it has a purely physical origin.
+The am&oelig;boid activity of a white blood corpuscle is stimulated within
+certain limits by heat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> Hatching of eggs and the germination of seeds
+may be likewise hastened or retarded by access or deprivation of heat.
+It was considerations such as these which led to the doctrine of
+correlation of the vital and physical forces.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the muscular force exerted by an animal, it was supposed
+that it was created by the animal. Dr. Frankland<small><a name="f36.1" id="f36.1" href="#f36">[36]</a></small> says to this: "An
+animal can no more generate an amount of force capable of moving a grain
+of sand, than a stone can fall upwards or a locomotive drive a train
+without fuel." As the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> exhaled by the lungs is increased
+in the exact ratio of work done by the muscle, it cannot be doubted that
+the actual force of the muscle is due to the converted potential energy
+of the food. Since every exertion of a muscle and nerves involves the
+death and decay of those tissues to a certain extent, as shown by the
+excretions, Prof. Orton<small><a name="f37.1" id="f37.1" href="#f37">[37]</a></small> has been led to say: "An animal begins to
+die the moment it begins to live." "A muscle," says Barker,<small><a name="f38.1" id="f38.1" href="#f38">[38]</a></small> "is like
+a steam-engine, is a machine for converting the potential energy of
+carbon into motion; but unlike a steam-engine, the muscle accomplishes
+this conversion directly, the energy not passing through the
+intermediate stages of heat. For this reason the muscle is the most
+economical producer of mechanical force known." The muscles which give
+the downward stroke of the wing of a bird are fastened to the
+breastbone, and their power in proportion to the weight of the bird is
+as 10,000 to 1. This great power is needed, for the air is 770 times
+lighter than water; the hawk being able to travel 150 miles an hour.</p>
+
+<p>The last of the so-called vital forces under consideration, is that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+produced by the nerves and nervous centres. Barker says: "In the nerve
+which stimulates a muscle to contract, this force is undeniably motion,
+since it is propagated along this nerve from one extremity to the
+other." This force has been likened unto electricity, the gray or
+cellular matter being the battery, the white or fibrous matter the
+conductors. Du Bois Reymond<small><a name="f39.1" id="f39.1" href="#f39">[39]</a></small> has demonstrated that this force is not
+electricity, though by showing that its velocity is only ninety-seven
+feet a second. The velocity varies, though, in different animals; it is,
+according to Prof. Orton,<small><a name="f40.1" id="f40.1" href="#f40">[40]</a></small> "more rapid in warm-blooded than in
+cold-blooded animals, being nearly twice as fast in man as in the frog."
+Wheatstone, by his method, gives the velocity of electricity in copper
+wire at 62,000 geographical miles per second; but as neither Fizeau,
+Gould, Gonnelle and others could arrive at the same result, the method
+was shown to be incorrect, and it remained for Dr. Siemen<small><a name="f41.1" id="f41.1" href="#f41">[41]</a></small> to
+discover the true method, which gives the velocity just one-half that of
+Wheatstone's estimate, or 31,000 geographical miles per second. In the
+opinion of Bence Jones, the propagation of a nervous impulse is a sort
+"of successive molecular polarization, like magnetism." But that this
+agent is a force as analogous to electricity as is magnetism, is shown
+not only by the fact that the transmission of electricity along a nerve
+will cause the contraction of a muscle to which it leads, but also by
+the important fact discovered by Marshall, that the contraction of a
+muscle is excited by diminishing its normal electrical current,<small><a name="f42.1" id="f42.1" href="#f42">[42]</a></small> a
+result which could take place only with a stimulus, says Barker,
+"closely allied to electricity. Nerve force must therefore be transmuted
+potential energy." Prof. Huxley says,<small><a name="f43.1" id="f43.1" href="#f43">[43]</a></small> "the
+results <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>of recent
+inquiries into the structure of the nervous system of animals, converge
+toward the conclusion that the nerve-fibres which we have hitherto
+regarded as ultimate elements of nervous tissue, are not such, but are
+simply the visible aggregations of vastly more attenuated filaments, the
+diameter of which dwindles down to the limits of our present microscopic
+vision, greatly as these have been extended by modern improvements of
+the microscope; and that a nerve is, in its essence, nothing but a
+linear tract of specially modified protoplasm between two points of an
+organism, one of which is able to affect the other by means of the
+communication so established. Hence it is conceivable that even the
+simplest living being may possess a nervous system."</p>
+
+<p>Herbert Spencer<small><a name="f44.1" id="f44.1" href="#f44">[44]</a></small> says all direct and indirect evidence "justifies us
+in concluding that the nervous system consists of <i>one</i> kind of matter.
+In the gray tissue this matter exists in masses containing <i>corpuscles</i>,
+which are soft and have granules dispersed through them, and which,
+besides being thus unstably composed, are placed so as to be liable to
+disturbances to the greatest degree. In the white tissue this matter is
+collected together in extremely slender <i>threads</i> that are denser, that
+are uniform in texture, and that are shielded in an unusual manner from
+disturbing forces, except at their two extremities."</p>
+
+<p>The last consideration is that form of force (thought power) which
+appears in manifestations called mental. It must be noticed at the
+outset, that every external manifestation of thought force is a muscular
+one, as a word spoken or written, a gesture, or an expression of the
+face always takes place; hence this force must be intimately correlated
+to nerve force. It is very certain, then, that thought force is capable
+in external manifestations of converting itself into actual motion. But
+here the question arises, can it be manifested inwardly without such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> a
+transformation of energy? Or is the evolution of thought entirely
+independent of the matter of the brain?</p>
+
+<p>This question can be answered by actual experiment, strange as it may
+appear. Experiments have demonstrated that any change of temperature
+within the skull was soonest manifested externally in that depression
+which exists just above the occipital protuberance. Here Lombard<small><a name="f45.1" id="f45.1" href="#f45">[45]</a></small>
+fastened to the head at this point two little bars, one made of bismuth,
+the other of an alloy of antimony and zinc, which were connected with a
+delicate galvanometer;<small><a name="f46.1" id="f46.1" href="#f46">[46]</a></small> to neutralize the result of a gradual rise of
+temperature over the whole body, a second pair of bars, reversed in
+direction, was attached to the leg or arm, so that if a like increase of
+heat came to both, the electricity developed by one would be neutralized
+by the other, and no effect would be produced by the needle unless only
+one was affected. By long practice it was ascertained that a mental
+torpor could be induced, lasting for hours, in which the needle remained
+stationary. But let a person knock on the door outside of the room, or
+speak a single word, even though the experimenter remained absolutely
+passive, the reception of the intelligence caused the needle to swing
+twenty degrees. "In explanation of this production of heat," says
+Barker,<small><a name="f47.1" id="f47.1" href="#f47">[47]</a></small> "the analogy of the muscle at once suggests itself. No
+conversion of energy is complete, and as the heat of muscular action
+represents force which has escaped conversion into motion, so the heat
+evolved during the reception of an idea is energy which has escaped
+conversion into thought, from precisely the same cause." Dr. Lombard's
+experiments have shown that the amount of heat developed by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>the
+recitation to one's self of emotional poetry, was in every case less
+when recitation was oral; this is of course accounted for by the
+muscular expression. Chemistry teaches that thought-force, like
+muscle-force, comes from the food, and demonstrates that the force
+evolved by the brain, like that produced by the muscle, comes not from
+the disintegration of its own tissue, but is the converted energy of
+burning carbon.<small><a name="f48.1" id="f48.1" href="#f48">[48]</a></small> "Can we longer doubt," says
+Barker,<small><a name="f49.1" id="f49.1" href="#f49">[49]</a></small> "that the
+brain too, is a machine for the conversion of energy? Can we longer
+refuse to believe that even thought force is in some mysterious way
+correlated to the other natural forces? and this even in the face of the
+fact that it has never yet been measured.<small><a name="f50.1" id="f50.1" href="#f50">[50]</a></small> Have we not a right to ask
+'why a special force (vital force) should be needed to effect the
+transformation of physical forces into those modes of energy which are
+active in the manifestation of living beings, while no peculiar force is
+deemed necessary to effect the transformation of one mode of physical
+force into any other mode of physical force?"</p>
+
+<p>Richard Owen says:<small><a name="f51.1" id="f51.1" href="#f51">[51]</a></small> "In the endeavor to clearly comprehend and
+explain the functions of the combination of forces called 'brain,' the
+physiologist is hindered and troubled by the views of the nature of
+those cerebral forces which the needs of dogmatic theology have imposed
+on mankind. *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* Religion, pure and undefiled, can best answer how far
+it is righteous or just to charge a neighbor with being unsound in his
+principles who holds the term 'life' to be a sound expressing the sum of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>living phenomena, and who maintains these phenomena to be modes of
+force into which other forms of force have passed from potential to
+active states, and reciprocally, through the agency of the sums or
+combinations of forces impressing the mind with the ideas signified by
+the terms 'monad,' 'moss,' 'plant,' or 'animal.'"</p>
+
+<p>We have now shown that the very forces which give vent to the attributes
+of man, are correlated to the physical forces. Let us now consider his
+attributes as manifested by his mental powers. There is no doubt the
+difference between the mental faculties of the ape and that of the
+lowest savage, who cannot express any number higher than four and who
+uses hardly any abstract terms for common objects or for the
+affections,<small><a name="f52.1" id="f52.1" href="#f52">[52]</a></small> is still very great and would still be great, says
+Darwin, "even if one of the higher apes had been improved or civilized
+as much as a dog has been in comparison with its parent form, the wolf
+or jackal." But when we examine the interval of mental power between one
+of the lowest fishes, as a lamprey or a lancelet, and one of the higher
+apes, and recognize the fact that this interval is filled up by
+numberless gradations, it does not become so difficult to understand the
+interval between an ape and man, which is not by far so great. As in
+finding out what is peculiar to a living body in distinction to a body
+not living, we found it absurd to take man as the perfection of the
+animal scale&mdash;the microscopic monad possessing life as well as him&mdash;so
+in the case of man's mental attributes, which have always been
+increasing, always perfecting, since the first genuine man came into
+existence, it would be equally absurd to compare the intellectual man of
+to-day with an ape to see what attributes he possesses which the ape
+does not possess; but if we go down in the scale and compare the savage
+with the ape, the difficulty is not by far so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> great. It will be found
+on close examination, though, that man and the higher animals,
+especially the primates, have many instincts in common. "All," says
+Darwin, "have the same senses, intuitions and sensations; similar
+passions, affections, and emotions; even the more complex ones, such as
+jealousy, suspicion, emulation, gratitude and magnanimity; they practice
+deceit and are revengeful; they are sometimes susceptible to ridicule
+and even have a sense of humor; they feel wonder and curiosity; they
+possess the same faculties of imitation, attention, deliberation,
+choice, memory, imagination, the association of ideas, and reason,
+though in very different degrees. The individuals of the same species
+graduate in intellect from absolute imbecility to high excellence; they
+are also liable to insanity, though far less often than in the case of
+man."<small><a name="f53.1" id="f53.1" href="#f53">[53]</a></small> Nevertheless, in the face of these facts, many authors have
+insisted that man is divided by an inseparable barrier from all the
+lower animals in his mental faculties. It only shows the improper or
+imperfect consideration of the subject they have under discussion.</p>
+
+<p>It may be thought at first that some of the mental attributes mentioned
+above are not possessed by animals. I therefore will briefly consider a
+few of the more complex ones. We can dismiss the consideration of such
+attributes as happiness, terror, suspicion, courage, timidity, jealousy,
+shame, and wonder, as well-known attributes. <i>Curiosity</i> in animals is
+often observed. An instance mentioned by Brehm will serve to illustrate:
+Brehm gives a curious account of the instinctive dread which his monkeys
+exhibited for snakes; but their curiosity was so great that they could
+not desist from occasionally satiating their horror in a most human
+fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were kept.
+<i>Imitation</i> is also found among the action of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> animals, especially among
+monkeys, which are well known to be ridiculous mockers.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to refer to the faculty of attention, as it is common
+to almost all animals, and the same may be said of memory as for persons
+or places.</p>
+
+<p>One would hesitate to believe an animal possesses <i>imagination</i>, but
+such is the case. Dreaming, it will be admitted, gives us the best
+notion of this power. Now as dogs, cats, horses, and probably all the
+higher animals, even birds, have vivid dreams&mdash;this is shown by their
+movements and the sounds uttered&mdash;"we must admit," says Darwin, "they
+possess some power of imagination. There must be something special which
+causes dogs to howl in the night, and especially during moonlight, in
+that remarkable and melancholy manner, called baying. All dogs do not do
+so; and, according to Housyeau,<small><a name="f54.1" id="f54.1" href="#f54">[54]</a></small> they do not look at the moon, but at
+some fixed point near the horizon. Housyeau thinks that their
+imaginations are disturbed by the vague outlines of the surrounding
+objects, and conjure up before them fantastic images; if this be so,
+their feelings may almost be called superstitious."</p>
+
+<p>The next mental faculty is <i>reason</i>, which stands at the summit; but
+still there are few persons who will deny that animals possess some
+power of reasoning. A few illustrations will be all that is necessary to
+satisfy the inquiring mind on this point. Reugger, a most careful
+observer, states that when he first gave eggs to his monkey in Paraguay
+they smashed them, and thus lost much of their contents; afterward they
+gently hit one end against some hard body, and picked off the bits of
+shell with their fingers. After cutting themselves <i>once</i> with any sharp
+tool, they would not touch it again, or would handle it with the
+greatest caution. Lumps of sugar were often given them, wrapped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> up in
+paper; and Reugger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that in
+hastily unfolding it they got stung; after this had <i>once</i> happened,
+they afterward first held the packet to their ears to detect any
+movement within.</p>
+
+<p>The following cases relating to dogs are described by Darwin: Mr.
+Colquhoun winged two wild ducks, which fell on the farther side of a
+stream; his retriever tried to bring over both at once, but could not
+succeed; she then, though never before known to ruffle a feather,
+deliberately killed one, brought over the other, and returned for the
+dead bird. Colonel Hutchinson relates that two partridges were shot at
+once&mdash;one being killed, the other wounded; the latter ran away, and was
+caught by the retriever, who, on her return, came across the dead bird;
+"she stopped, evidently greatly puzzled, and after one or two trials,
+finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of the
+winged bird, she considered a moment, then deliberately murdered it by
+giving it a severe crunch, and afterward brought away both together.
+This was the only known instance of her ever having wilfully injured any
+game. Here we have reason, though not quite perfect; for the retriever
+might have brought the wounded bird first, and then returned for the
+dead one, as in the case of the two wild ducks. I give the above cases
+as resting on the evidence of two independent witnesses; and because in
+both instances the retrievers, after deliberation, broke through a habit
+which was inherited by them (that of not killing the game retrieved),
+and because they show how strong their reasoning faculty must have been
+to overcome a fixed habit."<small><a name="f55.1" id="f55.1" href="#f55">[55]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>It has often been said that no animal uses any tool, but this can be so
+easily refuted on reflection, that it is hardly worth while considering;
+for illustration, though, the chimpanzee in a state of nature cracks
+nuts with a stone; Darwin saw a young orang put a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> stick in a crevice,
+slip his hand to the other end, and use it in a proper manner as a
+lever. The baboons in Abyssinia descend in troops from the mountains to
+plunder fields, and when they meet troops of another species a fight
+ensues. They commence by rolling great stones at their enemies, as they
+often do when attacked with fire-arms.</p>
+
+<p>The Duke of Argyll remarks that the fashioning of an implement for a
+special purpose is absolutely peculiar to man; and he considers this
+forms an immeasurable gulf between him and the brutes. "This is no
+doubt," says Darwin, "a very important distinction; but there appears to
+me much truth in Sir J. Lubbock's suggestion,<small><a name="f56.1" id="f56.1" href="#f56">[56]</a></small> that when primeval man
+first used flint-stones for any purpose, he would have accidentally
+splintered them, and would then have used the sharp fragments. From this
+step it would be a small one to break the flints on purpose, and not a
+very wide step to fashion them rudely. The later advance, however, may
+have taken long ages, if we may judge by the immense interval of time
+which elapsed before the men of the neolithic period took to grinding
+and polishing their stone tools. In breaking the flints, as Sir J.
+Lubbock likewise remarks, sparks would have been emitted, and in
+grinding them heat would have been evolved; thus the two usual methods
+of 'obtaining fire may have originated.' The nature of fire would have
+been known in many volcanic regions where lava occasionally flows
+through forests."</p>
+
+<p>It becomes a difficult task to determine how far animals exhibit any
+traces of such high faculties as <i>abstraction</i>, <i>general conception</i>,
+<i>self-consciousness</i>, <i>mental individuality</i>. There can be no doubt, if
+the mental faculties of an animal can be improved, that the higher
+complex faculties such as abstraction and self-consciousness have
+developed from a combination of the simpler ones; this seems to be well
+illustrated in the young child, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> such faculties are developed by
+imperceptible degrees. These high faculties are very sparingly possessed
+by the savage; as Buchner<small><a name="f57.1" id="f57.1" href="#f57">[57]</a></small> has remarked, how little can the
+hard-worked wife of a degraded Australian savage, who uses very few
+abstract words and cannot count above four, exert her self-consciousness
+or reflect on the nature of her own existence. If there exist a class of
+people so inferior in their mental faculties as these, it is not
+difficult for us to understand how the educated animal who possesses
+memory, attention, association, and even some imagination and reason,
+can become capable of abstraction, &amp;c., in an inferior degree even to
+the savage. It certainly cannot be doubted that an animal possesses
+mental individuality&mdash;as when a master returns to a dog which he has not
+seen for years, and the dog recognizes him at once.</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief distinctions between man and animals is the faculty of
+language. Let us look at this for a moment. "The essential differences,"
+says Prof. Whitney, "which separate man's means of communication in kind
+as well as degree from that of the other animals is that, while the
+latter is instinctive, the former is in all its parts arbitrary and
+conventional. No man can become possessed of any language without
+learning it; no animal (that we know of) has any expression which he
+learns, which is not the direct gift of nature to him." Any child of
+parents living in a foreign country grows up to speak the foreign
+speech, unless carefully guarded from doing so; or it speaks both this
+and the tongue of its parent with equal readiness. A child must learn to
+observe and distinguish before speech is possible, and every child
+begins to know things by their name before he begins to call them. "If
+it were not for the added push," says Prof. Whitney, "given by the
+desire of communication, the great and wonderful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> power of the human
+soul would never move in this particular direction; but when this leads
+the way, all the rest follows." No philologist now supposes that any
+language has been deliberately invented; it has been slowly and
+unconsciously developed by many steps.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no question that language owes its origin to the imitation
+and modification of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals,
+and man's own instinctive cries, aided by signs and gestures; and this
+is the opinion of Max M&uuml;ller. And Prof. Whitney remarks that "spoken
+language began, we may say, when a cry of pain, formally wrung out by
+real suffering, and seen to be understood and sympathized with, was
+repeated in imitation, no longer as a mere instinctive utterance, but
+for the purpose of intimating to another." Darwin says that "the early
+progenitor of man probably first used his voice in producing true
+musical cadences, that is, in singing, as do some gibbon-apes at the
+present day. It is therefore probable that the imitation of musical
+cries by articulate sounds may have given rise to words expressive of
+very complex emotions."</p>
+
+<p>The nearest approach to language are the sounds uttered by birds. All
+that sing exert their power instinctively, but the actual song, and even
+the call notes, are learned from their parents or foster-parents. These
+sounds are no more innate than language is in man, as has been proved by
+Davies Barrington.<small><a name="f58.1" id="f58.1" href="#f58">[58]</a></small> The first attempt to sing "may be compared to the
+imperfect endeavor in a child to babble." Prof. Whitney says, if the
+last transition forms of man "could be restored, we should find the
+transition forms toward our speech to be, not at all a minor provision
+of natural articulate signs, but an inferior system of conventional
+signs, in tone, gesture, and grimace. As between these three natural
+means of expression, it is simply by a kind of process of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> natural
+selection and survival of the fittest that the voice has gained the
+upper hand, and come to be so much the most prominent that we give the
+name of language (tonguiness) to all expression." A single utterance or
+two at first had to do the duty of a whole clause; afterward man learned
+to piece together parts of speech, and thus arose sentences.</p>
+
+<p>Although no language, as has already been said, has been deliberately
+invented, "still each word may not be unfitly compared to an invention;
+it has its own place, mode, and circumstances of devisal, its
+preparation in the previous habits of speech, its influence in
+determining the after progress of speech development; but every language
+in the gross is an institution, on which scores or hundreds of
+generations and unnumbered thousands of individual workers have
+labored."<small><a name="f59.1" id="f59.1" href="#f59">[59]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>There is no question at all but that the mental powers in the earliest
+progenitors of man must have been more highly developed than in the ape,
+before even the most imperfect form of speech could have come into use;
+but the constant advancement of this power would have reacted on the
+mind to enable it to carry on longer trains of thought. "A complex train
+of thought," says Darwin, "can no more be carried on without the aid of
+words, whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the use
+of figures in algebra. It appears also that even an ordinary train of
+thought almost requires or is greatly facilitated by some form of
+language; for the dumb, deaf, and blind girl, Laura Bridgman, was
+observed to use her fingers while dreaming.<small><a name="f60.1" id="f60.1" href="#f60">[60]</a></small> Nevertheless a long
+succession of vivid ideas may pass through the mind, without the aid of
+any form of language, as we may infer from the movements of dogs during
+their dreams."</p>
+
+<p>The struggle for existence is going on in every language; one <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>after
+another will be swept out of existence, and the languages best fitted
+for the practical uses of the masses of people will alone survive. Max
+M&uuml;ller has well remarked: "A struggle for life is constantly going on
+amongst the words and grammatical forms in each language. The better the
+shorter; the easier forms are constantly gaining the upper hand, and
+they owe their success to their own inherent virtue."<small><a name="f61.1" id="f61.1" href="#f61">[61]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>It must not be thought for a moment that that which distinguishes a man
+from the lower animals is the understanding of articulate sounds&mdash;for,
+as every one knows, dogs understand many words and sentences; and Darwin
+says, at this stage they are at the same stage of development as
+infants, between the ages of ten and twelve months, who understand many
+words and sentences, but still cannot utter a single word. It is not the
+mere articulation which is our distinguishing character; for parrots and
+other birds possess the power. Nor is it the mere capacity of connecting
+definite sounds with definite ideas; for it is certain that some
+parrots, which have been taught to speak, connect unerringly words with
+things, and persons with events." The lower animals, as has already been
+stated, differ from man solely in his almost infinitely larger power of
+associating together the most diversified sounds and ideas; and this
+obviously depends on the high development of his mental powers.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the consideration of a very delicate subject&mdash;a subject
+which is certainly at best very unsatisfactory to handle, as far as
+popular sentiment is concerned; for, no matter how successfully it may
+be handled, according to one class of thinkers, to another class of more
+orthodox thinkers it would be entirely at fault. The subject is, <i>Man's
+Moral Sense, Belief in God, Religion, Conscience, and Hope of
+Immortality</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated by some writers that where "faith com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>mences science
+ends." How erroneous is such a statement as this! for, as Krauth has
+said, "The great body of scientific facts is actually the object of
+knowledge to a few, and is supposed to be a part of the knowledge of the
+many, only because the many have faith in the statements of the few,
+though they can neither verify them, nor even understand the processes
+by which they are reached."<small><a name="f62.1" id="f62.1" href="#f62">[62]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>"We believe," says Lewes, "that the sensation of violet is produced by
+the striking of the ethereal waves against the retina more than seven
+hundred billions of times in a second. *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* These statements are
+accepted <i>on trust</i> by us who know that there are thinkers for whom they
+are irresistible conclusions." It is evident that it is to faith that
+science owes, to a very great extent, her progress and development; for
+it is impossible for man to prove by experimental demonstration all the
+facts of science, and since a certain number of facts have got to be
+accepted before a new experiment can be attempted, he has to accept on
+faith that such and such a statement is a fact, because such and such a
+scientist has claimed to have demonstrated it. "We are not <i>responsible</i>
+for the fact," says Krauth, "that under the conditions of knowledge we
+<i>know</i>, or in defect of them do not know; we are responsible if, under
+the conditions of a well-grounded faith, we disbelieve."<small><a name="f631" id="f63.1" href="#f63">[63]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Let us look, then, at the belief in God. The question under
+consideration at first will not be whether there exists a God, the
+creator and ruler of the universe&mdash;for this will be afterward
+considered&mdash;but is there any evidence that man was aboriginally endowed
+with the ennobling belief in the existence of an Omnipotent God.</p>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth relates that the Niam-niam, that highly inter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>esting dwarf
+people of Central Africa, have no word for God, and therefore, it must
+be supposed, no idea; and Moritz Wagner has given a whole selection of
+reports on the absence of religious consciousness in inferior nations.
+The idea that conscience is a sort of permanent inspiration or dwelling
+of God in the soul, I think, on consideration, any reasonable man will
+not assume. "It is a purely human faculty," says Savage, "like the
+faculty for art or music; and it gets its authority, as they do by being
+true, and just in so far as it is true. Consciousness is our own
+knowledge of ourselves and of the relation between our own faculties and
+powers. Conscience is our recognition of the relations, as right or
+wrong, in which we stand to those about us, God and our fellows.
+<i>Con-scio</i> is to know with, in relation.</p>
+
+<p>There is such a thing, of course, as a <i>false conscience</i> and a <i>true
+conscience</i>. All the false "conscientiousness grows out of the fact that
+men suppose they stand in certain relationships that do not really
+exist. Thus they imagined duties that are not duties at all." The
+virtues which must be practised by rude men, so that they can hold
+together in tribes, are of course important. No tribe could hold
+together if robbery, murder, treachery, etc., were common; in other
+words, there must be honor among thieves. "A North-American Indian is
+well pleased with himself, and is honored by others, when he scalps a
+man of another tribe; and a Dyak cuts off the head of an unoffending
+person, and dries it as a trophy. The murder of infants has prevailed on
+the largest scale throughout the world, and has been met with no
+reproach; but infanticide, especially of females, has been thought to be
+good for the tribe, or at least not injurious. Suicide during former
+times was not generally considered as a crime, but rather, from the
+courage displayed, as an honorable act; and it is still practised by
+some semi-civilized and savage nations without reproach, for it does not
+obviously concern others<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> of the tribe. It has been recorded that an
+Indian Thug conscientiously regretted that he had not robbed and
+strangled as many travelers as did his father before him."<small><a name="f64.1" id="f64.1" href="#f64">[64]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>See how weak the conscience of even more highly civilized men are in
+their dealings with the brute creation; how the sportsman delights in
+hunting-scenes, Spanish bull-fights, cock-fights, etc.; how indignant
+was the sensitive Cowper, if any one should "needlessly set foot upon a
+worm"! The rights of the worm are as sacred in his degree as ours are,
+and a true conscience will recognize them. What, then, is a true
+conscience? Savage states in a few words, it is "one that knows and is
+adjusted to the realities of life. When men know the truth about God,
+about themselves&mdash;body and mind and spirit&mdash;about the real relations of
+equity in which they stand to their fellow-men in state and church and
+society, and when they appreciate these, and adjust their conscience to
+them, then they will have a true conscience. An absolutely true
+conscience, of course, cannot exist so long as our knowledge of the
+reality of things is only partial."</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, then, that the conscience of man depends on his education
+and environments, and therefore is the subject of improvement. It
+becomes, then, the duty of every man to search for truth, for his
+conscience is not infallible, and by so doing he will bring it to accord
+with the real facts of God. "Throw away," says Savage, "prejudice and
+conceit, seek to make your conscience like the magnetic needle. The
+needle ever and naturally seeking the unchanging pole." As conscience,
+then, is but a faculty capable of development, it is not so difficult to
+understand a race of people whose conscience was in just the first
+stages of development; and, finally, a race which did not possess this
+faculty at all, as in the inferior nations which Wagner speaks of.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i134.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> I.&mdash;Butcher's Shop of the Anziques, Anno 1598.<br />(From Man's Place in Nature, by <i>Huxley</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>What kind of conscience and intelligence had the people near Cape Lopez,
+called the Anziques, which M. du Chaillu describes. They had incredible
+ferocity; for they ate one another, sparing neither friends nor
+relations. Their butcher-shops were filled with human flesh, instead of
+that of oxen or sheep, for they ate the enemies they captured in battle.
+They fattened, slayed, and devoured their slaves also, unless they
+thought they could get a good price for them; and moreover, for
+weariness of life or desire for glory (for they thought it a great thing
+and a sign of a generous soul to despise life), or for love of their
+rulers, offered themselves up for food. There were, indeed, many
+cannibals, as in the East Indies and Brazil and elsewhere, but none such
+as these, since the others only ate their enemies, but these their own
+blood relations.</p>
+
+<p>There is therefore, combining the fact mentioned by Wagner with the fact
+that some nations have no idea of one or more gods, not even a word to
+express it (proving that they have no idea), I say, there is therefore
+no evidence that man was aboriginally endowed with any such belief as
+the existence of an Omnipotent God; and in this assertion almost all the
+learned men concur. "If, however," says Darwin, "we include under the
+term religion, the belief in unseen or spiritual agencies, the case is
+wholly different; for this belief seems to be universal with the less
+civilized races. Nor is it difficult to understand how it arose."</p>
+
+<p>The savage has a stronger belief in bad spirits than in good ones. "The
+same high mental faculties which first led man to believe in unseen
+spiritual agencies, then in fetishism, polytheism, and ultimately in
+monotheism, would infallibly lead him, as long as his reasoning powers
+remained poorly developed, to very strange superstitions and customs.
+Many of these are terrible to think of: such as the sacrifice of human
+beings to a blood-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>loving god, the trial of innocent persons by the
+ordeal of poison, of fire, of witchcraft, etc.; yet it is well
+occasionally to reflect on these superstitions, for they show us what an
+infinite debt of gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason, to
+science, and to our accumulated knowledge."<small><a name="f65.1" id="f65.1" href="#f65">[65]</a></small> As Sir J. Lubbock has
+well observed: "It is not too much to say that the possible dread of
+unknown evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life, and embitters
+every pleasure. These miserable and indirect consequences of our highest
+faculties may be compared with the incidental and occasional mistakes of
+the instincts of the lower animals."</p>
+
+<p>The belief, then, of the existence of an Omnipotent God came with the
+development of the mental faculties; and although there does exist such
+a belief in the minds of men whose conscience is in a normal condition,
+still there are temptations to unbelief, and these have led men to
+atheism. I cannot think of an atheist unless I associate in my thoughts
+the words:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">"The ruling passion, be it what it may&mdash;<br />
+The ruling passion conquers reason still."</p>
+
+<p>The atheist has decided not to believe in the existence of a God, unless
+he can see Him and understand Him; in other words, the finite would
+comprehend the infinite. Following the logical method of reasoning of an
+atheist, the simple fact of seeing God in no way ought to prove his
+existence. For when you say you see a person, and that you have not the
+least doubt about it, I answer, that what you are really conscious of is
+an affection of your retina. And if you urge that you can check your
+sight of the person by touching him, I would answer, that you are
+equally transgressing the limits of fact; for what you are really
+conscious of is, not that he is there, but that the nerves of your hand
+have undergone a change. All you hear and see and touch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> and taste and
+smell are mere variations of your own condition, beyond which, even to
+the extent of a hair's-breadth, you cannot go. That anything answering
+to your impression exists outside of yourself is not a <i>fact</i>, but an
+<i>inference</i>, to which all validity would be denied by an idealist like
+Berkeley, or by a skeptic like Hume.<small><a name="f66.1" id="f66.1" href="#f66">[66]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Thomas Cooper<small><a name="f67.1" id="f67.1" href="#f67">[67]</a></small> said:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">"I do not say&mdash;there is no God;<br />
+But this I say&mdash;<span class="smcap">I know not</span>."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Mr. Bradlaugh says: "The atheist does not say, 'There is no God'; but he
+says, I know not what you mean by God; I am without idea of God; the
+word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation.
+I do not deny God, because I cannot deny that of which I have no
+conception, and the conception of which, by its affirmer, is so
+imperfect that he is unable to define it to me."</p>
+
+<p>Austin Holyoake<small><a name="f68.1" id="f68.1" href="#f68">[68]</a></small> says: "The only way of proving the fallacy of
+atheism is by <i>proving</i> the existence of a God."</p>
+
+<p>If it is logical proof that is wanted, there is plenty. The following
+arguments, although not all meeting my approbation, are still of
+interest:</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ontological Argument</i> has been presented in different forms. 1.
+Anselm,<small><a name="f69.1" id="f69.1" href="#f69">[69]</a></small> Archbishop of Canterbury (1093-1109), states this argument
+thus: We have an idea of an infinitely perfect being. But real existence
+is an element of infinite perfection. Therefore an infinitely perfect
+being exists; otherwise the infinitely perfect, as we conceive it, would
+lack an essential element of perfection.</p>
+
+<p>2. Descartes<small><a name="f70.1" id="f70.1" href="#f70">[70]</a></small> (1596-1650) states the argument thus:
+The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>idea of an
+infinitely perfect being which we possess could not have originated in a
+finite source, and therefore must have been communicated by an
+infinitely perfect being.</p>
+
+<p>3. Dr. Samuel Clark<small><a name="f71.1" id="f71.1" href="#f71">[71]</a></small> (1705) argues that time and space are infinite
+and necessarily existent, but they are not substances. Therefore there
+must exist an eternal and infinite substance of which they are
+properties.</p>
+
+<p>4. Cousin<small><a name="f72.1" id="f72.1" href="#f72">[72]</a></small> maintained that the idea of the finite implies the idea of
+the infinite as inevitably as the idea of the "me" implies that of the
+"not me."</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Cosmological Argument</i> may be stated thus: "Every new thing and
+every change in a previously existing thing must have a cause sufficient
+and pre-existing. The universe consists of a series of changes.
+Therefore the universe must have a cause exterior and anterior to
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Teleological Argument</i>, or argument from design or final causes, is
+as follows: Design, or the adaptation of means to effect an end, implies
+the exercise of intelligence and free choice. The universe is full of
+traces of design. Therefore the "First Cause" must have been a personal
+spirit.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Moral Argument</i> may be thus stated: "In looking at the works of God
+there is," says Rev. Dr. Hopkins, "I suppose, evidence enough,
+especially if interpreted by the moral consciousness, to prove to a
+candid man the being of God." The educated man is a religious being. The
+instinct of prayer and worship, the longing for and faith in divine love
+and help, are inseparable from human nature under normal conditions, as
+known in history.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident from the above that it is not for logical reasoning or
+arguments that the atheist is led to say, "that up to this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>moment the
+world has remained without knowledge of a God."<small><a name="f73.1" id="f73.1" href="#f73">[73]</a></small> It is from the folly
+of his heart; and, as Solomon says, that "though you bray him and his
+false logic in the mortar of reason, among the wheat of facts, with the
+pestle of argument, yet will not his folly depart from him."<small><a name="f74.1" id="f74.1" href="#f74">[74]</a></small> I fully
+agree with Hobbes when he says, "where there is no reason for our
+belief, there is no reason we should believe," but I think the several
+arguments given above, which could be greatly expanded, affords
+sufficient reason for a perfect belief in an Infinite God. For&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">"God is a being, and that you may see<br />
+In the fold of the flower, in the leaf of the tree,<br />
+In the storm-cloud of darkness, in the rainbow of life,<br />
+In the sunlight at noontide, in the darkness of night,<br />
+In the wave of the ocean, in the furrow of land,<br />
+In the mountain of granite, in the atom of sand;<br />
+Gaze where ye may from the sky to the sod&mdash;<br />
+Where can you gaze and not see a God."</p>
+
+<p>Yes, the infinite God must include all. If he is not in the dust of our
+streets, in the bricks of our house, in the beat of our hearts, then he
+is not infinite, but is finite, having boundaries. Yes, God's power it
+was that set the nebulous mass into vibration, and caused the world to
+be formed; it was His force which first shaped the atoms into molecules,
+and then into more complex chemical products, till finally "organizable
+protoplasm" was reached, which, by evolution, climbed up to man. 'Tis
+God we see in the family, in society, in the state, in all religions, up
+to the highest outflowings of Christianity. 'Tis Him we see in art,
+literature, and science; and so proclaims Evolution. "God is the
+universal causal law; God is the source of all force and all matter."
+"For us," says Haeckel, "all nature is animated, <i>i. e.</i>, penetrated
+with Divine spirit, with law, and with necessity." We know of no matter
+without this Divine spirit.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p><p>The "ultimate repulsion, constituting the extension and impenetrability
+of the atoms of matter," says Dr. Samuel Brown, "could be conceived of
+in no other way than as the persistent existence of the will of God
+himself, in whom we live and move and have our being, and which, if but
+for an instant withdrawn, the whole material universe and its forces in
+all their vastness, glory, and beauty, would collapse and sink in a
+moment into their original nothingness."</p>
+
+<p>The advancement of science, instead of depriving man of his God, only
+deprives men of their earlier and ruder conceptions of Deity, only to
+impart a larger and grander thought of Him. "It is true, in the
+educational process some few minds have lost sight of Him altogether,
+but these are the exceptional, and therefore notable instances; with the
+great body of men, the conception of God has steadily enlarged with the
+progress of science."<small><a name="f75.1" id="f75.1" href="#f75">[75]</a></small> If science can demonstrate that Evolution is
+true, then it is God's truth, and as such it is man's religious duty to
+accept it; if he rejects it, superstitiously or unreasonably, he not
+only defrauds himself but insults the Author of truth.</p>
+
+<p>What, then, has science demonstrated? Science has demonstrated the <span class="smcap">Unity
+of the Forces</span>: Light, heat, electricity, magnetism, motion, are all
+correlated to one another, and are all mutually convertible one into
+another. Heat may be said to produce electricity&mdash;electricity to produce
+heat; magnetism to produce electricity&mdash;electricity, magnetism, and so
+on for the rest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Unity of Matter and Force.</span>&mdash;"For if matter were not force, and
+immediately known as force, it could not be known at all&mdash;could not be
+rationally inferred."</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Unity of the Life Substance in all Organic and Animal Bodies.</span>&mdash;"A unity
+of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity of substantial
+composition."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span><span class="smcap">Unity of Animate and Inanimate Nature in Matter, Form, and Force.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Unity of the Laws of Development.</span>&mdash;Hence we can proclaim the unity of
+all nature and of her laws of development.</p>
+
+<p>In the beautiful words of Giordano Bruno: "A spirit exists in all
+things, and no body is so small but contains a part of the divine
+substance within itself, by which it is animated." Hence we arrive at
+the sublime idea, since we can in no other way account for the ultimate
+cause of anything, that it is God's spirit which pervades and sustains
+all nature. By this admission we are not led to say: "There is no God
+but force;" but rather, "There is no force but God." God is infinite,
+and therefore includes nature; but is nature all? It is all that our
+finite minds can discover, 'tis true; but can there not exist another
+nature or world unknown to us; and if so, since God is infinite, he will
+include that world also. Let us look to this and see what science can
+answer.</p>
+
+<p>It will be necessary for us to consider before proceeding, what is meant
+by the term soul; and this becomes a somewhat difficult task, as the
+term has been variously applied to signify the principle of life in an
+organic body, or the first and most undeveloped stages of individualized
+spiritual being, or finally, all stages of spiritual individuality,
+incorporeal as well as corporeal.<small><a name="f76.1" id="f76.1" href="#f76">[76]</a></small> The popular belief is, that the
+soul is not material but substantial, a divine gift to the highest alone
+of God's creatures; but scientific men, such as Carl Vogt, Moleschott,
+B&uuml;chner, Schmidt, Haeckel, consider the phenomena of the soul to be
+functions of the brain and nerves. Schmidt says: "The soul of the
+new-born infant is, in its manifestations, in no way different from that
+of the young animal. These are the functions of the infantine nervous
+system, with this they grow and are developed together with speech."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>The idea of the immortality of the soul was not aboriginal with mankind,
+as Sir J. Lubbock has shown that the barbarous races possess no clear
+belief of this kind, and Rajah Brook, at a missionary meeting in
+Liverpool, told his hearers there that the Dyaks, a people with whom he
+was connected, had no knowledge of God, of a soul, or of any future
+state.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin remarks, that "man may be excused for feeling some pride at
+having risen, though not through his own exertions, to the very summit
+of the organic scale; and the fact of his having thus risen, instead of
+having been aboriginally placed there, may give hope for a still higher
+destiny in the distant future."</p>
+
+<p>The belief in a future life amongst the civilized race of mankind is
+almost universally prevalent. The proofs of immortality are various. The
+desire that man has to live forever and his horror of annihilation is
+one; the good suffer in this world and the wicked triumph&mdash;this would
+indicate the necessity of future retribution. The infinite
+perfectibility of the human mind never reaches its full capacity in this
+life; the faculty of insight which sees in an individual all its past
+history at a glance is the immortal attribute and is continually on the
+increase; and it is possible that Aristotle was right so far as he
+stated that the lower faculties of the soul, such as sensation,
+imagination, feeling, memory, etc., are perishable. No matter if this be
+so or not, it is certain that in the next life, where all is perfection,
+only the fittest attributes will exist, the others would have perished.
+The doctrine of the immortality of the soul has been defended by
+Marhemeke, Blasche, Weisse, Hinnichs, Fecham, J. H. Fichte, and others.</p>
+
+<p>Let us look for a moment at the visible universe and see if it is not
+reasonable, on a scientific basis, to admit of the existence of another
+universe, although it remains unseen to us. One can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> not help but be
+struck with the fact that energy is being dissipated in this visible
+universe, that the visible universe is apparently very wasteful. Look at
+the sun which pours her vast store of high-class energy into space, at
+the rate of 185,000 miles per second. What will be the result of this?
+The answer is simple: The inevitable destruction of the visible
+universe. Yes, just as the visible universe had its beginning it will
+have its end. But there existed a power before the visible universe came
+into existence, and which is acting in the visible universe as the
+ultimate cause of all phenomena. "For we are obliged," says Herbert
+Spencer in his First Principles, "to regard every phenomenon as a
+manifestation of some power by which we are acted upon; though
+omnipresence is unthinkable, yet, as experience discloses no bounds to
+the diffusion of phenomena, we are unable to think of limits to the
+presence of this power, while the criticisms of science teaches us that
+this power is incomprehensible." And so we should expect, for a finite
+cannot comprehend an infinite. It is for this and other reasons one is
+led to believe that the visible universe is only an infinitesimal part
+of "that stupendous whole which is alone entitled to be called <span class="smcap">The
+Universe</span>."<small><a name="f77.1" id="f77.1" href="#f77">[77]</a></small> As there existed an invisible universe before the visible
+one came into existence, we can conclude that there still exists an
+invisible universe now, and that this invisible universe will still
+exist when the present visible one has passed away. Let us see what
+light our finite senses can throw on this. It is well known that all our
+senses have only a certain narrow gauge within which they are able to
+bring us into sensible contact with the world about us. All outside this
+range we are unable to reach. For example, we do not see all forms and
+colors; we do not hear all sounds; we do not smell all odors; we cannot
+conscientiously touch all substances; we cannot taste all flavors.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+Vision depends on the wave motion of light. The length of a wave of mean
+red light is about <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">39000</span>th of an inch, that of violet
+<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">57500</span>th of an
+inch. But the number of oscillations of ether in a second, necessary to
+produce the sensation of red, are 477,000,000,000,000, all of which
+enter the eye in one second. For the sensation of violet, the eye must
+receive 699,000,000,000,000 oscillations in one second, as light travels
+185,000 miles in one second. But when waves of light having all possible
+lengths act on the eye simultaneously, the sensation of white is
+produced. So, as has been previously stated, without eyes the world
+would be wrapped in darkness, there being no light and color outside of
+one's eye. So we see our sense of sight has its limits, and we know how
+finite these are. That there are vibrations of the ether on each side of
+our limits of vision cannot be doubted; and if our eyes were acute
+enough to receive them, we could have the sensation of some color, which
+must under present conditions remain forever blank. The owl and bat can
+see when we cannot; their eyes can receive oscillations of ether, which
+pass by without affecting us. So with sound, which "is a sensation
+produced when vibrations of a certain character are excited in the
+auditory apparatus of the ear."<small><a name="f78.1" id="f78.1" href="#f78">[78]</a></small> The longest wave which can give an
+impression has a length of about 66 ft., which is equal to 16&#189;
+vibrations per second; when the wave is reduced to three or four tenths
+of an inch, equal to from 38,000 to 40,000 vibrations per second, sound
+becomes again inaudible. The piano, for instance, only runs between
+27&#189; vibrations in a second up to 3,520. Sound travels about 1,093
+feet per second, and the human voice can be heard 460 feet away, whilst
+a rifle can be heard 16,000 feet (3.02 miles), and very strong
+cannonading 575,840 feet, or 90 miles. That there are vibrations above
+and below 16&#189; and 40,000, there is no room to doubt, as there exist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+ears which can hear them, such as the hare; but to us they are as though
+they did not exist.</p>
+
+<p>Of all our senses, the sense of smell far surpasses that of the other
+sense. Valentine has calculated that we are able to perceive about the
+three one-hundred-millionth of a grain of musk. The minute particle
+which we perceive by smell, no chemical reaction can detect, and even
+spectrum analysis, which can recognize fifteen-millionths of a grain, is
+far surpassed. But this sense in man is far surpassed by the hound.</p>
+
+<p>Our sense of taste is also limited, and as has been already stated,
+cannot distinguish all flavors. We can recognize by taste one part of
+sulphuric acid in 1000 parts of water; one drop of this on the tongue
+would contain <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">2000</span>
+of a grain (<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>3</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">400</span> of a grain) of sulphuric acid.
+The length of time needed for reaction in sensation has been determined
+by Vintschgau and Hougschmied, and in a person whose sense of taste was
+highly developed, the reaction time was, for common salt, 0.159 second;
+for sugar, 0.1639 second; for acid, 0.1676 second; and for quinine,
+0.2351 second.</p>
+
+<p>Reviewing, then, the above, it is evident there are eyes which can see
+what we cannot, there are ears which can hear what we cannot, and there
+are animals who can smell and touch what we cannot. "For anything we
+know to the contrary, then," says Savage, "a refined and spiritualized
+order of existences may be the inhabitants of another and unseen world
+all about us." As Milton has said:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">"Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth<br />
+Unseen, both when we wake and when we sleep."</p>
+
+<p>If there is a life very much different from and very much higher than
+our present one, it is not strange we are ignorant of it. It is
+impossible to make a person understand anything which is entirely unlike
+all that has ever been seen or heard, for every idea<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> in the world that
+man has came to him by nature. Man<small><a name="f79.1" id="f79.1" href="#f79">[79]</a></small> cannot conceive of anything the
+hint of which has not been received from his surroundings. He can
+imagine an animal with the hoof of a bison, with the pouch of a
+kangaroo, with the wings of an eagle, with the beak of a bird, and with
+the tail of a lion; and yet every point of this monster he borrowed from
+nature. Everything he can think of, everything he can dream of, is
+borrowed from his surroundings&mdash;everything. "So, if an angel should come
+and tell of another life, it would mean nothing to us, unless we could
+translate it into terms of our own experience. We could not understand a
+'light that never was on land or sea.' Our ignorance is not even then a
+probability against our belief."<small><a name="f80.1" id="f80.1" href="#f80">[80]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>As has already been stated, the visible universe must have its doom,
+must end as it began, by consisting of a single mass of matter; but is
+there not a more primitive state of matter than the matter such as we
+know it? Yes; and the so-called ether is that matter. It is unlike any
+of the forms of matter which we can weigh and measure. It is in some
+respects like unto a fluid, and in some respects like unto a solid. It
+is both hard and elastic to an almost inconceivable degree. "It fills
+all material bodies like a sea in which the atoms of the material bodies
+are as islands, and it occupies the whole of what we call empty space.
+It is so sensitive that a disturbance in any part of it causes a 'tremor
+which is felt on the surface of countless worlds.' It exerts frictions;
+and although the friction is infinitely small, yet as it has an almost
+infinite time to work in, it will diminish the momentum of the planets,
+and diminish their ability to maintain their distance from the sun, the
+consequence of which will be the planets will fall into the sun, and the
+solar system will end where it begun."<small><a name="f81.1" id="f81.1" href="#f81">[81]</a></small></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>According to Sir William Thompson, the ultimate atoms of matter are
+vortex rings, which Professor Clifford describes as being more closely
+packed together (finer grained) in ether than in matter. And he says,
+"whatever may turn out to be the ultimate nature of the ether and of
+molecules, we know that to some extent at least they obey the same
+dynamic laws, and that they act on one another in accordance with these
+laws. Until therefore it is absolutely disproved, it must remain the
+simplest and most probable assumption that they are finally made of the
+same stuff, that the material molecule is in some kind of knot or
+coagulation of ether."<small><a name="f82.1" id="f82.1" href="#f82">[82]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>The molecule of matter such as we know, then, may have been, and very
+probably was, produced by evolution from the atoms or vortex rings of
+ether, according to the theory advanced by the authors of the work
+called the "Unseen Universe," which I have referred to. The world of
+ether is to be regarded in some sort the obverse complement of the world
+of sensible matter, so that whatever energy is dissipated in the one is
+by the same act accumulated in the other; or, as Fiske describes it, "it
+is like the negative plate in photography, where light answers to shadow
+and shadow to light." Every act of consciousness is accompanied by
+molecular displacements in the brain, and these of course are responded
+to by movements in the ethereal world. Views of this kind were long ago
+entertained by Babbage, and they have since recommended themselves to
+other men of science, and amongst others to Jevon, who says: "Mr.
+Babbage has pointed out that if we had power to follow and detect the
+manifest effects of any disturbance, each particle of existing matter
+must be a register of all that has happened. *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* The air itself is one
+vast library on whose pages are forever written all that man has ever
+said or whispered. There in their mutable but unerring charac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>ters,
+mixed with, the earliest as well as the latest sighs of mortality, stand
+forever recorded vows unredeemed, promises unfulfilled, perpetuating in
+the united movements of each particle the testimony of man's changeful
+will."<small><a name="f83.1" id="f83.1" href="#f83">[83]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>So thought affects the substance of the present visible universe; it
+produces a material organ of memory. "But the motions which accompany
+thought," say the authors,<small><a name="f84.1" id="f84.1" href="#f84">[84]</a></small> "will also affect the invisible order of
+things," and thus it follows that "thought conceived to affect the
+matter of another universe, simultaneously with this, may explain a
+future state."<small><a name="f85.1" id="f85.1" href="#f85">[85]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Death, then, is for the individual but a transfer from one physical
+state of existence to another, according to the "authors'"<small><a name="f86.1" id="f86.1" href="#f86">[86]</a></small> idea; and
+so, on the largest scale, the death or final loss of energy by the whole
+visible universe has its counterpart in the acquirement of a maximum of
+life, the correlative unseen world. According to this theory, therefore,
+as the psychical or spiritual phenomena of the visible world only begins
+to be manifested with some complex aggregate of material phenomena,
+therefore it is necessary for the continuance of mind in a future state
+to have some sort of material vehicle also, which the ether is supposed
+to supply. "The essential weakness of such a theory as this," says
+Fiske, "lies in the fact that it is thoroughly materialistic in
+character. We have reason for thinking it probable that ether and
+ordinary matter are alike composed of vortex rings in a
+quasi-frictionless fluid; but whatever be the fate of this subtle
+hypothesis, we may be sure that no theory will ever be entertained in
+which analysis of ether shall require different symbols from that of
+ordinary matter. In our authors' theory, therefore, the putting on of
+immortality is in nowise the passage from a material to a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>spiritual
+state. It is the passage of one kind of materially conditioned state to
+another." This theory, dealing with matter, should receive support by
+actual experience, as matter is a subject of investigation. To accept
+it, therefore, as being possible without any positive evidence for its
+support, it remains but a weak speculation, no matter how ingenious it
+may seem.</p>
+
+<p>To support an after life, which is not materially conditioned, I agree
+with Mr. Fiske, that although it will be unsupported by any item of
+experience whatever, it may nevertheless be an impregnable assertion.</p>
+
+<p>If all were to agree, what we call matter is really force, as it
+certainly is, for if matter were not force it would be unthinkable,
+being force it becomes thinkable; this point I have touched on before,
+but it may be well to elaborate on it a little just here. The great
+lesson that Berkeley taught mankind was that what we call material
+phenomena are really the products of consciousness co-operating with
+some unknown power (not material) existing beyond consciousness. "We do
+very well to speak of matter," says Fiske, "in common parlance, but all
+that the word really means is a group of qualities which have no
+existence apart from our minds." The ablest modern thinkers, then,
+believe that the only real things that exist are the mind and God, and
+that the universe is only the infinitely varied manifestation of God in
+the human conscience. It is evident, then, that <i>matter</i>, the only thing
+the materialist concedes real existence, is simply an orderly
+phantasmagoria; and God and soul, which materialists regard as mere
+fictions of the imagination, are the only conceptions that answer to
+real existence.<small><a name="f87.1" id="f87.1" href="#f87">[87]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>For instance, let us see what it is we know about a table. You say you
+can see it; I can respond that all you are conscious of is that the
+nerves of your eye have undergone a change. You<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> say, I can check my
+sight of it by touching it; to this I reply, all that you are really
+conscious of is a sensation, and that something outside of you has
+produced it. But that all that is outside of me is anything more than
+the manifestation to me of a power or of God, is an inference and cannot
+be proven. To constant manifestations of this power, always assuming the
+same form and characters which can be studied, different names have been
+given; but that the dust of the street or beat of our heart is anything
+else but that peculiar manifestation of the infinite God, cannot be
+contradicted.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Savage says, "The movement of electricity along a telegraph-line is
+accompanied by certain molecular changes in the wire itself; but the
+wire is not electricity, neither does it produce it. Thus modern science
+has found it utterly impossible to explain mind either as a part or a
+product of matter. It is perfectly reasonable, then, for any man to
+believe in a purely intellectual and spiritual existence, apart from any
+material form or substance."</p>
+
+<p>To comprehend the immortal life is an impossibility; it transcends any
+earthly experience of man. The caterpillar probably knows nothing about
+any life higher than that of his toilsome crawling on the ground; but
+that is no proof against the fact that we know he is to become a
+butterfly. The boy knows nothing about manhood, and cannot know. Though
+he sees men and their labors all about him, he has and can have no
+conception whatever of what it means to be a man; it transcends all
+experience.<small><a name="f88.1" id="f88.1" href="#f88">[88]</a></small> "The existence," says Fiske, "of a single soul, or
+congeries of psychical phenomena, unaccompanied by a material body,
+would be evidence sufficient to demonstrate this hypothesis. But in the
+nature of things, even were there a million such souls round about us,
+we could not become aware<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> of the existence of one of them; for we have
+no organ or faculty for the perception of soul apart from the material
+structure and activities in which it has been manifested throughout the
+whole course of our experience. Even our own self-consciousness involves
+the consciousness of ourselves as partly material bodies. These
+considerations show that our hypothesis is very different from the
+ordinary hypothesis with which science deals. <i>The entire absence of
+testimony does not raise a negative presumption, except in cases where
+testimony is accessible.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>My object has not been to prove the purely spiritual theory of a future
+life, but to show that it is a theory that intelligent people can
+entertain as a foundation for their belief "in the hope of immortality."
+But that the spiritual life instead of the material life is the state in
+which we can hope for immortality, I think there can be no question; and
+such was the opinion of Paul<small><a name="f89.1" id="f89.1" href="#f89">[89]</a></small> when he wrote: "Now this I say,
+brethren, that flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God,
+neither does corruption inherit incorruption.... So when this
+corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortal shall have
+put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying that is
+written, 'Death is swallowed up in victory.'</p>
+
+<p class="poem">O death, where is thy sting?<br />
+O grave, where is thy victory?"</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
+
+<p><a name="f1" id="f1" href="#f1.1">[1]</a> The Law of Disease, in College Courant, Vol. XIV.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f2" id="f2" href="#f2.1">[2]</a> Winchell. Evolution, p. 113.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f3" id="f3" href="#f3.1">[3]</a> Comparative Zoology, p. 43. 1876.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f4" id="f4" href="#f4.1">[4]</a> Huxley. Physical Basis of Life.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f5" id="f5" href="#f5.1">[5]</a> Johnson, Ency.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f6" id="f6" href="#f6.1">[6]</a> Comparative Anatomy&mdash;Orton, p. 32.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f7" id="f7" href="#f7.1">[7]</a> Analytical Anatomy and Phys.&mdash;Cutter, p. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f8" id="f8" href="#f8.1">[8]</a> Biography of a Plant.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f9" id="f9" href="#f9.1">[9]</a> See Huxley&mdash;Invertebrate Animals, Anatomy of.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f10" id="f10" href="#f10.1">[10]</a> Phys. Basis of Life.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f11" id="f11" href="#f11.1">[11]</a> Beginnings of Life, p. 104, Vol. I.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f12" id="f12" href="#f12.1">[12]</a> Monthly Micros. Jour., May 1, '69, p. 294.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f13" id="f13" href="#f13.1">[13]</a> Chem. and Phys. Balance of Organic Nature, 1848, p. 48 (trans.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="f14" id="f14" href="#f14.1">[14]</a> Inaugural Address, Aug. 19, 1874.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f15" id="f15" href="#f15.1">[15]</a> Haeckel&mdash;Hist. of Creation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f16" id="f16" href="#f16.1">[16]</a> See Haeckel&mdash;Evol. of Man.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f17" id="f17" href="#f17.1">[17]</a> Evolution of Man, Vol. II, p. 445.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f18" id="f18" href="#f18.1">[18]</a> Johnson's Cyclopedia, Article "Evolution."</p>
+
+<p><a name="f19" id="f19" href="#f19.1">[19]</a> Sumner, in Johnson's Cyc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f20" id="f20" href="#f20.1">[20]</a> Christian Union, Vol. XIII, No. 17, p. 322.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f21" id="f21" href="#f21.1">[21]</a> Gen. i. 1.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f22" id="f22" href="#f22.1">[22]</a> St. John i. 1.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f23" id="f23" href="#f23.1">[23]</a> St. John i. 3.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f24" id="f24" href="#f24.1">[24]</a> Hist. of Creation, p. 8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f25" id="f25" href="#f25.1">[25]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 324.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f26" id="f26" href="#f26.1">[26]</a> Heb. xi. 3. Revised English Ed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f27" id="f27" href="#f27.1">[27]</a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, Vol. I, p. 323.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f28" id="f28" href="#f28.1">[28]</a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, Vol. I, p. 324.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f29" id="f29" href="#f29.1">[29]</a> Indications of the Creator.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f30" id="f30" href="#f30.1">[30]</a> Evolution and Progress, p. 26, Rev. Wm. I. Gill.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f31" id="f31" href="#f31.1">[31]</a> Nat&uuml;rl. Sch&ouml;pfungsgesch., pp. 643-5.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f32" id="f32" href="#f32.1">[32]</a> Paget, Lectures on Surgical Pathology, 1853, Vol. I, p. 71.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f33" id="f33" href="#f33.1">[33]</a> Ueber die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen K&ouml;rper.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f34" id="f34" href="#f34.1">[34]</a> Pop. Sci. Monthly, June, 1879, p. 250.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f35" id="f35" href="#f35.1">[35]</a> See Sci. Am., May 18, 1878.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f36" id="f36" href="#f36.1">[36]</a> Source of Muscular Power, Proc. Roy. Inst., June 8, 1866. Am. I. Sci., II, xlii, 393, Nov. 1866.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f37" id="f37" href="#f37.1">[37]</a> Comparative Zoology, p. 45.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f38" id="f38" href="#f38.1">[38]</a> Correlation of the Vital and Physical Forces, p. 54.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f39" id="f39" href="#f39.1">[39]</a> On the time required for the transmission of volition and sensation through the nerves, Proc. Roy. Inst.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f40" id="f40" href="#f40.1">[40]</a> Comparative Zoology, p. 165.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f41" id="f41" href="#f41.1">[41]</a> Sci. Amer., Nov. 13, 1876, p. 328.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f42" id="f42" href="#f42.1">[42]</a> Marshall, Outline of Physiology. Amer. Ed., 1868, p. 227.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f43" id="f43" href="#f43.1">[43]</a> Macmillon's Magazine, Pop. Sci. Monthly, April, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f44" id="f44" href="#f44.1">[44]</a> "Principles of Psychology," 1869, No. 20, p. 24.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f45" id="f45" href="#f45.1">[45]</a> J. S. Lombard, N. Y. Med. Jour., Vol. V, 198, June, 1867.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f46" id="f46" href="#f46.1">[46]</a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, p. 23.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><a name="f47" id="f47" href="#f47.1">[47]</a> The apparatus employed is illustrated and fully described in
+Brown-Sequard's Archives de Phys., Vol. I, 498, June, 1868. By it the 1-4000th of a degree Centigrade may be indicated.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><a name="f48" id="f48" href="#f48.1">[48]</a> L. H. Wood, "On the influence of mental activity on the excretion
+of phosphoric acid by the kidneys." Proc. Conn. Med. Soc., Nov., 1869, p. 197.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f49" id="f49" href="#f49.1">[49]</a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, p. 24.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><a name="f50" id="f50" href="#f50.1">[50]</a> Address of Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, as retiring president, before the
+Am. Ass. for Adv. of Sci., Chicago meeting, Aug. 1868. "Thought cannot be a physical force, because thought admits of no measure."</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><a name="f51" id="f51" href="#f51.1">[51]</a> Derivation hypothesis of life and species, forming fortieth chapter
+of his Anatomy of Vertebrates, republished in Am. Jour. Sci., II, xlvii, 33, Jan. 1869.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f52" id="f52" href="#f52.1">[52]</a> Prehistoric Times, p. 354, by Lubbock.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f53" id="f53" href="#f53.1">[53]</a> Madness in Animals, Jour. Mental Sci., July, 1871. Dr. W. L. Lindsay.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f54" id="f54" href="#f54.1">[54]</a> Facult&eacute;s Mentales des Animaux, 1872, Tom. XI, p. 181.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f55" id="f55" href="#f55.1">[55]</a> Primeval Man, 1869, pp. 145-147.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f56" id="f56" href="#f56.1">[56]</a> Prehistoric Times, 1865, p. 473.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f57" id="f57" href="#f57.1">[57]</a> "Conferences ser les Th&eacute;orie Darwinienne," 1869, p. 132.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f58" id="f58" href="#f58.1">[58]</a> Philosoph. Trans., 1773, p. 262.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f59" id="f59" href="#f59.1">[59]</a> Prof. Whitney, p. 309.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f60" id="f60" href="#f60.1">[60]</a> Phys. and Pathol. of Mind. Dr. Maudsley. 3d ed., 1868, p. 199.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f61" id="f61" href="#f61.1">[61]</a> Nature, January 6, 1870, p. 257.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f62" id="f62" href="#f62.1">[62]</a> Problems i. 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f63" id="f63" href="#f63.1">[63]</a> Johnson's Cyc. Article "Faith." C. P. Krauth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f64" id="f64" href="#f64.1">[64]</a> Darwin's Descent of Man, p. 117.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f65" id="f65" href="#f65.1">[65]</a> See Descent of Man, p. 96.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f66" id="f66" href="#f66.1">[66]</a> See Tyndall's Belfast Address.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f67" id="f67" href="#f67.1">[67]</a> Purgatory of Suicides.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f68" id="f68" href="#f68.1">[68]</a> Thoughts on Atheism, p. 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f69" id="f69" href="#f69.1">[69]</a> Monologium and Proslogium.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f70" id="f70" href="#f70.1">[70]</a> Meditations de Primaphilosophia Prop. 2, p. 89.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f71" id="f71" href="#f71.1">[71]</a> Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f72" id="f72" href="#f72.1">[72]</a> Elements of Psychology.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f73" id="f73" href="#f73.1">[73]</a> Thoughts on Atheism, by Holyoake, p. 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f74" id="f74" href="#f74.1">[74]</a> Proverbs xvii. 22.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f75" id="f75" href="#f75.1">[75]</a> Henry Ward Beecher.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f76" id="f76" href="#f76.1">[76]</a> See W. T. Harris. Johnson's Encyc. "Soul."</p>
+
+<p><a name="f77" id="f77" href="#f77.1">[77]</a> Unseen Universe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f78" id="f78" href="#f78.1">[78]</a> Rood. "Sound," Johnson's Encyc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f79" id="f79" href="#f79.1">[79]</a> See R. G. Ingersoll's Lecture on Hell.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f80" id="f80" href="#f80.1">[80]</a> Savage.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f81" id="f81" href="#f81.1">[81]</a> "The Unseen World." John Fiske, p. 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f82" id="f82" href="#f82.1">[82]</a> Fortnightly Review, June 1875, p. 784.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f83" id="f83" href="#f83.1">[83]</a> Ninth Bridgewater Treatise.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f84" id="f84" href="#f84.1">[84]</a> Of the Unseen Universe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f85" id="f85" href="#f85.1">[85]</a> Anagram. Nature, Oct. 15, 1874.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f86" id="f86" href="#f86.1">[86]</a> Of the Unseen Universe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f87" id="f87" href="#f87.1">[87]</a> Fiske. Unseen World, p. 52.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f88" id="f88" href="#f88.1">[88]</a> Savage. Relig. of Evol., p. 246.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f89" id="f89" href="#f89.1">[89]</a> 1 Corinthians, xv., verses 50-54 (Part of). <i>Revised English Ed.</i>, 1877.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><b>Transcriber's Notes:</b></p>
+<p>Some quotes in the original are opened with marks but are not closed. Obvious errors have been silently closed, while those requiring interpretation have been left open.</p>
+<p>Other than the corrections noted by hover information, printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been retained.</p>
+<p>Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate
+both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as presented in the original text.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Was Man Created?, by Henry A. Mott
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@@ -0,0 +1,4039 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Was Man Created?, by Henry A. Mott
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Was Man Created?
+
+Author: Henry A. Mott
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2009 [EBook #30429]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAS MAN CREATED? ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Stephanie Eason,
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FOSSIL MAN OF MENTONE. (From Popular Science Monthly,
+October, 1874.)]
+
+
+
+
+WAS MAN CREATED?
+
+BY
+
+HENRY A. MOTT, JR., E.M., PH.D., ETC.,
+
+
+_Member of the American Chemical Society, Member of the Berlin Chemical
+Society, Member of the New York Academy of Sciences, Member of the
+American Association for the Advancement of Science, Member of the
+American Pharmaceutical Association, Fellow of the Geographical Society,
+Etc., Etc._
+
+
+AUTHOR OF THE "CHEMISTS' MANUAL," "ADULTERATION OF MILK," "ARTIFICIAL
+BUTTER," "TESTING THE VALUE OF RIFLES BY FIRING UNDER WATER," ETC., ETC.
+
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  GRISWOLD & COMPANY,
+  150 NASSAU STREET.
+  1880.
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT BY
+  HENRY A. MOTT, JR.,
+  1880.
+
+
+  TROW'S
+  PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING CO.,
+  _205-213 East 12th St._,
+  NEW YORK.
+
+Electrotyped by SMITH & MCDOUGAL, 82 Beekman Street, N. Y.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This work was originally written to be delivered as a lecture; but as
+its pages continued to multiply, it was suggested to the author by
+numerous friends that it ought to be published in book-form; this, at
+last, the author concluded to do. This work, therefore, does not claim
+to be an exhaustive discussion of the various departments of which it
+treats; but rather it has been the aim of the author to present the more
+interesting observations in each department in as concise a form as
+possible. The author has endeavored to give credit in every instance
+where he has taken advantage of the labors of others. This work is not
+intended for that class of people who are so absolutely certain of the
+truth of their religion and of the immortality that it teaches, that
+they have become unqualified to entertain or even perceive of any
+scientific objection; for such people may be likened unto those who,
+"_Seeing, they see, but will not perceive; and hearing, they hear, but
+will not understand._"
+
+This work is written for the man of culture who is seeking for
+truth--believing, as does the author, that all truth is God's truth, and
+therefore it becomes the duty of every scientific man to accept it;
+knowing, however, that it will surely modify the popular creeds and
+methods of interpretation, its final result can only be to the glory of
+God and to the establishment of a more exalted and purer religion. All
+facts are truths; it consequently follows that all scientific facts are
+truths--there is no half-way house--a statement is either a truth or it
+is not a truth, according to the _law of non-contradiction_. If,
+therefore, we find tabulated amongst scientific facts (or truths) a
+statement which is not a fact, it is not science; but all statements
+which are facts it naturally follows are truths, and as such must be
+accepted, no matter how repulsive they may at first seem to some of our
+poetical imaginings and pet theories. We cannot help but sympathize with
+the feelings which prompted President Barnard to write the following
+lines, still we will see he was too hasty: "Much as I love truth in the
+abstract," he says, "I love my hope of immortality more." * * * He
+maintained that it is better to close one's eyes to the evidences than
+to be convinced of the _truth_ of certain doctrines which _he regards_
+as subversive of the fundamentals of Christian faith. "If this (is all)
+is the best that science can give me, then I pray no more science. Let
+me live on in my simple ignorance, as my fathers lived before me; and
+when I shall at length be summoned to my final repose, let me still be
+able to fold the drapery of my couch about me, and lie down to pleasant,
+even though they be deceitful, dreams."[1] The limitations to the
+acceptance of truth that President Barnard makes is wrong; for, as
+Professor Winchell has said, "we think it is a higher aspiration to wish
+to know 'the truth and the whole truth.' At the same time, we have not
+the slightest apprehension that the whole truth can ever dissipate our
+faith in a future life."[2] Let us "Prove all things and hold fast unto
+that which is good," recognizing the fact that "the truth-seeker is the
+only God-seeker."
+
+  AUTHOR
+  JANUARY 25, 1880.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+                                         PAGE
+
+  PREFACE                               v, vi
+
+  CHART OF MAN'S DEVELOPMENT            10-13
+
+  PROTOPLASM                               18
+
+  CELLS                                    20
+
+  LIFE                                     22
+
+  VITAL FORCE                              24
+
+  ANALYSIS OF MAN                          26
+
+  UNITY OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC NATURE    28
+
+  SPONTANEOUS GENERATION                   30
+
+  THE COMING INTO EXISTENCE OF MAN         33
+
+  EVOLUTION                                58
+
+  THEORIES OF THE WORLD'S FORMATION        64
+
+  THE BIBLE                                70
+
+  KANT'S COSMOGONY                     76, 86
+
+  NATURE A PERPETUAL CREATION              82
+
+  LAWS OF EVOLUTION                        90
+
+  SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST                  92
+
+  RUDIMENTARY ORGANS                       94
+
+  REPRODUCTION BY MEANS OF EGGS            99
+
+  DOUBLE-SEXED INDIVIDUALS                 99
+
+  INHERITANCE                             100
+
+  ARTIFICIAL MONSTERS                     106
+
+  ACQUIRED QUALITIES                      106
+
+  GEOLOGICAL RECORD                       108
+
+  ONTOGENY                                110
+
+  THE ATTRIBUTES OF MAN                   115
+
+  MUSCULAR FORCE                          116
+
+  THOUGHT FORCE                           118
+
+  THE ATTRIBUTES OF ANIMALS               122
+
+  THE ATTRIBUTES OF A SAVAGE              126
+
+  LANGUAGE                                128
+
+  FAITH                                   130
+
+  TRUE CONSCIENCE                         132
+
+  BELIEF IN GOD                           136
+
+  PROOF OF THE EXISTENCE OF GOD           138
+
+  UNITY OF ALL NATURE                     140
+
+  SOUL                                    143
+
+  THE FINITE SENSES OF MAN                144
+
+  THE UNSEEN UNIVERSE                     148
+
+  MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD                   150
+
+  HOPE OF IMMORTALITY                 142-151
+
+
+
+
+WAS MAN CREATED?
+
+
+
+
+HAECKEL'S CHART OF MAN'S DEVELOPMENT, Arranged by HENRY A. MOTT, Jr.,
+Ph. D.
+
+  =9. Americans.= (_Indians._)
+       |
+       |         Esquimaux.
+       |             |
+       |       HYPERBOREANS.                        Magyars.
+       |                                                |
+       |       =8. Arctic Men.=                           |
+       |             |                                Fins.
+       +------+------+                                  |
+              |       Tungusians.  Calmucks. Tartars.   |    Samoides.
+              |           |            |       |        |      |
+              +-----------+-------+----+-------+        +---+--+
+                                  |                         |
+                              Altaians.                  Uralians.
+                                  |                         |
+                                  +-----------------+-------+
+          Japanese.   Chinese.         Siamese.     |
+              |           |     Tibet.    |         |
+              |           |       |       |    Ural-Altaians.
+           Coreans.       +-------+-------+         |
+              |                   |                 |
+              |             Indo-Chinese.           |
+       Coreo-Japanese.            |                 |
+              |                   |                 |
+              +----+--------------+-----------------+
+                   |                                Indo-Germanians.
+                   |             Semites.   Basques.       |    Caucasians.
+                   |                |          |           |            |
+                   |                +----------+--+--------+------------+
+                   |                              |
+                   |                     =12. Mediteranese.=
+                   |                              |
+                   |                   Singalese. |    Fulatians.
+                   |                       |      |        |
+                   |                    DECCANS.  |    DONGOLESE.
+                   |                              |
+                   |               =10. Dradidas.=  |  =11. Nubians.=
+                   |                      |       |        |
+                   |                      +----+--+--------+
+                   | Polynesians.              |
+                   |      |   Madagascars.   Euplocomi.     =4. Negroes.=
+                   |      |         |          |                  |
+                   |      +-----+---+          |    =3. Kaffirs.= |
+                   |            |              |         |        |
+                   |      Sundanesians.        |         +---+----+
+                   |            |              |             |
+             =7. Mongols=    =6. Malays=           |         ERIOCOMI.
+                   |            |              |             |
+                   +------------+--------------+             |
+                    Promalays.                =2. Hottentots=|
+                       |           =1. Papuans.=       |     |
+                       | =5. Australians.= |           |     |
+                       |     |           +---+-------+       |
+                       +--+--+               |               |
+                          |                  |               |
+                      EUTHYCOMI.        LOPHOCOMI.           |
+                          |                  |               |
+                          |                  +----+----------+
+                          |                       |
+              LISSOTRICHI (_straight-haired_)  ULOTRICHI (_woolly-haired_).
+                          |                       |
+                          +------------+----------+
+                                       |
+                                 =ALALI= (_speechless men_).
+                          =PITHECANTHROPI= (_ape-like men_).
+                                       |
+                                       V
+
+
+                                           |
+                                     PRIMEVAL MEN.
+                                           |
+                                           |      Satyrus
+      Engeco         Gorilla               |     (_Orang_).   Hylobates
+  (_Chimpanzee_).  (_Gorilla_).            |         |       (_Gibbon_).
+        |               |                  |         |            |
+        +---------------+                  +---------+------------+
+               |                                     |
+            African                               Asiatic
+      (_Man-like Apes_).                     (_Man-like Apes_).
+               |                                     |
+               +-------------------------------------+
+                                   |
+                                   |                            Nasalis
+                            ANTHROPOIDES      Semnopithecus  (_Nose Apes_).
+                         (_Man-like Apes_).   (_Tall Apes_).      |
+                                   |                |             |
+                                   |                +-------------+
+                                   |                        |
+  Arctopitheci     Labidocera      |  Cercopithecus    Cynocephalus
+  (_Silk-Apes_). (_Clutch-tails_). |   (_Sea-Cat_).     (_Pavian_).
+       |                |          |        |               |
+       +----------------+          +--------+---------------+
+               |                                |
+           Aphyocera                  Catarrhina Menocerca
+        (_Flap-tails_).           (_Tailed, Narrow-nosed Apes_).
+
+           Platyrhinae                      Catarrhinae
+      (_Flat-nosed Apes_).              (_Narrow-nosed_).
+               |                                |
+               +--------------------------------+
+                               |
+                             Simiae
+                           (_Apes_).     Brachytarsi
+                               |         (_Lemurs_).
+                               |              |
+                               +--------------+
+                  Proboscidea         |                      Pinnipedia
+                 (_Elephants_).       |                  (_Marine Animals
+     Lamnungia        |               |                       of Prey_).
+  (_Rock-Conies_).    |               |    Nycterides             |
+        |             |               |     (_Bats_).         Carnivora
+        +-------------+               |        |           (_Land Animals
+               |                      |     Pterocynes        of Prey_).
+          Chelophora                  | (_Flying Foxes_).         |
+      (_Pseudo-hoofed_).              |        |              Carnaria
+               |                      |     Chiroptera       (_Animals
+           Rodentia                   | (_Flying Animals_).   of Prey_).
+     (_Gnawing Animals_).             |        |                  |
+               |                      |        +------------------+
+               |      Leptodactyla    |                  |
+               |      (_Fingered      |             Insectivora
+               |        Animals_).    |          (_Insect Eaters_).
+               |           |          |                  |
+               +-----------+          |                  |
+                     |                |                  |
+                     +----------------+------------------+
+                                                   |
+                                               PROSIMIAE
+
+
+  Sarcoceta (_True Whales_).               PROSIMIAE (_Brought forward_,)
+        |                                       (_Semi-Apes_).
+  Sirenia (_Sea-Cows_).
+  Cetacea (_Whales_).
+        |
+      Ungulata                 Edentata                   Deciduata
+  (_Hoofed Animals_).      (_Poor in teeth_).       (_Deciduous Animals_).
+        |                         |                             |
+        +--------+----------------+                             |
+                 |                                              |
+            Indeciduous                                         |
+           (_Indeciduata_).                                     |
+                 |                                              |
+                 +-------------------------------------+--------+
+                                                       |
+                                                  PLACENTALIA
+                                              (_Placental Animals_).
+                                                       |
+                       Marsupialia                     |        Marsupialia
+                       Botanophaga                     |          Zoophaga
+                      (_Herbivorous_                   |     (_Carnivorous_
+                       _Marsupials_).                  |     _Marsupials_).
+                            |                          |             |
+                            +--------------------------+-------------+
+                                                       |
+              Ornithostoma                       Marsupialia
+            (_Beaked Animals_).                    (_Marsupial_).
+                   |                                   |
+                   +---------------------------+-------+
+                                               |
+                                    PROMAMMALIA (_Glacal Animals_).
+
+                                                      MAMMALIA (_Mammals_).
+                                   Aves (_Birds_).                |
+                                        |                         |
+                                Reptilia (_Reptiles_).            |
+                                        |                         |
+                                        +---------------+---------+
+                                                        |
+    Teleostei                Halisauria                 |
+  (_Osseous Fish_).           (_Sea-Dragons_).  Amniota (_Amnion Animals_).
+       |          Dipneusta      |                      |
+       |         (_Mud-Fish_).   |            Amphibia (_Batrachians_).
+    Ganoidei          |          |                      |
+  (_Ganoid Fish_).      +----------+-------+--------------+
+       |                                 |
+       |                          Amphipneumones
+       |             (_Vertebrate Animals, breathing through lungs_).
+       |                                 |
+       +--+------------------------------+
+          |
+  SELACHII (_Primeval Fish_).
+          |
+       PISCES
+      (_Fishes_).
+          |
+          |
+     Amphirrhina                                             Cyclostoma
+  (_Double Nostrils_).                                   (_Round-mouthed_).
+          |                                                       |
+          +----------------------------------------------+--------+
+                                                         |
+                                                    Monorrhina
+                                               (_Single-nostriled_).
+
+                                                     Craniota
+                                              (_Animals with Skulls_).
+                                  Leptocardia            |
+                               (_Tube-hearted_).         |
+                                       |                 |
+     Thaliacea.                        +--------+--------+
+  (_Sea-Barrels_).     Ascidiae.                 |
+         |                |                  Acrania
+         +--------+-------+           (_Skull-less Animals_).
+                  |
+              Tunicata                      Vertebrata
+        (_Tunicate Animals_).         (_Vertebrate Animals_).
+                  |                             |
+                  +-------------------+---------+
+                                      |
+                                    Vermes
+                                  (_Worms_).
+                                      |
+                      Zoophytes       |
+                  (_Animal Trees_).   |
+                          |           |
+                          +-----+-----+
+                                |
+                            Protozoa
+                      (_Primeval Animals_).
+
+                          ANIMAL MONERA.
+                                |
+                                |
+  VEGETABLE MONERA.             |            NEUTRAL MONERA.
+          |                     |                   |
+          +---------------------+-------------------+
+                                |
+                        ARCHIGONIC MONERA
+  (_Pieces of Protoplasm which have originated by Spontaneous Generation._)
+
+
+
+
+WAS MAN CREATED?
+
+WHAT SCIENCE CAN ANSWER.
+
+
+"The object of science is not to find out what we like or what we
+dislike--the object of science is Truth." In the discussion of the
+subject, "_Was Man Created?_" our object will be--not to study the many
+ways God might have created him, but the way he actually did create him,
+for all ways would be alike easy to an Omnipotent Being.
+
+Let us look at man and ask the question: What is there about him which
+would need an independent act of creation any more than about the
+"mountain of granite or the atom of sand"? The answer comes back:
+Besides life, man has many mental attributes. Let us direct our
+attention at first to the grand phenomena of life, and then to man's
+attributes.
+
+To discover the nature of life, to find out what life really is, it
+would be folly to commence by comparing man, the perfection of living
+beings, with an inorganic or inanimate substance like a brick, to
+discover the hidden secret; for, as Professor Orton says:[3] "That only
+is essential to life which is common to all forms of life. Our brains,
+stomach, livers, hands and feet are luxuries. They are necessary to make
+us human, but not living beings." Instead of man, then, it will be
+necessary for us to take the simplest being which possesses such a
+phenomena; and such are the little homogeneous specks of protoplasm,
+constituting the Group _Monera_, which are entirely destitute of
+structure, and to which the name "Cytode" has been given. In the fresh
+waters in the neighborhood of Jena minute lumps of protoplasm were
+discovered by Haeckel, which, on being examined under the most powerful
+lens of a microscope, were seen to have no constant form, their outlines
+being in a state of perpetual change, caused by the protrusion from
+various parts of their surface of broad lobes and thick finger-like
+projections, which, after remaining visible for a time, would be
+withdrawn, to make their appearance again on some other part of the
+surface. To this little mass of protoplasm Haeckel has given the name
+_Protanaeba primitiva_. These little lumps multiply by spontaneous
+division into two pieces, which, on becoming dependent, increase in size
+and acquire all the characteristics of the parent. From this
+illustration, it will be seen that "reproduction is a form of nutrition
+and a growth of the individual to a size beyond that belonging to it as
+an individual, so that a part is thus elevated into a (new) whole."
+
+It is to this simple state of the monera the _fertilized_ egg of any
+animal is transformed--the germ vesicle; the original egg kernel
+disappears, and the parent kernel (cytococcus) forms itself anew; and it
+is in this condition, a non-nucleated ball of protoplasm, a true cytod,
+a homogeneous, structureless body, without different constituent parts,
+that the human child, as well as all other living beings, take their
+first steps in development. No matter how wonderful this may seem, the
+fact stares us in the face that the entire human child, as well as every
+animal with all their great future possibilities, are in their first
+stage a small ball of this complex homogeneous substance. Whether we
+consider "a mere infinitesimal ovoid particle which finds space and
+duration enough to multiply into countless millions in the body of a
+living fly, and then of the wealth of foliage, the luxuriance of flower
+and fruit which lies between this bald sketch of a plant and the
+gigantic pine of California, towering to the dimensions of a cathedral
+spire, or the Indian fig which covers acres with its profound shadow,
+and endures while nations and empires come and go around its vast
+circumference," or we look "at the other half of the world of life,
+picturing to ourselves the great finner whale, hugest of beasts that
+live or have lived, disporting his eighty or ninety feet of bone,
+muscle, and blubber, with easy roll, among the waves in which the
+stoutest ship that ever left dock-yard would founder hopelessly, and
+contrast him with the invisible animalcule, mere gelatinous specks,
+multitudes of which could in fact dance upon the point of a needle with
+the same ease as the angels of the schoolman could in imagination;--with
+these images before our minds, it would be strange if we did not ask
+what community of form or structure is there between the fungus and the
+fig-tree, the animalcule and the whale? and, _a fortiori_, between all
+four? Notwithstanding these apparent difficulties, a threefold
+unity--namely, a unity of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity
+of substantial composition--does pervade the whole living world."[4] And
+this unit is Protoplasm. So we see it is necessary for us to retreat to
+our protoplasm as a naked formless plasma, if we would find freed from
+all non-essential complications the agent to which has been assigned the
+duty of building up structure and of transforming the energy of lifeless
+matter into the living. Even Goethe (in 1807) almost stated this when he
+said: "Plants and animals, regarded in their most imperfect condition,
+are hardly distinguishable. This much, however, we may say, that from a
+condition in which plant is hardly to be distinguished from animal,
+creatures have appeared, gradually perfecting themselves in two
+opposite directions--the plant is finally glorified into the tree,
+enduring and motionless; the animal into the human being of the highest
+mobility and freedom."
+
+Let us examine for a moment this substance Protoplasm, and see in what
+way it differs from inorganic matter, or in what way the animate differs
+from the inanimate--the living from the dead.
+
+Felix Dujardin, a French zoologist (1835) pointed out that the only
+living substance in the body of rhizopods and other inferior primitive
+animals, is identical with protoplasm. He called it _sarcode_. Hugo von
+Mohl (1846) first applied the name protoplasm to the peculiar serus and
+mobile substance in the interior of vegetable cells; and he perceived
+its high importance, but was very far from understanding its
+significance in relation to all organisms. Not, however, until Ferdinand
+Cohn (1850) and more fully Franz Unger (1855) had established the
+identity of the animate and contractile protoplasm in vegetable cells
+and the sarcode of the lower animals, could Max Shultz in 1856-61
+elaborate the protoplasm theory of the sarcode so as to proclaim
+protoplasm to be the most essential and important constituent of all
+organic cells, and to show that the bag or husk of the cell, the
+cellular membrane and intercellular substance, are but secondary parts
+of the cell, and are frequently wanting. In a similar manner Lionel
+Beale (1862) gave to protoplasm, including the cellular germ, the name
+of "germinal matter," and to all the other substance entering into the
+composition of tissue, being secondary, and produced the name of "formed
+matter."
+
+"Wherever there is life there is protoplasm; wherever there is
+protoplasm, there, too, is life." The physical consistence of protoplasm
+varies with the amount of water with which it is combined, from the
+solid form in which we find it in the dormant state to the thin watery
+state in which it occurs in the leaves of valisneria.
+
+As to its composition, chemistry can as yet give but scanty information;
+it can tell that it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
+sulphur, and phosphorus, and it can also tell the percentage of each
+element, but it cannot give more than a formula that will express it as
+a whole, giving no information as to the nature of the numerous
+albuminoid substances which compose it. Edward Cope, in his article on
+Comparative Anatomy,[5] gives the formula for protoplasm (as a whole),
+C{24}H{17}N{3}O{8} + S and P, in small quantities under some circumstances.
+It is therefore, he says, a nitryl of cellulose: C{24}H{20}O{2} + 3NH{3}.
+According to Mulder the composition of albumen, one of the class of
+protein substances to which protoplasm belongs, is 10(C{40}H{31}N{5}O{12})
++ S{2}P. Protoplasm is identical in both the animal and vegetable kingdom;
+it behaves the same from whatever source it may be derived towards
+several re-agents, as also electricity. Is it possible, then, that the
+protoplasm which produces the mould is exactly the same composition as
+that which produces the human child? The answer is YES, so far as the
+elements are concerned, but the proportions of carbon, hydrogen, etc.,
+must enter into an infinite number of diverse stratifications and
+combination in the production of the various forms of life. Professor
+Frankland, speaking of protein, for instance, says it is capable of
+existing under probably at least a thousand isomeric forms. Protoplasm
+may be distinguished under the microscope from other members of the
+class to which it belongs, on account of the faculty it possesses of
+combining with certain coloring matters, as carmine and aniline; it is
+colored dark-red or yellowish-brown by iodine and nitric acid, and it is
+coagulated by alcohol and mineral acids as well as by heat. It possesses
+the quality of absorbing water in various quantities, which renders it
+sometimes extremely soft and nearly liquid, and sometimes hard and firm
+like leather. Its prominent physical properties are excitability and
+contractility, which Kuehne and others have especially investigated. The
+motion of protoplasm in plants was first made known by Bonaventure Corti
+a century ago in the Charoe plants; but this important fact was
+forgotten, and it had to be discovered by Treviranus in 1807. The
+regular motion of the protoplasm, forming a perfect current, may be seen
+in the hairs of the nettle, and weighty evidence exists that similar
+currents occur in all young vegetable cells. "If such be the case," says
+Huxley, "the wonderful noonday silence of a tropical forest is, after
+all, due only to the dullness of our hearing, and could our ears catch
+the murmur of these tiny maelstroms, as they whirl in innumerable
+myriads of living cells, which constitute each tree, we should be
+stunned as with a roar of a great city."
+
+One step higher in the scale of life than the monera is the vegetable or
+animal cell, which arose out of the monera by the important process of
+segregation in their homogeneous viscid bodies, the differentiation of
+an inner kernel from the surrounding plasma. By this means the great
+progress from a simple cytod (without kernel) into a real cell (with
+kernel) was accomplished. Some of these cells at an early stage encased
+themselves by secreting a hardened membrane; they formed the first
+vegetable cells, while others remaining naked developed into the first
+aggregate of animal cells. The vegetable cell has usually two concentric
+coverings--cell-wall and primordial utricle. In animal cells the former
+is wanting, the membrane representing the utricle. As a general fact,
+also, animal cells are smaller than vegetable cells. Their size[6]
+varies greatly, but are generally invisible to the naked eye, ranging
+from 1/500 to 1/10000 of an inch in diameter. About four thousand of the
+smallest would be required to cover the dot put over the letter i in
+writing. The shape of cells varies greatly; the normal form, though, is
+spheroidal as in the cells of fat, but they often become[7]
+many-sided--sometimes flattened as in the cuticle, and sometimes
+elongated into a simple filament as in fibrous tissue or muscular fibre.
+
+The cell, therefore, is extremely interesting, since all animal and
+vegetable structure is but the multiplication of the cell as a unit, and
+the whole life of the plant or animal is that of the cells which compose
+them, and in them or by them all its vital processes are carried on. It
+may sound paradoxical to speak of an animal or plant being composed of
+millions of cells; but beyond the momentary shock of the paradox no harm
+is done.
+
+The cell, then, can be regarded as the basis of our physiological idea
+of the elementary organism; but in the animal as well as in the plant,
+neither cell-wall nor nucleus is an essential constituent of the cell,
+inasmuch as bodies which are unquestionably the equivalents of
+cells--true morphological units--may be mere masses of protoplasm,
+devoid alike of cell-wall or nucleus. For the whole living world, then,
+the primary and a mental form of life is merely an individual mass of
+protoplasm in which no further structure is discernible. Well, then, has
+protoplasm been called the "universal concomitant of every phenomena of
+life." Life is inseparable from this substance, but is dormant unless
+excited by some external stimulant, such as heat, light, electricity,
+food, water, and oxygen.
+
+Although we have seen that the life of the plant as well as of the
+animal is protoplasm, and that the protoplasm of the plant and that of
+the animal bear the closest resemblance, yet plants can manufacture
+protoplasm out of mineral compounds, whereas animals are obliged to
+procure it ready made, and hence in the end depend on plants. "Without
+plants," says Professor Orton, "animals would perish; without animals,
+plants had no need to be." The food of a plant is a matter whose energy
+is all expended--is a fallen weight. But the plant organism receives it,
+exposes it to the sun's rays, and in a way mysterious to us converts the
+actual energy of the sunlight into potential energy within it. It is for
+this reason that life has been termed "bottled-sunshine."
+
+The principal food of the plant consists of carbon united with oxygen to
+form carbonic acid, hydrogen united with oxygen to form water, and
+nitrogen united with hydrogen to form ammonia. These elements thus
+united, which in themselves are perfectly lifeless, the plant is able to
+convert into living protoplasm. "Plants are," says Huxley, "the
+accumulators of the power which animals distribute and disperse."
+Boussengault found long since that peas sown in pure sand, moistened
+with distilled water and fed by the air, obtained all the carbon
+necessary for their development, flowering, and fructification. Here we
+see a plant which not only maintains its vigor on these few substances,
+but grows until it has increased a millionfold or a million-millionfold
+the quantity of protoplasm it originally possessed, and this protoplasm
+exhibits the phenomena of life. This and other proof led M. Dumas to
+say: "From the loftiest point of view, and in connection with the
+physics of the globe, it would be imperative on us to say that in so far
+as their truly organic elements are concerned, plants and animals are
+the offspring of the air."
+
+Schleiden,[8] speaking of the haymakers of Switzerland and the Tyrol,
+says: "He mows his definite amount of grass every year on the Alps,
+inaccessible to cattle, and gives not back the smallest quantity of
+organic substance to the soil. Whence comes the hay, if not from the
+atmosphere."
+
+It has been seen, then, that plants can manufacture protoplasm, a
+faculty which animals are not possessed of; they at best can only
+convert dead protoplasm into living protoplasm. Thus when vegetable or
+meat is cooked their protoplasm dies, but is not rendered incompetent of
+resuming its old functions as a matter of life. "If I," says Huxley,
+"should eat a piece of cooked mutton, which was once the living
+protoplasm of a sheep, the protoplasm, rendered dead by cooking, will be
+changed into living protoplasm, and thus I would transubstantiate sheep
+into man; and were I to return to my own place by sea and undergo
+shipwreck, the crustacean might and probably would return the
+compliment, and demonstrate our common nature by turning my protoplasm
+into living lobster." As has been said before, where there are life
+manifestations there is protoplasm. Life is regarded by one class of
+thinkers as the principle or cause of organization; and according to the
+other, life is the product or effect of organization. We must, however,
+agree with Professor Orton, who says: "Life is the effect of
+organization, not the result of it. Animals do not live because they are
+organized, but are organized because they are alive." In whatever way it
+is looked at, life is but a forced condition. "The more advanced
+thinkers, then, in science to-day," says Barker, "therefore look upon
+the life of the living form as inseparable from its substance, and
+believe that the former is purely phenomenal and only a manifestation of
+the latter. During the existence of a special force as such, they retain
+the term only to express the sum of the phenomena of living beings. The
+word life must be regarded, then, as only a generalized expression
+signifying the sum-total of the properties of matter possessing such
+organization."
+
+In what manner, then, does this matter, possessing the phenomena of
+life, differ from inorganic matter, or in what manner does living matter
+differ from matter not living? The forces which are at work on the one
+side are at work on the other. The phenomena of life are all dependent
+upon the working of the same physical and chemical forces as those
+which are active in the rest of the world. It may be convenient to use
+the terms "vitality" and "vital force" to denote the cause of certain
+groups of natural operations, as we employ the names of "electricity"
+and "electrical force" to denote others; but it ceases to do so, if such
+a name implies the absurd assumption that either "electricity" or
+"vitality" is an entity, playing the part of a sufficient cause of
+electrical or vital phenomena. A mass of living protoplasm is simply a
+machine of great complexity, the total result of the work of which, or
+its vital phenomena, depend on the one hand upon its construction, and
+on the other upon the energy supplied to it; and to speak of "vitality"
+as anything but the names of a series of operations is as if one should
+talk of the "horologity" of a clock.[9]
+
+When hydrogen and oxygen are united by an electrical spark water is
+produced; certainly there is no parity between the liquid produced and
+the two gases. At 32 deg. F., oxygen and hydrogen are elastic gaseous
+bodies, whose particles tend to fly away from one another; water at the
+same temperature is a strong though brittle solid. Such changes are
+called the properties of water. It is not assumed that a certain
+something called "acquosity" has entered into and taken possession of
+the oxide of hydrogen as soon as formed, and then guarded the particles
+in the facets of the crystal or amongst the leaflets of the hoar-frost.
+On the contrary, it is hoped molecular physics will in time explain the
+phenomena. "What better philosophical status," says Huxley,[10] "has
+vitality than acquosity. If the properties of water may be properly said
+to result from the nature and disposition of its molecules, I can find
+no intelligible ground for refusing to say that the properties of
+protoplasm result from the nature and disposition of its molecules."
+
+"To distinguish the living from the dead body," Herbert Spencer says,
+"the tree that puts out leaves when the spring brings change of
+temperature, the flower which opens and closes with the rising and
+setting of the sun, the plant that droops when the soil is dry and
+re-erects itself when watered, are considered alive because of these
+produced changes; in common with the zoophyte, which contracts on the
+passing of a cloud over the sun, the worm that comes to the ground when
+continually shaken, and the hedgehog which rolls itself up when
+attacked."
+
+"Seeds of wheat produced antecedent to the Pharaohs," says Bastain,[11]
+"remaining in Egyptian catacombs through century after century display
+of course no vital manifestations, but nevertheless retain the
+potentiality of growing into perfect plants whenever they may be brought
+into contact with suitable external conditions. We must presume that
+either (1) during this long lapse of centuries the 'vital principle' of
+the plant has been imprisoned in the most dreary and impenetrable of
+dungeons, whither no sister effluence from the general 'soul of nature'
+could affect it; or else (2) that the germ of the future living plant is
+there only in the form of an inherited structure, whose molecular
+complexities are of such a kind that, after moisture has restored
+mobility to its atoms, its potential life may pass into actual life.
+Some of the lowest forms of animals and plants have such a tenacity to
+life that their vital manifestation may be kept in abeyance for five,
+ten, fifteen, or even twenty years. Though not living any more than the
+wheat, they also retain the potentiality of manifestation of life; and
+for each alike, in order that this potentiality may pass into actuality,
+the first requisition is water with which to restore them to that
+possibility of molecular rearrangement under the influence of incident
+forces, of which the absence of water had deprived them, and without
+which, life in any real sense is impossible."
+
+
+  ANALYSIS OF A MAN.
+
+  (BY PROF. MILLER.)
+
+  A man 5 feet 8 inches high, weighing 154 pounds.
+
+                     lbs.         oz.          grs.
+  Oxygen             111           0            0
+  Hydrogen            14           0            0
+  Carbon              21           0            0
+  Nitrogen             3          10            0
+
+  Inorganic elements in the ash:
+
+  Phosphorus           1           2           88
+  Calcium              2           0            0
+  Sulphur              0           0          219
+  Chlorine             0           2           47
+
+  1 ounce = 437 grains.
+
+  Sodium               0           2          116
+  Iron                 0           0          100
+  Potassium            0           0          290
+  Magnesium            0           0           12
+  Silica               0           0            2
+
+  Total              154           0            0
+
+
+  The quantity of the substances found in a human body
+  weighing 154 pounds:
+
+                     lbs.         oz.        grs.
+  Water              111           0            0
+  Gelatin             15           0            0
+  Albumen              4           3            0
+  Fibrine              4           4            0
+  Fat                 12           0            0
+  Ashes                7           9            0
+
+  Total              154           0            0
+
+  (From the "CHEMISTS' MANUAL.")
+
+
+Professor Owen[12] says: "There are organisms (vibrieo, rotifer,
+macrobiotus, etc.) which we can devitalize and revitalize--devive and
+revive--many times. As the dried animalcule manifest no phenomena
+suggesting any idea contributing to form the complex one of 'life' in my
+mind, I regard it to be as completely lifeless as is the drowned man,
+whose breath and heat have gone, and whose blood has ceased to
+circulate. * * * The change of work consequent on drying or drowning
+forthwith begins to alter relations or compositions, and in time to a
+degree adverse to resumption of the vital form of force, a longer period
+being needed for this effect in the rotifer, a shorter one in the man,
+still shorter it may be in the amoeba."
+
+"There is," says Dumas,[13] "an eternal round in which death is
+quickened and life appears, but in which matter merely changes its place
+and form."
+
+Let us now compare the inorganic world with the organic--the inanimate
+with the animate--and see if there does exist an inseparable boundary
+between them. The fundamental properties of every natural body are
+matter, form, and force. One important point to be noticed is, that the
+elements which compose all animate bodies are the very elements that
+help to build up the inanimate bodies. No new elements appear in the
+vegetable or animal world which are not to be found in the inorganic
+world. The difference between animate and inanimate bodies, therefore,
+is certainly not in the elements which form them, but in the molecular
+combination of them; and it is to be hoped that molecular physics will,
+at some not far distant time, enlighten us as to the peculiar state of
+aggregation in which the molecules exist in living matter. As to the
+form, it is impossible to find any essential difference in the external
+form and inner structure between inorganic and organic bodies--for the
+simple monad, which is as much a living organism as the most complex
+being, is nothing but a homogeneous, structureless mass of protoplasm.
+But just as the inorganic substance, according to well-defined laws,
+elaborates its structure into a crystal of great beauty, so does the
+protoplasm elaborate itself into the most beautiful of all
+structures--the cell unit. Just as gold and copper crystallizes in a
+geometrical form, a cube--bismuth and antimony in a hexagonal, iodine
+and sulphur in a rhombic form--so we find among radiolaria, and among
+other protista and lower forms, that they "may be traced to a
+mathematical, fundamental form, and whose form in its whole, as well as
+in its parts, is bounded by definite geometrically determinable planes
+and angles." Now, as to the forces of the two different groups of
+bodies. Surely the constructive force of a crystal is due to the
+chemical composition, and to its material constitution. As the shape of
+the crystal and its size are influenced by surrounding circumstances,
+there is, therefore, an external constructive force at work. The only
+difference between the growth of an organism and that of a crystal is,
+that in the former case, in consequence of its semi-fluid state of
+aggregation, the newly added particles penetrate into the interior of
+the organism (inter-susception), whereas inorganic substances receive
+homogeneous matter from without, only by opposition or an addition of
+new particles to the surface. "If we, then, designate the growth and the
+formation of organisms as a process of life, we may with equal reason
+apply the same term with the developing crystal." It is for these and
+other reasons, demonstrating as they do the "unity of organic and
+inorganic nature," the essential agreement of inorganic and organic
+bodies in matter, form, and force, which led Tyndall[14] to say:
+"Abandoning all disguise, the confession that I feel bound to make
+before you is, that I prolong the vision backward across the boundary of
+experimental evidence, and discern in that matter which we in our
+ignorance, and notwithstanding our professed reverence for its Creator,
+have hitherto covered with opprobrium, the promise and potency of every
+form and quality of life."
+
+Returning now to our protoplasm, let us ask the question: Where did it
+come from? or, How did it come into existence? Though chemical synthesis
+has built up a number of organic substances which have been deemed the
+product of vitality, yet, up to the present day, the fact stands out
+before us that no one has ever built up one particle of living matter,
+however minute, from lifeless elements.
+
+The protoplasm of to-day is simply a continuation of the protoplasm of
+other ages, handed down to us through periods of undefinable and
+indeterminable time.
+
+The question of where protoplasm came from--how it arose--chemistry is
+unable to answer; but the question is answered, probably, by spontaneous
+generation. Only the merest particle of living protoplasm was necessary
+to be formed from lifeless matter in the beginning; for, in the eyes of
+any consistent evolutionist, any further independent formation would be
+sheer waste, as the hypothesis of evolution postulates the unlimited,
+though perhaps not, indefinite modifiability of such matter. As we have
+seen that there exists no absolute barrier between organic and inorganic
+bodies, it is not so difficult to conceive that the first particle of
+protoplasm may have originated, under suitable conditions, out of
+inorganic or lifeless matter. But the causes which have led to the
+origination of this particle, it may be said, we know absolutely
+nothing--as in the formation of the crystal and the cell--the ultimate
+causes remain in both cases concealed from us.
+
+At the time in the earth's history when water, in a liquid state, made
+its appearance on the cooled crust of the earth, the carbon probably
+existed as carbonic acid dispersed in the atmosphere; and from the very
+best of grounds, it is reasonable to assume that the density and
+electric condition of the atmosphere were quite different, as also the
+chemical and physical nature of the primeval ocean was quite different.
+In any case, therefore, even[15] if we do not know anything more about
+it, there remains the supposition, which can at least not be disputed,
+that at that time, under conditions quite different from those of
+to-day, a spontaneous generation, which is now perhaps no longer
+possible, may have taken place. This point is now conceded by most all
+of the advanced scientists of the day, and is absolutely necessary for
+the completion of the hypothesis of evolution.
+
+The answer may come to this--Well, suppose the first protoplasm did
+originate by spontaneous generation, where did the elements or force
+come from which compose it?
+
+Science has nothing to do with the coming into existence of matter or
+force, for she proves both to be indestructible; when they disappear,
+they do so only to reappear in some other form. The coming into
+existence of matter and force, as also the ultimate cause of all
+phenomena, is beyond the domain of scientific inquiry. Science has only
+to do with the coming in of the form of matter, not the coming in of its
+existence.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--A Moneron (Protamoeba) in act of reproduction;
+_A_, the whole Moneron, which moves like ordinary Amoeba, by means of
+variable processes: _B_, a contraction around its circumference parts it
+into two halves; _C_, the two halves separate, and each now forms
+independent individuals. (Much enlarged.)--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--_A_, is a crawling Amoeba (much
+enlarged).--_Haeckel._ The whole organism has the form-value of a naked
+cell and moves about by means of changeable processes, which are
+extended from the protoplasmic body and again drawn in. In the inside is
+the bright-colored, roundish cell-kernel or nucleus. _B_, Egg-cell of a
+Chalk Sponge (Olynthus).--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the next higher stage,
+Mulberry-germ or Morula (Synamoeba).--_Haeckel._]
+
+
+
+
+THE COMING INTO EXISTENCE OF MAN,
+
+BY THE SLOW PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
+
+
+It is necessary now to take up the little mass of living matter,
+admitting its coming into existence by spontaneous generation as
+probable, and so probable that it almost amounts to a certainty, and
+follow it through the many changes it is about to make under the
+influence of the laws which govern evolution until it has culminated in
+man, and these laws still acting on the brain of man, perfecting it, and
+leading him on to the comprehension of a grander and nobler conception
+of the Almighty and of his works.
+
+The start, then, must be made with a homogeneous mass of protoplasm,
+such as the existing _Protamoeba primitiva_ of the present day, which
+is a structureless organism without organs, and which came into
+existence during the Laurentian period. It is to this simplified
+condition, as I have previously stated, all fertilized eggs return
+before they commence to develop.
+
+The first process of adaptation effected by the monera must have been
+the condensation of an external crust, which, as a protecting covering,
+shut in the softer interior from the hostile influences of the outer
+world. As soon as, by condensation of the homogeneous moneron, a
+cell-kernel arose in the interior, and a membrane arose on the surface,
+all the fundamental parts of the unit were then furnished. Such a unit
+was an organism, similar to the white corpuscle of the blood, and
+called _amoebae_. Here we have two different stages of evolution; the
+protoplasma (better plasson) of the cytod undergoes differentiation, and
+is split up into two kinds of albuminous substances--the inner
+cell-kernel (nucleus) and the outer cell-substance (protoplasma). Edward
+von Benden, in his work upon _Gregarinae_, first clearly pointed out this
+fact, that we must distinguish thoroughly between the plasson of cytods
+and the protoplasm of cells.
+
+An irrefutable proof that such single-celled primaeval animals like the
+amoeba really existed as the direct ancestors of man, is furnished,
+according to the fundamental law of biogeny, by the fact that the human
+egg is nothing more than a simple cell.
+
+The next step taken in advance is the division of the cell in
+two;--there arise from the single germinal spot two new kernel specks,
+and then, in like manner, out of the germinal vesicle two new
+cell-kernels. The same process of cell-division now repeats itself
+several times in succession, and the products of the division form a
+perfect union. This organism may be called a community of _amoebae_
+(synamoebae).
+
+From the community of amoeba morula, now arose ciliated larvae. The
+cells lying on the surface extended hair-like processes or fringes of
+hair, which, by striking against the water, kept the whole body
+rotating--the lanceolate animals or amphioxus were thus first produced.
+Here we find from the synamoebae which crept about slowly at the bottom
+of the Laurentian primeval ocean by means of movements like those of an
+amoeba, that the newly-formed planaea by the vibrating movements of the
+cilia, the entire multicellular body acquired a more rapid and stronger
+motion, and passed over from the creeping to the swimming mode of
+locomotion. The planaea consisted, then, of two kinds of cells--inner
+ones like the amoebae, and external "ciliated cells." The ancestors of
+man, which possessed the form value of the ciliated larva, is, of
+course, extinct at the present day.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--The Norwegian Flimmer-ball (Magosphoera
+Planula), swimming by means of its vibratile fringes; seen from the
+surface.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--The same in section. The pear-shaped cells are
+seen bound together in the centre of the gelatinous sphere by a
+thread-like process. Each cell contains both a kernel and a contractile
+vesicle. (PLANAEA SERIES.)--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. III AND IV.--Represents GASTRAEA SERIES. The body
+consists merely of a simple primitive intestine, the wall of which is
+formed of two primary germ-layers.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. I and II.--Represents the next higher stage
+(Tubularia). Fig. I, a simple Gliding Worm (Rhabdocoelum); _m_, mouth;
+_sd_, throat-epithelium; _sm_, throat-muscles; _d_, stomach-intestine;
+_nc_, kidney-ducts; _nm_, opening of the kidneys; _au_, eye; _na_,
+nose-pit. Fig. II, the same Gliding Worm, showing the remaining organs;
+_g_, brain; _au_, eye; _na_, nose-pit; _n_, nerves; _h_, testes;
+[male symbol], male opening; [female symbol], female opening; _e_,
+ovary; _f_, ciliated outer-skin.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents Soft Worms (Scolecida) and is a
+young Acorn Worm (Balanoglossus), after _Agassiz_. _r_, acorn-like
+proboscis; _h_, collar; _k_, gill-openings and gill-arches of the
+anterior intestine, in a long row, one behind the other, on each side;
+_d_, digestive posterior intestine, filling the greater part of the body
+cavity; _v_, intestinal vessel, lying between two parallel folds of the
+skin; _a_, anus.]
+
+
+Out of the planula, then, develops an exceedingly important animal
+form--the gastrula (that is, larva with a stomach or intestine), which
+resembles the planula, but differs essentially in the fact that it
+encloses a cavity which opens to the outside by a mouth. The wall of the
+progaster (primary stomach) consists of two layers of cells: an outer
+layer of smaller ciliated cells (outer skin or ectoderm), and of an
+inner layer of large non-ciliated cells (inner skin or entoderm). This
+exceedingly important larval form, the "gastrula," makes its appearance
+in the ontogenesis of all tribes of animals. These gastraeada must have
+existed during the older primordial period, and they must have also
+included the ancestors of man. A certain proof of this is furnished by
+the amphioxus, which, in spite of its blood relationship to man, still
+passes through the stage of the gastrula with a simple intestine and a
+double intestinal wall.[16] By motion of the cilia or fringes of the
+skin-layer, the gastraea swam freely about in the Laurentian ocean.
+
+The development of the gastraea now deviated in two directions--one
+branch of gastraeads gave up free locomotion, adhered to the bottom of
+the sea, and thus, by adopting an adhesive mode of life, gave rise to
+the proascus, the common primary form of the animal plants (zoophyta).
+The other branch was originated by the formation of a middle germ-layer
+or muscular layer, and also by the further differentiation of the
+internal parts into various organs; more especially, the first formation
+of a nervous system, the simplest organs of sense, the simplest organs
+for secretion (kidneys), and generation (sexual organs)--this branch is
+the prothelmis, the common primary worms (vermes). Like the turbellaria
+of the present day, the whole surface of their body was covered with
+cilia, and they possessed a simple body of an oval shape, entirely
+without appendages. These acoelomatous worms did not as yet possess a
+true body cavity (coelom) nor blood. No member of the next higher
+animals are in existence, neither are there any fossil remains, owing to
+the soft nature of their body. They are therefore called soft worms, or
+scoleceda. They developed out of the turbellaria of the sixth stage by
+forming a true body cavity (a coelom) and blood in their interior. The
+nearest still living coelomati is probably the acorn worms
+(balanoglossus). The form value of this stage must, moreover, have been
+represented by several different intermediate stages.
+
+Out of the four different groups of the worm tribe, the four higher
+tribes of the animal kingdom were developed--the star-fishes
+(echinoderma) and insects (arthropoda) on the one hand, and the molluscs
+(mollusca) and vertebrated animals (vertebrata) on the other. Out of
+certain coelomati, the most ancient skull-less vertebrata were
+directly developed. Among the coelomati of the present day, the
+ascidians are the nearest relatives of this exceedingly remarkable worm,
+which connect the widely differing classes of invertebrate and
+vertebrate animals. To these animals have been given the name of
+sack-worms (himatega). They originated out of the worms of the seventh
+stage by the formation of a dorsal nerve marrow (medulla tube), and by
+the formation of the spinal rod (chorda dorsalis) which lies below it.
+It is just the position of this central spinal rod or axial skeleton,
+between the dorsal marrow on the dorsal side and the intestinal canal on
+the ventral side, which is most characteristic of all vertebrate
+animals, including man, but also of the larvae of the ascidia.
+
+We now come to the second half of the series of human ancestors. The
+skull-less animal lancelet, which is still living, affords a faint idea
+of the members of this group (acrania). Since this little animal, in its
+earliest embryonic state, entirely agrees with the ascidia, and in its
+further development shows itself to be a true vertebrate animal, it forms
+a direct transition from the vertebrata to the invertebrata.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Appendicularia, seen from the left side, _m_,
+mouth; _k_, gill intestine; _o_, oesophagus; _v_, stomach; _a_, anus;
+_n_, nerve ganglia (upper throat-knots); _g_, ear vesicle; _f_, ciliated
+groove under the gill; _h_, heart; _e_, ovary; _c_, notochord; _s_,
+tail.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents Sack Worms (Himatega), and is the
+structure of an Ascidian, seen from the left. _sb_, gill-sac; _v_,
+stomach; _i_, large intestine; _c_, heart; _t_, testes; _vd_, seed duct;
+_o_, ovary; _o'_, matured eggs in the body cavity. After
+_Milne-Edwards_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the ACRANIA SERIES. Lancelet
+(Amhioxus Lanceolatus), twice the actual size, seen from the left. _a_,
+mouth-opening, surrounded by cilia; _b_, anal-opening; _c_,
+ventral-opening (Porus abdominalis); _d_, gill-body; _e_, stomach; _f_,
+liver-coecum; _g_, large intestine; _h_, coelum; _i_, notochord
+(under it the aorta); _k_, arches of the aorta; _l_, main gill-artery;
+_m_, swellings on its branches; _n_, hollow vein; _o_, intestinal
+vein.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents the MONORHINA SERIES. Lamprey
+(Petromyzon Americanus) from the Atlantic--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents the Selachii. Shark (Carcharias
+vulgaris) from the Atlantic--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the Mud-fish (Dipneusta).
+Lepidosiren annecteus, one-fourth natural size; African
+rivers.--_Orton._ Form a link between typical fishes and the
+Amphibians.]
+
+
+At this stage, most probably, the separation of the two sexes began. The
+simpler and most ancient form of sexual propagation is through
+double-sexed individuals (hermaphroditismus). It occurs in the great
+majority of plants, but only in a minority of animals; for example, in
+the garden-snails, leeches, earth-worms and many other worms. Every
+single individual among hermaphrodites produces within itself materials
+of both sexes--egg and sperm. In most of the higher plants every blossom
+contains both the male organs (stamen and anther) and the female organs
+(style and germ). Every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual
+gland eggs, and in another sperm. Many hermaphrodites can fructify
+themselves; in others, however, copulation and reciprocal fructification
+of both hermaphrodites are necessary for causing the development of the
+eggs. This latter case is evidently a transition to sexual separation
+(gonoehorismus).
+
+Out of the members of the last group arose animals with skulls or
+craniata, having round mouths, and which are divided into hags and
+lampreys. The hags (myxinoides) have long cylindrical worm-like bodies.
+The lampreys (petromyxontes) includes those well known "nine eyes"
+common at the seaside.
+
+These single-nostril animals (monorrhina) arose during the primordial
+period out of the skull-less animals by the anterior end of the dorsal
+marrow developing into the brain, and the anterior end of the dorsal
+skull into the skull. By the division of the single nostril of the
+members of the last group into two lateral halves, by the formation of a
+sympathetic nervous system, a jaw skeleton, a swimming bladder and two
+pairs of legs (breast fins or fore-legs, and ventral fins or
+hind-legs), arose the primaeval fish (selachii), which is best
+represented by the still-living shark (squalacei).
+
+Out of the primaeval fish arose the mud-fish (dipneusta), which is very
+imperfectly represented by the still-living salamander fish; the
+primaeval fish adapting itself to land, and by the transforming of the
+swimming bladder into an air-breathing lung, and of the nasal cavity
+(which was now open into the mouth cavity) into air-passages. Their
+organization _might_, in some respect, be like the ceratodus and
+proloptems; but this is not certain.
+
+The dipneusta is an intermediate stage between the selachii and
+amphibia. Out of the dipneusta arose the class of amphibia, having five
+toes (the pentadactyla). The gill amphibians are man's most ancient
+ancestors of the class amphibia. Besides possessing lungs as well as the
+mud-fish, they retain throughout life regular gills like the
+still-living proteus and axolotl. Most gilled batrachia live in North
+America. The paddle-fins of the dipneusta changed into five-toed legs,
+which were afterwards transmitted to the higher vertebrata up to man.
+
+The gilled amphibia (sozobrachia) of the last group finally lost their
+gills but retained their tail, and tailed amphibians (sozura) were
+produced, such as the salamander and newt of the present day. Out of the
+sozura originated the primaeval amniota (protamnia) by the complete loss
+of the gills by the formation of the amnion of the cochlea, and of the
+round window in the auditory organ, and of the organ of tears. Out of
+the protamnia originated the primary mammals (promammalia). The most
+closely related were the ornithostoma; they differed through having
+teeth in their jaws.
+
+No fossil remains of the primary mammals have as yet been found,
+although they lived during the trias period--they possessed a very
+highly developed jaw. From the primary mammal arose the pouched animals
+(marsupialia). Numerous representatives of this group still exist:
+kangaroos, pouched rats and pouched dogs. The marsupial animals
+developed, very probably, in the mesolithic epoch (during the Jura) out
+of the cloacal animals; by the division of the cloaca into the rectum
+and the urogenital sinus, by the formation of a nipple on the mammary
+gland, and the partial suppression of the clavicles.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. I and II.--The Ceratodus Forsteri occur in the
+swamps of Southern Australia. Form transition between fishes and
+Amphibia.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents the Gilled Amphibians (Soyobranchia).
+The Axolotl (Siredon pisciforme), after Tegetmeier. The ordinary form
+with persistent branchiae.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Proteus Anguinus. Europe.--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Represents the Tailed Amphibians (Soyura).
+Great Water-Newt (Triton cristatus), after _Bell._]
+
+
+From the marsupialia originated a most interesting small group of
+semi-apes (prosimiae), for they are the primary forms of genuine apes and
+consequently of man. They developed out of handed or ape-footed
+marsupials (pedumana), of rat-like appearance, by the formation of a
+placenta, the loss of the marsupium and the marsupial bones, and by the
+higher development of the commissures of the brain. The still-living
+short-footed semi-ape (brachytarsi), especially the muki, indie and
+lori, possess possibly a faint resemblance.
+
+Out of the semi-apes developed two classes of genuine apes; but as the
+narrow-nosed or catarrhini class are the only ones related to man, the
+others will not be considered. These narrow-nosed apes originated by the
+transformation of the jaw, and by the claws on the toes changing into
+nails. The still-living long-tail nose-apes and holy apes
+(semnopithecus) probably resembled the oldest ancestors of this group.
+
+The tailed apes by the loss of their tail and some of their hair
+covering, and by the excessive development of that portion of their
+brain above the facial portion of the skull, developed into the man-like
+apes (anthropoides)--such as the gorilla and chimpanzee of Africa, and
+the orang and gibbon of Asia. The human ancestors of this group existed
+during the miocene period. From the anthropoides developed the ape-like
+men (pithecanthropi) during the tertiary period. The speechless
+primaeval men (alali), then, is the connecting link between the man-like
+apes and man. The fore-hand of the anthropoides became the human hand,
+their hinder-hand a foot for walking. They did not possess the
+articulate human language of words and the higher developments, as
+consciousness and the formation of ideas must have been very imperfect.
+
+Out of the pithecanthropi men developed genuine man, by the development
+of the animal language of sounds into a connected or articulate language
+of words--the brain also developed higher and higher. This transition
+took place, probably, at the beginning of the quaternary period, or
+possibly in the tertiary.
+
+We have now very briefly reviewed the principal outlines of the
+ancestors of man, showing that man has developed from the little mass of
+protoplasm, as have all animals and plants. He therefore was not
+_spontaneously_ created, but was developed. The question is often asked
+by simple-minded people, with much delight, Why do we not behold the
+interesting spectacle of the transformation of a chimpanzee into a man,
+or conversely of a man by retrogression into an orang?--it only shows
+that they are not acquainted with the first principles of the Doctrine
+of Descent. "Not one of the apes," says Schmidt, "can revert to the
+state of his primordial ancestors, except by retrogression--by which a
+primordial condition is by no means attained--he cannot divest himself
+of his acquired characters fixed by heredity, nor can he exceed himself
+and become man; for man does not stand in the direct line of development
+from the ape. The development of the anthropoid apes has taken a lateral
+course from the nearest human progenitors, and man can as little be
+transformed into a gorilla as a squirrel can be changed into a rat."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Salamandra Maculata.--_Haeckel_. The Water Newts
+and Salamanders were the next higher stage after the Proteus and the
+Axolotl.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Primaeval Amniota (Protamnia). Lizard
+(Lacerta), after _Orton_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents Primary Mammals (Promammalia).
+AMNIOTA SERIES. Duck-billed Platypus (Ornithorhynchus
+paradoxus).--_Haeckel_.]
+
+
+"Feeling evidently,"[17] says Haeckel, "rather than understanding,
+induces most people to combat the theory of their 'descent from apes.'
+It is simply because the organism of the ape appears a caricature of
+man, a distorted likeness of ourselves in a not very attractive form;
+because the customary aesthetic ideas and self-glorification of man are
+touched by this in so sensitive a point, that most men shrink from
+recognizing their descent from apes. It seems much pleasanter to be
+descended from a more highly developed divine being, and hence, as is
+well known, human vanity has from the earliest times flattered itself by
+assuming the original descent of the race from gods or demi-gods."
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION.
+
+
+In the last chapter a description was given of the various stages in
+man's development, from the microscopic monad up. It will be necessary
+now to describe briefly the various laws which have governed this
+evolutionary chain from the monad to man. But before proceeding directly
+to the subject, let us look at the doctrine of evolution as a whole, and
+trace it first in the formation of the world.
+
+The doctrine of evolution is also called the theory of development--it
+must not, however, be confused with Darwinism--for they are not exactly
+synonymous. Darwinism is an attempt to explain the laws or manner of
+evolution. Strictly speaking, only the theory of selection should be
+called Darwinism, which was established in 1859. The theory of descent,
+or transmutation theory, or doctrine of filiation, should properly be
+called Lamarckism, who for the first time worked out the theory of
+descent as an independent scientific theory of the first order, and as
+the philosophical foundation of the whole science of biology.
+
+"According to the theory of development (evolution) in its simplest
+form," says Henry Hartshorne,[18] "the universe as it now exists is a
+result of 'an immense series of changes,' related to and dependent upon
+each other as successive steps, or rather growths, constituting a
+progress; analogous to the unfolding or evolving of the parts of a
+growing organism." Herbert Spencer defined evolution as consisting
+in a progress from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from general to
+special, from the simple to the complex; and this process is considered
+to be traceable in the formation of worlds in space, in the
+multiplication of the types and species of plants and animals on the
+globe, in the origination and diversity of languages, literature, arts
+and sciences, and in all changes of human institutions and society.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Skeleton of Platypus.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Pouched Animals (Marsupialia).
+Kangaroo. (Popular Science Monthly, Feb., 1876.)]
+
+
+Let us now apply this theory of evolution to the physical world. No
+determined opposition by the mass of people is likely to be manifested
+to the doctrine of evolution as applied to the physical world, or even
+to the vegetable or animal world up to man; but the minute man is
+included--then is a voice raised up against it, and it was for this
+reason that Darwin in his first work on the "Theory of Descent" did not
+mention man as being included in the evolutionary series. He knew too
+well the foolish human weakness that existed.
+
+In a recent work by Prof. Challes, he states that he regards the
+material universe as "a vast and wonderful mechanism of which the least
+wonderful thing is its being so constructed that we can understand it."
+
+The following is a brief description of the various theories of the
+world's formation:
+
+_First Theory._--By the first theory the world is supposed to have
+existed from eternity under its actual form. Aristotle embraced this
+doctrine, and conceived the universe to be the eternal effect of an
+eternal cause; maintaining that not only the heavens and the earth, but
+all animate and inanimate beings, are without beginning. To use Huxley's
+illustration: If you can imagine a spectator on the earth, however far
+back in time, he would have seen a world "essentially similar, though
+not perhaps in all its details, to that which now exists. The animals
+which existed would be the ancestors of those which now exist, and like
+them; the plants in like manner would be such as we have now, and like
+them; and the supposition is that, at however distant a period of time
+you place your observer, he would still find mountains, lands, and
+waters, with animal and vegetable products flourishing upon them and
+sporting in them just as he finds now." This theory being perfectly
+inconsistent with facts, had to be abandoned.
+
+_Second Theory._--The second theory considers the universe eternal, but
+not its form. This was the system of Epicurus and most of the ancient
+philosophers and poets, who imagined the world either to be produced by
+fortuitous concourse of atoms existing from all eternity, or to have
+sprung out of the chaotic form which preceded its present state.
+
+_Third Theory._--By this theory the matter and form of the earth is
+ascribed to the direct agency of a spiritual cause. It is needless to
+say that this last theory has for its basis the popular account,
+generally credited to Moses in the first chapter of Genesis. I say
+popular, for it certainly is not a scientific account, nor was it the
+intention of the writer to make it so. The supposed object was to show
+the relation between the Creator and his works. If it had been an
+ultimate scientific account, the ablest minds of to-day would be unable
+to comprehend it, as science is progressive and constantly changing; in
+fifty thousand years to come, it would still appear utterly absurd. It
+cannot be said for this fact that the account is any the less true
+because it is not presented in scientific phraseology; for instance,
+when we remark in popular language "the sun rises," who shall say that
+though the expression is not astronomically true, we do not, for all
+practical purposes, utter as important a truth, as when we say, "The
+earth by its revolution brings us to that point where the sun becomes
+visible?" The language, also, in which the writer wrote was very
+imperfect; it had no equivalent to our word "air" or "atmosphere,"
+properly speaking, for they knew not the words. "Their nearest
+approaches," according to J. Pye Smith, "were with words that denoted
+watery vapor condensed, and thus rendered visible, whether floating
+around them or seen in the breathing of animals; and words for smoke
+from substances burning; and for air in motion, wind, a zephyr whisper
+or a storm." It must also be remembered, "that the Hebrews had no term
+for the abstract ideas which we express by 'fluid' or 'matter.' If the
+writer had designed to express the idea, 'In the beginning God created
+_matter_,' he could not have found words to serve his purpose" (Phin).
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Skeleton of Kangaroo. (Popular Science
+Monthly.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Semi-Apes (Prosimiae). The Slow Loris,
+after _Tickel_ and _Alp. Miln-Edwards_. (Natural History, by _Duncan_.)]
+
+
+It is unnecessary to state how the Bible, which contains the so-called
+Mosaic account, is regarded by the different church denominations, as
+undoubtedly that is familiar to every one. But with respect to the view
+entertained by the scientist and critical school of Biblical scholars,
+represented chiefly by modern Germans, I may state briefly: "They regard
+the Bible as the human record of a divine revelation; not absolutely
+infallible, since there is no book written in any human language but
+must partake in a measure of the imperfections of that language. Many of
+this school, while admitting the Bible to contain the record of a true
+supernatural revelation, do not consider it to be without positive error
+of historical fact, not without false coloring from popular legend and
+tradition, but nevertheless a record as good as human hands could make a
+truly divine revelation."[19]
+
+There is, though, a class of thinkers that altogether reject the Bible;
+that is to say, refuse to believe it to be a divine revelation. Hume,
+whom Huxley calls "the most acute thinker of the eighteenth century,"
+thus ends one of his essays: "If we take in hand any volume of divinity
+or school metaphysics, for instance, let us ask, _Does it contain any
+abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?_ No. _Does it contain
+any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?_ No.
+Commit it, then, to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry
+and illusion." To this Huxley says: "Permit me to enforce this wise
+advice, Why trouble ourselves about matters of which, however important
+they may be, we do know nothing, and can know nothing? We live in a
+world which is full of misery and ignorance, and the plain duty of each
+and all of us is to try to make the little corner he can influence
+somewhat less miserable and somewhat less ignorant than it was before he
+entered it. To do this effectually, it is necessary to be fully
+possessed of only two beliefs: the first, that the order of nature is
+ascertainable by our faculties to an extent which is practically
+unlimited; the second, that our volitions count for something as a
+condition of the course of events. Each of these beliefs can be verified
+experimentally, as often as we like to try. Each, therefore, stands upon
+the strongest foundation upon which any belief can rest, and forms one
+of our highest truths."
+
+The first words in the Mosaic account are:[20] "In the beginning God
+created the heaven and the earth."[21] It is seen, then, that the
+so-called revelation points to a beginning. The beginning referred to is
+an absolute beginning, for we find: "In the beginning was the Word, and
+the Word was with God, and the Word was God."[22] * * * "All things were
+made by Him; and without Him was not anything made that was made."[23]
+Science points also to a beginning.
+
+Geology points to a time when man did not inhabit the earth; when for
+him there was a beginning. So, too, for lower organisms; so, too, for
+the rocky minerals; so, too, for the round world itself. But the
+beginning that science points to is not an absolute beginning. Science
+has to start from some point, and that point must have a scientific
+foundation--the foundation of science is matter, which is inseparable
+from form and force. Natural science teaches that matter is eternal and
+imperishable; for experience has never shown us that even the smallest
+particle of matter has come into existence or passed away. "A
+naturalist," says Haeckel, "can no more imagine the coming into
+existence of matter than he can imagine its disappearance, and he
+therefore looks upon the existing quantity of matter in the universe as
+a given fact." "The creation of matter, if, indeed," says Haeckel,[24]
+"it ever took place, is completely beyond human comprehension, and can
+therefore never become a subject of scientific inquiry. We can as little
+imagine a _first beginning_ of the eternal phenomena of the motion of
+the universe as of its final end."[25] It is evident, then, that the
+absolute beginning of the universe and its absolute end are not
+questions of science, and can be known only as revealed by faith. Paul
+says: "By faith we understand that the world was framed by the word of
+God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which
+appeared."[26]
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Tailed Apes (Menocerca). Proboscis
+Monkey (Presbytes larvatus). (Mammalia.)--_Louis Figuier._
+
+The natives of Borneo pretend that these monkeys, or, as sometimes
+called, Kahan, are men who have retired to the woods to avoid paying
+taxes; and they entertain the greatest respect for a being who has found
+such ready means of evading the responsibilities of society.--_Figuier._]
+
+
+[Illustration: GIBBON. ORANG. CHIMPANZEE. GORILLA. MAN.
+
+FIG. I.--Photographically reduced from diagrams of the natural size
+(except that of the Gibbon, which was twice as large as nature), drawn
+by _Waterhouse Hawkins_, from specimens in the museum of the Royal
+College of Surgeons. (_Huxley's_ "Man's Place in Nature.")]
+
+
+If, therefore, science makes the "history of creation" its highest and
+most difficult and most comprehensible problem, it must deal with "_the
+coming into being of the form_ of natural bodies." Let us look for a
+minute at Kant's Cosmogony, or, as Haeckel says,[27] Kant's Cosmological
+Gas Theory: "This wonderful theory," says Haeckel, "harmonizes with all
+the general series of phenomena at present known to us, and stands in no
+irreconcilable contradiction to any one of them. Moreover, it is purely
+mechanical and monistic, makes use exclusively of the inherent forces
+of eternal matter, and entirely excludes every supernatural process,
+every prearranged and conscious action of a personal creator." Compare
+this last statement with the following: "I will, however," says
+Haeckel,[28] "not deny that Kant's grand cosmogony has some weak
+points." * * * "A great unsolved difficulty lies in the fact that the
+cosmological gas theory furnishes no starting-point at all in
+explanation of the first impulse which caused the rotary motion in the
+gas-filled universe."
+
+Whewell[29] has pointed out, that the nebular hypothesis is null without
+a creative act to produce the inequality of distribution of cosmic
+matter in space.
+
+It is seen, then, that according to Kant's theory we are to suppose that
+millions of years ago there appeared a nebulous mass possessing a rotary
+motion, and unequally distributed through space. This is what science
+calls a beginning, and may assert that every physical event of a hundred
+million of ages existed potentially in that nebulous mass. But this is
+really no explanation of the ultimate and real cause of anything. Reason
+demands the cause of this beginning, the source that gave to the
+nebulous mass its rotary motion; the power that distributed the matter
+in space; the antecedents of the cosmical vapor. In absence of
+antecedents, what was the cause of this fire-mist--of these forces
+active in it? Reason will never remain satisfied until these questions
+are answered. But physical science can trace the thread no further back,
+and must be dumb to all ulterior inquiries. It is true, then, as
+physicists assert, "that their science does not mount actually to God."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Represents Man-like Apes (Anthropoides). The
+Male Gorilla. (Natural History, by _Duncan_.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Represents Ape-like Men (Pithecanthropi).
+Imaginative. (From Scientific American.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Men (Homines). From Woolly-haired Men
+developed the Papuans. (Scientific American, March 11, 1876.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--The Monkey Men of Dourga Strait. (Natural
+History, by _Rev. Dr. Wood_.)]
+
+
+To God then, in strict accordance with our reason, is to be attributed
+not only the origination of matter, but all its future developments.
+When I speak of matter, it must be understood that I mean force;
+for "if matter were not force, and immediately known as force, it could
+not be known at all, could not be rationally inferred. The operation of
+force could furnish no evidence of the existence of forceless matter. If
+force is not matter, then force can exist and operate without matter;
+its existence and operation are no evidence of the existence of matter.
+And as matter is forceless, it can itself give no evidence of its own
+existence, for that would be an exercise of force. If force cannot exist
+and operate without matter, then force depends for its existence and
+operation on the forceless, which destroys itself; or force depends for
+its existence on matter as some property or force, and so matter and
+force are identified, and force depends on itself only, as it must."[30]
+The idea, then, that force is an attribute of matter and inherent in it,
+is absurd, for there is not a shadow of evidence that force is or can be
+an attribute of matter. We have no knowledge of the origin of any force
+save of that which emanates from human volition. All our knowledge of
+force presents it as an effort of intelligent will. "We are driven,"
+says Winchell, "by the necessary laws of thought, to pronounce those
+energies styled gravitation, heat, chemical affinity and their
+correlates, nothing less than intelligent will. But as it is not human
+will which energizes in whirlwind and the comet, it must be divine
+will." "In all cases, the creative power of God is an act of power, and
+the power does not perish with its inception, but continues to operate
+until the act is reversed and undone; so that everything that God has
+created constitutes a positive and intrinsic force, though borrowed from
+Him. Every incident runs back to God as its originator and real cause.
+The true philosophical doctrine makes God distinct from all his works,
+and yet acting in them. This doctrine has been held by the greatest
+thinkers the world has ever produced, such as Descartes, Lerbrisky,
+Berkeley, Herschel, Faraday, and a multitude of others." "It seems to be
+required," says Dr. McCosh, "by that deep law of causation which not
+only prompts us to seek for a law in everything but an adequate cause,
+to be found only in an intelligent mind." "Our greatest American
+thinker, Jonathan Edwards," says Dr. McCosh, (whom I can claim as my
+predecessor,) "maintains that, as an image in a mirror is kept up by a
+constant succession of rays of light, so nature is sustained by a
+constant forth-putting of the divine power. In this view Nature is a
+perpetual creation. God is to be seen not only in creation at first, but
+in the continuance of all things." "They continue to this day according
+to Thine ordinances."
+
+Returning now to the history of the creation given by Moses, Haeckel
+says, "Although Moses looks upon the results of the great laws of
+organic development as the direct actions of a constructing Creator, yet
+in his theory there lies hidden the ruling idea of a progressive
+development and a differentiation of the originally simple matter. We
+can therefore bestow our just and sincere admiration on the Jewish
+lawgiver's grand insight into nature, without discovering in it a
+so-called 'divine revelation.' That it cannot be such is clear from the
+fact that two great fundamental errors are asserted in it, namely, first
+the _geocentric_ error, that the earth is the fixed central point of the
+whole universe, round which the sun, moon and stars move; and secondly,
+the _anthropocentric_ error that man is the premeditated aim of the
+creation of the world, for whose service alone all the rest of nature is
+said to have been created. The former of these errors was demolished by
+Copernicus' System of the Universe in the beginning of the sixteenth
+century, the latter by Lamarck's Doctrine of Descent in the beginning of
+the nineteenth century."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Australian Savage.--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Skull of Orang-utan (Simia satyrus).--_Orton._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Skull of Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. IV.--Skull of Gorilla.--_Duncan._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. V.--Skull of European.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. VI.--Skull of Negro.--_Orton._]
+
+
+Prof. Huxley, in his lecture on "Evidences of Evolution," spoke of the
+Mosaic account as Milton's hypothesis. First, "because," says Huxley,
+"we are now assured upon the authority of the highest critics, and even
+of dignitaries of the church, that there is no evidence whatever that
+Moses ever wrote this chapter, or knew anything about it;" and second,
+as this hypothesis is presented in Milton's work on "Paradise Lost," it
+is appropriate to call it the Miltonic Hypothesis. "In the Miltonic
+account," says Huxley, "the order in which animals should have made
+their appearance in the stratified rocks would be this: Fishes,
+including the great whale, and birds; after that all the varieties of
+terrestrial animals. Nothing could be further from the facts as we find
+them. As a matter of fact we know of not the slightest evidence of the
+existence of birds before the jurassic and perhaps the triassic
+formations. If there were any parallel between the Miltonic account and
+the circumstantial evidence, we ought to have abundant evidence in the
+devonian, the silurian, and carboniferous rocks. I need not tell you
+that this is not the case, and that not a trace of birds makes its
+appearance until the far later period which I have mentioned. And again,
+if it be true that all varieties of fishes, and the great whales and the
+like, made their appearance on the fifth day, then we ought to find the
+remains of these things in the older rocks--in those which preceded the
+carboniferous epoch. Fishes, it is true, we find, and numerous ones; but
+the great whales are absent, and the fishes are not such as now live.
+Not one solitary species of fish now in existence is to be found there,
+and hence you are introduced again to the difficulty, to the dilemma,
+that either the creatures that were created then, which came into
+existence the sixth day, were not those which are found at present, or
+are not the direct and immediate predecessors of those which now exist;
+but in that case you must either have had a fresh species of which
+nothing has been said, or else the whole story must be given up as
+absolutely devoid of any circumstantial evidence."
+
+It is for these and many other reasons that I feel bound to omit the
+Mosaic account, no matter how near some portions of it coincide with the
+facts the earth has opened out to the scientist.
+
+
+KANT'S COSMOGONY.
+
+It is maintained by Kant's Cosmogony that every substance, be it solid
+or liquid, constituting the entire universe, was, inconceivable ages
+ago, in their homogeneous gaseous or nebulous condition. Owing to an
+impulse being given to the nebulous mass, it acquired a rotary movement,
+which divided the nebulous mass up into a number of masses which, owing
+to the rotation, acquired greater density than the remaining gaseous
+mass, and then acted on the latter as central points of attraction. Our
+solar system was thus a gigantic gaseous or nebulous ball, all the
+particles of which revolved around a common central point--the solar
+nucleus. This nebulous ball assumed by its continual rotation a more or
+less flattened spheroidal form. By the continual revolution of this
+mass, under the influence of the centripetal and centrifugal forces, a
+circular nebular ring separated (like the present ring around Saturn)
+from the rotating ball. In time the nebulous ring condensed to a planet,
+which began to revolve around its own axis. When the centrifugal force
+became more powerful than the centripetal force in the planet, rings
+were formed, which, in turn, formed planets which revolved around their
+axes, as also around their planets, as the latter moved around the sun,
+and thus arose the moons, only one of which moves around our earth,
+while four move around Jupiter and six around Uranus. This order of
+things was repeated over and over again until thereby arose the
+different solar systems--the planets rotating around their central suns,
+and the satellites or moons moving around their planets. By a continuous
+increasing of refrigeration and condensation, a fiery fluid or molten
+state occurred in these rotating bodies. They then emitted an enormous
+amount of heat by rapid condensation, and the rotating bodies--suns,
+planets, and moons--soon became glowing balls of fire, emitting light
+and heat. The 1/1000 part of a pound of magnesium wire, burning in the
+open air, will give a light which will last during one second, and can
+be seen at a distance of thirty miles; imagine, then, what the light
+would be from these huge balls of fire floating through space. The earth
+forms a small part--nay, even the sun whose mass is equal to 354,936
+earths like ours, is but an infinitesimal portion of the whole. By the
+continual emitting of heat, however, these fiery balls had a crust form
+on the outside, which enclosed a fiery fluid nucleus. The crust for a
+time must have been a smooth sheet, but afterward very uneven, having
+protuberances and cavities form over its surface, owing to the molten
+mass within becoming condensed and contracted; the crust not following
+this change sufficiently close, must have fallen in, and thus produced
+the cavities.
+
+
+[Illustration: Mongolian.]
+
+[Illustration: Malay.]
+
+[Illustration: Ethiopian.]
+
+[Illustration: American Indian.]
+
+[Illustration: FACIAL ANGLE, by _Prof. Nelson Sizer_. 1, Snake; 2, Dog;
+3, Elephant; 4, Ape; 5, Human Idiot; 6, The Bushman; 7, The
+Uncultivated; 8, The Improved; 9, The Civilized; 10, The Enlightened;
+11, The Caucasian (highest type).]
+
+[Illustration: Caucasian (after _Van Evrie_).]
+
+[Illustration: Head of Nose-Ape (after _Brehm_).]
+
+[Illustration: Julia Pastrana (Photographed by _Hintye_).]
+
+[Illustration: Living Idiot (on Blackwell's Island).]
+
+
+All the time, by the condensation, the diameter of the earth was being
+diminished. The irregular cooling of the crust caused irregular
+contractions on the surface, and as the diameter of the molten mass
+within was continually diminishing, many elevations and depressions were
+caused, which were the foundations of mountains and valleys.
+
+After the temperature of the earth had been reduced by the thickening of
+the crust--when it became sufficiently cool--the water which existed in
+steam was condensed and precipitated, falling in torrents, washing down
+the elevations, filling the depressions with the mud carried along, and
+depositing it in layers. It was not until the earth became covered with
+water that life was possible in any form, as both animals and plants
+consist to a very great extent of water. At this stage in the history of
+the earth, then, the little mass of protoplasm, which we have spoken so
+much about, came into existence in all probability, as has been stated,
+by spontaneous generation.
+
+
+LAWS OF EVOLUTION.
+
+Let us now examine some of the laws of evolution, as also some of the
+connecting links which blend one stage of man's development with
+another, which at first thought would seem unexplainable.
+
+Haeckel[31] summarizes the inductive evidences of Darwinism as follows:
+1. Paleontological series (phylogeny); 2. Embryological development of
+the individual (ontogeny); 3. The correspondence in the terms of these
+two series; 4. Comparative anatomy (typical forms and structures); 5.
+Correspondence between comparative anatomy and ontogeny; 6. Rudimentary
+organs (dipeliology); 7. The natural system of organisms (classification);
+8. Geographical distribution (chorology); 9. Adaptation to the environment
+(oecology); 10. The unity of biological phenomena.
+
+It will of course be impossible to consider even hastily all of the
+inductive evidence belonging to the several groups mentioned above, for
+the scope of this work would not permit of it. Only such facts as
+present themselves most forcibly to the mind will be considered.
+
+Darwinism, as has already been stated, is not the doctrine of evolution;
+it is, however, a successful attempt to explain the law or manner of
+evolution. The _law of natural selection_, pointed out by Darwin, is
+called by Herbert Spencer, _The struggle for existence_. Darwin
+discovered that natural selection produces fitness between organisms and
+their circumstances, which explains the law of _the survival of the
+fittest_.
+
+It is a well-known fact that man can, by pursuing a certain method of
+breeding or cultivation, improve and in various ways modify the
+character of the different domestic animals and plants. By always
+selecting the best specimen from which to propagate the race, those
+features which it is desired to perpetuate become more and more
+developed; so that what are admitted to be real varieties sometimes
+acquire, in the course of successive generations, a character as
+strikingly distinct, to all appearances, from those of the varieties, as
+one species is from another species of the same genus. It is evident
+that both natural and artificial selection depends on adaptation and
+inheritance. The difference between the two forms of selection is that,
+in the first case, the will of man makes the selection according to a
+plan, whereas in natural selection the struggle for life and the
+survival of the fittest acts without a plan other than that the most
+adaptable organism shall survive which is most fit to contend with the
+circumstances under which it is placed. Natural selection acts,
+therefore, much more slowly than artificial selection, although it
+brings about the same end. Adaptation in the struggle for life is an
+absolute necessity.
+
+In every act of breeding, a certain amount of protoplasm is transferred
+from the parents to the child, and along with it there is transferred
+the individual peculiar molecular motion. Adaptation or transmutation
+depends upon the material influence which organism experiences from its
+surroundings, or its conditions of existence; while the transmission
+from inheritance is due to the partial identity of producing and
+produced organisms.
+
+Organized beings, as a rule, are gifted with enormous powers of
+increase. Wild plants yield their crop of seed annually, and most wild
+animals bring forth their young yearly or oftener. Should this process
+go on unchecked, in a short time the earth would be completely overrun
+with living beings. It has been calculated that if a plant produces
+fifty seeds (which is far below the reproductive capacity of many
+plants) the first year, each of these seeds growing up into a plant
+which produces fifty seeds, or altogether two thousand five hundred
+seeds the next year, and so on, it would under favorable conditions of
+growth give rise in nine years to more plants by five hundred trillions
+than there are square feet of dry land upon the surface of the earth.
+
+Slow-breeding man has been known to double his number in twenty-five
+years, and according to Euler, this might occur in little over twelve
+years. But assuming the former rate of increase, and taking the
+population of the United States at only thirty millions, in six hundred
+and eighty-five years their living progeny would have each but a square
+foot to stand upon, were they spread over the entire globe, land and
+water included. But millions of species are doing the same thing, so
+that the inevitable result of this strife cannot be a matter of chance.
+Evidently those individuals or varieties having some advantage over
+their competitors will stand the best chance to live, while those
+destitute of these advantages will be liable to destruction. Nature may
+be said (metaphorically) to choose (like the will of man in artificial
+selection) which shall be preserved and which destroyed.
+
+That portion of the theory of development which maintains the common
+descent of all species of animals and plants from the simplest common
+origin, I have already stated with full justice should be called
+Lamarckism. Progress is recognized by all scientists to be a law of
+nature. Some of the more important facts which sustain the theory of
+development, I propose now to present as briefly as possible.
+
+
+RUDIMENTARY ORGANS.
+
+One of the strongest arguments in favor of the hypothesis of a genetic
+connection among all animals (including man), at least among all those
+belonging to the same great types, is the presence of rudimentary parts.
+By rudiments in anatomy are meant organs or structures imperfectly
+developed, so as to be almost or entirely without functional use. "Each
+of them represents in germ, as it were, in one animal (or plant), that
+which is perfect and useful in another type."
+
+For a few examples: The little fold of caruncle at the inner margin of
+the eye in man, represents the nictitating membrane of birds. Eyes which
+do not see form a striking example. These are found in very many animals
+which live in the dark, as in caves or underground. Their eyes are often
+perfectly developed but are covered by a membrane, so that no ray of
+light can enter and they can never see. Such eyes, without the function
+of sight, are found in several species of moles and mice which live
+underground, in serpents and lizards, in amphibious animals (proteus,
+caecilia) and in fishes; also in numerous invertebrate animals which pass
+their lives in the dark, as do many beetles, crabs, snails, worms, etc.
+
+Other rudimentary organs are the wings of animals which cannot fly. For
+example, the wings of the running birds, like the ostrich, emeu,
+cassowary, etc., the legs of which become exceedingly developed. The
+muscles which move the ears of animals are still present in man, but of
+course are of no use; by continual practice persons have been able to
+move their ears by these muscles. The rudiment of the tail of animals
+which man possesses in his 3-5 tail vertebrae, is another rudimentary
+part--in the human embryo it stands out prominently during the first two
+months of its development; it afterwards becomes hidden. "The
+rudimentary little tail of man is irrefutable proof that he is descended
+from tailed ancestors." In woman the tail is generally, by one vertebra,
+longer than in man. There still exists rudimentary muscles in the human
+tail which formerly moved it.
+
+Another case of human rudimentary organs, only belonging to the male,
+and which obtains in like manner in all mammals, is furnished by the
+mammary glands on the breast, which, as a rule, are active only in the
+female sex. However, cases of different mammals are known, especially of
+men, sheep and goats, in which the mammary glands were fully developed
+in the male sex, and yield milk as food for their offspring. The
+vermiform appendix of the large intestine in man, is another
+illustration of a part which has no use, but in one marsupial is three
+times the length of its body. The rudimentary covering of hair over
+certain portions of the body, is not without interest. Over the body we
+find but a scanty covering, which is thick only on the head, in the
+armpits, and on some other parts of the body. The short hairs on the
+greater part of the body are entirely useless, and are the last scanty
+remains of the hairy covering of our ape ancestors. Both on the upper
+and lower arm the hairs are directed toward the elbow, where they meet
+at an obtuse angle--this striking arrangement is only found in man and
+the anthropoid apes, the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, and several species
+of gibbons. The fine short hairs on the body become developed into
+"thickset, long, and rather coarse dark hairs," when abnormally
+nourished near old-standing inflamed surfaces.[32] The fine wool-like
+hair or so-called lanugo with which the human foetus, during the fifth
+and sixth months, is thickly covered, offers another proof that man
+is descended from an animal which was born hairy, and remained so during
+life. This covering is first developed during the fifth month, on the
+eyebrows and face, and especially around the mouth, where it is much
+longer than that on the head. Three or four cases have been recorded of
+persons born with their whole bodies and faces thickly covered with fine
+long hairs. Prof. Alex. Brandt compared the hair from the face of a man
+thus characterized, aged thirty-five, with the lanugo of a foetus, and
+finds it quite similar in texture. Eschricht[33] has devoted great
+attention to this rudimentary covering, and has thrown much light on the
+subject. He showed that the female as well as the male foetus
+possessed this hairy covering, showing that both are descended from
+progenitors, both sexes of whom were hairy. Eschricht also showed, as
+stated above, that the hair on the face of the fifth month foetus is
+longer on the face than on the head, which indicates that our semi-human
+progenitors were not furnished with long tresses, which must therefore
+have been a late acquisition. The question naturally arises, is there
+any explanation for the loss of hair covering?
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--The Hairy-Faced Burmese Family. (From Scientific
+American, Feb. 20, 1875.)]
+
+
+Darwin is of the opinion that the absence of hair on the body is, to a
+certain extent, a secondary sexual character; for, in all parts of the
+world, women are less hairy than men. He says: "Therefore we may
+reasonably suspect that this character has been gained through sexual
+selection." As the body in woman is less hairy than in man, and as this
+character is common to all races, we may conclude that it was our female
+semi-human ancestors who were first divested of hair.
+
+Professor Grant Allen[34] has given much study to the subject of the
+loss of hair in the human being; and his investigations are worthy of
+careful consideration. He shows conclusively that those parts of an
+animal which are in constant contact with other objects are specially
+liable to lose their hair. This is noticeable on the under surface of
+the body of all animals which habitually lie on the stomach. The soles
+of the feet of all mammals where they touch the ground are quite
+hairless; the palms of the hands in the quadrumana present the same
+appearance. The knees of those species which frequently kneel, such as
+camels and other ruminants, are apt to become bare and hard-skinned. The
+friction of the water has been the means of removing the hair from many
+aquatic mammals--the whales, porpoises, dugongs, and manatees are
+examples.
+
+As the back of man forms the specially hairless region of his body, we
+must conclude that it is in all probability the first part which became
+entirely denuded of hair. The gorilla, according to Professor Gervais,
+is the only mammal which agrees with man in having the hair thinner on
+the back, where it is partly rubbed off, than on the lower surface. Du
+Chaillu states that he has "himself come upon fresh traces of a
+gorilla's bed on several occasions, and could see that the male had
+seated himself with his back against a tree-trunk." He also says: "In
+both male and female the hair is found worn off the back; but this is
+only found in very old females. This is occasioned, I suppose, by their
+resting at night against trees, at whose base they sleep." The gorilla
+has only very partially acquired the erect position, and probably sits
+but little in the attitude common to man. In man the case is different;
+in proportion as his progenitors grew more and more erect, he must have
+lain less and less upon his stomach, and more and more upon his back or
+sides, and this is seen in the savage man during his lazy hours--who
+stretches himself on the ground in the sun, with his back propped, where
+possible, by a slight mound or the wall of his hut. The continual
+friction of the surface of the back would arrest the growth of hair; for
+hair grows where there is normally less friction, and _vice versa_.
+
+As man became more and more hairless, especially among savage and naked
+races, we should conclude that such a modification would be considered a
+beauty, and women would select such men in preference to more hairy
+individuals. The New Zealand proverb is: "There is no woman for a hairy
+man." Sexual selection, then, would play a very important part; and the
+difficulty of understanding how man became divested of hair is readily
+explained.
+
+Haeckel says: "Even if we knew absolutely nothing of the other phenomena
+of development, we should be obliged to believe in the truth of the
+theory of descent, solely on the ground of the existence of rudimentary
+organs."
+
+
+REPRODUCTION BY MEANS OF EGGS.
+
+It might be thought there existed a missing link between animals which
+lay eggs and those which do not; this, however, is done away with in
+many instances--one, for example, is found in our commonest indigenous
+snake. The ringed snake lays eggs which require three weeks time to
+develop; but when it is kept in captivity, and no sand is strewn in the
+cage, it does not lay eggs, but retains them until the young ones are
+developed. This only shows how powerfully influences affect the habit of
+animals.
+
+
+DOUBLE-SEXED INDIVIDUALS.
+
+Another difficulty might be supposed to arise between animals which
+produce themselves other than by sexual reproduction. This has already
+been slightly touched upon; and it has been shown that numerous plants
+and animals propagate themselves through their double-sexed organs. It
+occurs in a great majority of plants, but only in a minority of animals;
+for example, the garden-snail, leeches, earth-worms, and many other
+worms. Every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual gland eggs,
+and in another part sperm.
+
+Parthenogenesis offers an interesting form of transition from sexual
+reproduction to the non-sexual formation of germ-cells (which most
+resembles it). It has been demonstrated to occur in many cases among
+insects, especially by Seebold's excellent investigations. Among the
+common bees, a male individual (a drone) arises out of the eggs of the
+queen, if the eggs have not been fructified; a female (a queen or
+working bee), if the egg has been fructified.
+
+Gonochorismus or sexual separation, which characterizes the more
+complicated of the two kinds of sexual reproduction, has evidently been
+developed from the condition of hermaphroditism at a late period of the
+organic history of the world. In this case the female individual in both
+animal and plant produces eggs or egg-cells. In animals, the male
+individual secretes the fructifying sperm (sperma); in plants, the
+corpuscles, which correspond to the sperm.
+
+
+INHERITANCE.
+
+The remarkable facts of inheritance, extending to the reproduction of
+unimportant peculiarities of parts or organs (rudimentary parts)
+mentioned above, and the occasional outbreak of ancestral characters
+that have been dormant through several generations (some of which I will
+mention further on), might be thought perfectly unexplainable; but they
+are readily accounted for by the supposition that each part of an
+organism contributes its constituent and effective molecules to the germ
+and sperm particles. Mr. Sorby made numerous investigations with
+relation to the number of molecules in the germinal matter of eggs, and
+the spermatic matter supplied by the male. Omitting the alkali, Mr.
+Sorby takes the formula, C{72}H{112}N{18}SO{22}, as representing the
+composition of albumen. In a 1/2000 of an inch cube, he reckons--
+
+  Albumen     18,000,000,000,000 molecules.
+  Water      992,000,000,000,000     "
+           --------------------------------
+           1,010,000,000,000,000 molecules.
+
+Or, in a sphere of the same diameter, 530,000,000,000,000 of the two
+components. Taking a single mammalian spermatozoon, having a mean
+diameter of 1/6000 of an inch; "it might contain two and a half million
+of such gemmules. If these were lost, destroyed, or fully developed at
+the rate of one in each second, this number would be exhausted in about
+one month; but since a number of spermatozoa appears to be necessary to
+produce perfect fertilization, it is quite easy to understand that the
+number of gemmules introduced into the ovum may be so great that the
+influence of the male parent may be very marked, even after having been,
+as regards particular character, apparently dormant for many years." The
+germinal vesicle of a mammalian ovum being about 1/1000 of an inch, mean
+diameter, might contain five hundred million of gemmules, which, if used
+up at the rate of one per second, would last more than seventeen years.
+If the whole ovum, about 1/150 in diameter, were all gemmules, the
+number would be sufficient to last, at this rate, one per second for
+5,600 years! This, however, is not probable; but Mr. Sorby's remarks has
+completely removed all doubt as to its physical possibility from the
+Darwinian theory; "and they prompt us," says Slack, "to a wonderful
+conception of the powers residing in minute quantities of matter."
+
+The laws of inheritance are divisible into two series, conservative and
+progressive transmission; the laws of adaptation to direct (active) or
+indirect (potential) adaptation.
+
+External causes often influence the reproductive system, especially in
+organism propagating in a sexual way. This can be strikingly shown in
+artificially produced monstrosities. Monstrosities can be produced by
+subjecting the parental organism to certain extraordinary conditions of
+life; and curiously enough, such an extraordinary condition of life does
+not produce a change of the organism itself, but a change in its
+descendants. The new formation exists in the parental organism only as a
+possibility (potential); in the descendants it becomes a reality
+(actual). Most commonly, monstrosities with very abnormal forms are
+sterile, but there are instances where they reproduce their kind and
+become a species.[35] Geoffroy St. Hilaire, who perhaps made the deepest
+investigations ever conducted into the nature and causes of their
+production, first conceived the idea of artificially producing them, and
+to this end he began modifications of the physical conditions of the
+evolution of the chicken during natural and artificial incubation. He
+determined the fact that monsters could be produced in this way, but
+scarcely carried his investigation further. This work has been taken up
+by M. Dareste, and he has lately published a volume in Paris which
+recounts the results of a quarter of a century's experimenting. Eggs, he
+states, were submitted to incubation in a vertical instead of a
+horizontal position; they were covered with varnish in certain places so
+as to stop or modify evaporation and respiration. The evolution of the
+chick was rendered slower by a temperature below that of the normal heat
+of incubation. Finally, eggs were warmed only at one point, so that
+the young animal, during development, was submitted at different
+parts to variable temperatures.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+
+These perturbations resulted in the most curious and unlooked for
+deformities in the embryo, some being not alone peculiar to the bird,
+but being similar to those which have been recognized in many other
+animals, and even in the human species. The data obtained have been
+deemed so important that M. Dareste has recently received the Lacaze
+prize for physiology from the French Academy of Sciences.
+
+It would be impossible to review even a fraction of the many forms of
+monstrosities which M. Dareste has discovered. Those that we give will,
+however, suffice to convey an idea of the wonderful variations produced.
+Fig. 1 is a chick embryo with the encephalon entirely outside the head,
+the heart, liver, and gizzard outside the umbilical opening, right wing
+lifted up beside the head, and the development of the left one stopped.
+In Fig. 2 the encephalon is herniated and marked with blood spots, the
+eye is rudimentary and replaced by a spot of pigment, the upper beak is
+shorter than the lower one, while the heart, liver, etc., are all
+outside. In Figs. 3 and 4 the head is compressed, eyes well developed,
+but in the back instead of in the sides of the head; the body is bent,
+abdominal intestines not closed, heart largely developed and herniated.
+The literal references to the foregoing are: _am_, amnion; _al_,
+allantois; _v_, vitellus; _h_, encephalon; _i_, eye; _c_, heart; _f_,
+liver; _g_, gizzard; _ms_, upper, and _mi_, lower member.
+
+The commonest case of monstrosity observed by M. Dareste has been that
+of the head protruding from the navel, and the heart or hearts above the
+head. This is a most extraordinary and new monster, and, if it persist,
+a chicken with its heart on its back, like a hump, may be expected. A
+curious fact discovered is the duplicity of the heart at the beginning
+of incubation, two hearts, beating separately, being clearly seen.
+Another anomaly consists in heads with a frontal swelling, which is
+filled by the cerebral hemispheres.
+
+M. Dareste's artificial monsters are all produced from the single germ
+or cicatricule (as the white circular spot seen in the yellow of the
+egg, and from which the embryo springs, is termed). He has not yet been
+able to determine artificially the production of monsters, the origin of
+which takes place in a peculiar state of the cicatricule before
+incubation. But having submitted to incubation some 10,000 eggs, he has
+obtained several remarkable examples of double monstrosities in process
+of formation, some representations of which are given herewith. Fig. 5
+shows three embryos, all derived from a single cicatricule. Fig. 6
+represents three embryos from two cicatricules. On one side of the line
+of junction are two imperfectly developed embryos, one having no heart.
+The single embryo on the other side is generally normal, but has a heart
+on the right side. In Fig. 7 are twins, one well formed, the heart
+circulating colorless blood, the other having no heart and a rudimentary
+head. Fig. 8 exhibits a double monster with lateral union. The heads are
+separate, and there are three upper and three lower members, those of
+the latter on the median line belonging equally to each of the pair.
+
+
+ACQUIRED QUALITIES.
+
+When an organism has been subjected to abnormal conditions in life it
+can transmit any peculiarity it may have acquired. This is, however, not
+always possible, otherwise descendants of men who have lost their arm or
+leg would be born without the corresponding arm or leg--this shows that
+some acquired qualities are more easily transmitted than
+others--although there are cases, as, for instance, a race of dogs
+without tails has been produced by cutting off the tails of both sexes
+of the dog, during several generations. "A few years ago," says Haeckel,
+"a case occurred on an estate near Jena in which, by the careless
+slamming of a stable-door, the tail of a bull was wrenched off, and the
+calves begotten by this bull were all born without a tail. This is
+certainly an exception; but it is very important to note the fact that
+under certain unknown conditions such violent changes are transmitted in
+the same manner as many diseases." The transmission of diseases such as
+consumption, madness, and albinism form examples. Albinoes are those
+individuals who are distinguished by the absence of coloring matter from
+their skins; they are of frequent occurrence among men, animals and
+plants. Among many animals, such as rabbits and mice, albinoes with
+white fur and red eyes are so much liked that they are propagated. This
+would be impossible were it not for the law of the transmission of
+adaptations. Hornless cattle have descended from a single bull born in
+1770 of horned parents, but whose absence of horns was the result of
+some unknown cause.
+
+The law of interrupted or latent transmission, as illustrated in
+grandchildren who are like the grandparents, but quite unlike the
+parents. Animals often resume a form which have not existed for many
+generations. One of the most remarkable instances of this kind of
+reversion, or "atavism," is the fact that in some horses there sometimes
+appear singular dark stripes similar to those of the zebra, quagga, and
+other wild species of African horse.
+
+Nutrition directly modifies adaptation, as is well illustrated by
+animals which have been bred for domestic or other purposes. If a farmer
+is breeding for fine wool he gives much different food to the sheep than
+he would if he wished to obtain flesh or an abundance of fat. Even the
+bodily form of man is quite different according to its nutrition. Food
+containing much nitrogen produces little fat, that containing little
+nitrogen produces a great deal of fat. People who by means of Banting's
+system, at present so popular, wish to become thin, eat only meat and
+eggs--no bread, no potatoes.
+
+Man can breed for milk in cattle, for feathers in pigeons, for colored
+flowers in plants, and, in fact, for almost any desirable quality.
+
+
+GEOLOGICAL RECORD.
+
+_The Geological Record_ (palaeontology) furnishes weighty evidence of
+man's descent; for the circumstantial evidence derived from this source
+is written without the possibility of a mistake, with no chance of
+error, on the stratified rocks. It is true that the geological record
+must be incomplete, because it can only preserve remains found in
+certain favorable localities, and under particular conditions; that this
+valuable record must be destroyed by processes of denudation, and
+obliterated by processes of metamorphosis, it cannot be doubted. "Beds
+of rock of any thickness, crammed full of organic remains, may yet,"
+says Huxley, "by the percolation of water through them, or the influence
+of subterranean heat (if they descend far enough toward the centre of
+the earth), lose all trace of these remains, and present the appearance
+of beds of rock formed under conditions in which there was no trace of
+living forms. Such metamorphic rocks occur in formations of all ages;
+and we know with perfect certainty, when they do appear, that they have
+contained organic remains, and that those remains have been absolutely
+obliterated." If we look at the geological record, we find:
+
+THE FIRST EPOCH.--_The Archilithic_, or Primordial Epoch, constitutes
+the _Age of Skull-less Animals and Sea-weed Forests_, and is made up of
+the Laurentian, Cambrian, and Silurian Period.
+
+THE SECOND EPOCH.--_The Palaeolithic_, or Primary Epoch, constitutes the
+_Age of Fishes and Fern Forests_, and is made up of the Devonian, Coal,
+and Permian Period.
+
+THE THIRD EPOCH.--_The Mesolithic_, or Secondary Epoch, constitutes the
+_Age of Reptiles and Pine Forests, Coniferae_, and is made up of the
+Triassic, Jurassic, and Chalk Period.
+
+THE FOURTH EPOCH.--_The Caenolithic_, or Tertiary Epoch, constitutes the
+_Age of Mammals and Leaf Forests_, and is made up of the Eocene,
+Miocene, and Phocene Period.
+
+THE FIFTH EPOCH.--The _Anthropolithic_, or Quaternary Epoch, constitutes
+the _Age of Man and Cultivated Forests,_ and is made up of the Glacial
+and Postglacial Period, and the Period of Culture.
+
+During the archilithic epoch the inhabitants of our planet, as has been
+already stated, consisted of skull-less animals, or aquatic forms. No
+remains of terrestrial animals or plants, dated from this period, have
+as yet been found.
+
+The archilithic period was longer than the whole long period between the
+close of the archilithic and the present time; for if the total
+thickness of all sedimentary strata be estimated as about one hundred
+and thirty thousand feet, then seventy thousand feet belong to this
+epoch. It was during this epoch that the little mass of protoplasm,
+which has been so often spoken of, came into existence.
+
+It has been stated above that palaeontology is quite deficient. This is
+not only true of the record, but of the lack as yet of sufficient
+investigations. The greatest fields of investigation in this department
+have never been explored. The whole of the petrifactions accurately
+known do not probably amount to a hundredth part of those which, by more
+elaborate explorations, are yet to be discovered. The most ancient of
+all distinctly preserved petrifactions is the Eozoon Canadense, which
+was found in the lowest Laurentian strata in the Ottawa formation.
+
+Probably no discovery in palaeontology ranks higher than the discovery of
+the descendants of the horse. The horse, for example, as far as his
+limbs and teeth go, differs far more from extant graminivora than man
+differs from the ape. Had not fossil ungulates been found, which
+demonstrate the common origin of the horse with didactyles and
+multidactyles, some would have deemed the horse a special miraculous
+creation. But now the links are complete, and the descent of the horse
+is found to follow exactly what the doctrine of evolution could have
+predicted.
+
+
+ONTOGENY.
+
+It has been stated that the palaeontological record is quite incomplete,
+owing to many facts, some of which have been mentioned; fortunately, the
+history of the development of the organic individual, or ontogeny, comes
+in to fill up many deficiencies.
+
+Ontogeny is a repetition of the principal forms through which the
+respective individuals have passed from the beginning of their tribe,
+and its great advantage is that it reveals a field of information which
+it was impossible for the rocks to retain; for the petrification of the
+ancient ancestors of all the different animal and vegetable species,
+which were soft, tender bodies, was not possible.
+
+The annexed plate illustrates the dog, rabbit, and man in their first
+stages of development. Illustrations of a fish, an amphibious animal, a
+reptile, a bird, or any mammal, could also be given; for all vertebrate
+animals of the most different classes, in their early stages of
+development, cannot be distinguished, and the nearer the animal
+approaches man in the ascending scale, the longer does this similarity
+continue to exist--when reptiles and birds are distinctly different from
+mammals, the dog and the man are almost identical.
+
+The gill-arches of the fish exist in man, in dogs, in fowls, in
+reptiles, and in other vertebrate animals during the first stages of
+their development. Man also possesses, in his first stages, a real tail,
+as well as his nearest kindred--the tailless apes (orang-outang,
+chimpanzee, gorilla), and vertebrate animals in general. The tail, as
+has been stated, man still retains, though hidden as a rudiment.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Human Embryo.--_Ecker._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Embryo of Dog.--_Bischoff._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. III.--Dog Embryo.--_Huxley._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. IV, V, and VI.--Embryo of Rabbit in three stages of
+development.--_Haeckel._]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. VII, VIII, and IX.--Embryo of Man in three stages
+of development.--_Haeckel._ _v_, fore brain; _z_, twix brain; _m_,
+middle brain; _h_, hind brain; _n_, after brain; _r_, spinal marrow;
+_e_, nose; _a_, eye; _o_, ear; _k_, gillarches; _g_, heart; _w_,
+vertebral column; _f_, fore limbs; _b_, hind limbs; _s_, tail.]
+
+
+"Man presents in his earliest stages of embryonic growth, a skeleton of
+cartilage, like that of the lamprey; also, five origins of the aorta and
+five slits on the neck, like the _lamprey_ and the _shark_. Later, he
+has but four aortic origins, and a heart now divided into two chambers,
+like _bony fishes_; the optic lobes of his brain also having a very
+fish-like predominance in size. Three chambers of the heart and three
+aortic origins follow, presenting a condition permanent in the
+_batrachia_; then two origins with enlarged hemispheres of the brain, as
+in _reptiles_. Four heart chambers and one aortic root on each side,
+with slight development of the cerebellum, agree with the characters of
+the _crocodiles_, and immediately present the special mammalian
+conditions, single aortic root, and the full development of the
+cerebellum. Later comes that of the cerebrum, also in its higher
+mammalian or human traits." At no time in the development of the egg,
+save at the start, do the embryos of the various vertebra assume the
+_exact_ or _entire_ characteristics of one another, but they assimilate
+so closely that it requires the eye of the expert to distinguish them;
+and, as has already been stated, the more closely an animal resembles
+another, the longer and the more intimately do their embryos resemble
+one another; so that, for example, the embryo of the snake and of a
+lizard remain like one another longer than do those of a snake and of a
+bird; and the embryo of a dog and of a cat remain like one another for a
+far longer period than do those of a dog and a bird, or a dog and an
+opossum, or even those of a dog and a monkey.
+
+Surely it must be admitted that the short brief history given by the
+development of the egg, is far more wonderful than phylogeny or the long
+and slow history of the development of the tribe, which has taken
+thousands of years. Compare this time with the time required for the
+development of the smallest mammals--the harvest mice which develops in
+three weeks, or the smallest of all birds, the humming-bird, which quits
+the egg on the twelfth day, or with man who passes through the whole
+course of his development in forty weeks, or with the rhinoceros who
+requires 1-1/2 years, or the elephant who requires ninety weeks. How
+insignificant are these various periods to the long period originally
+required; yet in these short periods the whole phylogeny is run through
+in the ontogeny or the history of the development of the egg.
+
+
+
+
+THE ATTRIBUTES OF MAN.
+
+
+We must now consider briefly some of the attributes of man, and see if
+he really possesses attributes which are in no inferior degree possessed
+by animals. Before proceeding directly to the consideration of the
+attributes of man, it will be best to show the correlation that exists
+between what are called man's vital forces and the physical forces of
+nature. To do this let us choose three forms of its manifestation: these
+shall be heat evolved within the body; muscular energy or motion; and
+lastly, nervous energy or that form of force which, on the one hand,
+stimulates a muscle to contract, and on the other appears in forms
+called mental. It will not take any extensive argument to demonstrate
+that the heat of the body does not differ from heat from any other
+source. It is known that the food taken into the body contains potential
+energy, which is capable of being in part converted into actual heat by
+oxidation; and since we know that the food taken into the body is
+oxidized by the oxygen of the air supplied by the lungs, the heat of the
+body must be due to the slow oxidation of the carbon, perhaps also
+hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus in the food. Now since this so-called
+vital heat is developed by oxidation, is recognized by the same tests
+and applied to the same purposes as any other heat, it is as truly
+correlated to the other forces as when it has a purely physical origin.
+The amoeboid activity of a white blood corpuscle is stimulated within
+certain limits by heat. Hatching of eggs and the germination of seeds
+may be likewise hastened or retarded by access or deprivation of heat.
+It was considerations such as these which led to the doctrine of
+correlation of the vital and physical forces.
+
+With respect to the muscular force exerted by an animal, it was supposed
+that it was created by the animal. Dr. Frankland[36] says to this: "An
+animal can no more generate an amount of force capable of moving a grain
+of sand, than a stone can fall upwards or a locomotive drive a train
+without fuel." As the amount of CO{2} exhaled by the lungs is increased
+in the exact ratio of work done by the muscle, it cannot be doubted that
+the actual force of the muscle is due to the converted potential energy
+of the food. Since every exertion of a muscle and nerves involves the
+death and decay of those tissues to a certain extent, as shown by the
+excretions, Prof. Orton[37] has been led to say: "An animal begins to
+die the moment it begins to live." "A muscle," says Barker,[38] "is like
+a steam-engine, is a machine for converting the potential energy of
+carbon into motion; but unlike a steam-engine, the muscle accomplishes
+this conversion directly, the energy not passing through the
+intermediate stages of heat. For this reason the muscle is the most
+economical producer of mechanical force known." The muscles which give
+the downward stroke of the wing of a bird are fastened to the
+breastbone, and their power in proportion to the weight of the bird is
+as 10,000 to 1. This great power is needed, for the air is 770 times
+lighter than water; the hawk being able to travel 150 miles an hour.
+
+The last of the so-called vital forces under consideration, is that
+produced by the nerves and nervous centres. Barker says: "In the nerve
+which stimulates a muscle to contract, this force is undeniably motion,
+since it is propagated along this nerve from one extremity to the
+other." This force has been likened unto electricity, the gray or
+cellular matter being the battery, the white or fibrous matter the
+conductors. Du Bois Reymond[39] has demonstrated that this force is not
+electricity, though by showing that its velocity is only ninety-seven
+feet a second. The velocity varies, though, in different animals; it is,
+according to Prof. Orton,[40] "more rapid in warm-blooded than in
+cold-blooded animals, being nearly twice as fast in man as in the frog."
+Wheatstone, by his method, gives the velocity of electricity in copper
+wire at 62,000 geographical miles per second; but as neither Fizeau,
+Gould, Gonnelle and others could arrive at the same result, the method
+was shown to be incorrect, and it remained for Dr. Siemen[41] to
+discover the true method, which gives the velocity just one-half that of
+Wheatstone's estimate, or 31,000 geographical miles per second. In the
+opinion of Bence Jones, the propagation of a nervous impulse is a sort
+"of successive molecular polarization, like magnetism." But that this
+agent is a force as analogous to electricity as is magnetism, is shown
+not only by the fact that the transmission of electricity along a nerve
+will cause the contraction of a muscle to which it leads, but also by
+the important fact discovered by Marshall, that the contraction of a
+muscle is excited by diminishing its normal electrical current,[42] a
+result which could take place only with a stimulus, says Barker,
+"closely allied to electricity. Nerve force must therefore be transmuted
+potential energy." Prof. Huxley says,[43] "the results of recent
+inquiries into the structure of the nervous system of animals, converge
+toward the conclusion that the nerve-fibres which we have hitherto
+regarded as ultimate elements of nervous tissue, are not such, but are
+simply the visible aggregations of vastly more attenuated filaments, the
+diameter of which dwindles down to the limits of our present microscopic
+vision, greatly as these have been extended by modern improvements of
+the microscope; and that a nerve is, in its essence, nothing but a
+linear tract of specially modified protoplasm between two points of an
+organism, one of which is able to affect the other by means of the
+communication so established. Hence it is conceivable that even the
+simplest living being may possess a nervous system."
+
+Herbert Spencer[44] says all direct and indirect evidence "justifies us
+in concluding that the nervous system consists of _one_ kind of matter.
+In the gray tissue this matter exists in masses containing _corpuscles_,
+which are soft and have granules dispersed through them, and which,
+besides being thus unstably composed, are placed so as to be liable to
+disturbances to the greatest degree. In the white tissue this matter is
+collected together in extremely slender _threads_ that are denser, that
+are uniform in texture, and that are shielded in an unusual manner from
+disturbing forces, except at their two extremities."
+
+The last consideration is that form of force (thought power) which
+appears in manifestations called mental. It must be noticed at the
+outset, that every external manifestation of thought force is a muscular
+one, as a word spoken or written, a gesture, or an expression of the
+face always takes place; hence this force must be intimately correlated
+to nerve force. It is very certain, then, that thought force is capable
+in external manifestations of converting itself into actual motion. But
+here the question arises, can it be manifested inwardly without such a
+transformation of energy? Or is the evolution of thought entirely
+independent of the matter of the brain?
+
+This question can be answered by actual experiment, strange as it may
+appear. Experiments have demonstrated that any change of temperature
+within the skull was soonest manifested externally in that depression
+which exists just above the occipital protuberance. Here Lombard[45]
+fastened to the head at this point two little bars, one made of bismuth,
+the other of an alloy of antimony and zinc, which were connected with a
+delicate galvanometer;[46] to neutralize the result of a gradual rise of
+temperature over the whole body, a second pair of bars, reversed in
+direction, was attached to the leg or arm, so that if a like increase of
+heat came to both, the electricity developed by one would be neutralized
+by the other, and no effect would be produced by the needle unless only
+one was affected. By long practice it was ascertained that a mental
+torpor could be induced, lasting for hours, in which the needle remained
+stationary. But let a person knock on the door outside of the room, or
+speak a single word, even though the experimenter remained absolutely
+passive, the reception of the intelligence caused the needle to swing
+twenty degrees. "In explanation of this production of heat," says
+Barker,[47] "the analogy of the muscle at once suggests itself. No
+conversion of energy is complete, and as the heat of muscular action
+represents force which has escaped conversion into motion, so the heat
+evolved during the reception of an idea is energy which has escaped
+conversion into thought, from precisely the same cause." Dr. Lombard's
+experiments have shown that the amount of heat developed by the
+recitation to one's self of emotional poetry, was in every case less
+when recitation was oral; this is of course accounted for by the
+muscular expression. Chemistry teaches that thought-force, like
+muscle-force, comes from the food, and demonstrates that the force
+evolved by the brain, like that produced by the muscle, comes not from
+the disintegration of its own tissue, but is the converted energy of
+burning carbon.[48] "Can we longer doubt," says Barker,[49] "that the
+brain too, is a machine for the conversion of energy? Can we longer
+refuse to believe that even thought force is in some mysterious way
+correlated to the other natural forces? and this even in the face of the
+fact that it has never yet been measured.[50] Have we not a right to ask
+'why a special force (vital force) should be needed to effect the
+transformation of physical forces into those modes of energy which are
+active in the manifestation of living beings, while no peculiar force is
+deemed necessary to effect the transformation of one mode of physical
+force into any other mode of physical force?"
+
+Richard Owen says:[51] "In the endeavor to clearly comprehend and
+explain the functions of the combination of forces called 'brain,' the
+physiologist is hindered and troubled by the views of the nature of
+those cerebral forces which the needs of dogmatic theology have imposed
+on mankind. * * * Religion, pure and undefiled, can best answer how far
+it is righteous or just to charge a neighbor with being unsound in his
+principles who holds the term 'life' to be a sound expressing the sum of
+living phenomena, and who maintains these phenomena to be modes of
+force into which other forms of force have passed from potential to
+active states, and reciprocally, through the agency of the sums or
+combinations of forces impressing the mind with the ideas signified by
+the terms 'monad,' 'moss,' 'plant,' or 'animal.'"
+
+We have now shown that the very forces which give vent to the attributes
+of man, are correlated to the physical forces. Let us now consider his
+attributes as manifested by his mental powers. There is no doubt the
+difference between the mental faculties of the ape and that of the
+lowest savage, who cannot express any number higher than four and who
+uses hardly any abstract terms for common objects or for the
+affections,[52] is still very great and would still be great, says
+Darwin, "even if one of the higher apes had been improved or civilized
+as much as a dog has been in comparison with its parent form, the wolf
+or jackal." But when we examine the interval of mental power between one
+of the lowest fishes, as a lamprey or a lancelet, and one of the higher
+apes, and recognize the fact that this interval is filled up by
+numberless gradations, it does not become so difficult to understand the
+interval between an ape and man, which is not by far so great. As in
+finding out what is peculiar to a living body in distinction to a body
+not living, we found it absurd to take man as the perfection of the
+animal scale--the microscopic monad possessing life as well as him--so
+in the case of man's mental attributes, which have always been
+increasing, always perfecting, since the first genuine man came into
+existence, it would be equally absurd to compare the intellectual man of
+to-day with an ape to see what attributes he possesses which the ape
+does not possess; but if we go down in the scale and compare the savage
+with the ape, the difficulty is not by far so great. It will be found
+on close examination, though, that man and the higher animals,
+especially the primates, have many instincts in common. "All," says
+Darwin, "have the same senses, intuitions and sensations; similar
+passions, affections, and emotions; even the more complex ones, such as
+jealousy, suspicion, emulation, gratitude and magnanimity; they practice
+deceit and are revengeful; they are sometimes susceptible to ridicule
+and even have a sense of humor; they feel wonder and curiosity; they
+possess the same faculties of imitation, attention, deliberation,
+choice, memory, imagination, the association of ideas, and reason,
+though in very different degrees. The individuals of the same species
+graduate in intellect from absolute imbecility to high excellence; they
+are also liable to insanity, though far less often than in the case of
+man."[53] Nevertheless, in the face of these facts, many authors have
+insisted that man is divided by an inseparable barrier from all the
+lower animals in his mental faculties. It only shows the improper or
+imperfect consideration of the subject they have under discussion.
+
+It may be thought at first that some of the mental attributes mentioned
+above are not possessed by animals. I therefore will briefly consider a
+few of the more complex ones. We can dismiss the consideration of such
+attributes as happiness, terror, suspicion, courage, timidity, jealousy,
+shame, and wonder, as well-known attributes. _Curiosity_ in animals is
+often observed. An instance mentioned by Brehm will serve to illustrate:
+Brehm gives a curious account of the instinctive dread which his monkeys
+exhibited for snakes; but their curiosity was so great that they could
+not desist from occasionally satiating their horror in a most human
+fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were kept.
+_Imitation_ is also found among the action of animals, especially among
+monkeys, which are well known to be ridiculous mockers.
+
+It is unnecessary to refer to the faculty of attention, as it is common
+to almost all animals, and the same may be said of memory as for persons
+or places.
+
+One would hesitate to believe an animal possesses _imagination_, but
+such is the case. Dreaming, it will be admitted, gives us the best
+notion of this power. Now as dogs, cats, horses, and probably all the
+higher animals, even birds, have vivid dreams--this is shown by their
+movements and the sounds uttered--"we must admit," says Darwin, "they
+possess some power of imagination. There must be something special which
+causes dogs to howl in the night, and especially during moonlight, in
+that remarkable and melancholy manner, called baying. All dogs do not do
+so; and, according to Housyeau,[54] they do not look at the moon, but at
+some fixed point near the horizon. Housyeau thinks that their
+imaginations are disturbed by the vague outlines of the surrounding
+objects, and conjure up before them fantastic images; if this be so,
+their feelings may almost be called superstitious."
+
+The next mental faculty is _reason_, which stands at the summit; but
+still there are few persons who will deny that animals possess some
+power of reasoning. A few illustrations will be all that is necessary to
+satisfy the inquiring mind on this point. Reugger, a most careful
+observer, states that when he first gave eggs to his monkey in Paraguay
+they smashed them, and thus lost much of their contents; afterward they
+gently hit one end against some hard body, and picked off the bits of
+shell with their fingers. After cutting themselves _once_ with any sharp
+tool, they would not touch it again, or would handle it with the
+greatest caution. Lumps of sugar were often given them, wrapped up in
+paper; and Reugger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that in
+hastily unfolding it they got stung; after this had _once_ happened,
+they afterward first held the packet to their ears to detect any
+movement within.
+
+The following cases relating to dogs are described by Darwin: Mr.
+Colquhoun winged two wild ducks, which fell on the farther side of a
+stream; his retriever tried to bring over both at once, but could not
+succeed; she then, though never before known to ruffle a feather,
+deliberately killed one, brought over the other, and returned for the
+dead bird. Colonel Hutchinson relates that two partridges were shot at
+once--one being killed, the other wounded; the latter ran away, and was
+caught by the retriever, who, on her return, came across the dead bird;
+"she stopped, evidently greatly puzzled, and after one or two trials,
+finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of the
+winged bird, she considered a moment, then deliberately murdered it by
+giving it a severe crunch, and afterward brought away both together.
+This was the only known instance of her ever having wilfully injured any
+game. Here we have reason, though not quite perfect; for the retriever
+might have brought the wounded bird first, and then returned for the
+dead one, as in the case of the two wild ducks. I give the above cases
+as resting on the evidence of two independent witnesses; and because in
+both instances the retrievers, after deliberation, broke through a habit
+which was inherited by them (that of not killing the game retrieved),
+and because they show how strong their reasoning faculty must have been
+to overcome a fixed habit."[55]
+
+It has often been said that no animal uses any tool, but this can be so
+easily refuted on reflection, that it is hardly worth while considering;
+for illustration, though, the chimpanzee in a state of nature cracks
+nuts with a stone; Darwin saw a young orang put a stick in a crevice,
+slip his hand to the other end, and use it in a proper manner as a
+lever. The baboons in Abyssinia descend in troops from the mountains to
+plunder fields, and when they meet troops of another species a fight
+ensues. They commence by rolling great stones at their enemies, as they
+often do when attacked with fire-arms.
+
+The Duke of Argyll remarks that the fashioning of an implement for a
+special purpose is absolutely peculiar to man; and he considers this
+forms an immeasurable gulf between him and the brutes. "This is no
+doubt," says Darwin, "a very important distinction; but there appears to
+me much truth in Sir J. Lubbock's suggestion,[56] that when primeval man
+first used flint-stones for any purpose, he would have accidentally
+splintered them, and would then have used the sharp fragments. From this
+step it would be a small one to break the flints on purpose, and not a
+very wide step to fashion them rudely. The later advance, however, may
+have taken long ages, if we may judge by the immense interval of time
+which elapsed before the men of the neolithic period took to grinding
+and polishing their stone tools. In breaking the flints, as Sir J.
+Lubbock likewise remarks, sparks would have been emitted, and in
+grinding them heat would have been evolved; thus the two usual methods
+of 'obtaining fire may have originated.' The nature of fire would have
+been known in many volcanic regions where lava occasionally flows
+through forests."
+
+It becomes a difficult task to determine how far animals exhibit any
+traces of such high faculties as _abstraction_, _general conception_,
+_self-consciousness_, _mental individuality_. There can be no doubt, if
+the mental faculties of an animal can be improved, that the higher
+complex faculties such as abstraction and self-consciousness have
+developed from a combination of the simpler ones; this seems to be well
+illustrated in the young child, as such faculties are developed by
+imperceptible degrees. These high faculties are very sparingly possessed
+by the savage; as Buchner[57] has remarked, how little can the
+hard-worked wife of a degraded Australian savage, who uses very few
+abstract words and cannot count above four, exert her self-consciousness
+or reflect on the nature of her own existence. If there exist a class of
+people so inferior in their mental faculties as these, it is not
+difficult for us to understand how the educated animal who possesses
+memory, attention, association, and even some imagination and reason,
+can become capable of abstraction, &c., in an inferior degree even to
+the savage. It certainly cannot be doubted that an animal possesses
+mental individuality--as when a master returns to a dog which he has not
+seen for years, and the dog recognizes him at once.
+
+One of the chief distinctions between man and animals is the faculty of
+language. Let us look at this for a moment. "The essential differences,"
+says Prof. Whitney, "which separate man's means of communication in kind
+as well as degree from that of the other animals is that, while the
+latter is instinctive, the former is in all its parts arbitrary and
+conventional. No man can become possessed of any language without
+learning it; no animal (that we know of) has any expression which he
+learns, which is not the direct gift of nature to him." Any child of
+parents living in a foreign country grows up to speak the foreign
+speech, unless carefully guarded from doing so; or it speaks both this
+and the tongue of its parent with equal readiness. A child must learn to
+observe and distinguish before speech is possible, and every child
+begins to know things by their name before he begins to call them. "If
+it were not for the added push," says Prof. Whitney, "given by the
+desire of communication, the great and wonderful power of the human
+soul would never move in this particular direction; but when this leads
+the way, all the rest follows." No philologist now supposes that any
+language has been deliberately invented; it has been slowly and
+unconsciously developed by many steps.
+
+There can be no question that language owes its origin to the imitation
+and modification of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals,
+and man's own instinctive cries, aided by signs and gestures; and this
+is the opinion of Max Mueller. And Prof. Whitney remarks that "spoken
+language began, we may say, when a cry of pain, formally wrung out by
+real suffering, and seen to be understood and sympathized with, was
+repeated in imitation, no longer as a mere instinctive utterance, but
+for the purpose of intimating to another." Darwin says that "the early
+progenitor of man probably first used his voice in producing true
+musical cadences, that is, in singing, as do some gibbon-apes at the
+present day. It is therefore probable that the imitation of musical
+cries by articulate sounds may have given rise to words expressive of
+very complex emotions."
+
+The nearest approach to language are the sounds uttered by birds. All
+that sing exert their power instinctively, but the actual song, and even
+the call notes, are learned from their parents or foster-parents. These
+sounds are no more innate than language is in man, as has been proved by
+Davies Barrington.[58] The first attempt to sing "may be compared to the
+imperfect endeavor in a child to babble." Prof. Whitney says, if the
+last transition forms of man "could be restored, we should find the
+transition forms toward our speech to be, not at all a minor provision
+of natural articulate signs, but an inferior system of conventional
+signs, in tone, gesture, and grimace. As between these three natural
+means of expression, it is simply by a kind of process of natural
+selection and survival of the fittest that the voice has gained the
+upper hand, and come to be so much the most prominent that we give the
+name of language (tonguiness) to all expression." A single utterance or
+two at first had to do the duty of a whole clause; afterward man learned
+to piece together parts of speech, and thus arose sentences.
+
+Although no language, as has already been said, has been deliberately
+invented, "still each word may not be unfitly compared to an invention;
+it has its own place, mode, and circumstances of devisal, its
+preparation in the previous habits of speech, its influence in
+determining the after progress of speech development; but every language
+in the gross is an institution, on which scores or hundreds of
+generations and unnumbered thousands of individual workers have
+labored."[59]
+
+There is no question at all but that the mental powers in the earliest
+progenitors of man must have been more highly developed than in the ape,
+before even the most imperfect form of speech could have come into use;
+but the constant advancement of this power would have reacted on the
+mind to enable it to carry on longer trains of thought. "A complex train
+of thought," says Darwin, "can no more be carried on without the aid of
+words, whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the use
+of figures in algebra. It appears also that even an ordinary train of
+thought almost requires or is greatly facilitated by some form of
+language; for the dumb, deaf, and blind girl, Laura Bridgman, was
+observed to use her fingers while dreaming.[60] Nevertheless a long
+succession of vivid ideas may pass through the mind, without the aid of
+any form of language, as we may infer from the movements of dogs during
+their dreams."
+
+The struggle for existence is going on in every language; one after
+another will be swept out of existence, and the languages best fitted
+for the practical uses of the masses of people will alone survive. Max
+Mueller has well remarked: "A struggle for life is constantly going on
+amongst the words and grammatical forms in each language. The better the
+shorter; the easier forms are constantly gaining the upper hand, and
+they owe their success to their own inherent virtue."[61]
+
+It must not be thought for a moment that that which distinguishes a man
+from the lower animals is the understanding of articulate sounds--for,
+as every one knows, dogs understand many words and sentences; and Darwin
+says, at this stage they are at the same stage of development as
+infants, between the ages of ten and twelve months, who understand many
+words and sentences, but still cannot utter a single word. It is not the
+mere articulation which is our distinguishing character; for parrots and
+other birds possess the power. Nor is it the mere capacity of connecting
+definite sounds with definite ideas; for it is certain that some
+parrots, which have been taught to speak, connect unerringly words with
+things, and persons with events." The lower animals, as has already been
+stated, differ from man solely in his almost infinitely larger power of
+associating together the most diversified sounds and ideas; and this
+obviously depends on the high development of his mental powers.
+
+We now come to the consideration of a very delicate subject--a subject
+which is certainly at best very unsatisfactory to handle, as far as
+popular sentiment is concerned; for, no matter how successfully it may
+be handled, according to one class of thinkers, to another class of more
+orthodox thinkers it would be entirely at fault. The subject is, _Man's
+Moral Sense, Belief in God, Religion, Conscience, and Hope of
+Immortality_.
+
+It has been stated by some writers that where "faith commences science
+ends." How erroneous is such a statement as this! for, as Krauth has
+said, "The great body of scientific facts is actually the object of
+knowledge to a few, and is supposed to be a part of the knowledge of the
+many, only because the many have faith in the statements of the few,
+though they can neither verify them, nor even understand the processes
+by which they are reached."[62]
+
+"We believe," says Lewes, "that the sensation of violet is produced by
+the striking of the ethereal waves against the retina more than seven
+hundred billions of times in a second. * * * These statements are
+accepted _on trust_ by us who know that there are thinkers for whom they
+are irresistible conclusions." It is evident that it is to faith that
+science owes, to a very great extent, her progress and development; for
+it is impossible for man to prove by experimental demonstration all the
+facts of science, and since a certain number of facts have got to be
+accepted before a new experiment can be attempted, he has to accept on
+faith that such and such a statement is a fact, because such and such a
+scientist has claimed to have demonstrated it. "We are not _responsible_
+for the fact," says Krauth, "that under the conditions of knowledge we
+_know_, or in defect of them do not know; we are responsible if, under
+the conditions of a well-grounded faith, we disbelieve."[63]
+
+Let us look, then, at the belief in God. The question under
+consideration at first will not be whether there exists a God, the
+creator and ruler of the universe--for this will be afterward
+considered--but is there any evidence that man was aboriginally endowed
+with the ennobling belief in the existence of an Omnipotent God.
+
+Schweinfurth relates that the Niam-niam, that highly interesting dwarf
+people of Central Africa, have no word for God, and therefore, it must
+be supposed, no idea; and Moritz Wagner has given a whole selection of
+reports on the absence of religious consciousness in inferior nations.
+The idea that conscience is a sort of permanent inspiration or dwelling
+of God in the soul, I think, on consideration, any reasonable man will
+not assume. "It is a purely human faculty," says Savage, "like the
+faculty for art or music; and it gets its authority, as they do by being
+true, and just in so far as it is true. Consciousness is our own
+knowledge of ourselves and of the relation between our own faculties and
+powers. Conscience is our recognition of the relations, as right or
+wrong, in which we stand to those about us, God and our fellows.
+_Con-scio_ is to know with, in relation.
+
+There is such a thing, of course, as a _false conscience_ and a _true
+conscience_. All the false "conscientiousness grows out of the fact that
+men suppose they stand in certain relationships that do not really
+exist. Thus they imagined duties that are not duties at all." The
+virtues which must be practised by rude men, so that they can hold
+together in tribes, are of course important. No tribe could hold
+together if robbery, murder, treachery, etc., were common; in other
+words, there must be honor among thieves. "A North-American Indian is
+well pleased with himself, and is honored by others, when he scalps a
+man of another tribe; and a Dyak cuts off the head of an unoffending
+person, and dries it as a trophy. The murder of infants has prevailed on
+the largest scale throughout the world, and has been met with no
+reproach; but infanticide, especially of females, has been thought to be
+good for the tribe, or at least not injurious. Suicide during former
+times was not generally considered as a crime, but rather, from the
+courage displayed, as an honorable act; and it is still practised by
+some semi-civilized and savage nations without reproach, for it does not
+obviously concern others of the tribe. It has been recorded that an
+Indian Thug conscientiously regretted that he had not robbed and
+strangled as many travelers as did his father before him."[64]
+
+See how weak the conscience of even more highly civilized men are in
+their dealings with the brute creation; how the sportsman delights in
+hunting-scenes, Spanish bull-fights, cock-fights, etc.; how indignant
+was the sensitive Cowper, if any one should "needlessly set foot upon a
+worm"! The rights of the worm are as sacred in his degree as ours are,
+and a true conscience will recognize them. What, then, is a true
+conscience? Savage states in a few words, it is "one that knows and is
+adjusted to the realities of life. When men know the truth about God,
+about themselves--body and mind and spirit--about the real relations of
+equity in which they stand to their fellow-men in state and church and
+society, and when they appreciate these, and adjust their conscience to
+them, then they will have a true conscience. An absolutely true
+conscience, of course, cannot exist so long as our knowledge of the
+reality of things is only partial."
+
+It is evident, then, that the conscience of man depends on his education
+and environments, and therefore is the subject of improvement. It
+becomes, then, the duty of every man to search for truth, for his
+conscience is not infallible, and by so doing he will bring it to accord
+with the real facts of God. "Throw away," says Savage, "prejudice and
+conceit, seek to make your conscience like the magnetic needle. The
+needle ever and naturally seeking the unchanging pole." As conscience,
+then, is but a faculty capable of development, it is not so difficult to
+understand a race of people whose conscience was in just the first
+stages of development; and, finally, a race which did not possess this
+faculty at all, as in the inferior nations which Wagner speaks of.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Butcher's Shop of the Anziques, Anno 1598.
+
+(From Man's Place in Nature, by _Huxley_.)]
+
+
+What kind of conscience and intelligence had the people near Cape Lopez,
+called the Anziques, which M. du Chaillu describes. They had incredible
+ferocity; for they ate one another, sparing neither friends nor
+relations. Their butcher-shops were filled with human flesh, instead of
+that of oxen or sheep, for they ate the enemies they captured in battle.
+They fattened, slayed, and devoured their slaves also, unless they
+thought they could get a good price for them; and moreover, for
+weariness of life or desire for glory (for they thought it a great thing
+and a sign of a generous soul to despise life), or for love of their
+rulers, offered themselves up for food. There were, indeed, many
+cannibals, as in the East Indies and Brazil and elsewhere, but none such
+as these, since the others only ate their enemies, but these their own
+blood relations.
+
+There is therefore, combining the fact mentioned by Wagner with the fact
+that some nations have no idea of one or more gods, not even a word to
+express it (proving that they have no idea), I say, there is therefore
+no evidence that man was aboriginally endowed with any such belief as
+the existence of an Omnipotent God; and in this assertion almost all the
+learned men concur. "If, however," says Darwin, "we include under the
+term religion, the belief in unseen or spiritual agencies, the case is
+wholly different; for this belief seems to be universal with the less
+civilized races. Nor is it difficult to understand how it arose."
+
+The savage has a stronger belief in bad spirits than in good ones. "The
+same high mental faculties which first led man to believe in unseen
+spiritual agencies, then in fetishism, polytheism, and ultimately in
+monotheism, would infallibly lead him, as long as his reasoning powers
+remained poorly developed, to very strange superstitions and customs.
+Many of these are terrible to think of: such as the sacrifice of human
+beings to a blood-loving god, the trial of innocent persons by the
+ordeal of poison, of fire, of witchcraft, etc.; yet it is well
+occasionally to reflect on these superstitions, for they show us what an
+infinite debt of gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason, to
+science, and to our accumulated knowledge."[65] As Sir J. Lubbock has
+well observed: "It is not too much to say that the possible dread of
+unknown evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life, and embitters
+every pleasure. These miserable and indirect consequences of our highest
+faculties may be compared with the incidental and occasional mistakes of
+the instincts of the lower animals."
+
+The belief, then, of the existence of an Omnipotent God came with the
+development of the mental faculties; and although there does exist such
+a belief in the minds of men whose conscience is in a normal condition,
+still there are temptations to unbelief, and these have led men to
+atheism. I cannot think of an atheist unless I associate in my thoughts
+the words:
+
+  "The ruling passion, be it what it may--
+  The ruling passion conquers reason still."
+
+The atheist has decided not to believe in the existence of a God, unless
+he can see Him and understand Him; in other words, the finite would
+comprehend the infinite. Following the logical method of reasoning of an
+atheist, the simple fact of seeing God in no way ought to prove his
+existence. For when you say you see a person, and that you have not the
+least doubt about it, I answer, that what you are really conscious of is
+an affection of your retina. And if you urge that you can check your
+sight of the person by touching him, I would answer, that you are
+equally transgressing the limits of fact; for what you are really
+conscious of is, not that he is there, but that the nerves of your hand
+have undergone a change. All you hear and see and touch and taste and
+smell are mere variations of your own condition, beyond which, even to
+the extent of a hair's-breadth, you cannot go. That anything answering
+to your impression exists outside of yourself is not a _fact_, but an
+_inference_, to which all validity would be denied by an idealist like
+Berkeley, or by a skeptic like Hume.[66]
+
+Thomas Cooper[67] said:
+
+  "I do not say--there is no God;
+  But this I say--I KNOW NOT."
+
+
+Mr. Bradlaugh says: "The atheist does not say, 'There is no God'; but he
+says, I know not what you mean by God; I am without idea of God; the
+word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation.
+I do not deny God, because I cannot deny that of which I have no
+conception, and the conception of which, by its affirmer, is so
+imperfect that he is unable to define it to me."
+
+Austin Holyoake[68] says: "The only way of proving the fallacy of
+atheism is by _proving_ the existence of a God."
+
+If it is logical proof that is wanted, there is plenty. The following
+arguments, although not all meeting my approbation, are still of
+interest:
+
+The _Ontological Argument_ has been presented in different forms. 1.
+Anselm,[69] Archbishop of Canterbury (1093-1109), states this argument
+thus: We have an idea of an infinitely perfect being. But real existence
+is an element of infinite perfection. Therefore an infinitely perfect
+being exists; otherwise the infinitely perfect, as we conceive it, would
+lack an essential element of perfection.
+
+2. Descartes[70] (1596-1650) states the argument thus: The idea of an
+infinitely perfect being which we possess could not have originated in a
+finite source, and therefore must have been communicated by an
+infinitely perfect being.
+
+3. Dr. Samuel Clark[71] (1705) argues that time and space are infinite
+and necessarily existent, but they are not substances. Therefore there
+must exist an eternal and infinite substance of which they are
+properties.
+
+4. Cousin[72] maintained that the idea of the finite implies the idea of
+the infinite as inevitably as the idea of the "me" implies that of the
+"not me."
+
+The _Cosmological Argument_ may be stated thus: "Every new thing and
+every change in a previously existing thing must have a cause sufficient
+and pre-existing. The universe consists of a series of changes.
+Therefore the universe must have a cause exterior and anterior to
+itself.
+
+The _Teleological Argument_, or argument from design or final causes, is
+as follows: Design, or the adaptation of means to effect an end, implies
+the exercise of intelligence and free choice. The universe is full of
+traces of design. Therefore the "First Cause" must have been a personal
+spirit.
+
+The _Moral Argument_ may be thus stated: "In looking at the works of God
+there is," says Rev. Dr. Hopkins, "I suppose, evidence enough,
+especially if interpreted by the moral consciousness, to prove to a
+candid man the being of God." The educated man is a religious being. The
+instinct of prayer and worship, the longing for and faith in divine love
+and help, are inseparable from human nature under normal conditions, as
+known in history.
+
+It is evident from the above that it is not for logical reasoning or
+arguments that the atheist is led to say, "that up to this moment the
+world has remained without knowledge of a God."[73] It is from the folly
+of his heart; and, as Solomon says, that "though you bray him and his
+false logic in the mortar of reason, among the wheat of facts, with the
+pestle of argument, yet will not his folly depart from him."[74] I fully
+agree with Hobbes when he says, "where there is no reason for our
+belief, there is no reason we should believe," but I think the several
+arguments given above, which could be greatly expanded, affords
+sufficient reason for a perfect belief in an Infinite God. For--
+
+  "God is a being, and that you may see
+  In the fold of the flower, in the leaf of the tree,
+  In the storm-cloud of darkness, in the rainbow of life,
+  In the sunlight at noontide, in the darkness of night,
+  In the wave of the ocean, in the furrow of land,
+  In the mountain of granite, in the atom of sand;
+  Gaze where ye may from the sky to the sod--
+  Where can you gaze and not see a God."
+
+Yes, the infinite God must include all. If he is not in the dust of our
+streets, in the bricks of our house, in the beat of our hearts, then he
+is not infinite, but is finite, having boundaries. Yes, God's power it
+was that set the nebulous mass into vibration, and caused the world to
+be formed; it was His force which first shaped the atoms into molecules,
+and then into more complex chemical products, till finally "organizable
+protoplasm" was reached, which, by evolution, climbed up to man. 'Tis
+God we see in the family, in society, in the state, in all religions, up
+to the highest outflowings of Christianity. 'Tis Him we see in art,
+literature, and science; and so proclaims Evolution. "God is the
+universal causal law; God is the source of all force and all matter."
+"For us," says Haeckel, "all nature is animated, _i. e._, penetrated
+with Divine spirit, with law, and with necessity." We know of no matter
+without this Divine spirit.
+
+The "ultimate repulsion, constituting the extension and impenetrability
+of the atoms of matter," says Dr. Samuel Brown, "could be conceived of
+in no other way than as the persistent existence of the will of God
+himself, in whom we live and move and have our being, and which, if but
+for an instant withdrawn, the whole material universe and its forces in
+all their vastness, glory, and beauty, would collapse and sink in a
+moment into their original nothingness."
+
+The advancement of science, instead of depriving man of his God, only
+deprives men of their earlier and ruder conceptions of Deity, only to
+impart a larger and grander thought of Him. "It is true, in the
+educational process some few minds have lost sight of Him altogether,
+but these are the exceptional, and therefore notable instances; with the
+great body of men, the conception of God has steadily enlarged with the
+progress of science."[75] If science can demonstrate that Evolution is
+true, then it is God's truth, and as such it is man's religious duty to
+accept it; if he rejects it, superstitiously or unreasonably, he not
+only defrauds himself but insults the Author of truth.
+
+What, then, has science demonstrated? Science has demonstrated the UNITY
+OF THE FORCES: Light, heat, electricity, magnetism, motion, are all
+correlated to one another, and are all mutually convertible one into
+another. Heat may be said to produce electricity--electricity to produce
+heat; magnetism to produce electricity--electricity, magnetism, and so
+on for the rest.
+
+UNITY OF MATTER AND FORCE.--"For if matter were not force, and
+immediately known as force, it could not be known at all--could not be
+rationally inferred."
+
+UNITY OF THE LIFE SUBSTANCE IN ALL ORGANIC AND ANIMAL BODIES.--"A unity
+of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity of substantial
+composition."
+
+UNITY OF ANIMATE AND INANIMATE NATURE IN MATTER, FORM, AND FORCE.
+
+UNITY OF THE LAWS OF DEVELOPMENT.--Hence we can proclaim the unity of
+all nature and of her laws of development.
+
+In the beautiful words of Giordano Bruno: "A spirit exists in all
+things, and no body is so small but contains a part of the divine
+substance within itself, by which it is animated." Hence we arrive at
+the sublime idea, since we can in no other way account for the ultimate
+cause of anything, that it is God's spirit which pervades and sustains
+all nature. By this admission we are not led to say: "There is no God
+but force;" but rather, "There is no force but God." God is infinite,
+and therefore includes nature; but is nature all? It is all that our
+finite minds can discover, 'tis true; but can there not exist another
+nature or world unknown to us; and if so, since God is infinite, he will
+include that world also. Let us look to this and see what science can
+answer.
+
+It will be necessary for us to consider before proceeding, what is meant
+by the term soul; and this becomes a somewhat difficult task, as the
+term has been variously applied to signify the principle of life in an
+organic body, or the first and most undeveloped stages of individualized
+spiritual being, or finally, all stages of spiritual individuality,
+incorporeal as well as corporeal.[76] The popular belief is, that the
+soul is not material but substantial, a divine gift to the highest alone
+of God's creatures; but scientific men, such as Carl Vogt, Moleschott,
+Buechner, Schmidt, Haeckel, consider the phenomena of the soul to be
+functions of the brain and nerves. Schmidt says: "The soul of the
+new-born infant is, in its manifestations, in no way different from that
+of the young animal. These are the functions of the infantine nervous
+system, with this they grow and are developed together with speech."
+
+The idea of the immortality of the soul was not aboriginal with mankind,
+as Sir J. Lubbock has shown that the barbarous races possess no clear
+belief of this kind, and Rajah Brook, at a missionary meeting in
+Liverpool, told his hearers there that the Dyaks, a people with whom he
+was connected, had no knowledge of God, of a soul, or of any future
+state.
+
+Darwin remarks, that "man may be excused for feeling some pride at
+having risen, though not through his own exertions, to the very summit
+of the organic scale; and the fact of his having thus risen, instead of
+having been aboriginally placed there, may give hope for a still higher
+destiny in the distant future."
+
+The belief in a future life amongst the civilized race of mankind is
+almost universally prevalent. The proofs of immortality are various. The
+desire that man has to live forever and his horror of annihilation is
+one; the good suffer in this world and the wicked triumph--this would
+indicate the necessity of future retribution. The infinite
+perfectibility of the human mind never reaches its full capacity in this
+life; the faculty of insight which sees in an individual all its past
+history at a glance is the immortal attribute and is continually on the
+increase; and it is possible that Aristotle was right so far as he
+stated that the lower faculties of the soul, such as sensation,
+imagination, feeling, memory, etc., are perishable. No matter if this be
+so or not, it is certain that in the next life, where all is perfection,
+only the fittest attributes will exist, the others would have perished.
+The doctrine of the immortality of the soul has been defended by
+Marhemeke, Blasche, Weisse, Hinnichs, Fecham, J. H. Fichte, and others.
+
+Let us look for a moment at the visible universe and see if it is not
+reasonable, on a scientific basis, to admit of the existence of another
+universe, although it remains unseen to us. One can not help but be
+struck with the fact that energy is being dissipated in this visible
+universe, that the visible universe is apparently very wasteful. Look at
+the sun which pours her vast store of high-class energy into space, at
+the rate of 185,000 miles per second. What will be the result of this?
+The answer is simple: The inevitable destruction of the visible
+universe. Yes, just as the visible universe had its beginning it will
+have its end. But there existed a power before the visible universe came
+into existence, and which is acting in the visible universe as the
+ultimate cause of all phenomena. "For we are obliged," says Herbert
+Spencer in his First Principles, "to regard every phenomenon as a
+manifestation of some power by which we are acted upon; though
+omnipresence is unthinkable, yet, as experience discloses no bounds to
+the diffusion of phenomena, we are unable to think of limits to the
+presence of this power, while the criticisms of science teaches us that
+this power is incomprehensible." And so we should expect, for a finite
+cannot comprehend an infinite. It is for this and other reasons one is
+led to believe that the visible universe is only an infinitesimal part
+of "that stupendous whole which is alone entitled to be called THE
+UNIVERSE."[77] As there existed an invisible universe before the visible
+one came into existence, we can conclude that there still exists an
+invisible universe now, and that this invisible universe will still
+exist when the present visible one has passed away. Let us see what
+light our finite senses can throw on this. It is well known that all our
+senses have only a certain narrow gauge within which they are able to
+bring us into sensible contact with the world about us. All outside this
+range we are unable to reach. For example, we do not see all forms and
+colors; we do not hear all sounds; we do not smell all odors; we cannot
+conscientiously touch all substances; we cannot taste all flavors. Vision
+depends on the wave motion of light. The length of a wave of mean red
+light is about 1/39000th of an inch, that of violet 1/57500th of an inch.
+But the number of oscillations of ether in a second, necessary to produce
+the sensation of red, are 477,000,000,000,000, all of which enter the eye
+in one second. For the sensation of violet, the eye must receive
+699,000,000,000,000 oscillations in one second, as light travels 185,000
+miles in one second. But when waves of light having all possible lengths
+act on the eye simultaneously, the sensation of white is produced. So, as
+has been previously stated, without eyes the world would be wrapped in
+darkness, there being no light and color outside of one's eye. So we see
+our sense of sight has its limits, and we know how finite these are. That
+there are vibrations of the ether on each side of our limits of vision
+cannot be doubted; and if our eyes were acute enough to receive them, we
+could have the sensation of some color, which must under present
+conditions remain forever blank. The owl and bat can see when we cannot;
+their eyes can receive oscillations of ether, which pass by without
+affecting us. So with sound, which "is a sensation produced when
+vibrations of a certain character are excited in the auditory apparatus of
+the ear."[78] The longest wave which can give an impression has a length
+of about 66 ft., which is equal to 16-1/2 vibrations per second; when the
+wave is reduced to three or four tenths of an inch, equal to from 38,000
+to 40,000 vibrations per second, sound becomes again inaudible. The piano,
+for instance, only runs between 27-1/2 vibrations in a second up to 3,520.
+Sound travels about 1,093 feet per second, and the human voice can be
+heard 460 feet away, whilst a rifle can be heard 16,000 feet (3.02 miles),
+and very strong cannonading 575,840 feet, or 90 miles. That there are
+vibrations above and below 16-1/2 and 40,000, there is no room to doubt,
+as there exist ears which can hear them, such as the hare; but to us they
+are as though they did not exist.
+
+Of all our senses, the sense of smell far surpasses that of the other
+sense. Valentine has calculated that we are able to perceive about the
+three one-hundred-millionth of a grain of musk. The minute particle
+which we perceive by smell, no chemical reaction can detect, and even
+spectrum analysis, which can recognize fifteen-millionths of a grain, is
+far surpassed. But this sense in man is far surpassed by the hound.
+
+Our sense of taste is also limited, and as has been already stated,
+cannot distinguish all flavors. We can recognize by taste one part of
+sulphuric acid in 1000 parts of water; one drop of this on the tongue
+would contain 1/2000 of a grain (3/400 of a grain) of sulphuric acid.
+The length of time needed for reaction in sensation has been determined
+by Vintschgau and Hougschmied, and in a person whose sense of taste was
+highly developed, the reaction time was, for common salt, 0.159 second;
+for sugar, 0.1639 second; for acid, 0.1676 second; and for quinine,
+0.2351 second.
+
+Reviewing, then, the above, it is evident there are eyes which can see
+what we cannot, there are ears which can hear what we cannot, and there
+are animals who can smell and touch what we cannot. "For anything we
+know to the contrary, then," says Savage, "a refined and spiritualized
+order of existences may be the inhabitants of another and unseen world
+all about us." As Milton has said:
+
+  "Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth
+  Unseen, both when we wake and when we sleep."
+
+If there is a life very much different from and very much higher than
+our present one, it is not strange we are ignorant of it. It is
+impossible to make a person understand anything which is entirely unlike
+all that has ever been seen or heard, for every idea in the world that
+man has came to him by nature. Man[79] cannot conceive of anything the
+hint of which has not been received from his surroundings. He can
+imagine an animal with the hoof of a bison, with the pouch of a
+kangaroo, with the wings of an eagle, with the beak of a bird, and with
+the tail of a lion; and yet every point of this monster he borrowed from
+nature. Everything he can think of, everything he can dream of, is
+borrowed from his surroundings--everything. "So, if an angel should come
+and tell of another life, it would mean nothing to us, unless we could
+translate it into terms of our own experience. We could not understand a
+'light that never was on land or sea.' Our ignorance is not even then a
+probability against our belief."[80]
+
+As has already been stated, the visible universe must have its doom,
+must end as it began, by consisting of a single mass of matter; but is
+there not a more primitive state of matter than the matter such as we
+know it? Yes; and the so-called ether is that matter. It is unlike any
+of the forms of matter which we can weigh and measure. It is in some
+respects like unto a fluid, and in some respects like unto a solid. It
+is both hard and elastic to an almost inconceivable degree. "It fills
+all material bodies like a sea in which the atoms of the material bodies
+are as islands, and it occupies the whole of what we call empty space.
+It is so sensitive that a disturbance in any part of it causes a 'tremor
+which is felt on the surface of countless worlds.' It exerts frictions;
+and although the friction is infinitely small, yet as it has an almost
+infinite time to work in, it will diminish the momentum of the planets,
+and diminish their ability to maintain their distance from the sun, the
+consequence of which will be the planets will fall into the sun, and the
+solar system will end where it begun."[81]
+
+According to Sir William Thompson, the ultimate atoms of matter are
+vortex rings, which Professor Clifford describes as being more closely
+packed together (finer grained) in ether than in matter. And he says,
+"whatever may turn out to be the ultimate nature of the ether and of
+molecules, we know that to some extent at least they obey the same
+dynamic laws, and that they act on one another in accordance with these
+laws. Until therefore it is absolutely disproved, it must remain the
+simplest and most probable assumption that they are finally made of the
+same stuff, that the material molecule is in some kind of knot or
+coagulation of ether."[82]
+
+The molecule of matter such as we know, then, may have been, and very
+probably was, produced by evolution from the atoms or vortex rings of
+ether, according to the theory advanced by the authors of the work
+called the "Unseen Universe," which I have referred to. The world of
+ether is to be regarded in some sort the obverse complement of the world
+of sensible matter, so that whatever energy is dissipated in the one is
+by the same act accumulated in the other; or, as Fiske describes it, "it
+is like the negative plate in photography, where light answers to shadow
+and shadow to light." Every act of consciousness is accompanied by
+molecular displacements in the brain, and these of course are responded
+to by movements in the ethereal world. Views of this kind were long ago
+entertained by Babbage, and they have since recommended themselves to
+other men of science, and amongst others to Jevon, who says: "Mr.
+Babbage has pointed out that if we had power to follow and detect the
+manifest effects of any disturbance, each particle of existing matter
+must be a register of all that has happened. * * * The air itself is one
+vast library on whose pages are forever written all that man has ever
+said or whispered. There in their mutable but unerring characters,
+mixed with, the earliest as well as the latest sighs of mortality, stand
+forever recorded vows unredeemed, promises unfulfilled, perpetuating in
+the united movements of each particle the testimony of man's changeful
+will."[83]
+
+So thought affects the substance of the present visible universe; it
+produces a material organ of memory. "But the motions which accompany
+thought," say the authors,[84] "will also affect the invisible order of
+things," and thus it follows that "thought conceived to affect the
+matter of another universe, simultaneously with this, may explain a
+future state."[85]
+
+Death, then, is for the individual but a transfer from one physical
+state of existence to another, according to the "authors'"[86] idea; and
+so, on the largest scale, the death or final loss of energy by the whole
+visible universe has its counterpart in the acquirement of a maximum of
+life, the correlative unseen world. According to this theory, therefore,
+as the psychical or spiritual phenomena of the visible world only begins
+to be manifested with some complex aggregate of material phenomena,
+therefore it is necessary for the continuance of mind in a future state
+to have some sort of material vehicle also, which the ether is supposed
+to supply. "The essential weakness of such a theory as this," says
+Fiske, "lies in the fact that it is thoroughly materialistic in
+character. We have reason for thinking it probable that ether and
+ordinary matter are alike composed of vortex rings in a
+quasi-frictionless fluid; but whatever be the fate of this subtle
+hypothesis, we may be sure that no theory will ever be entertained in
+which analysis of ether shall require different symbols from that of
+ordinary matter. In our authors' theory, therefore, the putting on of
+immortality is in nowise the passage from a material to a spiritual
+state. It is the passage of one kind of materially conditioned state to
+another." This theory, dealing with matter, should receive support by
+actual experience, as matter is a subject of investigation. To accept
+it, therefore, as being possible without any positive evidence for its
+support, it remains but a weak speculation, no matter how ingenious it
+may seem.
+
+To support an after life, which is not materially conditioned, I agree
+with Mr. Fiske, that although it will be unsupported by any item of
+experience whatever, it may nevertheless be an impregnable assertion.
+
+If all were to agree, what we call matter is really force, as it
+certainly is, for if matter were not force it would be unthinkable,
+being force it becomes thinkable; this point I have touched on before,
+but it may be well to elaborate on it a little just here. The great
+lesson that Berkeley taught mankind was that what we call material
+phenomena are really the products of consciousness co-operating with
+some unknown power (not material) existing beyond consciousness. "We do
+very well to speak of matter," says Fiske, "in common parlance, but all
+that the word really means is a group of qualities which have no
+existence apart from our minds." The ablest modern thinkers, then,
+believe that the only real things that exist are the mind and God, and
+that the universe is only the infinitely varied manifestation of God in
+the human conscience. It is evident, then, that _matter_, the only thing
+the materialist concedes real existence, is simply an orderly
+phantasmagoria; and God and soul, which materialists regard as mere
+fictions of the imagination, are the only conceptions that answer to
+real existence.[87]
+
+For instance, let us see what it is we know about a table. You say you
+can see it; I can respond that all you are conscious of is that the
+nerves of your eye have undergone a change. You say, I can check my
+sight of it by touching it; to this I reply, all that you are really
+conscious of is a sensation, and that something outside of you has
+produced it. But that all that is outside of me is anything more than
+the manifestation to me of a power or of God, is an inference and cannot
+be proven. To constant manifestations of this power, always assuming the
+same form and characters which can be studied, different names have been
+given; but that the dust of the street or beat of our heart is anything
+else but that peculiar manifestation of the infinite God, cannot be
+contradicted.
+
+Mr. Savage says, "The movement of electricity along a telegraph-line is
+accompanied by certain molecular changes in the wire itself; but the
+wire is not electricity, neither does it produce it. Thus modern science
+has found it utterly impossible to explain mind either as a part or a
+product of matter. It is perfectly reasonable, then, for any man to
+believe in a purely intellectual and spiritual existence, apart from any
+material form or substance."
+
+To comprehend the immortal life is an impossibility; it transcends any
+earthly experience of man. The caterpillar probably knows nothing about
+any life higher than that of his toilsome crawling on the ground; but
+that is no proof against the fact that we know he is to become a
+butterfly. The boy knows nothing about manhood, and cannot know. Though
+he sees men and their labors all about him, he has and can have no
+conception whatever of what it means to be a man; it transcends all
+experience.[88] "The existence," says Fiske, "of a single soul, or
+congeries of psychical phenomena, unaccompanied by a material body,
+would be evidence sufficient to demonstrate this hypothesis. But in the
+nature of things, even were there a million such souls round about us,
+we could not become aware of the existence of one of them; for we have
+no organ or faculty for the perception of soul apart from the material
+structure and activities in which it has been manifested throughout the
+whole course of our experience. Even our own self-consciousness involves
+the consciousness of ourselves as partly material bodies. These
+considerations show that our hypothesis is very different from the
+ordinary hypothesis with which science deals. _The entire absence of
+testimony does not raise a negative presumption, except in cases where
+testimony is accessible._"
+
+My object has not been to prove the purely spiritual theory of a future
+life, but to show that it is a theory that intelligent people can
+entertain as a foundation for their belief "in the hope of immortality."
+But that the spiritual life instead of the material life is the state in
+which we can hope for immortality, I think there can be no question; and
+such was the opinion of Paul[89] when he wrote: "Now this I say,
+brethren, that flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God,
+neither does corruption inherit incorruption.... So when this
+corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortal shall have
+put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying that is
+written, 'Death is swallowed up in victory.'
+
+  O death, where is thy sting?
+  O grave, where is thy victory?"
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] The Law of Disease, in College Courant, Vol. XIV.
+
+[2] Winchell. Evolution, p. 113.
+
+[3] Comparative Zoology, p. 43. 1876.
+
+[4] Huxley. Physical Basis of Life.
+
+[5] Johnson, Ency.
+
+[6] Comparative Anatomy--Orton, p. 32.
+
+[7] Analytical Anatomy and Phys.--Cutter, p. 16.
+
+[8] Biography of a Plant.
+
+[9] See Huxley--Invertebrate Animals, Anatomy of.
+
+[10] Phys. Basis of Life.
+
+[11] Beginnings of Life, p. 104, Vol. I.
+
+[12] Monthly Micros. Jour., May 1, '69, p. 294.
+
+[13] Chem. and Phys. Balance of Organic Nature, 1848, p. 48 (trans.).
+
+[14] Inaugural Address, Aug. 19, 1874.
+
+[15] Haeckel--Hist. of Creation.
+
+[16] See Haeckel--Evol. of Man.
+
+[17] Evolution of Man, Vol. II, p. 445.
+
+[18] Johnson's Cyclopedia, Article "Evolution."
+
+[19] Sumner, in Johnson's Cyc.
+
+[20] Christian Union, Vol. XIII, No. 17, p. 322.
+
+[21] Gen. i. 1.
+
+[22] St. John i. 1.
+
+[23] St. John i. 3.
+
+[24] Hist. of Creation, p. 8.
+
+[25] _Ibid._, p. 324.
+
+[26] Heb. xi. 3. Revised English Ed.
+
+[27] _Loc. cit._, Vol. I, p. 323.
+
+[28] _Loc. cit._, Vol. I, p. 324.
+
+[29] Indications of the Creator.
+
+[30] Evolution and Progress, p. 26, Rev. Wm. I. Gill.
+
+[31] Natuerl. Schoepfungsgesch., pp. 643-5.
+
+[32] Paget, Lectures on Surgical Pathology, 1853, Vol. I, p. 71.
+
+[33] Ueber die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen Koerper.
+
+[34] Pop. Sci. Monthly, June, 1879, p. 250.
+
+[35] See Sci. Am., May 18, 1878.
+
+[36] Source of Muscular Power, Proc. Roy. Inst., June 8, 1866. Am. I.
+Sci., II, xlii, 393, Nov. 1866.
+
+[37] Comparative Zoology, p. 45.
+
+[38] Correlation of the Vital and Physical Forces, p. 54.
+
+[39] On the time required for the transmission of volition and sensation
+through the nerves, Proc. Roy. Inst.
+
+[40] Comparative Zoology, p. 165.
+
+[41] Sci. Amer., Nov. 13, 1876, p. 328.
+
+[42] Marshall, Outline of Physiology. Amer. Ed., 1868, p. 227.
+
+[43] Macmillon's Magazine, Pop. Sci. Monthly, April, 1876.
+
+[44] "Principles of Psychology," 1869, No. 20, p. 24.
+
+[45] J. S. Lombard, N. Y. Med. Jour., Vol. V, 198, June, 1867.
+
+[46] _Loc. cit._, p. 23.
+
+[47] The apparatus employed is illustrated and fully described in
+Brown-Sequard's Archives de Phys., Vol. I, 498, June, 1868. By it the
+1-4000th of a degree Centigrade may be indicated.
+
+[48] L. H. Wood, "On the influence of mental activity on the excretion
+of phosphoric acid by the kidneys." Proc. Conn. Med. Soc., Nov., 1869,
+p. 197.
+
+[49] _Loc. cit._, p. 24.
+
+[50] Address of Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, as retiring president, before the
+Am. Ass. for Adv. of Sci., Chicago meeting, Aug. 1868. "Thought cannot
+be a physical force, because thought admits of no measure."
+
+[51] Derivation hypothesis of life and species, forming fortieth chapter
+of his Anatomy of Vertebrates, republished in Am. Jour. Sci., II, xlvii,
+33, Jan. 1869.
+
+[52] Prehistoric Times, p. 354, by Lubbock.
+
+[53] Madness in Animals, Jour. Mental Sci., July, 1871. Dr. W. L.
+Lindsay.
+
+[54] Facultes Mentales des Animaux, 1872, Tom. XI, p. 181.
+
+[55] Primeval Man, 1869, pp. 145-147.
+
+[56] Prehistoric Times, 1865, p. 473.
+
+[57] "Conferences ser les Theorie Darwinienne," 1869, p. 132.
+
+[58] Philosoph. Trans., 1773, p. 262.
+
+[59] Prof. Whitney, p. 309.
+
+[60] Phys. and Pathol. of Mind. Dr. Maudsley. 3d ed., 1868, p. 199.
+
+[61] Nature, January 6, 1870, p. 257.
+
+[62] Problems i. 21.
+
+[63] Johnson's Cyc. Article "Faith." C. P. Krauth.
+
+[64] Darwin's Descent of Man, p. 117.
+
+[65] See Descent of Man, p. 96.
+
+[66] See Tyndall's Belfast Address.
+
+[67] Purgatory of Suicides.
+
+[68] Thoughts on Atheism, p. 4.
+
+[69] Monologium and Proslogium.
+
+[70] Meditations de Primaphilosophia Prop. 2, p. 89.
+
+[71] Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God.
+
+[72] Elements of Psychology.
+
+[73] Thoughts on Atheism, by Holyoake, p. 4.
+
+[74] Proverbs xvii. 22.
+
+[75] Henry Ward Beecher.
+
+[76] See W. T. Harris. Johnson's Encyc. "Soul."
+
+[77] Unseen Universe.
+
+[78] Rood. "Sound," Johnson's Encyc.
+
+[79] See R. G. Ingersoll's Lecture on Hell.
+
+[80] Savage.
+
+[81] "The Unseen World." John Fiske, p. 21.
+
+[82] Fortnightly Review, June 1875, p. 784.
+
+[83] Ninth Bridgewater Treatise.
+
+[84] Of the Unseen Universe.
+
+[85] Anagram. Nature, Oct. 15, 1874.
+
+[86] Of the Unseen Universe.
+
+[87] Fiske. Unseen World, p. 52.
+
+[88] Savage. Relig. of Evol., p. 246.
+
+[89] 1 Corinthians, xv., verses 50-54 (Part of). _Revised English Ed._,
+1877.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_.
+
+Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=.
+
+Numbers enclosed in {brackets} are subscripted in the original text.
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+Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate
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+presented in the original text.
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+Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest
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+
+The following misprints have been addressed:
+  "Haeckel" standardized to "Haeckel" (page 57)
+  missing "the" added (page 91)
+  "paleontology" standardized to "palaeontology" (page 108)
+  "cerebelbellum" corrected to "cerebellum" (page 113)
+
+Some quotation marks in the original are not paired. Obvious errors have
+been silently closed, while those requiring interpretation have been
+left open.
+
+Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies in
+spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been retained.
+
+
+
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Was Man Created?, by Henry A. Mott
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