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+Project Gutenberg's Music: An Art and a Language, by Walter Raymond Spalding
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Music: An Art and a Language
+
+Author: Walter Raymond Spalding
+
+Release Date: November 28, 2009 [EBook #30560]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSIC: AN ART AND A LANGUAGE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adam Buchbinder, Linda Cantoni, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.) Music transcribed
+by Linda Cantoni.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: Obvious printer errors have been corrected.
+Questionable text is marked with a [Transcriber's Note]. A macron over
+a letter is represented by an equal sign, e.g., punct[=u]s. A caron
+over a letter is represented by a v, e.g., Dvo[vr]ak.]
+
+
+
+
+MUSIC: AN ART AND A LANGUAGE
+
+
+BY
+
+WALTER RAYMOND SPALDING
+
+
+_Price $2.50 net_
+
+
+THE ARTHUR P. SCHMIDT CO.
+
+BOSTON
+120 BOYLSTON STREET
+
+NEW YORK
+8 WEST 40th STREET
+
+Copyright, 1920, by THE ARTHUR P. SCHMIDT CO.
+
+International Copyright Secured
+
+A.P.S. 11788
+
+
+
+
+TO MY COLLEAGUES
+IN THE DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC
+AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY
+
+WILLIAM CLIFFORD HEILMAN, EDWARD BURLINGAME HILL,
+ARCHIBALD THOMPSON DAVISON, EDWARD BALLANTINE
+
+
+
+
+SUPPLEMENTARY
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+for
+
+_MUSIC:
+an ART and a LANGUAGE_
+
+Vols. I & II now ready
+
+(_Schmidt's Educational Series No. 257-a, b_)
+
+Price $1.00 each volume
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+Although "of the making of books there is no end," this book, on so
+human a subject as music, we believe should justify itself. A
+twenty-years' experience in teaching the Appreciation of Music at
+Harvard University and Radcliffe College has convinced the author that
+a knowledge of musical grammar and structure does enable us, as the
+saying is, to get more out of music. This conviction is further
+strengthened by the statement of numerous students who testify that
+after analyzing certain standard compositions their attitude towards
+music has changed and their love for it greatly increased.
+
+In the illustrations (published in a Supplementary Volume) no
+concessions have been made to so-called "popular taste"; people have
+an instinctive liking for the best when it is fairly put before them.
+We are not providing a musical digest, since music requires _active
+cooperation_ by the hearer, nor are we trying to interpret music in
+terms of the other arts. Music is itself. For those who may be
+interested in speculating as to the connection between music and art,
+numerous books are available--some of them excellent from their point
+of view.
+
+This book concerns itself with music _as_ music. It is assumed that,
+if anyone really loves this art, he is willing and glad to do serious
+work to quicken his sense of hearing, to broaden his imagination, and
+to strengthen his memory so that he may become intelligent in
+appreciation rather than merely absorbed in honeyed sounds. Music is
+of such power and glory that we should be ready to devote to its study
+as much time as to a foreign language. In the creed of the music-lover
+the first and last article is familiarity. When we thoroughly know a
+composition so that its themes sing in our memory and we feel at home
+in the structure, the music will speak to us directly, and all books
+and analytical comments will be of secondary importance--those of the
+present writer not excepted. Special effort has been made to select
+illustrations of musical worth, and upon these the real emphasis in
+study should be laid.
+
+The material of the book is based on lectures, often of an informal
+nature, in the Appreciation Course at Harvard University and lays no
+claim to original research. The difficulty in establishing points of
+approach makes it far more baffling to speak or write about music than
+about the other arts. Music is sufficient unto itself. Endowed with
+the insight of a Ruskin or a Pater, one may say something worth while
+about painting. But in music the line between mere statistical
+analysis and sentimental rhapsody must be drawn with exceeding care.
+If the subject matter be clearly presented and the analyses
+true--allowance being made for honest difference of opinion--every
+hope will be realized.
+
+The author's gratitude is herewith expressed to Mr. Percy Lee Atherton
+for his critical revision of the text and to Professor William C.
+Heilman for valuable assistance in selecting and preparing the musical
+illustrations.
+
+W.R.S.
+
+Cambridge, Massachusetts
+  _June_, 1919
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+I. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS                              1
+
+II. THE FOLK-SONG                                         18
+
+III. POLYPHONIC MUSIC; SEBASTIAN BACH, THE FUGUE          33
+
+IV. THE MUSICAL SENTENCE                                  50
+
+V. THE TWO-PART AND THREE-PART FORMS                      69
+
+VI. THE CLASSICAL AND THE MODERN SUITE                    73
+
+VII. THE RONDO FORM                                       81
+
+VIII. THE VARIATION FORM                                  85
+
+IX. THE SONATA-FORM AND ITS FOUNDERS--EMMANUEL
+BACH AND HAYDN                                            91
+
+X. MOZART. THE PERFECTION OF CLASSIC STRUCTURE
+AND STYLE                                                108
+
+XI. BEETHOVEN, THE TONE-POET                             122
+
+XII. THE ROMANTIC COMPOSERS. SCHUBERT, WEBER             160
+
+XIII. SCHUMANN AND MENDELSSOHN                           172
+
+XIV. CHOPIN AND PIANOFORTE STYLE                         188
+
+XV. BERLIOZ AND LISZT. PROGRAM MUSIC                     202
+
+XVI. BRAHMS                                              228
+
+XVII. CESAR FRANCK                                       255
+
+XVIII. THE MODERN FRENCH SCHOOL--D'INDY AND DEBUSSY      280
+
+XIX. NATIONAL SCHOOLS--RUSSIAN, BOHEMIAN AND
+SCANDINAVIAN                                             300
+
+XX. THE VARIED TENDENCIES OF MODERN MUSIC                326
+
+
+
+
+    _Music is the universal language of mankind._
+
+    --LONGFELLOW.
+
+
+    _Music can noble hints impart,
+    Engender fury, kindle love;
+    With unsuspected eloquence can move
+    And manage all the man with secret art._
+
+    --ADDISON.
+
+
+    _Music is the sound of the circulation in nature's veins. It
+    is the flux which melts nature. Men dance to it, glasses
+    ring and vibrate, and the fields seem to undulate. The
+    healthy ear always hears it, nearer or more remote._
+
+    --THOREAU.
+
+
+    _To strike all this life dead,
+    Run mercury into a mold like lead,
+    And henceforth have the plain result to show--
+    How we Feel hard and fast, and what we Know--
+    This were the prize, and is the puzzle!--which
+    Music essays to solve._
+
+    --BROWNING.
+
+
+    _All music is what awakes from you when you are reminded by
+    the instruments._
+
+    --WHITMAN.
+
+
+
+
+Music: an Art and a Language
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
+
+
+In approaching the study of any subject we may fairly expect that this
+subject shall be defined, although some one has ironically remarked
+that every definition is a misfortune. Music-lovers, however, will
+rejoice that their favorite art is spared such a misfortune, for it
+can not be defined. We know the factors of which music is constituted,
+rhythm and sound; and we can trace the historic steps by which methods
+of presentation and of style have been so perfected that by means of
+this twofold material the emotions and aspirations of human beings may
+be expressed and permanently recorded. We realize, and with our inborn
+equipment can appreciate, the moving power of music; but to define, in
+the usual sense of the term definition, what music really is, will be
+forever impossible. The fact indeed that music--like love, electricity
+and other elemental forces--cannot be defined is its special glory. It
+is a peculiar, mysterious power;[1] quite in a class by itself,
+although with certain aspects which it shares with the other arts. The
+writings of all the great poets, such as Milton, Shakespeare, Browning
+and Whitman, abound in eloquent tributes to the power and influence of
+music, but it is noticeable that no one attempts to define it. The
+mystery of music must be approached with reverence and music must be
+loved for itself with perfect sincerity.
+
+[Footnote 1: For suggestive comments on this point see the essays
+_Harmonie et Melodie_ by Saint-Saens, Chapters I and II.]
+
+Some insight, however, may be gained into the nature of music by a
+clear recognition of what it is _not_, and by a comparison with the
+more definite and familiar arts. Music consists of the intangible and
+elusive factors of rhythm and sound; in this way differing
+fundamentally from the concrete static arts such as architecture,
+sculpture and painting. Furthermore, instrumental music, _i.e._, music
+freed from a dependence on words, is not an exact language like prose
+and poetry. It speaks to our feelings and imaginations, as it were by
+suggestion; reaching for this very reason depths of our being quite
+beyond the power of mere words. No one can define rhythm except by
+saying that rhythm, in the sense of motion, is the fundamental fact in
+the universe and in all life, both physical and human. Everything in
+the heavens above and in the earth beneath is in ceaseless motion and
+change; nothing remains the same for two consecutive seconds. Even the
+component parts of material--such as stone and wood, which we
+ordinarily speak of as concrete and stationary--are whirling about
+with ceaseless energy, and often in perfect rhythm. Thus we see how
+natural and vital is the art of music, for it is inseparably connected
+with life itself.
+
+As for the other factor, sound is one of the most elemental and
+mysterious of all physical phenomena.[2] When the air is set in motion
+by the vibration of certain bodies of wood, metal and other material,
+we know that sound waves, striking upon the tympanum of the ear,
+penetrate to the brain and imagination. Sound is a reciprocal
+phenomenon; for, even if there were systematic activity of vibrating
+bodies, there could be no sound without some one to hear it.[3] Good
+musicians are known for their power of keen and discriminating
+hearing; and the ear,[4] as Saint-Saens says, is the sole avenue of
+approach to the musical sense. The first ambition for one who would
+appreciate music should be to cultivate this power of hearing. It is
+quite possible to be stone-deaf outwardly and yet hear most beautiful
+sounds within the brain. This was approximately the case with
+Beethoven after his thirtieth year. On the other hand, many people
+have a perfect outward apparatus for hearing but nothing is registered
+within.
+
+[Footnote 2: See Chapter II of Gurney's _Power of Sound_, a book
+remarkable for its insight.]
+
+[Footnote 3: It is understood that this statement is made in a
+subjective rather than a purely physical sense. See the _Century
+Dictionary_ under _Sound_.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Il y a donc, dans l'art des sons, quelque chose qui
+traverse l'oreille comme un portique, la raison comme un vestibule et
+qui va plus loin.
+
+HARMONIE ET MELODIE, CHAPTER II.]
+
+Combarieu, the French aesthetician, defines music as "the art of
+thinking in tones."[5] There is food for thought in this statement,
+but it seems to leave out one very important factor--namely, the
+emotional. Every great musical composition reveals a carefully
+planned and perfect balance between the emotional and intellectual
+elements. And yet the basic impulse for the creation of music is an
+emotional one; and, of all the arts, music makes the most direct
+appeal to the emotions and to those shadowy, but real portions of our
+being called the imagination and the soul. Emotion is as indispensable
+to music as love to religion. Just as there can be no really great art
+without passion, so we can not imagine music without all the emotions
+of mankind: their loves, joys, sorrows, hatreds, ideals and subtle
+fancies. Music, in fact, is a presentation of emotional experience,
+fashioned and controlled by an overruling intellectual power.
+
+[Footnote 5: _La musique, ses lois, son evolution_, by Jules
+Combarieu.]
+
+We can now foresee, though at first dimly, what is to be our line of
+approach to this mystery. One of the peculiar characteristics of music
+is that it is both the most natural and least artificial of the arts,
+and as well the most complicated and subtle. On the one hand it is the
+most natural and direct, because the materials of which it is
+constituted--that is, sound and rhythm--make an instinctive appeal to
+every normally equipped human being.[6] Every one likes to listen to
+beautiful sounds merely for their sensuous effect, just as everyone
+likes to look at the blue sky, the green grass and the changing hues
+of a sunset; so the rhythm of music, akin to the human heart-beat and
+to the ceaseless change and motion, which is the basic fact in all
+life, appeals at once to our own physical vitality. This fact may be
+observed at a symphony concert where so many people are wagging their
+heads, beating time with their hands or even tapping on the floor with
+their feet; a habit which shows a rudimentary love of music but which
+for obvious reasons is not to be commended. On the other hand, music
+is the most complicated of all the arts from the nature of its
+constituent parts--intangible, evanescent sounds and rhythms--and from
+the subtle grammar and structure by which these factors are used as
+means of personal communication. This grammar of music, _i.e._, its
+methods of structure and of presentation, has been worked out through
+centuries of free experimentation on the part of some of the best
+minds in the world, and thus any great musical composition is an
+intellectual achievement of high rank. Behind the sensuous factors,
+sound and rhythm, lies always the personal message of the composer,
+and if we are to grasp this and to make it our own, we must go with
+him hand in hand so that the music actually lives again in our minds
+and imaginations. The practical inference from this dual nature of the
+art we are considering is clear; everyone can derive a large amount of
+genuine pleasure and even spiritual exaltation, can feel himself under
+the influence of a strong tonic force, merely by putting himself in
+contact with music, by opening his ears and drinking in the sounds and
+rhythms in their marvellous variety. The all-sufficient reason for the
+lack of a complete appreciation of music is that so many people stop
+at this point, _i.e._ for them music is a sensuous art and nothing
+more. Wagner himself, in fact, is on record in a letter to Liszt as
+saying, in regard to the appreciation of his operas: "I require
+nothing from the public but healthy senses and a human heart."
+Although this may be particularly true of opera, which is a composite
+form of art, making so varied an appeal to the participant that
+everyone can get something from its picture of life--historical,
+legendary, even fictitious--as well as from the actors, the costumes
+and the story, the statement is certainly not applicable to what is
+called absolute music, where music is disassociated from the guiding
+help of words, and expressed by the media of orchestra, string
+quartet, pianoforte, and various ensemble groups. For in addition to
+its sensuous appeal, music is a language used as a means of personal
+expression; sometimes in the nature of an intimate soliloquy, but far
+more often as a direct means of communication between the mind and
+soul of the composer and of the listener. To say that we understand
+the message expressed in this language just because we happen to like
+beautiful sounds and stimulating rhythms is surely to be our own
+dupes. We might as well say that because we enjoy hearing Italians or
+Frenchmen speak their own beautiful languages we are understanding
+what they say. The question, therefore, faces us: how shall we learn
+this mysterious language so as readily to understand it? And the
+answer is equally inevitable: by learning something of the material of
+which it is composed, and above all, the fundamental principles of its
+structure.
+
+[Footnote 6: Just as some people are color-blind there are those who
+are tone-deaf--to whom, that is, music is a disagreeable noise--but
+they are so few as to be negligible.]
+
+In attempting to carry out this simple direction, however, we are
+confronted by another of the peculiar characteristics of music. Music,
+in distinction from the static, concrete and imitative arts, is always
+in motion, and to follow it requires an intensity of concentration and
+an accuracy of memory which can be acquired, but for which, like most
+good things, we have to work. We all know the adage that "beauty is in
+the eye of the beholder" and that any work of art must be recreated
+in the imagination of the participant. The difficulty of this process
+of recreation, as applied to music, is that we have, derived from our
+ordinary daily experiences, so little to help us. Anyone can begin, at
+least, to understand a work of architecture; it must have doors and
+windows, and should conform to practical ideas of structure. In like
+manner, a painting, either a portrait or a landscape, must show some
+correspondence with nature herself, and so we have definite standards
+to help our imagination. But music has worked out its own laws which
+are those of pure fancy, having little to do with other forms of
+thought; and unless we know something of the constructive principles,
+instead of recreating the work before us, we are simply lost--"drowned
+in a sea of sound"--often rudely shaken up by the rhythms, but far
+from understanding what the music is really saying. As the well-known
+critic, Santayana, wittily says, "To most people music is a drowsy
+revery relieved by nervous thrills."
+
+Notwithstanding, however, the peculiar nature of music and the
+difficulty of gaining logical impressions as the sounds and rhythms
+flood in upon us, there is one simple form of cooperation which solves
+most of the difficulties; that is, familiarity. It is the duty of the
+composer so to express himself, to make his meaning so clear, that we
+can receive it with a minimum of mental friction if we can only get to
+know the music. All really good music corresponds to such a standard;
+that is, if it is needlessly involved, abstruse, diffuse, or turgid,
+it is _in so far_ not music of the highest artistic worth. In this
+connection we must always remember that music does not "stay put,"
+like a picture on the wall. We cannot walk through it, as is the case
+with a cathedral; turn back, as in a book; touch it, as with a statue.
+It is not the expression of more or less definite ideas, such as we
+find in prose and poetry. On the other hand, it rushes upon us with
+the impassioned spirit of an eloquent orator, and what we get from it
+depends almost entirely upon our own intensity of application and upon
+our knowledge of the themes and of the general purpose of the work.
+Only with increased familiarity does the architecture stand revealed.
+Beethoven, it is said, when once asked the meaning of a sonata of his,
+played it over again and replied, "It means that." Music is itself.
+The question for every music-lover is: can I equip myself in such a
+way as to feel at home in this language, to receive the message as
+directly as possible, and finally with perfect ease and satisfaction?
+This equipment demands a strong, accurate memory, a keen power of
+discrimination and a sympathetic, open mind.
+
+Another paradoxical characteristic of music on which it is interesting
+to reflect is this: Music is the oldest as well as the youngest of the
+arts, _i.e._, it has always[7] existed generically, and all human
+beings born, as they are, with a musical instrument--the voice--are
+_ipso facto_ musicians; and yet in boundless scope of possibilities it
+is just in its infancy. For who can limit the combinations of sound
+and rhythm, or forecast the range of the human imagination? The
+creative fancy of the composer is always in advance of contemporary
+taste and criticism. Hence, in listening to new music, we should
+beware of reckless assertions of personal preference. The first
+question, in the presence of an elaborate work of music, should never
+be, "Do I like it or not?" but "Do I understand it?" "Is the music
+conveying a logical message to me, or is it merely a sea of sound?"
+The first and last article in the music-lover's creed, I repeat,
+should be _familiarity_. When we thoroughly know a symphony, symphonic
+poem or sonata so that, for example, we can sing the themes to
+ourselves, the music will reveal itself. The difference between the
+trained listener and the person of merely general musical tendencies
+is that the former gains a definite meaning from the music often at a
+first hearing; whereas, to the latter, many hearings are necessary
+before he can make head or tail of the composition. Since the creative
+composer of music is a thinker in tones, our perceptions must be so
+trained that, as we listen, we make sense of the fabric of sounds and
+rhythms.
+
+[Footnote 7: From earliest times, mothers have doubtless crooned to
+their infants in instinctive lullabies.]
+
+It is evident from the foregoing observations that our approach to the
+subject is to be on the intellectual side. Music, to be sure, is an
+emotional art and so appeals to our emotions, but these will take care
+of themselves. We all have a reasonable supply of emotion and
+practically no human being is entirely deficient in the capacity for
+being moved by music. We can, however, sharpen our wits and strengthen
+our musical memories; for it is obvious that if we cannot recognize a
+theme or remember it whenever it appears, often in an amplified or
+even subtly disguised form, we are in no condition to follow and
+appreciate the logical growth and development of the themes themselves
+which, in a work of music, are just as real beings as the "dramatis
+personae" in a play. The would-be appreciator should early recognize
+the fact that listening to music is by no means passive, a means of
+light amusement or to pass the time, but demands cooperation of an
+active nature. Whether or not we have the emotional capacity of a
+creator of music may remain an open question; but by systematic mental
+application we _can_, as we listen to it, get from the music that
+sense which the composer meant to convey. Music--more than the other
+arts--demands, to use a happy expression of D.G. Mason, that we
+"mentally organize our sensations and ideas"; for the language of
+music has no such fixed grammar as verbal modes of expression, and the
+message, even when received, is suggestive rather than definite. In
+this way only can the composition be recreated in our imaginations.
+For acquiring this habit of mind, this alertness and concentration,
+the start, as always, is more than half the battle. Schumann's good
+advice to young composers may be transferred to the listener: "Be sure
+that you invent a thoroughly vital theme; the rest will grow of itself
+from this." Likewise in listening to music, one should be sure to
+grasp the opening theme, the fundamental motive, in order to follow it
+intelligently and to enjoy its subsequent growth into the complete
+work.[8]
+
+[Footnote 8: In this connection we cannot refrain from suggesting the
+improvement which should be made in the concert manners of the public.
+How often, at the beginning of a concert, do we see people removing
+their wraps, looking at their neighbors, reading the programme book,
+etc., instead of concentrating on the music itself; with the result
+that the composition is often well on its way before such people have
+found their bearings.]
+
+Every piece of music, with the exception of intentionally rhapsodic
+utterances, begins with some group of notes of distinct rhythmic and
+melodic interest, which is the germ--the generative force--of the
+whole, and which is comparable to the text of a sermon or the subject
+of a drama. This introductory group of notes is called, technically, a
+_motive_ or moving force and may be defined as _the simplest unit of
+imaginative life in terms of rhythm and sound_, which instantly
+impresses itself upon our consciousness and, when heard several times,
+cannot be forgotten or confused with any other motive. A musical
+theme--a longer sweep of thought (to be explained later)--may consist
+of several motives of which the first is generally the most important.
+Just here lies the difference between the Heaven-born themes of a
+truly creative composer and the bundle of notes put forth by lesser
+men. These living themes pierce our imaginations and sing in our
+memories, sometimes for years, whereas the inept and flabby tunes of
+certain so-called composers make no strong impression and are
+forgotten almost as soon as heard. Motives obviously differ from each
+other in regard to the intervals of the tones composing them, _i.e._,
+the up and down relationship in pitch, the duration of the tones and
+their grouping into metric schemes. But a real motive is always terse,
+concise, characteristic and pregnant with unrevealed meaning. The
+chief glory of such creative tone-poets as Beethoven, Wagner, Brahms
+and Franck is that their imaginations could give birth to musical
+offspring that live for ever and are loved like life itself. The first
+step, then, in the progress of the appreciator of music is the
+recognition of the chief motive or motives of a composition and the
+development of power to follow them in their organic growth. This
+ability is particularly necessary in modern music: for frequently all
+four movements of a symphony or string-quartet are based upon a motive
+which keeps appearing--often in altered form and in relationships
+which imply a dramatic or suggestive meaning. A few of such motives
+are cited herewith, taken from works with which, as we proceed, we
+shall become familiar.
+
+[Music: CESAR FRANCK: _Symphony in D minor_]
+
+[Music: BRAHMS: _First Symphony in C minor_]
+
+[Music: TCHAIKOWSKY: _5th Symphony_]
+
+[Music: DVO[VR]AK: Symphony _From the New World_]
+
+It is now necessary for the student to know something about the
+constructive principles by which large works of music are fashioned;
+not so much that he could compose these works himself, even if he had
+the inspiration, but to know enough, so that the reception of the
+music is not a haphazard activity but an intellectual achievement,
+second only to that of the original creator. Every genuine work of art
+in whatever medium, stone, color, word or tone, must exhibit _unity of
+general effect with variety of detail_. That is, the material must
+hold together, be coherent and convince the participant of the logical
+design of the artist; not fall apart as might a bad building, or be
+diffuse as a poorly written essay. And yet, with this coherence, there
+must always be stimulating and refreshing variety; for a too constant
+insistence on the main material produces intolerable monotony, such as
+the "damnable iteration" of a mediocre prose work or the harping away
+on one theme by the hack composer. In no art more than music is this
+dual standard of greater importance, and in no art more difficult to
+attain. For the raw material of music, fleeting rhythms and waves of
+sound, is in its very nature most incoherent. Here we are not dealing
+with the concrete, tangible and definite material which is available
+for all the other arts, but with something intangible and elusive. We
+know from the historical record[9] of musical development, that, only
+after centuries of experimentation conducted by some of the best
+intellects in Europe, was sufficient coherence gained so that there
+could be composed music which would compare with the simplest modern
+hymn-tune or part-song. And this was long after each of the other
+arts--architecture, sculpture, painting and literature--had reached
+points of attainment which, in many respects, have never since been
+equalled.
+
+[Footnote 9: Compare Parry's _Evolution of the Art of Music_, passim
+and D.G. Mason's _Beethoven and his Forerunners_, Chapter I.]
+
+Before carrying our inquiries further, something must be said about
+the two main lines of musical development which led up to music as we
+know it to-day. These tendencies are designated by the terms
+_Homophonic_ and _Polyphonic_. By homophonic,[10] from Greek words
+signifying a "single voice," is meant music consisting of a _single_
+melodic line, as in the whole field of folk-songs (which originally
+were always unaccompanied) or in the unison chants of the Greeks and
+the Gregorian tones of the early church, in which there is _one
+melody_ though many voices may unite in singing it. Later we shall see
+what important principles for the growth of instrumental music were
+borrowed from the instinctive practise associated with the folk-song
+and folk-dance. But history makes clear that the fundamental
+principles of musical coherence were worked out in the field of music
+known as the _Polyphonic_. By this term, as the derivation implies, is
+meant music the fabric of which is made by the interweaving of
+_several_ independent melodies. For many centuries the most reliable
+instrument was the human voice and the only art-music, _i.e._, music
+which was the result of conscious mental and artistic endeavor, was
+vocal music for groups of unaccompanied voices in the liturgy of the
+church. About the tenth century, musicians tried the crude
+experiment,[11] called Organum, of making two groups of singers move
+in parallel fifths _e.g._,
+
+[Music: Tu Patris sempiternus es Filius.]
+
+but during the 13th and 14th centuries a method was worked out by
+which the introductory tune was made to generate its own subsequent
+tissue. It was found that a body of singers could announce a melody of
+a certain type and that, after they had proceeded so far, a second set
+of singers could repeat the opening melodic phrase--and so likewise
+often a third and a fourth set--and that all the voices could be made
+to blend together in a fairly harmonious whole.[12] A piece of music
+of this systematic structure is called a _Round_ because the singers
+take up the melody in _rotation_ and at regular rhythmic periods.[13]
+The earliest specimen of a Round is the famous one "Sumer is icumen
+in" circa 1225 (see Supplement of musical Examples No. 1), which shows
+to what a high point of perfection--considering those early
+days--musicians had brought their art. For, at any rate, by these
+systematic, imitative repetitions they had secured the first requisite
+of all music, coherence. This principle, once it was sanctioned by
+growing musical instinct, and approved by convention, was developed
+into such well-known types of polyphonic music as the Canon, the
+Invention and the Fugue; terms which will be fully explained later on.
+It is of more than passing interest to realize that these structural
+principles of music were worked out in the same locality--Northern
+France and the Netherlands, and by kindred intellects--as witnessed
+the growth of Gothic architecture; and there is a fundamental affinity
+between the interweavings of polyphonic or, as it is often called,
+_contrapuntal_[14] music and the stone traceries in medieval
+cathedrals. During the 13th and 14th centuries northern France, with
+Paris as its centre, was the most cultivated part of Europe, and the
+Flemish cities of Cambrai, Tournai, Louvain and Antwerp will always be
+renowned in the history of art, as the birthplace of Gothic
+architecture, of modern painting and of polyphonic music.[15] A great
+deal of the impetus towards the systematic repetition of the voice
+parts must have been caused by practical necessity (thus justifying
+the old adage); for, before the days of printed music, or even of a
+well-established tradition--when everything had to be laboriously
+written out or transmitted orally--whole compositions could be
+rendered by the singers through the simple device of remembering the
+introductory theme and joining in from memory whenever their turn
+came. Compositions in fact were often so recorded.[16] The following
+old English round (circa 1609) shows clearly how the voices entered in
+rotation.
+
+[Music:
+
+1 Three blind mice, three blind mice
+
+2 ran around thrice, ran around thrice; The
+
+3 miller and his merry old wife ne'er laugh'd so much in all their
+life.]
+
+For a Round in strict canonic imitation by the famous English composer
+William Byrd (1542-1623) see the Supplement, Example No. 2. In due
+time singers of that period became likewise very proficient in
+improvising free parts about a given melody or _cantus firmus_, a
+practice indicated by the term "musica ficta" which was beneficial in
+stimulating the imagination to a genuine musical activity.
+
+[Footnote 10: In comparatively recent times the term has been widened
+to include music in which there is one _chief_ melody to which other
+portions of the musical texture are subordinate; _e.g._, the
+homophonic style of Chopin in whose works the chief melody, often in
+the upper voice, seems to float on underlying waves of sound.]
+
+[Footnote 11: For a complete account of these early attempts which
+finally led to part-writing see Chapter IV in the first volume of the
+_Oxford History of Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 12: An historical account of this development as far as it
+is ascertainable may be found in the fifth chapter of Pratt's _History
+of Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Consult the article on the Round in _Grove's
+Dictionary_.]
+
+[Footnote 14: A rather crude English adaptation of the Latin term
+"Punctus contra punctum" which refers to the notes as punct[=u]s
+(plural) or dots which were pricked with a stylus into the medieval
+manuscripts. In this phrase the emphasis is on the _contra_,
+signifying a combination of _different_ melodies and rhythms, and
+calling attention to that higher importance which, everywhere in art,
+is caused by contrasted elements.]
+
+[Footnote 15: For an interesting account of this tripartite activity
+see Naumann's _History of Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 16: See the facsimile of the original manuscript of "_Sumer
+is icumen in_" cited in the first volume of the _Oxford History of
+Music_, pp. 326-332.]
+
+We can now begin to realize the importance of polyphonic music. In
+fact, it is not too much to assert that _systematic repetition_ in
+some form or other (several aspects of which we shall describe in due
+season) is the most important constructive principle in music,
+necessitated by the very nature of the material. This statement can be
+corroborated by a glance at almost any page of music considered merely
+as a _pattern_, quite regardless how the notes sound. We observe at
+once that some portions of the page look much or exactly like other
+portions. Frequently whole movements or long parts of a work are based
+entirely upon some terse and characteristic motive. Famous examples of
+this practise are the first movement of Beethoven's _Fifth Symphony in
+C minor_ which, with certain subsidiary themes to afford contrast, is
+entirely based on the motive:
+
+[Music]
+
+the Finale of Wagner's opera _The Valkyrie_ (see Supplement, Example
+No. 3) the chief motive of which
+
+[Music]
+
+is presented in every phase of modulatory and rhythmic development,
+and the middle portion of the _Reconnaissance_ from Schumann's
+_Carnaval_ (see Supplement, Example No. 4.)
+
+Music, just because its substance is so elusive and requires such
+alert attention on the part of the listener, cannot continually
+present new material[17] without becoming diffuse; but instead, must
+make its impression by varied emphasis upon the main thought.
+Otherwise it would become so discursive that one could not possibly
+follow it. From these historical facts as to the structure of music
+certain inferences may be drawn; the vital importance of which to the
+listener can hardly be exaggerated. As polyphonic treatment (the
+imitation and interweaving of independent melodic lines) is the
+foundation of any large work of music, be it symphony, symphonic poem
+or string quartet, so the listener must acquire what may be called a
+_polyphonic ear_. For with the majority of listeners, the whole
+difficulty and the cause of their dissatisfaction with so-called
+"classic music" is merely lack of equipment. Everyone can hear the
+tune in the soprano or upper voice, for the intensity of pitch makes
+it stand out with telling effect; and, as a fact, many of the best
+tunes in musical literature are so placed. But how about the tune when
+it is in the _bass_ as is the case so frequently in Beethoven's
+Symphonies or in Wagner's Operas? Some of the most eloquent parts of
+the musical message are, indeed, often in the bass, the foundation
+voice, and yet these are entirely ignored by the average listener.
+Then what of the inner voices; and what--most important of all--when
+there are beautiful melodies in _all parts_ of the musical fabric,
+often sounding simultaneously, as in such well-known works as Cesar
+Franck's _Symphony in D minor_ and Wagner's _Prelude to the
+Mastersingers_! As we face these questions squarely the need for the
+listener of special training in alertness and concentration is
+self-evident. A very small proportion of those who attend a symphony
+concert begin to get their money's worth--to put the matter on a
+perfectly practical plane--for at least 50% of the musical structure
+is presented to ears without capacity for receiving it. In regard to
+any work of large dimensions the final test is this: can we sing all
+the themes and follow them in their polyphonic development? Then only
+are we really acquainted with the work; then only, in regard to
+personal like or dislike, have we any right to pass judgment upon it.
+The absurd attitude, far too common, of hasty, ill-considered
+criticism is illustrated by the fact that while Brahms is said to have
+worked for ten years on that Titanic creation, his _First Symphony_,
+yet persons will hear it _once_ and have the audacity to say they do
+not like it. As well stroll through Chartres Cathedral and say they
+did not think much of it!
+
+[Footnote 17: For a simple, charming example of persistent use of a
+motive see Schumann's pianoforte piece _Kind im Einschlummern_, No. 12
+of the _Kinderscenen_.]
+
+We must now speak of the two other manifestations of the principle of
+_repetition_. Fundamentally, to be sure, they are not connected with
+polyphonic music; the third type, in fact,--restatement after
+contrast--being instinctively worked out in the Folk-Song (as will be
+made plain later) and definitely ratified as a structural principle by
+the Italian opera composer Alessandro Scarlatti in the well-known Aria
+da capo. These further applications of the principle of imitation are
+_Transposition_, _i.e._, the repetition of the melodic outline, and
+often of the whole harmonic fabric, by shifting it up or down the
+scale; and the _Restatement_ of the original melody after an
+intervening part in contrast, thus making a piece of music, the
+formula for which may be indicated by A, B, A. Anyone at all familiar
+with musical literature must have observed both of these devices for
+securing coherence and organic unity; in fact, the principle of
+restatement after contrast is at the foundation of any large work, and
+supplies the connecting link between the structure of the Folk-Song
+and that of the most elaborate modern music. A convincing illustration
+of the use of Transposition may be found in Schumann's _Arabesque_,
+
+[Music]
+
+and in the opening theme of Beethoven's _Waldstein Sonata_, op. 53.
+
+[Music]
+
+It was a favorite device of Beethoven to impress the main theme upon
+the hearer by definite repetitions on various degrees of the
+scale.[18] For an elaborate example of Transposition nothing can
+surpass the opening movement of Cesar Franck's _D Minor Symphony_, the
+entire first part of which consists of a literal repetition in F minor
+of what has been previously announced in D minor.
+
+[Footnote 18: Another well-known example is the first theme of the
+first movement of the _Sonata in F minor_ (_Appassionata_) op. 57.
+This the student can look up for himself.]
+
+Pieces of music which embody the principle of _Restatement after
+Contrast_ are so numerous that the question is merely one of selecting
+the clearest examples. In the Folk-Songs of every nation, as soon as
+they had passed beyond the stage of a monotonous reiteration of some
+phrase which pleased the fancy, _e.g._
+
+[Music: _ad infinitum!_]
+
+we find hardly one in which there is not a similarity between the
+closing measures and something which had gone before. (See Supplement,
+Example No. 5.) For the most elementary artistic experience would
+establish the fact that the only way to avoid a monotonous repetition
+of the same theme is to change to a different one. And the next step
+is equally axiomatic--that, presupposing the first theme gives
+pleasure on its initial appearance, it will be heard with heightened
+pleasure at its reappearance after intervening contrast. A
+psychological principle is herein involved which cannot be proved but
+which is self-justified by its own reasonableness and is further
+exemplified by many experiences in daily life. Sweet things taste the
+sweeter after a contrast with something acid; we like to revisit old
+scenes and to return home after a vacation. No delight is keener than
+the _renewal_ of some aesthetic experience after its temporary
+effacement through a change of appeal.[19] This practice is associated
+with the inherent demand, spoken of above, for Variety in Unity. No
+theme is of sufficient import to bear constant repetition; in fact,
+the more eloquent it is, the more sated should we become if it were
+continued overlong. Monotony, furthermore, is less tolerable in music
+than in the other arts because music cuts deeper, because the ear is
+so sensitive an organ and because we have no way of shutting off
+sound. If a particular sight or scene displeases, we can close our
+eyelids; but the ear is entirely unprotected and the only way to
+escape annoying sounds is to take to flight.[20] We inevitably crave
+contrast, change of sensation; and nothing gives more organic unity
+than a return to whatever impressed us at the outset. This cyclic form
+of musical expression, early discovered through free experimentation,
+has remained the leading principle in all modern works, and--because
+derived directly from life and nature--must be permanent. We return
+whence we came; everything goes in circles. We can now understand
+still more the need of a strong and accurate memory; for if we do not
+know whether or not we have ever heard a theme, obviously the keen
+pleasure of welcoming it anew is lost to us. Furthermore, this
+principle of Restatement has in modern music some very subtle uses,
+and presupposes the acquisition of a real power of reminiscence. For
+example, Wagner's tone-drama of _Tristan and Isolde_ begins with this
+haunting motive
+
+[Music]
+
+which, with its dual melodic lines, typifies the passionate love of
+the two chief characters in the story. After three hours or more of
+tragic action and musical development this motive is again introduced
+in the very closing measures of the drama, to show that even in the
+presence of transfiguring death this love is still their guiding
+power.
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 19: For some additional comments on this broad principle see
+the first Chapter (passim) of Parry's _Evolution of the Art of
+Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Everyone has experienced the agony of hearing the
+beginner practice, in an adjoining room, the same piece for hours at a
+time!]
+
+For those who can appreciate the significance of such treatment, this
+reminiscence is one of the most sublime touches in all musical drama.
+The fascinating orchestral Scherzo of Richard Strauss's _Till
+Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks_ likewise begins with a characteristic
+motto,
+
+[Music]
+
+which says, in the language of music--I now have a story to tell you
+of a certain freakish character; and then we are regaled with the
+musical portrayal of a series of Till's pranks. As an Epilogue,
+Strauss improvises on this opening theme as much as to say--you have
+listened to my musical story, now let us indulge in some reflections
+as to the fate of poor Till, for after all he was a good fellow. (See
+Supplement, Example No. 6.)
+
+It is evident, therefore, from the foregoing examples that the basic
+principles of musical structure are coherence, refreshing variety and
+such unity of general impression as may be gained chiefly by a
+restatement, after contrast, of themes previously heard. Our
+subsequent study will simply illustrate these natural laws of music in
+their wider application.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE FOLK-SONG
+
+
+In the preceding chapter we made some general inquiries into the
+nature of music and of those methods by which emotion and thought are
+expressed. We shall assume therefore that the following facts are
+established: that in music, by reason of the intangibility and
+elusiveness of the material, sound and rhythm, the principle of Unity
+in Variety is of paramount importance; and that the hearer, if he
+would grasp the message expressed by these sounds and rhythms, must
+make a _conscious_ effort of cooperation and not be content with mere
+dreamy apathy. Furthermore, that Unity and Coherence are gained in
+music by applying the principle of systematic Repetition or Imitation.
+(We shall see, as we continue, how Variety has been secured by
+contrasting themes, by episodical passages and by various devices of
+rhythmic and harmonic development.)
+
+We may now investigate the growth of musical structure and expression,
+as manifested in the fields of the Folk-Song and of Polyphonic music,
+beginning with the Folk-Song--historically the older and more
+elemental in its appeal. We cannot imagine the time when human beings
+did not use their voices in some form of emotional outpouring; and, as
+far back as there are any historical records, we find traces of such
+activity. For many centuries these rude cries of savage races were far
+removed from anything like artistic design, but the advance towards
+coherence and symmetry was always the result of free experimentation--hence
+vitally connected with the emotions and mental processes of all human
+effort. One of the most significant of the many sayings attributed to
+Daniel Webster is that "Sovereignty rests with the people"; and it is
+an interesting inquiry to see what wider application may be made of
+this statement in the field of art. For it is a fact that there has
+seldom been an important school of music, so-called--in any given
+place and period--which was not founded on the emotional traits, the
+aspirations and the ideals of the people. Surely one of the distinct
+by-products of the Great War is to be the emancipation of the art of
+music, along with that of all the other arts. Such a realization of
+its nature and powers will result that it shall no longer be a mere
+exotic amusement of the leisure and wealthy classes, but shall be
+brought into direct touch with the rank and file of the people; even,
+if you will, with the so-called "lower classes"--that part of humanity
+from which, indeed, it sprung and with which it really belongs--just
+human beings, just people. So in music also we may assert that
+"Sovereignty rests with the people." Although all art reflects popular
+sentiment to a certain extent, in no one of the arts--as painting,
+sculpture and architecture--is there such a vital record of the
+emotions and artistic instincts of humanity as we find in the realm of
+folk-song.[21] During the early period of Church music, while
+theorists and scholars were struggling with the intricate problems of
+polyphonic style, the people in their daily secular life were finding
+an outlet for their emotions, for their joys and sorrows, in song and
+in dance. This instinct for musical expression is universal, and just
+because the products of such activity were unfettered by rules, they
+exercised in process of time much influence upon the development of
+modern style. Folk-songs are characterized by a freshness and
+simplicity, a directness of utterance, which are seldom attained by
+the conscious efforts of genius. "Listen carefully to all folk-songs,"
+says Schumann. "They are a storehouse of beautiful melody, and unfold
+to the mind the innate character of the different peoples." They are
+like wild flowers blooming unheeded by the wayside, the product of the
+race rather than the individual, and for centuries were only slightly
+known to cultivated musicians. It should be understood that words and
+music were inextricably bound together and that, with both, dancing
+was naturally associated; the very essence of a people's life being
+expressed by this tripartite activity. Tonal variety is a marked
+feature in folk-songs, many of them being in the old Gregorian modes,
+while others show a decided inclination to our modern major and minor
+scales. Great is the historical importance of Folk-music, because in
+it we see a dawning recognition of the principles of instrumental
+form, _i.e._, the need of balanced phrases, caused in the songs by the
+metrical structure of the words, and in the dances by the symmetrical
+movements of the body; a recognition above all, of the application of
+a definite system of tonal-centres, and of repetition after contrast.
+In fact, as we look back it is evident that the outlines of our most
+important design, that known as the Sonata Form are--in a rudimentary
+state--found in folk-music. Folk-melodies and rhythms play a large
+part in the music of Haydn, Schubert, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Grieg,
+Tchaikowsky and Dvo[vr]ak. It seems as if modern composers were doing
+for music what Luther Burbank has done for plant life; for by grafting
+modern thought and feeling on to the parent stock of popular music,
+they have secured a vigor attainable in no other way. Thus some of the
+noblest melodies of Brahms, Grieg, and Tchaikowsky are actual
+folk-tunes with slight variation or original melodies conceived in a
+folk-song spirit.[22]
+
+[Footnote 21: For an eloquent presentation of the significance of
+Folk-music see the article by Henry F. Gilbert in the _Musical
+Quarterly_ for October, 1917.]
+
+[Footnote 22: For an able account of the important role that
+folk-melodies are taking in modern music see Chapter V of _La Chanson
+Populaire en France_ by Julian Tiersot.]
+
+As music, unlike the other arts, lacks any model in the realm of
+nature, it has had to work out its own laws, and its spontaneity and
+directness are the result. It has not become imitative, utilitarian or
+bound by arbitrary conventions. As Berlioz says in the _Grotesques de
+la Musique_: "Music exists by itself; it has no need of poetry, and if
+every human language were to perish, it would be none the less the
+most poetic, the grandest and the freest of all the arts." When we
+reach the centuries in which definite records are available, we find a
+wealth of folk-songs from the Continental nations: Irish, Scotch,
+English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Russian, etc.[23] In these
+we can trace the transition from the old modes to our modern major and
+minor scales; the principles of tonality and of rudimentary
+modulation, the dividing of the musical thought into periodic lengths
+by means of cadential endings, the instinct for contrast and for the
+unity gained by restatement. No better definition of Folk-songs can be
+given than that of Parry in his _Evolution of the Art of Music_ where
+he calls them "the first essays made by man in distributing his notes
+so as to express his feelings in terms of design." In folk-tunes this
+design has been dominated by the metrical phraseology of the poetic
+stanzas with which they were associated; for between the structure of
+melody and that of poetry there is always a close correspondence. In
+Folk-songs, therefore, we find a growing instinct for balanced musical
+expression and, above all, an application of the principle of
+Restatement after Contrast. The following example drawn from Irish
+Folk-music[24]--which, for emotional depth, is justly considered the
+finest in the world--will make the point clear.
+
+[Music: THE FLIGHT OF THE EARLS]
+
+[Footnote 23: The same statement is true of the Oriental nations, the
+Arabians, Persians and Greeks, who are left out of the enumeration
+only because their development in many respects has been along
+different lines from ours. For suggestive speculations as to early
+music among all nations see _Primitive Music_ by Richard Wallaschek.]
+
+[Footnote 24: For illuminating comments on the Folk-music of all the
+English-speaking peoples see Chapter XII of Ernest Walker's _History
+of Music in England_. The famous Petrie collection of Irish Folk-tunes
+should also be consulted.]
+
+The statement is sometimes made that the principles of our modern
+system of tonality and of modulation are derived from Folk-music. This
+is only partially true, for pure Folk-songs always developed under the
+influence of the old medieval modes, long before the establishment of
+our fixed major and minor scales. Furthermore, as these were single
+unaccompanied melodies, they showed slight connection with modulation
+or change of key in the modern sense of the term--which implies a
+system of harmonization in several voices. It is true that there was
+an instinctive and growing recognition of the importance of the three
+chief tonal centres: the Tonic or Keynote, the Dominant (a perfect
+fifth _above_) and the Subdominant (a perfect fifth _below_) and at
+times the relative minor. All these changes are illustrated in the
+melody just cited; _e.g._, in the fourth measure[25] there is an
+implication of E minor, in measures seven and eight there is a
+distinct modulation to D major, the Dominant, and in the ninth measure
+to C major, the Subdominant. This acceptance of other tonal
+centres--distant a fifth from the main key-note--doubtless arose from
+their simplicity and naturalness, and was later sanctioned by
+acoustical law; the interval of a perfect fifth having one of the
+simplest ratios (2-3), and being familiar to people as the first
+overtone (after the octave) struck off by any sounding body--such as a
+bell or an organ pipe. The Venetian composers, notably Willaert, had
+also quite fully developed this principle of Tonic, Dominant and
+Subdominant harmony in order to give homogeneity to their antiphonal
+choruses. Even to-day these tonal centres are still used; for they are
+elemental, like the primitive colors of the spectroscope. But
+modulation, in the modern sense of a free shifting of the centre of
+gravity to _any one_ of the twelve semitones of our chromatic scale,
+was not developed and accepted until after the acoustical reforms of
+Rameau, and the system of tuning keyed instruments embodied in that
+work called the _Well-tempered Clavichord_ of Sebastian Bach. Both
+these men published their discoveries about the year 1720.
+
+[Footnote 25: In counting the measures of a phrase always consider the
+first _complete_ measure,--_never_ a partial measure--as _one_.]
+
+As we have just used the term _modal_, and since many Folk-songs in
+the old modes sound peculiar or even wrong (hence the preposterous
+emendations of modern editors!) because our ears can listen only in
+terms of the fixed major and minor scales, a few words of explanation
+concerning the nature of the medieval modes should here be given.
+Their essential peculiarity is the freer relationship of tones and
+semitones than is found in the definite pattern of our modern scales.
+It is of great importance that the music-lover should train himself to
+think naturally in these modes; for there has been a significant
+return to their freedom and variety on the part of such modern
+composers as Brahms, Tchaikowsky, Dvo[vr]ak, d'Indy, Debussy and
+others, and some of their most individual effects are gained through
+the introduction of modal types of expression. The following modes are
+those most commonly employed in the formation of Folk-songs.
+
+[Music: DORIAN]
+
+[Music: PHRYGIAN]
+
+[Music: LYDIAN]
+
+[Music: MIXOLYDIAN]
+
+[Music: AEOLIAN]
+
+[Music: IONIAN]
+
+The Dorian mode, at the outset, is identical with our modern minor
+scale; its peculiarity lies in the _semitone_ between the 6th and 7th
+degrees and the _whole_ tone between the 7th and 8th. An excellent
+example of a modern adaptation of this mode may be found in Guilmant's
+March for organ (see Supplement, Example No. 7). The mysterious
+opening measures of Debussy's opera _Pelleas et Melisande_ also owe
+their atmosphere to this mode, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The Phrygian mode is one of the most individual to our modern ears
+with its first step a _semitone_ and with the _whole_ tone between the
+7th and 8th degrees. Under the influence of harmonic development there
+was worked out a cadence, known as Phrygian, which is often found in
+modern music, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The opening measures of the slow movement of Brahms's _Fourth
+Symphony_ are an excellent example of a melody in the Phrygian mode,
+_e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The contrast between these measures, with their archaic flavor, and
+the sudden change in measure four to the modern tonality of E major,
+is very striking. Bach's well-known choral, _O Sacred Head now
+wounded_ also begins in the Phrygian mode, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+For a beautiful modern example of this Phrygian mode see the
+introduction to F.S. Converse's _Dramatic Poem Job_, for voices and
+orchestra.
+
+The Lydian mode is identical with our major scale except for the
+semitone between the 4th and 5th degrees. That this change, however,
+gives a very characteristic effect may be seen in the passage by
+Beethoven from his String-Quartet op. 132--_Song of Thanksgiving_ in
+the Lydian mode (see Supplement Ex. No. 8). The Mixolydian mode is
+also identical with our modern major scale except for the _whole_ tone
+between the 7th and 8th degrees. This mode has had very slight usage
+in modern music; because, with the development of harmony,[26] the
+instinct became so strong for a leading tone (the 7th degree)--only a
+semitone distant from the upper tonic--that the original whole tone
+has gradually disappeared. The Aeolian Mode, mainly identical with our
+customary minor scale, has the characteristic whole tone between the
+7th and 8th degrees. Examples of this mode abound in modern
+literature; two excellent instances being the first theme of the
+Finale of Dvo[vr]ak's _New World Symphony_, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+and the following passage from the _Legend_ for a capella voices of
+Tchaikowsky, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The Ionian mode corresponds exactly with our modern major scale, and
+the common people among all nations early showed a strong predilection
+for its use. The Church, in fact, because of this popularity with the
+people, named it the "modus lascivus" and prohibited its use in the
+ecclesiastical liturgy. One of the very earliest Folk-tunes
+extant--"Sumer is icumen in" (already referred to)--is in the Ionian
+mode and, according to Cecil Sharp,[27] the majority of English
+Folk-tunes are in this same mode.
+
+[Footnote 26: The chief reason for this leading tone, in addition to
+the natural tendency of singers to raise their voices as near as
+possible to the upper tonic, was so that the dominant chord, the third
+of which is always the 7th degree, might invariably be a _Major_
+Triad.]
+
+[Footnote 27: For many suggestive comments on the whole subject see
+his book _English Folk-Song_.]
+
+We now cite a few typical folk-songs (taken from national sources)
+which, in their structure, show a natural instinct for balance of
+phrase and oftentimes for that organic unity of effect gained by
+restatement after contrast.
+
+[Music: THE TRUE LOVERS' FAREWELL
+
+Old English]
+
+The pattern of this song, in the Aeolian mode, is A, A, A, B. Unity is
+secured by the three-fold appearance of the first phrase; and a
+certain balance, by having the second phrase B twice as long (four
+measures) as A.
+
+[Music: THE SHIP IN DISTRESS
+
+Old English]
+
+The formula of this characteristic song in the Dorian mode is A, A, B,
+A; merely an extension, through repetition, of the simple type A, B, A
+which, in turn, is the basis of the fundamental structure known as the
+three-part form. This will later be studied in detail. It is evident
+to the musical sense how complete a feeling of coherence is gained by
+the return to A after the intervening contrast of the phrase B;
+evident, also, that this song is a perfect example of the principle of
+unity combined with variety.
+
+We further cite a few examples from Scottish, Irish, French, Hungarian
+and Russian sources. They all illustrate quaint melodic intervals and
+an instinct for balance and symmetry.
+
+[Music: WANDERING WILLIE
+
+    Here awa', there awa', Wanderin' Willie,
+    Here awa', there awa', haud awa' hame.
+    Come to my bosom, my ain only dearie,
+    O tell me thou bring'st me my Willie the same.]
+
+This song[28] expresses that note of pathos often found in Scottish
+folk-music and is noteworthy also because the lyric poet, Robert
+Burns, wrote for it words of which we give the first stanza.
+
+[Footnote 28: The example quoted, together with others equally
+beautiful, may be found in the collection edited by the Scottish
+composer, Hamish MacCunn. See, as well, the _Cycle of Old Scotch
+Melodies_ arranged for four solo voices with pianoforte accompaniment
+by Arthur Whiting.]
+
+[Music: WOULD GOD I WERE THE TENDER APPLE BLOSSOM]
+
+This Irish tune[29] is certainly one of the most perfect that can be
+imagined, remarkable alike for its organic unity, gained by the
+frequent use of the first ascending motive, and for the manner in
+which the successive crises are reached. Note in particular the
+intensity of the final climax, in measure 13, attained by a repetition
+of the preceding phrase.
+
+[Footnote 29: For Irish folk-songs the best collections are the one by
+Villiers Stanford and a _Cycle_ by Arthur Whiting, prepared in the
+same way as that just cited on Scottish melodies.]
+
+[Music: EN PASSANT PAR LA LORRAINE AVEC MES SABOTS]
+
+This charming song[30] from Lorraine exemplifies that rhythmic
+vivacity and lightness of touch so characteristic of the French.
+
+[Footnote 30: Taken from an excellent collection of _Chansons
+Populaires_ edited by Julien Tiersot.]
+
+Observe the piquant effect, in the final phrase, produced by the
+elision of a measure; there being in the whole song 31 measures
+instead of the normal 32 (16 + 16).
+
+[Music: Old Hungarian Folk-song]
+
+Hungarian folk-music[31] is noted for its syncopated rhythm and its
+peculiar metric groupings. It is also often highly embroidered with
+chromatic notes; the Hungarian scale, with _two_ augmented intervals,
+being an intensification of our minor mode, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 31: The best popular collection of Hungarian melodies is
+that by Francis Korbay, the texts for which were translated and
+arranged by the American novelist, J.S. of Dale. It is well known what
+artistic use has been made of Hungarian melodies and rhythms by
+Schubert, Liszt and Brahms.]
+
+Russia is fortunate in her musical inheritance; for not only has she a
+wealth of folk-songs, but her famous composers, Balakireff, Borodin
+and Rimsky-Korsakoff--who are men of letters as well--have published
+remarkable editions of these national melodies. The Russian folk-songs
+express, in general, a mood of sombreness or even depression--typical
+of the vast, bleak expanses of that country, and of its downtrodden
+people. These songs are usually in the minor mode--often with sudden
+changes of rhythm--and based on the old ecclesiastical modes, the
+Russian liturgy being very ancient and having an historical connection
+with that of the Greek church. The folk-music of no nation is more
+endowed with individuality and depth of emotion. Five characteristic
+examples are herewith cited:
+
+[Music: I]
+
+[Music: II]
+
+[Music: III Harmonized by RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF]
+
+[Music: IV]
+
+[Music: V]
+
+This last melody is of particular significance, because Tchaikowsky
+has used it so prominently in the Finale of his Fourth Symphony.
+
+The growing interest in folk-music in America is a tendency concerning
+which the progressive student should inform himself. For a national
+basis of creative work, our country has always been at a disadvantage
+in comparison with nations which, as their birthright, have much music
+in their blood. Moreover, with the exception of the tunes of the
+aboriginal Indians and the plantation melodies of the Negroes, it has
+been asserted that America could boast no folk-songs. Recent
+investigations have shown, however, that this is not entirely true.
+Cecil Sharp, Henry Gilbert, Arthur Farwell and other musical scholars
+have proved that there are several regions of our country, settled by
+colonists from England, Ireland and Scotland, where folk-songs exist
+practically in the condition in which they were first brought over.
+One of the best collections of such material is the set of so-called
+_Lonesome Tunes from the Kentucky Mountains_, taken down by Miss
+Lorraine Wyman and Mr. Howard Brockway directly from the mountaineers
+and other dwellers in that region. These melodies have great
+individuality, directness and no little poetic charm. It is certainly
+encouraging to feel that, in this industrial age, there are still
+places where people express their emotions and ideals in song; for a
+nation that has not learned to sing--or has forgotten how--can never
+create music that endures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+POLYPHONIC MUSIC; SEBASTIAN BACH
+
+
+We have traced, in the preceding chapter, some of the fundamental
+principles of design in musical expression, as they were manifested in
+the Folk-music of the different nations. All music of this type was
+homophonic, _i.e._, a single melodic line, either entirely
+unaccompanied or with a slight amount of instrumental support. Hence
+however perfect in itself, it was necessarily limited in scope and in
+opportunity for organic development. Before music could become an
+independent art, set free from reliance on poetry, and could attain to
+a breadth of expression commensurate with the growth in other fields
+of art, there had to be established some principle of development, far
+more extensive than could be found in Folk-music. This principle[32]
+of "Thematic Development"--the chief idiom of instrumental music--by
+which a motive or a theme is expanded into a large symphonic movement,
+was worked out in that type of music known as the Polyphonic or
+many-voiced; and Polyphonic music became, in turn, the point of
+departure for our modern system of harmony, with its methods of key
+relationship and of modulation. As we have stated in Chapter I, the
+principle of systematic repetition or imitation--first discovered and
+partially applied by the musicians[33] of the early French School and
+by the Netherland masters--finally culminated in the celebrated vocal
+works (a capella or unaccompanied) composed by Palestrina and his
+contemporaries for the Roman Catholic Liturgy. Up to this point the
+whole texture of music had been conceived in connection with voices;
+but with the development of the organ, so admirably suited for
+polyphonic style, and the perfection of the family of stringed
+instruments, the principles of polyphony were carried over and applied
+to instrumental treatment. The composer who, through his constructive
+genius, most fully embodied these principles[34] was John Sebastian
+Bach (1685-1750). We are now prepared to explain the characteristics
+of polyphonic music and then to analyze some typical examples from
+Bach and other polyphonic composers. The essential difference between
+homophonic and polyphonic style is implied by the terms themselves.
+When there is but one melody, the skill of the composer and the
+attention of the listener are concentrated upon this single melodic
+line; and even if there be an accompaniment, it is so planned that the
+chief melody stands out in relief against it. The pre-eminence of this
+chief melody is seldom usurped, although the accompaniment often has
+interesting features of its own. As soon as we have more than one
+melody (whether there be two, three or still others) all these
+voice-parts may be of coequal importance, and the musical fabric
+becomes an interwoven texture of a number of strands. The genius and
+skill of the composer is now expended on securing life and interest
+for each of these voices--soprano, alto, tenor, bass--which seem to be
+braided together; and thus a much more comprehensive attention is
+required of the listener. For instead of the single melody in the
+soprano, or upper voice, of the Folk-song, we now must listen
+consciously to the bass and to both of the inner voices.[35] Too much
+emphasis cannot be laid upon the recommendation that, in appreciating
+music, the first task is to train the ear to a wide range of
+listening. These differences in style are often apparent just as a
+pattern of design--to be seen from the following examples:
+
+[Music: Homophonic Style. Irish Folk-Song]
+
+[Music: Polyphonic Style. BACH: Fugue in C Minor]
+
+[Footnote 32: The statement might be qualified by saying that, since
+Beethoven, instrumental style has become a happy mixture of homophony
+for the chief melodies and polyphony for the supporting harmonic
+basis. Stress is laid in the above text on the polyphonic aspect
+merely to emphasize the matter under discussion.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Notable names are Leonin and Perotin, both organists of
+Notre Dame at Paris.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Although this is not the place to set forth all the
+details of this development, in the interest of historical justice we
+should not think of Bach without gratefully acknowledging the
+remarkable work of such pioneers as the Dutchman, Sweelinck
+(1562-1621), organist at Amsterdam; the Italian, Frescobaldi
+(1583-1644), organist at Rome, and--greatest of all, in his
+stimulating influence upon Bach--the Dane, Buxtehude (1636-1707),
+organist at Luebeck. Sweelinck and Frescobaldi may fairly be called the
+founders of the genuine Fugue, and there is a romantic warmth in
+Buxtehude's best work which makes it thoroughly modern in sentiment.]
+
+[Footnote 35: In connection with the statement that music has
+developed according to natural law, it is worth noting that the
+four-part chorus early became the standard for both vocal and
+instrumental groups for the simple reason that there exist two kinds
+of women's voices--soprano and alto, and two of men's voices--tenor
+and bass. Originally, the chief voice in the ecclesiastical chorus was
+the tenor (teneo), because the tenors _sustained_ the melody. Below
+them were the basses (bassus, low); above the tenors came the altos
+(altus, high) and still higher the sopranos (sopra, above).]
+
+In the latter example it is evident that there is an interweaving of
+_three_ distinct melodic lines.
+
+The polyphonic instrumental works of Bach and his contemporaries were
+called by such names as Preludes, Fugues, Canons, Inventions, Toccatas
+and Fantasies; but since a complete account of all these forms would
+lead too far afield, we shall confine ourselves to a description of
+the Canon, the Invention and the Fugue. A Canon (from the Greek
+[Greek: Kanon], meaning a strict rule or law) is a composition in
+which there is a _literal_ systematic imitation, carried out to the
+end, between two or more of the voices (often with subsidiary voices
+filling in), and may be considered a kind of musical dialogue in which
+the second, or answering, part reenforces the message previously
+uttered by the leading voice. This imitation may take place at any
+degree of separation; and Canons are in existence at the interval of
+the second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. The most effective Canons,
+however, are those in which the answering voice is an octave away from
+the leading one. Although the Canon is not a form employed frequently
+by modern composers for an entire composition, Canonic imitation
+appears so often in all large works for orchestra, string quartet or
+ensemble combinations, that the music-lover should acquire a certain
+ease in listening to a structure of this type. The Canon, moreover, is
+an integral factor in the style of Cesar Franck, d'Indy and Brahms;
+and illustrations of its use abound in their works. The organ is
+particularly well suited to the rendition of Canons; since, by its
+facilities for tone-color, the two voices may be clearly contrasted.
+Those interested in organ literature should become acquainted with the
+following excellent examples: The _Canon in B-flat major_, op. 40, by
+Guilmant; the 4th movement of the _Fifth Organ Symphony_ by Widor; the
+Canon in B minor, op. 54, by Schumann; the _Canon in F-sharp major_,
+op. 30, by Merkel, and the set of _Ten Canonic studies_, op. 12, by
+G.W. Chadwick. In other fields of composition the following should be
+cited: The set of _Pianoforte Pieces in Canon form_, op. 35, by
+Jadassohn; a like set by Rheinberger, op. 180; the _Canonic Vocal
+Trios_, op. 156, by Reinecke and the famous Canon from the first act
+of Beethoven's opera _Fidelio_. There is also a beautiful bit of
+Canonic imitation between two of the upper voices in the introduction
+of Berlioz's _Carnaval Romain Overture_ for orchestra. One of the most
+appealing Canons in modern literature is the setting for soprano and
+barytone, by Henschel, of the poem _Oh that we two were Maying_ by
+Charles Kingsley. This example alone would sufficiently corroborate
+the statement that the firmness of structure inherent in the canonic
+form is perfectly compatible with genuine freedom and poetry of
+inspiration. In the first movement of Cesar Frank's _Symphony in D
+minor_, at the recapitulation (page 39 of the full score) may be found
+a magnificent example of the intensity of effect gained by a canonic
+imitation of the main theme--in this instance between the lower and
+upper voices. Possibly the finest example of canonic writing in all
+literature is the Finale of Cesar Franck's _Sonata in A major_ for
+Violin and Pianoforte in which, for several pages, there is an
+eloquent dialogue between the two contrasting instruments. The
+movement is too long for citation but it should certainly be procured
+and studied. In the Trio of the Scherzo in Beethoven's _Seventh Sonata
+for Violin and Pianoforte_ there is a free use of canonic imitation
+which will repay investigation. Lastly, the _Aria with 30
+Variations_--the so-called _Goldberg Variations_ of Bach--is a perfect
+storehouse of every conceivable canonic device.
+
+A few standard examples are to be found in the Supplement. These
+should be played over and studied until they are thoroughly
+familiar--not only for the pleasure to be derived, but for the
+indispensable training afforded in polyphonic listening.
+
+Ex. No. 9 Canon by Thomas Tallys (1510-1585).
+
+Ex. No. 10 Canonic Variation by Schumann from the _Etudes
+Symphoniques_.
+
+Ex. No. 11 of Bach's _Goldberg Variations_.
+
+Ex. No. 12 Canon in B-flat minor, op. 38, Grieg.
+
+Ex. No. 13 Canon in F-sharp major, op. 35, Jadassohn.
+
+One of the most simple and direct types of polyphonic composition is
+the form known as the _Invention_ in which, as the term implies, the
+composer--through his _inventive genius_ and by means of the
+polyphonic devices of imitation and transposition--develops to a
+logical conclusion some short and characteristic motive. We are
+fortunate in having from Bach himself, that consummate master of
+polyphony, two sets of such Inventions: fifteen for two voices, and
+fifteen for three. These flights of fancy--in which art so subtly
+conceals art--though originally composed for the clavichord and
+harpsichord (the precursors of the pianoforte), are very effective on
+our modern instrument and should be in the possession of every
+music-student.[36] A brief analysis is now given of the first one in
+the set for two voices, and Nos. 4, 8 and 10 in this set are
+particularly recommended for study; also Nos. 2, 6 and 14 among those
+for three voices. The opening motive
+
+[Music]
+
+is the foundation of the entire composition and is at once imitated,
+canonically, in the lower voice. Then the two voices play about, with
+figures clearly derived from the motive, until we reach, in measures
+three and four, a systematic downward transposition of the material.
+Such transpositions or shiftings up or down in pitch are called
+_Sequences_. They are very frequent in all polyphonic composition,
+give a strong sense of unity to melodic progression and are generally
+carried out in groups of three, _i.e._, the original figure and two
+repetitions. After the sequence the music naturally works toward the
+most nearly related key (the dominant) and in the seventh measure
+reaches in that key its first objective. These Inventions of Bach, as
+well as the Dance forms soon to be studied, are almost invariably in
+what is known as _Two-part_ form, _i.e._, the music consists of two
+main divisions, clearly marked off by cadences[37]; the first of which
+modulates to the dominant or some related key while the second part,
+starting in this key, works back to a final close in the home key. In
+Inventions it early became customary in the second part to begin with
+the same motive as the first--but in the _opposite_ voice. Thus we
+see, in the Invention now being discussed, that the seventh measure
+begins with the original motive in the bass which, in turn, is
+imitated by the Soprano--a process just the reverse of that in the
+opening measures.
+
+[Footnote 36: The best edition is that by Busoni, published by
+Breitkopf and Haertel.]
+
+[Footnote 37: This technical term as well as others will later be more
+fully explained.]
+
+[Music]
+
+In pieces in this Two-part form the second portion is generally longer
+than the first; for the composer, by the time he has reached this
+second part, may consider the material sufficiently familiar to be
+expanded and varied by excursions into more remote keys, and by more
+intricate manipulations of the chief motive. In measure 11 we find a
+modulation to D minor and then, after some free treatment of the
+motive, we reach--in measure 15--a cadence in A minor. A long
+sequential passage brings us, through a modulation to the subdominant
+key of F major (in measures 18 and 19), to a strong closing cadence in
+the home key. It should be noticed that in this Invention and in some
+of the dance forms there is shown a strong leaning towards a
+tripartite division of the material as is indicated by the _three_
+cadences in measures 7, 15 and 22. Since, however, the middle part is
+lacking in any strong _contrast_--which is such an essential factor in
+the fully developed three-part form--it seems better to consider this
+piece, and others like it, as a tendency rather than as a complete
+embodiment of tripartite arrangement. It is expected that the music
+lover will take these Inventions for what they really are and not
+search in them for those notes of intense subjectivity and dramatic
+power so prevalent in modern music. They are merely little pieces--a
+"tour de force" in polyphonic ingenuity; music rejoicing in its own
+inherent vitality. Accepted in this spirit they are invigorating and
+charming.
+
+The form in which polyphonic skill reaches its highest possibilities
+is the Fugue; and the immortal examples of this form are the Fugues of
+John Sebastian Bach, found in his _Well-tempered Clavichord_ and in
+his mighty works for the organ. The fundamental structure of a fugue
+is implied in the term itself (from the Latin "fuga"--flight); that
+is, in a fugue the main theme or subject is always announced in a
+single voice, and the remaining voices, appearing successively in
+accordance with definite principles of key-relationship, seem to chase
+each other about and to flee from pursuit. The several stratified
+entrances of the subject are relieved by intermediate passages called
+"Episodes." An Episode, as shown by the derivation ([Greek: ipi
+hodos], by the way), is something off the beaten path--a digression;
+and it is in these episodical portions of a fugue rather than in the
+formalistic portions that the genius of the composer shines forth.
+This is especially true of Bach, for almost any well-trained musician
+can invent a subject which will allow of satisfactory fugal treatment
+according to accepted usage; but no one save Bach has ever invented
+such free and fanciful episodes--so daring in scope and yet so closely
+connected with the main thought. The general effect of a fugue is
+_cumulative_: a massing and piling up of voices that lead to a
+carefully designed conclusion which, in some of Bach's organ fugues,
+is positively overwhelming. A fugue may be called a mighty crescendo,
+like the sound of many waters. There is a popular conception, or
+rather _mis_conception, that a fugue is a labored, dull or even "dry"
+form of composition, meant only as an exhibition of pedantic skill,
+and quite beyond the reach of ordinary musical appreciation. Nothing
+is farther from the truth, as a slight examination of musical
+literature will show. For we see that the fugal form has been used to
+express well-nigh every form of human emotion, the sublime, the
+tragic, the romantic; very often the humorous and the fantastic. When
+we recall the irresistible sparkle and dash of Mozart's _Magic Flute
+Overture_, of the Overture to the _Bartered Bride_ by Smetana, of the
+Finale of Mozart's _Jupiter Symphony_, and of many of the fugues in
+the _Well-tempered Clavichord_, it is evident that to call a fugue
+"dry" is an utter abuse of language. It is true that there are weak,
+artificial and dull fugues, where the composer--frankly--had nothing
+to say and merely filled out the form; but the same may be said of
+every type of composition, _i.e._, among them all are examples
+inspired and--less inspired. This, however, is no indictment of the
+fugue _per se_, against which the only thing to be said is that it
+requires on the part of the listener an exceeding concentration. Some
+of the masterpieces of the world being wholly or partially in the
+fugal form, it is the duty of those listening to polyphonic music to
+train their powers to the same seriousness of attention expected and
+freely given in the appreciation of an oration, a drama or a
+cathedral. These latter manifestations of artistic expression, to be
+sure, are less abstract than the fugue and more closely related to
+daily life. Yet no effort is more repaying than the mental and
+emotional energy expended in listening to the interweavings of a good
+fugue; for, conscious of missing the periodic divisions of the
+Folk-song, we have to listen to more than one melody at a time. A
+fugue being a composition, as the French say, of "longue haleine,"
+our attention, in order to follow its structure, must be on the "qui
+vive" every moment. The fugue, in fact, is an example of the intricate
+and yet organic complexity found in all the higher forms of life
+itself; and whenever a composer has wished to dwell with emphasis on a
+particular theme, he almost invariably resorts to some form of fugal
+treatment, strict or free. The most effective media for rendering
+fugues are the chorus of mixed voices, the organ (by reason of its
+pedal key-board always making the subject in the bass stand out
+majestically) and the stringed orchestra which, with the "bite" of the
+strings, brings out--with peculiar sharpness--the different entrances
+of the subject. The student should become familiar with standard
+examples in each of these classes and should, above all, seek
+opportunity to hear some of the organ fugues of Bach performed on a
+really fine instrument. A few well-known fugues are herewith cited in
+order to stimulate the student to some investigation of his own. In
+all the Oratorios of Handel and in the choral works of Bach, such as
+the B minor Mass, may be found magnificent fugues--as free and vital
+in their rhythmic swing as the ocean itself. Particular attention
+should be called to the fugue in the Messiah "And by His stripes we
+were healed [Transcriber's Note: And with His stripes we are healed]."
+One of the most impressive fugues in modern literature is the a
+capella chorus _Urbs Syon Unica_ from H.W. Parker's _Hora Novissima_.
+From among the organ works of Bach everyone should know the Fugues in
+G minor, in A minor, in D major[38] and the Toccata and Fugue in D
+minor. These have all been transcribed for the pianoforte by Liszt and
+so are readily available; they are often played at pianoforte recitals
+by Paderewski and other virtuosi. In hearing one of these masterpieces
+no one can remain unmoved or can fail to reverence the constructive
+genius which fashioned such cathedrals in tone. For orchestra we have
+the Prelude to Puccini's opera _Madama Butterfly_, and the beginning
+of the Prelude to the third act of Wagner's _Mastersingers_. There are
+striking fugal passages in Beethoven's Symphonies, _e.g._, the first
+movement of the _Heroic Symphony_ and the rollicking Trio of the
+Scherzo in the _Fifth Symphony_. In more modern literature there is
+the fugal Finale to Arthur Foote's _Suite for Orchestra_ and in
+Chadwick's _Vagrom Ballad_ a humorous quotation of the theme from
+Bach's _G minor Fugue_ for organ. One of the most superb fugues in
+free style is the last movement of Cesar Franck's _Prelude, Choral and
+Fugue in B minor_ for Pianoforte. This movement alone would refute
+all charges of dullness or dryness brought against the fugue by the
+unthinking or the unenlightened. A good fugue, in fact, is so full of
+vitality and demands such _active_ comprehension[39] on the part of
+the listener that it is not difficult to imagine where the dullness
+and dryness are generally found.
+
+[Footnote 38: Whenever Percy Grainger performs this fugue in his own
+arrangement for pianoforte, he always electrifies an audience.]
+
+[Footnote 39: It is worthy of observation that, for those who will
+listen to them intelligently, fugues do not merely demand such a state
+of mind but actually _generate_ it.]
+
+At this point by an analysis of a fugue from the _Well-tempered
+Clavichord_, let us explain some of the technical features in fugal
+structure. We shall then be in a position to understand the more
+subtle devices of fugal treatment and to appreciate more
+enthusiastically some additional comments upon Bach's style in
+general.
+
+
+FUGUE IN E-FLAT MAJOR, NO. VII, IN THE FIRST BOOK.
+
+[Music: Subject
+
+Counter-subject
+
+Answer]
+
+This fugue in three voices begins with a graceful subject, announced
+in the upper voice. In the third measure this is answered by an
+imitation of the subject in the alto; while the opening voice
+continues with a contrasting part called the counter-subject.[40] As
+the whole subsequent fabric is organically derived from these two
+motives, both subject and counter-subject should be played frequently
+and so committed to memory. Observe also the contrasts in rhythm and
+melodic outline between the subject and counter-subject. In measures
+4 and 5 we have a short sequential passage leading, in measure 6, to
+the third entry of the subject in the bass. Then after another
+sequential passage, which includes an emphatic assertion of the
+subject in the soprano (measures 11 and 12), we enter upon a long
+episode which leads, at measure 17, to our first objective point of
+rest--a cadence in C minor. With the entry, in this measure, of the
+subject in the alto we have an interesting example of what is termed
+"shifted rhythm;" the subject beginning on the third beat instead of
+the first, as at the outset. In the middle portion of the fugue we
+have two appearances of the subject in the related keys of C minor
+(measures 17 and 18) and G minor (measures 20 and 21). Then, following
+two very vigorous sequences, a modulatory return is made to the
+subject in the home key, and with its normal rhythm at measure 26. A
+repetition, in more brilliant form, of one of the previous episodes,
+in measures 31 and 32, gives a strong impression of unity; leading in
+measures 34 and 35 to a last appearance of the subject, with a
+beautiful change in one of the intervals (E-flat-G-flat). The closing
+measures establish the main tonality of E-flat major, rendered still
+more expressive by the counterpoint associated with the last chord. As
+to the general structure of this fugue, it is evidently tripartite,
+the first part A presenting the material, the second part B affording
+variety by modulating into different keys, and the third part A'
+reasserting the material of A and bringing the composition to a
+logical close in the home key. (See Supplement Ex. No. 15.)
+
+[Footnote 40: It is left to the teacher to explain to the student the
+key-relationship of Subject and Answer, and the difference between
+fugues, tonal and real; for as these points have rather more to do
+with composition they play but a slight part in listening to a fugue.]
+
+We should now acquaint ourselves with the more subtle devices of fugal
+treatment; although but one of these is employed in the fugue just
+studied, which is comparatively simple in structure. I. Inversion; the
+melodic outline is turned upside down while identity is retained by
+means of the rhythm, _e.g._
+
+[Music: BACH: 3rd English Suite
+
+Theme
+
+Inversion]
+
+An excellent example from an orchestral work is the theme of the third
+movement of Brahms's _C minor Symphony_, the second phrase of which is
+an Inversion of the opening measures, _e.g._
+
+[Music: Inversion]
+
+II. Augmentation and Diminution; the length of the notes is doubled or
+halved while their metrical relativity is maintained, _e.g._
+
+[Music: BACH: Fugue No. 8, Book I
+
+Theme
+
+Augmentation]
+
+[Music: BACH: Fugue No. IX, Book II
+
+Theme
+
+Diminution]
+
+Augmentation is very frequent in modern literature when a composer, by
+lengthening out the phraseology of a theme, wishes to gain for it
+additional emphasis. Excellent examples are the closing measures of
+Schumann's _Arabesque_, in which the reminiscence of the original
+motto is most haunting, _e.g._,
+
+[Music: Motto]
+
+[Music: Motto augmented]
+
+the Finale of Liszt's _Faust Symphony_, where the love theme of the
+Gretchen movement is carried over and intoned by a solo baritone with
+impressive effect, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Music: In augmentation
+
+_Das ewig Weibliche_]
+
+III. Shifted Rhythm; the position of the subject in the measure is so
+changed that the accents fall on different beats, _e.g._
+
+[Music: BACH: Fugue No. V, Book II
+
+Subject
+
+Shifted]
+
+IV. Stretto; (from the Italian verb "stringere," to draw close) that
+portion of a fugue, often the climax, where the entrances are
+_crowded_ together, _i.e._, the imitating voice enters before the
+leading voice has finished, _e.g._
+
+[Music: _Fuga giocosa_, J.K. PAINE, op. 41
+
+Subject]
+
+The effect is obviously one of great concentration and dramatic
+intensity--with a sense of impending climax--and its use is by no
+means limited to fugal composition; being frequently found in all
+large symphonic works of the classic and modern school. For a
+magnificent example of the climactic effect produced by a Stretto,
+witness the last part of Bach's Fugue in G major (see Supplement, Ex.
+No. 16).
+
+Although there is considerable complexity in any complete fugue, and
+although it requires great concentration on the part of the listener,
+we should avoid thinking of the form as mechanical in any derogatory
+sense, but rather as a means to a definite artistic end. Certainly no
+greater mistake can be made than that of considering Bach, the supreme
+master of polyphonic writing, as too austere, too involved, for the
+delight and edification of every-day mortals. Bach means brook, and
+the name[41] is most appropriate; for Bach is a never ceasing stream
+of musical life, the fountain-head from which spring the leading
+tendencies of modern music. In these days when stress is laid on the
+romantic element in music, on warm emotional appeal, it is well to
+consider the quality so prevalent in Bach of spiritual vitality.
+Exactly because the romantic element represents the human side of
+music, it is subject to the whims of fashion and is liable to change
+and decay. Bach carries us into the realm of universal ideas,
+inexhaustible and changeless in their power to exalt. Schumann says
+that "Music owes to Bach what a religion owes to its founder"; and it
+is true that a knowledge of Bach is the beginning of musical wisdom.
+By some, Bach is considered dry or too reserved for companionship with
+ordinary human beings. Others carelessly assert that he has no melody.
+Nothing can be further from the truth than these two misconceptions.
+Bach surely is not dry, because his work abounds in such vitality of
+rhythm. As Parry says, in his biography, "No composer ever attained to
+anything approaching the spontaneity, freshness, and winsomeness of
+his dances, such as the gavottes, bourrees, passepieds and gigues in
+the suites; while many of his great choruses and instrumental fugues
+are inspired with a force of rhythmic movement which thrills the
+hearer with a feeling of being swept into space out of the range of
+common things." The charge of a lack of melody is the same which used
+to be brought against Wagner. Instead of there being no melody, it is
+_all_ melody, so that the partially musical, who lack the power of
+sustained attention, are drowned in the flood of melodic outpouring. A
+strong claim, in fact, may be made for Bach as a _popular_ composer in
+the best sense of the term. Many of his colossal works, to be sure,
+are heard but seldom, for they require the most highly trained
+executive ability. But if the average music-lover will become familiar
+with the French and English Suites, with the Preludes and Fugues of
+the _Well-tempered Clavichord_, with some of the Violin Sonatas, he
+will find for his imagination and mental machinery a food which, once
+enjoyed, becomes indispensable. For his music has that greatest of
+qualities in art as in human relationships--it wears well and _lasts_.
+We all know that books which reveal everything at a first reading are
+soon thrown aside, and that people whose depth of character and
+sweetness of disposition we discern but slowly, often become our
+life-long friends. Music which is too easily heard is identical with
+that which is immediately forgotten. The first impulse created by any
+great work of art is our longing to know it better. Its next attribute
+is its power to arouse and hold our steady affection. These
+observations may be applied literally to Bach's music, which can be
+heard for a lifetime, never losing its appeal but continually
+unfolding new beauties. Furthermore, in Bach, we feel the force of a
+great character even more than the artistic skill with which the
+personality is revealed. In this respect Bach in music is quite on a
+par with Shakespeare in literature and Michael Angelo in plastic art.
+With many musicians, there is so disconcerting and inexplicable a
+discrepancy between their deeds as men and the artistic thoughts for
+which they seem to be the unconscious media, that it is inspiring to
+come into touch with one who rings true as a man whatever demands are
+made upon him; whose music is free from morbidity or carnal blemish,
+as pure as the winter wind, as elemental as the ocean, as uplifting as
+the stars. In Bach let us always remember the noble human traits; for
+the universal regard in which his work is held could never have come
+merely from profound skill in workmanship, but is due chiefly to the
+manly sincerity and emotional depth which are found therein. The
+revival of his works, for which the world owes to Mendelssohn such a
+debt, has been the single strongest factor in the development of music
+during the 19th century; and their influence[42] is by no means yet at
+an end, as may be seen from the glowing tributes paid to him by such
+modern composers as Franck, d'Indy and Debussy.[43]
+
+[Footnote 41: Beethoven, commenting on the name, majestically said:
+"He is no brook; he is the open sea!"]
+
+[Footnote 42: For a very suggestive article on this point by Philip
+Greeley Clapp see the Musical Quarterly for April, 1916.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Some eloquent comments on Bach's style and significance
+may be found in Chapter III of _The Appreciation of Music_ by Surette
+and Mason.]
+
+Two additional fugues are now given in the Supplement (see Nos. 17 and
+18) for the consideration of the student: the _Cat-Fugue_ of Domenico
+Scarlatti, with its fantastic subject (said to have been suggested by
+the walking of a favorite cat on the key-board) and the _Fuga Giocosa_
+of John Knowles Paine, (the subject of which is the well-known
+street-tune "Rafferty's lost his pig"). This latter example is not
+only a brilliant piece of fugal writing but a typical manifestation of
+American humor.
+
+Several eulogies of the fugue are to be found in literature; three of
+the most famous are herewith appended.
+
+    "Hist, but a word, fair and soft!
+    Forth and be judged, Master Hugues!
+    Answer the question I've put you so oft:
+    What do you mean by your mountainous fugues?
+    See, we're alone in the loft."
+
+    --Browning, _Master Hugues of Saxe-Gotha_.
+
+Throughout, a most fantastic description of fugal style.
+
+         "Whence the sound
+    Of instruments, that made melodious chime,
+    Was heard, of harp and organ; and who mov'd
+    Their stops and chords was seen; his volant touch
+    Instinct through all proportions, low and high,
+    Fled and pursued transverse the resonant fugue."
+
+    --Milton, _Paradise Lost_, Book XI.
+
+    "Then rose the agitation, spreading through the infinite
+    cathedral to its agony; then was completed the passion of
+    the mighty fugue. The golden tubes of the organ which as yet
+    had but sobbed and muttered at intervals--gleaming amongst
+    clouds and surges of incense--threw up, as from fountains
+    unfathomable, columns of heart-shattering music. Choir and
+    antichoir were filling fast with unknown voices. Thou also,
+    Dying Trumpeter! with thy love which was victorious, and thy
+    anguish that was finishing, didst enter the tumult; trumpet
+    and echo--farewell love and farewell anguish--rang through
+    the dreadful Sanctus."
+
+    --From De Quincey's _Dream Fugue in the "Vision of Sudden
+    Death_."
+
+Truly a marvellous picture of the effect of a fugue in a great
+medieval cathedral!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE MUSICAL SENTENCE
+
+
+Before passing on to an explanation of the fundamental types of
+musical structure, we must give some idea of the constituent parts of
+the _Period_ in music. Every art has its units of expression: the
+straight line, the curve, the arch, the poetic stanza and the prose
+sentence. Just as poetry and prose are a series of stanzas or
+sentences, so a musical composition is a succession of definitely
+organized portions of thought and emotion, in terms of rhythm and
+sound. In the heart of a composition, to be sure, we often find a
+great freedom in the phraseology, comparable to blank verse or to a
+rhapsodic kind of prose; but with few exceptions, such as a Fantasie,
+every composition always _begins_ with one or two periods which, in
+regard to subdivision, balance and directness of statement, are
+carefully planned and are complete in themselves. Before it is
+possible to follow intelligently the structure of a musical sentence
+we must gain a clear idea of what is meant by the frequently used
+terms Tonality and Modulation. Since the evolution and acceptance of
+our three modern scales:[44] the major, the minor and the
+chromatic--which gained their sanction chiefly through the
+investigations and compositions of Bach and Rameau--every melody and
+the accompanying harmony are said to be in a certain "tonality" (or
+"key") which takes its name from the first tone of the scale in
+question, _e.g._, C, E-flat, F sharp, etc. Hence this first tone is
+called the Tonic or chief tone and from it ascend the other tones of
+the scale. That is, a melody in E-flat major will employ only those
+tones found in the scale of E-flat major, and is said to be in that
+"key," or "tonality." The same would be true of the harmony involved,
+_i.e._, the chords would consist of combinations of the different
+tones of this scale. When a melody, as is often the case, employs
+tones _not_ found in the scale in question, these are called
+_chromatic_[45] changes, and may or may not effect a "modulation" or
+departure into another key, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 44: It is assumed that the music-lover has, as his
+birthright, an instinctive knowledge of the grouping of tones and
+semitones in our modern scales. Those who may wish to refresh their
+knowledge are recommended to the second Chapter in Foote and
+Spalding's _Harmony_, and to the chapter on Scales in Parry's
+_Evolution of the Art of Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Color in music is brought about chiefly through their
+use.]
+
+The most important means of gaining unity and coherence in a
+composition is to have it written in a clearly defined tonality,
+especially at the outset. This definite tonality is the "centre of
+gravity," so to speak, about which the whole composition revolves. If
+this tonal centre were uncertain or wandering, we should have a
+feeling of vagueness and perplexity which, except for special dramatic
+effect, is never found in works of the great composers. Thus we speak
+of a Symphony in C minor, of a Quartet in F major and of a Sonata in
+B-flat minor;[46] this foundation key being comparable to the basic
+color-scheme of a painting. There is also a particular aesthetic
+effect and color-appeal associated with each key; and the listener
+should train himself to be sensitive to the brilliance of such keys as
+D major and E major, the richness of B major, the dignity of E-flat
+major, the almost cloying sweetness of D-flat major and of G-flat
+major and the tragic depth of B minor and G minor. No piece, however,
+should remain for long in the same key; for music cuts so deeply into
+the consciousness that there would result an intolerable monotony.[47]
+Even in the simplest folk-songs, therefore, we often find manifested
+an instinct for those changes of tonal centre which are technically
+called "Modulations." All the keys founded on the twelve semitones of
+the chromatic scale are related--though in varying degrees of
+closeness; and in modern music, no matter how complex the modulations
+often sound, we may be sure that the composer plans them as carefully
+as the painter adjusts his color-scheme. For definite acoustical[48]
+and harmonic reasons, however, the keys most closely related to a
+given tonal centre are those situated a perfect fifth above--the
+Dominant; a perfect fifth below--the Subdominant; and the Relative
+Minor, the key-note of which is a minor third below, _e.g._, A minor
+in relation to C major, C minor to E-flat major. The relative minors
+of the Dominant and Subdominant also bear a close relationship to a
+given tonic; and into these _five_ keys is made a large majority of
+the modulations in any piece of music.[49]
+
+[Music:
+
+Subdominant  Tonic     Dominant
+
+Relative     Relative  Relative
+Minor        Minor     Minor]
+
+[Footnote 46: As for example the famous one of Chopin.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Even great composers have at times made this mistake,
+_e.g._, Mendelssohn in the first movement of the _Scotch Symphony_,
+where the interminable length of the portion in A minor (of all keys!)
+is simply deadening in its effect. Compare also the _Prelude to the
+Rheingold_; where, however--for dramatic purposes--to depict the world
+as "without form and void" Wagner remains in the key of E-flat major
+for some 150 measures!]
+
+[Footnote 48: It is left to the teacher to explain, by the ratios
+found in the overtones of the Harmonic Series, the validity of this
+statement.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Some modern theorists, _e.g._, Calvacoressi (see the New
+Music Review for September, 1909) have thought that the dominant
+relationship was "overworked." It is true that the great charm of
+modern music is its freedom and boldness in modulation; but the
+dominant keys can never be entirely abandoned, for the relationship
+between them and a tonic is as elemental as that between the colors of
+the spectroscope.]
+
+Beginning with Beethoven, a modulation into what are known as the
+_mediant_ keys became frequent; and is, in fact, a favorite change in
+all modern music--the mediant keys being those situated half-way
+between a Tonic and Dominant or a Tonic and Subdominant, _e.g._
+
+[Music: Sub-mediant Mediant]
+
+Anyone at all familiar with Beethoven's style will remember how often
+his second theme, instead of following the more conventional line of
+dominant relationship, is in a mediant key. Good examples may be found
+in the first movement of the _Waldstein Sonata_ and in the first and
+last movements of the 8th Symphony. A little thought will make clear
+that the relationships just set forth include nearly all the possible
+ones save those of 2nds and 7ths. Even into these apparently distant
+keys, _e.g._, to D-flat major or to B major from C major, modulations
+may easily be made by means of the "enharmonic"[50] relationship found
+in that frequently used modern chord--the Augmented Sixth, _e.g._
+
+[Music: C major B major C major D-flat major]
+
+[Footnote 50: Two tones are said to be "enharmonic" when, although
+written differently, they sound the same on an instrument of fixed
+temperament like the pianoforte, or organ, _e.g._, D-sharp and E-flat,
+E and F-flat. A violin, however, can make a distinction between such
+notes and often does.]
+
+Next to rhythm, modulation is the most stimulating and enchanting
+element in music. No composition of any scope can be considered truly
+great unless it abounds in beautiful modulations. Certain composers,
+to be sure, have in this respect more genius than others--notably
+Schubert, Chopin, Wagner and Franck whose music seems to waft us along
+on a magic carpet of delight. But just as Unity depends upon a
+definite basic tonality, so Variety is gained by this very freedom of
+modulation. Without it is monotony; with too much modulation, an
+irritating restlessness. By the perfect balance in his works of these
+two related elements a genius may be definitely recognized.
+
+The simplest and on the whole most frequent type of musical sentence
+or period consists of eight measures, subdivided into two balancing
+phrases of four measures[51] each--the component parts plainly
+indicated by various cadences and endings soon to be explained. These
+four-measure phrases are often, though not invariably, still further
+subdivided into two sections of two measures each. Let us now
+corroborate these statements by an examination of the opening sentence
+of the Scherzo of Beethoven's _Second Sonata for Pianoforte_. This
+concise sentence is an epitome of the chief principles of organic
+musical expression. At the outset[52] we see the leading motive, which
+consists of an ascending broken chord twice repeated. We see also
+
+[Music]
+
+the first phrase of 4 measures and the second phrase[53] of similar
+length, alike subdivided into two sections of 2 measures each. In the
+third measure we find a modulation into the dominant key (indicated by
+the D-sharp) and in the fourth measure a cadence with a feminine
+ending in this key. The second--or after--phrase corresponds exactly
+to what has gone before: we have the same repetition of the motive in
+a different part of the scale; and finally, in the 8th measure, a
+cadence in the home key, also with feminine ending.
+
+[Footnote 51: This assertion holds for most of our Western European
+music; though in Hungarian and Scotch music we find a natural fondness
+for phrases of _three_ measures, and the Croatians are known for their
+phrases of _five_ measures so often used by both Haydn and Schubert.
+But it is true that we _tend_ to think in groups which are some
+multiple of 2, _i.e._, either 4, 8, 12 or 16 measures.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Always count the first _complete_ measure as _one_.]
+
+[Footnote 53: The two phrases are often designated Thesis and
+Antithesis.]
+
+[Music]
+
+When the sentence is played, it is evident how unsatisfactory would be
+the effect if a complete stop were attempted at the 4th measure; and
+how symmetrical and convincing is the impression when the eight
+measures are considered an unbroken sweep of musical thought.[54]
+There are, in fact, a few complete compositions in musical literature
+which contain but a single sentence of eight measures. As an example
+may be cited the song from Schumann's _Lieder Album fuer Jugend_, op.
+79, No. 1. (See Supplement No. 19.) For purposes of practical
+appreciation[55] it is enough to state that a cadence is an accepted
+combination of chords (generally the tonic, dominant and subdominant)
+which indicates that some objective, either temporary or final, has
+been reached. When the dominant chord or any dominant harmony is
+immediately followed by the tonic the cadence is called perfect or
+final, and may be compared to a period in punctuation, _e.g._
+
+[Music] [Music: CESAR FRANCK]
+
+[Footnote 54: In listening to a clock it is impossible to think of the
+ticks singly, or otherwise than in groups of two: an accented beat and
+an unaccented; although the beats are of equal strength and duration.
+This principle of dual balance is derived from the rhythmic pulsation
+of the human heart and, as we shall see, runs through all music.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Whenever this book is used in class, the teacher can
+easily explain, on the pianoforte and by charts, the different
+cadential effects. For those who have sufficient harmonic insight
+Chapter XIV in Foote and Spalding's _Modern Harmony_ is worth
+consulting.]
+
+A reversal of this order produces what is called the half-cadence,
+akin to the semicolon, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The union of the subdominant and tonic chords is known as the Plagal
+Cadence, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+and always gives a feeling of religious dignity and impressiveness.
+Magnificent examples may be found in the closing measures of Wagner's
+Overture to the _Mastersingers_ and of Brahms' _First Symphony in C
+minor_. In the final cadence of Debussy's humorous piece for
+pianoforte, _Minstrels_, the effect is burlesqued, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+When dominant harmony is followed by some unexpected chord we have the
+so-called Deceptive Cadence, which is not unlike the mark of
+interrogation (?) or even exclamation (!) _e.g._
+
+[Music: WAGNER: _Overture to the Mastersingers_]
+
+[Music: TCHAIKOWSKY: _5th Symphony_]
+
+This last cadence gives an effect of dramatic surprise--certainly an
+exclamation of great force. One of the glories of modern music is the
+daring novelty of cadential effect which has been achieved by such
+composers as Franck, Debussy and Ravel; the student should try to
+become more and more familiar with such harmonic combinations. A
+beautiful example[56] is cited from Cesar Franck's _Sonata for Violin
+and Pianoforte_.
+
+[Footnote 56: See also the strikingly original cadences in Debussy's
+_L'Isle joyeuse_.]
+
+[Music]
+
+The two endings for phrases are classified as Masculine and Feminine
+and they correspond exactly to the same effects in the metre of a
+poetic stanza. When the second chord of the cadence, whatever it may
+be, coincides with a _strong_ beat, _i.e._, the first beat of the
+measure, the ending is Masculine, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+When the chord is carried over to a weak beat of the measure the
+ending is Feminine, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+We now give two more examples of the eight measure Sentence which
+clearly exemplify the principles just stated, _e.g._
+
+[Music: BEETHOVEN: 3rd Sonata]
+
+In this vigorous and clear-cut sentence we find in the 4th measure an
+effect of surprise and suspense; for the chord on the first beat is an
+inverted position of the dominant chord in the dominant key. Both the
+endings are masculine, _i.e._, the chords which end the phrases
+coincide with the strong beats.
+
+[Music: BEETHOVEN: 1st Sonata]
+
+This graceful sentence is noteworthy for the clear division of the
+first phrase into two contrasting sections; whereas, in the second
+phrase, a climactic effect is gained by having no marked subdivision.
+In the fourth measure occurs a good example of a half-cadence. All the
+endings are feminine, _i.e._, the cadential chord occurs on a _weak_
+beat of the measure.[57]
+
+[Footnote 57: Another interesting eight-measure sentence may be found
+at the beginning of the slow movement of Beethoven's Eighth Sonata, in
+which every section differs from any one of the others; in the opening
+sentence of the first movement of the Tenth Sonata--noticeable for the
+indefiniteness of the cadences until the final close is reached in
+measure 8, and in the first sentence of the Allegretto of the Sixth
+Sonata which is one long sweep, with only the faintest indications of
+subdivision.]
+
+Music, however, would be very rigid and would seem measured off with a
+yard-stick if the sentences were equally of eight measures. The
+"sing-song" effect of much so-called popular music is due to the
+stereotyped metrical pattern. You can always tell just where and how
+you are coming out. In order to gain a free and elastic phraseology,
+composers early began to combine three four-measure phrases into a
+_twelve_ measure sentence. It is obvious that with three phrases there
+can be more subtle effects of contrast and balance than with two, as
+the following chart makes plain:
+
+ ____________
+/            \
+A  Contrast   B   Contrast   C
+               \____________/
+(4 measures)  (4 measures)   (4 measures)
+              balance
+\______________________________________/
+
+[Music: BEETHOVEN: 6th Sonata]
+
+In this sentence it is evident that we cannot stop at the 8th measure
+and that our first definite conclusion is in measure 12. Let the
+student observe the varied melodic outline in the three phrases, and
+question himself as to the types of cadence and ending.
+
+
+MINUETTO OF BEETHOVEN'S FIRST SONATA.[58]
+
+[Footnote 58: Lack of space will prevent hereafter the citation in
+actual notes of the examples from Beethoven. His works are readily
+accessible, and it may even be assumed that every music-lover owns the
+Pianoforte Sonatas.]
+
+In this beautifully constructed twelve-measure sentence we have the
+main motive of the entire movement set forth in measures 1 and 2;
+then a contrasting secondary motive in measures 3 and 4. The second
+four-measure phrase, _i.e._, measures 5, 6, 7 and 8, repeats the
+material exactly, but with a modulation into the relative major. In
+measures 9 and 10 we find the secondary motive appearing in the alto
+voice (which should be brought out in performance), and in measures 11
+and 12 a free ending in the relative major. The closing measures, 13
+and 14, give an echo-like effect, which will be explained when we come
+to extended sentences. Such a sentence is not to be considered as one
+of 14 measures, although the literal counting gives that number; for
+the first complete cadence occurs in the 12th measure at the end of
+the third four-measure phrase; the remaining measures being
+supplementary.[59]
+
+[Footnote 59: Another excellent example of a 12 measure sentence with
+an extended cadence may be found at the beginning of the first
+movement of the Third Beethoven Sonata.]
+
+The last type of simple, normal sentence is that of 16 measures,
+divided into 4 phrases of 4 measures each. A clear distinction must be
+drawn between two successive sentences of 8 measures and the long
+sweep of a genuine 16 measure sentence. In the latter case there is no
+complete and satisfactory stop until we reach the cadence in the 16th
+measure.
+
+
+FIRST SENTENCE OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF THE TWELFTH SONATA.
+
+No difficulty will be found in following the cadences and endings of
+this sentence, the long-drawn out lines of which give an impression of
+repose and tranquillity. Two more excellent examples of 16 measure
+sentences may be found in the Adagio of the Fifth Sonata, and in the
+Scherzo of the Third; the latter movement is remarkable for the
+polyphonic treatment of the opening motive.
+
+Although the three types of sentence just studied, _i.e._, of 8, 12
+and 16 measures are the normal ones, and would include a majority of
+all sentences--especially in smaller works--in large compositions
+there would be an unendurable monotony and rigidity were there
+invariably to be cadential pauses at every 4th measure. We all know
+the deadening effect of poetry which has too great uniformity of
+metric pattern; and verses of "The boy stood on the burning-deck" type
+are considered thoroughly "sing-song." It is obvious that elasticity
+may be gained, without disturbing the normal balance, by expanding a
+sentence through the addition of extra measures, or contracting it by
+the logical omission of certain measures or by the overlapping of
+phrases.
+
+The simplest and most common means of enlarging a sentence is by the
+extension, or repetition, of the final cadence--that effect which is
+so frequent in the chamber and symphonic music of Haydn, and which has
+its comic manifestation in the so-called "crescendo" of the Rossini
+Operatic Overture.[60]
+
+[Footnote 60: For a burlesque of this practise see the closing
+measures of the Scherzando movement of Beethoven's Eighth Symphony.]
+
+[Music: HAYDN: _Quartet, op. 74, No. 2_]
+
+As Haydn was an important pioneer in freeing instrumental structure
+from dependence on the metre of words, his periods are always clearly
+organized; the closing measures of this example seem, as it were, to
+display a flag, telling the listener that the first breathing-place is
+reached. Very often both the fore-phrase and the after-phrase have
+cadential prolongations, an example of which may be found in Haydn's
+Quartet, op. 71, No. 3. The two following illustrations (the first
+movement of Beethoven's Fifth Sonata and the third movement of the
+Fourth) furnish remarkable examples of extended 16 measure sentences;
+each sentence being normal and symmetrical at the outset and then, as
+the fancy of the composer catches fire, expanding in a most dramatic
+fashion. Sometimes the additional measures, in an extended sentence,
+are found at the start; a clear example of this is the first sentence
+(with its repeated opening measure) of the Largo of the Seventh
+Sonata. Sentences are also often expanded by the insertion of one or
+more measures in the middle of the phrase, _e.g._, the beginning of
+the first movement of the Seventh Sonata and the corresponding place
+in the Fourth. In the former sentence the first phrase is perfectly
+regular, but as we reach our final cadence only in the tenth measure,
+we must account for some additional measures. The polyphonic imitation
+of the descending motive of measure 5 makes clear that this measure
+has two repetitions. In the latter case we reach the end of the
+sentence in the 17th measure and careful counting, and consideration
+of the melodic outline, will convince us that the 9th measure,
+emphasized by the _sf_ mark, is repeated.
+
+When an extra measure is systematically introduced into each phrase of
+4 measures we have what is known as "five-bar rhythm"--so prevalent in
+the works of Schubert and Brahms.
+
+[Music: SCHUBERT: _Sonata in E[flat] major_]
+
+[Music: BRAHMS: _Ballade in G minor_]
+
+As everyone is familiar with the latter composition, only the melody
+is cited. This propulsion of the mind forward beyond the accustomed
+point of rest always produces a stimulating rhythmic effect.[61]
+
+[Footnote 61: Other charming examples of five-bar rhythm may be found
+in Schubert's Quartet in A minor, op. 29, and in the opening choral
+(St. Anthony) of Brahms's _Orchestral Variations_, op. 56a.]
+
+The normal phraseology of four and eight measures is altered at times
+by the _omission_ of certain measures. This often takes place at the
+beginning of the sentence, as may be seen from the structure of the
+so-called Anglican chant, familiar to all Protestants, _e.g._
+
+[Music: SAVAGE]
+
+The beginning of Mozart's _Overture to Figaro_ is also well known,
+_e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The elision of a measure often takes place in the middle of a phrase
+as may be seen from the theme of Mendelssohn's familiar _Spring-Song_.
+
+[Music]
+
+Just as in the case of the systematic insertion of an extra measure,
+which produces "five-bar rhythm," so when a measure is omitted in each
+phrase which would usually consist of four measures, we have
+"three-bar rhythm." This gives an effect of great concentration and
+intensity and is a prevalent feature in Scottish and Hungarian
+folk-music, _e.g._
+
+[Music: Scotch]
+
+[Music: Hungarian]
+
+Additional examples of three-bar rhythm may be found in the Scherzo of
+Beethoven's Tenth Sonata and in the Minuet of Mozart's _G minor
+Symphony_--the latter, one of the most striking examples in
+literature.
+
+When a measure is systematically omitted from the normal structure of
+the 8 measure sentence we have "seven-bar rhythm"; of which beautiful
+examples may be found in the Scherzo of Beethoven's Sonata in B-flat
+major, op. 106, and in Mozart's Quartet in F major, No. 23. As these
+examples are readily accessible they are not quoted. The humorous
+effect produced, in the Beethoven example, by the unexpected elision
+of the 7th measure is very marked.
+
+Flexibility in the structure of a sentence is often gained by what is
+known as "overlapping"[62] of phrases, _i.e._, where the closing
+measure of a sentence, the 8th or 12th for example, is identical with
+the first measure of the following phrase. A clear example is this
+passage from the first movement of Beethoven's Third Sonata, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 62: This effect is clearly brought out in symphonic music
+where one portion of the orchestra, with a certain tone color, may be
+ending a phrase at the same moment at which another part, with a
+contrasting tone color, begins. An excellent example is the first
+theme of the Slow movement of Schumann's Second Symphony (measures
+7-8).]
+
+As the principles of sentence-formation are closely involved with the
+general subject of rhythm, something must be known about the number of
+beats within the measure itself. While it is true that we Anglo-Saxons
+tend to think in terms of 2 and 3 or their multiples, _i.e._, our
+customary measures consist of 2 or 4 beats or of 3, 6, 9 and 12, in
+modern music--particularly that of other races (the Slavs, Hungarians,
+etc.)--we often find measures with 5 and 7 beats and even phrases
+containing a mixture of rhythms. Three excellent examples of
+compositions with measures of 5 beats each are the Slow Movement of
+Chopin's Sonata in C minor, op. 4, the F-sharp major portion of
+d'Indy's Symphonic Variations, _Istar_, and the second movement of
+Tchaikowsky Sixth Symphony, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+A delightful example of a melody with 7 beats a measure is the Andante
+Grazioso of Brahms's Trio in C minor, op. 101--the result undoubtedly
+of his well-known fondness for Hungarian music, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The following theme from Tchaikowsky's Quartet in F major,
+notwithstanding the time signature, certainly gives the effect of a
+long, seven-beat measure, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Those who wish to do a little investigating of their own in the field
+of modern music will find interesting examples of 5/4 and 7/4 metres
+in Ravel's _Daphnis and Chloe_, in d'Indy's Sonata for Violin and
+Pianoforte and in the Ballet music of Stravinsky.
+
+We even find passages where, for special effect, the usual beats are
+elided or extra beats inserted. Schumann was one of the most daring
+experimenters in this respect and such fantastic effects are frequent
+in his pianoforte works--notably in the _Carnaval_, op. 9, and in the
+_Phantasiestuecke_, op. 12, _e.g._
+
+[Music: SCHUMANN: _Carnaval_]
+
+With reference to all the foregoing principles and comments the
+music-lover is cautioned against the assumption that music, from the
+standpoint of the composer or the listener, is merely a matter of
+mechanical counting; or that the "swing" of music is as regular as
+that of a sewing-machine. But, as order is Heaven's first law, it is
+true that music tends to move in definite, symmetrical groups; and
+where departure is made from this practise the effect is one most
+carefully planned. The matter deserves earnest consideration, for, in
+what is known as the "rhythmical sense," Americans--as a people, in
+comparison with foreign nations--are still woefully deficient. As
+rhythm is the basic element in all music, there is nothing in which
+the listener should more definitely train his faculties than in
+intelligent cooperation with the freedom of the composer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE TWO-PART AND THREE-PART FORMS
+
+
+Now that a clear insight has been gained into the formation of the
+normal sentence, we are in a position to understand how sentences may
+be combined to make complete compositions. The simplest and most
+primitive structure is that which contains _two_ complete sentences;
+dividing itself naturally into _two_ parts and hence known as the
+Two-Part Form. This form by reason of its simplicity and directness is
+often found in the short pianoforte pieces of Schumann, Tchaikowsky,
+Brahms, Grieg and Debussy. For a long period there was no attempt at
+differentiation between vocal and instrumental style; music, in fact,
+during the 15th and 16th centuries was often entitled "buon da cantare
+ou suonare," _i.e._, equally well suited for voices or instruments.
+When instrumental players were in search of pieces, they simply
+transferred to their instruments the voice-parts of the Madrigals and
+Canzonas which were then so fashionable.[63] With the development of
+instruments--especially of the Violin family--and with the desire for
+an instrumental style which should be independent of words, principles
+of coherent design had to be evolved; and they were suggested by the
+definite metre in the stanzas of the Folk-song and, above all, by the
+symmetrical phrases of the Folk-dance, used to accompany the
+_rhythmical_ motions of the body. By a utilization of these principles
+of balanced phrases, of contrasted keys and of periodic themes,
+instrumental music gradually worked out a structure of its own,[64]
+of which we find examples in National dances and in the compositions
+of such pioneers of instrumental style as the Italians Corelli and
+Vivaldi, the Frenchmen Lully, Couperin and Rameau, and the Englishman
+Purcell.
+
+[Footnote 63: For a complete account of this process see Parry's
+_Evolution of the Art of Music_, p. 115 _seq._]
+
+[Footnote 64: This book makes no attempt to give an historical account
+of the development of instrumental form. The subject is set forth
+comprehensively in the article on Form in Grove's Dictionary (Vol. II,
+p. 73) and in the Fifth and Sixth Chapters of Parry's _Evolution of
+the Art of Music_.]
+
+[Music:
+
+    Viens dans ce bocage belle Aminte,
+    Sans contrainte L'on y forme des voeux;
+    Viens, Viens dans ce bocage belle Aminte,
+    Il est fait pour les plaisirs et les jeux.]
+
+In this rhythmic and sprightly dance of exactly 8 measures (an old
+French _Tambourin_ taken from Weckerlin's _Echos du Temps Passe_) we
+see clearly the influence of the metrical stanza of words and of the
+balanced phrases in the instrumental part, necessary to accompany the
+steps of the dancers. The melody of the accompaniment was played on a
+flute or some simple kind of pipe, and the bass on a Tambour de
+Basque--a rude form of drum, which repeated continually the tonic and
+dominant of the key; the same effect which we associate with the
+Bagpipe and Hurdy-gurdy.
+
+[Music: PURCELL: Jig.]
+
+In this Jig, which was a favorite type with the English
+peasantry--divided into three sentences of exactly 8 measures
+each--the dance rhythm is very sharply defined. From various
+dance-patterns a structural type was gradually evolved, of which the
+chief features will now be indicated. The music was divided into _two_
+distinct halves and it became the convention to gain length by
+repeating each half--in the early days of the form, _literally_ (with
+a double bar and sign of repeat); later, as composers gained freedom,
+with considerable amplification. Each half presented the _same_
+material (it was a _one_-theme form) but the two halves were
+contrasted in _tonality_, _i.e._, the first part, beginning in the
+home-key, would modulate to some related key--generally the dominant;
+the second part, starting out in this key, gradually modulated back to
+a final cadence in the original key, and often--especially in Haydn
+and Mozart--repeated the entire main sentence of the first part. The
+general effect of such a form has been wittily described[65] as
+resembling the actions of "the King of France who, with twenty
+thousand men, marched up the hill and then marched down again"--but he
+surely had no exciting adventures in between! It is evident that this
+form, while favorable to coherence and unity, is lacking in scope and
+in opportunity for variety and contrast. It did, however, emphasize
+the principle of recapitulation; in fact it became the convention (as
+we shall see in the dances of the Suite) for the closing measures of
+the second part to be an exact duplicate in the home-key of that which
+had been presented at the end of part one. We shall observe, as we
+continue our studies, that the trend of musical composition gradually
+swung over to the Three-part form, the essential feature of which is
+restatement after _intervening contrast_.
+
+[Footnote 65: See _The Appreciation of Music_ by Surette and Mason, p.
+36.]
+
+For illustrations of the Two-part Form see the Supplement Nos. 20, 21,
+22, 23, 24.
+
+Only in such comparatively simple examples as those just cited is
+found this perfect balance in the length of the two parts. We often
+observe extended sentences in the first part; and it became the custom
+for the second part to be considerably lengthened, to include
+modulations into more remote keys and even to display certain
+developments of the main material. For a striking example of a
+movement which, although definitely in Two-part form, (_i.e._, it is
+in two clear divisions and has but _one_ theme) is yet of considerable
+scope and variety, see the Allegretto of Beethoven's Fourth Sonata. It
+was, in fact, this instinct for contrasting variety in the second
+part[66] which (as can be shown from historical examples)[67]
+gradually led to the developing and establishment of the Three-part
+form.
+
+[Footnote 66: As an illustration of this tendency see the Scherzo of
+Beethoven's Second Sonata, the second part of which has a new theme of
+its own, although the movement as a whole is clearly in Two-part
+form.]
+
+[Footnote 67: See _The Sonata Form_ by W.H. Hadow, Chapter III.]
+
+The essentials of this structure, so frequent in all pianoforte
+literature, are the existence of _three_ distinct _parts_--hence the
+name: a clause of assertion in the home-key; a second clause,
+affording a genuine _contrast_ to the first part in regard to key,
+melodic outline and general treatment, and a third clause of
+reassertion, which shall repeat--either literally or in varied
+form--the material of part one.[68] In the Three-part form, as
+employed in the classic Minuet and Scherzo, each of the three parts
+_taken by itself_ is in complete Two-part form; and as the third part
+was generally a literal repetition of part one, it was not written
+out, but at the end of the middle part (called the Trio, because it
+was originally written in three-voiced harmony) we find the direction
+"Minuet or Scherzo da capo," meaning a return to the first part. A
+coda or tail-piece is often added to round out the form. As the
+student will become thoroughly familiar with the Three-part form, in
+connection with the classic Symphonies soon to be studied (each
+Minuet, Scherzo or Trio being an example), our illustrations show the
+use of this form in independent pieces and are chiefly taken from
+modern literature; the object being so to interest the student in the
+beauty of these compositions as to convince him that in all good music
+content and design go hand is hand. For examples[69] see Supplement
+Nos. 25, 26, 27.
+
+[Footnote 68: The three-part form is derived partly from the Italian
+"da Capo Aria" and partly from the fundamental instinct for
+restatement which we have seen in the Folk-song.]
+
+[Footnote 69: Additional illustrations, which will repay study are the
+following: the Allegretto of Beethoven's Sixth Sonata; the Schubert
+Impromptu, op. 90, No. 4; Brahms's Intermezzo, op. 117, No. 1 and the
+Ballade in G minor, op. 118, No. 3, and for orchestra--in extended
+treatment--Debussy's _Prelude a l'apres-midi d'un Faune_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE CLASSICAL AND THE MODERN SUITE
+
+
+No sooner had the Two-and Three-part forms become accepted as definite
+means of instrumental expression, than composers were eager to try
+their skill in combining dance-movements in such forms into larger
+groups. These compositions--known in France as Ordres, in Germany as
+Suites and Partitas and in England as Lessons--though all the
+movements were in the _same key_, yet showed considerable variety by
+reason of the contrast in the dance rhythms. They were, moreover,
+simple, direct and easily understood of the people.[70] This
+development was furthered by the perfecting of two groups of
+instruments: The violins, by the great Italian masters; and those
+precursors of our modern pianoforte, the harpsichord, clavichord and
+spinet. We find, consequently, the Italians--of whom Corelli was most
+prominent--combining these dances into groups called Sonate da Ballo:
+and the French composers Couperin and Rameau, developing the
+possibilities of keyed stringed instruments in graceful pieces to
+which fantastic titles, such as _La Poule_, _Le Rappel des Oiseaux_,
+etc., were often given. The greatest master of instrumental style in
+these early days was the Italian, Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757). He
+was famous both as composer and performer--the first, in fact, of the
+long line of key-board virtuosi--and in his compositions in dance form
+and in those of a more abstract type there is a sparkling fancy and an
+adjustment of the thought to his instrument, which will keep them
+forever immortal.[71]
+
+[Footnote 70: For an interesting and comprehensive account of this
+development see Grove's Dictionary, Volume IV, article on the Suite.]
+
+[Footnote 71: For extensive comments on Scarlatti's style see _The
+History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players_ by Oscar Bie, pp.
+68-90.]
+
+The grouping together of dance forms reached its highest development
+through the genius of Sebastian Bach in the so-called _French and
+English Suites_.[72] In these compositions--in the Partitas and in the
+orchestral Suite in D major, which contains the well-known Aria, often
+played in transcription for Violin solo--the dance-forms are not
+employed literally but are made a vehicle for the expression of varied
+types of human emotion and sentiment. Nor should we overlook the
+twelve _Harpsichord Lessons_ of Handel--especially the superb Fugue in
+E minor in the Fourth Suite--which are noteworthy for their vigor,
+though, in freshness and delicacy of invention, not to be compared
+with Bach's.
+
+[Footnote 72: These titles, according to Parry (see his life of Bach,
+Chapters IV and XII passim), were not given by Bach himself but were
+assigned, in the case of the French Suites, to denote the delicacy of
+treatment found therein, and in the English, a certain massive style.]
+
+We now give a tabulated list of the customary dance forms, both as
+found in the Classic and the modern Suite or used as independent
+pieces; and we shall then analyze those which have the most
+characteristic rhythmic pattern.
+
+
+LIST OF DANCES
+
+_______________________________________________________________________________
+NAME       | ORIGIN       | METER    | FORM       | CHARACTER
+___________|______________|__________|____________|____________________________
+Allemande  | Suabian      |   4/4    | Two-part   | Moderately quick;
+           |              |          |            | flowing, with a rather
+           |              |          |            | rich harmonic texture.
+           |              |          |            |
+{Courante  | French       | 3/4, 3/2 | Two-part   | Running, lively; the 2/2
+{Corrente  | Italian      |          |            | type always with a change
+           |              |          |            | of meter at the cadences.
+           |              |          |            |
+Sarabande  | Spanish      | 3/2, 3/4 | Two-part   | Stately, dignified; often
+           |              |          |            | noble and even
+           |              |          |            | dramatically pathetic.
+           |              |          |            |
+Hornpipe   | English      |   4/4    | Two-part   | Rapid, merry, energetic.
+           |              |          |            |
+{Gigue     | Italian      |   6/8,   | Two-part   | Very lively, rollicking,
+{Jig       | giga, an     |  12/8,   |            | even jocose.
+           | early violin |   4/8    |            |
+           |              |          |            |
+Gavotte    | French       | 4/4, 2/2 | Two-part   | Moderately fast;
+           |              |          |            | well-marked rhythm,
+           |              |          |            | often stately.
+           |              |          |            |
+Bourree    | French       |   4/4    | Two-part   | Lively, vigorous.
+           |              |          |            |
+Minuet     | French       | 3/4, 3/8 | Two-part   | Moderately fast; dainty,
+           |              |          |            | graceful, courtly.
+           |              |          |            |
+Passepied  | French       |   3/4    | Two-part   | Light, delicately animated.
+           |              |          |            |
+Loure      | French       | 6/4, 4/4 | Two-part   | Rather slow, stately.
+           |              |          |            |
+Pavane     | Italian      |   2/4    | Two-part   | Solemn, impressive.
+           |              |          |            |
+Galliard   | Italian      | 3/2, 2/2 | Two-part   | Lively, merry.
+           |              |          |            |
+{Branle    | French       | 4/4, 3/4 | Two-part   | Lively, with great abandon.
+{Brawl     | English      |          |            |
+           |              |          |            |
+Polonaise  | Polish       |   3/4    | Varied     | Dignified and courtly, but
+           |              |          |            | with life.
+           |              |          |            |
+Mazurka    | Polish       |   3/4    | Varied     | Great range of speed and
+           |              |          |            | effect; at times sustained
+           |              |          |            | and pathetic, often
+           |              |          |            | bright and lively.
+           |              |          |            |
+Polka      | Bohemian     |   2/4    | Generally  | Merry, animated.
+           |              |          | three-part |
+           |              |          |            |
+Furiant    | Bohemian     |   3/4    | Varied     | Very lively, even frenzied.
+           |              |          |            |
+Waltz      | German       |   3/4    | Two-part   | Graceful; varied in effect;
+           |              |          |    or      | at times lively, often
+           |              |          | three-part | slow.
+           |              |          |            |
+Bolero     | Spanish      |   3/4    | Three-part | Brisk, well-marked rhythm.
+           |              |          |            |
+Tarantella | Italian      |   6/8    | Varied     | Very lively, impassioned.
+           |              |          |            |
+Saltarello | Italian      | 6/8, 3/4 | Varied     | With  quick, jumping
+           |              |          |            | rhythm.
+           |              |          |            |
+Rigaudon   | French       | 2/4, 4/4 | Varied     | Lively, gay.
+           |              |          |            |
+March      | Found in     |   4/4    | Varied     | Stately, with marked
+           | every nation |          |            | rhythm.
+           |              |          |            |
+Csardas    | Hungarian    | 3/4, 2/4 | Varied     | Impassioned; with great
+           |              |          |            | variety of effect.
+           |              |          |            |
+Halling    | Scandinavian |   2/4    | Varied     | Fresh, vigorous,
+           |              |          |            | out-of-doors atmosphere.
+           |              |          |            |
+Tango      | Mexican      |  Varied  | Varied     | With reckless abandon.
+           |              |          |            |
+Habanera   | Spanish      |   2/4    | Varied     | Graceful; with
+           |              |          |            | characteristic rhythm.
+           |              |          |            |
+Seguidilla | Spanish      | 3/4, 3/8 | Varied     | Fantastic; sometimes
+           |              |          |            | stately, sometimes gay
+           |              |          |            | and lively.
+           |              |          |            |
+{Jota,     | Spanish      |   3/4    | Free       | A kind of waltz, but with
+{often     |              |          |            | more freedom in the
+{Jota      |              |          |            | dancing, and of a vigorous
+{Aragonesa |              |          |            | and fiery nature.
+           |              |          |            |
+           |              |          |            |
+Malaguena  | Spanish      |   3/8    | In couplet | A dance of moderate
+           |              |          | form       | movement, accompanied by
+           |              |          |            | guitar and castanets;
+           |              |          |            | languorous and sensual in
+           |              |          |            | mood.
+           |              |          |            |
+Siciliano  | Sicilian     |   6/8,   | Two-part,  | Graceful; of a Pastorale
+           |              |  12/8    | three-part,| nature.
+           |              |          | often a    |
+           |              |          | Rondo      |
+___________|______________|__________|____________|____________________________
+
+The four indispensable movements of the classic or 18th century Suite
+were the Allemande, the Courante, the Sarabande and the Gigue; and,
+between the last two, it became customary to insert an optional number
+of other dances--the most usual being the Gavotte, Bourree, Minuet and
+Passepied. In effect, the Suite was a kind of "international
+Potpourri" of the dances most in vogue, and affords us a vivid
+reflection of the manners and customs of the period. Many of the
+English Suites begin with an elaborate polyphonic Prelude. We shall
+not give a detailed analysis of all these dance movements; for the
+main characteristics the tabulated list will suffice, and in the book
+of Supplementary examples (see No. 35) will be found the 6th French
+Suite complete. It will be more useful to center attention on those
+dances which, in rhythmic pattern, are especially typical and are most
+frequently employed in modern music; and we shall select, as examples
+drawn from various sources, those dances which make a direct appeal.
+The most characteristic of the dances are the Sarabande, the Gavotte,
+the Minuet and the Gigue; and with the last, as exemplifying the same
+spirit, may be grouped the Rigaudon, Furiant, Tarantella and
+Saltarello.
+
+The Sarabande is a slow, stately dance; always in triple meter
+indicated by 3/2 or 3/4. Its striking features are the frequent
+occurrence of the rhythmic pattern
+
+[Music] or [Music]
+
+in which it is evident that there is a strong accent on the weak
+beats; and the prevalence of feminine endings in the cadences. The
+Sarabande always displays great depth of emotion--often of a tragic
+and impassioned kind; and, in the Suite, seems to have served the
+composer for the same outpouring of feeling which we associate with
+the slow movement in the later Sonata or Symphony. The example cited
+in the Supplement (See No. 28)--taken from one of Bach's Sonatas for
+'cello--is considered one of the most beautiful in existence. Other
+eloquent Sarabandes may be found in the Second and Third English
+Suites and in Handel's noble Air "Lascia ch'io pianga" from the opera
+of _Rinaldo_. Two fine modern examples of this dance are the second
+number in Paderewski's _Humoresques de Concert_, op. 14, and the
+second number in the set of pieces by Debussy, _Pour le
+Piano_--_Prelude_, _Sarabande_, _Toccata_. Composers sometimes employ
+the Sarabande rhythm for its inherent beauty, or for dramatic purposes
+without indication of the fact. Examples are the theme for variations
+in Beethoven's Sonata, op. 109, and the opening measures of the
+_Egmont Overture_ where, by means of the characteristic Spanish
+dance-rhythm, an atmosphere of oppression and dejection is
+established, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The Gavotte is an energetic yet dignified dance in duple rhythm (it is
+almost always played too fast)--the characteristics of which are its
+beginning on the half-measure and its strongly marked cadences. One of
+the most stirring examples is that cited from the Third English Suite
+(See Supplement No. 29) which, with its subdued middle portion, La
+Musette,[73] is an early example of tripartite arrangement. Other
+gavottes[74] are the favorite one from the Fifth French Suite, that
+from Handel's opera _Ottone_ (so often played in organ or pianoforte
+transcriptions) and, from modern literature, the charming one in
+d'Albert's _Suite for Pianoforte_, op. 1.
+
+[Footnote 73: So-called because it is written on a sustained bass note
+or pedal point; a feature of the Musette (the French name for Bagpipe)
+being its persistent drone bass on the tonic and the dominant.]
+
+[Footnote 74: An interesting example may also be found in Grieg's
+_Holberg Suite for Pianoforte_.]
+
+The Minuet is of particular interest, not alone because of the many
+beautiful examples of its use but because it is the only dance which,
+carried over from the Suite, has remained an integral movement of
+Symphonic compositions. The Minuet, in its older form, was a stately
+dance; the derivation of the term (French menu) referring to the
+dainty steps of the dancers, always in 3/8 or 3/4 metre and beginning
+on the first beat of the measure. By Haydn the character of the Minuet
+was considerably changed; the tempo becomes much faster, the music
+begins on the third beat of the measure instead of the first and the
+mood is one of playful humor--at times even of downright jollity. In
+the Minuets of Mozart the peculiar characteristics are grace and
+tenderness rather than rollicking fun, _e.g._, the charming examples
+in the E-flat major and G minor Symphonies. Concerning the
+transformation by Beethoven of the Minuet into the Scherzo, with its
+fantastic and freakish atmosphere, we shall speak more fully in
+connection with his Symphonies. Of the examples cited in the
+Supplement (see Nos. 30 and 31) the former, from the first Finale of
+Mozart's opera _Don Giovanni_, remains one of the most famous minuets
+in existence; and the two from Rameau's opera, _Castor and Pollux_,
+are of inimitable spontaneity and rhythmic grace. They are grouped in
+contrasting, tripartite arrangement. In modern literature every one
+knows of the melodious example for Pianoforte by Paderewski (No. 1 of
+the _Humoresques de Concert_) and the _Menuet Italien_ by Mrs. Beach;
+that in the last scene of Verdi's _Falstaff_ is also well worth
+acquaintance.
+
+The last of the particularly characteristic dances is the Gigue with
+its counterparts mentioned above. This is a rapid, animated dance in
+6/8, 3/8, 12/8, 12/16 (sometimes 4/4) with marked rhythm; the term
+being derived from giga (German, geige)--an early name for fiddle--on
+account of the power of accent associated with the violin family. The
+Gigue is always the closing number of Bach's Suites, in order to give
+a final impression of irrepressible vitality and gaiety, and is
+treated with considerable polyphonic complexity; in fact, his gigues
+often begin like a complete Fugue. They are all in clear-cut Two-part
+form; and it became the convention for the second part to treat the
+motive in _inverted_ form. The example cited from Bach's Fifth French
+Suite (see Supplement No. 32) is unsurpassed for rhythmic energy; the
+closing measures sound as if all the bells of heaven were ringing. The
+example of Mozart (see Supplement No. 33) is noteworthy for its daring
+use of the dissonant element and for its free modulations. Of the
+counterparts of the gigue the following are excellent examples: The
+Rigaudon--the Finale of Grieg's _Holberg Suite_, the vigorous one from
+Rameau's opera _Dardanus_, and MacDowell's independent piece in this
+form, op. 49, No. 2; the Furiant--the Finale of Dvo[vr]ak's _Suite for
+Small Orchestra_, op. 30 (accessible in an effective pianoforte
+arrangement for four hands); the _Tarantelle_--Chopin's independent
+piece in this rhythm, op. 43, and the brilliant Finale of
+Rheinberger's Pianoforte Sonata for four hands, op. 122; the
+Saltarello--the last movement of Mendelssohn's _Italian Symphony_ and
+the main portion of Berlioz's _Carnaval Romain Overture_. One
+additional example is cited (see Supplement No. 34), a Courante by D.
+Scarlatti, to give an example of his pianoforte style. In connection
+with these dances, especially the Sarabande, Gavotte, Loure, Pavane,
+Polonaise and Tarantelle, there should be read the articles treating
+of each dance in Grove's Dictionary; for these dances are so closely
+connected with human activity that a knowledge of their development
+broadens our horizon in many matters pertaining to social life and
+civilization in general. As to specific examples of the less usual
+dances, many of the quaintest are found in the works of the early
+English composers: Byrd, Bull, etc., in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book,
+_e.g._, _The Lord of Salisbury his Pavan_. An excellent example of the
+Loure is the well-known arrangement from Bach's third 'Cello sonata.
+Chopin, in his works, has glorified both the Polonaise and the
+Mazurka; Bizet, in his opera Carmen, has used the Habanera and the
+Seguidilla, and there is a wonderful use of the Habanera rhythm in
+Debussy's descriptive piece _Soiree dans Grenade_. The French composer
+Ravel in his pianoforte piece _Pavane pour un enfant defunt_ has used
+with remarkable effect the stately rhythm of that dance. The Spanish
+composers, Albeniz and Granados, frequently employ national dance
+rhythms in their pieces. The French composer Chabrier's _Bourree
+Fantasque_ is a dazzling modernization of the old form; and his
+_Espana_ for full orchestra fairly intoxicates us with its dashing
+rhythms based upon the Jota and the Malaguena.[75] Debussy's
+well-known piece _Hommage a Rameau_ is in the style of the Sarabande.
+The allusions in literature to these dances are so frequent that only
+a few can be cited. The very spirit of the Jig is given in Pope's line
+"Make the soul dance upon a jig to Heaven." In speaking of the antics
+of Sir Andrew Aguecheek in Twelfth Night, Shakespeare remarks--"I did
+think by the excellent constitution of thy leg that it was formed
+under the star of a Galliard." One of the most remarkable works of the
+English composer John Dowland (born 1562) is entitled _Lachrymae, or
+Seven Teares, figured in seven passionate Pavans_.
+
+[Footnote 75: For a vivid description of these dances see Chabrier's
+_Lettres a Nanette_, Paris, 1910.]
+
+The Suite, by reason of its freedom in combining different rhythms and
+moods, has appealed vividly to modern composers; and the literature of
+our times contains a number of Suites which should be known to the
+music-lover. In these modern Suites no attempt is made to conform to
+the old conventional grouping of dances. The movements are in
+different keys, are often based on rhythms of an exotic or
+ultra-nationalistic type--as in Tchaikowsky and Dvo[vr]ak, or may
+employ any material suggested by the fantastic imagination of the
+composer--as in Debussy and Ravel. Among the most attractive modern
+Suites may be cited: The _Peer Gynt_ (put together from incidental
+music to Ibsen's play) and the _Holberg_ by Grieg; the two
+_L'Arlesienne Suites_ by Bizet (written to illustrate Daudet's
+romantic story)--the first, with its dainty Minuet and brilliant
+Carillons (Peal of bells); Dvo[vr]ak's _Suite for Small Orchestra_,
+op. 39, with its sprightly Polka and impassioned Furiant;
+Tchaikowsky's five Orchestral Suites of which the best known are the
+_Casse-Noisette_ with its exotic rhythms and novel orchestral effects,
+the _Mozartiana_ and the third which closes with a brilliant
+Polonaise; Brahms's _Serenades_ for orchestra; Charpentier's
+_Impressions of Italy_ in which there is an effective use of Italian
+rhythm and color; MacDowell's _Indian Suite_, with several of the
+themes based on native tunes; the fascinating orchestral Suite
+_Adventures in a Perambulator_ by John Alden Carpenter; Arthur
+Whiting's _Suite Moderne_ for pianoforte; _Stevensoniana_, (based on
+stanzas from Stevenson's _Child's Garden of Verses_) an orchestral
+Suite in four movements by Edward B. Hill; Debussy's _Suite
+Bergamasque_ in which is found the oft-played _Clair de Lune_;
+Ravel's[76] _Mother Goose_, a delightful work--and by the same
+composer the _Daphnis and Chloe_ Suite, the material drawn from an
+opera of the same name. In modern literature easily the most
+celebrated and brilliant example of this type is the _Scheherazade
+Suite_ (based on the Arabian Nights) for full orchestra by
+Rimsky-Korsakoff. This work in the genuine poetic quality of its
+themes, in its marvellous descriptive power and in the boldness of its
+orchestral effect remains unsurpassed.
+
+[Footnote 76: See also _Le Tombeau de Couperin_ in which is a very
+novel Rigaudon.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE OLDER RONDO FORM
+
+
+One of the earliest instrumental forms to be worked out[77] was the
+Rondo, which is merely an extension of the _three-part_ principle of
+"restatement after contrast" and which, by reason of its logical
+appeal, has retained its place to this day. Originally the Rondo was a
+combination of dance and song; that is, the performers sang and danced
+in a circle--holding one another's hands. The music would begin with a
+chorus in which all joined, one of the dancers would then sing a solo,
+after which all would dance about and repeat the chorus; other solos
+would follow, the chorus being repeated after each. The characteristic
+feature, then, of this structure is the _continual recurrence_ to a
+principal motive after intervening contrasts--hence the name Rondo
+(French, Rondeau); exemplifying a principle found not only in
+primitive folk-songs and dances but in literature, _e.g._, many of the
+songs of Burns and the Rondeaux of Austin Dobson. For it is obvious
+that the form answers to the simplest requirements of unity and
+contrast. Frequent examples of the Rondo are found in all early
+instrumental composers: Bach, _e.g._, the charming one in C minor in
+his third Partita; Couperin, Rameau, Haydn and Mozart. It is found
+also in vocal works, _e.g._, Purcell's well-known song "I Attempt from
+Love's Sickness to Fly." From the standpoint of modern taste, however,
+Beethoven was--with few exceptions--the first to treat the form with
+real genius; and so our illustrations are taken chiefly from his
+works and from those of his successors. Although there need be no
+arbitrary limit to the alternation of the chief part with the
+subsidiary portions--in fact, Beethoven's humorous _Rondo Capriccio,
+On a Lost Farthing_ has as many as _eleven_ sections--it gradually
+became conventional for the form to consist of _five parts_: a first
+presentation and two repetitions of the main theme together with two
+contrasting portions called _Episodes_, to which a free Coda was often
+added. The form would then be A, b, A', c, A'', Coda--A' and A''
+indicating that the repetition need not be _literal_, but often varied
+rhythmically and harmonically; not, however, so as to obliterate the
+original outline. For in a well-constructed Rondo the main theme must
+be one of such direct appeal that we _look forward_ to hearing it
+_again_; and the successive repetitions must be so planned that we can
+easily enjoy this pleasure of reminiscence. It also became customary
+not to block off the sections with rigid cadences but often to insert
+modulatory passages, thus securing a continuous flow of thought. This
+practise we see particularly in Beethoven and Schumann. The form which
+we are discussing is the so-called Older Rondo Form, clearly derived
+from the dance described above. Beginning[78] with Beethoven, however,
+we find numerous examples of a different kind of rondo treatment which
+developed in connection with the Sonata Form--to be explained later.
+The Rondo-Sonata Form, as it is generally called, is in fact a hybrid
+type, with certain features derived from rondo structure and certain
+from the pure sonata form. The Finales to Beethoven's Sonatas, when
+entitled Rondos, are--with few exceptions--of this Rondo-Sonata type.
+An excellent example, which should be well known, is the Finale of the
+Sonata Pathetique. Although there are many cases of _free_ treatment
+of the rondo principle, they are all based on one or the other of
+these two fundamental types. Schumann was extremely fond of this Older
+Rondo Form, as may be seen from his frequent practice of writing two
+Trios to the Scherzos of his Symphonies. A moment's thought will make
+clear that a Scherzo with two Trios and the customary repetitions will
+conform exactly to the pattern given above, _i.e._, A, b, A', c, A''
+Coda, _e.g._, Scherzo, First Trio = First Episode, First return,
+Second Trio = Second Episode, Final return and Coda--five portions in
+all, or six when there is a Coda. For convincing examples see the
+Scherzos of the First and Second Symphonies. Schumann's well-known
+_Arabesque_ for pianoforte, op. 18, is a beautiful, clear-cut example
+of the form; with an interpolated modulatory passage between the first
+episode and first return, and a poetic Coda which has, for its closing
+measures, the chief motive in augmentation (already referred to on p.
+45). To show Schumann's partiality for this form the student may be
+referred to Nos. 2 and 8 of the _Kreisleriana_ (op. 16) and to Nos. 1,
+2 and 3 of the "Nachtstuecke" (op. 23). The third of the _Romances_
+(op. 28)--a remarkably free example in the grouping of the material
+and in the key-relationship--is cited in the Supplement (No. 37). An
+excellent example (readily accessible), popular by reason of its
+freedom of treatment, as well as for its inherent sparkle and dash, is
+the Finale of Weber's Sonata in C major, op. 24--the so-called _Moto
+Perpetuo_. The most famous example of this form in classical
+literature is undoubtedly the Finale of Beethoven's _Waldstein
+Sonata_, op. 53, with its melodious and easily remembered first
+subject, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Music]
+
+its two episodes in A minor and C minor (which afford most dramatic
+contrasts to the lyric quality of the main subject) and its glorious,
+long-extended Coda of about three pages.[79]
+
+[Footnote 77: For a complete account of the historical development see
+the article on Form in Grove's Dictionary Vol. II and Hadow's _Sonata
+Form_, Chapter IX.]
+
+[Footnote 78: There is an early example in the Rondo of Mozart's
+Sonata for Pianoforte in B-flat major.]
+
+[Footnote 79: For a complete detailed analysis of the movement see
+Prout, _Applied Forms_, pp. 120-121.]
+
+As stated above, the Older Rondo-Form has not become obsolete; indeed,
+by reason of its possibilities for emphasis and contrast it has
+commended itself to modern composers. Striking examples may be found
+in the Finale of Brahms's Pianoforte Sonata in F minor, in the Finale
+of Tchaikowsky's Fourth Symphony and, above all, in the Symphonic
+Poems of Strauss, _Don Juan_ and _Till Eulenspiegel_, in which the
+form is admirably adapted to the dramatic needs of these descriptive
+works. Additional examples, which can be readily procured, are the
+Slow Movement of the _Sonata Pathetique_, op. 13, Beethoven's
+well-known _Andante in F major_--remarkable for its brilliant
+Coda--and his Rondo, already cited, _On the Lost Farthing_. (See
+Supplement No. 38). Although there is a certain stiffness in this form
+these examples afford the student excellent rudimentary practise in
+ease of listening.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE VARIATION FORM
+
+
+Monotony, as previously suggested, is more unendurable in music than
+in any of the other arts. We should therefore expect to find musicians
+inventing new devices to vary their thoughts so that the interest of
+the hearer might be continually sustained and refreshed. Thus there
+gradually grew up the form known as the Varied Air--a term meaning the
+presentation of the same musical material under different aspects. As
+far back as we can trace the development of instrumental structure,
+there appears this instinct for varying a simple tune by
+embellishments of a rhythmical and melodic nature. Examples abound in
+the works of the early Italian masters, in the harpsichord pieces of
+the English composers Byrd and Bull[80] and in the music of Couperin
+and Rameau. But all these Variations, however interesting from a
+historical point[81] of view, are very labored and lack any real
+poetic growth. They are, moreover, often prolonged to an interminable
+length--one example, as late as Handel, consisting of an Air with
+sixty-two Variations; prolixity or "damnable iteration" being as bad a
+blemish in music as in any of the other arts. In the early days of
+instrumental composition, about all that composers could do was "to
+put the theme through its paces." That is, there was no unfolding of
+the poetic possibilities of the melody. The successive variations were
+all in the same key; the harmonic basis was practically unchanged and
+the treatment consisted of dressing up the theme with stereotyped
+embellishment-figures and of systematic rhythmic animation--produced
+by the addition of more and more notes to each time unit. A standard
+illustration of this type of Variations is the so-called _Harmonious
+Blacksmith_ of Handel from his _Suite in E Major_. This piece owes
+whatever popularity it may have preserved to the sturdy swing of the
+main theme and to the fact that it makes no demand on the attention of
+the most untrained listener. In fairness we should state that on the
+harpsichord--with its contrasting stops and key-boards--for which the
+piece was composed, there is possible more variety of effect than on
+the modern pianoforte.
+
+[Footnote 80: We would cite the piece entitled _Les Buffons_ by Bull,
+and Byrd's variations to the popular tune the _Carman's Whistle_,
+which latter have considerable archaic charm and distinction; for Byrd
+was a real genius. These are readily accessible in popular editions.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Consult the comprehensive article on Variations in
+Grove's Dictionary, Vol. V.]
+
+Three collateral early forms deserve a passing mention because,
+notwithstanding a certain rigidity of structure, they have been used
+by the great masters for the expression of sublime thoughts. These are
+the Ground Bass (or, as it is sometimes called, the Basso Ostinato),
+the Chaconne and the Passacaglia[82] which, in modern literature, is
+well represented by the magnificent "tour de force" that serves as the
+Finale to Brahms's _Fourth Symphony_. By a Ground Bass is meant a
+theme, continually repeated, in the lowest voice, each time with
+varied upper parts. An excellent example (see Supplement No. 39) is
+the Aria "When I am laid in earth" from Purcell's Opera _Dido and
+Aeneas_. It is evident that the persistent iteration of a striking
+phrase in the bass gives an effect of dramatic intensity, as may be
+seen in the sublime "Crucifixion" of Bach's _Mass in B minor_.[83]
+The Chaconne and Passacaglia are old dance forms (examples of the
+former being found in Gluck's Ballet Music) and are closely related to
+the Ground Bass; since, in the majority of cases, we find the same
+procedure in the announcement of the theme and in its subsequent
+treatment. Two examples of the Chaconne from standard literature are
+the famous one of Bach in D minor for solo violin and Beethoven's
+thirty-two Variations in C minor for Pianoforte. The Passacaglia is of
+importance as shown by the striking example for organ in C minor by
+Bach on the following theme:
+
+[Music]
+
+Whoever has heard this majestic theme, which seems to bear the sorrows
+of the world on its shoulders, announced on the deep-sounding pedals
+will gain a lasting impression of the grandeur of Bach's style.
+
+[Footnote 82: For the derivation of the term consult the interesting
+article in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. IV.]
+
+[Footnote 83: A work before which Schumann said every musician should
+prostrate himself in adoration.]
+
+By the time of Haydn, the technical skill of composers had improved
+sufficiently so that we find in his works some genuinely interesting
+examples of the Variation form, _e.g._, the set on the well-known
+Austrian hymn from the _Kaiser Quartet in C major_--in which each of
+the five variations has a real individuality--and the _Variations in F
+minor for Pianoforte_: remarkable as an early example of the varied
+treatment of _two_ themes.
+
+Most of Mozart's Variations are based upon popular themes and, in
+general, may be considered as virtuoso pieces to show off the agility
+of the performer. We find occasional examples, as in the Clarinet
+Quintette and in the Sonata in D major, which are of more intrinsic
+worth.
+
+The genius of Beethoven first revealed the full possibilities of the
+form. In fact, so remarkable was his work that such creative composers
+as Cesar Franck and d'Indy consider the basic principles for our
+modern development of music to be found in the Fugue of Bach and the
+Varied Air of Beethoven. For, deadly dull as is the Variation form
+when treated in a stereotyped manner, by very reason of its freedom
+from arbitrary rules it may be a most elastic medium for the
+expression of poetic genius. The composer has but to invent a striking
+characteristic theme, rich in potential development, and then to let
+it develop for as long as he can retain the interest of his hearers.
+Likewise for a great orator the simple rule is to state a theme on
+which something worth while may be said and then by presenting it in
+new lights and with copious illustrations to drive the truth home. The
+principal and significant changes which we owe to Beethoven are the
+following: complete freedom in variety of key, so that at times (as in
+his op. 34) each variation is in a new key; a frequent omission of the
+rigid stops at the end of each variation, _e.g._, the Slow movement of
+the _Fifth Symphony_ and the third movement of the _Trio_, op. 96, so
+that a continuous flow of thought is preserved; the practice, so often
+followed in modern literature, of founding variations on a double
+theme--of which the Finale of the _Heroic Symphony_ is a striking
+example. But the chief advance in Beethoven is the entirely new
+conception of what variations should be; not, according to him, mere
+mechanical manipulations of the subject matter, but vital products of
+the imagination, as varied as the members of a human family having the
+same mother. Beethoven's variations, in fact, often seem like a series
+of character-pieces, each with its own individuality and yet retaining
+an organic relationship to the main thought. His fondness for the form
+and his mastery over it is seen by the frequency of its use in the
+last Sonatas and String-Quartets. Every composer since Beethoven has
+written one or more works in the Variation form; but we can mention
+only the most beautiful examples and then pass on to the daring
+conceptions of the modern school. The Variations by Schubert in his
+String-Quartet in D minor on the Song, _Death and the Maiden_, will
+amply repay study, and so will the _Variations Serieuses_, op. 54, for
+the pianoforte by Mendelssohn. As for Schumann, he was very happy in
+the use of this form, and his _Symphonic Etudes_, op. 13--in wealth of
+fancy and freedom of treatment--are quite unparalleled. His Variations
+for two pianofortes, op. 46, deserve also to be known. Among the
+finest examples since Beethoven are the numerous sets by Brahms,
+remarkable alike for emotional power, for free and yet logical
+treatment of the material and for solidity of workmanship. They
+include the _Variations on a theme from Handel_ for pianoforte, op.
+24; the set for orchestra, op. 56a, on the _St. Anthony Choral_ of
+Haydn; and the two sets, op. 35, on themes from Paganini--universally
+conceded to be the most brilliant examples for the pianoforte in
+recent literature.
+
+To speak now particularly of the modern school, there are five
+compositions in this form which, for their daring novelty and
+sustained eloquence, should be familiar to every music-lover and heard
+as often as possible. For they are elaborate works which must be
+thoroughly known to be understood and loved. (1), There is the set in
+Tchaikowsky's Pianoforte Trio in A minor, op. 50; noteworthy for
+freedom of modulation and for the striking individuality given to the
+different transformations of the theme--two of the changes being to a
+Waltz and a Mazurka. (2), _The Symphonic Variations_ for Pianoforte
+and Orchestra of Cesar Franck, based on two contrasting themes, one in
+the minor mode and one with modulations to the major. The variations
+are not numbered and there are no rigid stops; throughout the work
+Franck's marvellous power of modulation and rich harmonic texture are
+eloquently manifested. (3), The _Istar_ Variations for orchestra by
+d'Indy is one of the most original works in the whole field; in that,
+for dramatic reasons connected with the subject, the usual order is
+_reversed_ and the variations come _first_, gradually becoming more
+and more simple until we reach the theme itself, pure and unadorned.
+(4), The Symphonic Poem, _Don Quixote_, of R. Strauss, a complex set
+of Variations on _three_ themes which typify respectively the
+characters of Cervantes' story; the Knight, his attendant, Sancho
+Panza and Dulcinea. The variations are not confined to a merely
+abstract or formal treatment of the material but set before us a
+picture of the attributes of the characters and a description of some
+of their spectacular adventures. (5), Lastly the _Enigma Variations_
+for orchestra by Elgar, so-called because the identity of the basic
+theme is not revealed. The variations are character-pieces which for
+individuality and charm are a lasting glory to the genius of the
+composer.[84]
+
+[Footnote 84: For a detailed account see the third volume of D.G.
+Mason's _Appreciation of Music_ series.]
+
+We shall now analyze, with suggestive comments, two[85] of the
+well-known sets of Beethoven: the first movement of the Sonata, op.
+26, and the _Six Variations on an original theme_, op. 34. The
+variations from the Sonata are an early work; but, although definitely
+sectionalized and with only one change of tonality, they clearly
+reveal Beethoven's freedom of conception and his aversion to
+stereotyped treatment. The theme itself is a suave, appealing melody,
+already cited as an example of a sixteen-measure sentence, and
+admirably suited for variation purposes, since it arouses at once the
+expectation of the listener.[86] The first variation is a kind of
+shadowy, mysterious outline of the theme just presented, as if the
+composer were musing upon the latent possibilities of his material.
+There is a quickening of interest in the second variation which, with
+the theme in the bass, may be likened to a 'cello solo of a mildly
+bravura nature. (Note the fantastic accents on weak beats in measures
+18, 22, 23, and 24.) In the third variation comes a complete contrast
+in mood; the key is changed to A-flat minor and the theme is
+transformed into an elegy, all its joy crushed out. The movement
+abounds in impassioned dissonances, always emphasized by _sf_ marks,
+and the throbbing pulsations of the bass--in the second phrase--give a
+tragic intensity of feeling. With the fourth variation there enters
+that spirit of playfulness so characteristic of Beethoven--the
+movement being, in fact, a miniature Scherzo. The fifth and last
+variation is an idyllic revery in which the composer reviews and
+amplifies the many beautiful fancies which his imagination has
+conceived, and closes with a coda, based on the motive of the main
+theme, of tranquillity and satisfaction.
+
+[Footnote 85: These compositions are not printed in the Supplement, as
+it may be assumed that the student can readily procure them. They are
+published in a number of editions.]
+
+[Footnote 86: For some illuminating comments on the whole Sonata see
+Baxter Perry's _Descriptive Analysis of Pianoforte Works_. (The
+Theodore Presser Co.)]
+
+The set in F major, op. 34, is a striking illustration of Beethoven's
+fondness for mediant relationship, since no two variations are in the
+same key; the tonic of each being a _third_ below that of the
+preceding. The Key-scheme is F, D, B-flat, G, E-flat, C minor; and
+then, through the descent of a fifth, back to the home-key, or in
+actual notes:
+
+[Music]
+
+The first variation is a highly embellished treatment of the opening
+theme; the melodic outline being merely hinted at in unimportant parts
+of the phraseology, _e.g._
+
+[Music: original theme]
+
+[Music: 1st Variation]
+
+Written in the old ornate style, it is of interest chiefly for the
+pianistic effect. In the second Variation we have a change both of
+time and key; the impression being that of a distant march for men's
+voices or for soft trombones. The third Variation, again with change
+of time and key, illustrates Beethoven's fondness for a subtle
+outlining of the theme. In the fourth Variation the theme is
+transformed into a Minuet of graceful swing; and in the next Variation
+a strong contrast is afforded by the Funeral March, the minor mode
+being used for the first time. The last Variation--in the
+home-key--gives a brilliant summing up of the characteristic features
+of the theme. Note especially the reminiscent effect of the closing
+measures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE SONATA-FORM AND ITS FOUNDERS, EMMANUEL BACH AND HAYDN
+
+
+We have now set forth, with representative illustrations, all the
+fundamental forms of instrumental music, _i.e._, the Canon, Fugue and
+Invention, the Two and Three-part forms, the Rondo and the Varied Air.
+Through the perfecting of these means of expression music became a
+living language of communication, ready for that development which,
+through the genius of the Classic and Romantic masters, it was
+destined to show. The essential feature of all the above forms is the
+emphasis laid on _one theme_. This is strictly true of the polyphonic
+forms, the Canon, Fugue[87] and Invention and of the Two-part form;
+and although in the Three-part form we have a second theme, this is
+merely for contrast and is often of rather slight import. The same
+comment holds true of the Rondo where, notwithstanding the new
+contrasting themes of the episodes, the centre of attraction is the
+_single main theme_, to which constant recurrence is made. Obviously
+the Varied Air is the expansion of a single theme. But the principal
+characteristic of the Sonata-Form, now to be studied, is that we find
+therein _two themes_ of coequal importance, which may well be compared
+to the hero and heroine of a novel or the two leading characters in a
+drama. It is true that a composer will often in the creations of his
+imagination show a marked preference for one theme over the other;
+just as, in the family group to which the child owes its life, either
+the man or the woman is likely to be the stronger character. But as
+there can be no child without two parents, so the organism of the
+Sonata-Form derives its vitality from the presence and interaction of
+two living musical personalities, the first and second themes. The
+first theme is so called because it is the one first presented and
+because it generally furnishes the prevailing rhythmic pulse of the
+movement. Yet the second theme,--exactly as important in its own way,
+is often of a greater beauty; its title of "second theme" implying
+nothing of a secondary nature, but merely its position in order of
+appearance. No greater step was ever taken in the growth of musical
+structure than this introduction of a second coequal theme; for the
+principle of duality, of action and reaction between two forces, runs
+throughout nature both human and physical, as is seen from the import
+of the terms: man and woman, active and passive, positive and
+negative, heat and cold, light and darkness. The first theme, in fact,
+often resembles, in its vigor and directness, a masculine personality;
+while the second theme, in grace and tenderness, resembles the
+feminine. As long as music confined itself to the presentation of but
+one main theme it was hampered by the same limitations which beset the
+early Greek tragedians, in whose primitive plays[88] we find but one
+chief actor. The introduction of a second theme can not be attributed
+to _any single man_; indeed it resulted from a tendency of the times,
+the demand of which was for more homophonic melodies rather than for
+an elaborate polyphonic treatment of a single one. Embryonic traces of
+a second theme we find in D. Scarlatti (see Supplement No. 40) and in
+Sebastian Bach himself.[89] Scarlatti,[90] in fact, was often hovering
+close to the Sonata-Form and in the example just cited actually
+achieved it. The systematic employment of the second-theme principle,
+however, is commonly attributed to Emmanuel Bach (1714-1788), although
+an undue amount of praise, by certain German scholars, has been given
+his achievements to the exclusion of musicians from other nations who
+were working along the same lines. Any fair historical account of the
+development of the Sonata-Form should recognize the Italians,
+Sammartini and Galuppi; the gifted Belgian Gossec, who exercised such
+a marked influence in Paris, and above all, the Bohemian Johann
+Stamitz (1717-1757), the leader of the famous Mannheim Orchestra, of
+whom we shall speak further when we come to the orchestra as a medium.
+In many of Stamitz's Symphonies we find the essential first-movement
+structure (_i.e._, tripartite grouping with a clear second theme) and,
+as Riemann says in his _Handbuch der Musikgeschichte_, "Their sincere
+phraseology, their boldness of conception and the masterly _thematic
+development_ give Stamitz's works lasting value. Haydn and Mozart rest
+absolutely upon his shoulders."[91]
+
+[Footnote 87: Except in the comparatively rare cases where we have a
+Fugue on two subjects.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Illuminating comments on this point will be found in
+_Outlines of Musical Form_ from W.H. Hadow's _Studies in Modern Music_
+(2nd Series).]
+
+[Footnote 89: See the prelude in D major of the second book of the
+_Well-tempered Clavichord_.]
+
+[Footnote 90: For further information consult the first chapter of
+J.S. Shedlock's _The Pianoforte Sonata_.]
+
+[Footnote 91: For an extended account of this development see the
+second chapter, Vol. II, of _The Art of Music_ (The National Society
+of Music, N.Y.). See also Chapter XIX of Pratt's _History of Music_.]
+
+The other marked characteristic of the Sonata-Form is the _second_
+part which is known as the Development Section; for, as we shall soon
+explain, the structure as a whole is tripartite. In this portion of
+the movement the composer has an opportunity to improvise, as it were,
+with his material, using one theme or both as already presented. Dry
+and labored development sections may, of course, be found in certain
+Sonatas and Symphonies, but in the great works of such masters as
+Beethoven, Brahms, Tchaikowsky and d'Indy the development is the most
+exciting part of the movement. The hearer is conducted through a
+musical excursion; every device of rhythmic variety, of modulatory
+change and polyphonic imitation being employed to enhance the beauty
+of the themes and to reveal their latent possibilities.
+
+Before going further, it is well to point out a confusion which often
+arises between the terms Sonata and Sonata-Form. When we speak of
+Sonata-_Form_ we mean invariably the structural treatment as to number
+of themes, key-relationship, etc., of _any single_ movement within a
+series.[92] By the term Sonata is meant a composition generally in
+three or four movements, _e.g._, First Movement, Slow Movement, Minuet
+or Scherzo and Finale; of which, in most examples of the classic
+school, the First Movement--and often the last--were in Sonata-Form.
+An alternative name, indeed, for Sonata-Form is First Movement Form.
+Beginning with Beethoven, however, composers began to exhibit great
+freedom in the application of the Sonata-Form. We find Sonatas of
+Beethoven, notably the set op. 31, in which every movement (even the
+Scherzo) is in Sonata Form or a modification thereof; on the other
+hand, there are compositions, entitled Sonatas, in which not a single
+movement is in pure Sonata-Form, _e.g._, Beethoven's Twelfth Sonata,
+op. 26. These comments apply equally to many other large instrumental
+works. For a symphony is merely a Sonata for Orchestra, a
+String-Quartet a composition--of the same general type--for four solo
+instruments[93] and there is, furthermore, a large group of ensemble
+compositions: Sonatas for Violin (or any solo-instrument) and
+Pianoforte; Trios, often for unusual combinations, _e.g._, Brahms's
+_Trio for Violin, Horn and Pianoforte_; Quintets and even Septets--in
+all of which the distinction must be made between the terms Sonata and
+Sonata-Form. Nor is there any rigid rule in regard to number of
+movements or the moods expressed therein. The classic Sonata, Symphony
+or Quartet, as we have stated above, generally contained three or four
+movements, of which the first would be direct and vigorous in
+nature--a summons to attention--cast in sonata-form, with a wealth of
+material organically treated, and requiring from the listener
+concentrated attention. The second movement was generally much simpler
+in form, affording relief after the tension of the preceding
+movement--its themes of a lyric nature, often with great depth of
+emotion, sometimes even of tragic import. The third movement, Minuet
+or Scherzo, would portray the light, humorous side of life; and the
+Finale, joyful and optimistic--its themes often bearing strongly the
+sense of finality--would close the work with a general feeling of
+satisfaction. It was Beethoven who first modified these principles to
+suit his own poetic needs. Thus we find some of his Sonatas with only
+two movements; some have three, some have four. One of Schumann's
+Symphonies contains five movements and Rubinstein's _Ocean Symphony_
+seven! When we reach the modern school, we shall see further freedom
+as to number, order and type of movements.
+
+[Footnote 92: The form is also sometimes used independently, as in
+Brahms's _Rhapsody in G minor_ and often, of course, in the Overture.]
+
+[Footnote 93: _I.e._, 1st Violin, 2d Violin, Viola and Violoncello.]
+
+We are now prepared to sum up the essential characteristics of the
+Sonata-Form; for there is no structure in which it is more important
+for the music-lover to acquire the art of listening easily, naturally
+and with a minimum of friction. The Sonata-Form is the instrumental
+form "par excellence"--the Gothic Cathedral[94] of music--and has
+retained its place, not because of any slavish regard for form as
+such, but because it has been worked out, perfected and utilized by
+the greatest of the composers. Any form with a beginning, a middle and
+an ending, _i.e._, presenting material worthy of consideration, which
+allows this material to grow and realize its inherent possibilities
+and then sums the matter up in a convincing, objective close; which,
+furthermore, exemplifies the great principle of Duality, _i.e._,
+reveals _two_ musical personalities, has as little need for
+argumentative sanction as a tree or a human being. The Sonata-Form--often,
+to be sure, with free modifications--predominates in all the large
+instrumental compositions of the Classic, Romantic and Modern
+Composers, notably of such men as Beethoven, Schumann, Brahms, Cesar
+Franck, Tchaikowsky, d'Indy and Sibelius. Anyone unable readily to
+follow movements in this form, if he thinks he is receiving the
+complete message of the music, is his own dupe. It would be as logical
+to expect to enjoy the beauties of architecture without perceiving the
+difference between a nave and a bowling-alley. The obvious way to
+understand the meaning of a language is to know something of the
+principles of structure and expression in that language. Music is in
+very truth a language; and far too many people get from it nothing
+save the appeal which comes from its emotional power. This exciting
+experience is important, we may frankly acknowledge, but there are no
+reasons, save apathy and indifference, why the hearer should not have
+all this and more too. There is no conflict between warm emotions and
+an intelligent, well-trained mind. They should go hand in hand; and in
+any complete artistic appreciation each is indispensable.[95]
+
+[Footnote 94: See the eloquent comments on this analogy by d'Indy in
+his _Course in Composition_, Vol. II, Chap. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 95: "Art is not more a riot of the passions than it is a
+debauch of the senses; it contains, no doubt, sensuous and emotional
+elements, the importance of which there is no need to undervalue, but
+it is only artistic if it subordinate them to the paramount claims of
+reason." W.H. Hadow, _Studies in Modern Music_ (second series),
+preface.]
+
+The three main divisions of the Sonata-Form, with their essential
+features, are the following: (1) the Exposition, in which two themes
+in different tonalities are announced for the consideration--and, as
+the composer hopes, the pleasure--of the hearer. In the works of Haydn
+and Mozart this contrast of key was invariably that of Tonic and
+Dominant, _e.g._, C major and G major, or of major and relative minor,
+_e.g._, A-flat major and F minor. Beginning, however, with Beethoven
+great emphasis has been laid on _mediant_ relationship, _e.g._, C
+major and E major or C major and A-flat major; and in modern
+composers[96] this more stimulating change has largely superseded the
+former tonic and dominant grouping, _e.g._, Brahms's _Third Symphony_.
+We thus see that the harmonic feature of the Exposition is _Duality_
+of Key-relationship. Between these two main themes there is always a
+modulatory connection or Bridge Passage which, in the time of Haydn,
+was generally of a very perfunctory, stereotyped character. Wagner
+once sarcastically remarked that Haydn's transitions reminded him of
+the clatter of dishes between courses at a royal feast. In Mozart we
+find the bridge-passage more deftly planned, more organically
+connected with what precedes and follows; but it was Beethoven who, in
+this portion of the movement, first revealed its possibilities.
+Throughout his works the bridge-passage is never a mere mechanical
+modulation or a floundering about until the introduction of the second
+theme, but is so conceived that the interest of the hearer is
+increasingly aroused until, at the entrance of the second theme, he is
+in the highest state of expectancy.[97] A bridge-passage of this kind
+often has a subsidiary theme of its own, or even several melodic
+phrases, and is planned as carefully as the action by which a
+dramatist leads up to the entrance of his heroine. After the second
+theme we generally find a closing theme to round out the Exposition as
+a whole. This practice dates from Haydn and has been much expanded by
+modern composers. Witness the glorious climactic effect in Cesar
+Franck's _Symphony_ and in Brahms's _D major Symphony_ of the closing
+themes in the Expositions of the first movements. For many years it
+was the invariable custom to repeat the Exposition, and in Classic
+Symphonies we always find a double bar with marks of repeat and two
+endings. This practice was not an integral part of the form but was
+adopted so that the hearer, by going over the themes of the Exposition
+twice, might follow more intelligently their growth in the
+Development. With the advance in public appreciation this repeating of
+the Exposition has been largely abandoned; for there is no doubt that
+to begin all over again, when a certain objective point has been
+reached, breaks the continuous flow of the movement.[98]
+
+[Footnote 96: Some composers have also experimented with still freer
+key-relationships.]
+
+[Footnote 97: For striking examples see the Expositions of the first
+movements of Beethoven's _Third Symphony_ and of Tchaikowsky's _Sixth
+Symphony_.]
+
+[Footnote 98: The ultra-conservative attitude of Brahms is shown by
+his retention of the double bar and repeat, although this is often
+ignored by modern conductors.]
+
+(2) The Development, for which the Germans have the happy name of
+"Freie Phantasie," or free phantasy; the composer thus giving rein to
+his imagination and doing whatever he pleases, so long as he holds the
+interest of his hearers and neither becomes verbose nor indulges in
+mere mechanical manipulation. There are, alas! developments in which
+the composer exhausts his themes and his hearers too;[99] but on work
+of this kind, since it is not real development but labored jugglery,
+no powder need be wasted. Beethoven began the practice, in his
+Developments, of not confining himself to the themes of the Exposition
+but of introducing an entirely new theme, whenever the main material
+had fulfilled its purpose. The single most exciting factor in a good
+development is the freedom and wealth of modulation revealed by the
+daring genius of the creator; the effect being Plurality of
+Key-relationship, in distinction from the two closely related keys of
+the Exposition. It would often seem as if we were taken up into high
+mountains or borne away to distant seas. For illustrations of this
+"free phantasy" note the end of the Development in the first movement
+of Beethoven's _Second Symphony_ where, after great stress has been
+laid in the Exposition on the two basic keys of D major and A major,
+we are left in the distant tonality of C-sharp major and are then
+whirled back, by a dramatic change, into the home-key of the third
+part. One of the most interesting studies in the workings of a great
+mind is to observe how Beethoven, in his developments, allows the
+excitement to subside and yet never entirely die out, and how deftly
+he leads the hearer onward to the summing up of the main themes of the
+exposition.
+
+[Footnote 99: It was probably a development of this kind which called
+forth the characteristic comment from Debussy who once remarked to a
+friend at a concert, "Let us flee! he is going to develop."]
+
+(3) The Recapitulation or Resume, in which both the themes of the
+Exposition are reasserted, each in the home key--a strong final
+emphasis thus being laid on _Unity_ of Tonality. The bridge-passage
+has to be correspondingly changed, for now the modulation is between
+two themes _both_ in the _same key_. To achieve such a modulation is
+quite a "tour de force" as every musician knows, and often taxed the
+ingenuity even of the great Beethoven. The skill by which he always
+made the second theme sound fresh and vital is astounding. For a case
+of "academic fumbling"--mere treading of water--in this adjustment of
+key relationship, see the Recapitulation of the first movement of
+Brahms's Second Symphony. To secure unbroken continuity and to avoid
+vain repetitions[100] there is no portion of the Sonata-Form which has
+been more modified by the inventive genius of modern composers and by
+the tendency exemplified in the Symphonic Poem (to be explained in due
+season). The general validity of Restatement, as shown in the
+Recapitulation of the Sonata-Form, cannot be questioned; for that
+depends, as so often pointed out, upon the human craving to enjoy once
+more, after intervening contrast, something which has originally given
+pleasure. Furthermore this sound psychological principle finds an
+analogy in our own life: with its early years of striving, its middle
+period of development and its closing years of climactic retrospect
+and satisfaction. There is a corresponding structural treatment in the
+denoument of a drama. In the classic composers, the Recapitulation is
+almost always a literal repetition of the Exposition, although
+Beethoven began to be freer, _e.g._, in the climax of the Coriolanus
+overture, where he modifies the form to meet the dramatic needs of the
+subject.[101] Modern composers, however, have felt that much of this
+repetition was superfluous; and when they do repeat both themes, one
+or the other is freely varied and made still more eloquent. For
+examples, see the resume of the first movements of Franck's
+_Symphony_, of Brahms's _First Symphony_ and of Tchaikowsky's
+_Sixth_. The Recapitulation is often abridged by omitting the first
+theme altogether and dwelling exclusively on the second; as for
+example, in the Finale of Schumann's _Fourth Symphony_ and in
+Sinigaglia's Overture, _Le Baruffe Chiozzotte_.[102]
+
+[Footnote 100: See Gretry's amusing comments on the Sonata-Form cited
+by Romain Rolland in the essays _Musicians of Former Days_.]
+
+[Footnote 101: See also Wagner's comments on the _Third Leonora
+Overture_, cited by Ernest Newman in his _Musical Studies_, pp.
+134-135.]
+
+[Footnote 102: Additional illustrations of this treatment may be found
+in Chabrier's Overture to _Gwendoline_ and in the first movement of
+F.S. Converse's _String Quartet_.]
+
+It remains to speak of the beginning and end of the Sonata-Form. With
+Haydn it became the custom, not necessarily invariable, to introduce
+the body of the movement by a Prelude which, in early days, was of
+slight texture and import--often a mere preliminary "flourish of
+trumpets," a presenting of arms. In Mozart we find some examples of
+more artistic treatment, notably in the Overture to the _Magic Flute_
+and in the prelude to the C major Quartet with its stimulating
+dissonances. But in this case, as in so many others, it was Beethoven
+who first showed what a Prelude should be: a subtle means of arousing
+the interest and expectancy of the hearer; the effect as carefully
+planned as the portico leading to a temple. To usher in the theme of
+the Exposition in a truly exciting manner every means of modulation
+and rhythm is employed; famous illustrations being the introductions
+to the first movements of the Second, Fourth and Seventh symphonies;
+and, in modern literature, those of the first movements of Brahms's
+_First Symphony_ and of Tchaikowsky's _Fifth_. It also became
+customary to prolong the end of the movement by what is termed a Coda;
+the same tendency being operative that is found in the peroration to a
+speech or in the spire of a cathedral, _i.e._, the human instinct to
+end whatever we attempt as impressively and completely as possible.
+This Coda, which, in Haydn and Mozart, was often a mere iteration of
+trite chords--a ceasing to go--was so expanded by Beethoven that it
+was the real glory of the whole movement. In fact so many eloquent
+treatments of the main material were reserved for the Coda that it
+often became a _second_ development; and such was its scope that the
+form may be considered to have _four_ parts instead of three, _i.e._,
+1, Exposition, 2, Development, 3, Recapitulation, 4, Coda; parts 4 and
+2 balancing each other in the same way as 3 and 1. For two of the most
+famous examples in all Beethoven literature see the Codas to the First
+movement of the _Third Symphony_ and to the Finale of the _Eighth_.
+
+We now present a tabular view of the Sonata-Form summing up the
+features just commented upon.
+
+
+THE SONATA-FORM OR FIRST-MOVEMENT FORM
+
+___________________________________________________________________________
+A                         | B                         | A'
+Exposition                | Development               | Recapitulation
+__________________________|___________________________|____________________
+                          |                           |
+Introduction (optional)   | Free treatment and        | First Theme,
+First Theme               |  expansion, especially    |  connecting passage
+Modulatory bridge-passage |  modulatory and rhythmic, |  leading to
+Second Theme              |  of the themes already    | Second Theme (often
+Closing Theme             |  presented                |  in home-key, but
+(Duality of               | Sometimes new material    |  not always)
+ Key-relationship)        |  introduced               | Closing Theme
+                          | (Plurality of Key)        | Coda
+                          |                           | (Special stress
+                          |                           |  laid on the main
+                          |                           |  tonality. Unity of
+                          |                           |  Key)
+__________________________|___________________________|____________________
+
+For actual musical examples it seems best to begin with the works of
+Haydn. This exclusion of Philip Emmanuel Bach is not meant to minimize
+what we owe him for his preliminary efforts in formulating the
+tripartite Sonata structure, with its two themes and its Development
+portion. Haydn is on record as saying that it was his study of six
+Sonatas of Emmanuel Bach which laid the foundations for his own
+instrumental style. But on the whole, the compositions of Emmanuel
+Bach are of interest rather from a historical point of view than from
+one purely artistic. The object of this book, furthermore, is not to
+give a complete account of the evolution[103] of the Sonata-Form; but,
+accepting the existence of standard works which employ this form, to
+enable the student to gain a more complete appreciation of those
+works. P.E. Bach wrote in the so-called "galant style"[104] of the
+period which has, for our modern ears, too much embellishment and too
+many meaningless, rhapsodic passages. He made a sincere effort to
+invent pure instrumental melody, _i.e._, musical expression suited to
+various instruments that should be unhampered by the too definite
+balance of the dance forms, by polyphonic complexities or by the
+conventional artifices of operatic style. But though he wrote
+skilfully for his instrument and though his style has a certain quaint
+charm, on the whole it is lacking in genuine melodic warmth and
+feeling. These qualities alone keep works immortal.[105]
+
+[Footnote 103: Those interested in this development should consult
+_The Pianoforte Sonata_ by J.S. Shedlock, and above all, d'Indy's
+_Course of Musical Composition_, Part III.]
+
+[Footnote 104: This, according to d'Indy, was so-called because
+pleasing to the ladies who played an important part in the elaborate
+court ceremonial of that day.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Six of P.E. Bach's Sonatas edited by von Buelow are
+readily accessible and some excellent comments upon the most
+significant ones may be found in Shedlock (see above).]
+
+In Josef Haydn (1782-1809) we are face to face with a musician of a
+different type. Haydn is popularly known as the father of the Sonata,
+the Symphony and the String-Quartet; but, according to Edward
+Dickinson,[106] this estimate is something of an exaggeration, for "it
+overlooks the fact that a large number of composers were struggling
+with the same problem and working along similar lines. Haydn was
+simply the greatest in _genius_ of the instrumental writers of his
+day. His works have lived by virtue of the superiority, _i.e._, the
+greater spontaneity and vitality, of their contents. He should be
+called the 'foster-father,' rather than the father of the symphony and
+quartet for he raised them from feebleness to strength and authority."
+To him must be given the honor of establishing the types of
+instrumental composition which became the foundations of modern music.
+Haydn, moreover, was the first musician since Sebastian Bach who had a
+real personality which may be felt in his works. To speak of a piece
+of music as "Haydnish" conveys as distinct a meaning as to refer to a
+poetic stanza as "Miltonic." When Haydn arrived on the scene,
+music--through the labors of many earnest workers--had become a
+language of definite expression, with a logical grammar and with
+principles of structure. The time was ripe for the use of this
+language in a more artistic way, _i.e._, for a more intense personal
+expression and for more subtle treatment of the material. The composer
+could count upon the public following his points; and with Haydn,
+whose heart beat in sympathy with the common people, music begins to
+be a truly popular art.
+
+[Footnote 106: See his _Study of the History of Music_, p. 154.]
+
+The striking features in Haydn's works are three: (1) The wealth of
+spontaneous and sparkling melodies, for he was born with this lyric
+gift and never had to cudgel his wits for a tune. That instrumental
+melody could make such sudden progress as we find between the dryness
+of Emmanuel Bach and the freshness of Haydn, was long a puzzle to
+scholars, and only recently has the proof been submitted that Haydn
+was largely of Croatian ancestry. Now the Croatians of Southern
+Austria are one of the most musical races in the world, with a wealth
+of folk-songs and dances. Haydn therefore did not have to "invent"
+melodies in the ordinary sense of the term; they were his birthright.
+Many of his melodies are adaptations of actual folk-songs[107] or
+original melodies coming from an imagination saturated with the
+folk-song spirit.[108] For this reason they seem like wild flowers in
+their perennial freshness and charm. (2) The precision and clarity
+with which his ideas are presented. These qualities were due to his
+well-balanced and logical intellect that impressed everyone with whom
+he came in contact. His style, moreover, was the result of
+indefatigable labor, for he was largely self-taught. If the balance of
+his phrases and the general symmetry of his style seem to our modern
+taste a bit excessive, we must remember that he was a pioneer and
+could run no risks in the way of non-acceptance of his message through
+puzzling complexities. Everything must be so clear that the ordinary
+mind could at once accept it. Nor is the "sing-song," "square-toed"
+element so prevalent in Haydn as is commonly supposed. In his melody a
+distinct feature--no doubt of racial origin--is his fondness for odd
+rhythms of three, five and seven measures, of which examples abound in
+the Quartets. In his Minuets and Finales there is a rollicking effect
+of high spirits which could never have been attained by mere labored
+pedantry. In his mature works we find a pervading spontaneity which is
+one of the outstanding examples in all literature of "art concealing
+art." Never do these works smell of the lamp, and let us remember it
+is far easier to criticize them than to create them.[109]
+
+[Footnote 107: See for example the _Salomon Symphony in E-flat_, every
+movement of which is founded on a Croatian folk-song.]
+
+[Footnote 108: For a comprehensive account of this whole subject
+consult the _Oxford History of Music_, Vol. V, Chapter VIII, and
+Mason's _Beethoven and His Forerunners_, essay on Haydn.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Witness for example, the attitude taken by Wallace in
+his _Threshold of Music_, pp. 148-153.]
+
+(3) The skillful and eloquent manner in which Haydn adapted his ideas
+to his favorite media of expression: the orchestra and the
+string-quartet. Although he wrote a number of pianoforte sonatas,
+these works, on the whole, do not represent his best thought. For they
+were composed in the transitional period between the waning influence
+of the harpsichord and the advent of the pianoforte, not yet come to
+its own. But as for the orchestra, Haydn established[110] the grouping
+of the three so-called choirs of strings, wood-wind and brass; to
+which were gradually added the instruments of percussion. In his works
+we begin to enjoy orchestral effect for its own sake: the dashing
+vivacity of the strings, the mellowness of the wood-wind, the
+sonority and grandeur of the brass. Instrumental works had formerly
+been composed in black and white, but now we have the interplay of
+orchestral colors. No less paramount was Haydn's influence in the
+handling of the four solo instruments known as the String Quartet. In
+his Quartets the voices are so highly individualized that it seems as
+if four intelligent and witty persons were holding a musical
+conversation. Such melodic and rhythmic freedom were hitherto unknown
+and his style became the point of departure for modern practice.[111]
+Both Mozart and Beethoven, those great masters of the String-Quartet,
+acknowledged their debt of gratitude to Haydn. His success in
+establishing the formation of the orchestra and the string-quartet was
+chiefly due to the inestimable advantage he enjoyed of being, for so
+many years, chapel-master to those celebrated patrons of music the
+Princes Paul and Nicholas Esterhazy, at whose country-seat of Esterhaz
+he had at his disposal, for free experimentation, a fine body of
+players.[112] Here Haydn worked from 1762 until 1790; and, to quote
+his own words, "could, as conductor of an orchestra, make experiments,
+observe what produced an effect and be as bold as I pleased. I was cut
+off from the world, there was no one to confuse or torment me and I
+was forced to become original."[113]
+
+[Footnote 110: For the early and significant achievements in
+orchestral effect of the Mannheim Orchestra under its famous leader
+Stamitz, see _The Art of Music_, Vol. 8, Chapter II.]
+
+[Footnote 111: For interesting comments on the String Quartets see
+Hadden's _Life of Haydn_, pp. 174-175.]
+
+[Footnote 112: _The Oxford History of Music_, Vol. V, Chapter I, and
+_The Present State of Music in Germany_ by Burney present a vivid
+picture of the times and of the results of 18th century patronage.]
+
+[Footnote 113: For an entertaining account of the two London visits,
+which took place during the latter part of his career, see the essay
+_Haydn in London_ by Krehbiel in his _Music and Manners_.]
+
+As to the formal side of Haydn's work, he is responsible for several
+distinct improvements. The different divisions of the movement are
+more clearly defined--sometimes perhaps, as we look back, a bit
+rigidly--but no more so than was necessary for a public just beginning
+to follow easily the main outlines of the form. Haydn leads up to his
+objective points in a clear-cut, logical way and there is little of
+"running off into the sand" or of those otherwise aimless passages so
+prevalent in Emmanuel Bach. In his best works, notably in many of the
+Quartets, there is also more individuality secured for the second
+theme;[114] although for highly personified and moving second themes
+we have to await the greater genius of Mozart and Beethoven. Whenever
+we are inclined to call Haydn's style old-fashioned we must remember
+that he wrote before the note of intense personal expression--the
+so-called subjective element, prominent in Beethoven--had come to the
+fore. The time just prior to Haydn had been called the "Pig-tail
+period" (Zopf-Periode) in reference to the stiff and precise dress and
+manners which had their counterpart in formality of artistic
+expression. Only towards the end of his career do we feel that breath
+of freedom in life and art which was generated by the French
+Revolution (beginning in 1791) and by the many political and social
+changes of that stirring period. From Haydn on, much more attention
+should be paid to the content and meaning of the music than to the
+formal handling of the material. In all worthy music, in fact, the
+chief point of interest is the _music itself_ which speaks to us in
+its own language of sound and rhythm. A knowledge of form is but a
+means to an end: for the composer, that he may express himself clearly
+and convincingly, and for the listener, that he may readily receive
+the message set forth. In Haydn's music we find the expression of a
+real personality--though of an artless, child-like type, without great
+depth of emotion or the tragic intensity of a Beethoven. Haydn was not
+a philosopher, or a man of broad vision. During his epoch, artists
+hardly dared to be introspective. His imagination gave birth to music,
+simple though it was, as freely as the earth puts forth flowers; but,
+although he wore a wig, he had a heart which was in good working
+operation even in his sixty-fourth year when, during his London visit,
+he fell in love with a charming widow, Madame Schroeter, whom he would
+have married had not his wife been still alive.
+
+[Footnote 114: In many cases Haydn's second theme is merely a varied
+version of the first.]
+
+We should acquire the catholic taste to enjoy every composer for what
+he really was and not criticise him for what he was not--a state which
+would imply necessarily different conditions. In criticism there is no
+worse error, or one more often made, than that of blaming Haydn
+because he was not Beethoven; or, in our times, Tchaikowsky because
+his music does not resemble that of Brahms. Blase pedants often call
+Haydn's music "tame"; we might as well apply that adjective to the
+antics of a sportive kitten. As for the "amiable prattle" of his style
+we do not speak in a derogatory way of the fresh, innocent voices of
+children, though we need not listen to them continually. Haydn, in
+short, is Haydn,[115] and the vitality and sincerity of his works
+will always keep them immortal. In these feverish days we may dwell
+upon the simplicity of "Papa Haydn," as he was affectionately called;
+who would kneel down before beginning work, and who inscribed his
+scores "In nomine Domini." His modest estimate of his own powers
+cannot fail to touch our hearts. "I know," he said, "that God has
+bestowed a talent upon me, and I thank him for it. I think I have done
+my duty, and been of use in my generation by my works; let others do
+the same."
+
+[Footnote 115: Haydn's life is of great interest in showing the traits
+which are reflected in his music. Everyone should read the biography
+in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. II, p. 348, and the excellent life by M.
+Brenet in _Les Maitres de la Musique_.]
+
+We shall now make a few comments on the illustrations in the
+Supplement (see Exs. No. 41 and 42): the Finale of the _Sonata for
+Pianoforte in E-flat major_ and the first movement of the so-called
+_Surprise Symphony in G major_. Haydn, of all composers, needs little
+verbal elucidation; his music speaks for itself and everyone must be
+sensitive to its vitality and charm. We regret that it is not
+practical to give examples from the Quartets which, in many
+respects--especially in the Minuets with their inexhaustible
+invention[116] and their bubbling spirits--represent Haydn at his
+best. But the real effect of his Quartets is so bound up with
+idiomatic treatment of the strings that in any transcription for
+pianoforte the music suffers grievously. It is through the score,
+however, that everyone should become familiar, with the contents of
+the Quartets in C major, op. 76, and D major, op. 64; the Finale of
+the latter being one of the supreme examples in all chamber
+literature[117] of rhythmic vitality.
+
+[Footnote 116: Haydn himself used to speak of his melodic invention as
+"a stream which bursts forth from an overflowing reservoir."]
+
+[Footnote 117: In every large city there are, of course, frequent
+opportunities to hear the Quartets of Haydn played by such famous
+organizations as the Flonzaley Quartet etc. The student is urged to
+take advantage of these occasions.]
+
+The Finale of the E-flat sonata, in strict Sonata-form, begins with a
+lively eight-measure phrase which is at once repeated a tone higher.
+The extension of the sentence shows Haydn's freedom in phraseology;
+for, beginning with measure 17, we should have to count the measures
+1, 2, 3, 3a, 4, 5, 6, 6a, 7, 7a, 8, 8a. In the second theme, which
+begins in the 44th measure, note the piquant dissonances[118] coupled
+with sforzando accents. Haydn surely liked spice as well as anyone!
+The rest of the Exposition is taken up with closing passages which
+accentuate the tonality of the second theme--B-flat major. The
+Development needs no comment, as the correspondence between the
+original material and Haydn's treatment is perfectly clear. The
+Recapitulation is a literal repetition of the Exposition, with the two
+themes as usual in the tonic key. The movement may be considered an
+example of Sonata-form in its clearest manifestation, hence an
+excellent one for preliminary analytical study.
+
+[Footnote 118: Those who erroneously think that there is nothing of
+the dissonant element in Haydn should examine the Prelude to _The
+Creation_--a real anticipation, in its use of the chromatic element,
+of _Tristan and Isolde_.]
+
+In the first movement of the _Surprise Symphony_, before the body of
+the work begins, we have an early example of the Prelude. This slow
+Prelude, short though it be, is most carefully planned; with its
+crescendo from _pp_ to a _sf_ forte and its free modulation it arouses
+a genuine feeling of expectancy. The first theme of the Exposition
+(Vivace Assai) is a happy illustration of Haydn's sparkling rhythm,
+and as tossed off by the violins is of irresistible gaiety. The reader
+is asked to remember that the comments on this symphony--and on all
+subsequent symphonic works--are based upon the orchestral score; also
+that the composition, when separated from its orchestral dress,
+necessarily loses much of its real eloquence. Thus the first theme, of
+a folk-dance character, is a typical violin melody; only strings--with
+their incisiveness and power of subtle phrasing--can fully express its
+piquancy. For private study or for class-room work, a practical
+version is that for four hands; or better still, when possible, the
+arrangement for two pianofortes.[119] The second phrase of the first
+theme is considerably expanded by repetition, as if unable to stop
+from sheer exuberance, but finally reaches a cadence in the dominant
+key in the 32nd measure. We are at once taken back, however, to the
+home-key of G major; and, in measure 40, the first theme is repeated,
+this time delicately embellished with phrases on the flute. From now
+on, by reason of the emphasis laid on the key of D major, it is
+evident that we are in the transitional passage and are heading
+towards the announcement of the second theme. It must be said that
+Haydn does not drive very straight at his mark; though it is a
+pleasant touch of variety in measures 55-57 to introduce the main
+theme in the minor mode, and though the fiery violin passages in the
+following measures give an air of considerable excitement. What stands
+for the second theme begins in measure 67. This portion of the
+movement has no theme with genuine individuality, but consists of
+running passages--based exclusively on tonic and dominant harmonies in
+the new key, and of little import save one of general vivacity. It is,
+however, decidedly alive--not stagnant or flabby--and in the orchestra
+it all "comes off." We are rewarded, finally, by a clear-cut closing
+theme of jaunty rhythm, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+which Haydn liked so much that it is presented twice, the second time
+slightly embellished. The Exposition closes with the conventional
+insistence upon a strong cadence in the key of the second theme. The
+Development begins with some rather fragmentary treatment of the first
+theme; then, after some fugitive modulation into flat keys, contents
+itself with running passages and a series of iterated notes. Of
+organic and sustained development, such as Haydn indeed sometimes
+attained, there is little trace. Even so we must be chary of sweeping
+condemnation; for there are well-planned dynamic contrasts and the
+instruments are used in such a natural way--especially the figure in
+the double basses (measures 149-153)--that the scene is one of
+animation, though perhaps no more than one of aimless gambols. There
+is sufficient modulation, so that the principle of Plurality of key is
+carried out. We are suddenly but gracefully led back, in measure 155,
+to the repetition of the first theme, thus beginning the
+Recapitulation. This portion, with certain abbreviations, is an almost
+exact duplication of the first part and emphasizes the main tonality
+of G major. That Haydn was not forced to this literal repetition
+through any lack of fancy is shown by the skilful amplification of the
+first theme, in measures 177-184. The whole movement sparkles with
+sunshine; and those ponderous "heavy-weights" who criticise it because
+it is not deep or "soulful" are looking for qualities which the music
+does not pretend to contain. It is the work of a wholesome,
+cheerful-hearted man expressing through his favorite language his joy
+in life. In listening to the music we have the same delight as in
+wandering by the side of a rippling brook. The three remaining
+movements of the Symphony require little comment; being readily
+accessible they are not given in the Supplement. The second movement,
+a set of stereotyped variations, contains the explosive chord which
+gave to the work its descriptive title. Needless to say that this
+chord does not "surprise" _our_ modern ears to any great extent. The
+Minuet is one of Haydn's best--full of queer antics in rhythm and
+modulation. The Finale (Allegro di molto), in the Rondo Sonata form,
+is the acme of Haydn's vivacity and is a "tour de force" of brilliant
+writing for the strings. In many passages they seem fairly to burn.
+
+[Footnote 119: All symphonic scores give a much better effect when
+performed on two pianofortes than in a four-hand arrangement for a
+single instrument. The freedom in control of both pedals possessed by
+each player secures a greater richness and sonority of tone and it is
+much easier to make prominent voices stand out in relief.]
+
+Haydn's position in the development of music is of the first
+importance. Whatever his works may "mean," they contain a rhythmic
+vitality which will keep them alive for ever, and their "child-like
+cheerfulness and drollery" will charm away care and sorrow as long as
+the world shall last.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MOZART. THE PERFECTION OF CLASSIC STRUCTURE AND STYLE
+
+
+Although Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus[120] (1756-1791), was, in regard to
+art problems, no more of a broad thinker than Haydn (Mozart and
+Schubert being pre-eminently men whose whole nature centered in
+music), yet on hearing his works we are aware that aspects of form and
+content have certainly changed for the better. In the first place he
+was more highly gifted than Haydn; he had from his infancy the
+advantage of a broad cosmopolitan experience, and he was dimly
+conscious of the expanding possibilities of musical expression. It is
+a perfectly fair distinction to consider Haydn an able, even brilliant
+prose-writer, and Mozart a poet. Haydn we can account for, but Mozart
+is the genius "born, not made"--defying classification--and his
+inspired works seem to fall straight from the blue of Heaven. Whereas
+Haydn, Beethoven and Schubert were all of very lowly parentage[121]
+(their mothers being cooks--a blessing on their heads!), Mozart's
+father and mother were people of considerable general cultivation, and
+in particular the father, Leopold Mozart, was an educated man and
+somewhat of a composer himself, who since 1743 had been in the service
+of the Archbishop of Salzburg, as director of his private orchestra.
+An excellent violinist, he had written and published a treatise on
+violin playing, which for many years was the standard work on the
+subject. Both parents were noted for their good looks, were, moreover,
+of strong character and highly respectable in every way. Among their
+several children two early exhibited unusual precocity--Maria Anna,
+born in 1751, and Wolfgang, still more highly gifted. The stories of
+the boy's skill and general delicacy of perception may be exaggerated,
+but we have sufficient valid evidence to convince us that he was a
+phenomenon absolutely "sui generis." Thus, he began to improvise
+between three and four, actually to compose little pieces (which we
+have), when he was five, and to perform in public when he was six! In
+that very year and continuing for nineteen years (until Mozart had
+reached the age of twenty-five) began the memorable series of concert
+tours--eleven in all--comprising Vienna, all the chief cities of Italy
+and Germany, even Paris and London. These tours the father planned and
+carried through with the utmost solicitude and self-sacrifice--not to
+exploit the talented children, but to give them a comprehensive
+education and artistic experience, and eventually to secure for his
+son some distinguished post worthy his abilities. It is quite
+impossible to rehearse all the details of these trips. For one who
+wishes to investigate for himself they truly make fascinating reading.
+A single incident, however, will show how clearly defined were the two
+personalities which made up the complete Mozart; and of which one or
+the other was in the ascendant throughout his life. As a man, Mozart
+was light-hearted, witty--even volatile--fond of society, dancing, and
+a good time generally; not of the strongest intellectual power,
+judged by modern standards, but, as shown by his marvellous dramatic
+insight, by no means the debonair light-weight he is often
+represented. Yet whenever music was under consideration he was a
+changed being; he became instantly serious, and would suffer no
+disrespect to himself or to his art. During the last sad years of his
+career in Vienna, when he was in actual want for the bare necessities
+of life, a publisher once said to him, "Write in a more popular style,
+or I will not print a note of your music or give you a kreutzer."
+"Then, my good sir," replied Mozart, "I have only to resign myself and
+die of hunger."
+
+[Footnote 120: Amadeus (the beloved of God).]
+
+[Footnote 121: We may appropriately state that in regard to ancestry
+and environment all four of the so-called Viennese masters, Haydn,
+Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert are distinct refutations of the claims
+so persistently made by German scholars that everything good in music
+we owe to the Teutons. Haydn was largely Croatian; Mozart was strongly
+influenced by non-Teutonic folk-music (Tyrolese melodies frequently
+peep out in his works); Schubert's forebears came from Moravia and
+Silesia; and Beethoven was partly Dutch. If there be any _single_ race
+to which the world owes the art of music it is the Italians, for they
+invented most of the instruments and hinted at all the vocal and
+instrumental forms. We may be grateful to the Germans for their
+persevering appropriation of what others had begun; only let them not
+claim _all_ the credit.]
+
+In Mozart's works, in distinction from the unconscious, naive
+folk-song type of Haydn, we find highly wrought instrumental melodies;
+although such was his inborn spontaneity of expression that we are
+never aware of the labor expended. His works are quite as clear as
+those of Haydn, but they show a more conscious individuality of style.
+They are not so artless, and the phraseology is more elastic--less cut
+and dried. There is a higher imaginative vitality; trite, mechanical
+repetitions are in general avoided, climaxes are led up to in a more
+subtle manner, and a great gain is made in real organic development.
+For Mozart, as a master of polyphonic treatment, is second only to
+Bach. The most striking single feature in his work is the ceaseless
+flow of expressive melody, notably those wondrous tunes found in his
+operas, such as "Voi che sapete," "Batti, batti" and numerous others.
+He had travelled so widely, so keen was his power of assimilation that
+his melodic style embodied and enhanced the best qualities of
+contemporary Italian, French and German practice. And yet his innate
+genius was of sufficient strength to achieve this result without
+lapsing into formal eclecticism. Whatever suggestions he took he made
+wholly his own; and his music is nothing if not individual in its
+inimitable charm and freshness. Whereas Haydn's music often smacks too
+prominently of the soil, with Mozart we have the fine flower of a
+broad artistic culture. In his best symphonies and string quartets the
+art of music made a distinct advance and began to be capable of
+expressing the universal emotions and aspirations of mankind.
+
+The reactive influence--each upon the other--of Haydn (1732-1809) and
+Mozart (1756-1791) is a most interesting feature of the period.[122]
+By the time Mozart was ripe for his best work Haydn had formulated and
+exemplified the main lines of instrumental structure. From this
+preparatory work Mozart reaped such an advantage that in his last
+compositions there is a spontaneous flowering of genius--a union of
+individual content with perfect clarity of style--which has kept them
+alive to this day. Haydn's last symphonies, the two Salomon sets
+composed for his London tours, show in their turn abundant signs of
+the stimulating influence of the younger man. The perennial importance
+of form and style cannot be better understood than by recognizing the
+fact that both Tchaikowsky and Richard Strauss, two of the most
+fearlessly independent of modern composers, have considered Mozart as
+their ideal. But even if in Mozart's best works we are not beyond the
+preponderating influence of form over substance, they must be judged
+on their own intrinsic merits and not with reference to progress made
+since--of which, nevertheless, they were an important foundation. His
+technique was quite sufficient to express what he had to say. We
+seldom feel that the contents are bursting through the form, that the
+spirit is too great for the body. Purity of conception and
+faultlessness of workmanship were still the desiderata of music. The
+world had to wait for a Beethoven before the hearer should be shaken
+out of himself by a spiritual power, of which the music at best was
+often an inadequate expression. This statement is meant to contain no
+disparagement. Because Beethoven was more elemental we must never
+belittle the genius of his predecessor. Any familiarity with Mozart's
+works will convince us of the gratitude we owe him for his original
+harmonies, for the stimulating contrapuntal texture and for the
+perfect finish and care for detail found therein. Could we be forever
+content with "abstract music"--that which justifies itself by a
+fulfilment of its own inherent laws--Mozart's music would remain the
+acme of the art. His fame to-day rests upon his string quartets, his
+three principal symphonies, and--above all--the operas, of which Don
+Giovanni and the Marriage of Figaro are noted examples. For consummate
+character-drawing (so that, as Rubinstein remarks, "Each acting
+personage has become an immortal type"), for interest sustained by
+unflagging musical vitality, for a combination of humor and
+seriousness and for ingenious and characteristic handling of the
+orchestral forces, these works were unequalled until the advent of
+Wagner and even to-day in their own field remain unsurpassed. The real
+charm of Mozart--that sunny radiance, at times shot through with a
+haunting pathos--eludes verbal description. As well attempt to put
+into words the fragrance and charm of a violet. Hazlitt's fine phrase,
+apropos of performance, says much in a few words. "Mozart's music
+seems to come from the air and should return to it," and the ecstatic
+eulogy of Goethe, to whom genius meant Mozart, should be familiar to
+all. "What else is genius than that productive power through which
+deeds arise, worthy of standing in the presence of God and of Nature,
+and which, for this reason, bear results and are lasting? All the
+creations of Mozart are of this class; within them there is a
+generative force which is transplanted from age to age, and is not
+likely soon to be exhausted or devoured."
+
+[Footnote 122: For extended comment, see the _Oxford History of
+Music_, Vol. V, p. 246, _seq._]
+
+In studying Mozart's works the special points to be noticed are these:
+the wider sweep and freer rhythmic variety of the melodic curve; the
+more organic fusion of the different portions of a movement--Mozart's
+lines of demarcation being perfectly clear but not so rigid as in
+Haydn; the much greater richness of the whole musical fabric, due to
+Mozart's marvellous skill in polyphony. The time had not yet come when
+the composer could pique the fancy of the hearer by unexpected
+structural devices or even lead him off on a false trail as was so
+often done by Beethoven. Both Haydn and Mozart are homophonic
+composers, _i.e._, the outpouring of individual melodies is the chief
+factor in their works; but whereas in Haydn the tune is almost
+invariably in the upper voice, in Mozart we find the melody appearing
+in any one of the voices and often accompanied with fascinating
+imitations. See, in corroboration, any of the first three movements of
+the _G minor Symphony_ or the slow movement of the _E-flat major
+Symphony_. In the structure of music Mozart made slight changes; the
+forms were still fresh--having just been established by Haydn--and
+Mozart with his genius filled them to overflowing. His one important
+contribution to the development of instrumental form was the
+Pianoforte Concerto; but, as a consideration of this would lead us too
+far afield, the student is referred to the life of Mozart in Grove's
+Dictionary and to the Oxford History, Vol. V. The literature[123]
+about Mozart and his works is voluminous. Our chief attention
+nevertheless should be centered on the works themselves rather than on
+what anyone else writes about them. Certain of these criticisms,
+however, are so suggestive and illuminating that the student should
+become familiar with them.
+
+[Footnote 123: We recommend especially the refreshing essay by Philip
+Hale in _Famous Composers and Their Works_; the chapter on Mozart in
+_Beethoven and His Forerunners_ by D.G. Mason; and, as throwing light
+on aspects of his personality which are little known, "_Mozart
+Revealed in his Own Words_" by Kerst-Krehbiel (see especially the
+chapter on Mozart's religious nature, p. 142 and passim); the
+fascinating _Reminiscences of Michael Kelly_, a personal friend of the
+composer; and, above all, the monumental life of Mozart, unhappily as
+yet incomplete, by Wyzewa and St. Foix. The third chapter of Vol. II
+of _The Art of Music_ is also well worth reading; and in _Mozart's
+Operas, a Critical Study_ by E.J. Dent are found valuable comments on
+his dramatic style, so prominent a feature in many of his instrumental
+works.]
+
+As illustrations[124] for comment we select the _F major Sonata for
+Pianoforte_, the _G minor Symphony_, the _Magic Flute Overture for
+Orchestra_ and the little known but most characteristic _Adagio in B
+minor for Pianoforte_. Here again, as in the case of Haydn, we must
+regret that it is impracticable to give examples from the chamber
+music: the String Quartets, the Quintet in G minor or from the
+entrancing Clarinet Quintet. Any familiarity with Mozart's genius is
+very incomplete which does not comprise the C major Quartet,
+especially its heavenly Andante Cantabile; likewise the E-flat major
+Quartet in the slow movement of which are the following poignant
+dissonances--a striking anticipation of _Tristan and Isolde_.
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 124: The first three compositions are not given in the
+Supplement, because readily available in several standard editions.
+The same recommendations, as given in connection with Haydn, apply to
+the performance of the _G minor Symphony_.]
+
+The F major Sonata is selected to illustrate Mozart's pianoforte style
+because it bubbles over with typical Mozartian melody and because the
+Sonata-form is the basis of all three movements; in the first and last
+strictly employed and in the slow movement somewhat modified. The
+structure, while just as clear and easy to follow as that of Haydn,
+represents an advance in the sustained interest of the transitional
+passages and in the organic treatment of the Development--this being
+particularly true of the Finale--the middle portion of the first
+movement being not so significant. The Sonata, without prelude, begins
+with a soaring, lyric melody in which the customary eight measure
+formation is expanded to twelve measures. This expansion is brought
+about by an imitative treatment of the fifth measure and is a
+convincing example of the flexible phraseology so prominent a feature
+in Mozart's style. A balancing sentence of eight measures, with an
+extended cadence, brings us to the transition which is to introduce
+the second theme. Observe the increasing animation of the rhythm and
+how the fresh entry of the second theme (in C major) is enhanced by
+the insistence on the contrasting tonality of C minor. In measure 41
+there begins the second theme, a graceful melody that is repeated with
+heightened fervour and then expanded by means of various modulatory
+and rhythmic devices--the interest, for a number of measures, being in
+the bass. In measure 71 we have a piquant closing theme which ends in
+the "good old way" with some rather formal groups of cadential chords.
+The Development is short and, save for the dynamic contrasts in the
+middle part, not of particular import. But though a bit naive it is
+neither labored nor dull. The Recapitulation with the necessary
+adjustments of key (both themes appearing in F major) corresponds
+exactly to the Exposition. In the opening melody of the Slow
+movement--a dreamy, sustained Adagio--we see the beautiful use Mozart
+made of the "turn," _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+employing it not as meaningless embroidery or to cover up deficiencies
+in the instrument but as an integral factor in the melodic line, thus
+anticipating Chopin and Wagner with his "essential turn." The movement
+is in abridged[125] Sonata-form, _i.e._, there is a regular Exposition
+with two themes in the tonic and dominant and a corresponding
+Recapitulation, but the Development is entirely omitted and in its
+place we find merely two modulatory measures which take us back to the
+third part. Such a form arose from the feeling that the Slow Movement
+should be one of direct melodic and emotional appeal and should not
+concern itself with protracted discussion of the material. The two
+closing measures are of a wondrous serenity, peculiar to Mozart. The
+Finale, Allegro assai, in complete and elaborate Sonata-form, is one
+of superb vigor and dash, the happiest example possible of Mozart's
+"joie de vivre." It begins with a brilliant running theme in free
+phraseology, and then, after a cadence in measure 14, is at once
+followed by an out and out Waltz tune of a very seductive swing.[126]
+This is developed to a brilliant climax and then closes _pp_ in a
+delicate, wistful manner. The transition, with some canonic imitations
+and stimulating sequences, leads us to the second theme at measure 50.
+This--one of Mozart's loveliest melodies--is rather exceptionally in
+the dominant minor (_i.e._, C minor) and with its mood of pathetic
+revery affords a wonderful contrast to the headlong dash of the first
+theme. This melody alone would prove that Mozart had his moments of
+deep emotion. In measure 65 begins a long closing portion which
+resumes the exuberant mood characteristic of the Exposition as a
+whole. The Development at first is based upon modulatory changes in
+the first theme; and then, towards the middle, occurs a passage which
+seems to be a counterpart of the second theme, save that it is in the
+major mode. We are now carried onward through a series of passages,
+with pungent dissonances and imitative phrases, to a fortissimo
+dominant chord; thence through a descending cadenza-like passage we
+are whirled back to the Recapitulation. In material and treatment this
+corresponds exactly to the Exposition and has the same pianissimo
+ending. Such an effect was a touch of genuine originality and was a
+delightful contrast to the conventional flourish of trumpets with
+which the Finale of the period was expected to end. Music is often
+most impressive when most subdued.
+
+[Footnote 125: This modification became a favorite with Beethoven,
+notable examples being the Slow movement of the Fifth Sonata, where
+the Development is represented by a single chord; the Slow movement of
+the D minor Sonata, op. 31; and, above all, the Allegretto Scherzando
+of the Eighth Symphony, where a series of contrasted accents keeps the
+interest alive and leads most deftly to the Recapitulation.]
+
+[Footnote 126: In measures 20 and 21 may be found some striking
+syncopations--an anticipation of what now-a-days is known as
+"rag-time."]
+
+The G minor Symphony is universally acknowledged to be the highest
+achievement of 18th century instrumental music and is also premonitory
+of that subjective spirit peculiar to the 19th century. It will remain
+immortal so long as human beings are capable of being touched by a
+sincere revelation of emotion combined with a perfection of utterance
+which seems fairly Divine. This delicate treatment and this exquisite
+finish are two prominent characteristics of Mozart's style. Truly the
+Symphony is the quintessence of Mozart in terms of sound and rhythm,
+and we need but to listen to his message and receive it with grateful
+appreciation. The work contains the four customary movements, all of
+them (save the three-part Minuet and Trio) in complete Sonata-form.
+The first movement begins at once with a gracefully poised theme sung
+by the violins, a theme which may be likened in its outlines to the
+purity of a Greek statue. The entrancing effect of this melody cannot
+be realized except on the orchestra, for it seems to float on the
+gently pulsating chords of the violas like a beautiful flower.
+Everyone who hears the work is at once arrested by this highly
+original treatment, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The transition is short but leads us in a happy state of expectancy
+through a change of rhythm from the graceful outlines of the first
+theme to the vigorous phrase
+
+[Music]
+
+and by a bold run, thrice repeated, to the entrance of the second
+theme in measure 43. This theme, in the customary relative major
+(B-flat), illustrates Mozart's fondness for the chromatic element
+which gives to many of his melodies such a haunting appeal. The
+closing portion, beginning at measure 71, is an example of Mozart's
+spontaneous skill in polyphonic writing. It is based entirely on the
+motive of the main theme in delightful imitations tossed about by
+different sections of the orchestra. The second part is a genuine
+Development, since the musical life never flags in its contrapuntal
+vitality; the theme appears in all parts of the texture--upper, inner
+and lower voices--and we are carried vigorously onward by the daring
+modulations. Just at the close of the Development we see Mozart's
+constructive skill in the fusion of this part with the subsequent
+Recapitulation. A series of drifting chromatic chords in the flutes
+and oboes, like light fleecy clouds, keeps us in a state of suspended
+wonder when quietly there emerges the first theme and the return home
+has begun. It is one of the truly poetic touches in musical literature
+and has been often imitated--especially by Tchaikowsky in his _Fifth_
+and _Sixth Symphonies_.[127] The Recapitulation corresponds exactly
+with the Exposition, but an added pathos is given to the second theme
+by its appearance in the tonic key of G minor. Observe the impassioned
+intensity of the climax in measures 13-19 (counting back from the
+end). The mood of dreamy contemplation with which the Slow Movement
+begins cannot be translated into words; why attempt it? We have the
+music which, coming from the divinely gifted imagination of the
+composer, reveals in its own language a message of pathetic longing
+and ideal aspiration. The movement is very concise but in complete
+Sonata-form, and with an orchestration felicitous in the treatment of
+the horns and the wood-wind instruments. The Minuet, noteworthy for
+the three-measure rhythm of the opening phrase,
+
+[Music]
+
+shows clearly the new life which Mozart infused into the old form by
+his remarkable polyphonic skill. Note at the outset of the second part
+the vigorous effect of the theme in the bass and the frequency of
+biting dissonances. The charming grace and simplicity of the Trio are
+indescribable; here again we find an eloquent use of the wood-wind
+group. The Finale, in complete Sonata-form, begins with a perfectly
+balanced periodic theme, presented in Two-part form, _i.e._, two
+sentences of eight measures, each repeated. If from our present
+standpoint we feel that the tone of this movement is a bit light to
+follow the serious thoughts of the preceding movements, let us
+remember that it was composed when the Finale was meant merely to "top
+off" a work; and that, if it radiated a general atmosphere of sunshine
+and satisfaction, its purpose was fulfilled. For the Finale, which,
+like the glorious splendor of an autumn day, is the crowning objective
+towards which the other movements have been striving, we must wait for
+Beethoven and his modern successors. In fact we may express the
+general trend of a Haydn or a Mozart Symphony by a decrescendo, thus
+[decrescendo symbol] _i.e._, the real genius of the composer is shown
+in the first three movements; whereas, beginning with Beethoven, we
+find an organic climactic effect[128] from the first movement to the
+last, thus [crescendo symbol]. But to carry such criticisms too far is
+ungracious and unjust. Mozart's themes, both the first and the second
+(beginning in measure 55), with their tripping contredance rhythms,
+fill our hearts with life and carry us irresistibly onward. And the
+Development has some surprises in store, for now the dramatic genius
+of Mozart asserts itself. Note the bold leaps and daring modulations
+of the opening measures. Nothing trite or formal here! The strong
+polyphonic treatment of the first theme, beginning in measure 120 and
+sustained with unflagging energy for seventy measures, makes this one
+of the most stimulating developments in symphonic literature, not
+excepting Beethoven himself. The Recapitulation, in subject matter, is
+an exact duplication of the Exposition and allows us to recover
+gradually from our excitement and to return to the ordinary world of
+men and events. The presentation of the second theme, however, shows
+Mozart's mastery of melodic variation. The substance is the same, but
+the import of the melody is intensified, _e.g._
+
+[Music: Exposition]
+
+[Music: Recapitulation]
+
+[Footnote 127: See the Waltz movement of the _Fifth Symphony_ and the
+second movement of the _Sixth_.]
+
+[Footnote 128: This expanding of interest is distinctly felt in
+Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, in Brahms's First, in Tchaikowsky's Fifth
+and in that by Cesar Franck.]
+
+The Overtures to Mozart's three operas: The _Marriage of Figaro_, _Don
+Giovanni_ and the _Magic Flute_ are of particular interest, not only
+for the beauty of their contents but because they are our earliest
+examples of the Overture fashioned in complete Sonata form. Originally
+the Overture had been a prelude to the opening of a play, a prelude of
+the lightest and most meagre nature. Examples, beginning with
+Monteverde, abound in all the early Italian opera composers.[129]
+Lully of the French school and Alessandro Scarlatti of the Italian
+were the first to amplify these beginnings and to establish a definite
+standard of structure. In both schools this standard represented an
+application of the Three-part form principle; the French arranging
+their contrasts, slow, fast, slow (the so-called French overture--of
+which we have an example in Handel's Messiah) and the Italians, fast,
+slow, fast (the so-called Italian Overture). Although Gluck
+(1714-1787) did much to establish a more dramatic connection between
+the overture and the play, even the best of his Overtures, Iphigenia
+in Aulis, is a rather loosely expanded tripartite structure with a
+good many meaningless passages. But Mozart, coming after Haydn's
+definite establishment of the Sonata-form and with the growing
+interest of the public in instrumental music for its own sake as an
+incentive, could take advantage of these circumstances to display his
+genius and to delight his hearers with a piece of genuine music. This
+he did and his operatic overtures are of such distinct import and
+self-sufficiency that they are often detached from the opera itself
+and played as concert numbers. The Magic Flute Overture is also
+noteworthy because of the polyphonic treatment of the first theme
+which is a definite fugal presentation in four voices. The second
+theme, beginning in measure 64, and soon repeated, is light and
+winning, meant to supplement rather than to contrast strongly with the
+first theme, which indeed keeps up at the same time, in the inner
+voices, its rhythmic impetuosity. The Exposition ends with a graceful
+closing phrase, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+and the usual cadence in the dominant key. It is considered that the
+Adagio chords for the trombones, interpolated between the Exposition
+and the Development, are suggestive of the religious element in the
+play that is to follow. The Development is remarkable for the spirited
+imitative treatment of the first theme, for the bold way in which the
+voices cut into each other and for the fusion of its closing measures
+with the Recapitulation. The chief feature in this brilliant passage
+is a piling up of the theme in stretto form (see measures 148-153).
+The Recapitulation is somewhat shortened and the melodic outline of
+the second theme is slightly changed; otherwise it corresponds with
+the Exposition. After the closing phrase we have some pungent
+dissonances, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Rossini, it is said, was never tired of eulogizing this Overture and
+certainly for spontaneity and vigor it is unrivalled.[130]
+
+[Footnote 129: For a complete account of this development see Grove's
+Dict. Vol. III under _Overture_ and the Oxford History, Vol. IV, page
+286, _seq._]
+
+[Footnote 130: Its companion in modern literature is the Overture to
+the _Bartered Bride_ (by the Bohemian composer Smetana), which also
+begins with a brilliant fugal treatment of the theme.]
+
+The last illustration from Mozart is his _Adagio in B minor_ (see
+Supplement No. 43) an independent piece, far too little known, in
+complete Sonata-form. The haunting pathos in the theme, the exquisite
+loveliness in the whole fabric instantly reach the hearer's heart.
+Analytical comment seems quite unnecessary; a child can "follow" the
+music, but only he with a ripe knowledge of human life can begin to
+fathom its deep mystery.[131] When we see such modern passages as the
+following, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 131: For some illuminating comments on this subtle character
+of Mozart's creations see the Stanford-Forsyth History of Music, p.
+254.]
+
+Tchaikowsky's love for Mozart's music is readily understood. Indeed,
+we cannot refrain from urging everyone to cultivate such a love
+himself; for in the works of Mozart are found a purity, a sanity and a
+delight in creation which keep them alive and make them in very truth
+"things of beauty and a joy forever."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+BEETHOVEN, THE TONE-POET
+
+
+As Beethoven was such an intensely subjective composer, a knowledge of
+his personality and environment is indispensable for a complete
+appreciation of his works.[132]
+
+[Footnote 132: Hence is given a more extended biographical account
+than in the case of former composers.]
+
+Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770-1827), born at Bonn on the Rhine, though
+his active career is associated with Vienna, may be called the first
+thinker in music; for at last the art is brought into correlation with
+man's other powers and becomes a living reflex of the tendencies and
+activities of the period. Notwithstanding the prodigious vitality of
+Bach's work, we feel that his musical sense operated abstractly like a
+law of Nature and that he was an unconscious embodiment, as it were,
+of the deep religious sentiment of his time and of the sturdy
+independence of his race. At any period and in any place Bach would
+have been Bach. Beethoven's music, however, in its intense personality
+and as a vivid expression of the ideals of his fellow men, was
+different from any the world had heard before. There were three
+paramount advantages in his equipment: first, Beethoven was a strong
+character who only happened to find in music his most suitable means
+of self-expression. The full import of his works cannot be understood
+unless he is recognized, great creative artist that he was, as first
+and foremost a unique personality. Had he not written a note of music
+we should have sufficient historical evidence to assure ourselves of
+the vigor of his intellect and the elevation of his ideals. Whereas
+Haydn and Mozart are to be judged purely as musicians, in Beethoven it
+is always something underlying the musical symbols which claims our
+allegiance. Furthermore he had the inestimable advantage of finding
+the mechanical structure of instrumental music carefully formulated by
+his predecessors. The stone had been quarried, the rough cutting done
+and the blocks lay ready for a genius to use in the erection of his
+own poetically conceived edifice. And these forms were still fresh and
+vigorous; they had not yet hardened into formalism. In Beethoven's
+works we rarely find form employed for its own sake, as a mere "tour
+de force" of skilful workmanship, rather is it made to adapt itself to
+the individual needs of the composer. Finally Beethoven's career
+coincided with momentous changes and upheavals in the social,
+political and artistic world. He is the embodiment of that spirit of
+individualism, of human freedom and self-respect which found its
+expression in the French Revolution, in our American War of
+Independence and in the entire alteration of social standards.
+Beethoven at all costs resolved to be himself. With him music ceases
+to be a mere "concourse of sweet sounds"; it must always bring some
+message to the brooding human soul, and be something more than a
+skilful example of abstract ingenuity. These personal tendencies of
+Beethoven were fostered by the spirit of the times, and his music
+became in turn a vital expression of revolt against existing
+conditions and of passionate aspiration towards something better. He
+was the first musician to free himself from the enervating influence
+of having to write exclusively for aristocratic patronage. Such was
+the social emancipation of the period that he could address himself at
+first hand to a musical public eagerly receptive and constantly
+growing. His representative works could never have been composed in
+the time of Haydn and Mozart; for though in formal structure the
+logical development of preceding methods--Beethoven being no reckless
+iconoclast--in individual content they reveal a freedom of utterance
+which took its rise in tendencies hitherto unknown. Beethoven's mighty
+personality and far-reaching influence can not be stated in a few
+formulae. An extensive library covering his life and times is
+accessible to the interested layman, and a thorough appreciation of
+his masterpieces is a spiritual possession which everyone must gain
+individually. Since Beethoven's works compel a man to think for
+himself, the constructive power of the creator must be met with an
+analogous activity on the part of the receptive hearer. The
+symphonies, for example, are more than cunningly contrived works of
+musical art; they are human documents of undying power to quicken and
+exalt the soul which will submit itself to their influence.
+Beethoven's great instrumental compositions are few in number in
+comparison with the voluminous and uneven output of his predecessors.
+Thus from Haydn we have 125 symphonies, from Mozart about 40, from
+Beethoven 9. Of Haydn's symphonies possibly a half dozen have
+permanent vitality; of Mozart's four; of Beethoven's all, with the
+possible exception of the experimental first. Condensation of subject
+matter, conciseness of style, a ceaseless exaltation of quality above
+quantity are the prominent features in Beethoven's work. All adipose
+tissue is relentlessly excised, and the finished creation resembles a
+human being in perfect physical condition--the outward mechanical
+organism subservient to the spirit within.
+
+Beethoven's life is of supreme interest and importance, for his music
+is the direct expression of himself, of his joys and sorrows. His
+ancestry raises many perplexing questions as to the influence of
+heredity and the sources of genius. In the first place Beethoven was
+not a pure-blooded German, but partly Flemish on his father's side.
+His paternal grandfather, Ludwig van[133] Beethoven, was a man of
+strong character and of a certain musical aptitude, who had migrated
+from the neighborhood of Antwerp to Bonn where he served as court
+musician to the Elector of Cologne. The paternal grandmother early
+developed a passion for drink and ended her days confined in a
+convent. The son of this couple, Johann (the father of the composer)
+was a tenor singer in the court chapel at Bonn and soon became a
+confirmed drunkard. He seems to be a mere intermediary between
+grandfather and grandson. In 1767 he married a young widow, Maria
+Keverich, a woman of warm affections and depth of sentiment, whose
+life was bound up in the care of her gifted son. The tender love
+between Beethoven and his mother was a bright spot in his early years,
+in many ways so sordid and unhappy. Unfortunately she was delicate, of
+consumptive tendencies, and died when Ludwig was but seventeen. "She
+has been to me a good and loving mother," he writes, "and my best
+friend." As we ponder on such facts and then consider for what
+Beethoven stands, we can only exclaim, "God works in a mysterious way,
+his wonders to perform." It was early seen that the young Beethoven
+had unusual ability, and so the shiftless father, with the example of
+Mozart's precocity before him, submitted the boy to a deal of enforced
+drudgery in the way of harpsichord and violin practice. He had one
+good teacher however, Neefe, who records that the boy of thirteen
+played the harpsichord with energetic skill and had mastered the
+Preludes and Fugues of the Well-Tempered Clavichord. Beethoven's
+general education was sadly neglected, and when he was thirteen
+practically ceased. These deficiencies were a source of mortification
+all his life. He spelled atrociously, was never sure of his addition
+and subtraction and so was often involved in altercations with
+landlords and washerwomen. By nature Beethoven was of strong, eager
+intellect. He became an omnivorous reader, and later in life acquired
+a working facility in Latin, French, Italian and English. The first
+period of his life ends with his departure in 1792 for Vienna, whither
+he was sent by the Elector to study with Haydn. In summing up its
+special incidents we are struck first by the vivid and lasting
+impression which Beethoven, in spite of his lowly origin and
+deficiencies in education and cultivation, made upon wealthy and
+refined people of distinction, simply through his extraordinary
+personality and unmistakable sincerity. Two of these friends were the
+von Breuning family, including the charming daughter Eleanore--one of
+Beethoven's early loves--and the cultivated and influential Count
+Waldstein, in whose companionship he became acquainted with the German
+poets and with the dramas of Shakespeare. For a vivid picture of these
+boyish years the student is recommended to the Romance, _Jean
+Christophe_ (by Romain Rolland) which, though somewhat idealized, is
+mainly on a historical basis. Two of Beethoven's most unique
+characteristics date from this period. First, his constant habit of
+drawing inspiration directly from Nature, of which he was a passionate
+and persistent lover. He says of himself "No one can love the country
+as I love it. Here alone can I learn wisdom. Every tree exclaims to me
+'Holy, Holy, Holy.'" In long walks through wood and field he would
+allow his thoughts to germinate, giving himself up utterly to creative
+emotion. When in this state of mind Madame von Breuning used to say
+that he was in his "raptus." Consequently, in comparison with the
+works of previous composers, which often have a note of primness and
+artificial restraint--they smell a bit of the lamp and the
+study--those of Beethoven have the elemental power of Nature herself,
+especially shown in the vigor and variety of the rhythm. Second, he
+would always carry sketch books in which to jot down ideas as they
+came to him. These he would polish and improve--sometimes for
+years--before they took final shape. Many of these sketch books[134]
+have been preserved and edited, and they illustrate, most vividly,
+Beethoven's method of composing: slow, cautious, but invincible in its
+final effect; an idea frequently being altered as many as twenty
+times. At the age of twenty-two he was chiefly known as a pianist with
+wonderful facility in improvisation; his compositions had been
+insignificant. The next eight years--up to 1800, when Beethoven was
+thirty--were spent in acquainting himself with the Viennese
+aristocracy and in building up a public clientele. Then follows the
+marvellous period until 1815 in which his power of inspiration was at
+its height, and which gave to the world a body of work for magnitude
+and variety never surpassed: all the symphonies except the Ninth, the
+first twenty-seven pianoforte Sonatas, five concertos for pianoforte
+and orchestra, the opera of Fidelio, several Overtures, numerous
+string quartets and ensemble chamber music. We realize even more
+vividly the heroic and sublime character of Beethoven when we learn
+that, as early as 1798, there began the signs of that deafness which
+altered his whole life. By nature he was hypersensitive, proud and
+high-strung, and these qualities were so aggravated by his malady that
+he became suspicious, at times morose, and his subsequent career was
+checkered with the violent altercations, and equally spasmodic
+renewals of friendship, which took place between him and his best
+friends. His courage was extraordinary. Thus we find him writing:
+"Though at times I shall be the most miserable of God's creatures, I
+will grapple with Fate, it shall never pull me down." On the artistic
+side this affliction had its compensations in that it isolated the
+composer from outer distractions, and allowed him to lay entire stress
+on the spiritual inner side of his art; certainly this is one of the
+strongest notes in his music--the pure fancy manifested therein. As a
+deaf musician he is comparable to the blind seer who penetrates more
+deeply into the mysteries of life than those whose physical eyesight
+is perfect. Beethoven's closing years form a period of manifold
+complications, caused by the care of his scapegrace nephew, by his
+settled deafness and precarious financial position. Yet he grimly
+continued to compose, his last works being of titanic dimensions such
+as the Choral symphony, the Mass in D and the last Quartets and
+Pianoforte Sonatas. Beethoven died on March 26, 1827; nature most
+appropriately giving a dramatic setting to the event by a terrific
+storm of hail and snow, lightning and thunder. It would take too long
+to dwell on the many characteristics of the man Beethoven. Power,
+individuality and sincerity were stamped upon him, and his music is
+just what we should expect from his nature. He embodied all the
+longings, the joys and sorrows of humanity, and gave them such burning
+utterance that the world has listened ever since.
+
+[Footnote 133: The prefix van is not a symbol of nobility.]
+
+[Footnote 134: See the two _Beethoveniana_ by Nottebohm.]
+
+To touch now upon a few of the formal aspects of Beethoven's work, as
+far as verbal analysis can help, it may be asserted that he is the
+acknowledged master of the Sonata Form as Bach was of the Fugue, and
+in his hands this form, and also the Air with Variations, were raised
+to a potency the influence of which is felt even to-day. From
+beginning to end every portion of the Sonata Form was made over and
+vitalized. Instead of the perfunctory "flourish of trumpets" which
+served previous composers for an introduction, this portion with
+Beethoven deftly leads on the hearer to a contemplation of the main
+work, and is as carefully planned as the porch of a great Cathedral.
+For examples, witness the continually growing excitement generated in
+the introductions to the Second and Seventh Symphonies, the breathless
+suspense of the introduction to the Fourth, and the primeval,
+mysterious beginning of the Ninth. And then what a difference in the
+character and emotional suggestiveness of the themes, that with
+Beethoven are actual human voices, dramatic characters, which once met
+can never be forgotten. As Lavoix says of the Fifth Symphony, "Is not
+this a drama in its purity, where passion is no longer the attribute
+of a theatrical work, but the expression of our own individual
+feelings?" No longer are the transitions mere mechanical connections,
+but a portion of the structure which, though subsidiary, is yet
+organically developed from that which precedes and inevitably related
+to that which follows. In the development section we find the real
+Beethoven. Here his marvellous freshness of invention found full play.
+Such inexhaustible fancy, such coherence of structure, such subtlety
+of transformation were unknown in former times, when development was
+often as lifeless as the perfunctory motions of an automaton.
+Beethoven's developments are no mere juggling with tones; they are
+vast tonal edifices, examples of what the imagination of man
+controlled by intellect can achieve. Possibly Beethoven's greatest
+skill as a musical architect was shown in his treatment of the Coda,
+which became the crowning climax of a movement, a last driving home
+with all possible eloquence of the message heretofore presented. The
+end of previous compositions had too often been a mere ceasing to go,
+a running down, but in Beethoven there is usually a strong objective
+point towards which everything converges.
+
+Fully conscious as he was of the throbbing human message it was his
+mission to reveal, we may be sure that Beethoven spared no effort to
+enhance the expressive capabilities of music as a language. Certain
+aspects of his style in this respect are strikingly noticeable in
+every one of his representative works. First, the marvellous rhythmic
+vitality. Note the absence of the former sing-song rhythm of Haydn; in
+its stead we hear the heart-beat, now fast, now slow, of a living
+human being. No longer can the hearer in dreamy apathy beat time with
+his foot. Second, his use of the fiercest dissonances to express the
+heights and depths of our stormy human existence. In listening to
+contemporary works nothing should persuade us more strongly to a
+sympathetic tolerance, or at any rate to a suspension of judgment,
+than the fact that many of Beethoven's most individual cries (surely
+in his case the outward expression of what he heard within, those very
+outbursts which to-day ring longest in our consciousness) were
+considered at the time of their creation as the ravings of a mad-man.
+Dissonances, both acoustically and psychologically, are a vital
+principle in music. In no respect was his music more original than in
+his Promethean boldness in their use. One of his favorite conceptions
+was that music should strike fire from the soul of man; it was not
+meant to lull the hearer into a drowsy revery, but to awaken his
+spiritual consciousness with a shock at times positively galvanic. A
+third feature is his subtlety in expression, as is shown by the minute
+indications in which every page of his work abounds. The crescendos,
+often leading to a sudden drop to pianissimo, the long stretches of
+hushed suspense, the violent sforzandos on unimportant beats, the
+plasticity of periodic formation, all these workings of a rich
+imagination first gave music its place as the supreme art of human
+expression.
+
+A word must be spoken concerning two forms which we owe to Beethoven's
+constructive genius. In place of the former naive Minuet, so
+characteristic of the formal manners of its time, he substituted a
+movement with a characteristic name--the Scherzo, which opened up
+entirely new possibilities. No mere literary distinction between wit
+and humor[135] can explain the power of Beethoven's Scherzos; only
+through his own experience of life can the hearer fathom their
+secrets. The expression of real humor, akin to that spirit which is
+found in Cervantes, Swift, Mark Twain and Abraham Lincoln, was a
+genuine contribution of Beethoven. Deep thinkers alone are capable of
+humor which, to quote a recent writer, is "that faculty of imagination
+so humane and sympathetic in its nature that it can perceive at the
+same time serious and jocose things. It can feel the pathos of a scene
+on life's stage and yet have an eye for the incongruities of the
+actors. It is imagination, the feel of kinship with the universal
+human soul." Beethoven's Scherzos are as varied as life itself. Who
+can forget the boisterous vitality of this movement in the Eroica,
+which quite sweeps us off our feet, the haunting mystery of the
+Scherzo of the Fifth Symphony, or listen unmoved to the grim
+seriousness, alternating with touching pathos, in the Scherzo of the
+Ninth? Secondly, his conception of the Air and Variations was so
+different from anything previously known that he may fairly be called
+its creator. With him variations became poetic transformations, and
+the notable works in this form of Brahms, Tchaikowsky, Franck and
+d'Indy are only freer manifestations of Beethoven's method. Upon two
+last features, his use of titles and his individualizing of the
+orchestral instruments, we cannot dwell in detail. Although program
+music in its literal sense dates back several centuries,
+Beethoven--far more than was customary before--used external
+suggestions or incidents, often intimate subjective experiences, as
+the quickening impulse to his imagination. We know from his own words
+that, while composing, he generally had some mental picture before
+him. Very often we are not given the clue to his thoughts, but the
+titles, familiar to every one, which he did use, such as the _Heroic_
+and _Pastoral_ Symphonies, the _Coriolanus_ and _Egmont_ Overtures,
+those to several of the Sonatas, are full of import and show clearly
+that he was engaged in no mere abstract music making for its own sake.
+These works are the point of departure for the significant development
+of modern music along this path. With Beethoven the orchestra began to
+assume its present importance, and the instruments are no longer
+treated as mere producers of sound and rhythm, but often as living
+beings. How eloquent is the message of the Horns in the Trio to the
+Scherzo of the _Heroic_! Berlioz compares the double basses in the
+Fifth Symphony to the gambols of sportive elephants, and instances
+might be multiplied. But words are futile in describing the wonders of
+Beethoven. A striking tribute is that of Professor John K. Paine. "In
+instrumental music Beethoven is pre-eminent, from all points of view,
+formally, aesthetically and spiritually. Like Shakespeare's, his
+creations are distinguished by great diversity of character; each is a
+type by itself. Beethoven is the least of a mannerist of all
+composers. His compositions are genuine poems, which tell their
+meaning to the true listener clearly and unmistakably in the language
+of tones, a language however which cannot be translated into mere
+words."
+
+[Footnote 135: The derivation of the word is worthy of note; it means
+moisture, juice, something not dry. Humor is certainly the juice of
+human nature.]
+
+We are now in a position to approach intelligently, enthusiastically
+and reverently the mighty works of Beethoven which, though built upon
+the foundations of Haydn and Mozart, yet take us into an entirely new
+world of power and fancy. For illustrations we select the first
+movement of the _Third_ or _Heroic_ Symphony; the _Seventh Sonata in D
+major_ for Pianoforte; the _Fifth Symphony in C minor_ (entire) and
+the _Coriolanus_ Overture. In regard to the symphonies it is
+understood that the emphasis on certain ones and the omission of
+others implies no ultra-critical attitude. Each of Beethoven's
+symphonies has its characteristic attributes and each is the work of a
+genius. But just as in Nature some mountains are more majestic than
+others, so concerning the nine symphonies we may say that their order
+of excellence as endorsed by the consensus of mankind would be as
+follows. The First Symphony is somewhat experimental, composed when
+Beethoven was working out his technique of expression. It is closely
+modeled on the style of Haydn and, though showing certain daring
+touches and though perfectly direct and sincere, is not of marked
+individuality. In the Second Symphony a long advance is made, for we
+find numerous traits which are thoroughly distinctive of the genius of
+Beethoven: the exciting Prelude to the first movement; the heavenly
+Larghetto, one of the first slow movements of real emotional power;
+the rollicking Scherzo (note the fantastic touches in the Trio) and
+the splendor of the last pages of the Finale, which can only be
+compared to a sunset with its slowly fading colors and its last burst
+of glory. The general style of the Second Symphony however is that of
+Haydn and Mozart, though raised to the highest pitch of eloquence. In
+the Third Symphony the complete Beethoven steps forth. It was his
+declaration of independence, and in this work, as he himself said, he
+began a completely new line of activity; it was also his own favorite
+among the symphonies.[136] Heretofore there had been no such
+impassioned utterance as is revealed in the first movement of this
+Third Symphony and there have been few, if any, to equal it since. The
+Fourth Symphony is an entrancing work and shows Beethoven's
+inexhaustible variety of mood; since, save for the "grand manner"
+peculiar to all his works, it differs strikingly from the Third and
+the Fifth. It was composed during the happiest period of Beethoven's
+life and is related in its whole character to his emotions and
+aspirations at that time.[137] The slow movement is the most sublime
+love-song in music. The Fifth Symphony is undoubtedly the most popular
+of them all, in the true sense of the term.[138] The reason for this
+verdict is the unparalleled combination in a single work of the
+emotional intensity found in the first movement, the touching appeal
+of the slow movement, the mystery, followed by the reckless display of
+spirit, in the Scherzo and the paean of rejoicing which rings through
+the Finale. The Sixth or Pastoral, Beethoven's one excursion into the
+realm of tone-painting based on natural phenomena, is of interest more
+as a point of departure for the work of his successors than for its
+intrinsic message. The conception of the possibilities of musical
+description has so widened since Beethoven, and the facilities for
+orchestral color so increased, that this symphony, though it has many
+characteristic beauties, sounds a bit old-fashioned. The Seventh is
+one of the most original of them all, incomparable for its rhythmic
+vitality--the Apotheosis of the Dance, as Wagner called it.[139] If
+rhythm be the basis of music and of life itself, this symphony is
+thoroughly alive from start to finish, hence immortal. The Eighth is
+the embodiment of Beethoven's (possibly) most individual trait--his
+abounding humor. Never before had symphonic music played such pranks
+as are found here, especially in the Finale. The Symphony is in fact a
+prolonged Scherzo[140]--the third movement (a Minuetto) being merely
+for contrast. The Ninth Symphony, composed in the philosophic period
+of Beethoven's life, when he was attempting still greater heights, is
+a vast work, the first three movements purely instrumental, and the
+Finale, for the first time in symphonic literature, a union of solo
+voices and chorus with the instrumental forces. The text was taken
+from Schiller's "Ode to Joy." The spirit of the poem made a strong
+appeal to Beethoven's humanitarian and democratic aspirations and
+there is no question of the grandeur of his conception. But it is not
+carping criticism to say that his thoughts were too heaven-soaring for
+a perfect realization through any earthly means. Beethoven moreover
+was seldom happy in writing for the human voice--he thought in terms
+of the instruments--and it is not to be denied that there are several
+passages in the Finale which consist of mere boisterous shouting. No
+one save believers in plenary inspiration can give to this Finale the
+whole-hearted admiration that is paid to the three instrumental
+movements which are pure gold; especially the seraphic Adagio and the
+Gargantuan Scherzo with its demoniacal rhythmic energy. To sum up the
+foregoing estimates, if the student is forced to select and cannot
+become equally familiar with all of the nine symphonies, a reasonable
+order of study would be the following: the Fifth, the Third, the
+Seventh, the Eighth, the Fourth, the Ninth, the Second, the Sixth and
+the First. See Supplement No. 44.
+
+[Footnote 136: See Beethoven, Kerst-Krehbiel, p. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 137: Read the appropriate essay in _Beethoven and His Nine
+Symphonies_ by Sir George Grove.]
+
+[Footnote 138: Vox populi, vox Dei.]
+
+[Footnote 139: D'Indy, however, in his _Beethoven_ (p. 61, English
+translation) dissents from this view; not at all convincingly, it
+would seem to us. For the basic rhythm of each movement is on a
+definite dance metre and the theme of the first movement is a regular
+Irish jig (Beethoven at one time being very much interested in Irish
+folk-dances) with its typical three final notes, _e.g._
+
+[Music]]
+
+[Footnote 140: It was written, to use Beethoven's own words, in an
+"aufgeknoepft" (unbuttoned) condition, _i.e._, free, untramelled,
+rather than straight-laced, swaddled in conventions.]
+
+We shall now make a few comments[141] on the first movement of the
+_Third_ or _Heroic Symphony_, merely to stimulate the hearer's
+interest, for the music may be trusted to make its own direct appeal.
+After two short, sonorous chords, which summon us to attention, the
+first theme, allegro con brio, with its elemental, swinging rhythm, is
+announced by the 'cellos. It is often glibly asserted that these notes
+of the tonic triad are the whole of the first theme. This is a great
+misconception, for although the motive in the first four measures is
+the generative basis for the entire movement, the arresting, dramatic
+note of the theme is the C-sharp in measure five. This theme in fact
+is a typical example of Beethoven's broad sweeps of thought; for
+prolonged with secondary melodic phrases in the first violins and
+flutes, its real close does not come until the 13th measure, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 141: These are based in this work and in all Symphonic
+compositions on the full orchestral score (in the Peters edition); the
+student is therefore recommended to adopt this practise. For in
+Beethoven and all orchestral writers the thought and expression are so
+integrally bound up with the tone color and idiom of the various
+instruments that when their works are reduced to another medium much
+of the eloquence is lost. For those who cannot handle an orchestral
+score there are adequate arrangements for 2 hands, 4 hands and for 2
+pianofortes in several standard editions. Those who have an advanced
+pianoforte technique should certainly become familiar with the
+virtuoso-transcriptions of the Beethoven Symphonies by Franz Liszt.]
+
+After a varied repetition of the first motive of the theme, there
+occurs a passage (measures 23-33)[142] which illustrates one of the
+most characteristic features in all Beethoven's work, _i.e._, those
+sharp dislocations of the rhythm, indicated by the sforzando accents
+(_sf_) on beats usually _unaccented_ and often coupled with strong
+dissonances. Although the basic rhythm is triple, the beats for
+several measures are in groups of two quarter notes or their
+equivalent, one half note, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 142: It is an excellent practise to number the measures of a
+score in groups of _10_.]
+
+No longer can we drift along in dreamy apathy; our vitality is
+quickened as by the gusts of a tornado. There have been those who for
+the first time in their lives were jarred from the even tenor of their
+way by these impassioned onslaughts. When Beethoven's Symphonies were
+first played in Paris, it is reported that the operatic composer
+Boieldieu was much disconcerted, because, as he said, he liked
+"musique qui me berce." The transition (measures 43-81) is a
+remarkable example of Beethoven's power of creating ever more and more
+excitement and expectancy. It contains _three_ subsidiary melodic
+phrases, each of increasing rhythmic animation, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+and fairly whirls us into the beautiful contemplative theme at measure
+81. This theme embodies some entrancing modulations into remote keys,
+and then, after one of Beethoven's typical passages of hushed
+pianissimo (beginning in measure 97) we are led through a series of
+sforzandos, crescendos and titanic ejaculations to the overpowering
+dissonances in measure 145, which with the tonic chord close the
+Exposition in the dominant key. The Development (measures 164-396) is
+extremely long and varied, but a perfect manifestation of spontaneous,
+organic treatment--each portion growing inevitably from what has
+preceded and marching irresistibly onward to its objective goal. Every
+modulatory, rhythmic and polyphonic device is employed to vary and
+intensify the message; yet, notwithstanding the diversity of the
+material, we are held spellbound by the directness and coherence of
+the thought. Such is Beethoven's passionate insistence on the right to
+speak out just what he felt that in one stupendous passage (measures
+246-277) it seems as if the very Heavens were falling about our heads.
+At measure 282 a theme of ideal repose is interpolated--just the
+contrast needed after the preceding cataclysm. The Development proper
+is renewed in measure 298 and after a repetition of the interpolated
+theme in measures 320-335 the rhythm of the first theme asserts itself
+in all its majesty, carrying us upward to a veritable table-land of
+sublimity. From this we are brought down through a series of
+decrescendo, modulatory chords, like drifting mists, to an almost
+complete cessation of musical life--nothing but a pianissimo tremolo
+on the strings. From this hush there floats in upon us the rhythmic
+motive of the first theme; then, with a _ff_ chord of the dominant, we
+are suddenly brought back into the sunshine of the main theme, and the
+Recapitulation has begun. This portion with certain happy changes in
+modulation--note the beautiful variant on the horn in measures
+406-414, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+--preserves the customary emphasis on the main tonality of E-flat
+major, ending in measures 549-550 with the same dissonances which
+closed the Exposition. Then are declaimed by the full orchestra those
+two dramatic outbursts which usher in the Coda and which may be
+likened to "Stop! Listen! the best is yet to come." The blunt,
+intentional disjunction of the harmony adds weight to the assertion,
+_e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Here we have a convincing illustration of Beethoven's individual
+conception that the Coda should be a second and final development;
+special points of interest and treatment being held in store, so that
+it becomes a truly crowning piece of eloquence. Observe how the
+reappearance of the interpolated theme balances the Coda with the
+Development proper and how the various rhythms of the Exposition are
+concentrated in the last page. Finally a series of bold, vibrato leaps
+in the first violins--based on the dominant chord--brings this
+impassioned movement to a close.
+
+A lack of space prevents the inclusion in the Supplement of the rest
+of the Symphony, but the student is urged to make himself familiar
+with the three remaining movements: the Marcia Funebre, the Scherzo
+and the Finale. The Funeral March is justly ranked with that of Chopin
+in his B-flat minor Sonata and that of Wagner in the last act of the
+_Goetterdaemmerung_ as one of the most eloquent in existence, and
+contains melodies so touching that they could have come only from the
+very soul of Beethoven. Especially noteworthy is the aspiring melody
+of the middle, contrasting portion (Maggiore) where the spirit, freed
+from earthly dross, seems to mount to the skies in a chariot of fire.
+The third part, where the minor mode is resumed, abounds in dramatic
+touches; especially that fugal passage, where the ecclesiastical tone,
+combined with pealing trumpets, brings before us some funeral pageant
+in a vast, medieval cathedral. The Coda, beginning in A-flat major,
+with an impressive mood of resignation, illustrates at its close a
+psychological use of programmistic effect; for the first theme,
+treated as a real person, disintegrates before our very
+eyes--becoming, as it were, a disembodied spirit. Nothing can show
+more clearly than this passage the widening of the expressive powers
+of music which we owe to the genius of Beethoven. The same effect with
+a slightly different dramatic purpose is found at the end of the
+_Coriolanus_ Overture.
+
+The Scherzo, allegro vivace, in triple time, but marked _one_ beat a
+measure = 116 (almost two measures per second!), is unsurpassed for
+sustained brilliancy and daring rhythmic changes. It is so
+idiomatically conceived for orchestra that only the barest idea can be
+gained from a pianoforte transcription. The prevailing background is a
+mass of shimmering strings, marked by Beethoven "_sempre pp e
+staccato_" and against this stands out a buoyant, folk-song type of
+melody on the oboe. After some mysterious and fantastic modulations a
+_ff_ climax is reached which leads to the famous syncopated passage
+where the orchestra seems to hurl itself headlong into space, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The Trio, with its three hunting horns, gives a fresh, woodland note
+typifying Beethoven's love of nature. Some mysterious modulations lead
+us back from the dim recesses of the forest to the sparkling animation
+of the Scherzo. In this part of the movement Beethoven plays one of
+his characteristic practical jokes; for, just where we expect the same
+syncopated effect as before, the time is changed from 3/4 to 2/2, the
+duration of the measure remaining the same, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+This effect may be likened to the uproarious guffaws of a giant. The
+Coda has a clear reminiscence of the dramatic C-sharp in the main
+theme of the first movement, _e.g._
+
+[Music][143]
+
+[Footnote 143: D-flat being the enharmonic equivalent of C-sharp.
+[Transcriber's Note: The music notation contains a D-flat.]]
+
+Such an organic connection between movements begins to be very
+frequent in Beethoven's works.
+
+The Finale, Allegro molto, has caused considerable difficulty to the
+commentators for reasons known only to themselves. Different forms are
+assigned to it by different critics; one regrets the falling off of
+inspiration, another asserts that the movement "does not fulfill the
+requirements which the human mind makes of art; it leaves us
+confused." Poor Beethoven! But why all this pother? If the inner
+evidence of the music itself be any justification for structural
+classification, this wonderful, inspired Finale is a series of free
+Variations[144] on a double theme of which the parts are related to
+each other as Soprano and Bass, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 144: The variations are not numbered and the demarcations
+indicated only by certain cadential objective points.]
+
+By beginning the first two variations with the less important of the
+two melodies (_i.e._, the _bass_) Beethoven is simply indulging in his
+fondness for piquing the fancy of the hearer by starting him on a
+false trail--not giving away, as it were, his real purpose too soon.
+Yet from the first announcement of the leading melody in the Third
+Variation it assumes increasing importance, through successive
+appearances in E-flat major, B minor, D major and C major, until after
+a long fugal development we reach the inspired passage (Poco Andante
+con espressione), _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+in which the main theme is stated first in its noble simplicity and
+then enhanced by an obligato melody on the oboe. It is one of the most
+eloquent passages in all symphonic literature. At its last appearance
+the real theme comes fully to its own--for the _first_ time in the
+_bass_, that fundamental voice--where it is declaimed _ff_ in gorgeous
+splendor by all the lower instruments of the orchestra. It is evident
+that not even the most inspired genius can sustain such a flight for
+ever, and after this magnificent paean the workings of Beethoven's
+imagination resemble those of Nature herself. Following a tranquil
+intermediary passage in A-flat major we enter upon one of those long,
+mysterious periods of hushed suspense which may be compared to a long
+expanse of open country or to the fading lights on the sea at sunset.
+The last page, beginning with the Presto, is sheer orchestral
+jubilation of the most intoxicating kind. We may picture an
+enthusiastic gathering, with hats thrown aloft and shouts of triumph
+ringing from every throat. It is of historical interest to know that
+the theme of this Finale must have been a favorite with Beethoven, for
+he had used it in three former works: a _Contre-dance_, as the basis
+for a set of _Pianoforte Variations_ and in the _Ballet Music to
+Prometheus_. It may not be too fanciful to trace a dramatic
+relationship between its use in portraying the daring spirit who first
+stole fire from Heaven and as the crowning message of a work meant to
+glorify all heroic endeavor. A thorough familiarity with this movement
+will repay the student not only as exemplifying Beethoven's freedom of
+expression but indeed as a point of departure for so many modern works
+in free variation form. See Supplement No. 45.
+
+To illustrate Beethoven's Pianoforte compositions we shall now analyze
+the _Seventh Sonata in D major_, op. 10, No. 3. Only wholesale
+hero-worshipers consider all of the thirty-two Sonatas of equal
+significance. It is true that, taken as a whole, they are a storehouse
+of creative vitality and that in each there is something, somewhere,
+which strikes a spark; for everything which Beethoven wrote was
+stamped with his dominating personality. But the fire of genius burns
+more steadily in some of the Sonatas than in others. It is the very
+essence of genius to have its transcendent moments; only mediocrity
+preserves a dead level. It is therefore no spirit of fault finding
+which leads us to centre our attention upon those Sonatas which have
+best stood the test of time and which never fail to convince us of
+their "raison d'etre": the _Appassionata_, the _Waldstein_, the
+_C-sharp minor_, the _Pathetique_, the _Sonata in G major_, op. 14,
+No. 2, and _all_ the last five, especially the glorious one in _A-flat
+major_, op. 119. It is futile to deny that some of the early sonatas
+are experimental and that certain others do not represent Beethoven at
+his best, being more the result of his constructive power than of an
+impelling message which had to be expressed. The D major Sonata has
+been selected for study because, though composed in Beethoven's first
+period, it is thoroughly characteristic, and because its performance
+is within the powers of the average intelligent amateur. The full
+beauty of the later Sonatas can be realized only by great virtuosi who
+devote to them years of study. The work is in four movements: the
+first, complete Sonata-form; the second, modified Sonata-form; the
+third, Three-part; the Finale, a freely treated Rondo-Sonata-form. The
+first movement, Presto, begins with a vigorous presentation of the
+main theme which ends in measure 22 with the last of three _ff_
+octaves. The unusually long transition, containing a subsidiary theme
+in B minor, is remarkable for its onrushing excitement and for the
+playful false leads which usher in the second theme. After a brilliant
+cadence in the dominant key, one would suppose this theme might be
+announced in measure 53, but not so; after three measures of cantabile
+melody, progress is interrupted by a group of descending octave leaps.
+A second attempt is now made, this time in A minor, only to be
+thwarted by a still more capricious octave descent. This time,
+however, after a dramatic pause, we are rewarded with a clear-cut,
+periodic melody beginning in measure 66, against which the rhythm of
+the first theme keeps up a gentle undercurrent. Some interesting
+modulations develop into a series of descending octaves which,
+accompanied by _sf_ chords, lead to the closing portion. This
+brilliant passage accentuates the dominant key of the second theme.
+After a short tranquillo phrase and some free imitations of the main
+theme we repeat the Exposition, or go on to the Development ushered in
+by a bold change to the mediant key of B-flat major. After several
+appearances of the main theme in the bass, Beethoven takes a leaf out
+of D. Scarlatti's book and revels in some crossing of the hands and
+some wide leaps. The Recapitulation corresponds exactly with the first
+part until we reach the Coda in measure 298, which affords a striking
+example of Beethoven's power of climax. After a long period of
+suspense an imitative treatment of the first theme, with kettle-drum
+effect in the bass, leads to a stringendo ascending passage which
+closes with two crashing dissonances and two peculiarly grouped
+chords, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+They have a hard, cutting brilliance all their own and give just the
+touch of color needed to finish this dazzling movement.[145]
+
+[Footnote 145: By Beethoven everything is carefully planned. Note in
+performance the contrast of mood suggested by these final chords and
+the sombre register of the opening chords of the Slow Movement.]
+
+In the Slow Movement, Largo e Mesto, there is a depth of emotion quite
+unparalleled in the early history of music.[146] Certainly no composer
+since Bach had uttered such a message. As soon as the movement begins
+we are convinced that it represents the outpouring of a soul capable
+of deep meditations upon life and its mysteries, and with the
+eloquence at its command to impress these thoughts upon the hearer.
+The number of themes and their key relationship are those of
+Sonata-form, but instead of the usual development we have a new
+contrasting theme of great pathos in the major mode. Observe the
+poignancy of the dissonances, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+in the second theme of the Exposition which begins in measure 17, and
+the passionate outcries in measures 35 and 37 of the middle portion.
+Just before the Recapitulation, in measures 41-43, is an early example
+of Beethoven's fondness for instrumental recitative--music speaking
+with a more intimate appeal than words. The movement ends with an
+impassioned Coda which, beginning with the main theme in the bass and
+working up, more and more agitato, to a powerful climax, dies away
+with mysterious fragments of the opening measures. The dissonant
+element so characteristic of the whole movement is retained to the
+end, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 146: According to d'Indy it is more truly pathetic than the
+entire so-called _Pathetic Sonata_.]
+
+The growing importance of dissonance may be seen from a comparison of
+this movement with the average slow movements of Haydn and Mozart
+These, although they have serenity and grace, beauty and finish of
+form, and are sincere manifestations of the genius of their creators,
+are yet lacking in passion. This placid mood and amiability of style
+is shown by the comparatively slight employment of dissonances. By
+unthinking and uncultivated persons dissonances[147] are often
+considered as something harsh, repellant--hence to be avoided. But
+dissonances contain the real life and progress of music. They arouse,
+even take by storm our imaginations and shake us out of our
+equanimity. Consonant chords represent stability, satisfaction and,
+when over-used, inertia. The genius of the composer is shown in
+establishing just the _right proportion_ between these two elements;
+but if there is to be any disproportion let us have _too much_ rather
+than too little dissonance, for then, at any rate, the music is
+_alive_. Since Beethoven the whole development of music as a human
+language shows the preponderating stress laid on dissonance; to this
+fact a knowledge of the works of Schumann, Chopin, Wagner, Debussy and
+Franck will amply testify.[148] The same analogy holds equally in all
+realms of life, human and physical. The truest development of
+character depends on the warring elements of good and evil. Honest
+discontent is the first step to progress. Dissonance is the yeast of
+music and should be welcomed for its invigorating influence.
+
+[Footnote 147: A frequent confusion of thought is shown in the use of
+the words "discord" and "dissonance." A discord is an unrelated noise,
+as when one bangs with both fists on the key-board. A dissonance is a
+logical introduction of intervals or chords made up of jarring factors
+for their stimulating effect upon the imagination.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Two of the greatest innovators in this direction,
+Scryabin and Stravinsky, have been working in our own day, and there
+is no doubt that by their daring experiments they have enlarged the
+expressive powers of music. While it is obvious that the dramatic
+effect of to-day stimulates the experimentation of tomorrow,
+contrariwise, the immediate contribution of each innovator is to
+render more clear the work of his predecessor, up to that moment the
+confessed iconoclast.]
+
+The third movement, Minuetto, may be taken as a reply to Haydn's
+well-known wish "Oh! that some one would write us a new Minuet." Well,
+here it is--with all the grace and charm of the 18th century type and
+yet with more import, especially in the Coda with its haunting
+retrospect. The rhythmic formation of the opening sentence would be
+clearer if two measures had been thrown into _one_, for the swing is
+clearly that of a 6/4 measure. The Trio, with its Scarlatti-like
+crossing of the hands, is a playful bit of badinage, affording a
+delightful contrast to the Minuetto. Such genuine variety in mood
+makes the Three-part Form of lasting worth.
+
+The Finale, Allegro, with its capricious fortissimo outbursts and
+unexpected sforzandos is a characteristic example of Beethoven's
+freedom of utterance. Any cast-iron conception of form was entirely
+foreign to his nature; instead, he made form the servant of the freest
+flights of fancy. The movement begins as if it were to be worked out
+in the so-called Rondo Sonata-form--a hybrid, tripartite structure
+related to the Sonata-form in that it has _two_ themes in the first
+and last portions, and to the Rondo in that the middle portion is a
+free Episode instead of the customary development of former material.
+The salient feature by which this form may always be recognized is
+that the Exposition closes with a _definite return_ to the first
+theme--thus emphasizing the Rondo aspect--instead of with an expanded
+cadence based upon the second theme. As we have stated before (see
+Chapter IX), many of Beethoven's Finales are in this mixed form, clear
+examples of which may be found in the last movements of the Fourth,
+Eighth and Twelfth Sonatas. The Finale of the Twelfth Sonata has been
+included in the Supplement in order to make this important form
+familiar to the student. To return now to the Finale of the sonata we
+are studying. Its first two portions correspond exactly to the usual
+practice in the Rondo-Sonata form just explained; _i.e._, we find in
+the Exposition a first theme, a modulatory transition, a second theme
+(beginning in measure 17) and a definite repetition of the first
+theme, in measures 25-32. Then, after two measures of bold modulation,
+begins the middle, episodical passage which, closing with a whimsical
+cadenza-like passage, leads back to the beginning of the third part.
+After a complete, slightly varied appearance of the first theme,
+Beethoven does not repeat the second theme, as we should expect, but
+allows his fancy to indulge in a series of brilliant passages,
+exciting modulations and dynamic contrasts. All this freedom is held
+together by insistence on the fundamental rhythmic motive (measures
+72-83). A final embellished statement of the first theme ushers in the
+fiery Coda, in measure 92, which ends with a long running passage;
+beneath, we hear reminiscences of the main theme. It is often stated
+that Beethoven's Sonatas are lacking in pianistic effect, and it is
+true that his pianoforte works do not bring out the possibilities of
+color and sonority as we find them, for example, in Chopin and
+Debussy--the orchestra and the string-quartet being indeed his
+favorite media of expression. Yet during his entire early career
+Beethoven was famous as a performer and improviser on the pianoforte
+and some, at any rate, of his deepest thoughts have been confided to
+that instrument. That he was not at all insensible to the beauty of
+pianistic effect for its own sake is shown by the syncopated, shadowy
+chords in measures 101-105, the whole justification for which lies in
+their enchanting sound.[149]
+
+[Footnote 149: For a very clear tabular view of the structure of this
+Sonata see d'Indy's _Cours de Composition Musicale_, Book II, p. 332.]
+
+
+SYMPHONY NO. 5[150]
+
+[Footnote 150: This is not given in the Supplement. See preceding
+remarks apropos of the Third Symphony. The comments are based, as
+usual, on the full orchestral score.]
+
+The _Fifth Symphony in C minor_, op. 67, is deservedly popular because
+it is so human; a translation, in fact, of life itself into the
+glowing language of music. Beethoven's emotional power was so deep and
+true that, in expressing himself, he spoke, like every great
+philosopher, poet or artist, for all mankind. Which one of us in his
+own experience, has not felt the same protests against relentless Fate
+that find such uncontrollable utterance in the first movement? Who,
+again, is untouched by that angelic message, set before us in the
+second movement, of hope and aspiration, of heroic and even
+_warlike_[151] resolution, mingled with the resignation which only
+great souls know? The third movement (Allegro)--in reality a Scherzo
+of the most fantastic type, though not so marked--might well typify
+the riddle of the Universe. We indeed "see through a glass darkly,"
+and yet there is no note of despair. Amid the sinister mutterings of
+the basses there ring out, on the horns and trumpets, clarion calls to
+action. While we are in this world we must live its life; a living
+death is unendurable. The Finale, Allegro maestoso, is a majestic
+declaration of unconquerable faith and optimism--the intense
+expression of Beethoven's own words, "I will grapple with Fate, it
+shall never pull me down"--to be compared only with Browning's "God's
+in his heaven, all's right with the world," and the peroration to
+Whitman's _Mystic Trumpeter_, "Joy, joy, over all joy!" No adequate
+attempt could be made to translate the music into words. The Symphony
+is extremely subjective; indeed, autobiographic. For all historical
+details as to its composition, the reader is referred to the Grove
+essay,[152] and for eulogistic rhapsodies nothing can surpass the
+essay of Berlioz, that prince of critics. We shall content ourselves
+with a few comments of a structural nature and then trust the student
+to seek a performance of the work by a good orchestra. Of the first
+movement (Allegro con brio)[153] the dominant characteristics,
+especially in comparison with the wealth of material in the _Heroic_,
+are conciseness and intensity. It starts at once, without prelude,
+with the motive--one of the tersest in music--from which is developed,
+polyphonically, the first theme, _e.g._
+
+[Music[A]]
+
+[Footnote 151: This interpretation of d'Indy is based upon the
+prevalence in the movement of the conventional martial rhythm [Music]
+and carries, we must acknowledge, considerable weight. It is, however,
+distinctly subjective and prevents no one from gaining quite a
+different impression. We should be more inclined to accept the views
+of the noted French scholar had he not been so wide of the mark, while
+speaking of the Seventh Symphony, as to deny any appearance of
+dance-rhythm in the first movement But the Irish composer, Villiers
+Stanford, has shown conclusively that the theme is based upon the
+rhythm of an Irish Hornpipe. Thus do the wise ones disagree!
+Meanwhile, we others have the _music itself_.]
+
+[Footnote 152: _Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies_ by Sir George
+Grove.]
+
+[Footnote 153: Beethoven's favorite mark of tempo and expression.]
+
+[Footnote A: There are also some _p_ holding notes on the bassoons.]
+
+Everything is concentrated in the highest degree and the assault upon
+our consciousness is of corresponding power. A tempestuous transition
+leads to two short _sf_ chords and then in measure 59, announced _ff_
+by the horns, appears the first phrase of the second theme, based on
+the same motive as the first, but in the relative major (E-flat),
+_e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+It is answered by a second phrase of marked simplicity and
+loveliness--a mood, indeed, of resignation. This is only momentary,
+however, for the relentless rhythm of the chief motive continues to
+assert itself in the basses until, as it gathers headway after a short
+closing phrase (95-99), it is thundered out _ff_ by the full orchestra
+in a series of descending groups. The Development continues the same
+resistless impetuosity. Note the grim effect of the empty fifths and
+fourths in measures 126-127. Once only is there a slackening of the
+titanic, elemental drive--in the mysterious passage (212-239) where
+the pent-up fury of the composer seems to have exhausted itself. It is
+only, however, a lull in the storm which breaks forth with renewed
+energy in the Recapitulation and Coda. Observe the pathetic commentary
+which the solo oboe makes upon the main theme at the outset of the
+third part (268)--a flower growing out of the debris of the avalanche.
+The Coda begins, at measure 374, with a passionate insistence upon the
+fundamental rhythm, driven home with sharp hammer-blows and, as in all
+Beethoven's symphonic movements, furnishes an overpowering climax, not
+a mere perfunctory close. The second Movement, in A-flat major, is a
+series of free[154] Variations (five in number) based on a theme,
+Andante con moto,[155] of great rhythmic vitality, peculiarly rich and
+suave--announced, as it is, by 'celli and violas in unison, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 154: Free, in that they are not numbered and are not
+separated by rigid cadences; in that episodical passages--often of a
+rhapsodic nature--are interpolated.]
+
+[Footnote 155: The tempo is often taken by conductors too slowly, thus
+losing much of its buoyancy.]
+
+The first two presentations of the theme are in each case followed by
+a passage of martial character which bursts triumphantly into C major.
+There is an orchestral touch of great beauty and originality in the
+first and second variations (beginning in measures 49 and 98
+respectively), where a solo clarinet--later a flute, oboe and
+bassoon--prolongs a single tone which seems to float above the melody
+like a guiding star.[156] A passage of special significance is that in
+measures 123-146, where Beethoven indulges in a touching soliloquy
+upon his main theme. It is mysteriously introduced by the repetition,
+eight times, _pp_, of the dominant chord (the simplest medium of
+suspense) which seems to say "Hush, I have something most intimate
+reveal." The Coda (Piu Moto) begins with a mood of wistful reverie,
+but the clouds are soon dispelled and the movement ends in radiant
+sunshine.
+
+[Footnote 156: While listening to this passage one is instinctively
+reminded of Keats's "Bright and steadfast star, hung aloft the
+night."]
+
+The salient structural feature in the last two movements[157] is that
+they are merged together; there is no pause after the Scherzo; and
+the movements are further interlocked by an interpolation, in the
+middle of the Finale, of a portion of the preceding Scherzo--a kind of
+inter-quotation or cross reference. This composite movement is a
+striking example of the organic relationship which Beethoven succeeded
+in establishing--between the different movements of the symphony.
+Prior to him, it is fair to say--to use a homely simile--that a sonata
+or a symphony resembled a train of different cars merely linked
+together, one after the other; whereas the modern work, as
+foreshadowed by Beethoven, is a vestibuled train: one indivisible
+whole from beginning to end.[158] But before the Fifth Symphony there
+had been no such systematic unification; for it is not too much to say
+that the whole work is based upon the persistent iteration of a single
+note in varied rhythmic groups. Thus in the first movement we find
+continually the rhythm [Music]; in the second, in several places
+[Music]; in the Scherzo [Music]; and in the Finale [Music].
+Furthermore a C, repeated by the kettle-drums for fifty measures, is
+the chief factor in the connecting link between the Scherzo and the
+Finale. We shall observe this tendency to interconnection still
+further developed by Schumann in his Fourth Symphony, by Liszt in the
+Symphonic Poem[159] (to be treated later), and a climax of attainment
+reached in such highly unified works as Cesar Franck's D minor
+Symphony and Tchaikowsky's Fifth. To return to the Scherzo, well
+worthy of note is the Trio, in free fugal form (its theme announced by
+the ponderous double basses), because it is such a convincing
+illustration of the humorous possibilities inherent in fugal style.
+The way in which the voices chase each other about--compared by
+Berlioz[160] with the gambols of a delighted elephant--and their
+spasmodic attempts at assertion, produce an effect irresistibly droll.
+The humour is as broad as that of Aristophanes or Rabelais. Words are
+powerless to describe the thrill of the last fifty measures which
+launch us into the Finale. We may merely observe that this long
+passage, _pp_ throughout until the last molto crescendo, and with the
+rhythmic element reduced to a minimum, makes more of an impact upon
+our imagination than that of the loudest orchestral forces ever
+conceived. We are reminded of the effect of the "still, small voice"
+after the thunders on Sinai. The Finale, with its majestic opening
+theme in fanfare, contains a wealth of material and is conceived
+throughout in the utmost spirit of optimistic joy and freedom.[161]
+The Exposition has a subsidiary theme of its own, beginning at measure
+26, which reappears with rhythmic modification (diminution), and most
+eloquently announced by the bassoons, in the first section of the
+final Coda. After the brilliant second theme (45-63) there is an
+impressive closing theme (with some biting _fp_ dissonances) which
+forms the basis of the Presto portion of the Coda. The Development is
+a marvellous treatment of the second theme, in imitation, modulation
+and climactic growth; the rhythm [Music], so vitally connected with
+the whole work, persisting with stupendous energy. In the final
+measures it would seem as if Beethoven were storming the very heavens.
+Here occurs the quotation from the preceding Scherzo which binds the
+movements together and serves as a point of departure for a still
+greater climax. It seems unreasonable to expect a higher flight, but
+the genius of Beethoven is equal to the effort. If, before, we have
+reached the heavens, now we pierce them. The brilliant Coda--note the
+ascending runs for the piccolo--is in three sections, the first based
+on the subsidiary theme, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+the second on the closing theme in quickened tempo, _e.g._,
+
+[Music[B]]
+
+and the third, a canonic treatment of the opening fanfare, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+in which the orchestra seems to tumble head over heels in a paroxysm
+of delight. The movement closes with prolonged shouts of victory and
+exultation.[162]
+
+[Footnote 157: Taken separately, the movements are perfectly normal;
+the Scherzo in the usual Three-part form and the Finale in complete
+Sonata-form.]
+
+[Footnote 158: There are traces of this striving for organic unity in
+several of the early Sonatas, notably in the _Sonata Pathetique_,
+where the motive of the first theme of the Finale is identical with
+that of the second theme of the opening movement _e.g._
+
+[Music: 1st Movement]
+
+[Music: Finale]
+
+Also in the C-sharp minor Sonata, op. 27, we find a case of melodic
+relationship between a phase in the introductory meditation and the
+main theme of the Minuet.]
+
+[Footnote 159: A Symphonic Poem is a descriptive composition for
+orchestra which incorporates many of the customary symphonic moods;
+but the form is free, largely dependent on the poetic basis, and the
+structure is without stops, being one continuous whole.]
+
+[Footnote 160: His exact words are--"Le milieu (the trio) ressemble
+assez aux ebats d'un elephant en gaiete--mais le monstre s'eloigne et
+le bruit de sa folle course se perd graduellement."]
+
+[Footnote 161: Its motto might well be Browning's famous lines: "How
+good is man's life, how fit to employ all the heart and the soul and
+the senses forever in joy."]
+
+[Footnote B: This pianoforte figure being a very inadequate substitute
+for the restless tremolo of the violas, _i.e._, [Music].]
+
+[Footnote 162: For suggestive comments by the noted critic E.T.A.
+Hoffmann, one of the first to realize the genius of Beethoven, and for
+a complete translation of his essay on the Fifth Symphony see the
+article by A.W. Locke in the Musical Quarterly for January, 1917.]
+
+
+THE CORIOLANUS OVERTURE
+
+This dramatic work is of great importance, not only for its emotional
+power and eloquence, but because it represents a type of Program
+music, _i.e._, music with a suggestive title, which Beethoven was the
+first to conceive and to establish. From the inherent connection
+between the materials of music (sound and rhythm) and certain natural
+phenomena (the sound and rhythm of wind, wave and storm, the call of
+birds, etc.) it is evident that the possibility for Program--or
+descriptive--music has always existed.[163] That is, the imagination
+of musicians has continually been influenced by external sights,
+sounds and events; and to their translation into music suggestive
+titles have been given, as a guide to the hearer. Thus we find
+Jannequin, a French composer of the 16th century, writing two
+pieces--for _voices_!--entitled "_Les cris de Paris_" and "_La
+Bataille--defaite des Suisses a la journee de Marignan_;" in the
+former of which are introduced the varied cries of street venders and
+in the latter, imitations of fifes, drums, cannon and all the bustle
+and noises of war. In the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book there is a
+Fantasie by John Mundy of the English school, in which such natural
+phenomena as thunder, lightning and fair weather are delineated. There
+is a curious similarity between the musical portrayal of lightning in
+this piece[164] of Mundy and that of Wagner in the _Valkyrie_. In the
+_Bible Sonatas_ of the German composer Kuhnau (1660-1722) we have a
+musical description of the combat between David and Goliath. Anyone at
+all familiar with the music of Couperin and Rameau will recall the
+variety of fantastic titles assigned to their charming pieces for the
+clavecin--almost always drawn from the field of nature: birds, bees,
+butterflies, hens, windmills, even an eel! It is but fair to state
+that we also find attempts at character drawing, even in those early
+days, as is indicated by such titles as _La Prude_, _La Diligente_,
+_La Seduisante_.[165] Haydn's portrayal of Chaos, in the Prelude to
+the _Creation_, is a remarkable mood-picture and shows a trend in
+quite a different direction. All these instances corroborate the
+statement that, in general, composers were influenced by external
+phenomena and that their program music was of an imitative and often
+frankly literal kind. From what we know of Beethoven's nature and
+genius, however, we should imagine that he would be far more
+interested in the emotions and struggles of the soul and we find that
+such indeed is the case. With the exception of the _Pastoral Symphony_
+with its bird-calls and thunderstorm and the _Egmont_ Overture with
+its graphic description of a returning victorious army, his program
+music invariably aims at the description of character and the manner
+in which it is influenced by events--_not_, be it understood, at a
+musical portrayal of the events themselves. This difference in type is
+generally indicated by the terms _subjective_ and _objective_, _i.e._,
+program music is subjective, when it deals with the emotions and moods
+of real or historical persons; objective, when it is based upon
+incidents or objects of the actual world. It is evident that in
+subjective program music an adjustment must be made, for the dramatic
+needs of the subject are to be considered as well as the inherent laws
+of music itself. We may state that the widening of the conception of
+form, so marked in modern music, has been caused by the need of such
+an adjustment; for as composers became more cultivated, more in touch
+with life and of more richly endowed imagination, the arbitrary
+conventions of strict form had perforce to yield to the demands of
+dramatic treatment. This implies not that program music is without a
+definite structure, only that the _form_ is _different_--modified by
+the needs of the subject. As there is no other point in aesthetics
+which has caused more loose thinking, a few further comments may be
+pertinent. Some critics go so far as to deny the right of existence to
+all program music.[166] Of course there is good as well as bad program
+music, but to condemn it _per se_ is simply to fly in the face of
+facts, for a large proportion of the music since Beethoven is on a
+poetic basis and has descriptive titles. Others claim that they cannot
+understand it. But that is their loss, not the fault of the music; the
+composer writes it and it is for us to acquire the state of mind to
+appreciate it. Another misleading allegation, often heard, is that a
+piece of program music should be so clear and self-sufficient that the
+hearer needs to know nothing of the title to derive the fullest
+enjoyment. But this simply begs the question. As well say that in
+listening to a song we need to know nothing of the meaning of the
+text. It is true that in listening to Beethoven's _Coriolanus_, for
+example, any sensitive hearer will be impressed by the vitality of the
+rhythm and the sheer beauty of orchestral sound. But to hold that such
+a hearer gets as much from the work as he who knows the underlying
+drama and can follow sympathetically the correspondence between the
+characters and their musical treatment is to indulge in reckless
+assertion. The true relationship between composer and hearer is this:
+when works are entitled _Coriolanus_, _Melpomene_, _Francesca da
+Rimini_, _Sakuntala_, _L'apres-midi d'un Faune_, _The Mystic
+Trumpeter_, _L'apprenti Sorcier_, and the composers reveal therein the
+influence such subjects have had upon their imagination, they are
+paying a tacit compliment to the hearer whose breadth of intelligence
+and cultivation they expect to be on a par with their own. If such be
+not the case, the fault is not the composer's; the burden of proof is
+on the listener.[167] Let us now trace certain relationships between
+the drama of _Coriolanus_ and the musical characterization of
+Beethoven. The Overture was composed as an introduction to a tragedy
+by the German playwright von Collin, but as the play is obsolete and
+as both von Collin and Shakespeare went to Plutarch for their sources,
+a familiarity--which should be taken for granted[168]--with the
+English drama will furnish sufficient background for an appreciation
+of the music. The scene before the city gates is evidently that in
+which Volumnia and Virgilia plead with the victorious warrior to
+refrain from his fell purpose of destruction. The work is in
+Sonata-form, since the great Sonata principle of _duality_ of _theme_
+exactly harmonizes with the two main influences of the drama--the
+masculine and the feminine. It is of particular interest to observe
+how the usual methods of Sonata-form procedure are modified to suit
+the dramatic logic of the subject. The work begins Allegro con brio,
+with three sustained Cs--as if someone were stamping with heavy
+foot--followed by a series of assertive _ff_ chords for full orchestra
+(note the piercing dissonance in the 7th measure), which at once
+establishes an atmosphere of headstrong defiance. The first theme,
+beginning in measure 15 with its restless rhythm, is not meant to be
+beautiful in the ordinary sense of the term--"a concourse of sweet
+sounds"; rather is it a dramatic characterization, a picture in terms
+of music, of the reckless energy and the fierce threats which we
+naturally associate with Coriolanus. The theme is repeated and then
+the transition develops this masculine mood in an impassioned
+manner--observe the frequency of _sf_ accents and the crashing
+dissonances[169]--until a sustained note on the violins, followed by a
+descending cantabile phrase, brings us to the second theme, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 163: A complete account of this development may be found in
+the first two chapters of Niecks's _Programme Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 164: For an excellent description of this piece, as well as
+others of the period, see the volume by Krehbiel _The Pianoforte and
+Its Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 165: A comprehensive and invaluable description of the works
+and style of Couperin and Rameau may be found in the _History of the
+Pianoforte and its Players_ by Oscar Bie. For an early example of what
+is now called "poetic atmosphere" everyone should know Couperin's
+piece _Les Barricades Mysterieuses_ which is more suggestive when
+played on the clavecin with its delicate tone.]
+
+[Footnote 166: A favorite term of opprobrium is that the program is a
+"crutch."]
+
+[Footnote 167: There are several essays which will help the student
+toward clear thinking on this important subject: the valuable essay
+_Program Music_ in Newman's _Musical Studies_, the article on the
+subject in Grove's Dictionary, and the exhaustive volume by Niecks;
+some of his views, however, are extreme and must be accepted with
+caution. Above all should be read Wagner's interpretation of
+Coriolanus in his essay on the Overture (English translation by W.A.
+Ellis).]
+
+[Footnote 168: Twenty-five years' experience as a college teacher,
+however, has proved that _too much_ may be taken for granted!]
+
+[Footnote 169: It is unfortunate that the diminished seventh chord
+does not sound so fierce to our modern ears as it undoubtedly did in
+Beethoven's time, but that is simply because we have become accustomed
+to more strident effects.]
+
+This theme, in distinction from the first, typifies the appeal for
+mercy made by the women in the drama. No contrast could be stronger
+than that between these two themes--the first, impulsive, staccato, of
+sweeping range, and in the minor; the second, suave, legato,
+restrained and in the major. They show indeed how powerfully
+Beethoven's imagination was impressed by the subject. After an
+eloquent expansion of the second theme there follow several stormy
+measures (the deprecations of the women are at first of no avail) that
+lead through a crescendo to a closing theme, at measure 83, in which
+the mood of defiant assertion is strongly marked. The exposition
+closes in this mood, in measure 100, and the following Development
+accentuates it through several successions of restless, crescendo
+passages until a _ff_ descent sweeps us back to the Recapitulation, in
+measure 151. It is now evident that the furious intentions of the
+warrior have raged themselves out, for not only is the theme which
+represents him much shortened but it loses somewhat of its former
+fiery intensity. From here on, the trend of the music is largely
+modified by the dramatic demands of the subject. That the appeals of
+the women are beginning to prevail is evident from the emphasis laid
+on the second theme, which gives its message no less than _three_
+times, instead of the single appearance which we should expect in the
+usual Recapitulation. The third appeal, in measures 247-253, is
+rendered most pathetic by being expressed in the minor mode. In the
+Coda there are fitful flare-ups of the relentless purpose, but that
+the stubborn will has been softened is evident from the slowing down
+of the rhythm, in measures 285-294. Finally, in the wonderful closing
+passage, we have a picture of broken resolves and ruined hopes. The
+theme disintegrates and fades away--a lifeless vision. Although much
+of the structure in this overture is identical with that which
+prevails in absolute music--for, after all, the composer must be true
+to the laws of his medium of expression--there is enough _purely
+dramatic_ treatment to justify the foregoing analysis. Beethoven, at
+any rate, called the overture Coriolanus, and we may be sure he meant
+it to _represent_ Coriolanus and to be something more than a skillful
+combination of sounds and rhythms.
+
+We now add a few last words on the quality of Beethoven's themes in
+his moments of supreme inspiration. The unshaken hold which his music
+has upon the affections of mankind is due chiefly to two striking
+characteristics: first, the way in which he dramatized everything--themes,
+instruments, even _single_ notes, _i.e._, treating them as actual
+factors in life itself rather than as artistic abstractions; second,
+the spirituality and sublimity in his immortal message. The first
+quality is exemplified in a number of passages, notably in the first
+movement of the Violin Concerto and in the Finale of the Eighth
+Symphony. In the opening measures of the Concerto the use of the
+single note D-sharp, and the entry _pp_ of the F natural in the
+following passage--in each case, entirely disconnected from the normal
+rules of musical grammar--are most dramatic, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+At the mysterious entrance of the F natural in this passage it would
+seem as if some mighty spirit were suddenly looking over our shoulder.
+In the Finale of the Eighth Symphony what can be more startling than
+the sudden explosive entrance of the unrelated C-sharp--before the
+orchestra continues its mad career--which can be compared only to the
+uproarious laughter of Rabelais himself, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+There are numerous examples in Beethoven showing his dramatic use of
+such orchestral instruments as the bassoons, horns, kettle-drums and
+double basses. Possibly the most striking[170] is the Slow Movement of
+the G major Pianoforte Concerto--that inspired dialogue, as it has
+been eloquently called, "between Destiny and the human soul," in which
+the touching appeals of the solo instrument are constantly interrupted
+by the sinister mutterings and forebodings of the strings. Observe
+especially the closing measures where the basses, alone are heard
+_pp_, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 170: See, however, the octave leaps of the kettle-drums in
+the Scherzo of the Ninth Symphony.]
+
+A spiritual quality escapes verbal definition; but just as we can feel
+it in certain characters, and just as we recognize the sublime in
+nature and in such works of art as a cathedral or a Shakespearian
+Drama, so we may find it in the following specific examples from his
+works: the Trio of the second movement of the Seventh Symphony; the
+Slow Movement theme of the B-flat major Trio and the Slow Movement of
+the Sonata op. 109. (See Supplement Nos. 47, 48, 49.) Anyone who
+allows these themes to sink into his consciousness is carried into a
+realm of ideality where he begins to recognize the truth that "the
+things which are unseen are eternal." Music of this transporting power
+is far above that which merely excites, amuses or even fascinates; and
+of such music Beethoven is the poet for all time.
+
+We have referred above to the voluminous literature extant concerning
+Beethoven. Several scholars, in fact--notably Alexander Thayer and Sir
+George Grove--have devoted a large part of their lives to finding out
+all there is to be known about his life and works. Obviously the
+layman cannot be expected to become familiar with this entire mass of
+historical and critical writing. The following books, however, may be
+considered indispensable aids to those who would become cultivated
+appreciators of Beethoven's masterpieces: the _Life of Beethoven_ by
+Alexander Thayer--a great glory to American scholarship; the life in
+Grove's Dictionary; the illuminating Biography by d'Indy (in French
+and in English); _Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies_ by Grove; the
+_Oxford History of Music_, Vol. V; and the essay by Mason in his
+_Beethoven and his Forerunners_.[171] We cite, in closing, a
+eulogy[172] by Dannreuther--in our opinion the most eloquent ever
+written on Beethoven's genius:
+
+"While listening," says Mr. Dannreuther, "to such works as the
+Overture to Leonora, the Sinfonia Eroica, or the Ninth Symphony, we
+feel that we are in the presence of something far wider and higher
+than the mere development of musical themes. The execution in detail
+of each movement and each succeeding work is modified more and more by
+the prevailing sentiment. A religious passion and elevation are
+present in the utterances. The mental and moral horizon of the music
+grows upon us with each renewed hearing. The different movements--like
+the different particles of each movement--have as close a connection
+with one another as the acts of a tragedy, and a characteristic
+significance to be understood only in relation to the whole; each work
+is in the full sense of the word a revelation. Beethoven speaks a
+language no one has spoken before, and treats of things no one has
+dreamt of before: yet it seems as though he were speaking of matters
+long familiar, in one's mother tongue; as though he touched upon
+emotions one had lived through in some former existence.... The warmth
+and depth of his ethical sentiment is now felt all the world over, and
+it will ere long be universally recognised that he has leavened and
+widened the sphere of men's emotions in a manner akin to that in which
+the conceptions of great philosophers and poets have widened the
+sphere of men's intellectual activity."
+
+[Footnote 171: Suggestive comments from a literary point of view may
+also be found in these works: _Studies in the Seven Arts_, Symonds;
+_Beethoven_ by Romain Rolland--with an interesting though
+ultra-subjective introduction by Carpenter; _The Development of
+Symphonic Music_ by T.W. Surette; _Beethoven_ by Walker; _Beethoven_
+by Chantavoine in the series _Les Maitres de la Musique_. As to the
+three successive "styles" under which Beethoven's works are generally
+classified there is an excellent account in Pratt's _History of
+Music_, p. 419.]
+
+[Footnote 172: This passage is to be found in the Life in Grove's
+Dictionary.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE ROMANTIC COMPOSERS. SCHUBERT AND WEBER
+
+
+During the latter part of Beethoven's life--he died in 1827--new
+currents were setting in, which were to influence profoundly the trend
+of modern music. Two important, though in some respects unconscious,
+representatives of these tendencies were actually working
+contemporaneously with Beethoven, von Weber (1786-1826) and Schubert
+(1797-1828). Beethoven himself is felt to be a dual personality in
+that he summed up and ratified all that was best in his predecessors,
+and pointed the way for most of the tendencies operative since his
+time. For the designation of these two contrasting, though not
+exclusive, ideals, the currently accepted terms are Classic and
+Romantic. So many shades of meaning have unfortunately been associated
+with the word Romantic that confusion of thought has arisen. It is
+also true that the so-called Romanticists, including poets and
+painters as well as musicians, in their endeavors to break loose from
+the formality of the Classic period, have indulged in many irritating
+idiosyncracies. We are beginning to see clearly that a too violent
+expression of individuality destroys a most vital factor in
+music--universality of appeal. Yet the Romantic School cannot be
+ignored. To its representatives we owe many of our finest works, and
+they were the prime movers in those strivings toward freedom and
+ideality which have made the modern world what it is. The term
+Romantic is perfectly clear in its application to literature, from
+which music borrowed it. It refers to the movement begun about the
+year 1796 among such German poets as Tieck, the two Schlegels and
+Novalis, to restore the poetic legends of the middle ages, written in
+the Romance dialects, and to embody in their own works the fantastic
+spirit of this medieval poetry.[173] In reference to music, however,
+the terms Classic and Romantic are often vague and misleading, and
+have had extreme interpretations put upon them.[174] Thus, to many,
+"romantic" implies ultra-sentimental, mawkish or grotesque, while
+everything "classic" is dry, uninspired and academic. How often we
+hear the expression, "I am not up to classic music; let me hear
+something modern and romantic." Many scholars show little respect for
+the terms and some would abolish them altogether. Everything, however,
+hinges upon a reasonable definition. Pater's well-known saying that
+"Romanticism is the addition of strangeness to beauty" is fair; and
+yet, since strangeness in art can result only from imaginative
+conception, it amounts to nothing more than the truism that romantic
+art is imbued with personality. Hence Stendhal is right in saying that
+"All good art was Romantic in its day"; _i.e._, it exhibited as much
+warmth and individuality as the spirit of its times would allow.
+Surely Bach, Haydn and Mozart were real characters, notwithstanding
+the restraint which the artificialities of the period often put upon
+their utterance. On the other hand, work at first pronounced to be
+romantic establishes, by a universal recognition of its merit, the
+claim to be considered classic, or set apart; what is romantic to-day
+thus growing to be classic[175] tomorrow. It is evident, therefore,
+that the terms interlock and are not mutually exclusive. It is a
+mistaken attitude to set one school off against the other, or to prove
+that one style is greater than the other; they are simply different.
+Compositions of lasting worth always manifest such a happy union of
+qualities that, in a broad sense, they may be called both romantic and
+classic, _i.e._, they combine personal emotion and imagination with
+breadth of meaning and solidity of structure.
+
+[Footnote 173: For a more complete historical account see the article
+"Romantic" in Grove's Dictionary and the introduction to Vol. VI of
+_The Oxford History of Music_. _Rousseau and Romanticism_ by Professor
+Irving Babbitt presents the latest investigations in this important
+field.]
+
+[Footnote 174: Some very sane comments may be found in Pratt's
+_History of Music_, pp. 427, 501, 502.]
+
+[Footnote 175: "A _classic_ is properly a book"--and the same would be
+true of a musical composition--"which maintains itself by that happy
+coalescence of matter and style, that innate and requisite sympathy
+between the thought that gives life and the form that consents to
+every mood of grace and dignity, and which is something neither
+ancient nor modern, always new and incapable of growing old."
+
+Lowell, _Among My Books_.]
+
+Beginning, however, with Schubert and Weber--the two first
+representatives of the romantic group--there is a marked novelty of
+content and style; and if we drop the terms and confine ourselves to
+the inner evidence of the music itself, we note a difference which may
+be felt and to a certain extent formulated. To take extreme types for
+the sake of vivid contrast, let us compare the compositions of Haydn
+and Mozart with those of Berlioz and Liszt. In the former there is
+repose, restraint and a perfect finish in the structural presentation;
+a feeling of serenity comes over us as we listen. In the latter, a
+peculiar intensity of expression, an attempt to fascinate the listener
+by the most intimate kinds of appeal, especially to the senses and
+fancy, regardless of any liberties taken with former modes of
+treatment. The purely classical composer is always master of his
+subject, whereas the romanticist is often carried away by it.
+Classical works are objectively beautiful, commending themselves to
+everyone like works of nature, or, let us say, like decorative
+patterns in pure design. Romantic works are subjective, charged with
+individuality and demand a sensitive and sympathetic appreciation on
+the part of the hearer. It is evident that many of these tendencies
+are found clearly outlined in the works of Beethoven. In fact, as has
+been said, he was not only the climax of the classical school, but the
+founder of the new era--opening a door, as it were, into the
+possibilities of a more intense, specialized form of emotional
+utterance and a freer conception of form. These special
+characteristics were so fully developed by Beethoven's successors,
+Schubert, Weber, Schumann, Chopin, etc. that they are always grouped
+together as the Romantic School. A striking feature in this whole
+Romantic group is the early flowering of their genius and the
+shortness of their lives--Weber, forty years, Schubert, thirty-one,
+Schumann, forty-six, Mendelssohn, thirty-eight, Chopin, forty. In the
+case of all the composers we have hitherto studied, with the exception
+of Mozart, their masterpieces have been the result of long years of
+patient, technical study and hence show that finish and maturity of
+style which come only with time. But the precocity of the Romanticists
+is astounding! Many of Schubert's famous pieces were composed in his
+earliest manhood; Mendelssohn's _Midsummer Night's Dream_ Overture
+dates from his sixteenth year; Schumann's best pianoforte works were
+composed before he was thirty. The irresistible spontaneity and vigor
+of all these works largely atone for any blemishes in treatment. We
+feel somewhat the same in the case of Keats and Shelley in comparison
+with Milton, and are reminded of Wordsworth's lines, "Bliss was it in
+that hour to be alive, but to be young was very Heaven."[176] Why
+expect senatorial wisdom and the fancy of youth in any one person!
+
+[Footnote 176: Compare also the definition of genius by Masters in the
+_Spoon River Anthology_:
+
+    "In youth my wings were strong and tireless,
+    But I did not know the mountains.
+    In age I knew the mountains
+    But my weary wings could not follow my vision--
+    Genius is wisdom and youth."]
+
+A most important distinction between a classical and a romantic
+composer is the knowledge and love of literature shown by the latter.
+Although Haydn kept a note-book on his London tours, and although we
+have a fair number of letters from Mozart, in neither of these men do
+we find any appreciation of general currents of thought and life. In
+many of Beethoven's works we have seen how close was the connection
+between literature and musical expression. All the Romantic composers,
+with the exception of Schubert, were broadly cultivated, and several
+could express themselves artistically in words as well as in notes.
+They may not have been on this account any better composers, as far as
+sheer creative vitality is concerned, but it is evident that their
+imaginations were nourished in quite a different way and hence a novel
+product was to be expected. Romantic music has been defined as a
+reflex of poetry expressed in musical terms, at times fairly trembling
+on the verge of speech. Music can not, to be sure, describe matters of
+fact, but the Romantic composers have brought it to a high degree of
+poetical suggestiveness. Thus the horn-calls of Weber and Schubert
+remind us of "the horns of Elfland faintly blowing" and much romantic
+music arouses our imaginations and enchants our senses in the same way
+as the lines of Keats where he tells of "Magic casements opening on
+the foam of perilous seas in fairy lands forlorn," the chief glory of
+which is not any precise intellectual idea they convey, but the
+fascinating picture which carries us from the land of hard and fast
+events into the realm of fancy. Schumann claimed that his object in
+writing music was so to influence the imagination of the listeners
+that they could go on dreaming for themselves. A second characteristic
+is the freedom of form. Considering that a free rein to their fancy
+was incompatible with strict adherence to traditional rules, the
+Romantic spirits refused to be bound by forms felt to be inadequate.
+Although this attitude sometimes resulted in diffuseness and
+obscurity, on the whole (as Goethe says of romantic literature) "a
+wider and more varied subject matter and a freer form has been
+attained." The chief aim of romantic art being to arouse the
+imagination, we find a predilection for the use of solo wood-wind
+instruments, which are capable of such warmth and variety of
+tone-color. Whereas in the classical masters, and even generally in
+Beethoven, the melodies are likely to be the upper voice of a harmonic
+mass, or assigned to groups of instruments, Weber and Schubert in
+particular showed the eloquence to be gained by the use of such
+warm-blooded _solo_ instruments as the horn, the oboe and the
+clarinet. Schubert fairly conjures with the horn, often holding us
+spellbound with its haunting appeal, _e.g._, in the well-known second
+movement of the C major Symphony, the calls of which, as Schumann
+said, "seem to come from another world." Schubert was anything but a
+thinker, and reflected unconsciously the tendencies which were in the
+air; but his wonderful gift of lyric melody was thoroughly in keeping
+with the individual expression for which Romanticism stood. He said
+himself that his compositions were the direct result of his inmost
+sorrows. He was steeped in romantic poetry and the glowing fancy in
+his best work leads us to condone the occasional prolixity referred to
+by Schumann as "heavenly length." Schubert was well named by Liszt the
+most poetic of musicians, _i.e._, a creator of pure beauty which
+enthralls the imagination of the hearer. Why expect the work of any
+one composer to manifest all possible merits? If we crave dynamic
+power of emotion or sublimity of thought we may have recourse to Bach
+and Beethoven; but the spontaneous charm of Schubert never grows old;
+and it is not without interest to note that his music fulfils the
+definition of one of the most poetic composers of our time, Debussy,
+who claims that music is chiefly meant "to give pleasure."
+
+We note these same tendencies in Weber as shown in the overtures to
+his three Romantic operas, _Der Freischuetz_, _Euryanthe_ and _Oberon_,
+which are the foundations of the modern art of dramatic orchestration,
+_i.e._, the intensification of certain ideas and situations by the
+special tone color and register of solo-instruments or by a novel use
+of customary means, _e.g._, the divided violins in the mysterious
+passage of the _Euryanthe_ overture. Another favorite means of
+arresting the attention was by modulation; not used in a constructive
+sense, simply to pass from one point to another, or to connect themes
+in different keys, but to furnish the ear with a purely sensuous
+delight, corresponding to that which the eye derives from the
+kaleidoscopic colors of a sunset. The works of Schubert, Chopin and to
+a lesser degree of Schumann abound in these shifting harmonies by
+which we seem to be wafted along on a magic carpet. A final
+characteristic, shared by all the Romantic composers, is the
+prevalence of titles--the logical result of the close connection
+between music, literature and the world of outward events,--thus
+Mendelssohn's Overture to the _Midsummer Night's Dream_ with its
+romantic opening chords, his _Hebrides_ Overture, the musical record
+of a trip to Scotland, and Schumann's _Manfred_, from Byron. Liszt
+even went so far as to draw inspiration from a painting, as in his
+_Battle of the Huns_, and again from a beautiful vase in _Orpheus_.
+
+We shall now make a few specific comments on the style of Schubert and
+Weber and then analyze some of their representative works. Schubert
+was a born composer of songs, and though his works for Pianoforte,
+String quartet and Orchestra were of marked significance and have
+proved of lasting value, the instinct for highly individualized, lyric
+melody predominates, and all his instrumental compositions may fairly
+be called "Songs without words."[177] It is evident that the
+solo-song, unencumbered by structural considerations, is one of the
+best media for expressing the Romantic spirit, and many of its fairest
+fruits are found in this field. Schubert's songs are often tone-dramas
+in which the expressive powers of music are most eloquently
+employed.[178] Note the poetic touches of character-drawing and of
+description in the _Young Nun_ (see Supplement No. 50). Schubert's
+pianoforte compositions are miniature tone-poems, mood-pictures--their
+titles: _Impromptus_ and _Moments Musicaux_, speak for themselves--making
+no pretense to the scope and elaborate structure of movements in
+Sonata-form,[179] yet of great import not only for their intrinsic
+beauty but as the prototypes of the numerous lyric and descriptive
+pieces of Schumann, Brahms, Grieg, Debussy and others. Their charm
+lies in the heart-felt melodies and surprising modulations. While
+neither sublime nor deeply introspective, they make the simple, direct
+appeal of a lovely flower. In the development of music they are as
+important as the modern short story in the field of literature; which,
+in distinction to the old "three-decker" novel, often really _says
+more_ and says it so concisely that our interest never flags. This
+tendency to the short, independent piece had been begun by Beethoven
+in his _Bagatelles_ (French "trifles"); but these, as has been aptly
+said, were "mere chips from the work-shop" whereas in a short piece of
+Schubert we find the quintessence of his genius. He was a prolific
+composer in the field of chamber music, and the Trios for Violin,
+'Cello and Pianoforte, the A minor Quartet, the C major Quintet and,
+above all, the posthumous Quartet in D minor, which contains the
+entrancing Variations on the song _Death and the Maiden_, are still as
+fresh as when they were composed. In these works we do not look for
+architectonic power--we must admit, in fact, at the risk of seeming
+ungracious, that Schubert is diffuse at times--but our senses are so
+enthralled by the imaginative freedom and by the splendor of color,
+that all purely intellectual judgment is suspended. The magician works
+his wonders; it is for us to enjoy. We have from Schubert seven
+complete Symphonies and the so-called _Unfinished in B minor_, _i.e._,
+the first two movements and the fragment of a Scherzo. Of these the
+_Fourth_ (_Tragic_), composed in 1816, foreshadows the real Schubert
+and is occasionally heard to-day. But the immortal ones are the B
+minor and the C major, the latter composed in 1828 (the last year of
+his life) and never heard by its author.[180] Of this work Schumann
+said that "a tenth Muse had been added to the nine of Beethoven." This
+symphony is specially characterized by the incorporation of Hungarian
+types of melody, particularly in the first and in the last movement.
+It is indeed a storehouse of beauty, but the "high moments" are in the
+last two movements--the fairly intoxicating Trio of the Scherzo, which
+seems as if Nature herself were singing to us, and the gorgeous Finale
+with its throbbing rhythms. The first movement is laid out on a vast
+scale and holds the attention throughout, but the second movement,
+notwithstanding its wondrous theme, suffers from a lack of
+concentration; the sweetness is so long-drawn out that we become
+sated.
+
+[Footnote 177: Schubert was of incredible versatility and fecundity;
+he literally tried his hand at everything: operas, church-music,
+ensemble combinations. Since, however, he exercised little power of
+selection or revision much of this music has become obsolete. The joke
+is well-known that he could set a theatre notice to music, and his
+rule for composing was "When I have finished one song I begin
+another."]
+
+[Footnote 178: For an original, though at times rhapsodic, study of
+Schubert's vocal style see H.T. Finck's _Songs and Song Writers_, and
+the last chapter of the Fifth Volume of the Oxford History.]
+
+[Footnote 179: Schubert did compose a number of Pianoforte Sonatas in
+the conventional form, but with the exception of the one in A minor
+they seem diffuse and do not represent him at his best; they certainly
+have not held their own in modern appeal.]
+
+[Footnote 180: For the account of its exciting discovery in Vienna by
+Schumann in 1838, after a neglect of ten years, see the life of
+Schubert in Grove's Dictionary.]
+
+As examples[181] for analytical comment we select the Menuetto in B
+minor from the Fantasia for Pianoforte, op. 78; the fourth Impromptu
+in A-flat major from the set, op. 90, and the B minor Symphony for
+orchestra. The Menuetto, though one of Schubert's simpler pieces--the
+first part in an idealized Mozartian vein--yet exemplifies in the Trio
+one of the composer's most characteristic traits, the predilection for
+those bewitching alternations,[182] like sunlight and shadow, between
+the major and the minor mode.
+
+[Footnote 181: For lack of space no one of these compositions is cited
+in the Supplement, but they are all readily available.]
+
+[Footnote 182: This tendency is prevalent in folk-music, especially
+that of the Russians and Scandinavians. Schubert, however, was the
+_first_ to make such systematic and artistic use of the effect. For a
+beautiful modern example see the Spanish folk-dance by Granados,
+_e.g._,
+
+[Music]]
+
+The Impromptu in A-flat major, one of several equally fine ones, is
+notable for the wealth of its iridescent modulations and for the note
+of genuine pathos and passion in the middle portion in the minor mode.
+Schubert might well say that his most inspired music came from his
+sorrows.
+
+The _Unfinished Symphony_ requires less comment and elucidation than
+perhaps any other symphonic composition. The two movements are in
+definite Sonata-form--the first, strict, the second, with
+modifications; but the quality of the themes is quite different from
+that to which we have been accustomed in classical treatment. Instead
+of the terse, characteristic motive which, often at first
+uncompromisingly bare, impresses us as its latent possibilities are
+revealed, we have a series of lyric, periodic melodies which make
+their instant appeal. In Schubert everything sings; thus in the first
+part of the Exposition of the Allegro we have _three_ distinct
+melodies: the introductory phrase, the accompaniment figure which has
+a melodic line of its own, and the first theme proper. In any
+consideration of this work from a pianoforte version we must always
+remember how much the beauty and eloquence of the themes depend upon
+the solo instruments to which they are assigned. For Schubert was one
+of the first, as well as one of the greatest, of "Colorists." By the
+use of this pictorial term in music we mean that the tone-quality of
+certain instruments--the mellow, far-echoing effect of the horn, the
+tang of the oboe, the passionate warmth of the clarinet[183]--appeals
+to our sense of hearing in the same way in which beautiful colors--the
+green grass, the blue sky, the hues of a sunset--delight our sight. A
+striking example of Schubert's genius in utilizing tone-color to suit
+structural needs is found in the transition beginning at measure 38.
+This is a single tone on the horn (with a modulatory ending) announced
+_forte_ and then allowed to die away, _i.e._, _sf_ [decrescendo
+symbol]. So powerful is the horn in evoking a spirit of suspense and
+revery that this tone introduces the beautiful, swaying second theme
+more impressively than a whole series of routine modulations. The
+Development speaks for itself. Though there is little polyphonic
+treatment, it holds our interest by reason of the harmonic variety and
+the dramatic touches of orchestration. In Schubert we do not look for
+the development of a complicated plot but give ourselves up
+unreservedly to the enjoyment of pure melodic line, couched in terms
+of sensuously delightful tone-color. The transitional passage of the
+Recapitulation (measures 231-253) illustrates Schubert's fondness for
+modulation just for its own sake; we care not what the objective point
+of the music may be--enthralled, as we are, by the magical shifts of
+scene. In the Second Movement, likewise, the chief beauty--especially
+of the second theme--consists in the lyric quality, in the color of
+the solo instruments, the oboe, clarinet and horn, and in the
+enharmonic changes, _e.g._, where, in measures 80-95, the theme
+modulates from C-sharp minor to D-flat major. Note in the orchestral
+score the charming dialogue in this passage between the clarinet, oboe
+and flute. The Development, based upon the second theme, with some
+effective canonic treatment, shows that Schubert was by no means
+entirely lacking in polyphonic skill. At any rate he can work wonders
+with the horn, for at the close of the Development (measures 134-142)
+by the simple device of an octave leap, _ppp_, he veritably transports
+the listener, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The Coda has a dream-like quality all its own.
+
+[Footnote 183: So appropriately called by Berlioz the "heroine of the
+orchestra."]
+
+Weber's permanent contribution to musical literature has proved to be
+his operas--a form of art not treated in this book. But the whole
+nature of his genius was so closely related to the Romantic spirit, as
+shown in the intimate connection between literature and music, in his
+descriptive powers and his development of the orchestra, that for the
+sake of comprehensiveness some familiarity should be gained with the
+essential features of his style. Of Weber it may be said with
+conviction that there is hardly a composer of acknowledged rank in
+whom style, _i.e._, the way and the medium by which musical thought is
+presented, so prevails over the substance of the thought itself. There
+are few if any of Weber's melodies which are notable for creative
+power, and as a harmonist he was lamentably weak. It has been
+scathingly said, though with considerable truth, that all his melodies
+are based upon an alternation of tonic and dominant chords![184] But
+when we consider what his themes are meant to describe, the pictures
+they evoke and their orchestral dress, we must acknowledge in Weber
+the touch of real poetic genius. To quote Runciman[185]--
+
+"If you look, and look rightly, for the right thing in Weber's music,
+disappointment is impossible, though I admit that the man who
+professes to find there the great qualities he finds in Mozart,
+Beethoven, or any of the giants, must be in a very sad case. Grandeur,
+pure beauty, and high expressiveness are alike wanting. Weber's claim
+to a place amongst the composers is supported in a lesser degree by
+the gifts which he shared, even if his share was small, with the
+greater masters of music, than by his miraculous power of vividly
+drawing and painting in music the things that kindled his imagination.
+Being a factor of the Romantic movement, that mighty rebellion against
+the tyranny of a world of footrules and ledgers, he lived in a world
+where two and two might make five or seven or any number you pleased,
+and where footrules were unknown; he took small interest in drama
+taken out of the lives of ordinary men and enacted amidst every-day
+surroundings; his imagination lit up only when he thought of haunted
+glens and ghouls and evil spirits, the fantastic world and life that
+goes on underneath the ocean, or of men or women held by ghastly
+spells."
+
+[Footnote 184: A striking illustration of this progression (surely
+Weber's most characteristic mannerism) is naively supplied by
+Weingartner; when, in his own orchestral arrangement of Weber's
+_Invitation to the Dance_, for the final climax he assembles all the
+leading themes in combination--an effect made possible only by their
+common harmonic basis.]
+
+[Footnote 185: This whole article is well worth reading and may be
+found in that breezy though somewhat erratic volume called _Old Scores
+and New Readings_.]
+
+Weber's present-day fame rests upon the Overtures to his three operas
+of _Der Freischuetz_, _Euryanthe_ and _Oberon_, which are often played
+in detached concert form and hold their own for their romantic glow
+and for the brilliancy of orchestral effect. By employing for his
+thematic material the leading melodies of the operas themselves Weber
+has created what may be called epitomized dramas which, if we have any
+knowledge of what the titles imply, present us with realistic
+pictures. For the use of special tone-color to enhance the dramatic
+situation Weber is the precursor of that type of orchestration which
+has reached such heights in Wagner and other moderns. From the above
+comments it is evident that only the barest idea of the Overtures can
+be gained from a pianoforte version; we have selected _Oberon_[186]
+because it suffers less than either of the others. Everyone, however,
+should become familiar with the mysterious, boding passage in the
+introduction to _Der Freischuetz_ (taken from the scene in the Wolf's
+Glen) and the Intermezzo from _Euryanthe_ for muted, divided
+strings,[187] which accompanies the apparition of the ghost. This is
+_genuine_ descriptive music for it really _sounds ghostly_. (See
+Supplement No. 51.)
+
+[Footnote 186: Not given in the Supplement since good arrangements for
+two and four hands are numerous. To gain the real effect the student
+is strongly advised to consult the orchestral score.]
+
+[Footnote 187: The genesis of so many similar effects in modern music,
+notably in Wagner.]
+
+The _Oberon Overture in D major_, begins with the intoning of the
+motto of Oberon's magic horn, and then follows a passage for muted
+strings (piano e adagio sostenuto) and for delicate combinations of
+the wood-wind instruments, which gives us a picture of the moonlit
+glens of fairyland, peopled with airy spirits. The vision is
+dispelled by a sudden _ff_ chord for full orchestra which, from its
+setting, is one of the loudest effects in music, thoroughly
+characteristic of Weber's penchant for dramatic contrast. The main
+body of the work (allegro con fuoco) opens with a dashing theme for
+the strings of great brilliancy, most typical of Weber. Though we may
+feel that it has little substance (note the tonic and dominant
+foundation of the harmony) we cannot be insensible to its abounding
+vigor. It is not alone the ponderous things which should move our
+imaginations; even a soap-bubble is a wonderful phenomenon. The theme
+is expanded to a climax, in measure 28 (counting from the allegro), of
+great sonority and considerable harmonic boldness. After some
+reminiscent appearances of the introductory horn-call, a
+long-sustained dominant note introduces the second theme which seems a
+bit cloying, to be sure, but is just suited to the melting tone-color
+of the clarinet. The closing theme borders on triviality; the
+Exposition ends, however, with some exceedingly brilliant
+improvisations on the rhythmic figure of the main theme. The following
+Development is rather flimsy and we need expend upon it no critical
+powder. Weber was a great colorist but not a great architect. These
+qualities are united only too seldom. In the Recapitulation, which is
+shortened by the omission of the second theme--rather overworked in
+the Development--he is once more on his own ground of rhythmic life
+and dazzling orchestral color. At the close we are convinced that the
+overture has accomplished its purpose of graphically depicting the
+revels of Fairy-land.
+
+Although they are seldom[188] played to-day, no account of Weber would
+be complete which entirely passed over his compositions for the
+Pianoforte, _i.e._, the four Sonatas, the concert piece in F minor and
+the originally conceived _Invitation to the Dance_, often played in
+the orchestral version of Berlioz which is so much better than the
+inflated, bombastic one by Weingartner. Weber is classed as one of the
+founders of the "brilliant school" of pianoforte playing which,
+chiefly through the genius of Franz Liszt, has done so much to enlarge
+the sonorous and coloristic possibilities of the instrument. Here
+again Weber's fame rests more upon his influence than upon lasting
+achievement; as to the importance of this influence, however, there
+can be no doubt.
+
+[Footnote 188: Perhaps the whirligig of time may restore them; who can
+say?]
+
+The student will be repaid for informing[189] himself as fully as
+possible concerning Weber's career and artistic ideals, for he was a
+genuine though early exponent of Romantic tendencies. Of marked
+versatility, of no mean literary skill and of such social magnetism
+and charm that he might properly be considered a man of the world, as
+well as an artist, Weber was thus enabled to do pioneer work in
+raising the standard of musicianship and in bringing the art of music
+and ordinary, daily life into closer touch.
+
+[Footnote 189: The life in Grove's Dictionary is well worth while;
+there are essays by Krehbiel and others and, above all, the
+biographical and critical accounts in the two French series: _Les
+Musiciens Celebres_, and _Les Maitres de la Musique_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+SCHUMANN AND MENDELSSOHN
+
+
+In distinction from pioneers like Schubert, slightly tinged with
+Romanticism, and Weber who, though versatile, was somewhat lacking in
+creative vigor, Schumann (1810-1856) stands forth as the definite,
+conscious spokesman of the Romantic movement in German art just as
+Berlioz was for art in France. He was endowed with literary gifts of a
+high order, had a keen critical and historical sense and wrote freely
+and convincingly in support of his own views and in generous
+recognition of the ideals of his contemporaries. Many of his swans, to
+be sure, proved later to be geese, and it is debatable how much good
+was done by his rhapsodic praise to young Brahms; whether in fact he
+did not set before the youngster a chimerical ideal impossible of
+attainment. Schumann early came under the influence of Jean Paul
+Richter, that incarnation of German Romanticism, whom he placed on the
+same high plane as Shakespeare and Beethoven. An intimate appreciation
+of much that is fantastic and whimsical in Schumann is possible only
+through acquaintance with the work of this Jean Paul. Schumann's first
+compositions were for the pianoforte--in fact his original
+ambition[190] was to be a pianoforte virtuoso--and to-day his
+permanent significance depends on the spontaneity in conception and
+the freedom of form manifested in these pianoforte works and in his
+romantic songs. Here we have the "ipsissimus Schumann," as von Buelow
+so well remarks. Schumann's pianoforte style is compounded of two
+factors: first, his intensely subjective and varied imagination which,
+nourished by the love of Romantic literature, craved an individual
+mode of expression; second, a power of concentration and of organic
+structure which was largely derived from a study of Bach and of the
+later works of Beethoven. Schumann saw that the regularity of abstract
+form, found in the purely classical writers, was not suited to the
+full expression of his moods and so he worked out a style of his own,
+although in many cases this was simply a logical amplification or
+modification of former practice. In his pianoforte compositions, then,
+we find a striking freedom in the choice of subject, which is
+generally indicated by some poetically descriptive title, _e.g._,
+_Waldscenen_, _Nachtstuecke_, _Fantasiestuecke_, _Novelletten_,
+_Kreisleriana_, _Humoreske_, etc. The danger in this form of subject
+matter is that it often degenerates into sentimentality coupled with a
+corresponding spinelessness of structure. This danger Schumann avoids
+by a style noticeable for terseness and structural solidity. His
+effort was to give significance to every note; all verbiage,
+meaningless scale passages and monotonous arpeggios were swept away,
+while the imagination was aroused by the bold use of dissonances and
+by the variety of tone-color. A thoroughly novel feature was the
+flexibility of the rhythm, which breaks from the old "sing-song"
+metres and abounds in syncopations, in contrasted accents, and in
+subtle combinations of metrical groups; every effort being made to
+avoid the tyranny of the bar-line.
+
+[Footnote 190: Because of an unfortunate accident to one of his
+fingers this ambition, however, had to be abandoned. The world thereby
+gained a great composer.]
+
+Schumann's career was peculiar in that, beginning as a pianoforte
+composer, he tried successively every other form as well--the song,
+chamber music, works for orchestra, and for orchestra with solo voices
+and chorus--and won distinction to a greater or less degree in every
+field save that of the opera. Notwithstanding the beauty of poetic
+inspiration enshrined in the four symphonies, a grave defect is the
+quality of orchestral tone which greets the ear, especially the modern
+ear accustomed to the many-hued sonority of Wagner, Tchaikowsky,
+Debussy and others. These symphonies have been called "huge pieces for
+four hands" which were afterwards orchestrated, and the allegation is
+not without truth, as real orchestral glow and brilliancy is so often
+lacking. Each one, however, has notable features, _e.g._, the sublime
+Adagio of the 2d, and the touching Romanza of the 4th, and each is
+worthy of study; for Schumann in certain aspects furnishes the best
+avenue of approach to the modern school. In the Fourth Symphony he
+obliterates the pauses between the movements and fuses them all
+together; calling it a Symphony "in einem Satze" and anticipating the
+very same procedure that Schoenberg follows in his String Quartet which
+has had recent vogue. Schumann's chief contribution to the development
+of the German Song lay in the pianoforte part, which with Schubert and
+Mendelssohn might properly be called an accompaniment, however rich
+and varied. But in Schumann the pianoforte attains to a real
+independence of style, intensifying in the most subtle and delicate
+way every shade of poetic feeling in the text. In fact, it is often
+used to reveal some deep meaning beyond the expressive power of words.
+This is seen in the closing measures of "Moonlight" where the voice
+ceases in suspense, and the instrument completes the eloquence of the
+message. Schumann's great achievement as a literary man was his
+founding, in 1834, of the _Neue Zeitschrift fuer Musik_, to which he
+himself contributed many stimulating and suggestive essays, opposing
+with might and main the Philistinism which so pervaded the music of
+his time. He even established an imaginary club, called the
+Davidsbund, to storm the citadel of Philistia.
+
+The best eulogy of Schumann is the recognition that many of the
+tendencies in modern music, which we now take for granted, date from
+him: the exaltation of freedom and fancy over mere formal
+presentation, the union of broad culture with musical technique, and
+the recognition of music as the art closest in touch with the
+aspirations of humanity. He was an idealist with such perseverance and
+clearness of aim that his more characteristic work can never die.
+
+
+DES ABENDS.
+
+The _Fantasiestuecke_[191], op. 12, of which this piece is the first,
+amply justify their title, for they abound in soaring thoughts, in
+fantastic, whimsical imaginings and in novel modes of utterance and
+structure. Every number of the set is a gem, _In der Nacht_ being
+perhaps the most poetic of Schumann's short pieces for the pianoforte.
+They are thoroughly pianistic and evoke from the instrument all its
+possibilities of sonority and color. In point of texture they
+illustrate that happy combination, which Schumann worked out, of lyric
+melodies on a firmly knit polyphonic basis. They are also
+programmistic in so far as Schumann believed in music of that type.
+There is no attempt to tell a detailed story or to have the music
+correspond literally to definite incidents. The titles merely afford a
+verbal clue to the general import and atmosphere of the music. Thus in
+regard to the piece under consideration, the mere mention of eventide
+is supposed to be enough to stimulate thought in any one with a
+sensitive imagination, and the music is a suggestive expression of
+Schumann's own intimate reveries. The piece is in extended two-part
+form--each part repeated--and rounded out with an eloquent Coda. The
+rhythmic scheme is of particular significance for it illustrates not
+only the composer's fondness for inventing new combinations, but, as
+well, suggests most delicately the mood of the piece. It would
+evidently be false art to write a piece, entitled Evening, in a
+vigorous, arousing rhythm, such as might be associated with a noon-day
+sun, when we often see the heat-waves dancing over the fields. On the
+other hand Schumann, by a subtle blending of triple time in the main
+upper melody and duple time in the lower, suggests that hazy
+indefiniteness appropriate to the time of day when the life of Nature
+seems momentarily subsiding and everything sinking to rest, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+In many measures of the second part (_i.e._, 21-24) the accent is so
+disguised that it seems as if we were in a twilight revery, quite
+apart from matters of time and space.
+
+[Footnote 191: As the music is readily procurable the student should
+make himself familiar with the entire set.]
+
+
+WARUM?
+
+This piece is a happy illustration of the intensity of meaning and the
+conciseness of structure which Schumann gained by the application of
+polyphonic imitation. It is difficult to say exactly what _Warum_
+signifies. It was characteristic of the Romantic unrest of the German
+mind to question everything--especially "Why am I not more happy in
+love?" The motto may be considered a Carlyle-like "everlasting why."
+At any rate the composition is an example of music speaking more
+plainly than words; for no one can fail to recognize the haunting
+appeal in the theme with its long-drawn out final note after the
+upward leap. It is a real musical question, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+_Grillen_, the next piece in the set, deserves careful study. It is
+too long to present as a whole, but we cite the middle part (See
+Supplement No. 52) as it is such a convincing example of syncopated
+effect (_i.e._, the persistent placing of the accent on weak beats),
+and of elasticity in the metric scheme.
+
+
+_Novellette in E major._
+
+This piece illustrates the vigor and massiveness of Schumann's
+pianoforte style. Note the sonority gained by the use of widely spaced
+chords. For the brilliant effect demanded, there should be a liberal
+use of the damper pedal.[192] We likewise find, beginning with the
+third brace, some characteristic polyphonic imitations which give to
+the movement a remarkable concentration. In the middle contrasting
+portion it seems as if Schumann had taken a leaf out of Chopin's
+book--a beautiful, lyric melody floating on an undercurrent of
+sonorous, arpeggio chords. The theme is presented in dialogue form,
+first in the upper voice, next in an inner voice and finally in the
+bass. (See Supplement No. 53.)
+
+[Footnote 192: A beautiful contrast may be made by playing the section
+in F major with the "una corda" pedal throughout.]
+
+
+SONG, _Mondnacht_.
+
+No estimate of Schumann would be fair or comprehensive without some
+mention of his songs; upon which, together with his pianoforte
+compositions, his immortality tends more and more to rest.
+Notwithstanding the many poetic and dramatic touches in Schubert's
+accompaniments, those of Schumann are on the whole more finely
+wrought; for he had the advantage of Schubert in being, himself, a
+pianist of high attainment, thoroughly versed in pianistic effects.
+His imagination was also more sensitive to subtle shades of meaning in
+the text and he was inspired by the wonderful lyrics of Heine,
+Eichendorff and Chamisso who in Schubert's day had written very
+little. Special features of Schumann's songs are the instrumental
+preludes and postludes, the prelude establishing just the right
+setting for the import of the words and the postlude commenting on the
+beautiful message which the voice has just delivered. In _Mondnacht_,
+for example, (as previously mentioned), note how the voice stops in
+suspense and in what an eloquent revery the accompaniment completes
+the picture. (See Supplement No. 54.)
+
+
+OVERTURE TO _Manfred_.
+
+This Overture, the first of a set of incidental numbers which Schumann
+composed to illustrate Byron's dramatic poem, represents some of his
+most typical inspiration, and so is well worthy of our study. The
+music is labored at times, especially in the Development, and the
+orchestration is often dry and stereotyped. But the conception was a
+powerful one, and there is a genuine correspondence between the nature
+of the music and the spirit of the poem. It is evident that the
+subject made a deep impression on Schumann, whose own imagination,
+addicted to mysterious and even morbid broodings, was strongly akin to
+that of Byron's fictitious character. The composition is program music
+of the subjective order, comparable to Beethoven's _Coriolanus_,
+_i.e._, the themes are dramatic characterizations: the first typifying
+the stormy nature of Manfred; the second, with its note of pleading,
+the mysterious influence over the recluse of the spirit of Astarte. As
+in all works of this kind the music cannot be readily appreciated
+without a knowledge of the poem which it illustrates.[193] As for the
+structure, Schumann clings too closely to the Sonata-form. The music
+is eloquent just in proportion as he gives his fancy free rein; where
+he tries to force the themes into an arbitrary mould, the result is
+unsatisfactory--especially the development, which is neither very
+dramatic nor interesting from a purely musical point of view. The work
+opens with three spasmodic syncopated[194] chords, and then follow
+twenty-four measures (lento and at first pianissimo) of a preludial
+nature with suggestions of the Manfred theme. The movement becomes
+gradually faster and more impassioned until, in measure 26, we reach
+the presentation of the first theme (allegro agitato) which, with its
+frequent syncopations, is characteristic of Manfred's restless
+nature. The transition begins in measure 39; at first with a
+repetition of the main theme, which soon modulates to F-sharp minor,
+in which key the second theme enters, in measure 51. This theme--in
+three portions--seems to embody different aspects of the feminine
+influence of Astarte. The first portion, measures 51-61, with its
+undulating, chromatic outline, may be said to typify the haunting
+apparition so real to Manfred's imagination and yet so intangible; the
+second, 62-67, contains a note of impassioned protest, and the third,
+68-77, is a love message of tender consolation. If this interpretation
+seem too subjective, a careful reading of the drama where Astarte
+appears (pp. 284-285 in the Everyman's Edition) will, we believe,
+corroborate it. The rest of the Exposition consists in a treatment of
+the Astarte motive, primarily of a musical nature; though there is a
+real dramatic intensity in measures 96-103, which are an expansion of
+the love message with its characteristic "appoggiatura." The
+Development, beginning in measure 132, is a striking example of how
+difficult it was--even for an exponent of freedom in musical
+expression like Schumann--to break loose from the shackles of
+arbitrary form. The musical thought is kept in motion, to be sure, but
+that is about all; for the treatment is often very labored, and
+nothing is added to the dramatic picture. The world had to await the
+work of Tchaikowsky, and Strauss for a satisfactory adjustment[195]
+between the demands of dramatic fitness and the needs of musical
+structure. In the Coda, beginning measure 258, Schumann--now that he
+is free from considerations of structure--gains a dramatic effect of
+truly impressive power. The horns, supported by trumpets and
+trombones, intone a funeral dirge of touching solemnity (evidently
+suggested by the closing death scene of the drama) while, above, hover
+portions of the Astarte motive, as if even in his death her influence
+was paramount in Manfred's imagination, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Notwithstanding certain blemishes, this Overture at the time of its
+composition was a landmark in the development of program music, and if
+to our modern tastes it seems a bit antiquated, this is largely
+because of the great progress which has since been made.[196]
+
+[Footnote 193: The poem is easily procured in a volume of Everyman's
+Library.]
+
+[Footnote 194: These chords are an amusing example of a "paper
+effect," for unless you watch the conductor's beat, it is impossible
+to feel the syncopation. There being no first beat proper, the chords
+are syncopated against the air!]
+
+[Footnote 195: For pertinent comments on this point see Newman's essay
+on Program Music, pp. 134-135, in his _Musical Studies_.]
+
+[Footnote 196: In studying this work consult, if possible, the
+orchestral score. For those who need a condensed two-hand arrangement,
+the Litolff edition is to be recommended.]
+
+
+SYMPHONY IN D MINOR.
+
+This Symphony is selected from Schumann's four, both for the peculiar
+romantic beauty of its themes and because the form in which it is cast
+makes it an important connecting link between the freedom of
+structure, instituted by Beethoven, and the Symphonic Poem of Liszt
+and other modern composers. All of Schumann's symphonies contain
+genuine beauties and should be familiar to the cultivated musician.
+Perhaps the first in B-flat major is the most sustained, and it has a
+freshness and buoyancy summed up in its title, the _Spring_, by which
+it is popularly known. The exuberance of the Finale is pure Schumann
+and is expressed with an orchestral eloquence in which he was
+frequently lacking.[197] The Second Symphony is notable for its
+sublime Adagio, Schumann's love-song--comparable to the slow movement
+of Beethoven's Fourth. At some future day, conductors will have the
+courage to play this movement by itself like a magnificent Torso, for
+indubitably the other movements have aged beyond recall. The Third
+Symphony, known as the _Rhenish_ (composed when Schumann was living at
+Duesseldorf on the Rhine) is significant for its incorporation of
+popular melodies from the Rhineland, and for the movement, scored
+chiefly for trombones and other brass instruments, which gives a
+picture of some ceremonial occasion in the Cologne Cathedral.
+
+[Footnote 197: It is more than a matter of mere chronology to realise
+that the D minor Symphony was composed in the same year as the B-flat
+major. It was afterwards revised and published as No. 4, but the
+vitality and spontaneity of its themes come from the first gush of
+Schumann's inspiration.]
+
+The Fourth Symphony is an uneven work, for there are many places where
+Schumann's constructive power was unequal to his ideal conceptions. We
+often can see the joints, and the structure--in places--resembles a
+rag-carpet rather than the organic texture of an oriental rug. But the
+spontaneous outpouring of melody touches our emotions and well-nigh
+disarms criticism. Schumann had constantly been striving for a closer
+relationship[198] between the conventional movements of the symphony;
+and his purpose, in the structural treatment adopted, is indicated by
+the statement published in the full score--"Introduction, Allegro,
+Romanze, Scherzo und Finale _in einem Satze_" _i.e._, the work is to
+be considered as a _continuous whole_ and not broken up into arbitrary
+movements with rigid pauses between. The long drawn-out
+Introduction,[199] with its mysterious harmonies, leads us into the
+land of romance, and a portion of this introduction is happily carried
+over and repeated in the Romanze. The First movement proper, from
+_Lebhaft_, seems at first as if it were to be in the customary
+Sonata-form; the Exposition beginning with two themes in the normal
+relationship of minor and relative major, though to be sure the second
+theme is more of a supplementary expansion of the first than one which
+provides a strong contrast. But after the double bar and repeat, this
+first theme is developed in a free preludial manner as if it were
+continually leading up to a climax. We are finally rewarded by a new
+theme of great warmth which amply makes up for any lack of
+individuality in the second theme proper, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 198: We find traces of this tendency in the First Symphony,
+where the Slow Movement and the Scherzo are linked together, likewise
+in the Second, where the motto of the first movement is repeated at
+the end of the Scherzo.]
+
+[Footnote 199: The analysis is based, as usual, on the orchestral
+score; for class-room study there are excellent editions for two and
+four hands.]
+
+The rest of the movement consists of additional improvisations, rather
+too rigidly sectionalized, on the first theme and a second appearance
+of the interpolated theme. This theme, with rhythmic modifications,
+serves also as the basis for the brilliant Coda; for there is no
+Recapitulation proper, and it is evident that the movement is an
+extended prelude for what is to come--a first portion of the work as a
+whole. After a dramatic pause,[200] which enhances the feeling of
+expectancy (so prominent in the first movement) followed by a
+sustained modulatory chord, the Romanze begins with a plaintive theme
+in A minor. The mood is that of an idealized serenade, and in the
+original score the accompaniment for the oboe melody was given to the
+guitar[201] to secure the appropriate atmosphere. After the first
+statement of the theme there is an interpolated quotation of the
+characteristic passage from the introduction, which serves to bind the
+movements together both in structure and in relationship of mood. The
+movement is in clear-cut three-part form and the middle contrasting
+section in the major mode reveals a sustained descending melody played
+by the body of strings, which is delicately embellished by an obligato
+variant given to a solo violin, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 200: Concert-goers may well be reminded that there should be
+_no_ applause between the movements of this work. One of the most
+pernicious ideas of the public is that as soon as the music ceases,
+handclapping should begin; whereas a complete silence is often the
+very means the composer employs for intensifying what has been said
+and preparing for what is to come. Let us ponder the cryptic remark
+attributed to Mozart that "the rests in music are more important than
+the notes."]
+
+[Footnote 201: This was afterwards withdrawn as impracticable. What a
+pity that Schumann wrote before the harp as a member of the orchestra
+had come into its own. For the mood which he was trying to establish
+compare the scoring of this Romanza with that in the Slow movement of
+Franck's Symphony.]
+
+At first the 'cellos, also, re-enforce this melody.
+
+[Music]
+
+The effect is that of an ethereal voice commenting on the beauty of
+the main theme. This obligato part is of special significance, since
+with rhythmic change it forms the chief theme of the Trio in the
+following movement. The Romanze closes with a simple return to the
+plaintive oboe melody, this time in D minor. The tonality is purposely
+indefinite to accentuate the wistful feeling of the movement--the last
+chords having the suspense of a dominant ending. After a short pause
+we are at once whirled into the dashing Scherzo which seems to
+represent the playful badinage of a Romantic lover. The Trio affords a
+delightful reminiscence of the Romanze and, from a structural point of
+view, is an early example of the principle of "transformation of
+theme"[202] which plays so important a role in the works of Liszt,
+Franck, Tchaikowsky and Dvo[vr]ak. For the melody, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+is a rhythmic variant of the former obligato of the solo violin, and
+has this characteristic, which gives a peculiar note of surprise, that
+it always begins on the third beat of the measure. Following a
+repetition of the Scherzo the movement ends eloquently with a
+coda-like return to the Trio which, after some modulatory changes, is
+broken up into detached fragments, seeming to vanish into thin air.
+There is no pause between the end of the Scherzo and the introduction,
+based on the theme of the first movement, which ushers in the Finale.
+This movement is in Sonata-form with a modified Recapitulation--_i.e._,
+the first theme is not repeated--and with a passionate closing theme,
+_e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+which atones for the intentional incompleteness with which the first
+movement ends. The main theme is a compound of a vigorous march-like
+motive, closely related to one of the subsidiary phrases of the first
+movement, and a running figure in the bass--the derivation of which is
+obvious. After a rather labored transition[203]--surely the most
+mechanical passage in the whole work--we are rewarded by a melody of
+great buoyancy and rhythmic life, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 202: In Brahms, who was something of a conservative as to
+freedom of form, there is a striking example in the connection between
+the second movement and the Finale of the Third Symphony.]
+
+[Footnote 203: Schumann was a true poet in the spontaneity of his
+themes, but often an unsuccessful architect when connecting them.]
+
+The free Fantasie begins with a contrapuntal working-out of a figure
+taken from the first theme, but it suffers from a persistent emphasis
+on what, after all, is an uninteresting rhythm [Music]; there is,
+furthermore, a rigid grouping of the phrases in twos and fours.
+Schumann's instinct was a wise one in omitting the main theme of the
+Recapitulation and in leading, as soon as possible, to the repetition
+of the delightful second theme--the gem of the movement--which now
+makes its orthodox appearance in the tonic. After some ejaculatory
+measures, which remind us of the beginning of the Development, we have
+the impassioned closing theme, referred to above, which ushers in the
+free and brilliant Coda, worked up contrapuntally with ever increasing
+speed. The movement ends with Schumannesque syncopations. The D minor
+Symphony, thus, although not a perfect work of art, is a significant
+one and repays intimate study. A long life may safely be predicted for
+it by reason of the fervor and charm of its melodies. An important
+historical status it will always hold, for it is the honorable
+ancestor of such great symphonies as Cesar Franck's in D minor and
+Tchaikowsky's in E minor, in which we find the same freedom of form
+and the same fusion of material attempted by Schumann's daring
+spirit.[204]
+
+[Footnote 204: For a detailed and illuminating study of this symphony
+and of Schumann's style in general see the last essay in _Preludes and
+Studies_ by W.J. Henderson. Another excellent essay may be found in
+_Studies in Modern Music_ by W.H. Hadow.]
+
+Closely connected with Schumann, chronologically and also by certain
+executive associations, _e.g._, the Leipsic Conservatory, is the
+career of Mendelssohn (1809-1847). There was much in common between
+the two; they both were extremely versatile, of strong literary bent
+and naturally drawn to the same media of expression: pianoforte, solo
+voices and orchestra. And yet, so dissimilar were the underlying
+strains in their temperaments that their compositions, as an
+expression of their personalities, show little in common. Schumann, as
+we have seen, was fantastic, mystical, a bold, independent thinker,
+the quintessence of the Romantic spirit. Mendelssohn, on the other
+hand, though not lacking in poetic fancy and warmth, was cautious--a
+born conservative; and his early classical training, together with the
+opulent circumstances of his life, served as a natural check upon the
+freedom of genius. His dazzling precocity--witness the _Midsummer
+Night's Dream_ Overture, composed while he was in his seventeenth
+year--and a great popular success were surely not the best stimuli to
+make him delve into the depths of his imagination. Undoubtedly he did
+a valuable service, in his day, in uniting the leading tendencies of
+the two schools: the exuberant fancy of the Romantic, and the reserve
+and finish of the Classic. He has been aptly called a "Romanticist
+with a classical equipment." If any appraisement be necessary to the
+detriment of one or the other, it must be conceded that Schumann was
+the greater genius. A just estimate of Mendelssohn's work is
+difficult, for his career was so meteoric and in his life he was so
+overvalued that now, with the opposite swing of the pendulum, he is as
+often underrated. He was assuredly a great artist, for what he had to
+say was beautifully expressed; the question hinges on the actual worth
+of the message. With perfect finish there often goes a lack of power
+and objective energy; somewhat the same difference that we feel
+between skillful gardening and the free vitality of Nature. Although
+Mendelssohn's music delights and charms there is a prevailing lack of
+that deep emotion which alone can move the soul. And yet a composer
+whom Wagner called "the greatest of landscape painters" and whose best
+works have stood the test of time can by no means be scorned. His
+descriptive Overtures for orchestra: the _Hebrides_, the _Midsummer
+Night's Dream_ and the _Fair Melusine_; his _Variations Serieuses_ for
+Pianoforte and some of the _Songs without Words_[205] contain a
+genuinely poetic message, flawlessly expressed. As for the pianoforte
+music, when the _Songs without Words_ are called "hackneyed" we must
+remember that only compositions of truly popular appeal ever have
+sufficient vogue to warrant the application of this opprobrious term.
+In the pianoforte _Scherzos_ and in the _Rondo Capriccioso in E major_
+there is without doubt a vitality and a play of fancy easier to
+criticize than to create. The prevalent mood in Mendelssohn's music is
+one of sunny-hearted lightness and emotional satisfaction; and if this
+be a one-sided presentation of life, it is no more so, as Pratt well
+says in his _History of Music_, than the picture of gloom and sorrow
+which certain other composers continually emphasize. The fact that his
+descriptive Overtures, just mentioned, have been surpassed--owing to
+the recent expansion in orchestral possibilities of tone-color--must
+not blind us to the beauty of their content, or make us forget the
+impetus they have given to modern composers. No one could possibly
+find in the _Hebrides_ Overture that subtle descriptive fancy or that
+wealth of orchestral coloring which exists in Debussy's marvellous
+_Sea Pieces_; and yet the Mendelssohn composition is a genuine
+reflection of nature in terms of music and can still be heard with
+sustained attention. Wagner[206] praises highly its orchestral
+effects; and a modern scholar, Cecil Forsyth,[207] considers the
+tone-painting quite irresistible. A sincere tribute of admiration
+should also be paid to Mendelssohn's _Concerto for Violin and
+Orchestra_. Written in the most idiomatic style for the solo
+instrument and containing real _violin melodies_ it is still one of
+the few great works in its class. Any final critical estimate of
+Mendelssohn--no matter how earnest the effort to be absolutely
+fair--is inevitably involved with personal prejudices. If his music
+appeals to any one, it is liked extremely and no one need be ashamed
+of enjoying it, for it is sincerely felt and beautifully expressed.
+Mendelssohn, himself, doubtless knew perfectly well that he was not
+Bach, Beethoven or Schubert. For those whose natures crave a more
+robust message, more fire and a deeper passion, there are the works of
+those other composers to which they may turn.
+
+[Footnote 205: Several of these were constantly played by both
+Paderewski and De Pachman, two of the greatest virtuosi of our day:
+surely a convincing tribute!]
+
+[Footnote 206: See the _Oxford History of Music_, Vol. VI, pp. 80-84.
+Anyone who cares to see what Wagner owed to Mendelssohn may compare
+the opening theme, and its treatment, of the _Fair Melusine_ Overture
+with the music of the Rhine Maidens in the _Rheingold_.]
+
+[Footnote 207: See his treatise on Orchestration, p. 194.]
+
+Let us now analyze the _Midsummer Night's Dream_ Overture,[208] "his
+first and highest flight" to quote Schumann. In this work we do not
+find a characterization by musical means of the emotions of the
+dramatis personae, as in the _Coriolanus_ Overture; and there is
+little specific correspondence between the type of theme and definite
+incidents, except possibly at the beginning of the Recapitulation,
+where the low tones of the Bass Tuba[209] may be thought to represent
+the snores of Bottom, as the fairies hover about him. Anyone familiar
+with Shakespeare's play--and such a knowledge is indispensible for a
+complete enjoyment of the music--will see that Mendelssohn's object
+was to give a broad, general picture of the fairy world and to
+intensify, by his music, the fancy and humor found in the play. The
+introductory sustained chords, pianissimo, are a happy illustration of
+his deftness in tone-painting; for, assigned to the ethereal flutes
+and clarinets, they constitute, as Niecks ingeniously expresses it, a
+"magic formula" which ushers us into the moonlit realm of fairyland.
+The first theme in E minor (Allegro di molto: throughout _pp_ and
+staccato), announced by the strings, is a graphic representation of
+the playful antics of the nimble elves and fairies. Its course is
+twice interrupted by a peculiar, prolonged chord which seems to say,
+"Hush! you are listening to the activities of beings not of this
+every-day, humdrum world." The first theme has a second part in E
+major (beginning at measure 62) of a pompous, march-like nature, which
+may be thought to represent the dignity of Duke Theseus and his train.
+The Overture being in complete Sonata-form, there occurs at this
+point a short transition based on the rhythm of the first theme;
+followed by a lovely cantabile melody--the second theme proper--that
+typifies the romantic love pervading the play. This theme also is
+expanded into several sections; the first of which may portray the
+clownish Athenian tradespeople, and the second, the brays of Bottom
+after he has been transformed into an ass, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 208: This is exceptionally effective in the four-hand
+version--in fact, it was often played as a pianoforte duet by his
+sister Fanny and himself--although the real poetic effect is
+inseparably connected with the orchestral treatment.]
+
+[Footnote 209: Originally these tones were played by the Ophicleide or
+Serpent (now obsolete).]
+
+The free fantasia, an improvisation on the first theme--although
+containing a few perfunctory manipulations--sustains interest, as a
+whole, by its modulations and by the suggestive orchestral effects.
+The closing measures, where the pizzicato 'cellos and double basses
+seem to imitate the light, tripping footsteps of the elves, is
+genuinely realistic. The Recapitulation, which begins with the same
+chords as the Introduction, is an illustration of bondage to classic
+practise; for here they have no dramatic significance and are merely a
+concession to routine procedure.[210] The first theme and the
+transition, however, are effectively abridged so that the second
+theme, by far the most appealing in the whole work, stands out in
+greater prominence. Then follows a brilliant expansion of the closing
+portions of the second theme, until we reach the Coda. This begins
+with a reminiscence of the first theme which fades away into a
+modified presentation of the Duke Theseus theme, followed by four
+long-drawn out Amens.[211] These may signify the blessing which, in
+the play, the elves bestow upon the Ducal house. The Introductory
+chords dissolve the dream which the music has evoked, and we are back
+once more in the world of reality.
+
+[Footnote 210: This, after all, is a rather subtle point for a boy of
+seventeen to be called upon to consider. Perhaps if he had been that
+kind of a boy he might not have written the Overture at all!]
+
+[Footnote 211: The ecclesiastical formula for an Amen being the
+so-called Plagal cadence of subdominant and tonic chords.]
+
+To suggest the attitude which we of to-day should take towards
+Mendelssohn--he may justly be admired as a musician of great natural
+gifts, of high ideals and of unusually finished technique in many
+branches of composition. It is ungracious to censure him because he
+lacks the gripping emotional power of a Beethoven or a Wagner. Those
+who indulge in such narrow criticism condemn only themselves.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CHOPIN AND PIANOFORTE STYLE
+
+
+Although Chopin (1809-1849) was less aggressively romantic than others
+of the group we have been considering, in many respects his music
+represents the romantic spirit in its fairest bloom. Not even yet has
+full justice been done him--although his fame is growing--since he is
+often considered as a composer of mere "salon-pieces" which, though
+captivating, are too gossamer-like to merit serious attention. Chopin
+was a life-long student of Bach; and much of his music, in its
+closeness of texture, shows unmistakably the influence of that master.
+Together with Schumann, he broke away from the strict formality of the
+old classic forms and instituted the reign of freely conceived
+tone-poems for the pianoforte: the form being conditioned by the
+poetic feelings of the composer. As far as fundamental principles of
+architecture are concerned, his pieces are generally simple, modeled
+as they are on the two and three-part form and that of the rondo. When
+he attempted works of large scope, where varied material had to be
+held together, he was lamentably deficient, _e.g._, in his Sonatas. In
+fact, even in such pieces as the Etudes and Scherzos, in the
+presentation of the material we find occasional blemishes. But there
+are so many other wonderful qualities that this weakness may be
+overlooked. In spite of a certain deficiency in form, Chopin is
+indisputably a great genius. Far too much stress has been laid on the
+delicacy of his style to the exclusion of the intensity and bold
+dramatic power that characterize much of his music to a marked
+degree. Though of frail physique,[212] and though living in an
+environment which tended to overdevelop his fastidious nature, Chopin
+had a fiery soul, which would assert itself with unmistakable force.
+His music by no means consists solely of melting moods or languorous
+sighs; he had a keen instinct for the dissonant element (witness
+passages in the G minor Ballade); he was a daring harmonic innovator;
+and much of his music is surcharged with tragic significance. A born
+stylist, he nevertheless did not avoid incessant labor to secure the
+acme of finish. So perfect in his works is the balance between
+substance and treatment, that they make a direct appeal to
+music-lovers of every nation. In listening to Chopin we are never
+conscious of turgidity, of diffuseness, of labored treatment of
+material. All is direct, pellucid; poetic thoughts are presented in a
+convincingly beautiful manner. He was a great colorist as well, and in
+his work we must recognize the fact that color in music is as distinct
+an achievement of the imagination as profound thought or beauty of
+line. Chopin's position in regard to program music is an interesting
+subject for speculation. Few of his works bear specifically
+descriptive titles; and it is well known that he had little sympathy
+with the extreme tendencies of Berlioz and Liszt. Yet there is, in
+general, something more than an abstract presentation of musical
+material, however beautiful. The varied moods aroused by the Ballades
+and Nocturnes, the actual pictures we see in the Polonaises, must have
+had their counterpart in definite subjective experiences in the life
+of the composer, and so from a broad psychological standpoint--even in
+the absence of explanatory titles--we may call Chopin a thoroughly
+romantic tone-poet; indeed, as Balzac says, "a soul which rendered
+itself audible."
+
+[Footnote 212: He was born of a Polish mother and a French father, and
+these mixed strains of blood account fundamentally for the leading
+characteristics of his music. From the former strain came the
+impassioned, romantic and at times chivalrous moods, prominent in all
+Polish life and art; and from the latter the grace, charm and finish
+which we rightly associate with the French nature. For side-lights on
+Chopin's intimacy with George Sand see the well-known essays by Henry
+James and Rene Doumic.]
+
+As Chopin composed so idiomatically for his chosen instrument, the
+pianoforte, to which he devoted himself exclusively,[213] no
+understanding or adequate appreciation of the subtleties of his style
+is possible without some knowledge of the nature and attributes of
+this instrument which, in our time, has become the universal medium
+for the rendering of music. All of Chopin's works were not only
+published for the pianoforte but were conceived in _terms_ of the
+pianoforte; his style in this respect being quite unique in the
+history of musical art. For there are noble and poetically inspired
+thoughts of many composers which may be satisfactorily presented
+through a number of media: pianoforte, organ, string-quartet or
+voices. This fact has been the cause of many so-called transcriptions
+of orchestral or string-quartet music for the organ. A composer,
+furthermore, often publishes a work for a certain instrument when the
+inner evidence shows that, during the period of creation, he actually
+had some other medium in mind. Beethoven's Sonatas abound[214] in
+effects which, for their complete realization, require an orchestra;
+so that, notwithstanding the beauty of the thought, his style is often
+anything but pianistic. In certain of Cesar Franck's pianoforte works
+we are conscious of his predilection for the organ, as the spirit of
+the music demands a sustained volume of sound which the organ, with
+its powerful lungs, alone can give. But if the full beauty of Chopin's
+conception is to be gained, his music must be played on the pianoforte
+and on nothing else. The pianoforte has, to be sure, several
+limitations; it is not per se a loud instrument in comparison with a
+trumpet or an organ, and the whole nature of its tone is
+evanescent--that is, as soon as the tone is produced, it begins to
+fade away, [decrescendo symbol]. This latter apparent limitation,
+however, is in fact one of its most suggestive beauties; for nothing
+is more stimulating to the imagination than the dying away of a
+beautiful sound, as may be felt in the striking of a clear-toned bell,
+or in the wonderful diminuendo of the horn. This effect, inherent in
+pianoforte tone, should be more utilized rather than deplored,
+especially since dwelling on a delightful harmony or a single dramatic
+note is a definite characteristic of "tempo rubato"--that peculiar
+feature of Chopin's rhythm. The pianoforte can neither steadily
+sustain a tone [sustaining symbol] nor increase it [crescendo symbol];
+achievements for which the strings and the wind instruments are so
+valued. On the other hand, the instrument has the merits of great
+sonority and marvellous coloristic possibilities; and when music is
+composed for the pianoforte by one who understands its secrets and,
+furthermore, when it is properly played, it is quite the finest[215]
+instrument ever yet brought under the control of a single performer.
+Again, the pianoforte is not meant for great rapidity of utterance,
+such as, for instance, we associate with the violin, the flute or the
+clarinet. It is, in fact, often played _too fast_, sounding like a
+pianola or a machine rather than an instrument with a soul. If there
+be no lingering over the notes, beautiful effects have no opportunity
+to be heard. Rapidity and brilliance on the pianoforte do not depend
+on so many notes per second but on vitality and precision of accent.
+These admirable qualities of the instrument are due to the great
+number of vibrating metal strings (in a modern concert-grand, about
+two hundred and thirty, _i.e._, three strings to each of the twelve
+notes of the seven octaves, save for a few of the lowest bass notes);
+to the large sounding board (about twenty-four square feet, on the
+largest model), and above all to the damper pedal which Rubinstein--so
+appropriately--calls the soul of the pianoforte. The very term
+Pianoforte implies a wealth of meaning; for a special glory of the
+instrument is its power of shading, its flexibility of utterance, from
+piano to forte or vice versa. The limits themselves, to be sure, are
+not so striking as in certain other instruments, _e.g._, the
+pianoforte cannot produce the almost ghostly whisper of which the
+clarinet is capable, nor can it equal the trumpet or the trombone in
+intensity or volume. But it can produce a very beautiful pianissimo;
+and if a sense of relativity be kept, and soft effects begun quietly
+enough, it can be made to sound with remarkable brilliancy. The
+pianoforte should always be played with a keen regard for this power
+of shading, of nuance; the tones should undulate like the winds or the
+waves. Anything like the steady sostenuto level for which the organ
+shows itself so fitted is, except for special effects, entirely
+foreign to the nature of the pianoforte. Nor should we ever attempt to
+make it, per se, a loud, overpowering instrument. Its forte and its
+brilliancy are purely relative; and, when forced to do something
+unsuited to its real nature, it protests with a hard, unmelodious
+tone.
+
+[Footnote 213: The few exceptions being the Polish Songs, the Trio for
+Violin, 'Cello and Pianoforte and the orchestral accompaniment to the
+two Concertos.]
+
+[Footnote 214: There will occur to every one numerous passages in
+which the pianoforte is expected to be a kettle-drum, or where the
+figuration is far better suited to the violin than to the hand in
+connection with keys.]
+
+[Footnote 215: This by reason of its combined powers in melody,
+harmony and rhythm. Some of these qualities it shares, to be sure,
+with the organ; but the organ is inherently lacking in rhythm, and its
+solid, block-like tones do not exercise the same fascination upon the
+imagination as do the fleeting sounds of the pianoforte. It is, of
+course, possible and desirable to enjoy both instruments--each in its
+own proper sphere, and each for its characteristic effects.]
+
+Likewise the two pedals,[216] when their technical names are
+understood, imply their own meaning, just as their popular
+designations hint at the way in which they are often abused. The pedal
+employed by the _right_ foot, properly called the "damper pedal," is
+so named because, by its action, _all_ the dampers of the key-board
+may be raised simultaneously. This allows the strings to vibrate
+together and to send forth great waves of colored sound like those
+produced by an Aeolian harp; an effect similar to that heard when a
+sea-shell is held to the ear. The pianoforte, in fact, has aptly been
+called "a harp laid on its back" to which the action of keys has been
+applied. Accordingly an open, flowing style (arpeggio) is one of the
+idioms best suited to its nature. To secure proper contrast, a
+massive, chordal style is sometimes employed by such composers as
+Schumann, Brahms and Franck--even at times by Chopin himself; but that
+the extended arpeggio (often merely two voices, with the body of tone
+secured by the pedal) is the norm may be seen from almost any page of
+Chopin's compositions. The resonance and carrying power of these waves
+are intensified by raising the lid[217] of the pianoforte; for then
+they are brought to a focus and projected into space. The effect
+produced by raising the dampers is appropriate and beautiful, not
+alone with consonant chords but, at times, equally with chords that
+are unrelated; which, were they sustained for long by an organ, would
+be intolerably harsh. But the tone of the pianoforte is so fleeting
+that such a mixture ensures great brilliance and warmth without undue
+jargon, and is thus akin to the blending of strange colors by modern
+painters. Many people, in fact, play the pianoforte with too _little_,
+rather than too _much_, pedal; or with too much pedal used the wrong
+way! A definite attempt should be made to cultivate a feeling for
+color and warmth of tone; a hard, colorless tone on the pianoforte
+being a great blemish as it is so unnecessary. The following passage
+illustrates the above points.
+
+[Footnote 216: It is understood that all the comments are based on the
+action of a concert-grand pianoforte, since on an upright or a
+square--because of mechanical limitations of space--the effects are
+quite different.]
+
+[Footnote 217: In this connection, even at the risk of seeming to
+preach, let the advice be given that _nothing_ should ever be put on
+top of a grand pianoforte: neither flowers, afternoon tea-sets,
+bird-cages, books, nor even an aquarium! For the lid is not merely a
+cover, but an additional sounding-board, and must always be in
+readiness to be so used. The pianoforte as a coloristic instrument, in
+short, is completely itself _only_ when played with the lid raised.]
+
+[Music: CHOPIN: _Barcarolle_]
+
+There is really no such thing on the pianoforte as a "pure" single
+tone. It is an acoustical law that no tone exists by itself, but
+always generates a whole series of overtones[218] or "upper partials,"
+as they are called, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 218: An instrument designed to reinforce these upper tones,
+so that they may be clearly heard, is to be found in any Physical
+Laboratory. That these tones really vibrate "sympathetically" may be
+proved by striking _ff_ [Transcriber's Note: Music example indicates
+_sf_] this note [Music: C2 With damper pedal] and then pressing down
+_very lightly_ the keys of G and E just above middle C, thus removing
+the individual dampers of these notes. In a quiet room the tones are
+distinctly audible. For another rewarding experiment of the same
+nature, see the Introduction to the first volume of Arthur Whiting's
+_Pedal Studies_ and the well-known treatise of Helmholtz.]
+
+Even what we call the perfectly consonant chord of C major, _e.g._,
+[Music] would be slightly qualified and colored by the B-flat, and
+this effect has actually been utilized by Chopin in the final cadence
+of his Prelude in F major, No. 23, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+In this example the E-flat must be very delicately accented and _both_
+pedals freely used.
+
+Let it be clearly understood, therefore, that the damper
+pedal--popularly but erroneously called the "loud pedal"--has nothing
+to do with "noise" as such. Its purpose is to amplify and color the
+waves of sound and these waves may vary all the way from _pp_ to _ff_.
+The dynamic gradation of pianoforte tone is caused by the amount of
+force with which the hammer strikes the wires; and this power is
+applied by the attack and pressure of the fingers. The damper pedal
+will, to be sure, reinforce fortissimo effects, but logically it is
+only a _means_ of _reinforcement_ and should never be used so that a
+mere "roar of sound" is produced. The normal pianoforte tone, however,
+is that brought forth in connection with the damper pedal, and only to
+gain an effect of intentional coolness and dryness do we see in
+pianoforte literature the direction "senza pedal"; passages so marked
+being often most appropriate as a strong contrast to highly colored
+ones.[219]
+
+[Footnote 219: For a complete and illuminating treatise on the pedals
+and their artistic use, see the aforesaid two volumes of _Pedal
+Studies_ by Arthur Whiting (G. Schirmer, New York).]
+
+An important adjunct of the instrument, though even less intelligently
+used, is the pedal employed by the left foot; that popularly known as
+the "soft pedal," but of which the technical name is the "una corda"
+pedal. By this device on a grand pianoforte the whole key-board is
+shifted from left to right, so that the hammers strike but _two_ wires
+in each group of three, and the third wire of the set is left free to
+vibrate sympathetically. Thus a very etherial, magical quality of tone
+is produced, especially in the upper ranges of the instrument. In the
+middle register, passages played forte or fortissimo will have a
+richness comparable to the G string of a violin. The effect is
+analogous to that of a viol d'amour which has, as is well known
+(stretched underneath the strings, which produce the actual tone) a
+set of additional strings, freely vibrating. Although this "una
+corda"[220] pedal may be used in a dynamic sense to reduce, as it
+were, the size of the instrument, its chief purpose is coloristic,
+_i.e._, to make possible a _special quality_ of tone. This statement
+is proved by directions in pianoforte literature as far back as
+Beethoven, in whose Sonatas we find the dynamic marks of _f_ and _ff_
+coupled with the proscribed use of the una corda pedal. In any case,
+this left-foot pedal should not be abused; for, just because the tone
+quality produced thereby is so beautiful and characteristic, it soon
+becomes, if constantly employed, rather cloying. The dynamic gradation
+of tone is primarily a matter for the control of the fingers, _i.e._,
+the touch. The damper pedal is for sonority and color; the una corda
+for special shades, and all three factors--touch and the two
+pedals--are combined in pianistic effects which only a trained
+technique and artistic judgment can regulate.[221]
+
+[Footnote 220: The term dates from the period when this pedal
+controlled three shifts: una corda, due corde and tre corde; the
+hammer striking respectively one, two or three strings. The whole
+mechanism is well implied in the German word _Verschiebung_, _i.e._,
+the shoving along--so frequent in Schumann's works, _e.g._, the middle
+part of his _Vogel als Prophet_ from the _Waldscenen_, op. 82, No. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 221: American pianofortes also have a middle pedal called
+the "sustaining pedal," by which tones in the lower register may be
+prolonged. It has not proved to be of great value, though there are
+occasional passages, _e.g._, the closing measures of the second
+movement of Cesar Franck's _Violin Sonata_, where it may be
+effectively employed.]
+
+Even a slight analysis of Chopin's style proves that it is based upon
+logical inferences, drawn from the series of overtones as they are
+generated and reinforced by the very nature of the pianoforte. From
+the wide spacing of the lower tones of the series Chopin derived the
+extended grouping of his arpeggios, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+[Music: Prelude, No. 19]
+
+so that the _chord_ of the _10th_, instead of the former grouping
+within the octave, may be considered the basis of his harmonic scheme.
+By this means a great gain was made in richness and sonority. Another
+striking feature of Chopin's style is found in those groups of
+spray-like, superadded notes with which the melody is embellished. It
+is evident, in many cases at least, that these tones are not merely
+embroidery in the ordinary sense. Rather do they represent a
+reinforcement of the overtones, ideally or actually present, in
+connection with bass tones and chords used in the lower part of the
+musical fabric. As a striking example[222] see the long series of
+descending non-harmonic tones in the Coda of the _B major Nocturne_,
+op. 9, No. 3, and note the delicate colors in the closing arpeggio
+chord (to be played with a free use of both pedals).
+
+[Footnote 222: For a commentary on this passage see D.G. Mason's essay
+on Chopin in _The Romantic Composers_.]
+
+[Music]
+
+In general, Chopin's style is homophonic--wondrous lyric melodies
+which seem to float on waves of richly colored sound. But there is
+also much subtly used polyphony, _i.e._, delightful phrases in inner
+voices and imitative effects between the different parts. In
+comparison, however, with Schumann's style (which is largely on a
+polyphonic basis) Chopin is a decidedly homophonic composer.[223] A
+great deal of interesting and instructive reading on Chopin is
+available and the following works are especially recommended: _Chopin,
+the Man and his Music_ by Huneker; the _Life of Chopin_ by Niecks; the
+essay on Chopin in Mason's _Romantic Composers_ and in Hadow's
+_Studies in Modern Music_; the volume on Chopin by Elie Poiree in the
+series _Les Musiciens Celebres_; and the same by Louis Laloy in the
+series _Les Maitres de la Musique_; the _Life_ by Liszt (well known
+and most valuable as coming from a contemporary and brother musician);
+finally a somewhat rhapsodic essay by H.T. Finck in _Chopin and Other
+Essays_.
+
+[Footnote 223: For a detailed analysis of many special features of
+style see the volume by Edgar Stillman Kelly, _Chopin the Composer_.]
+
+We select, as being thoroughly representative, the following works for
+comment: the first Prelude, the A-flat major Etude, the F-sharp minor
+Mazurka, the E-flat minor Polonaise, the Barcarolle and the C-sharp
+minor Scherzo.[224]
+
+[Footnote 224: To save space, no one of these pieces except the
+Barcarolle is given in the Supplement, since they are readily
+accessible. The _Barcarolle_, however, is given in order to make it
+better known; for although it is one of the most inspired and
+beautifully expressed of all Chopin's works, it is heard comparatively
+seldom. The best editions of the works are those of Kullak, Mikuli and
+Klindworth.]
+
+
+PRELUDE IN C MAJOR, OP. 28, NO. 1.
+
+This Prelude, the first of the set of 24, is an excellent example of
+the sonority Chopin gained from widely extended chords in the bass; by
+the use--characteristically bold--of dissonances (measures 13-20), and
+by the sensuous richness of the closing measures, in which a wonderful
+wave of sound is produced through the damper pedal, in connection with
+the blending of the tonic, dominant and subdominant chords. The
+prelude is a kind of intensified Bach and may well be compared with
+that prelude in the same key which begins the immortal well-tempered
+Clavichord. All the Preludes, for their poetic import, finished style
+and pianistic effect, are masterpieces of the first rank. Schumann
+well says of them: "They are sketches, eagle's feathers, all strangely
+intermingled. But in every piece we recognize the hand of Frederic
+Chopin; he is the boldest, the proudest poet-soul of his time."
+
+
+ETUDE IN A-FLAT MAJOR, OP. 25, NO. 1.
+
+This etude, deservedly popular, may be considered the example _par
+excellence_ of Chopin's style. The lyric beauty of the melody, the
+fascinating modulations, the shades of color alike justify the
+following rhapsodic comments of Schumann, "Imagine that an Aeolian
+harp possessed all the musical scales, and that the hand of an artist
+were to cause them to intermingle in all sorts of fantastic
+embellishments, yet in such a way as to leave everywhere audible a
+deep fundamental tone and a soft, continuously singing upper voice,
+and you will get about the right idea. But it would be an error to
+think that Chopin, in playing this etude, permitted every one of the
+small notes to be distinctly heard. It was rather an undulation of the
+A-flat major chord, here and there thrown aloft by the pedal.
+Throughout the harmonies one always heard in great tones a wondrous
+melody, while once only, in the middle of the piece, besides that
+chief song, a tenor voice became prominent. After the etude a feeling
+came over one as of having seen in a dream a beatific picture which,
+when already half awake, one would gladly once more recall."
+
+
+MAZURKA IN F-SHARP MINOR, OP. 6, NO. 1.
+
+As Franz Liszt says in his life of Chopin, "The Mazurka is not only a
+dance, it is a national poem, and like all poems of conquered nations,
+is shaped so as to let the blazing flames of patriotic feeling shimmer
+out through the transparent veil of popular melody." The chief
+peculiarity of the Mazurka (which is always in triple rhythm, with a
+latitude in speed from Presto to Mesto) is the scheme of
+accentuation--the normal accent on the first beat being systematically
+transferred to the second and third beats. We also find in the Mazurka
+frequent indications for the use of the so-called "tempo rubato," a
+proper conception of which is so essential in the performance of
+Chopin's music. Tempo rubato--so often abused!--literally meaning
+borrowed time, is simply free rhythm emancipated from rigid,
+scholastic bonds. As Huneker well says, "Chopin must be played in
+curves" with emotional freedom; just as the heart, when excited,
+increases the speed of its pulsations, and in moments of calm and
+depression slows down. The jerky, really unrhythmical playing of
+certain performers reminds us of a person suffering from _palpitation_
+of the heart. Liszt's description of the rubato is most suggestive: "A
+wind plays in the leaves, life unfolds and develops beneath them, but
+the tree remains the same." In Chopin, accordingly, the ground rhythm
+should always be preserved, though varied with subtle, and yet logical
+fluctuations.
+
+
+POLONAISE IN E-FLAT MINOR, OP. 26, NO. 11.
+
+The Polonaise[225] is the great national dance of the Poles; an
+impassioned and yet stately pageant in which, as Liszt says, "The
+noblest traditional feelings of ancient Poland are represented." This
+dance--or rather, processional march--is always in triple rhythm and
+based on a definite rhythmic formula: either [Music] or [Music]. The
+frequent feminine endings are also a characteristic feature, _e.g._,
+the cadence in the well known military Polonaise in A major:
+
+[Music]
+
+To return to the example being considered,--it is in Three-part form
+(A, B, A, with Coda) the first part in the minor mode; the second part
+beautifully contrasted by being in B major--introduced by the implied
+enharmonic change from E-flat to D-sharp. This first part, remarkable
+for its passionate, headlong impetuosity, should dispel any idea that
+Chopin was a weak sentimentalist. Although of a delicate constitution
+he certainly had a fiery soul. The second part, sotto voce--note the
+feminine endings--reminds us of the muffled music of a military band
+as it passes by.
+
+[Footnote 225: For an account of its origin see the chapter in
+Huneker's book and the article on the Polonaise in Grove's
+Dictionary.]
+
+
+BARCAROLLE IN F-SHARP MAJOR, OP. 60.
+
+This composition, in many ways the most wonderful single piece we have
+from Chopin, is the quintessence of his genius. It seems, in fact, to
+contain everything: appealing melodies, wealth of harmony, bold
+dissonances (note in particular the 6th and 7th measures of the Coda),
+brilliant embellishments; and withal, it is written in a pianistic
+style which, for richness and warmth of color, is quite unsurpassed.
+It is also most sincerely conceived, intensifying the suggestiveness
+of the descriptive title. Would that objective program music were
+always so true to life and to the real nature of music! It is in free
+three-part form, the first part of a calm nature in which we are
+rocked on gently undulating waves; a more rhythmic second part where,
+as Kullak says, the bass seems to suggest the monotonous steadiness of
+oar-strokes; an interlude, marked "dolce sfogato," introduced by some
+delightful modulations, as if in a quiet nook the poet were dreaming
+of the beauties of love and nature; an impassioned return to the chief
+subject, together with a partial presentation of the middle portion;
+and finally a long and brilliant coda. The composition is unique in
+romantic literature for its power to arouse the imagination, or, as
+Schumann so well says, "to set people romancing for themselves."
+
+
+SCHERZO IN C-SHARP MINOR, OP. 39.
+
+The four Scherzos, for passion and eloquence, rank among Chopin's most
+characteristic works, though it seems impossible to trace a logical
+correspondence between the former classic meaning of the term
+"Scherzo" and the contents revealed to us in these poems; save that
+they are all in triple rhythm, hence on a dance-form basis. As Niecks
+well says, "There is in them neither frolicsomeness nor humor"--such,
+for example, as we find in Beethoven's Scherzos--and he suggests that
+"Capriccio" might be a less misleading designation. But, however
+inexplicable the title which Huneker thinks Chopin may have applied in
+serious jest, there is no doubt of the uncompromising dignity of the
+utterance, and there is often a grim irony, a wayward scorn, which a
+liberal interpretation might well consider attributes of humor. These
+were marked traits in Chopin's nature, and the Scherzos are their
+revelation in terms of music. Schumann's well-known comment is
+apropos--"How is gravity to clothe itself if jest goes about in dark
+veils?" This Scherzo (Presto con fuoco) is in extended three-part
+form; the dominant note of the first part being one of feverish
+agitation, which expresses itself in spasmodic outbursts. The second
+part, with its broad cantabile melody of a hymn-like character,
+reveals a calmer mood. The last note of each phrase is adorned
+throughout with lovely coloristic embellishments. After a return to
+the first theme, the second part is also repeated; this time with
+striking modulatory changes which strongly resemble the mood of
+Wotan's Farewell, in the third Act of Wagner's _Valkyrie_. A long and
+fiery coda of new thematic material closes the work. The major ending
+is like a shaft of light dispelling storm-tossed clouds.
+
+Chopin's works are so instinct with genius and have proved to be so
+immortal that they may well be considered as ideal witnesses to the
+triumph of quality over mere quantity or sensational display. To-day,
+when we suffer from musical bombast, their refined message is of
+special significance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+BERLIOZ AND LISZT. PROGRAMME MUSIC
+
+
+There is no doubt that Hector Berlioz (1803-1869), however varied the
+appeal of his music to different temperaments, is an artistic
+personality to be reckoned with; one not to be ticketed and laid on
+the shelf. Although a century and more has elapsed since his birth the
+permanent value of his music is still debated, often amusingly enough,
+by those who seem unaware that, whatever the theoretical rights of the
+case, in practice his principles are the reigning ones in modern
+music. As Berlioz stands as the foremost representative of program
+music and never wrote anything without a title, it is certain that
+before his music or influence can be appreciated, the mind must be
+cleared of prejudice and we must recognize that modern program music
+is a condition--an artistic fact, not a theory--and that the tendency
+towards specific, subjective expression (whether manifested in song,
+opera or symphonic poem) is a dominant one among present day
+composers. It is true that all music is the expression in tones of the
+imagination of the composer; true, also, that music must fulfil
+certain conditions of its own being. But imaginations differ. That of
+Berlioz, for example, was quite a new phenomenon; and as for the
+working principles of musical composition, they are as much subject to
+modification as any other form of human experimentation. Berlioz,
+himself, says that he never intended to subvert the laws of music,
+only to make a new and individual use of them. As he was no abstract
+maker of music, his autobiography--one of the most fascinating in the
+history of art, only to be compared with that of Benvenuto
+Cellini--should be familiar to all who would penetrate the secrets of
+his style. Berlioz's compositions, in fact, are more specifically
+autobiographic than those of any other notable musician. Both in his
+music and his literary works are the same notes of passionate
+insistence on his own point of view, of radical dislike for accepting
+conditions as they were (he says of himself that he loved to make the
+barriers crack) and of fondness for brilliant outward effect. In
+considering Berlioz, one is always reminded of Matthew Arnold's lines
+on Byron, who resembles Berlioz so closely.
+
+    "He taught us little; but our soul
+    Had felt him, like the thunder's roll.
+    With shivering heart the strife we saw
+    Of passion with eternal law;
+    And yet with reverential awe
+    We watch'd the fount of fiery life
+    Which served for that Titanic strife."
+
+Only realize that Berlioz's _Fantastic Symphony_ was composed but
+twenty-one years after Haydn's death, and compare the simple,
+self-centered Haydn with the restless, wide-visioned Berlioz, of a
+mentality positively omnivorous; who, in addition to his musical
+achievements, was a brilliant critic and _litterateur_, a man of
+travel and wide acquaintance with the world. Then indeed you will
+appreciate what an enormous change had come over music. A mere mention
+of the authors from whom Berlioz drew his subjects: Shakespeare,
+Goethe, Byron, Scott, Virgil, Hugo, shows the wide range of his
+reading and the difference in output which would inevitably result.
+The previous impersonal attitude towards music is shown by the very
+names of compositions which, broadly speaking (till the beginning of
+the 19th century) were seldom more than Symphony, Sonata, or Quartet,
+No. so and so; while the movements, in an equally mechanical way, were
+known by the designations of tempo: allegro, adagio, andante,
+etc.--those "senseless terms," as Beethoven himself says. Beginning
+pre-eminently with Berlioz, composers have had more highly cultivated
+imaginations, much more to say; and the wider range of emotion
+resulting therefrom has necessitated differences of form and
+treatment. A frequent misconception on the part of the layman is that
+worthy music should be so constructed that the hearer be spared all
+mental exertion. As long as it was certain that a composer would
+present just so many themes in a prescribed order and treated in the
+routine fashion, listening to music was a comparatively easy task.
+Since Berlioz, music has made ever greater demands on the hearer; who
+only when his receptivity is of an equal degree of cultivation with
+the creative power of the composer, can grasp the full meaning of the
+music. The first step, therefore, toward an appreciation of Berlioz is
+to recognize the peculiar, picturesque power of his imagination,
+which was of an entirely new order, and may be called musico-poetic in
+distinction from purely musical activity. This form of double
+consciousness is equally necessary on the part of the hearer. As
+Debussy, the modern French composer, so well says, people often do not
+understand or enjoy new music because it differs from "une musique"
+_i.e._, from a conventional and unvarying type which they have in
+their mind. The real effect of Berlioz's "_Carnaval Romain_" Overture,
+to take a simple example, is to complement and intensify the mental
+picture which any well-read person--or better still, any one who has
+actually visited Rome--will have of this characteristic incident in
+Italian life. If the work be considered merely as abstract music,
+notwithstanding the stimulation and delight caused by the rhythmic
+vitality and by the orchestral effects, the real poetic purpose of the
+composer remains unfulfilled. This peculiar quality of Berlioz was
+partly the result of his fiery excitable temperament and partly the
+reactive effect of the environment in which he found himself. What an
+amazing group in Paris (beginning about 1830) was that with which he
+was associated! De Musset, de Vigny, Liszt, Rossini, Meyerbeer,
+Balzac, Dumas, Chopin, Heine, Delacroix, Gericault: young men
+representing every art and several nationalities, all under the lead
+of Hugo, that prince of Romanticists; their object being--revolt from
+conventional standards and a complete expression of their own
+personalities. Hugo, as he says in the famous preface to Cromwell, was
+tearing down the plaster which hides the facade of the fair temple of
+art; Dumas had just demolished Racine; Gericault and Delacroix, by
+their daring conceptions, were founding our modern school of painting.
+Into this maelstrom of revolution, Berlioz--he of the flaming locks,
+"that hairy Romantic" as Thackeray calls him--flung himself with
+temperamental ardor; for he was a born fighter and always in
+opposition to someone. The audacity and dramatic energy of his
+compositions are but the natural result of the tendencies of the
+period. Berlioz's early career is of extreme interest to us
+English-speaking people, because the first strong stimulus to his
+imagination came from his acquaintance with the dramas of Shakespeare.
+In 1827, some of the dramas, (such as Hamlet, and Romeo and Juliet)
+were played in Paris by an English company, and their effect upon
+Berlioz was overwhelming. He would wander about the streets raving of
+Shakespeare; he promptly fell in love with the most beautiful actress
+in the troupe--Henrietta Smithson, whom he later married[226]--and
+then began the frenzied period of composing and concert giving, which
+came to a climax in the _Fantastic Symphony_ first performed in 1830.
+Berlioz's courage and perseverance are shown by his winning the Prix
+de Rome, after four failures! His two years in Italy (his picture may
+still be seen at the Villa Medici), replete with amusing and thrilling
+incidents, were, on the whole the happiest period of his stormy life.
+
+[Footnote 226: For a convincing account of this tragic marriage see
+the volume of _Recollections_ by Ernest Legouve.]
+
+But we must pass to some brief comments upon the characteristics, pro
+and con, of his style. In the first place it was extremely original;
+showed little or no connection with former composers; has had no
+imitators, and cannot be parodied. Berlioz likewise possessed great
+range of emotion--though he rarely touched the sublime; a power of
+laying out works on a vast scale, and, in general, of achieving with
+unerring certainty the effects desired. The poet Heine said that much
+of Berlioz's music reminded him of "primeval monsters and fabulous
+empires." And what a master he was of rhythm!--one of the greatest in
+music! Prior to his work, and that of Schumann among the Germans, the
+classic rhythms were becoming rather stereotyped; and the vigorous
+elasticity introduced by these two composers has widened incalculably
+the range of dramatic effect. But his indisputable claim to lasting
+recognition is his genius in the treatment of the orchestra. Berlioz
+had an inborn instinct for sensuous tonal effect for its own sake, and
+not as the clothing of an abstract idea. With him the art of making
+that composite instrument, the orchestra, give forth the greatest
+beauty and variety of sound became an end in itself; and from his
+ingenious and innovating effects has been evolved the orchestra as we
+hear it to-day. Berlioz thought, so to speak, in terms of orchestral
+color. In his melodies we do not feel that the drawing, the contour of
+the pure line, is the chief thing; but that the assignment of the
+melody to just the right instrument, and the color-effect thereby
+produced, are integral parts of the conception. Notwithstanding the
+fact that some of his effects are extravagant or at times bizarre, he
+must be credited with revealing possibilities in orchestral shading
+and color which, still further developed by Wagner, Strauss and
+Tchaikowsky, have become conventional means of expression. Some of his
+most celebrated and satisfying works, in addition to those mentioned,
+are the _Harold in Italy_ Symphony, with its personification by a solo
+viola of the chief character; the _Romeo and Juliet_ Symphony, for
+both vocal and instrumental forces (of which the ball-scene with its
+wondrous love-melody and the _Queen Mab_ Scherzo--unequalled for
+daintiness--represent his highest attainments as a tone-poet) and,
+most popular of all, the _Damnation of Faust_ based on scenes from
+Goethe's poem. The bewitching incidental pieces for orchestra alone,
+such as the _Ballet of Sylphs_ and the _Rakoczy March_, are often
+played at symphony concerts, and are familiar to everyone. Certain
+blemishes in Berlioz's music are obvious and need not be
+over-emphasized. There is often more style and outward effect than
+real substance. His works excite, but how seldom do they exalt! For he
+was frequently deficient in depth of emotion and in latent
+warmth--qualities quite different from the hectic glow and the
+feverish passion which his French admirers, Tiersot and Boschot, claim
+to be genuine attributes of musical inspiration, of power to compel
+universal attention. We of other nations can only firmly dissent.
+Without question his work has never succeeded in calling forth the
+spontaneous love of a large body of admirers.[227] In an eloquent
+passage the conductor and critic Weingartner sums up the case:
+"Berlioz will always represent a milestone in the development of
+music, for he is the real founder of the modern school. He did not
+approach that ethical depth, that ideal purity which surround
+Beethoven's name with such unspeakable glory, but no composer since
+Beethoven, except Wagner, has enriched music with so many new means of
+expression as this great Frenchman. Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner are the
+heroes of the last half of the 19th century, just as Haydn, Mozart,
+Beethoven, Weber and Schubert were of the first."
+
+[Footnote 227: It is understood that this is merely a personal opinion
+of the writer and might well have been prefaced by the Socratic "it
+seems to me." Too much criticism reminds us of wine-tasting--Mr.
+So-and-So likes port, Mr. So-and-So sherry. The object of fair-minded
+appreciation is to understand clearly just what each composer set out
+to do, _i.e._, what was the natural tendency of his individual genius;
+then the only question is: did or did he not do this well? It is
+futile to blame him because he was not someone else or did not achieve
+what he never set out to do.]
+
+As Berlioz is, if possible, even more idiomatic for the orchestra than
+Chopin for the pianoforte, no conception of the real quality of his
+message can be gained from transcriptions, however good. His
+works[228] must be studied at first hand in the orchestral score and
+then heard in performance by an excellent orchestra. Some preliminary
+acquaintance and appreciation, however, of characteristic features in
+his style is possible from arrangements and so we select for comment
+the following works and movements: The _Fantastic Symphony_, the
+_Carnaval Romain_ Overture, the _Ballet des Sylphes_ and the _Feux
+Follets_ from the _Damnation of Faust_, the _Pilgrim's March_ from the
+_Childe Harold_ Symphony and the Slow Movement from the _Romeo and
+Juliet_ Symphony.[229] There is much valuable and stimulating
+reading[230] about Berlioz and his influence; for, as Theophile
+Gautier acutely remarks, "S'il fut un grand genie, on peut le discuter
+encore, le monde est livre aux controverses; mais nul ne penserait a
+nier qu'il fut un grand caractere." The _Symphonie_[231]
+_fantastique_, op. 14, _episode de la vie d'un artiste_, in five
+movements is significant for being the first manifestation of
+Berlioz's conviction that music should be yet more specifically
+expressive, since it is founded on a characteristic theme, called
+l'idee fixe which typifies the heroine, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 228: The best edition is the complete one, beautifully
+engraved and with critical comments, by Malherbe and Weingartner. This
+is expensive, but should be found in any large library.]
+
+[Footnote 229: The only citations possible in the Supplement are the
+Overture and portions of a few of the others.]
+
+[Footnote 230: Particularly to be recommended are the following: the
+essay in _Musical Studies_ by Newman; that by R. Rolland in _Musiciens
+d'aujourd'hui_ (in French and in English); _Berlioz et la societe de
+son temps_ by J. Tiersot; the essay in _Studies in Modern Music_ by
+Hadow; Berlioz's own _Memoires_ (in French and in English) and his
+entertaining essays, _A Travers Chants_, _Grotesques de la Musique_
+and _Soirees d'Orchestre_; the excellent resume of Berlioz's writings
+in the _Amateur Series_ by W.F. Apthorp; the _Symphony since
+Beethoven_ by Weingartner; and, above all, the monumental work by
+Boschot in three parts--_La Jeunesse d'un Romantique_, _Un Romantique
+sous Louis Philippe_, _Le Crepuscule d'un Romantique_. There is an
+amusing but far from convincing assault against Berlioz as a programme
+composer and, to a certain extent, against Romanticism in general, in
+the _New Laocoon_ by Professor Irving Babbitt.]
+
+[Footnote 231: On the title page of the autograph copy of the full
+score is inscribed the following quotation from King Lear: "As flies
+to wanton boys are we to the Gods; they kill us for their sport."]
+
+This theme, with modifications appropriate to the changes in the
+character and the environment, is repeated in each movement. As for
+the theme itself, frankly it does not amount to much; it certainly
+fails to take our emotions by storm or sing itself into our hearts.
+Berlioz's harmonization is very bald, and as to his attempts at
+development,[232] the less said the better. Of course whatever Berlioz
+writes for the orchestra _sounds_ well; of that there is no doubt. But
+this is not enough; any more than we are convinced by a person's
+statements or arguments merely because he happens to have a beautiful
+speaking voice. This dramatization of a musical theme was, after all,
+nothing iconoclastically new and Berlioz is perfectly right in
+claiming that he was merely extending the possibilities of that same
+type of theme as is found in Beethoven himself, _e.g._, in the
+_Coriolanus_ Overture and to a certain extent in the Fifth Symphony.
+If, furthermore, we look back from the dramatic and highly personified
+use made of themes in modern music, in the works of Strauss,
+Tchaikowsky, Franck and even Brahms (_e.g._, his First Symphony with
+its motto-theme) we can see that this symphony of Berlioz is an
+important link in a perfectly logical chain of development. This
+melody, then, l'idee fixe, appears in each of the five movements;
+undergoing, however, but slight purely thematic development, being
+introduced and modified primarily for dramatic purposes. In the second
+movement,[233] _Un Bal_, two phrases drawn from it are sung _pp_ by
+the clarinet as an indication that, amid the gaieties of the dance,
+the vision of the beloved one is ever present. In the _Scene aux
+Champs_ it is modified and eloquently declaimed by the flute and oboe,
+_e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 232: Dannreuther, in his essay in the Sixth Volume of the
+_Oxford History of Music_, speaks of the peculiar process of
+"rabbeting" which serves Berlioz in the place of counterpoint, and the
+criticism, though caustic, holds much truth.]
+
+[Footnote 233: This movement is also of interest as an early example
+of the Waltz among the conventional symphonic moods. The example has
+been followed by Tchaikowsky in the third movement of his Fifth
+Symphony.]
+
+At the close of the movement occurs one of Berlioz's most novel and
+realistic effects--the imitation of the rumbles of distant thunder
+produced by four kettle-drums tuned in a very peculiar way (see page
+75 of the orchestral score, Breitkopf and Haertel edition). In the
+fourth movement, _Marche au Supplice_, four measures of l'idee fixe
+are introduced just at the moment when the head of the hero is to be
+chopped off. This is done for purely theatric purposes and certainly
+makes our flesh creep--as Berlioz no doubt intended. The most
+spectacular effect, however, is in the last movement, _Songe d'une
+Nuit du Sabbat_, where the theme is parodied to typify the degraded
+appearance which the beloved one takes in the distorted dreams of her
+lover, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The impression made by the Symphony depends largely upon the attitude
+of the hearer. In this work we are not to look for the sublimity and
+emotional depth of a Bach or Beethoven any more than we expect a
+whimsical comedy of Aristophanes to resemble an epic poem of Milton.
+But for daring imagination, for rhythmic vitality and certainty of
+orchestral effect, it was and remains a work[234] of genius.
+
+[Footnote 234: For further comments on this Symphony see Mr. Mason's
+essay in the _Romantic Composers_, an essay which, while thoughtful,
+strikes the writer as somewhat biased.]
+
+
+THE CARNAVAL ROMAIN OVERTURE
+
+(SEE SUPPLEMENT NO. 57)
+
+This work is one of Berlioz's most brilliant pieces, with an
+orchestral life and color all its own. The material is taken from his
+opera _Benvenuto Cellini_;[235] the checquered career of this artist
+having made an irresistible appeal to Berlioz's love of the unusual
+and the spectacular. The body of the work is based on the Italian
+national dance, the Saltarello; and with this rhythm as a steadying
+background Berlioz achieves a continuity sometimes lacking in his
+work. The mere thought of the sights, sounds and colors of that
+important event in the life of Rome would be enough to inflame his
+susceptible imagination, and so here we have Berlioz at his very best.
+The overture begins, allegro assai con fuoco, with a partial
+announcement of the saltarello theme by the violins and violas, freely
+imitated by the wood-wind instruments, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 235: For an entertaining account of the subject matter of
+the opera see Chapter VII of Boschot's _Un Romantique sous Louis
+Philippe_.]
+
+After a sudden prolonged silence and some crescendo trills the first
+periodic melody is introduced, sung by the English horn--the tune
+taken from an aria of Benvenuto in the first act. The melody is soon
+repeated in the dominant key by the violas and then, treated
+canonically, by the 'cellos and violins. The canon really tells and
+shows that Berlioz, as is often alleged, was not _altogether_ lacking
+in polyphonic skill. The rhythm is now gradually quickened and leads
+to the main body of the work, in 6/8 time, based on the Italian
+folk-dance--the Saltarello which, as its name implies, is of a
+"skipping" nature. The music is freely developed from the two
+following themes; there is no second theme proper, _e.g._
+
+[Music: (_a_)]
+
+[Music: (_b_)]
+
+Toward the close there is a return to the introductory melody which is
+treated contrapuntally by the bassoons and other wind-instruments. The
+saltarello resumes its sway and is worked up to a fiery ending;
+especially brilliant are the closing chords scored for full brass with
+trills on the cornets.
+
+Two of Berlioz's most poetically conceived descriptive pieces are the
+_Menuet des Feux-Follets_ and the _Ballet des Sylphes_, incidental
+orchestral numbers from the _Damnation of Faust_; for they illustrate
+convincingly what one means by the claim that Berlioz thought in terms
+of orchestral color and suggestion. To give a musical picture of such
+airy and fantastic imaginings by the mere repetition of conventional
+formulae would obviously be of no avail. Berlioz's genius is equal to
+the situation; and as we listen to the music we can really see the
+flickering of the Will o' the Wisps and feel the graceful swaying of
+the Sylphs as they hover about the sleeping Faust. To suggest the
+Feux-Follets Berlioz ingeniously gives the theme to two piccolos in
+thirds, which are supported by a rich but subdued mass of wind
+instruments, horns and trumpets, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+With equal felicity does he create the picture of the delicate,
+graceful Sylphs. Any boisterous rhythmic activity would be quite out
+of place; and so, above a sustained ground tone on muted 'cellos and
+basses (which continues through the piece), and the slightest
+suspicion of motion on the second violins and violas, there floats in
+the first violins one of the most perfectly rounded and exquisite
+melodies in existence, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+In the closing measures there is a charming shadowy dialogue between
+kettle-drums (struck with sponge-headed sticks) and harps, in
+harmonics, carrying out Berlioz's stage directions--"Les esprits de
+l'air se balancent quelque temps autour de Faust endormi et
+disparaissent peu a peu." The piece ends with a chord barely whispered
+on the clarinets, _pppp_, which, as Hadow aptly suggests, reminds us
+of vanishing soap bubbles.
+
+Berlioz's most sustained and perfect work, both in content and
+treatment, is universally acknowledged to be the _Harold en Italie_
+Symphony[236] in four movements for full orchestra and solo viola.
+There is little actual correspondence between the scenes of Byron's
+poem and the musical portrayal; and in fact, as Liszt says, "The title
+clearly shows that the composer wished to render the impression which
+the magnificent nature of Italy could not fail to make on a soul such
+as that of Harold languishing in sorrow." The significant features of
+the work are the melody for solo viola, recurring[237] in each
+movement, which typifies Harold--that "melancholy dreamer," _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+and the dazzling sensationalism of the Finale (Orgy of Brigands)
+which, when it was once played "con amore" by a fine orchestra, called
+forth from Berlioz the following eulogy,--"Sublime! I thank you,
+gentlemen, and I wonder at you; you are perfect brigands." The finale
+is also notable in that the opening portion is a reminiscence, a
+passing in review, of the chief themes of the preceding movements.
+Berlioz, we may surmise, was following the precedent established by
+Beethoven in the finale of the _Ninth Symphony_, and, although his
+treatment is rather mechanical and lacking in any such dramatic logic
+as justified Beethoven, a certain organic connection between the
+movements is undoubtedly secured. A portion of the second movement,
+_March of Pilgrims_ singing the evening prayer, is cited in the
+Supplement (See No. 58) chiefly because it is one of Berlioz's noblest
+inspirations, giving an eloquent picture of a procession approaching,
+passing by and losing itself in the distance--a long crescendo and
+diminuendo. At every eighth measure the March melody is interrupted by
+the muffled chant of the pilgrims, very effectively scored for brass
+instruments, pianissimo. In the middle of the piece a contrast is
+gained by the introduction of a religious chant. The closing measures
+of this movement are of haunting beauty--a mysterious effect being
+produced by an intentional mixture of tonalities (the sustained B in
+the flute and oboe being answered by a C on the horns and harp, while
+beneath are heard fragments of the March theme in the main key on the
+pizzicato double basses).[238] Berlioz's most pretentious orchestral
+composition is that called in the full title "Romeo and Juliet,
+dramatic symphony, with choruses, vocal solos, and a prologue in
+choral recitative, composed after Shakespeare's tragedy."
+Notwithstanding many touches of genius, it is a very uneven work and
+is too much a conglomerate of styles--narrative, lyrical, dramatic,
+theatric and symphonic--for the constructive ability of the author to
+weld into a living whole. There are several portions which, however
+noble and glorious may have been Berlioz's conception,[239] and
+however inspired by Shakespeare's genius, do not "come off." Two of
+the numbers, on the other hand, are worthy of the highest praise--the
+_Love Scene_ and the _Queen Mab Scherzo_. Of the latter Saint-Saens
+writes--"The famous Scherzo is worth even more than its reputation. It
+is a miracle of lightness and gracefulness. Beside such delicacies and
+transparencies the _finesses_ of Mendelssohn in the _Midsummer Night's
+Dream_ seem heavy." The main theme is fascinating in its daintiness
+and sparkle, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Berlioz considered the _Love Scene_ his finest inspiration and there
+are few pieces comparable with it for passionate utterance. The
+orchestration is wonderful for richness and variety.[240]
+
+[Footnote 236: For an extended analysis of the work and also for an
+account of the alleged connection of the virtuoso Paganini with its
+composition, see the essay in Niecks' _Program Music_. There are, in
+addition, interesting comments in _Stories of Symphonic Music_ by
+Lawrence Gilman.]
+
+[Footnote 237: An early example of the modern principle of
+transformation and transference by theme.]
+
+[Footnote 238: A striking illustration of "association of ideas" may
+be gained from a comparison of the end of this movement with the
+closing measures of Strauss's _Thus Spake Zarathustra_; it seems
+incredible that Strauss did not have Berlioz's effect in his mind.]
+
+[Footnote 239: See the _Memoires_ for a rhapsodic account of his state
+of mind at this time--"basking in the warm rays of Shakespeare's
+imagination and believing it in his power to arrive at the marvellous
+island where rises the temple of pure Art."]
+
+[Footnote 240: For extended comments and a long citation of the actual
+music see the Sixth Volume of the _Oxford History of Music_.]
+
+After a careful study of the foregoing examples the reader, we hope,
+is in a position to make a fair estimate of Berlioz's power and to
+realize his great significance. It should be understood that this
+music is intensely subjective and so requires a sympathetic and
+cultivated attitude on the part of the listener. To the writer at
+least, there remains one vital lack in Berlioz's music,--that of the
+_dissonant element_. It often seems as if his conceptions could not be
+fully realized for want of sheer musical equipment, largely due to
+insufficient early training. For what is music without dissonance?
+Surely "flat, stale and unprofitable" even if, in Berlioz's case, this
+deficiency is offset by great rhythmic vitality and gorgeous color.
+Yet in his best works[241] there is such a strong note of
+individuality, indeed such real character, that they are deserving of
+sincere respect and admiration, although by everybody they may not be
+deeply loved. We should, furthermore, always remember that, if
+Berlioz's poverty of harmonic effect is sometimes annoying, he never
+falls into the humdrum ruts of those who have had a stereotyped
+academic training. His genius was unhampered by any conventional
+harmonic vocabulary, and hence it could always express itself freely.
+That he was a real genius no one can fairly doubt.
+
+[Footnote 241: For valuable analytical comments on Berlioz's
+orchestral style see Vol. VIII, Chapter X, of the _Art of Music_
+(Cesar Saerchinger, N.Y.), and for biographical details and matters of
+general import, Vol. II, Chap. IX.]
+
+All the qualities which have been enumerated as typical of the
+romantic temperament: warmth of sentiment, broad culture, love of
+color and the sensuous side of music, freedom of form, and stress laid
+on the orchestra as the most eloquent means of expression, reach their
+climax in Franz Liszt (1811-1886). Born near Vienna of a Hungarian
+father and a German mother, but chiefly associated with Paris, Weimar,
+Budapest and Rome, he is certainly the most picturesque and versatile
+figure in the music of the 19th century; for he worked and won fame as
+a pianoforte virtuoso--probably the greatest the world has known--as a
+prolific composer for pianoforte, orchestra and voice, as a teacher,
+conductor and man of letters, and withal spent a large part of his
+time, strength and fortune in helping young artists and in producing
+works which otherwise might never have seen the light. His life is of
+constant and varied interest, so spectacular at times that it seems
+like a fairy tale.[242] As a mere boy he began to receive adulation
+for his precocity; at the height of his career he was loaded with
+honors and wealth; in his old age he was a favorite with everyone of
+distinction and influence in France, Germany, England and Italy.
+Nevertheless he preserved, throughout, the integrity of his character
+and the nobility of his disposition. Whatever may be the final
+estimate of his powers as a creative artist, as a man he has earned
+nothing but eulogy;[243] for seldom has any one been freer from the
+faults of vanity, petty jealousy and envy which so often mar the
+artistic temperament. Liszt's generous encouragement and financial
+support of Wagner in the struggling days of his unpopularity have
+never been surpassed in the brotherhood of art.
+
+[Footnote 242: The best biographies in English are the one by Huneker
+and that in Vol. 2 of Grove's Dictionary.]
+
+[Footnote 243: For a lively description of his influence as a
+pianoforte teacher see _Music Study in Germany_ by Amy Fay.]
+
+Liszt is akin to Berlioz in many respects; we feel the same natural
+tendency to derive musical inspiration from external sources, poetic,
+pictorial or from the realm of Nature. Purely as a musician, however,
+Liszt was far greater, with a wider vocabulary and more power in
+thematic development. His work also is somewhat uneven; moments of
+real beauty alternating with passages which are trivial, bombastic or
+mere lifeless padding. When we bear in mind Liszt's unparalleled
+versatility, his output in quantity and variety is so amazing--there
+being well over 1,000 works of about every kind--that it is unfair to
+expect the style to be as finely wrought as the original conception is
+noble. A serious and unbiased study of his best compositions will
+convince one that Liszt is entitled to high rank as a musician of
+genuine poetic inspiration. The average music-lover is prone to dwell
+upon him as the composer of _Les Preludes_, the _Hungarian
+Rhapsodies_, and as the somewhat flashy transcriber of operatic
+potpourris, such as the _Rigoletto Fantasie_. But _Les Preludes_,
+notwithstanding a certain charm and the clever manner in which the
+music (without becoming minutely descriptive) supplements the poem of
+Lamartine, is yet barred from the first rank by its mawkishness of
+sentiment and by its cloying harmonies. The most significant among the
+symphonic poems are _Orpheus_ with its characteristic crescendos and
+diminuendos; _Tasso_ of great nobility and pathos, and _Mazeppa_, a
+veritable tour de force of descriptive writing. To hear any one of
+these masterpieces can not fail to alter the opinion of those who may
+have considered Liszt as exclusively given over to sensational
+effects. As for the _Hungarian Rhapsodies_, which Liszt intended as a
+kind of national ballade and so, for the basic themes and rhythms,
+drew largely on Hungarian Folk music, here again the public, with its
+fondness for being dazzled, has laid exclusive stress on the flashy
+ones to the detriment of those containing much that is noble and of
+enduring worth. In his transcriptions of standard songs Liszt did as
+valuable a public service as any popularizer, and has thereby made
+familiar the melodies of Schubert and Schumann to hundreds who
+otherwise would know nothing of them. In considering Liszt's
+pianoforte works we must remember that he was a born virtuoso with a
+natural fondness for exploiting the possibilities of his instrument,
+and with an amazing technique as a performer. When the sincerity of a
+composer is in question there is a great difference as to what should
+be the standard of judgment, whether the work be for orchestra or for
+pianoforte. In writing for orchestra the composer naturally centres
+himself on the pure ideas and their treatment, as the execution is
+something entirely external to himself. In works for pianoforte,
+however, the composer who is also a virtuoso will often, and quite
+justifiably, introduce passages of purely pianistic effect which in
+other circumstances would amount to a confession of deficient
+imagination. That Liszt at times abused his facility in decoration
+need not be gainsaid, and yet how poetic and eloquent are his best
+pianoforte compositions!--the _Etudes_, the _Waldesrauschen_, the
+_Ballade_ and, above all, the _Sonata in B minor_.[244] Much unjust
+criticism has been expended upon Liszt for treating the pianoforte
+like an orchestra. As a matter of fact he widened, in a perfectly
+legitimate way, the possibilities of the instrument as to sonority,
+wealth and variety of color-effect. According to the testimony of
+contemporary colleagues, Rubinstein, Taussig and von Buelow who, had
+they not been convinced of his supremacy, might well have been
+jealous, Liszt was incontestably the greatest interpreter of Bach,
+Beethoven and Chopin; and his power as a Beethoven scholar is attested
+by the poetically annotated edition of the Sonatas. It is often
+asserted that Liszt lacked spontaneous melodic invention. This is a
+hard saying unless taken in a relative sense. We may grant that Liszt
+was neither a Schubert nor a Mozart, and yet recognize in his works
+some extremely haunting melodies. His creative power was acknowledged
+by Wagner and in a very practical manner. In fact, after a comparative
+study of their works, one is amazed at the number of melodies which
+Wagner borrowed from Liszt and at the generous complaisance of the
+latter. The reactive influence of Liszt and Wagner, each upon the
+other, is an interesting chapter in the development of modern art.
+Liszt was undoubtedly encouraged in his revolutionary aims by Wagner's
+fiery courage. Wagner, on his side, owed much to Liszt's unselfish
+generosity; and with his more powerful constructive gifts worked up
+into enduring form motives which, internal evidence clearly shows,
+came from Liszt himself.
+
+[Footnote 244: For a most entertaining description of this work see
+the Huneker Biography, pp. 64-70.]
+
+Just a few closing words as to Liszt's specific contributions to the
+expansion of musical structure. He was an advanced leader in the
+"program school," being endowed with considerably more constructive
+power than Berlioz, who often fell between two stools: in that while
+his subject demanded the freest treatment, he lacked the vigor to
+break away from the formal routine of his classic models. In Liszt's
+orchestral works, however, the term "Symphonic Poem"--one of his own
+invention--is fully justified, _i.e._, they are _symphonic_ in that
+they have organic unity, although this is not attained by preserving
+the classic number and arrangement of themes; and they are also
+_poetic_, being not a presentation of abstract tone patterns, but
+illustrative of some external idea which shapes the course of the
+music entirely to its own needs.[245] The distinguishing quality of
+the Symphonic Poem is its unbroken continuity. Although objective
+points are reached, and while there are broad lines of demarcation
+with reference to the varied moods of the poem to be illustrated,
+there are _no rigid stops_--everything is fused together into a
+continuous whole. Liszt was an advocate of persistent development,
+_i.e._, the music going out into space like a straight line instead of
+returning on itself. Inner evidence shows, however, that although he
+avoided many needless and conventional repetitions, he could not
+entirely throw overboard the cyclical law of restatement; for there is
+not one of his _Symphonic Poems_ which does not repeat, at the end,
+thematic material already heard. Liszt carried the principle of theme
+transformation still further than Berlioz; and, as a German, tended to
+lay stress rather on the psychological aspects of character than on
+those outward theatric events which appeal to French taste. The
+difference is well shown by a comparison of the _Damnation of Faust_
+with Liszt's _Faust_ Symphony, considered his most inspired orchestral
+work. Liszt must not be forgotten as a song-writer, especially for his
+settings to Goethe's poems; which, as Huneker says, are masterpieces
+and contain, in essence, all the dramatic lyricism of modern writers,
+Strauss included. In these songs the instrumental part is of special
+import; Liszt in pianistic treatment anticipating Hugo Wolf with his
+"Songs for Voice and Pianoforte," _i.e._, the voice and the instrument
+are treated as coequal factors.
+
+[Footnote 245: For stimulating comments see _The Symphony since
+Beethoven_ by Weingartner, pp. 71-86.]
+
+The works of Liszt selected for analytical comment are the Symphonic
+Poem _Orpheus_, the _Faust_ Symphony and the Pianoforte Etude,
+_Waldesrauschen_. The student, however, should become familiar with
+several others[246] of the Symphonic Poems, notably _Tasso_, _Les
+Preludes_ and _Mazeppa_; with the Pianoforte Sonata in B minor in one
+movement, in which Liszt works on the same plan as Schumann in the
+Fourth Symphony; with the descriptive pianoforte pieces and etudes;
+and with the songs, of which _Kennst du das Land_, _Die Lorelei_ and
+_Du bist wie eine Blume_ are beautiful examples.
+
+[Footnote 246: An enlightening and comprehensive account of each of
+these may be found in Niecks's _Programme Music_ already referred to.
+See also Chapter VII, pp. 141-155 in Vol. VI of the _Oxford History_
+for what is perhaps a rather biased point of view. There is an
+excellent tabulation of the themes from _Les Preludes_ in Mason's
+_Romantic Composers_.]
+
+
+SYMPHONIC POEM, ORPHEUS
+
+In this work, as must always be the case in poetically suggestive
+music, the composer trusts to the general intelligence and insight of
+the listener. For a mere mention of the name Orpheus may well call up
+the vision of a majestic, godlike youth proclaiming his message of joy
+and peace to soften the unruly passions of men and animals.
+
+It is said that Liszt's imagination was kindled by a beautiful
+representation of Orpheus playing on the lyre, which decorates an
+Etruscan vase in the Louvre. The aim of the music was thus to
+intensify and supplement the visual effect. The Poem begins with soft,
+sustained calls on the horns, creating a mood of expectancy,
+interspersed with modulatory arpeggios on the harp serving to complete
+the legendary picture. In these Symphonic Poems, we must always
+observe how closely the nature of the themes and the whole import of
+the music are involved with the orchestral dress. For Liszt, though
+not perhaps so brilliant and sensational as Berlioz, was equally a
+great master of orchestral coloring and poetic suggestion by means of
+appropriate instruments; often, too, more delicate and refined. In
+measure 15 begins for sustained strings the stately march which
+typifies the gradual approach of Orpheus. The second phrase of the
+march, beginning in measure 38, has received the compliment of being
+appropriated, almost literally, by Wagner in the second act of the
+_Valkyrie_ for the march motive with which Wotan is ushered in. Some
+beautiful modulatory developments of the march theme, with which the
+original horn calls are united, lead to the impassioned theme in E
+major, sung by an English horn, which is the message of Orpheus to the
+sons of men, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The theme is expanded by means of striking modulations until, in
+measure 102, it is presented by the full orchestra. Some rather
+meaningless repetitions, in detached phrases, of the Orpheus theme
+bring us, in measure 130, to a return of the original march which is
+finally proclaimed _ff_ with great power and sonority. It seems to
+typify the triumphant justification of Orpheus's appearance. The
+dissonant modulations in the following passage, beginning measure 155,
+(in which the double basses take a dramatic part) have been thought by
+some to represent realistically the uncouth roars of forest monsters.
+These outcries finally subside and in the Coda, beginning at measure
+180, we have first a beautiful reminiscence of Orpheus's message and
+then a last announcement of the march theme, which is now presented in
+the form of a long diminuendo, as if the God-like apparition were
+slowly withdrawing from our sight. A series of shifting modulations
+(adagio and pianissimo) seems to bring a cloud before our enraptured
+senses, and the work closes with a long sustained chord in C major,
+_ppp_, giving an elemental idea of peace and satisfaction. From the
+standpoint of musical structure the work is a crescendo followed by a
+diminuendo and, poetically considered, is a convincing picture in
+terms of music of the effect made upon Liszt's imagination by the
+legend of Orpheus. Observe that, although the composition is free in
+form, it is _not_ formless.[247] The main lines are the familiar ones
+of statement, contrast and restatement, _i.e._, three-part form, and
+the key-relationship is clear and carefully planned.
+
+[Footnote 247: An allegation often brought against Liszt's work by
+those whose conception of "form" is that of a cast-iron mould.]
+
+
+THE FAUST SYMPHONY
+
+This work, although embodying Liszt's favorite ideas of dramatic
+characterization and transformation of theme as found in the Symphonic
+Poems, more nearly resembles the ordinary symphony in that it is in
+three distinct movements--with pauses between--which stand,
+respectively, for the three chief characters in Goethe's drama: Faust,
+Gretchen and Mephistopheles. In the _Faust_ Symphony the principle of
+transformation or metamorphosis of themes is of such importance that
+it may be defined as their rhythmic, melodic and harmonic modification
+for the purpose of changing the meaning to correspond with a
+modification in the characters for which they stand. The first
+movement sets before us five themes illustrative of the most prominent
+traits in the complex nature of Faust; the three most important being
+(_a_) typical of brooding, speculative inquiry, (_b_) the longing of
+love, (_c_) the enthusiasm and chivalry of Faust, _e.g._
+
+[Music: (_a_)]
+
+[Music: (_b_)]
+
+[Music: (_c_)]
+
+The development of these themes is entirely free, the musical texture
+being held together by a general application of the principle of
+contrast and by a logical key-scheme. The second movement has two main
+themes, _e.g._
+
+[Music: (_a_)]
+
+[Music: (_b_)]
+
+which portray eloquently the sweetness and dreamy ecstacy of
+Gretchen's nature. In the course of this portrayal there appear
+several themes from the first movement showing, by their
+transformation, the effect upon the introspective Faust of the
+awakening influence of love. Thus the love theme appears as--
+
+[Music]
+
+and also later in this form--
+
+[Music]
+
+Towards the close of the movement there is a subtle reference to the
+chivalrous theme, as follows--
+
+[Music]
+
+Much of the appeal of the music depends upon the orchestration which
+throughout is of remarkable beauty.
+
+In the final movement, entitled Mephistopheles, there are a few
+independent themes which portray the malign influence of the spirit of
+Evil--the movement is marked Allegro vivace ironico!--but most of the
+material is a transformation of the Faust themes which are here
+burlesqued, parodied; as if all the noble aspirations of Faust were
+being mocked and set at naught. This treatment is a perfectly logical
+result of the correspondence, for which Liszt was striving, between
+the music and the spirit of the underlying drama. As for the final
+impressiveness of his artistic message, the composer may well have
+felt that the effect would be indefinite without the specific meaning
+which words alone can give. For the style is very subjective
+throughout; that is, if the hearer is in a responsive condition, an
+effect is produced on his imagination--otherwise, not. To close the
+work, therefore, in the most moving and dignified manner, Liszt, with
+unerring instinct and following the precedent of Beethoven in the
+Ninth Symphony, introduces a chorus of men's voices--marked Andante
+Mistico--which intones the famous stanza "Alles Vergaengliche"[248] at
+the close of the second part of Faust; while, above this chorus, a
+solo tenor proclaims the motto of the redeeming love of woman, "Das
+ewig Weibliche"--a sentiment so dear to the German[249] mind and one
+that plays such an important part in the music dramas of Wagner. A
+dramatic and musical connection between the movements is established
+by using, for this solo part, the melody (intensified by augmentation)
+which in the second movement typified the love and charm of Gretchen,
+_e.g._
+
+[Music: Das ewig Weibliche]
+
+[Footnote 248: Translated as follows by Bayard Taylor:--
+
+    Chorus Misticus
+
+    All things transitory
+    But as symbols are sent;
+    Earth's insufficiency
+    Here grows to Event;
+    The Indescribable,
+    Here it is done:
+    The Woman-Soul leadeth us
+    Upward and on!]
+
+[Footnote 249: The way in which the Germans in the recent war have
+applied this doctrine raises, we must say, many searching questions.]
+
+Notwithstanding the ultra sensationalism in some of Liszt's works
+there is no doubt that, in the closing pages of Faust, he has produced
+an effect of genuine power and of inspired musical beauty.[250]
+_Faust_, in fact, may be called a great work because of the character
+of its leading melodies, its freedom of structure and expression and
+its wealth of appropriate orchestral color. For these merits we may
+overlook certain dreary passages where it would surely seem as if the
+imagination of the composer were not able to translate into tones all
+the phases of Goethe's stupendous drama.[251]
+
+[Footnote 250: That this is the verdict of the public is shown by the
+fact that, whenever of late years _Faust_ has been given by the Boston
+Symphony Orchestra, it has had to be repeated by popular request.]
+
+[Footnote 251: For further comments on the work see Huneker's _Franz
+Liszt_, pp. 141-146 and the third part (on Program Music) of Finck's
+_R. Strauss, The Man and His Works_. Also Chap. VII passim in Vol. VI
+of the Oxford History.]
+
+In a book such as this, chiefly concerned with broad principles of
+structure and style, it would be out of place to attempt a detailed
+account of Liszt's numerous and varied pianoforte compositions. But
+they can by no means be left out of consideration by anyone who wishes
+to gain a comprehensive estimate of his influence. For although the
+fundamental principles of pianoforte style, both in writing for the
+instrument and in playing upon it, are derived from Chopin and
+Schumann,[252] Liszt so amplified the work of these men and added so
+many novel features of his own in pianistic effect and especially in
+execution that he is rightly considered a genius of the instrument. He
+certainly brought out of the pianoforte a sonority and wealth of color
+which heretofore had been associated only with the orchestra. The
+chief groups of the pianoforte works are (1) the transcriptions of
+songs, notably of Schubert and Schumann, and of operas, particularly
+of Wagner. In this group should also be included the remarkable
+arrangement for solo-pianoforte of all the Beethoven Symphonies. (2)
+The Etudes, especially the set entitled "_Etudes d'execution
+transcendante_"--a description which clearly shows the idea Liszt set
+before himself and indubitably attained; of this set the one in F
+minor is particularly fine. (3) The world-famed _Hungarian
+Rhapsodies_, fifteen in number, based on national melodies and
+rhythms. In these Liszt aspired to be the poet of his nation, and they
+are still among the most important manifestations of the national
+spirit so prominent in our modern music. Perhaps the most eloquent and
+celebrated are the 2d, the 12th and the 14th. Even if at times they
+are overencrusted with effects meant primarily for display, the
+rhythmic vitality and color of the melodies cannot be withstood.
+
+[Footnote 252: Weber and Schubert had, of course, done valuable
+pioneer work.]
+
+
+CONCERT ETUDE, _Waldesrauschen_
+
+(SEE SUPPLEMENT NO. 59)
+
+This composition begins with a swaying, cantabile theme for the left
+hand very characteristic of Liszt, which stands out in relief against
+some beautifully placed arabesque figures in the upper register of the
+instrument--the whole to be played una corda, dolce con grazia. It
+really is a poetic picture, in terms of music, of the delicious murmur
+of the woods. In the 15th measure the theme is transferred to the
+right hand, in octaves, over sonorous, widely extended groups below.
+The theme is expanded through a series of striking modulations and
+then returns, in measure 30, to the left hand in a single melodic
+line. This middle portion, measures 30-50, is very beautiful in its
+genuine atmospheric treatment. Towards its close, however, Liszt's
+fondness for sensational effect rather runs away with him and there is
+a good deal, in measures 50-60 (marked martellato, strepitoso and
+_fff_), which is rather difficult to reconcile with the poetic
+subject. Perhaps a mighty wind is roaring through the trees! In
+measure 61 the theme is once more presented in amplified form by the
+right hand, piu mosso and molto appassionata, and worked up to a
+brilliant climax--ending with an interlocking trill and a long,
+descending passage of delightful sensuous effect. The closing
+measures, una corda and dolcissimo, afford a reminiscence of the
+haunting appeal of the chief melody. All in all, in spite of a certain
+admixture of alloy, here is a poetic composition, a real tone-picture
+of the woods and of the effects implied by the title. Certainly a
+piece which, in its picturesque suggestiveness and pianistic
+treatment, may fairly be called the ancestor of much that is beautiful
+in such modern composers as Debussy and Ravel.
+
+As a final estimate of Liszt and as a suggestion for the student's
+attitude we cite from Niecks the following quotation, since, in our
+opinion, it is true and forcibly expressed:
+
+"Liszt's works are too full of originality and striking expressiveness
+to deserve permanently the neglect that has been their lot. Be,
+however, the ultimate fate of these works what it may, there will
+always remain to Liszt the fame of a daring striver, a fruitful
+originator and a wide-ranging quickener."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+BRAHMS
+
+
+After the novel and brilliant work of the Romanticists had reached its
+height in the compositions just studied, it seemed as if there were
+nothing more for music to do. Wagner, with his special dramatic aims
+and gorgeous coloring, loomed so large on the horizon that for a time
+all other music was dwarfed. It is, therefore of real significance
+that just in this interregnum two men, born in the early years of the
+19th century, were quietly laying the foundations for eloquent works
+in absolute or symphonic music. These men were Johannes Brahms
+(1833-1897) and Cesar Franck (1822-1890). Following a few preliminary
+remarks about the significance of symphonic style in general, the next
+chapters will be devoted to an account of their works and influence.
+
+A striking feature in the development of music since 1850 is the
+number of symphonies produced by the representative composers of the
+various nations; and the manner in which these works embody certain
+phases of style and manifest national tendencies is a subject of great
+interest. Ever since Beethoven, there has been a universal feeling
+that the symphony is the form in which a composer should express his
+highest thoughts. If Wagner and Richard Strauss seem to be exceptions,
+we must remember that their work for orchestra is thoroughly symphonic
+both in material and in scope. The difference is chiefly one of terms.
+Wagner claimed that he merely applied to dramatic purposes Beethoven's
+thematic development; and the tone-poems of Strauss are symphonies in
+essence though on a free poetic basis. Every composer has taken up the
+writing of a symphony with a serious purpose and often comparatively
+late in life. To be sure, Beethoven's first Symphony, op. 21, was
+composed in his thirtieth year; but for the works which manifest most
+strongly his personality, such as the Third, Fifth and Ninth, we have
+to wait until a later period. Schumann essayed symphonic composition
+only after his technique had been developed in every other field.
+Brahms's first Symphony, on which he is said to have worked ten years,
+is op. 68. Cesar Franck looked forward to a Symphony as the climax of
+his career. The day has passed when a composer could dash off
+symphonies by the dozen; quality and genuine personality in each work
+are the modern requirements. Thus from Brahms we have four symphonies,
+from Tchaikowsky six, from Bruckner nine--a dangerously large
+number!--from Sibelius five, from Elgar two, from d'Indy three; and,
+even if a composer write but a single really inspired and noble
+symphony--as for example, Cesar Franck--he is in so far immortal. For
+the symphonic form is the product of too much intense striving (think
+of Beethoven's agonies of conception!) to be treated lightly.
+Beginning with the operatic overture of Lully and Scarlatti, called
+"Sinfonia avanti l'opera," down through the labors of Stamitz, Gossec,
+Emmanuel Bach, Haydn and Mozart, this form, as we know it to-day, is
+the result of at least a century and a half of sustained, constructive
+work. A musician who wishes to compose a symphony is brought face to
+face with the formidable question, "Have I a real message to utter and
+the technical skill to present it in communicable form?" There are no
+accessory appeals to the other senses in the way of a dramatic story,
+scenic effect, dancing and costumes--as in opera--to cloak poverty of
+invention and to mollify the judgment of the listener. I grant that
+the composition of an original opera is a high achievement, but we
+know how many composers have won success in the operatic field from
+whom we should never expect a symphony. From comparatively few have we
+great works in both forms. Consider, furthermore, how complicated a
+tool is the present orchestra, _as_ a tool, to say nothing of the
+invention of ideas. Many years of study are required to attain a
+certainty of calculation in sonority and _nuance_, and the mere
+writing out the score of a symphony requires unremitting toil. We all
+pay homage to life: human life in men, women and children, and the
+life of nature in animals, birds, trees and flowers. Let us ever
+remember that the imagination also has its products and the themes of
+a symphony may certainly be considered _its_ children. The public
+often seems to have slight idea of the sanctity and mystery of a
+musical idea. Composers are considered people with a kind of "knack"
+in writing down notes. In reality, a musical idea is as wonderful a
+thing as we can conceive--a miracle of life and yet intangible,
+ethereal. The composer apparently creates something out of nothing,
+pure fancy being wrought into terms of communication. Since the close
+of the Romantic period proper, the Symphonic composers of universal
+recognition have been Brahms, Franck, Tchaikowsky, d'Indy, Sibelius,
+Bruckner, Mahler, Dvo[vr]ak, Elgar, and a few lesser men of the
+Russian and French schools. Their works carry still further the
+principles which can be traced from Beethoven down through the
+Romantic School, _i.e._, the chief themes are of a highly subjective
+nature, often in fact being treated like actual characters in a drama;
+and great freedom is shown in regard to mood and order of the usual
+symphonic movements--this being particularly true of Mahler and
+Bruckner. A distinct feature of interest in the work of Tchaikowsky,
+Dvo[vr]ak and Sibelius is the introduction of exotic types of melody
+and rhythm, drawn from national sources. Thus Tchaikowsky, who said
+that he wished all his instrumental music to sound like a glorified
+Russian folk-song, uses rhythms of 5 and (in his chamber music) 7
+beats a measure, with frequent touches of old modal harmony. Dvo[vr]ak
+founds his harmony and modulations on the exceedingly chromatic scale
+of the Bohemians; and his piquant and dashing rhythms could come only
+from a nation which has no less than forty national dances. In
+listening to Sibelius, we are conscious of the wild sweep of the wind,
+of unchained forces of nature; and there are the same traits of virile
+strength and grim dignity which have made the Kalevala, Finland's
+national poem, one of the great epics of the world. Although Brahms
+never lets us forget that he is a Teuton, there are frequent traces in
+his compositions of the Hungarian element--so dear to all the Viennese
+composers--as well as of German folk-songs; and the most artistic
+treatment we have of Hungarian rhythms is found in his two sets of
+Hungarian dances.
+
+It is manifestly beyond the scope of a single book to treat
+comprehensively each of the symphonists in the list just cited, so I
+shall dwell chiefly upon the characteristics of Brahms, Franck,
+Tchaikowsky and d'Indy as probably the greatest, and touch only
+incidentally upon the others, as of somewhat lesser import; though if
+anyone take issue with this preference in regard to Mahler and
+Bruckner I shall not combat him. For I believe Mahler to be a real
+genius; feeling, however, that his wonderful conceptions are sometimes
+not expressed in the most convincing manner. There is no doubt that
+Mahler has not yet received his bigger part in due valuation, but his
+time will surely come. As for Bruckner, we have from him some of the
+most elemental and powerful ideas in modern music--witness the dirge
+in the _Seventh Symphony_ with its impressive scoring for trombones
+and Bayreuth tubas, a movement Beethoven might have signed; although
+with the virgin gold there is mixed, it must be confessed, a large
+amount of crude alloy, and there are dreary stretches of waste sand.
+
+Johannes Brahms, like Beethoven, with whom his style has many
+affinities, was a North-German, born in 1833 in the historic seaport
+town of Hamburg.[253] Brahms came of lowly though respectable and
+intelligent parents, his father being a double-bass player in one of
+the theatre orchestras. That the positiveness of character, so
+conspicuous in his famous son, was an inherited trait may be seen from
+the following anecdote. The director of the theatre orchestra once
+asked father Brahms not to play so loud; whereupon he replied with
+dignity, "Herr Kapellmeister, this is my double-bass, I want you to
+understand, and I shall play it as loud as I please." The music of
+Brahms in its bracing vigor has been appropriately compared to a
+mixture of sea air and the timbre of this instrument.
+
+[Footnote 253: Noted as being the original centre of national German
+opera and for its associations with the early career of Handel.]
+
+Brahms's mother was a deeply religious woman who imbued her son with a
+seriousness of purpose which runs through all his work. From his
+earliest years he was trained for music, as a matter of course, and
+showed marked precocity as a pianist, though it soon became evident
+that he also was endowed with rare creative gifts. The young student
+made such progress under Marxsen, a famous teacher of the period, that
+at the age of fifteen he gave a public concert, on the program of
+which stood some original pieces of his own. The next few years were
+spent in diligent study and in the composition of some of his early
+works, of which the Scherzo op. 4 is the most significant. Brahms was
+extraordinarily precocious and during these formative years manifested
+a trait which is noticeable throughout his career--that of knowing
+exactly what end he had in view and of setting to work quickly and
+steadily to attain it. Finally in 1853, when he was twenty, he was
+invited to participate in the memorable concert-tour with the
+Hungarian Violinist Remenyi, which was the cause of his being brought
+before the public under the auspices of three such sponsors as
+Schumann, Liszt and Joachim. It seems that, at one of the concerts in
+a small town, the pianoforte was a semitone too low, whereupon young
+Brahms transposed at sight a difficult Beethoven Sonata into the
+requisite higher key. This remarkable feat of musicianship so
+impressed Joachim, who was in the audience, that he gave Brahms two
+letters of introduction--one to Liszt at Weimar and one to Schumann at
+Duesseldorf on the Rhine. Following up these letters, Brahms now spent
+six weeks at Weimar with Liszt, assimilating important points of
+method and style. Although the two natures were somewhat
+unsympathetic, Liszt was so impressed with the creative power and
+character of Brahms's first compositions, that he tried to adopt him
+as an adherent of the advanced school of modern music; while Brahms
+was led, as some would claim, through Liszt's influence to an
+appreciation of the artistic effects to be found in Hungarian music.
+Brahms's visit to Schumann in the autumn of 1853 was in its
+consequences a significant incident. After hearing Brahms's music,
+Schumann wrote for the "Neue Zeitschrift" an article entitled "Neue
+Bahnen" ("New Paths") in which the young composer was heralded as the
+master for whom the world had been waiting, the successor of Beethoven
+in the symphonic style. Through Schumann's influence, the publishers
+Breitkopf and Haertel at once brought out Brahms's first works, which
+were by no means received by the public with general favor; in fact
+they provoked as bitter discussion as those of Wagner, and made
+headway slowly. For four years--from 1854 to 1858--Brahms was in the
+service of the Prince of Lippe-Detmold, a small principality near
+Hanover, where the court was a quiet one, thus affording ample time
+for composition and private study. Brahms's strength of purpose and
+unusual power of self-criticism are shown by the way in which this
+period was spent. Although he had made a brilliant debut, Brahms now
+imposed upon himself a course of rigorous technical training, appeared
+seldom before the public and published no compositions; his object
+being to free himself from a narrow subjectivity and to give scope to
+his wide human sympathies and to his passion for perfection of
+utterance. It seemed to him that a plausible originality might
+degenerate into mere idiosyncrasy, and that universality of appeal
+should be a musician's highest goal. When he resigned his post and
+came before the public with his first large work, a concerto for
+pianoforte and orchestra, the gain made in increased power and
+resources was evident. The greatest tribute which can be paid Brahms
+is that he has summed up and united the classic principles of
+clearness and solidity of workmanship with the warmth and spontaneity
+of the Romantic School. In 1862 Brahms settled in Vienna where, for
+thirty-five years, his career was entirely free from external
+incidents of note; his time spent in quiet steady work and in the
+attainment of artistic ideals. His slow logical development is like
+that of Beethoven, due to the fact that his works were far from
+numerous, but finished with the greatest care. The standard of
+creative quality is also very high; comparatively few of Brahms's
+works are not altogether alive. Matthew Arnold's beautiful lines on
+labor are applicable to Brahms. "Work which in lasting fruit outgrows
+far noisier schemes; accomplished in repose; too great for haste; too
+high for rivalry." Brahms thus described to Mr. Henschel, a former
+conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, his ideals concerning
+composing: "There is no real creating without hard work; that which
+you call invention is simply an inspiration from above, for which I am
+not responsible, which is no merit of mine." And again, "Whether a
+composition is beautiful is one consideration, but perfect it must
+be." The few of his compositions which show connection with outward
+events are the _Deutsches Requiem_, his best-known choral work (in
+commemoration of his mother's death) and the _Academic Overture_,
+composed in place of the conventional thesis, when--in 1880--the
+University of Breslau conferred on him a doctor's degree. This
+Overture, based on several convivial student songs, is on the whole
+his most genial composition for orchestra and has won a deserved
+popularity the world over.[254] For sustained fancy his most beautiful
+work for chorus and orchestra is the _Schicksalslied_ (_Song of
+Destiny_). Symphonic composition, as has been said, came in the latter
+part of Brahms's career, his first work in that form being op. 68.
+After that, within a few years, three other symphonies were composed.
+His last works include the significant pianoforte pieces called
+_Intermezzi_--not all equally inspired, but many representing the
+finest flower of Brahms's genius; four serious songs for bass voice,
+and one posthumous work, _Eleven Choral Preludes for Organ_. Brahms
+died in 1897 and lies buried in Vienna not far from Beethoven and
+Schubert.
+
+[Footnote 254: Another very fine work in this class is the _Tragic
+Overture_, worthy of the deepest study.]
+
+From Brahms we have beautiful works in every branch of composition
+save the opera and symphonic poem. (He once said he would risk neither
+an opera nor getting married!) Very few of his works have titles, and
+in this respect he stood somewhat aloof from that strong tendency in
+modern times--the connection between music and poetic and literary
+sources of inspiration. But he had a right to choose his own line of
+effort; it is for us to become familiar with his works as they are.
+They comprise about two hundred songs, three pianoforte sonatas and
+many lesser pieces, two concertos for pianoforte and orchestra, a
+wonderfully fine violin concerto, four symphonies--each with a
+character of its own--and a large group of chamber compositions:
+string quartets, sonatas for violin and pianoforte, trios, and a
+number of works for unusual ensemble combinations--the Trio for
+Violin, Horn and Pianoforte being the best known.
+
+As to the nature of Brahms's music the following comments are
+submitted for consideration. He was not a colorist or a stylist in the
+broad sense of those terms, _i.e._, color and style were not the prime
+ingredients in his music. There is light and shade in Brahms but
+seldom that rich and varied glow found, for example, in
+Rimsky-Korsakoff--that supreme master of orchestral coloring. As for
+style, it may be said that his work fulfils Matthew Arnold's
+definition of that desirable quality, "To have something to say and to
+say it in the most simple and direct manner possible." We sometimes
+feel, however, that he is thinking more of what he has to say than of
+outward eloquence of expression. But when there are so many
+composers[255] in whom there is far more style than substance, we
+should not carp at Brahms for the "stuff" in his work. The matter
+might be put in a nut-shell by saying that Brahms is Brahms; you
+accept him or leave him, as you see fit. The bulk of his music not
+only has stood the test of time but becomes more potent each year;
+surely this is the highest possible endorsement. He is rightly
+considered a great master of pure melodic line and a consummate
+architect, especially in the conciseness and concentration of certain
+compositions, _e.g._, the Third Symphony, and in his superb mastery of
+the Variation form which is the basis of some of his most famous works
+for orchestra and for pianoforte. His texture is of marked richness
+and variety; seldom do we find verbiage or lifeless padding. He has
+been called the Browning of music--a deep thinker in tones. Genuine
+appreciation of Brahms presupposes work on the part of the
+music-lover; and the recognition should be more general that the
+imaginative stimulation gained only through work is one of the
+blessings music has to bestow.
+
+[Footnote 255: We cite Saint-Saens, as one instance.]
+
+It is often alleged, indeed, that to enjoy Brahms one _has_ to work.
+Of course, but what repaying work! This may be said equally of
+Shakespeare, of Dante, of Browning, of Bach and of every poet with a
+serious message. The vitality of Brahms's creative power, like that of
+Beethoven, is seen in his rhythm. He had a highly developed rhythmic
+sense, and in his fondness for syncopations, for contrasted accents
+and for complicated metric groups he is the logical successor of
+Schumann. One of his favorite devices is the altered grouping of the
+notes in a measure, so that there is a contrast between duple and
+triple rhythm, _e.g._, the following passage in the Second Symphony,
+where an effect of great vigor is produced.
+
+[Music]
+
+There are never in Brahms weak or conventional rhythms. He is also one
+of the great modern song-composers, representing with Strauss, Wolf
+and Mahler the culmination of the German Lied. In his songs there is a
+warmth and depth of sentiment as yet unsurpassed, and the
+accompaniment is always a highly wrought factor in the work. In
+estimating the value of Brahms's compositions as a whole, it is
+difficult to hold the balance true. Those to whom he is sympathetic
+through an affinity of temperament revere him as one of the great
+geniuses for all time, while to others his message is not of such
+convincing power. The effect of inborn temperament in the personal
+appeal made by any composer is vividly shown by the estimate which
+Tchaikowsky and Brahms had for one another. Each felt respect for the
+sincerity and artistic skill of his contemporary, at the same time
+regretfully acknowledging that the essence of the music meant little
+to him. To Tchaikowsky Brahms seemed cold and lacking in melodic
+spontaneity; to Brahms, on the other hand, Tchaikowsky seemed
+superficial, sensational. The gist of the matter is that Brahms was a
+Teuton and wrote with characteristic Teutonic reserve and dignity.
+Tchaikowsky, being a Slav, wrote with the impassioned lack of
+restraint and volatility of mood associated with that people. How
+could it be otherwise? Each was a genuine artist, expressing his
+natural feelings with clearness and conviction; and each should be
+respected for what he did: _not_ one at the expense of the other. In
+Brahms, however, the question does arise of facility of expression
+versus worthiness of expression. He had an unparalleled technique in
+the manipulation of notes but whether there was always an emotional
+impulse behind what he wrote is debatable. For there are these two
+contrasting types in every art: works which come from the heart
+(remember Beethoven's significant inscription at the end of his
+Mass),[256] and those which come from the head. This brings us face to
+face with the perplexing question as to the essence of music. To some
+it is a record of intellectual activity tinged with emotion; to
+others, an emotional outpouring controlled by intellect. These two
+types of music will always exist, being the natural expression of the
+corresponding classes in human nature.
+
+[Footnote 256: "From the heart it has come, to the heart it shall
+go."]
+
+Brahms's music is sometimes called dry, but this is a misuse of terms.
+To draw an analogy from another sense, we might rejoin that the best
+champagne is "sec," all the superfluous, cloying sugar being removed.
+There is plenty of saccharine music in the world for those who like
+it. In Brahms, however, we find a potential energy and a manly
+tenderness which cannot be ignored even by those who are not
+profoundly thrilled by his message. He was a sincere idealist and
+composed to please his own high standards, never thinking of outward
+effect nor testing the pulse of the fickle public. As a man there is
+no doubt that he was warm-hearted and vigorous, but his was not the
+nature to come forward with captivating geniality. On the contrary he
+expects the hearer to come to him, and is too reserved to meet you
+more than half-way. That this austerity has proved a bar in the way of
+a wide-spread fame, while to be regretted, is unavoidable; remove
+these characteristics from Brahms and he ceases to be Brahms. Those,
+however, who may think that Brahms is always austere and grim, holding
+himself aloof from broad human emotion, should remember that he has
+done more than any other modern composer to idealize the Waltz; and,
+if the atmosphere of his symphonic style be too rarified, they may
+well begin their effort in appreciation with those charming Waltzes
+op. 39 (both for solo pianoforte and for a four-hand arrangement); the
+_Hungarian Dances_, and--most beautiful of all--the _Liebeslieder
+Walzer_ for chorus and pianoforte (four-hands). Anyone who knows these
+works cannot fail to become a genuine lover of Brahms. To be of the
+earth and yet to strike the note of sublimity is a paradox. For, in
+Brahms at his best, we surely find more of the sublime, of true
+exalted aspiration, than in any other modern composer save Cesar
+Franck. To strike this note of sublimity is the highest achievement of
+music--its proper function; a return, as it were, to the abode whence
+it came. Such music is far beyond that which is merely sensuous,
+brilliantly descriptive, or even dramatically characteristic. Much of
+present day music excites and thrills but does not exalt. Brahms, in
+his great moments, lifts us high above the earth. His universal
+acceptance is alike hindered by a deficiency which, though as natural
+as his reserve, may yet justly be cited against him--the occasional
+monotony of his color scheme. In the symphonies, notwithstanding the
+dignity and sincerity of thought, we find pages in the style of an
+engraving which would be more effective as a glowing canvas, _e.g._,
+in the slow movement of the Second Symphony and in the last two
+movements of the Fourth. Many consider, however, that Brahms's
+orchestral treatment is exactly suited to the seriousness of his
+ideas; so it comes down to a question of individual taste. That he had
+his own delicate feeling for color and sensuous effect is shown in
+many pages of the chamber music, especially in those works for unusual
+combinations, _e.g._, the Clarinet Quintet, and the Trio for Violin,
+Horn and Pianoforte. No one in modern times has used more eloquently
+that romantic instrument, the horn. See, for example, the Coda to the
+first movement of the D major Symphony and the slow movement of the
+Third Symphony. We must gratefully acknowledge the lasting quality of
+his music--without question it wears well. In fact, difficult though
+it be to comprehend at a first hearing, the more it is heard, the more
+it is enjoyed. Brahms's[257] music is steadily growing in popularity.
+His orchestral works and chamber music are applauded to-day, although
+twenty-five years ago they were received with apathy and scornful
+indifference.
+
+[Footnote 257: For literature on Brahms the following works are
+recommended: the comprehensive _Life_ by Fuller-Maitland; the essay in
+Hadow's _Studies in Modern Music_; that in Mason's _From Grieg to
+Brahms_; that by Spitta in _Studies in Music_ by Robin Grey; the first
+essay in _Mezzotints in Modern Music_ by Huneker; the biographical and
+critical article in Grove's Dictionary; Chapter IX in Volume 8 of the
+_Art of Music_, and Chapter XIII in Volume 2. There are also some
+stimulating remarks on Brahms's style in general, and on the attitude
+of a past generation towards his work, in those delightful essays, in
+2 volumes, _By the Way, About Music_ by the late well-known critic,
+W.F. Apthorp.]
+
+As a representative work in each of the four fields in which Brahms
+created such masterpieces we have selected, for detailed analysis, the
+_First Symphony_, the _Sonata for Violin and Pianoforte in A major_,
+the _Ballade in G minor_ and the _Song_, _Meine Liebe ist gruen wie der
+Fliederbusch_. All four of Brahms's symphonies may justly be
+considered great, each in its own way. For Brahms is not a man with a
+single message and has not written one large symphony in different
+sections, as, in a broad sense, may be said of Tchaikowsky. The
+Second, on account of the spontaneity and direct appeal of its themes,
+is undoubtedly the most popular. It contains a first movement of a
+quasi-Mendelssohnian suavity and lyric charm; a slow movement which is
+a meditation of the profundity of Bach himself; a third movement,
+allegretto, based on a delightful waltz of the Viennese Laendler type
+and a Finale of a Mozartian freshness and vigor--the second theme
+being specially notable for its broad sweep. The whole work is a
+convincing example of Brahms's vitality and "joie de vivre." The Third
+symphony is a marvel of conciseness and virile life. The Fourth,
+though not in all respects so inspired as the others, is famous for
+its beautiful slow movement--with an impressive introduction in the
+Phrygian mode (Brahms often showing a marked fondness for old modal
+harmony)--and for the Finale, which is an illustration of his
+polyphonic skill in modernizing the variation form, the Passacaglia or
+ground bass. But the First,[258] it seems to us, is the greatest, in
+scope, in wealth of material, in its remarkable combination of
+dramatic, epic and lyric elements and in an intensity of feeling and
+sublimity of thought peculiar to Brahms. It is extremely subjective,
+of deep ethical value, and sets forth a message of optimism and
+undying hope. The structural basis is a motto, often recurring in the
+work, which (whatever it may mean) is evidently--like the theme of the
+C minor symphony--some fierce protest against fate. The symphony, as a
+whole, represents a triumphant progress from darkness to light; and
+this meaning is made evident by the ever-brightening mood of the
+successive movements, the tone of which is strengthened by the scheme
+of key-relationship--based on an ascending series of major thirds,
+_e.g._
+
+[Music: C Minor, E major, A-flat major, C major.]
+
+[Footnote 258: The eloquence of the work is so integrally involved
+with its orchestral dress that it should always be studied, if
+possible, in the full score. For class-room work excellent editions
+are available for two and four hands.]
+
+The work is somewhat uneven--never weak--but at times a bit labored;
+as if the composer were consciously wrestling with great thoughts.
+This, however, is nothing against it, because equally true of large
+works in other fields of art, _e.g._, the Agamemnon of Aeschylus or
+Wagner's Tetralogy. It cannot be understood, much less appreciated,
+without close attention and earnest thought, for it presents the
+struggles and aspirations of mankind and is not meant solely to
+delight or entertain. When the hearer has made it his own it is a
+priceless possession for all time. The Prelude to the first movement,
+un poco sostenuto, is of impressive solemnity, developed from the
+motto, and based on the almost persistent iteration of the pedal notes
+C and G--the tonic and dominant. It proclaims that a serious meaning
+is to be revealed, and this meaning is accentuated by the
+orchestration which with its stratified grouping of melodic lines has
+a grim strength characteristic of Brahms.
+
+[Music]
+
+The first movement proper, Allegro, in complete sonata-form, begins
+with a _ff_ announcement of the impassioned, chromatic motto, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Note the cutting effect of the dissonant tones F-sharp and A-flat!
+From this motto grows the melodic part of the first theme in two
+balancing phrases, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Then follow some stormy measures of dissonant chords and warring
+rhythms until the theme rages itself out, in measure 52. The
+transition begins with some sharp staccato chords, as if summoning to
+further attention. It gradually cools down through a series of
+beautiful modulations and, in measure 84, the second theme--introduced
+by calls on the horn and sung by the oboe--enters in the relative
+major key of E-flat. This also is based on the ascending, chromatic
+line of the _motto_; still further organic unity being gained by the
+bass, which has the same melodic figure as the second phrase of the
+first theme, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Much of the previous fierceness, however, has abated and the remainder
+of the second theme is of a rare loveliness, with mysterious answering
+calls between oboes, clarinets and horns. The _pp_ dominant ninth
+chords at the beginning of the closing portion (measures 120-122) give
+a positively shuddering effect and then the combat of clashing rhythms
+is renewed. The development begins with a series of shifting
+harmonies, at first _ff_ and then _pp_--a lull before the storm--as if
+preparing the way for a still more terrific assault upon our emotions.
+It is tempestuous throughout; based at first on material taken from
+the preceding codetta and ending with an extended presentation of the
+motto over an iterated pedal note on the dominant, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The fusion of the development with the recapitulation is skillfully
+handled, and the motto is proclaimed, beginning at measure 298, in a
+series of ascending strata, with overwhelming force. The third part,
+with slight abridgment and necessary adjustment of key-relationship,
+conforms exactly to the exposition. There is the same agitato closing
+portion as before, and then the Coda proper, beginning at measure 421,
+emphasizes with fiery accents the mood of storm and stress
+characteristic of the movement as a whole. After the fury has
+subsided, the dramatic motto asserts itself in the closing measures,
+poco sostenuto; the problem is still unsolved and the last C major
+chord is but a ray of light cast on troubled waters.
+
+The second movement, andante sostenuto--in three-part form--begins
+with a tender melody expressing a mood of deep resignation and
+religious hope. No sooner has it started, however, than there creeps
+in the sinister motto, as if to remind us that life is undeniably
+stern and grim, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+In measure 17 there enters a closing theme, sung by the oboe, of
+ineffable beauty which is used in the third part as the climax of the
+movement. It surely seems to come from another world and is one of the
+most sublime melodies by Brahms or any one else. Its climax is
+impressively united with the main theme in the bass, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The middle portion, beginning in measure 38, is a meditation--in
+dialogue form--for solo oboe and clarinet, worked up to an eloquent
+climax in the key of the relative minor, C-sharp. The third part,
+beginning measure 66, with the addition of some lovely modulatory
+changes, corresponds to part one; save that the melody is varied by
+Brahms's favorite device of three notes to a beat in one voice against
+two in another. Beginning in measure 90, the wondrous closing theme of
+the first part is sung by a solo violin, reinforced by oboe and horn.
+It is finally entrusted, in the home key, to the horn alone, above
+which the solo violin soars in ecstacy, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Some diminuendo, descending passages lead to a reminiscent portion of
+the first theme and then, in measure 116, the grim motto enters, but
+this time without prevailing; for, in measures 122-124, it is finally
+exorcised and the movement closes with the seraphic calm of a soft,
+rich chord in E major, above which is heard a star-like note on the
+solo violin.
+
+The third movement is an Allegretto; it being Brahms's custom in
+each[259] of his symphonies to substitute a movement of this type in
+place of the conventional Scherzo or Minuet. This movement clearly in
+three-part form, is thrown in to furnish relief after the emotional
+tension of the movement preceding. It has no obvious organic
+connection with the other movements, but is just the right thing in
+its surroundings, with a note of vitality which does much to brighten
+the scene and to prepare the way for the Finale. The opening theme in
+A-flat major is in two phrases of _five_ measures each--a favorite
+rhythm with Brahms--given out by the clarinet over a pizzicato bass in
+the 'cellos. The melodic formation is unusual in that the latter
+phrase is an inversion of the first, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 259: The only slight exception is the third movement of the
+Fourth Symphony which, being marked Allegro giocoso, partakes somewhat
+of the nature of a Scherzo.]
+
+After some descending passages in thirds and sixths--one of the
+characteristic[260] effects in Brahms's style--the theme is repeated
+in the violins with richer scoring. The descending passage returns and
+this time leads to the entrance of a subsidiary theme in F minor. In
+measures 50-51 occurs one of those cases of melodic germination which
+entitles Brahms to be called a genuine _creative_ artist. The melody
+with its dashing, Hungarian zest sounds like something brand-new and
+yet is logically derived from the main theme by diminution, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 260: "Those eternal sixths and thirds." Weingartner later
+publicly recanted and became a whole-souled convert to Brahms. (See
+_The Symphony since Beethoven_, latest edition.)]
+
+This is real poetic creation, it being the prime object of a poet to
+create in music something out of apparent nothing. After these
+vivacious developments the first part ends with a slight repetition
+of the main theme. The middle part, beginning measure 71, in 6/8 time
+and in the enharmonic key of B major (E-flat = D-sharp) is noteworthy
+for its rhythmic swing, bold syncopations and contrasted accents; see
+especially measures 97-107. At the beginning of the third part there
+is an effective blending of the rhythm which has just prevailed with
+the graceful lines of the first theme. The fabric is made up of
+effective changes, modulatory and rhythmic, in the material from the
+first part. At the Coda, piu tranquillo, there is a delightful
+reminiscence of the rhythm of the middle portion carried out to the
+very end by the double basses.[261]
+
+[Footnote 261: A similar effect may be found in the closing measures
+of the first movement of Beethoven's Eighth Symphony.]
+
+The Finale is one of the most thrilling perorations in music; not a
+perfunctory close, but a veritable Apotheosis of victorious
+aspiration, giving an irresistible contrast to the first movement.
+Whereas, before, there was nothing but conflict, now all is triumphant
+joy. This movement is laid out on a vast scale, with a wealth of
+material, including a long Prelude with a distinct theme of its own
+and an extended Coda. The body of the movement is in abridged sonata
+form, _i.e._, there is a complete Exposition with first, second and
+closing themes, and the usual Recapitulation, but _no_ Development
+proper. This lack is made good by considerable variation and expansion
+in the first part of the Resume. The Prelude begins Adagio with some
+strains which, like smouldering embers, remind us of the sinister
+motto of the first movement--note the same dissonant tones A-flat and
+F-sharp. The following measures are of indefinite nature, beginning
+piano and pizzicato as if a great body were gathering headway slowly.
+The pace gradually quickens and we are led through a series of
+impetuous stringendo runs to a _ff_ chord which, accompanied by a _ff_
+roll on the kettle-drums, sounds like a clap of thunder and which, as
+the reverberations die away, ushers in a most moving theme[262]--given
+out forte and sempre passionato on the horn over a _pp_ muted tremolo
+on the strings with a background of _pp_ trombones, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 262: There is a striking analogy between the intervals of
+this theme and those of a well-known peal in a cathedral chime, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+In both the same elemental effect is produced by using the natural
+tones of the harmonic series (see page 193).]
+
+This inspired passage[263] has been eloquently described by W.F.
+Apthorp as follows:
+
+"Amid hushed, tremulous harmonies in the strings, the horn and
+afterward the flute pour forth an utterly original melody, the
+character of which ranges from passionate pleading to a sort of wild
+exultation according to the instrument that plays it. The coloring is
+enriched by the solemn tones of the trombones, which appear for the
+first time in this movement. It is ticklish work trying to dive down
+into a composer's brain, and surmise what special outside source his
+inspiration may have had; but one cannot help feeling that this whole
+wonderful episode may have been suggested to Brahms by the tones of
+the Alpine horn, as it awakens the echoes from mountain after mountain
+on some of the high passes in the Bernese Oberland. This is certainly
+what the episode recalls to any one who has ever heard those poetic
+tones and their echoes. A short, solemn, even ecclesiastical
+interruption by the trombones and bassoons is of more thematic
+importance. As the horn-tones gradually die away, and the cloud-like
+harmonies in the strings sink lower and lower--like mist veiling the
+landscape--an impressive pause ushers in the Allegro."
+
+[Footnote 263: See also a similar eulogy by Weingartner in his _The
+Symphony since Beethoven_.]
+
+After the flute has repeated this theme there is an interpolation of
+an important choral-like phrase (referred to above), _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+for it is later used as the climax of the Finale--in fact, of the
+whole work--and its tone of religious fervor, accentuated by the
+scoring for trombones and bassoons, is a clear indication of the ideal
+message which Brahms meant to convey. The body of the movement,
+Allegro non troppo ma con brio, begins with a majestic, sweeping
+theme[264] of great rhythmic vitality and elasticity announced by the
+strings, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 264: There is a statement in many books that this is a
+reminiscence of the theme in the Finale of the Ninth Symphony. How
+such a legend started it is difficult to say; it must be due to what
+the late W.F. Apthorp called "purblind criticism." For my part I see a
+resemblance in only one measure--save that both melodies are in
+quadruple rhythm--between the theme of Brahms and the following:--
+
+[Music]]
+
+It is at once repeated with richer scoring and then some exciting
+transitional passages lead, after a slight phrase taken from the chief
+theme of the prelude, to the second theme, animato, in G major, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+This has some rhythmical expansion and then a quieter part, dolce e
+piano, beginning measure 71. Some rushing _ff_ passages bring us, in
+measure 107, to the brilliant closing theme with its staccato, triplet
+rhythm. The Exposition ends in E minor, in measure 122, after a series
+of forte, staccato chords. The Recapitulation begins at once after two
+modulatory chords, and though sufficient stress is laid on the _first
+theme_, there is so much development of previous material that it
+serves for both the customary second and third parts. A good deal of
+adverse criticism has been expended on this portion of the movement
+and it is possible that Brahms's remarkable technique in handling his
+material ran away with him. But the music is always striving toward
+some goal, and even if it has to plough through desperate seas, there
+is no weakness or faltering. This part of the work is not beautiful in
+the popular sense of the term, but no one can fail to be impressed
+with its character. A climax is finally reached, in measure 224, with
+a fortissimo statement of the chief theme of the prelude, and then,
+after this has cooled down, diminuendo e calando, the second theme
+enters in the home key. The rest of the recapitulation corresponds
+closely with the exposition. The Coda begins, in measure 306, with a
+shadowy outline of modulatory chords, as if slumbering forces were
+slowly awakening; and, becoming more crescendo and stringendo, reveals
+its full glory at the Piu Allegro. This portion, based on quickened
+phrases of the first theme, seems charged with superhuman energy, and
+mounting higher and higher culminates in a majestic proclamation of
+the choral-like motto of the prelude, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+On hearing this it always seems as if the heavens above us really
+opened. The rest of the Coda is a scene of jubilation with ever more
+life and light. The dissonant tones of F-sharp and A-flat try to lift
+their heads but this time are crushed forever by the triumphant
+fundamental chords of C major, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The movement, in keeping with its serious message, ends with a
+prolonged and brilliant Plagal Cadence in which the double basses and
+the trombone surge upward with elemental power.
+
+
+SONATA FOR VIOLIN AND PIANOFORTE
+
+Of Brahms's three Sonatas for violin and pianoforte, respectively, in
+D minor, A major and G major, that in A major has been selected to
+give some idea of his chamber music, on account of the spontaneous
+appeal of its melodies and because its performance is possible for
+fairly well equipped executants. In many respects the D minor Sonata
+is the greatest of the three, but it is a work exceedingly difficult
+of execution and interpretation. The A major Sonata needs few
+comments, as the music speaks for itself. The work is in three
+movements, the first in complete sonata-form with the two customary
+themes, each of distinct lyric charm and hence eminently suited to the
+singing qualities of the violin; the second movement a fusion of the
+two normal middle ones, and the Finale a Rondo, freely treated. The
+first movement, Allegro amabile, begins with a suave theme, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+the first interval of which, a descending leap from the third to the
+leading tone, always seems to make a distinct appeal.[265] After the
+customary transition appears the second theme, announced by the
+pianoforte in measure 50, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+showing Brahms's fondness for contrasted rhythms--three notes to a
+beat in one hand against two in the other. After a repetition by the
+violin there is a spirited closing theme in measure 75, of great
+importance later. The Development, one of Brahms's best, manifests
+real organic growth; there is nothing labored or perfunctory. It is
+based on the first theme and the closing theme of the Exposition,
+_e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 265: It is used at the beginning of three other well-known
+melodies, _e.g._, the slow movement of Beethoven's _Ninth Symphony_,
+in the middle part of Schumann's _Aufschwung_ and in the first phrase
+of Wagner's _Preislied_.]
+
+The Reprise beginning in measure 158, shows the usual treatment. The
+Coda, from measure 219, is long and, like codas of Beethoven, has
+features of a second development. The movement ends with brilliant
+arpeggios in the pianoforte against octaves and double stops in the
+violin. In the second movement, Andante tranquillo, in F major, Brahms
+fuses[266] together the moods usually associated with the slow
+movement and the scherzo, playing one off against the other; the slow
+theme appearing three times--at its final appearance with eloquent
+modulations--and the rapid one twice, with contrast gained the second
+time through pizzicato effects on the violin. The two themes are as
+follows:--
+
+[Music]
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 266: This practice he has adopted in several other works and
+it is also the structural feature in the slow movement of Cesar
+Franck's D minor Symphony.]
+
+The short, dashing Coda is based on the vivace theme, with sonorous
+chords on the violin, both pizzicato and arco.
+
+The Finale, Allegretto grazioso, is a convincing example of how such
+a rigid form as the Older Rondo can be freshened up and revitalized by
+the hand of a master, for the main theme, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+has such genuine melodic life that we always recur to it with pleasure
+and yet at each appearance it is so deftly varied that no monotony is
+felt. The two episodes afford stimulating contrasts and need no
+comment. The main theme at its third appearance is in the subdominant
+key, with effective rhythmic modifications. The movement is a
+remarkable illustration of idiomatic style for each of the
+instruments: the violin part, sustained and cantabile; the pianoforte
+part, broken up and of remarkable color and sonority. The last page of
+the Coda, almost exclusively in double stops for the violin, brings a
+rousing close to a masterpiece.
+
+
+BALLADE IN G MINOR FOR PIANOFORTE
+
+(SEE SUPPLEMENT NO. 60)
+
+Although the most important factor in Brahms's pianoforte pieces is
+Brahms himself, a careful examination of his works in this field shows
+that his style is fashioned from an intelligent, and by no means
+slavish assimilation of important features in the works of his great
+predecessors. Thus we find the same melodic warmth as in Schubert, the
+rhythmic vitality and massive harmony so prominent in Schumann and the
+extended arpeggios and chords, the color and richness, peculiar to
+Chopin. From among the numerous and beautiful compositions of Brahms
+for solo pianoforte we have selected the Ballade in G minor because it
+represents a somewhat unusual and hence seldom recognized side of his
+genius--the specifically dramatic. When a composer calls his piece a
+Ballade, as in the case of compositions so entitled by Chopin and
+Liszt, we may assume that there is some dramatic or subjective meaning
+behind the notes; and the hearer is at liberty to give play to his own
+imagination and to receive the message as something more than music in
+the ordinary abstract or absolute sense. From the inner evidence of
+this Ballade of Brahms it seems to the writer[267] not too fanciful to
+consider it a picture of a knight-errant in medieval times setting out
+on his adventures. Observe the vigorous swing of the opening theme in
+that five-measure rhythm so dear to Brahms. But in the middle portion,
+in the romantic key of B major,[268] the woman appears--perhaps some
+maiden imprisoned in a tower--and she sings to the knight a song of
+such sweetness that he would fain forsake duty, battle, everything!
+The contrast of opposing wills[269] is dramatically indicated by an
+interpolation, after the maiden's first appeal, of the martial theme
+of the knight, as if he felt he should be off instead of lingering,
+enchanted by her song. Notwithstanding a still more impassioned
+repetition of the song, the Knight is firm, tears himself away and
+continues on his course; how great the wrench, being clearly indicated
+by the unusual modulations in measures 72-76. The enchanting song,
+however, still lingers with him and he dwells with fond regret upon
+bygone scenes and dreams which were unattainable. In this piece is
+seen Brahms's aristocratic distinction in the treatment of program
+music. The subject is portrayed broadly--there are no petty
+details--and the music itself, to anyone with a sensitive imagination,
+tells the story clearly. Hence a detailed poetic interpretation is out
+of place, since only to the suggester would it have meaning.
+
+[Footnote 267: It is to be understood that this is a purely personal
+interpretation and if any one wishes to consider the piece merely as
+absolute music with a strong masculine theme in the minor, a lyric
+melody in the major for the natural contrast, and a coda referring in
+a general way to the first theme, there is no way to disprove the
+contention. That Brahms, however, was not entirely averse to out and
+out programmistic treatment is seen from his two pieces on specific
+poetic texts, _i.e._, the first number in op. 10 on the _Scottish
+Ballads of Edward_ and the _Lullaby_ in op. 117 on the Scottish
+Folk-song _Sleep Soft, My Child_.]
+
+[Footnote 268: The same key that Wagner uses for the end of _Tristan
+and Isolde_ and Cesar Franck for the gorgeous Finale of the _Prelude,
+Chorale and Fugue_.]
+
+[Footnote 269: The subject is the same as the story of the Sirens in
+the _Odyssey_ or of the _Lorelei_ in German Legend.]
+
+So many of Brahms's pianoforte compositions are of great beauty and
+significance that, although space is lacking for further comment on
+definite examples, we urge the music-lover to study the following: the
+second Intermezzo[270] in B-flat minor of op. 117, perhaps the most
+beautiful single piece Brahms has written--remarkable for its rhythmic
+texture and for the equalization of both hands, which was one of his
+chief contributions to pianoforte style; the second Intermezzo of op.
+119, the middle part of which is significant for the extended arpeggio
+grouping for the left hand (Brahms following Chopin's lead in this
+respect); the sixth Intermezzo of op. 118, a superb piece for sonority
+and color; the third Intermezzo in op. 119, (grazioso e giocoso) and
+the B minor Capriccio op. 76--both in Brahms's happiest vein of
+exuberant vitality; the sixth Intermezzo in op. 116, a beautiful
+example, in its polyphonic texture, of modernized Schumann; and, above
+all, the mighty Rhapsodies in E-flat major, op. 112 No. 4 and the one
+in G minor op. 79--this latter, one of Brahms's most dramatic
+conceptions, and an example, as well, of complete sonata-form used for
+an independent composition.
+
+[Footnote 270: For further comments on the phraseology see _The Rhythm
+of Modern Music_ by Abdy Williams, pp. 75-77. We may add that the
+pieces called _Intermezzi_, are generally of a meditative, somber
+nature; whereas the _Capriccios_ are more sprightly, even whimsical in
+spirit.]
+
+
+SONG--_Meine Liebe ist gruen wie der Fliederbusch_
+
+(SEE SUPPLEMENT NO. 61)
+
+Whatever Brahms is or is not, he is universally recognized as an
+inspired song-composer and those who do not know his songs are cut off
+from one of the greatest joys music has to offer. As Huneker so well
+says, "Although his topmost peaks are tremendously remote, and glitter
+and gleam in an atmosphere almost too thin for dwellers of the plains,
+in his songs he was as simple, as manly, as tender as Robert Burns."
+In Brahms's songs we cannot say which is the most significant factor:
+the words, the vocal part or the accompaniment; all go together to
+make up a perfect whole. Brahms had discernment in the selection of
+texts suited to inspire poetic creation. His melodies are always
+appropriate to the spirit of the words, yet truly lyric and singable,
+and the accompaniment catches and intensifies every subtle shade of
+meaning. If any one factor is of special beauty, however, it is the
+instrumental part; for here Brahms's great genius in pianoforte style
+came to the fore and in utilizing every resource of the instrument to
+glorify the spirit of the text, he is a worthy successor of Schubert,
+Schumann and Franz. Note how in this song the passionate glow of the
+poem is reflected in the gorgeous modulations and sonority of the
+pianoforte part. Especially remarkable is the interlude between the
+stanzas, with its wealth of dissonances and waves of flashing color.
+After this surely no one can say that Brahms had no feeling for
+sensuous effect, at any rate on the pianoforte. Other famous songs of
+Brahms which should be familiar to the student are the following:
+_Wie Melodien zieht es mir_, _Feldeinsamkeit_, _Minnelied_, _Von
+ewiger Liebe_, _Immer leiser wird mein Schlummer_, _Sapphische Ode_,
+_Vergebliches Staendchen_. An excellent essay on Brahms as a song
+composer will be found in the preface to the _Forty Songs of Brahms_
+in the Musician's Library (The Oliver Ditson Company).
+
+The foregoing illustrations have made clear, we trust, the inspiration
+and power of Brahms's varied message. His music, therefore, must be
+approached reverently, sympathetically and with an earnest desire for
+a better understanding, for Brahms is veritably a giant.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+CESAR FRANCK
+
+
+Before an appreciation of the significant works and influence of Cesar
+Franck can be gained, it is necessary to have a broad historical
+perspective of what had been the trend and the limitations of French
+music prior to his career. Since the time of Couperin and Rameau,
+musical composition in France had been devoted almost exclusively to
+opera--with its two types of grand opera and opera-comique--and in
+this field there had been some French musicians of real, though
+possibly rather slight, genius: Philidor, Mehul, Gretry, Boieldieu,
+Herold and Auber. One searches in vain through French literature for
+great symphonies, string-quartets, violin sonatas or pianoforte
+compositions of significance. Berlioz, as we have seen, had composed a
+number of orchestral works; but, from the standpoint of absolute
+music, even these rather beg the question as they are so extremely
+programmistic, dramatic or even theatric. This one-sided development
+of French music was chiefly caused by the people's innate fondness for
+the drama, and by the national genius for acting, mimicry and dancing.
+
+Prior to the advent of Franck there were two important pioneers in the
+broadening tendency which finally became noticeable, Saint-Saens and
+Lalo. For great assimilative power, for versatility, for clarity of
+expression and a finish and finesse peculiarly French, Camille
+Saint-Saens (1835-still living) is certainly one of the most
+remarkable musicians of the nineteenth century. His works are
+numerous, always "well-made" and, though lacking in emotional depth,
+by no means without charm and grace. They comprise ensemble works:
+trios, etc., several concertos and symphonies and four symphonic
+poems. Of these, the third concerto for pianoforte, with its Bach-like
+introduction, the third violin concerto, the two symphonic poems, _Le
+Rouet d'Omphale_ and _Phaeton_ and, in particular, the third symphony
+in C minor, still hold their own. Whatever Saint-Saens has to say is
+well said; and if the French have modified their previous opinion that
+the only vehicle for musical expression was the opera, it is largely
+through the influence of his compositions. This C minor symphony,
+first performed in London in 1886, shares with Lalo's symphony in G
+minor (1887) the claim to be, in all French literature, the first
+instrumental work of large scope free from programmistic tendencies.
+Saint-Saens[271] and Lalo fairly popularized the Sonata form and their
+works are worthy of great respect; since, through them, the public
+became accustomed to symphonic style and was prepared for the
+subsequent greater works of Franck, d'Indy and Chausson. Although not
+so versatile as Saint-Saens nor so varied in output, Eduard Lalo
+(1823-1892) should decidedly not be overlooked. He was of Spanish
+origin and this racial strain is noticeable in the vivacity of his
+rhythm, in the piquant individuality of his melodies and in his
+brilliant and picturesque orchestration. His characteristic work is
+represented by a series of Concertos and Rhapsodies in which he
+employs Spanish, Russian and Norwegian themes. He did not escape the
+French predilection for operatic fame and his best work is probably
+the well-known opera _Le Roi d'Ys_, from which the dramatic overture
+is often played separately. His G minor symphony, however, will always
+be considered an important landmark in the development of French
+instrumental music.[272]
+
+[Footnote 271: For further comments on the style and influence of
+Saint-Saens see the essay Mason's _From Grieg to Brahms_; the article
+by Professor E.B. Hill in the third volume of the _Art of Music_; and,
+for some pungent and witty remarks, the Program Book of the Boston
+Symphony Orchestra (edited by Philip Hale) for Nov. 22, 1918.]
+
+[Footnote 272: For a comprehensive and discriminating account of his
+style see the Boston Symphony Orchestra Program Book, for January 17,
+1919.]
+
+Cesar Franck (1822-1890) was a composer of such innate spirituality
+that to analyze and classify him in a formal manner seems well-nigh
+irreverent. His music once heard is never forgotten, and when
+thoroughly known is loved for all time. Nor is an elaborate
+biographical account necessary; for Franck, more than any other modern
+composer, has been fortunate in that his life and works have been
+sympathetically presented to the world by a distinguished
+contemporary, his most famous pupil d'Indy--himself a gifted composer
+and a man of rare literary powers. His biography of Cesar Franck (in
+French and in English) should certainly be read by all who would keep
+abreast of modern tendencies. Franck's message, however, is so
+remarkable and his style so individual, that a few definite comments
+may be made concerning the structural features of his work and the
+essential attributes, thereby expressed, of his inspiring personality.
+Franck was a Belgian born at Liege--one of that long line of musicians
+who, though born elsewhere, have become thoroughly identified with
+French thought and standards; and there is much in his music which
+finds a parallel in the literary qualities of another Belgian artist,
+Maeterlinck, for in both is that same haunting indefiniteness, that
+same symbolic aspiration. Nothing in Franck is rigid, square-toed; his
+music is suggestive of a mystic idealism, the full expression of
+which, from its very nature is unattainable. Franck's outward life was
+simple, without excitement or diversion of any kind. When he was not
+giving lessons or composing, he was active in the service of the Roman
+Catholic Church, in which he was a devout believer. For a number of
+years he was organist at Sainte Clotilde, and his style thereby was
+influenced strongly. A distinct note of religious exaltation runs
+through much of his music; for Franck was a fine character, of
+spotless purity of life and of such generosity and elevation of soul
+that his pupils looked upon him as a real father and always called him
+"Pater Seraphicus." He was universally acknowledged to be the greatest
+improviser on the organ since Bach himself. Even Liszt, who heard him
+in 1866, left the church, lost in amazement; evoking the name of the
+great Sebastian as the only possible comparison.
+
+Franck's services to the development of music are twofold: 1st, as an
+inspired composer of varied works, which are more and more becoming
+understood and loved; 2d, as a truly great teacher, among his notable
+pupils being d'Indy, Chausson, Duparc, Ropartz, and the gifted but
+short-lived Lekeu. In Franck's music, fully as remarkable as the
+content--the worthy expression of his poetic nature--is its organic
+structure. He was the first composer of the French School to use
+adequately the great forms of symphonic and chamber music which had
+been worked out hitherto by the Germans: Bach, Haydn, Mozart,
+Beethoven, etc. If during the last thirty years, composers of the
+modern French School have put forth a number of instrumental works of
+large dimensions (chamber music, symphonies, symphonic poems and
+pianoforte sonatas), it is to Franck more than to any other man, by
+reason of his own achievements in these fields and his stimulating
+influence on others, that this significant fact is due. A striking
+feature of Franck's music is the individual harmonic scheme,
+fascinating because so elusive. He was a daring innovator in
+modulations and in chromatic effect; and has, perhaps, added more
+genuinely new words to our vocabulary than any one since Wagner. The
+basis of Franck's harmony is the novel use of the so-called augmented
+harmonies which, in their derivation, are chromatically altered
+chords. These are resolved by Franck in a manner remarkably free, and
+are often submitted to still further chromatic change. In revealing
+new possibilities he has, in fact, done for these chords what Wagner
+did for the chord of the ninth. Any page of Franck's music will
+exemplify this statement, and as an illustration we have cited, in the
+Supplement, the first part of the Prelude in E major. A life-long
+student of Bach and Beethoven, Franck believed--as a cardinal
+principle--that great ideas were not enough; they must be welded
+together with inexorable logic. And so his chief glory as a musical
+architect is the free use he makes of such organic forms as the Canon,
+the Fugue and the Varied Air. Franck was likewise a pioneer in
+establishing in a sonata or symphony a new conception as to the
+relationship of the movements. This he effected by the use of what may
+be called "generative motives" which, announced in the first movement
+of a work, are found with organic growth, modulatory and rhythmic, in
+all the succeeding portions. Such a method of gaining unity had been
+hinted at by Beethoven in his Fifth Symphony, was further developed by
+Schumann and Liszt and, since the example of Franck, has become a
+recognized principle in all large cyclic works. The following estimate
+of his music by F. Baldensperger is worthy of citation. "The
+contemplative character of Franck's music which explains his entire
+technique is rare at the epoch in which his life was cast, an epoch of
+realism, generally inspired by a taste for the picturesque and the
+dramatic. Posterity will place Cesar Franck in a niche similar to that
+of Puvis de Chavannes, whose inspiration, indifferent to all worldly
+solicitations, flowed willingly, like that of Franck, into the paths
+of reverie, and pursued its way like a beautiful river of quiet
+waters, undisturbed by waves or rapids, and reflecting the eternal
+calm of the sky."
+
+As representative works[273] we have chosen, for analytical comments
+the _D minor Symphony_ (Franck's only work in this field), the
+_Sonata_ for violin and pianoforte and the _Symphonic Variations_ for
+pianoforte and orchestra. Franck has also composed a very beautiful
+Quintet for strings and pianoforte--considered by some the most
+sublime chamber work of recent times; a String Quartet, notable for
+its interrelationship of themes and movements; two elaborate
+compositions for pianoforte solo, the _Prelude, Chorale and Fugue_
+(the fugue showing a masterly combination of strict fugal style and
+free form) and the _Prelude, Aria and Finale_; a wealth of organ
+works--the three _Chorales_ being of special beauty--and several
+Symphonic Poems of lesser importance. His purely vocal works,
+oratorios and church music lie outside the province of this book.
+
+[Footnote 273: On account of the length of these works it is
+impossible to include any of them in the Supplement.]
+
+The Symphony[274] in D minor is in three movements; the first in
+complete and elaborate sonata-form, the second a fusion of the two
+customary middle movements, and the Finale (though fundamentally on a
+sonata-form basis) an organic summing-up of the chief themes of the
+entire work. The first movement begins, Lento, with the main theme
+proper (thesis) the motive[275] of which is the foundation of the
+whole work, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 274: Study, if possible, the orchestral score. For
+class-room work there is an excellent four-hand arrangement by the
+composer, and one for two hands by Ernest Alder.]
+
+[Footnote 275: This terse phrase is identical with motives from
+several other works, _e.g._, the beginning of Liszt's _Les Preludes_,
+the motive "Muss es sein?" in Beethoven's quartet, opus 135, and the
+Fate motive in Wagner's _Valkyrie_.]
+
+The phraseology of the theme is noticeable for its flexibility; since
+the first phrase is expanded to five measures and the second phrase
+(antithesis), with a descending motive, to seven, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The harmony of this second phrase illustrates a striking feature in
+Franck's style, namely the fact that his resolutions seldom come out
+as expected but, instead, drift imperceptibly into other channels. In
+measure 13 there begins a long series of modulatory developments of
+the main theme--of a preludial nature--but _not_ a mere prelude in the
+ordinary sense. That this entire opening portion is the _main body_
+of the work is seen by a comparison with what takes place at the
+beginning of the recapitulation. In measure 29, allegro non troppo, we
+begin with a presentation of the motive in the usual first-movement
+mood. The answering phrase, antithesis, is now quite different; and,
+in measure 48, is developed--with some new contrapuntal voices--to a
+half cadence in F minor. This whole portion, both the Lento and the
+Allegro, is now repeated almost literally (the one slight change being
+in measures 56-57) in this new key, a minor third higher than the
+original. To begin a first movement in this way, _i.e._, with such a
+strong contrast of moods is very novel and striking, but as Franck was
+a devoted student of Beethoven, it would seem that, by presenting his
+theme in different strata, he was simply expanding the practise[276]
+of that master in order to impress his message upon the listener's
+memory. The repetition of the Allegro part now leads through some rich
+modulations to the entrance of the second theme, in measure 99. This
+lovely melody, characteristic of Franck's tenderness,
+
+[Music]
+
+is noteworthy for the imitations between the violins and the 'cellos
+and basses. It shows, furthermore, that peculiar quality in Franck's
+style which comes from his elusive modulations. In measures 109-110 we
+are at a loss to tell just what direction the music will take when
+almost miraculously, in measure 111, we find ourselves in D-flat
+major--in which key the whole theme is now repeated. Some stimulating
+modulations bring us, in measure 129, to a most energetic and aspiring
+melody, considered by some another part of the second theme, but which
+certainly has the note of a closing theme and also the structural
+position of a closing theme, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 276: See for example the opening measures of the _Waldstein_
+and of the _Appassionata_ Sonata.]
+
+It is developed with great brilliancy through a series of mediant
+modulations, in which the originality of Franck's harmonic scheme is
+very apparent. The exposition ends with some dreamy, pianissimo
+reminiscences of the closing theme in the mediant keys of F, D and B
+major, delicately scored for the wood-wind instruments and horns. The
+development begins, in measure 191, with the motive of the closing
+theme which, combined with other phrases from the exposition, is used
+persistently in the bass for a number of measures. The material is
+developed climactically until, in measure 229, we find an impressive
+treatment of the second descending phrase of the first theme--originally
+in augmentation and later in diminution, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+and
+
+[Music]
+
+The rest of the development is clearly derivable from material already
+presented. After a final _ff_ climax there begins, in measure 287, a
+series of beautiful entries _pp_ of the closing theme for the
+clarinet, oboe and flute. This is the spot in a sonata-form movement
+where appears the hand of the master; for the excitement of the free
+fantasy must cool down without entirely dying out, and there must also
+be a fresh crescendo of energy for the restatement of themes in the
+part following. Franck handles the situation with convincing skill;
+and some climactic measures, in which the main theme hints at the
+return, lead us, in measure 333, to the recapitulation. This is one of
+the most powerful and eloquent parts of the movement, for the whole
+first theme is presented canonically--the announcement in the
+trombones, tuba and basses being answered, a half measure later, by
+trumpets and cornets. The rest of the recapitulation, with necessary
+modulations and slight expansion, corresponds closely to the first
+portion. The coda, beginning after the same echo-effects heard at the
+close of the exposition, is founded on one of the counterpoints of the
+first subject, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Gathering headway it leads to an imposing assertion _fff_, in canon
+form, of the main motto which concludes, with a widely spaced chord,
+in the brilliant[277] orchestral key of D major.
+
+[Footnote 277: Brilliant by reason of the fact that the four principal
+tones in D major, D, A, G, E are _open_ strings on the violin.]
+
+The second movement begins with a series of subdued, pizzicato chords
+(for strings and harp) which establish the mood and later furnish the
+harmonic background for the main theme. This haunting melody,
+announced--in measure 16--by the English horn and afterwards
+strengthened by the clarinet and flute, is clearly derived from the
+motto of the first movement, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+and is a notable example of the free phraseology and long sweep
+peculiar to Franck. Although extending 32 measures it never loses its
+continuity, for every measure grows inevitably from what has preceded.
+It begins with two identical eight-measure phrases; the second of
+which, with a different harmonic ending, is varied by a cantabile
+counter theme in the violas--causing thereby, with the upper voice,
+some delightful dissonant effects. The last eight-measure phrase, also
+varied by a counterpoint in the 'cellos, ends with a characteristic,
+Franckian modulation; keeping us in suspense until the last moment,
+and then debouching unexpectedly into B-flat major. In this key there
+follows a long-breathed, cantabile melody--at first for strings alone,
+but scored with increasing richness. It abounds in modulatory changes
+and expresses, throughout, the note of mystical exaltation so
+prominent in Franck's nature. It ends in measures 81-86 with an
+eloquent cadence, largamente and pianissimo, in B-flat major and is
+followed by a partial restatement of the first theme; thus giving, to
+this portion of the movement, a feeling of three-part form. Then,
+after some preliminary phrases, begins the piquant theme in G minor,
+in triplet rhythm, which takes the place of the conventional Scherzo,
+_e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+for, as we have stated, the structural feature of this movement is the
+fusion of the two customary middle movements. This theme, mostly _pp_
+(con sordini and vibrato)--daintily scored for strings and light
+wood-wind chords--closes, in measures 131-134, with a cadence in G
+minor. The following portion, beginning in E-flat major, but often
+modulating--its graceful theme sung by the clarinets, dolce
+espressivo, answered by flutes and oboes--_e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+evidently takes the place of a trio and is one of the most poetic
+parts of the movement. After some effective development there is a
+return, in measure 175, to the G minor scherzo-theme in the strings;
+soon joined, in measure 183, by the slow theme on the English
+horn--the structural union of the two moods being thus established,
+_e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The rest of the movement is a free but perfectly organic improvisation
+on the chief melodies already presented. It is richly scored, with
+dialogue effects between the several orchestral choirs; especially
+beautiful are the two passages in B major, poco piu lento, scored _pp_
+for the complete wood-wind group and horns. The closing measures have
+lovely echoes between wood-wind and strings, and the final cadence is
+one of the most magical in all Franck; holding us off to the very last
+from our goal and finally reaching it in a chord of unforgettable
+peace and satisfaction, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The Finale in D major, allegro non troppo, is a remarkable example in
+modern literature of that tendency, growing since Beethoven, not to
+treat the last movement as an unrelated independent portion but,
+instead, as an organic summing up of all the leading themes. This
+cyclic use of themes--transferring them from one movement to
+another--is one of Franck's important contributions to musical
+architecture. The movement has two themes of its own, _e.g._
+
+[Music: 1st theme]
+
+[Music: 2d theme]
+
+and at first proceeds along regular sonata-form lines, _i.e._, with an
+exposition, development and recapitulation. After vigorous summons to
+attention the first theme is given out by the 'cellos and bassoons. It
+is expanded at some length, repeated _ff_ by the full orchestra, and
+then after bold modulations leads, in measure 72, to the second theme
+in B major, happily called by Ropartz the "theme of triumph."[278]
+After a quieter portion of sombre tone in B minor we reach, in measure
+124, an interpolation of the slow movement theme, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+sung by the English horn against a triplet accompaniment in the
+strings; the fundamental beat--the time now changed from 2/2 to
+3/4--preserving the same value. Now we begin to foresee that this
+theme is to be the climax of the whole work. In measure 140 the
+development proper is resumed; based, at first, on some modulatory and
+imitative treatment of the first theme and followed by two _ff_
+sostenuto announcements of the jubilant second theme. After these have
+subsided there are a number of measures (piu lento) of a shadowy
+outline, developed from preceding melodic phrases. The pace gradually
+quickens, the volume of sound increases and we are brought, through a
+series of pungent dissonances and stimulating syncopations, to a
+brilliant assertion of the first theme in D major. This again waxes
+more and more eloquent until it bursts into a truly apocalyptic
+proclamation of the slow movement theme for full orchestra which,
+closing in D major, is the real climax of the movement and indeed of
+the work. Franck, however, still wishes to impress upon us some of his
+other thoughts--they are really too lovely not to be heard once
+more--and so, after an intermediary passage consisting entirely of
+successive ninth chords,[279] there is a reminiscence of the whole
+closing theme of the first movement now for low strings alone--the
+violins playing on the G string--later for the wood-wind and finally
+echoed by the high strings _ppp_. As this fades away we reach one of
+the most inspired passages of the whole work--in its mood of
+mysterious suggestion truly indescribable. Over a slow elemental kind
+of _basso ostinato_ there appear first the dramatic motto and then
+other portions of preceding themes, as if struggling to come to the
+light. A long exciting crescendo leads to a complete statement of the
+main theme of the Finale, with a canonic treatment of which the work
+ends, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 278: The scoring of this theme for trumpets, cornets and
+trombones has been severely criticized and it is true that the cornet
+is an instrument to be employed and played with discretion. The
+writer, however, has heard performances of this work in which the
+cornets seemed to give just that ringing note evidently desired by
+Franck.]
+
+[Footnote 279: The harmony of this passage is most characteristic of
+Franck and should be carefully studied.]
+
+That both the first and last movements end with canons is indeed
+noteworthy; Franck thus clearly showing his belief that in no other
+way than by polyphonic imitation could such intensity of utterance be
+gained.
+
+
+SONATA FOR VIOLIN AND PIANOFORTE IN A MAJOR
+
+This Sonata ranks with those of Brahms as being among the great works
+in its class. Some of its lovers, in fact, would risk an unqualified
+superlative and call it the greatest. It certainly is remarkable for
+its inspired themes, its bold harmonies, its free and yet organic
+structure and for that sublime fervor which was the basis of Franck's
+genius. It is, in two respects, at least, a highly original work: in
+the unusual moods of the several movements, and in the relationship
+between the two instruments. For although it is a violin sonata, the
+emphasis in many respects is laid on the pianoforte part which
+requires great virtuoso power of performance,--the violin, at times,
+having the nature more of an obligato. There are four movements, the
+first in abridged sonata form, _i.e._, there is no development; the
+second in complete and elaborate sonata form; the third, a kind of
+free rhapsody, supplying an intermezzo between the third and fourth
+movements and organically connected with the Finale. This, in free
+rondo-form, with a main theme of its own treated canonically, sums up
+the chief themes which have preceded. The work exemplifies Franck's
+practise of generative themes; for d'Indy claims[280] that the whole
+structure is based on three motives, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+the rising and falling inflexion of which he typifies by what is
+called a "torculus" ([torculus symbol])! Whether such minute analysis
+is necessary for the listener may be open to question; but it is true
+that in hearing the work one is struck by the homogeneity of the
+material. The first movement is an impassioned kind of revery--in a
+mood more often associated with the slow movement, in character
+somewhat like the beginning of Beethoven's C-sharp minor Sonata. After
+some preludial ninth chords the dreamy first theme is given out, molto
+dolce, by the violin, supported by rich harmonies on the pianoforte,
+the use of the augmented chords being prominent, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 280: See his _Course in Composition_, book II, pp. 423-426.]
+
+Some natural expansion and development lead, in measure 31, to the
+broad and vigorous second theme, sempre forte e largamente, announced
+by the pianoforte, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+This ends in F-sharp minor and is at once followed by a closing
+portion, _i.e._, a repetition of the second theme with an elaborate
+arpeggio accompaniment and some fragmentary phrases of the first theme
+on the violin. Its last measures[281] are striking for the bold use of
+augmented chords and for the wide spacing which gives an organ-like
+sonority. The recapitulation, beginning in measure 63 with still
+richer harmonization, is almost identical with the exposition; the
+second theme appearing logically in the home key. The closing measures
+of the coda, which starts in measure 97, illustrate Franck's genius in
+the chromatic alteration of chords.
+
+[Footnote 281: Note the correspondence between these measures in the
+first part and the measures just before the end in the second part.]
+
+The second movement, in a structural sense the most normal of the
+four, speaks for itself. It is stormy and dramatic, with a number of
+passages marked passionato and molto fuoco, and presents a rather
+unusual side of Franck's quiet nature. The two themes are strong and
+well contrasted: the first for the pianoforte, the second for the
+violin, _e.g._
+
+[Music: 1st theme]
+
+[Music: 2d theme]
+
+The development begins at the quasi lento, measure 80, with the second
+(_b_) of the generative motives which is to play an important role in
+the Fantasia and the Finale. It is rather broken up into sections, but
+holds the interest through its unflagging rhythmic vigor and daring
+dissonances. Franck's contrapuntal skill is shown here in the closing
+measures (130-134) where a phrase from the second theme on the violin,
+dolcissimo espressivo, is united with a phrase of the first theme on
+the pianoforte, hinting at the return. The recapitulation, beginning
+in measure 138, is perfectly normal and leads to a coda which,
+becoming more and more animated, ends with brilliant bravura effects
+for each instrument.
+
+The third movement, entitled _Recitative-Fantasia_, is notable for its
+long declamations for the violin alone, and for its introduction of a
+theme from the preceding movement and of one to be repeated in the
+Finale. Thus the organic relationship between the various movements is
+shown and is still further emphasized in the Finale. The mood is often
+very impassioned (once _fff_) and dramatic, with several passages
+specifically marked. This music alone, which sounds like nothing
+before or since, would stamp Franck as an absolutely original genius.
+In measure 53 appears a long pianissimo meditation by the violin on a
+phrase--the second generative motive (_b_)--from the preceding
+movement, supported by beautifully spaced arpeggio chords on the
+pianoforte, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+In measure 71 occurs the first appearance of the bold theme which is
+to be twice used for episodes in the Finale, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The closing cadence[282] of the movement, one of the most original and
+truly beautiful in all literature as it seems to the writer, furnishes
+a marvellous contrast to the stormy measures immediately preceding.
+
+[Footnote 282: Already cited on page 57, Chapter IV.]
+
+The Finale is perhaps the most spontaneous canon in existence, an
+imitative dialogue between the two instruments; this form (which is
+often rigid and mechanical) being used so easily that it seems as if
+each instrument were naturally commenting upon the message of the
+other. Observe also the sonorous background provided for the violin
+melody by the widely spaced chords on the pianoforte, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The first episode, beginning in F-sharp minor at measure 38, is based
+on the third generative phrase (_c_) brought over from the Fantasia
+and embroidered by running passages (delicato) on the violin. This
+leads to a return of the canonic first theme which, with an
+interchange of statement and answer and with free modulations, is
+developed to a brilliant climax--the canon still persisting--in the
+dominant key of E major. Some transitional modulations, in which the
+excitement cools down, bring us to the second episode, in B-flat
+minor. This at first develops the phrase (_b_) from the middle part of
+the second movement, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+and later, also in the bass, a phrase from the main theme, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+It is soon followed by a bold entrance of the dramatic theme from the
+Fantasia which, twice presented--the second time grandioso--leads to a
+thrilling cadence in C major. The third and last refrain is a complete
+restatement of the original canon and closes in A major with a still
+more brilliant imitative treatment of the passage formerly in the
+dominant. The last measures--with the high trill on the violin and
+cutting dissonances on the pianoforte--are far too exciting for mere
+verbal description.
+
+
+SYMPHONIC VARIATIONS FOR PIANOFORTE AND ORCHESTRA
+
+This is one of Franck's most significant works, containing all his
+individual characteristics: melodic intensity, novel chromatic harmony
+and freedom of form combined with coherence. Franck always claimed
+that the variation form, rightly treated, was a perfect medium for
+free, imaginative expression; surely this work is a manifestation of
+his belief. A careful study will justify the statement that his style
+is founded on that of Bach and Beethoven; for the naturalness of these
+melodic variations can be compared only with the _Passacaglia in C
+minor_, and the general structure of the work finds its prototype in
+the Finale of the _Heroic Symphony_. It is a set of free variations,
+or rather organic transformations of two themes; the first sombre,
+entirely in the minor, the second brighter, with some passing emphasis
+on the major. The variations are not numbered and there are no rigid
+stops; though, of course, when objective points are reached, there is
+natural punctuation. The two themes, as follows--a striking example of
+Franck's peculiar harmonic scheme--should be carefully studied, _e.g._
+
+[Music: 1st theme]
+
+[Music: 2d theme]
+
+The work opens with a series of restless dotted notes for the strings
+_ff_ which diminish and retard to an entrance of the first theme, piu
+lento, for the pianoforte; the two phrases of which are interrupted by
+a passage, somewhat modified, from the introduction. Some preludial
+measures, expanding the material presented, bring us at B[283] to a
+premonitory statement of the second theme _pp_ (in wood-wind and
+pizzicato strings) over a muffled roll of the kettle-drums on C-sharp,
+_e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 283: The indication by letters is the same in the full score
+as in the version for two pianofortes.]
+
+Then follows a long rhapsodic presentation of the first theme for
+pianoforte solo--the melody in octaves and the accompaniment in the
+widest arpeggios possible. This passage is one of great sonority and
+reveals clearly the influence of the organ upon Franck's style. Some
+further measures of general development, containing at E a
+reminiscence of the first theme, bring us (after an elaborate
+half-cadence on the dominant of F-sharp minor) to the entrance of the
+second theme. Now that all the melodic material has been presented,
+Franck allows it to grow and blossom. In the first variation at F we
+have phrases of the second theme broken up into a dialogue between
+strings, wood-wind and pianoforte; and in the second at G the violas
+and 'cellos sing the whole second theme accompanied by some ingenious
+figuration on the pianoforte. This is followed at H by a brilliant
+amplification for the solo instrument, lightly accompanied on the
+orchestra, of phrases already heard and leads at I to a fortissimo
+orchestral tutti in D major--the next variation--which proclaims a
+portion of the second theme. This is developed with great power on
+both instruments and is combined, nine measures after J, with a
+variant of the first theme. At K there is a bold treatment of the
+second theme (sostenuto) for oboes and clarinets against rushing
+octaves on the pianoforte.
+
+At L we have some further development of the second theme, the melody
+being in the strings with a background of broken triplet chords on the
+pianoforte. We now reach at M--molto piu lento--the most poetic
+variation of the work. All the 'cellos, dolce e sostenuto, sing the
+second theme in the rich key of F-sharp major, the closing phrases
+answered by the wood-wind; while the pianoforte supports them with
+coloristic, arabesque-like broken chords containing a melodic pattern
+of their own. At N the 'cellos continue with phrases from the first
+theme, the accompaniment being in extended arpeggios against a
+background of sustained strings (_ppp_ con sordino). A climax is
+gradually reached which ends, smorzando, with a descending chromatic
+run on the pianoforte, followed by a long trill on C-sharp which
+ushers in the closing portion of the work. The structure, as a whole,
+is divided into three main portions: the first preludial, the second
+sombre and often meditative--largely in the minor--the third entirely
+in the major and of extraordinary brilliance and vivacity. At the
+Allegro non troppo after the trill, we find a variant of the first
+theme for the 'cellos and basses in F-sharp major, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+accompanied by broken chords on the pianoforte and wood-wind. This is
+followed at P by a free treatment for pianoforte, con fuoco, of the
+first theme which develops at Q into a most pianistic presentation (in
+the upper register of the instrument) of the phrase just announced by
+the 'cellos. In the fifth measure after R the basses begin, pizzicato
+but forte, a modified statement of the second theme, accompanied by a
+new counter melody on the pianoforte, dolce ma marcato, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+This leads into a brilliant climax for orchestra alone based on the
+first theme which, at the very end, modulates to E-flat major. Then
+follows an episodical portion of unusual beauty--a long, dreamy
+passage, dolce rubato, for solo pianoforte, in which the first theme
+is merely hinted at in shadowy outlines, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+Abounding in fascinating modulations and coloristic effects it shows
+Franck's genius equally for real melodic germination with an avoidance
+of all perfunctory manipulation of his material. This leads, four
+measures after T, to an entrance _pp_ in the wood-wind, of a variant
+of the first theme. Due to the effect of contrasted accents the
+passage is most exciting--two rhythms being treated at once. A climax
+for full orchestra brings us at V to a repetition of the former
+pianoforte presentation of the first theme, followed as before, at W
+by the counter-melody against the second theme, forte, in the basses.
+The first theme, now in complete control, is here proclaimed most
+eloquently in antiphonal form between the full orchestra and
+pianoforte, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The work ends with a rapid iteration, molto crescendo, of the first
+motive--in diminution. Now that we have reviewed the entire
+composition, there is one feature worthy of special emphasis. The
+structure as a whole (as we have stated) is clearly divided into three
+main parts; but when we examine the third part by itself, we find that
+it follows the lines of the sonata-form. For there is a first portion,
+with a main theme in F-sharp major, and a second theme--the new
+melody--in D major; the passage for pianoforte in E-flats major stands
+for the development, and the movement concludes with a distinct third
+portion, both first and second theme being in the home key. Thus the
+structure represents a carefully planned union of the variation form
+and the sonata-form which were special favorites of Franck. The work,
+which, after earnest study, will surely be enjoyed and loved, ranks
+with the _Istar Symphonic Variations_ by d'Indy and the two sets on
+themes from Paganini by Brahms as the acme of what the variation form
+may indeed be when treated by a master.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE MODERN FRENCH SCHOOL--D'INDY AND DEBUSSY
+
+
+Not only as the most distinguished of Cesar Franck's pupils, but by
+reason of his undoubted musicianship and marked versatility--his works
+being in well nigh every form--Vincent d'Indy (1851-still living) is
+rightly considered to be the most representative composer of his
+branch of the modern French school.[284] Whether history will accord
+to him the rank of an inspired genius it is as yet too early to
+decide; but for the sincerity and nobility of his ideas, for his
+finished workmanship and the influence he has exerted, through his
+many-sided personality, in elevating public taste and in the education
+of young musicians, he is worthy of our gratitude. D'Indy is a
+patriotic Frenchman believing profoundly that French music has an
+important _role_ to bear; who has incarnated this belief in a series
+of works of such distinction that, if not unqualifiedly loved, they
+at least compel recognition. If he swings a bit too far in his
+insistence upon the exclusive glories of French genius, let us
+remember that the modern Germans[285] have been just as one-sided from
+their point of view--and with even less tangible proof of attainment.
+For it seems incontestable that, since the era of Wagner and Brahms,
+the modern French and Russian Schools have contributed to the
+development of music more than all the other nations combined. It is
+for us in America who, free from national prejudice, can stand off and
+take an impartial view, to appreciate the good points in _all_
+schools. A detailed account of d'Indy's life and works will not be
+necessary, for the subject has been admirably and comprehensively
+treated by D.G. Mason in his set of _Essays on Contemporary Composers_
+and in the article by E.B. Hill in the _Art of Music_, Vol. 3.
+
+[Footnote 284: This school may be said to contain two groups: one, the
+pupils of Cesar Franck--d'Indy, Chausson, Duparc, Rousseau, Augusta
+Holmes and Ropartz, the chief feature in whose style is a
+modernization of classic practice; a second consisting of Debussy,
+Ravel, Dukas and Florent Schmitt, whose works manifest more extreme
+individualistic tendencies.]
+
+[Footnote 285: The well-known German scholar and editor Max
+Friedlaender, who visited this country in 1910, acknowledged--in a
+conversation with the writer--that he had never even heard of
+Chabrier!]
+
+D'Indy's compositions, as in the case of Franck, are not numerous, but
+finely wrought and of distinct and varied individuality. His chief
+instrumental[286] works comprise a _Wallenstein Trilogy_ (three
+symphonic poems based on Schiller's drama) notable for descriptive
+power and orchestral effect; a Symphony for orchestra and pianoforte
+on a mountain air[287]--one of his best works, because the folk-song
+basis furnishes a melodic warmth which elsewhere is sometimes lacking;
+a set of Symphonic Variations on the Assyrian legend of Istar; a
+remarkable Sonata for violin and pianoforte; a String-Quartet, all the
+movements of which are based on a motto of four notes, and lastly the
+Symphony in B-flat major--considered his masterpiece--in which the
+same process of development from generative motives is followed as in
+Cesar Franck. All these works contain certain salient characteristics
+proceeding directly from d'Indy's imagination and intellect. There is
+always an ideal and noble purpose, a stoutly knit musical fabric and
+melodies--d'Indy's own melodies, sincerely felt and beautifully
+presented. Whether they have abounding power to move the heart of the
+listener is, indeed, the point at issue. Since d'Indy is on record as
+saying, "There is in art, truly, nothing but the heart that can
+produce beauty," it is evident that he believes in the emotional
+element in music. That there is a difference of opinion however, as to
+what makes emotional power is shown by his estimate of Brahms (set
+forth in his _Cours de Composition Musicale_, pp. 415-416) in the
+statement that, though Brahms is a fine workman, his music lacks the
+power to touch the heart (faire vibrer le coeur). There is no doubt
+that, in any question of Brahms versus d'Indy, such has not been the
+verdict of outside opinion. D'Indy is admired and respected, whereas
+Brahms has won the love of those who know him; and the truth in the
+saying, "Securus judicat orbis terrarum" is surely difficult to
+contravene. D'Indy's melodies can always be minutely analysed[288] and
+they justify the test; but we submit that the great melodies of the
+world speak to us in more direct fashion. For there is, in his music,
+a seriousness which at times becomes somewhat austere. He seems so
+afraid of writing pretty tunes or ear-tickling music, that we often
+miss a sensuous, emotional warmth. He hates the commonplace,
+cultivating the ideal and religion of beauty. Bruneau, himself a noted
+French critic and composer, says, "No one will deny his surprising
+technique or his unsurpassed gifts as an orchestral writer, but we
+might easily wish him more spontaneity and less dryness." We cannot,
+however, miss the dignity and elevation of style found in d'Indy's
+works or fail to be impressed by their wonderfully planned musical
+architecture. His music demands study and familiarity and well repays
+such effort. D'Indy's work, as a teacher, centres about the "Schola
+Cantorum" so-called, in which several talented American students from
+Harvard and other Universities have already worked. Here all schools
+of composition are thoroughly studied, and the rigid and formal
+methods of the Conservatoire abandoned. D'Indy believes that the
+materials for the structure of modern music are to be found in the
+Fugue of Bach, and in the cyclical Sonata Form and the free Air with
+Variations of Beethoven--these forms, by reason of their inherent
+logic and simplicity, allowing scope for infinite freedom of
+treatment. D'Indy is also a thoroughly modern composer in that he is
+an artist in words as well as in notes. His life of Cesar Franck is a
+model of biographical style, and he has recently published a life of
+Beethoven refreshingly different from the stock narratives. In fine,
+d'Indy is a genius, in whom the intellectual aspects of the art,
+rather than purely emotional appeal, are clearly in the ascendant.
+
+[Footnote 286: D'Indy's significant contributions to operatic and
+choral literature, such as _Fervaal_, _L'etranger_, _Le Chant de la
+Cloche_ and _La Legende de St. Christophe_, lie without our province.]
+
+[Footnote 287: From the Cevennes region whence d'Indy's family
+originally came.]
+
+[Footnote 288: See the elaborate analysis by Mr. Mason in the essay
+above referred to.]
+
+We shall now comment briefly on one, only, of d'Indy's compositions,
+the Symphonic Poem, _Istar_, which is a set of variations[289] treated
+in a manner as novel as it is convincing; the work beginning with
+variations which gradually become less elaborate until finally only
+the theme itself is heard in its simple beauty. This reversal of
+customary treatment is sanctioned by the nature of the subject, and
+the correspondence between dramatic logic and musical procedure is
+admirably planned. The story of the work is that portion of the
+Assyrian epic Izdubar which describes, to quote Apthorp's translation
+of the French version, "how Istar, daughter of Sin, bent her steps
+toward the immutable land, towards the abode of the dead, towards the
+seven-gated abode where He entered, toward the abode whence there is
+no return." Then follows a description of the raiment and the jewels
+of which she is stripped at the entrance to each of the gates. "Istar
+went into the immutable land, she took and received the waters of
+life. She presented the sublime Waters, and thus, in the presence of
+all, set free the Son of Life, her young lover." The structural
+novelty of the work is that, beginning with complexity--typifying the
+gorgeously robed Istar--the theme discloses itself little by little,
+as she is stripped of her jewels, until at last, when she stands forth
+in the full splendor of nudity, the theme is heard unaccompanied, like
+Isis unveiled or, to change the figure, like a scientific law which
+has been disclosed. The work is based on three generative themes; the
+second, derived from the first and of subsidiary importance, called by
+d'Indy the motif d'appel. It plays its part, however, since it
+introduces the work and serves as a connection between the variations,
+seven in all. These themes are as follows:
+
+1. Principal theme:
+
+[Music]
+
+2. Motif d'appel.
+
+[Music]
+
+3. Subsidiary theme, in form of a march.
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 289: For a detailed analysis the student is referred to the
+account by the composer himself in his _Cours de Composition
+Musicale_, part II, pp. 484-486; to Gilman's _Studies in Symphonic
+Music_ and to Vol. 3 of Mason's _Short Studies of Great
+Masterpieces_.]
+
+By following the poem the imaginative listener can readily appreciate
+the picturesque suggestiveness of the composer. The work opens with a
+mysterious intoning, by a muted horn, of the motif d'appel, and then
+follows a triple presentation of the march theme in F minor, scored
+for wood-wind and low strings--the melody sung at first by the violas
+and clarinets and later by the bass clarinet and 'cellos. This
+original scoring establishes just the appropriate atmosphere for an
+entrance to the abode of captivity.
+
+[Music]
+
+The first variation, in F major, employing all the tone-color of the
+full orchestra, is a gorgeous picture of the Oriental splendor of
+Istar. It is noteworthy that each variation contains a modulation to a
+key a semitone higher, thus affording a factor of unity amid the
+elaborate flowerings of the musical thought. The second variation, in
+E major scored for strings and wood-wind, is significant for the way
+in which the original theme is expanded into a flowing melody. The
+logical derivation of the fabric from the first intervals of the main
+theme is obvious, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+The fourth variation, in F-sharp major, scored for pizzicato strings
+and staccato wood-wind, with light touches on horns, trumpets,
+cymbals, triangle and harps, introduces the scherzo mood into the work
+and with its persistent 5/4 rhythm is of fascinating effect.
+
+[Music]
+
+The loveliest variation for warmth and emotional appeal is the sixth,
+in A-flat major (at O in the orchestral score) for strings with the
+gradual addition of the wood-wind and harps. Its climax certainly does
+much to atone for any dryness found in d'Indy's other works.
+
+[Music]
+
+In the next variation, at P, the trend of the work becomes
+increasingly manifest for it is written in only two voices, scored for
+flute and violins and is a dramatic preparation for the announcement
+of the complete main theme which is now proclaimed in unison by the
+full orchestra. The work closes with a transformation of the opening
+march into F major, its majestic rhythm symbolizing the successful
+result of Istar's quest (See Supplement No. 62.)
+
+Debussy, Claude Achille, (1862-1918) is certainly the embodiment, as a
+composer, of Pater's saying that "Romanticism[290] is the addition of
+strangeness to beauty"; for when we listen to his music we are
+conscious of material and of forms of treatment which we have never
+heard before. Debussy has listened to the promptings of his own subtle
+imagination and has evolved a style as novel as it is beautiful. As
+with all real originators, Debussy at the outset was fiercely
+challenged, and his music even to-day calls forth intolerant remarks
+on the part of those who are suspicious of all artistic progress and
+evolution. In this connection it is worthy of note that the French,
+notwithstanding their national doctrine of liberty, have been chary of
+applying this to composers who were departing from the beaten path.
+Berlioz, whom now they acclaim as one of their greatest artists, was
+welcomed as he deserved only after his fame had been established among
+the Germans. Bizet was but slightly appreciated during his life.
+Franck met with fierce opposition from the routine members of the
+profession; and Debussy, although the work by which he won the "Prix
+de Rome" in 1884 was acknowledged to be one of the most interesting
+which had been heard at the Institute for years, was afterwards
+severely criticized for the setting made in Rome to Rossetti's
+_Blessed Damozel_ because, forsooth, he had strayed too far from
+established and revered tradition. We Americans may have a distinct
+feeling of pride in the knowledge that the music of Debussy, the
+strongest note of which is personal freedom--the inherent right of the
+artist to express in his own way the promptings of his imagination--was
+widely studied and appreciated in this land of the free before it had
+begun to have anything like a universal acceptance among the French
+themselves.
+
+[Footnote 290: From this comparison we should not wish it to be
+understood that Debussy is merely an addition to the standard Romantic
+group of Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, etc.; his style, however, is surely
+Romantic in the broad sense of the term, _i.e._, highly imaginative
+and individual.]
+
+But can any connection with the past be traced in the style of this
+remarkable[291] composer, and can we discover any sources, in the
+world of nature, from which he has derived the materials for his novel
+and fascinating harmonies? When we definitely analyze Debussy's
+harmonic scheme, we see that he looks both forward and back. Much of
+his original tone coloring is derived from the old church modes such
+as the Lydian, the Dorian and the Phrygian; for example, the
+mysterious opening chords of his opera, and the following passage from
+_La Cathedrale engloutie_.
+
+[Footnote 291: The _tres exceptionnel, tres curieux, tres solitaire
+Claude Debussy_ as he has been aptly characterized.]
+
+[Music]
+
+He is also extremely fond of a scale of whole tones, which had been
+somewhat anticipated by Liszt and members of the Russian[292] school.
+In this the normal perfect 4th and 5th and the major 6th become
+augmented, thus producing a very peculiar but alluring harmonic basis.
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 292: The first authentic use being probably by Dargomijsky
+in his opera the _Stone Guest_.]
+
+[Music]
+
+[Music: _Reflets dans l'eau_]
+
+Modern composers have been feeling for some time that harmonic scope
+was needlessly limited by clinging too closely to the major and minor
+diatonic scales; and Brahms, Tchaikowsky and Franck have all
+introduced the old modes for special contrasts of color. But no one
+has used them so subtly as Debussy. In his music they often take the
+place of our customary scales with their deep-rooted harmonic
+tendencies and perpetual suggestion of traditional cadences. This
+return to the greater flexibility and variety of the old modes is a
+significant feature in modern music and Debussy's example in this
+respect has been highly beneficial. As to his alleged use of new
+material, an astute French critic has observed that "a revolution is
+merely an evolution rendered apparent." By no means all of music can
+be found in nature, but the basis is there, and it remains for the
+artistic imagination to select and to amplify. Already many years ago
+the scientist Helmholtz said, "Our system of scales and of harmonic
+tissues does not rest upon unalterable natural laws, but is partly at
+least the result of aesthetic principles of selection, which have
+already changed, and will change still further with the progressive
+development of humanity."[293] In other words the limits of
+receptivity of the human ear cannot be foreseen nor can the workings
+of the artistic imagination be prescribed. The so-called Chord of
+Nature,[294] consisting of the overtones struck off by any sounding
+body, and re-enforced on the pianoforte with its large sounding board,
+contains in epitome this basic material of music; and the several
+octaves represent in a striking manner the harmonic combinations used
+at different periods of development. Thus during the early centuries
+nothing but triads were in use; only gradually were 7th chords--those
+of four factors--introduced. Wagner was the first to realize the
+possibilities of chords of the 9th, 11th, and 13th. In Debussy these
+combinations are used as freely as triads, _e.g._
+
+[Music: _Pelleas et Melisande_]
+
+[Music: _La fille aux cheveux de lin_]
+
+[Music: _Reflets dans l'eau_]
+
+and he has gone far beyond anything known before in a subtle use of
+the extreme dissonant elements, his sensitive imagination evidently
+hearing sounds hitherto unrealized. This surmise is corroborated by
+Debussy's own statement that, while serving as a young man on garrison
+duty, he took great delight in listening to the overtones of bugles
+and of the bells from a nearby convent. This chromatic style had been
+anticipated by Chopin whose use of the harmonic series in those
+prismatic, spray-like groups of superadded tones is such a striking
+feature in his pianoforte works. There is, therefore, nothing outre or
+bizarre in Debussy's idiom; it is but a logical continuation of former
+tendencies. His works show great variety and comprise pianoforte
+pieces, many songs, a remarkable string quartet, some daringly
+original tone-poems for full orchestra, several cantatas, and--most
+unique of all--his opera of _Pelleas et Melisande_, based on the
+well-known play by Maeterlinck. A few comments may profitably be made
+on each of these types. With few exceptions all his pianoforte pieces
+have suggestive titles, _e.g._, _Reflets dans l'eau_, _Jardins sous la
+pluie_, _La soiree dans Grenade_, _Poissons d'or_, _Voiles_, _Le vent
+dans la plaine_, _Bruyeres_. They are mood-pictures in which the
+composer has tried to imprison certain elusive states of mind--or the
+impressions made on his susceptible imagination by the phenomena of
+Nature: the subtly blended hues of a sunset, the changing rhythm of
+drifting clouds, the indefinite murmur of the sea, the dripping of
+rain. For Debussy, like Beethoven before him, is a passionate lover of
+Nature. To quote his own words, he finds his great object lessons of
+artistic liberty in "the unfolding of the leaves in Spring, in the
+wavering winds and changing clouds." Again, "It benefits me more to
+watch a sunrise than to listen to a symphony. Go not to others for
+advice, but take counsel from the passing breezes, which relate the
+history of the world to those who listen." Thus we see that Debussy
+submits himself to the spells of Nature and tries to transmute them
+into sound. The only analogies to use in a verbal description of his
+music must be drawn from nature, for in each are the same shadowy
+pictures, the same melting outlines.[295] Debussy has a close affinity
+with that school of painters known as impressionists or
+symbolists--Manet, Monet, Degas, Whistler--and is doing with novel
+combinations of sound, with delicate effects of light and shade, what
+they have done for modern freedom in color. His music has been called
+a "sonorous impressionism." It might equally well be phrased "rhythmic
+sound." To those conservatives who find it difficult to think in terms
+of musical color, and wish _their_ imagination rather than that of
+genius to be the standard, the retort of the artist Whistler is
+applicable: To a lady who viewing one of his sunsets remarked, "But,
+Mr. Whistler, I have never seen a sunset like that" came the reply
+"Yes, Madam, but don't you wish you had?" In his songs Debussy has
+been most fastidious as to choice of texts, his favorite poets being
+Verlaine, Baudelaire and Mallarme, called "symbolists," since the aim
+of their art is to resemble music and to leave for the reader a wide
+margin for symbolic interpretation. His songs throughout are
+imaginative and fanciful in the highest degree, and the instrumental
+part a beautiful background of color. Of Debussy's compositions for
+orchestra the one to win--and possibly to deserve--the most lasting
+popularity is _L'apres-midi d'un Faune_, which is an extraordinary
+translation into music of the veiled visions and the shadowy beings of
+an eclogue of Mallarme in which, as Edmund Gosse says, "Words are
+used in harmonious combinations merely to suggest moods or conditions,
+never to state them definitely."[296] By perfect rhythmic freedom, and
+by delicately-colored waves of sound Debussy has expressed in a manner
+most felicitous just the atmosphere of remoteness, and of primeval
+simplicity. By many this work is considered the most hypnotic
+composition in existence, and the writer trusts that his readers have
+heard a poetic interpretation of it by a fine orchestra. The salient
+features of Debussy's style are found in _Pelleas et Melisande_--by
+far the most important operatic work since Wagner. Maeterlinck's play
+deals with legendary, mysterious, symbolic beings, and the entire
+subject-matter was admirably suited to Debussy's genius. As
+Maeterlinck says, "The theatre should be the reflex of life, not this
+external life of outward show, but the true inner life which is
+entirely one of contemplation." This opera is quite different from any
+previously written, in that the characters sing throughout in
+_recitative_ now calm, now impassioned, but never in set, periodic
+arias. In fact, here we have at last a true musical _speech_, which is
+indeed another thing from music set to words. Debussy has defended
+this peculiar style in the following words: "Melody is, if I may say
+so, almost anti-lyric, and powerless to express the constant change of
+emotion or life. Melody is suitable only for the song (_chanson_),
+which confirms a fixed sentiment. I have never been willing that my
+music should hinder, through technical exigencies, the changes of
+sentiment and passion felt by my characters. It is effaced as soon as
+it is necessary that these should have perfect liberty in their
+gestures as in their cries, in their joy as in their sorrow."
+
+[Footnote 293: For an enlightening amplification of this point see the
+first chapter of Wallace's _The Threshold of Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 294: See page 193.]
+
+[Footnote 295: For further suggestive comments on Debussy's style
+consult the _Essay on Pelleas et Melisande_ by Lawrence Gilman (G.
+Schirmer, New York) and in particular an article by the same author in
+the Century Magazine for August, 1918.]
+
+[Footnote 296: Gosse also calls it a _famous miracle of
+intelligibility_.]
+
+Now that we may look forward to no more compositions from
+Debussy[297]--he died in March, 1918--it is certainly fitting to
+attempt a forecast as to the permanent worth of his achievements and
+his influence upon future development. Like all music his compositions
+may be judged from several points of view: the worth of the content,
+the perfection or inadequacy of style and the manner in which the media
+of presentation are used. To begin with the last characteristic--there
+is no doubt that Debussy has enlarged the resources of our two chief
+modern instruments, the pianoforte and the orchestra. By him the
+pianoforte is always treated according to its true nature, _i.e._, as
+an intimate, coloristic instrument and, in amplifying all its
+resources of tone-color, flexible rhythm and descriptive power he is
+the worthy successor of Chopin. In his orchestral compositions such as
+the _Nocturnes_ (_Clouds_, _Festivals_ and _Sirens_), the _Sea Pieces_
+and _Images_, of which the _Rondes de Printemps_ and _Iberia_ are the
+most significant, there is a union of warmth and delicacy as
+individual as it is rare. _Iberia_, in fact, for vitality of
+imagination and flawless workmanship may be considered the acme of
+Debussy's orchestral style. The great resources of the modern
+orchestra are often abused. Compositions are rich and gorgeous but at
+the same time inflated, turgid and bombastic. Certain works of Richard
+Strauss and Mahler are examples in point. Debussy's treatment,
+however, of the varied modern orchestra is remarkable for its economy.
+The melodic lines stand out clearly, there is always a rich supporting
+background and we are convinced that everything sounds just as the
+composer meant. As to the structure and style of his music, these are
+more subtle matters to estimate. We may acknowledge at once that
+Debussy's style is free and individual, for he has written his music
+his own way, with slight regard for academic models. But a thorough
+examination of his works shows no evidence of carelessness or
+uncertainty of aim. There is, to be sure, nothing of that routine
+development of musical material which we associate with classic
+practice--instead a free, imaginative growth. But there is always a
+definite structural foundation to support the freedom of expression.
+This coherence is sometimes gained by a single dominating note about
+which everything is grouped, as, in the _Soiree dans Grenade_, the
+C-sharp and in the _Reflets dans l'eau_, an F. Most of Debussy's
+compositions imply the principles, albeit freely used, of Two- and
+Three-part form and the fundamental laws of key-relationship and of
+artistic contrast.
+
+[Footnote 297: The best books yet written on Debussy and his style are
+those by Mrs. Liebich and Louis Laloy. Consult also the comprehensive
+essay by E.B. Hill in Vol. III of the _Art of Music_.]
+
+In considering the value of Debussy's message, _i.e._, the content of
+his music, the animus and predilection of the hearer have to be taken
+into account. For his music is so intensely subjective and intimate
+that you like it or not, as the case may be. Many persons, however,
+become very fond of it, when they have accustomed themselves to its
+peculiar idiom. The charge that there is in Debussy no melody of a
+purely musical nature, as some critics have asserted,[298] seems to
+the writer too sweeping and not supported by the inner evidence. It
+may be granted that Debussy's melodic line is very fluid and elastic,
+like Wagner's "continuous melody," not definitely sectionalized by
+balanced phrases or set cadences. But it surely has its own right to
+existence--music being pre-eminently the art of freedom--and let us
+remember that Nature herself has melting outlines, shadowy vistas and
+subtle rhythms. Debussy, in fact, is the poet of the "indefinite" and
+the "suggestive" and his music has had a great influence in freeing
+expression from scholastic bonds. Even from the standpoint of the
+popular conception of "tune" it is difficult to see what objection can
+be made to the following melodies:
+
+[Music: _L'isle joyeuse_]
+
+[Music: _Poissons d'or_]
+
+[Music: _Cortege_]
+
+[Footnote 298: See the 2d volume of _Great Composers_ by D.G. Mason
+and also the essay on Debussy in _Contemporary Composers_ by the same
+author.]
+
+It cannot be denied that such an individual style as Debussy's is
+liable to manneristic treatment, though whether he should be called
+"the prince of mannerists"[299] is decidedly open to debate. Some
+critics feel that he has over-used the whole-tone scale and it must be
+confessed, he has a rather affected fondness for a formula of
+block-like chords, _e.g._
+
+[Music: _Danse sacree_]
+
+[Footnote 299: According to Ernest Newman in a well-known article in
+the Musical Times (London).]
+
+But these, after all, are but "spots on the sun." To sum up our
+conclusions: the following merits in Debussy's music, it seems to me,
+cannot be gainsaid. He has widened incalculably the vocabulary of
+music and has expressed in poetic and convincing fashion moods which
+never before had been attempted. In his work are new revelations of
+the power of the imagination. As Lawrence Gilman keenly remarks, "He
+has known how to find music (in _Pelleas et Melisande_) for the
+sublime reflection of Arkel, 'If I were God, I should pity the hearts
+of men.'" Debussy was also gifted with rare critical ability and many
+of his observations are worthy of deep consideration. For
+example--"Music should be cleared of all scientific apparatus. Music
+should seek humbly to give pleasure; great beauty is possible between
+these limits. Extreme complexity is the opposite of art. Beauty should
+be perceptible; it should impose itself on us, or insinuate itself,
+without any effort on our part to grasp it. Look at Leonardo da Vinci,
+Mozart! These are great artists."
+
+No account of modern French music would be satisfactory which omitted
+to mention several composers who, though of somewhat lesser importance
+than d'Indy and Debussy, have nevertheless achieved works of
+distinction and charm. These are Chabrier, Faure, Duparc, Chausson and
+Ravel. Chabrier (1841-1894) is noted for a bold exuberance and
+vividness of expression, for a sense of humor and for a power of
+orchestral color and brilliance which have not been duplicated. His
+style is entirely his own and he is a veritable incarnation of "vis
+Gallica." Born in the South of France, the hot blood of that magic
+land seems to throb in his music. We have from him several pianoforte
+compositions of marked originality, in particular the _Bourree
+Fantasque_, some inimitable songs, _e.g._, _Les Cigales_ and _La
+Villanelle des petits Canards_ and, most famous of all, his Rhapsody
+for orchestra entitled _Espana_, based on Spanish themes. This work
+has proved to be a landmark in descriptive power and shares with
+Rimsky-Korsakoff's _Scheherazade_ the claim of being the most
+brilliant piece of orchestral writing in modern times. Some of
+Chabrier's best work is in his opera of _Gwendoline_, especially the
+Prelude to the second act which is often played by itself.
+
+Although Faure (1845-still living) is more versatile and prolific than
+Chabrier, his fame rests upon his achievements in two fields--the song
+and pianoforte composition. Some of his pianoforte pieces are, to be
+sure, of a light, _salon_ type; yet in many we find a true, poetic
+sentiment and they are all written in a thoroughly pianistic idiom. In
+fact, prior to Debussy Faure was the only Frenchman worthy to compare
+in mastery of pianoforte style with Chopin, Schumann and Liszt. As a
+song composer Faure ranks with the highest in modern times. The exotic
+charm and finesse of workmanship in such songs as _Clair de Lune_,
+_Les Roses d'Ispahan_ cannot be denied and the instrumental part is
+always worthy of the composer's genius for pianoforte style, _e.g._,
+the accompaniment to _Nell_ being a model in its free polyphony and
+richness of effect. Faure has been fastidious in his selection of
+texts and he is fortunate to have been able to avail himself of the
+genius of such lyric poets as Leconte de Lisle, Baudelaire, Verlaine,
+Sully-Prudhomme and others. Indeed as a song-composer Faure may fairly
+be grouped with the great German masters. His songs are not German
+songs, but they are just as subtle in expressing all that is fine in
+French spirit as those of Schumann and Brahms in their Teutonic
+sentiment. For this reason alone Faure is a commanding figure in
+modern French music. He is also the author of a violin sonata which
+has enjoyed a popularity second only to that of Franck and a Quintet
+for pianoforte and strings of distinct originality.
+
+Duparc (1848-still living) one of the earliest of Cesar Franck's
+pupils--though working in practically but a single field and though by
+reason of ill health he has written nothing since 1885--will always
+hold high rank for the beauty and breadth of his songs, especially
+_L'invitation au Voyage_, _Extase_ and _Phydile_. This last is
+considered by the writer the most exquisite song in modern literature;
+its melody, its modulations, its accompaniment alike are
+flawless.[300]
+
+[Footnote 300: An excellent collection of modern French songs may be
+found in the two volumes published by the Oliver Ditson Co. in the
+Musicians Library.]
+
+Chausson (1855-1899) the most gifted of Franck's pupils, though
+without d'Indy's strength of character, was killed by an unfortunate
+accident[301] just as he was ready for an adequate self-expression. He
+had a sensitive imagination, an individual harmonic style; and in
+those works which he has left--notably several songs, a Quartet for
+pianoforte and strings and the Symphony in B-flat major, op. 20--there
+is found a spirit of genuine romantic inspiration.
+
+[Footnote 301: While he was riding a bicycle.]
+
+Although Ravel (1875-still living) cannot claim to be a pioneer like
+Debussy--since in his music there are frequent traces of the
+exuberance of Chabrier, the suavity of Faure, the atmosphere and
+impressionistic tendencies of Debussy and the exoticism of the
+Neo-Russians--yet he is indeed no empty reflection of these men, for
+he has his own bold, fantastic style and has been a daring
+experimenter in freedom of harmony and structure. One finds a power of
+ironic brilliance and of unexpected harmonic transformations certainly
+new in modern literature. Ravel[302] is one of the most versatile and
+prolific of all the younger Frenchmen having composed significant
+works in at least four fields: songs, particularly the set entitled
+_Histoires Naturelles_, which reveal an unusual instinct for delicate
+description; and pianoforte pieces of which _Miroirs_, the dazzling
+tour de force _Jeux d'eau_, the _Valses nobles et sentimentales_, the
+_Sonatine_, the _Pavane_ and, above all, the Poems, _Gaspard de la
+Nuit_ (_Ondine_, _Le Gibbet_[303] and _Scarbo_) are conspicuous
+examples of his style. Furthermore in the field of chamber music are
+found a String Quartet, remarkable for inspiration and for certainty
+of workmanship, and a Trio (for pianoforte, violin and 'cello) which
+is one of the most brilliant modern works, of convincing originality
+in its freedom of rhythm, _e.g._, the opening measures of the first
+movement.
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 302: The best account of his works and style is to be found
+in the volume _Maurice Ravel et son oeuvre_ by Roland Manuel.]
+
+[Footnote 303: _Le Gibbet_ is without doubt the most realistic piece
+of musical description in our time.]
+
+Finally, for orchestra his _Spanish Rhapsody_ ranks with Chabrier's
+_Espana_ and Debussy's _Iberia_ as the acme of descriptive power and
+of orchestral color. His _Mother Goose Suite_ (originally a set of
+four-hand pieces but since orchestrated with incomparable finesse)
+illustrates his humor and play of fancy. It has become a truly popular
+concert number. Ravel's chef d'oeuvre the "choreographic symphony"
+_Daphnis et Chloe_ displays an extraordinary synthetic grasp, for all
+the factors--plot, action, the musical fabric, a large orchestra and a
+chorus of mixed voices behind the scenes--are held together with a
+master hand. This work ranks with Debussy's _Pelleas et Melisande_ as
+the most significant dramatic work of recent years.
+
+It is evident, we trust, from the foregoing somewhat condensed
+estimates that the modern French school is very much alive, that it
+has to its credit numerous distinct achievements and that it contains
+the promise of still further growth. The French nature, which is
+highly emotional and yet, at its best, always controlled[304] by a
+regard for fitness and clarity of thought, is particularly suited to
+express itself worthily in music, for in no other form of artistic
+endeavor is this balance more requisite. Music without emotion is, to
+be sure, like "sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal" and dies in short
+order. On the other hand, music which is a mere display of crude
+emotion soon palls. The works of modern French composers deserve
+enthusiastic study for their charm, their finish and their refined
+emotional power.
+
+[Footnote 304: Witness the wonderful manifestation of these qualities
+by the French in the recent war.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+NATIONAL SCHOOLS--RUSSIAN, BOHEMIAN AND SCANDINAVIAN
+
+
+Before beginning an account of Tchaikowsky, the most noted though not
+necessarily the greatest of the Russian composers, a few words may be
+said concerning nationalism in music, the chief representatives of
+which are the Russians, the Bohemians, the Scandinavians and the
+Hungarians. Of these, however, the present-day Russian School is the
+most active and contributes constantly new factors to musical
+evolution. This grafting of forms of expression derived from the
+outlying nations on to the parent-stock of music--which for some
+three hundred years had been in the exclusive control of Italy,
+Germany and France--has been a stimulating factor in the development
+of the last half-century. For the idiom of music was becoming somewhat
+stereotyped, and it has been noticeably revitalized by the
+incorporation of certain "exotic" traits, of which there run through
+all national music these three: (1) the use, in their folk-songs, of
+other forms of scale and mode than are habitual with ourselves; (2)
+the preference given to the minor mode and the free commingling of
+major and minor; (3) the great rhythmic variety and especially the use
+of groups foreign to our musical sense, such as measures of 5 and 7
+beats, and the intentional placing of the accent on parts of the
+measure which with us are ordinarily unaccented. Every country has its
+folk-songs--the product of national rather than individual genius--but
+Russia, in the number and variety of these original melodies is most
+exceptional. The Russian expresses himself spontaneously in song, and
+so we find appropriate music for every activity or incident in daily
+life: planting songs, reaping songs, boating songs, wedding songs,
+funeral songs; Russian soldiers sing on the march and even enter upon
+a desperate charge with songs on their lips. In certain battles of the
+Crimean War this fact caused much comment from the English officers.
+For many centuries the bulk of the Russian people has been
+downtrodden; and the country, with its endless steppes and gloomy
+climate, is hardly such as to call forth the sparkling vivacity found
+in the Scandinavian and Hungarian songs. The prevalent mood in Russian
+folk-songs is one of melancholy or of brooding, wistful
+tenderness--very often in the old Greek modes, the Aeolian, Dorian and
+Phrygian. From this we see the close connection existing between the
+Russian and Greek Churches. The Russian liturgy is exceedingly old,
+and Russian church music, always unaccompanied, has long been
+celebrated for its dignified character, especially those portions
+rendered by men's voices, which are capable of unusually low
+notes,[305] as majestic as those of an organ.
+
+[Footnote 305: In Grove's Dictionary, under Bass, occurs this
+statement: This voice, found, or at least cultivated, only in Russia
+is by special training made to descend to FF [Music].]
+
+During the entire 18th century the development of music in Russia was
+in the hands of imported Italians; the beginnings of a national type
+being first made in the works of Glinka, born 1804. By the middle of
+the 19th century two schools had arisen, the Neo-Russian group of
+Balakireff, Borodin, Cui, Rimsky-Korsakoff and Moussorgsky, who
+believed in the extreme development of national traits in melody,
+rhythm and color; and a second group which was more cosmopolitan in
+its tastes and believed that Russian music, without abandoning its
+national flavor, could be written in a style of universal appeal. The
+chief members of this group were Rubinstein and Tchaikowsky, and
+distinguished pupils of the latter, in particular Rachmaninoff and
+Glazounoff. To the world at large Tchaikowsky, of them all, has made
+the strongest appeal; though he himself said that Rimsky-Korsakoff as
+an orchestral colorist was more able, and certainly Moussorgsky has a
+more strongly marked individuality. Tchaikowsky (1840-1893) like so
+many of the Russian composers, began as a cultivated amateur who
+showed no special musical gifts, save a sensitive nature and a general
+fondness for the art. He studied in the school of jurisprudence and
+won a post in the Ministry of Justice. In 1861, however, his musical
+nature awaking with a bound, he gave up all official work and for the
+sake of art faced a life of poverty. Under the teaching of Nicholas
+Rubinstein at the Petrograd Conservatory he made such amazing progress
+that in five years he himself was Professor of Harmony at Moscow and
+had begun his long series of compositions--at first operas of merely
+local fame. There now followed years of great activity spent in
+teaching and composing--well-known works being the first String
+Quartet and the Pianoforte Concerto in B-flat minor, first performed
+by von Buelow at Boston in '88. At this period his health completely
+broke down, the immediate cause being an unhappy marriage. He finally
+rallied but had to travel abroad for a year, and for the rest of his
+life his temper, never bright, was overcast with gloom. There now
+entered Tchaikowsky's life Frau von Meck, the woman who played the
+part of fairy godmother. She greatly admired his music, was wealthy
+and generous and, that he might have entire leisure for composition,
+settled upon him a liberal annuity. Their relationship is one of the
+most remarkable in the annals of art; for, fearing that the ideal
+would be shattered, they met but once, quite by accident, and
+Tchaikowsky was "acutely embarrassed." We have a lengthy and
+impassioned correspondence, and Tchaikowsky's 4th Symphony, dedicated
+"a mon meilleur ami," is the result of this friendship. In 1891,
+invited to New York for the dedication of Carnegie Hall, he made his
+memorable American tour. His success was genuine, and was the
+beginning of the popularity his music has always enjoyed in this
+country. For several years Tchaikowsky had been working at his Sixth
+Symphony, to which he himself gave the distinctive title "Pathetic."
+This work ends with one of the saddest dirges in all literature,
+although Tchaikowsky, during its composition, as we know from his
+letters, had never been in a happier state of mind or worked more
+passionately and freely. He himself says, "I consider it the best,
+especially the most open-hearted of all my works." When, however, he
+suddenly died in 1893, there were rumors of suicide, but it is now
+definitely settled that his death was caused by cholera.[306]
+
+[Footnote 306: The writer had this statement from the lips of
+Tchaikowsky's own brother, Modeste.]
+
+To turn now to his achievements, it may be asserted that Tchaikowsky
+was marvellously versatile, composing in every form save for the
+organ; for productiveness, only Mozart, Schubert and Liszt can be
+compared with him. His works comprise eight operas, six symphonies,
+six symphonic poems, three overtures, four orchestral suites, two
+pianoforte concertos, a violin concerto, three string quartets, a
+wonderful trio, about one hundred songs and a large number of
+pianoforte pieces. In addition he made several settings of the Russian
+liturgy and edited many volumes of church music. Whatever may be the
+final estimate of his music, it assuredly has great vogue at present,
+for it is an intense expression of that mental and spiritual unrest so
+characteristic of our times. As Byron was said to have but one
+subject, himself, so all Tchaikowsky's music is the message of his
+highly emotional and feverish sensibility. He is invariably eloquent
+in the presentation of his material, although the thoughts are often
+slight and the impression made not lasting. He pours out his emotions
+with the impulsiveness and abandon so characteristic of his race, and
+this lack of serenity, of restraint, is surely his gravest weakness.
+We are reminded by his music of a fire which either glows fitfully or
+bursts forth into a fierce uncontrolled blaze, but where a steady
+white heat is too often missing. His style has been concisely
+described as fiery exultation on a basis of languid melancholy. To all
+this we may retort that what he lacks in profundity and firm control,
+he makes up in spontaneity, wealth of imagination and, above all,
+warmth of color. It is illogical to expect his music to be different
+from what it is. He expressed himself sincerely and his style is the
+direct outcome of his own temperament plus his nationality.
+Tchaikowsky was widely read in modern literature--Dickens and
+Thackeray being favorite authors--and had travelled much. The breadth
+of his cultivation is shown in the subjects of his symphonic poems and
+the texts of his songs, which are from Shakespeare, Dante, Goethe and
+Bryon. However much estimates may differ as to the import of
+Tchaikowsky's message, he is universally recognized as a superb
+"colorist," one of the masters of modern orchestral treatment; who, by
+his subtle feeling for richness and variety of tone, has enlarged the
+means of musical expression. This is especially shown in the
+characteristic use he makes of the orchestra in its lower ranges. As
+Brahms, for depth of thought, was compared with Browning, so
+Tchaikowsky may well be likened to such poets as Shelley and
+Swinburne, so exquisite is his instinct for tonal beauty and for
+delicacy of shading. At times, to be sure, he fairly riots in gorgeous
+colors--this being the result of his Slavic blood--but few composers
+have been able to achieve such brilliancy without becoming vulgar.
+
+As to the charge of pessimism often made against Tchaikowsky, he was a
+thinker, an explorer into the mysteries of human aspiration and
+disappointment,[307] and his music seems weighted down with the riddle
+of the universe. This introspective dejection, however, is a natural
+result of his temperament and his nationality. If to us of a more
+hopeful outlook upon life it seems morbid, we should simply remember
+that our conditions have been different. A distinction must likewise
+be made between the expression of such feelings in art and their
+influence in actual life. As a man Tchaikowsky was practical,
+conscientious, and did not in the least allow his feelings to
+emasculate him. He was a prodigious worker and throughout his career,
+in the face of ill health and many adverse circumstances, showed
+immense courage. His creed was no ignoble one--"To regret the past, to
+hope in the future, and never to be satisfied with the present; this
+is my life." And to a gushing patroness of art who asked him what were
+his ideals, his simple reply was "My ideal is to become a good
+composer." Certain English critics in their fault-finding have been
+particularly boresome, because, forsooth, Tchaikowsky's music does not
+show the serenity of Brahms or the solidity or stolidity of their own
+composers. To the well-fed and prosperous Briton "God's in his Heaven,
+all's right with the world" is hardly an expression of faith, but a
+certainty of existence. Not so with the Russian, upon whom the
+oppression of centuries has left its stamp. This same note of gloomy
+or even morbid introspection is found in some of the great literature
+of the world--in the Bible, the Greek Tragedies and in Shakespeare.
+Granted that optimism is the only working creed for every-day life,
+until the millenium arrives a sincere and artistic expression of the
+sorrows of humanity will always strike a note in oppressed souls.
+
+[Footnote 307: See the passage from his diary (quoted on page 504 of
+the _Biography_ by his brother) in which he writes--"What touching
+love and compassion for mankind lie in these words: 'Come unto me, all
+ye that labor and are heavy laden!' In comparison with these simple
+words all the Psalms of David are as nothing."]
+
+Each of Tchaikowsky's last three symphonies is a remarkable work. The
+Fourth is most characteristically Russian and certainly the most
+striking in its uncompromising directness of expression. The first
+movement announces a recurrent, intensely subjective motto typical of
+that impending Fate which would not allow Tchaikowsky happiness.[308]
+The slow movement is based upon a Russian folk song of a melancholy
+beauty, sung by the oboe, and another, already cited (see Chapter II,
+p. 33), is incorporated in the Finale. The Scherzo is unique as an
+orchestral _tour de force_; for, with the exception of a short middle
+portion for wood-wind and brass, it is for the string orchestra
+playing pizzicato throughout. The effect is extremely fantastic and
+resembles that of ghosts flitting about in their stocking-feet or of
+sleep-chasings, to use Whitman's expression.[309] The Finale is a riot
+of natural, primitive joy, a picture--as the composer says--of a
+popular festivity. "When you find no joy within you, go among the
+people, see how fully they give themselves up to joyous feelings."
+Fate sounds its warning, but in vain; nothing can repress the
+exultation of the composer. "Enjoy the joy of others and--you still
+can live." The work is sensational, even trivial in places; but it
+reveals sincerity and elemental life. The composer lays himself bare
+and we see a real man--not a masked hypocrite--with all his joys and
+sorrows, caught, as Henley would say, "in the fell clutch of
+circumstance," bludgeoned by Fate.
+
+[Footnote 308: See the detailed program by the composer himself, cited
+in Nieck's _Program Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 309: For this simile I am indebted to Mr. Philip Hale.]
+
+The Sixth Symphony, the Pathetic, is the most popular and, on the
+whole, Tchaikowsky's most sustained work. It owes its hold upon public
+esteem to the eloquent way in which it presents that "maladie du
+siecle" which, in all modern art,[310] is such a prominent note. The
+mood may be a morbid one but we cannot mistake the conviction with
+which it is treated. The work is likewise significant because of the
+novel grouping of movements. The first is in complete sonata form and
+for finished architecture will stand comparison with any use of that
+form. The themes are eloquent, well contrasted and organically
+developed. The orchestration is a masterpiece.[311] The second
+movement is the one famous for its use of five beats a measure
+throughout; and its trio, on a persistent pedal note D, is a striking
+example of the Russian tendency to become fairly obsessed with one
+rhythm. It is an intentional, artistic use of monotony and may be
+compared to the limitless Russian Steppes. If it seem strange to
+Western Europeans, it should be remembered that the music is Russian
+and portrays a mood perfectly natural to that people. The third
+movement is a combination of a scherzo and a march--of a most
+unbridled fury. The Finale is a threnody, one of overpowering grief,
+the motto of which might be "vanity of vanities, all is vanity." It
+abounds in soul-stirring orchestral eloquence and invariably makes a
+deep impression.
+
+[Footnote 310: For further comment see the Life of Tchaikowsky by Rosa
+Newmarch.]
+
+[Footnote 311: As may be seen by the number of illustrations from it
+in text books!]
+
+For special comment we have selected Tchaikowsky's[312] Fifth Symphony
+in E minor since, being a union of Russian and Italian characteristics,
+it reveals that eclecticism so prominent in his style. It is also an
+admirable example of organic relationship between the movements. This
+symphony, like the Fourth, contains a recurrent motto of sombre nature
+in the minor mode which, appearing in the first three movements with
+some dramatic implication, is changed in the Finale to the major and
+used as the basis for a march of rejoicing. The first and last
+movements are in elaborate sonata-form; the second and third in
+three-part form. The Finale is one of the most striking examples in
+modern literature of a _resume_ of preceding themes and hence a
+convincing proof of the composer's constructive power. The symphony
+begins with a long prelude announcing the motto. Scored for clarinets,
+bassoons and low strings it shows vividly that peculiar impression
+which Tchaikowsky secured by using the lower ranges of the orchestra.
+
+[Footnote 312: The authoritative work on Tchaikowsky is _The Life and
+Letters_ by his brother Modeste; the abridged biography by Rosa
+Newmarch should also be read. There are excellent essays in
+_Mezzotints in Modern Music_ by Huneker; in Streatfield's volume
+_Modern Composers_ and in Mason's _From Grieg to Brahms_.]
+
+[Music]
+
+The melody itself seldom moves above middle C, and its effect is
+enhanced by the quality of the clarinets in their chalumeau register.
+The first theme of the movement proper (beginning at the Allegro con
+anima), on the same harmonic basis as the motto and derived from it
+rhythmically, is given out _pp_ by a solo clarinet and solo bassoon,
+accompanied by very light detached chords in the strings, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+This is elaborately and brilliantly developed until, in measure 79
+(counting from the Allegro), we reach a transitional, subsidiary theme
+in B minor. This is followed by some striking sequences, exquisitely
+scored, and then (at un pochettino piu animato) there is a quickened
+presentation of the transitional theme, interspersed by syncopated
+calls--on the horns and wood-wind--a presentation which introduces the
+second theme in D major, marked molto piu tranquillo. This melody,
+sung by the violins against an obbligato in the wood-wind, is clearly
+Italian in its grace and suavity and establishes that wonderful
+contrast so prominent in Tchaikowsky--the warmth and exuberance of the
+South set against the grim austerity of the North.
+
+[Music]
+
+This theme, expanded (stringendo and crescendo) into a series of
+exciting climaxes _fff_ leads, after some modulatory phrases derived
+from the transitional theme, to the Development which begins in B-flat
+major. Throughout this is a fine piece of work--with real thematic
+growth, bold modulations and no "padding." It should refute completely
+any erroneous opinion that Tchaikowsky was lacking in power of organic
+treatment. The connection between the Development and the
+Recapitulation is skilfully managed and the third part does not bore
+us but is welcomed as something we would gladly hear again. There is a
+long and stormy Coda--a second development in true Beethoven
+style--which finally ends _ppp_ in the lowest depths of the orchestra,
+in the same mood as the opening measures.
+
+The second movement, Andante cantabile, con alcuna licenza, with its
+melting theme on the solo horn, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+--accompanied later by answering phrases on the clarinet--might seem a
+bit too "luscious" were it not for the beauty and finish of the
+orchestration. The movement is in rather loose three-part form--as the
+title would imply--the joints being somewhat obvious in certain
+places, _e.g._, measures 39-45. The themes, however, have that
+intensity peculiar to Tchaikowsky, and the original orchestral
+treatment, especially in the use of the horns, enhances their effect.
+The middle contrasting portion, starting in F-sharp minor, shows some
+very effective polyphonic imitations based on the following theme:
+
+[Music]
+
+At the climax of its development the motto is proclaimed _fff_ in a
+most arresting manner--its effect being due to the unusual pedal point
+which makes a chord of the second with the upper voices, _e.g._,
+
+[Music]
+
+The third part with slight expansions corresponds to the first. At its
+close, just before the Coda, we have a second appearance of the
+motto--this time, on account of the fierce dissonances, with even more
+sinister effect.[313] The closing measures are of great beauty by
+reason of the imitations on the strings and the dreamy, reminiscent
+phrase on the clarinets, _e.g._
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 313: The passage has already been cited in Chapter IV as an
+example of a deceptive cadence.]
+
+The third movement, a Waltz, with a graceful theme, in clear-cut
+three-part form, needs little comment. If any one considers it too
+light or even trivial for a place in a symphony he might study the
+individual orchestration and then try to compose one like it! The
+second and third parts are ingeniously fused together--Tchaikowsky
+following the practise of Mozart, his favorite master, in the first
+movement of the G minor Symphony. In the Russian philosophy of life,
+however, there is no such thing as perpetual joy; so, even amid scenes
+of festivity, the motto obtrudes itself as if to ask "What right have
+you to be dancing when life is so stern and grim?" See measures 23-28
+from end of movement.
+
+[Music]
+
+The Finale, in complete sonata-form and laid out on a large scale, for
+several reasons is of distinct significance. It is a carefully planned
+_resume_ of preceding themes; it contains several examples of those
+periods of depression or exultation (especially on a pedal-point) so
+characteristic of the Slav, and lastly, there are pages of extreme
+brilliancy. In fact, the orchestration throughout is of such
+convincing power that it refutes any charge of sensationalism or mere
+bombast. If to us the music seem unrestrained, unbridled, we are to
+remember that the Russian temperament is prone to a reckless display
+of emotion just as in their churches they like to "lay the colors on
+thick." The movement begins with an extended prelude in which the
+original sombre motto is transformed into a stately, march-like theme.
+This is presented twice with continually richer scoring and more
+rhythmic animation. The closing measures of the prelude are a specific
+instance of that protracted mood of depression spoken of above. The
+movement proper begins at the Allegro vivace with a fierce,
+impassioned theme,
+
+[Music]
+
+which leads, in measure 25, to a subsidiary theme treated at first in
+free double counterpoint[314] and later canonically.
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 314: By double counterpoint is meant such a grouping of the
+voices that they may be inverted (the upper voice becoming the lower
+and vice versa) and sound equally well. For further comments, together
+with illustrative examples, consult Chapter IX of Spalding's _Tonal
+Counterpoint_.]
+
+[Music]
+
+This is developed with more and more animation until the announcement,
+in measure 71, of the second theme in D major. Here we see the first
+instance of that organic relationship for which the movement is noted;
+for this theme
+
+[Music]
+
+is evidently derived by rhythmic modification from that of the
+preceding slow movement. It is brilliantly expanded and leads
+directly--there being no double bar and repeat--to the development in
+measure 115. This part of the movement evades description; it is
+throughout most eloquent and exciting. In measures 153-160 all the
+bells of Russia seem to be pealing! With measure 177 begins (marcato
+largamente) an impressive treatment in the bass of the second theme,
+answered shortly after in the upper voice. This is developed to a
+climax which, in turn, is followed by one of those long periods of
+"cooling down" which prepare us for the Recapitulation in measure
+239. This corresponds exactly with the Exposition, ending with two
+passages (poco meno mosso and molto vivace),--based upon the rhythm of
+the motto--which usher in the long, elaborate Coda. This begins,
+maestoso, with an impressive statement of the march theme, scored in
+brilliant fashion, with rushing figures in the wood-wind instruments.
+It seems to portray some ceremonial in a vast cathedral with trumpets
+blaring and banners flying. A still more gorgeous treatment (marziale,
+energico, con tutta forza) leads to the Presto based on the subsidiary
+theme (cited on page 312), which fairly carries us off our feet. The
+last portion of the Coda (molto meno mosso) is an animated yet
+dignified proclamation of the main theme of the first movement--the
+work thus concluding with an unmistakable effect of unity.
+
+[Music]
+
+The subject of Russian music[315] is too vast for any adequate
+treatment within the limits of a single book, but there are several
+other composers in addition to Tchaikowsky of such individuality and
+remarkable achievement as to warrant some notice. These men,
+Balakireff, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakoff and Moussorgsky, have done for
+the free expression of the Russian temperament in music what Pushkin,
+Gogol and Dostoyevsky represent in literature. "To understand fully
+the tendencies of Neo-Russian music, and above all to sympathize with
+the spirit in which this music is written, the incredible history of
+Holy Russia, the history of its rulers and people--the mad caprices
+and horrid deeds of the Romanoffs, who, in centuries gone by,
+surpassed in restless melancholy and atrocity the insane Caesars, and
+were more to be pitied, as well as detested, than Tiberius or
+Nero--the nature of the landscape, the waste of steppes, the
+dreariness of winter, and the loneliness of summer--the barbaric
+extravagance of aristocratic life--the red tape, extortion, and
+cruelty of officers--the sublime patience of the common people--the
+devotion of the enduring, starving multitude to the Tsar--all this
+should be as familiar as a twice-told tale. There should also be a
+knowledge of Russian literature, from the passion of Pushkin and the
+irony of Gogol, to Turgenieff's tales of life among the serfs, and the
+novels of Tolstoi, in which mysticism and realism are strangely
+blended. Inasmuch as Neo-Russian music is founded upon the folk-songs
+of that country, one should know first of all the conditions that made
+such songs possible, and one should breathe the atmosphere in which
+musicians who have used such songs have worked."[316]
+
+[Footnote 315: The most authoritative work in English is the _History
+of Russian Music_ by Montagu-Nathan; in French there are the Essays
+_Musiques de Russie_ by Bruneau.]
+
+[Footnote 316: Quoted from the chapter on Russian music in _Famous
+Composers and Their Works_ (2d series).]
+
+The first real leader after the wholesome beginnings made by Glinka
+(with his operas, _A Life for the Czar_ and _Ludmilla_) was Balakireff
+(1837-1910) who finding his country almost entirely under the dominion
+of Italian and German music, proclaimed the doctrine that Russia, with
+its wealth of folk-songs and its undoubted emotional power should
+create its own music. Like many of the Russians Balakireff was an
+amateur, but in the true sense of that term, _i.e._, he loved music
+for its own sake. He therefore set to work vigorously to combat
+foreign influences and to manifest in original works a spirit true to
+his own genius and to the tendencies of his native land. Though
+educated as a lawyer he had acquired through a study of Mozart,
+Berlioz and Liszt a thorough technique and so was equipped to put into
+practise his watchword which was individual liberty. "I believe in the
+subjective, not in the objective power of music," he said to his
+pupils. "Objective music may strike us with its brilliancy, but its
+achievement remains the handiwork of a mediocre talent. Mediocre or
+merely talented musicians are eager to produce effects, but the ideal
+of a genius is to reproduce his very self, in unison with the object
+of his art. There is no doubt that art requires technique, but it
+must be absolutely unconscious and individual.... Often the greatest
+pieces of art are rather rude technically, but they grip the soul and
+command attention for intrinsic values. This is apparent in the works
+of Michelangelo, of Shakespeare, of Turgenieff, and of Mozart. The
+beauty that fascinates us most is that which is most individual. I
+regard technique as a necessary but subservient element. It may,
+however, become dangerous and kill individuality as it has done with
+those favorites of our public, whose virtuosity I despise more than
+mere crudities." Balakireff's actual works are few in number since he
+spent most of his time in organizing schools of music and in teaching
+others; but in those works which we have[317] there is a strong note
+of freedom not to be missed. His Symphonic Poem _Tamara_ and his
+fantasy for pianoforte _Islamey_ are remarkable for that semi-oriental
+exotic spirit so prevalent in Russian music. Many of his songs also
+are of genuine beauty.
+
+[Footnote 317: Towards the end of his life he destroyed many of his
+compositions.]
+
+Borodin (1834-1887) is the ne plus ultra example of that versatility
+in which the modern Russian School is unique. As a surgeon and doctor
+he enjoyed a high position; as a chemist he made original researches
+and wrote treatises which were recognized as distinct contributions to
+science; he was one of the earliest scholars in the world to advocate
+that women should have the same education as men and was one of the
+founders (about 1870) of a medical school for women in Petrograd. So
+tireless was he in these varied activities, it seems a miracle that he
+could also become one of the best pianists of his time (he played well
+also the violin and the flute) and according to Liszt,[318] one of the
+most able orchestral masters of the nineteenth century. But as
+evidence of this amazing fact are his works, comprising two symphonies
+(the second in B minor often heard in this country) two string
+quartets, the first strikingly original, thematically, harmonically
+and in idiomatic use of the instruments; a small Suite for pianoforte,
+of which the Serenade is cited in the Supplement; an opera, _Le Prince
+Igor_--remarkable for its picturesque description and Oriental
+coloring, of which the composer himself said "Prince Igor is
+essentially a national opera, which can be of interest only to us
+Russians who love to refresh our patriotism at the sources of our
+history and to see the origins of our nationality live again upon the
+stage;" a symphonic poem _Dans les Steppes de l'Asie centrale_
+and--showing some of his most characteristic work--the _Paraphrases_
+written in collaboration with Korsakoff, Liadoff and Cui as a kind of
+musical joke. This composition,[319] a set of twenty-four variations
+founded on the tune popularly known as "chop-sticks" is dedicated "to
+little pianists capable of executing the theme with a finger of each
+hand." For the paraphrases themselves a player of considerable
+technique is required. In Borodin's style we always find a glowing
+color-scheme of Slavic and Oriental elements. As a modern Russian
+composer says, "It is individually descriptive and extremely
+modern--so modern that the audience of to-day will not be able to
+grasp all its intrinsic beauties."
+
+[Footnote 318: For a delightful account of the friendship of these two
+composers consult the volume _Borodin and Liszt_ by Alfred Habets
+(translated by Rosa Newmarch).]
+
+[Footnote 319: According to Liszt "a compendium of musical science in
+the form of a jest."]
+
+The most widely known and in many respects the most gifted of the
+Neo-Russian group is Rimsky-Korsakoff (1844-1908). He has been aptly
+characterized as the Degas or Whistler of music, and for his
+marvellous powers of description, especially of the sea, and for his
+command of orchestral tone-painting he is considered the storyteller
+par excellence in modern music. As in the case of Borodin we are
+filled with amazement at the power of work and the versatility in
+Korsakoff's nature. For many years he was an officer in the Russian
+navy and throughout his life was involved with official duties. Yet he
+found time for a number of compositions of originality and finished
+workmanship. These comprise the symphonic poems _Antar_, _Sadko_ and
+_Scheherazade_;[320] a _Spanish Caprice_ for full orchestra; twelve
+operas of which the best known in this country is the fascinating _Le
+Coq d'Or_; a concerto for pianoforte and orchestra; a large number of
+songs and many choruses for men's and women's voices. His treatises on
+harmony and orchestration are standard works, the latter being the
+authority in modern treatment of the orchestra. His _Scheherazade_ is
+undoubtedly the most brilliant descriptive work in modern literature,
+for an account of which we quote the eloquent words of Philip Hale.
+
+[Footnote 320: This work in structure is a Suite, _i.e._, there are
+four distinct, separated movements.]
+
+"_Scheherazade_ (Op. 35) is a suite inspired by the Arabian Nights.
+The Sultan, persuaded of the falseness and faithlessness of woman, had
+sworn to put every one of his wives to death in turn after the first
+night. But Scheherazade saved her life by interesting him in the
+stories she told him for a thousand and one nights. Many marvels were
+told by her in Rimsky-Korsakoff's fantastic poem,--marvels and tales
+of adventure: 'The Sea and Sinbad's Ship'; 'The Story of the Three
+Kalandars'; 'The Young Prince and the Young Princess'; 'The Festival
+at Bagdad'; 'The Ship that went to pieces against a rock surmounted by
+a bronze warrior.' As in Berlioz's _Fantastic Symphony_, so in this
+suite, there is a theme which keeps appearing in all four movements.
+For the most part it is given to a solo violin. It is a free melodic
+phrase in Oriental bravura, gently ending in a free cadenza. There is
+no development of themes in this strange work. There is constant
+repetition in different tonalities; there is an exceedingly skillful
+blending of timbres; there is a keen sense of possible orchestral
+effects. A glance at the score shows how sadly the pedagogue might go
+astray in judgment of the work, without a hearing of it, and
+furthermore, the imagination of the hearer must be in sympathy with
+the imagination of the composer, if he would know full enjoyment: for
+this symphonic poem provokes swooning thoughts, such as come to the
+partakers of leaves and flowers of hemp; there are the stupefying
+perfumes of charred frankincense and grated sandal-root. The music
+comes to the listener of western birth and mind, as the Malay who
+knocked among English mountains at De Quincey's door. You learn of
+Sinbad, the explorer, who is nearer to us than Nansen; of the Kalandar
+Prince who spent a mad evening with the porter and the three ladies of
+Bagdad, and told of his incredible adventures; and Scheherazade, the
+narrator, she too is merely a shape in a dream; she fades away, and
+her soul dies on the high note exhaled by the wondering violin.
+
+"The melody of this Russian is wild, melancholy, exotic; a droning
+such as falls from the lips of white-bearded, turbaned, venerable men,
+garrulous in the sun; and then again, there is the reckless chatter of
+the babbler in the market-place, heated with unmixed wine."
+
+The most boldly individual of all Russian composers is
+Moussorgsky[321] (1831-1881). Although of intense inspiration and of
+uncompromising ideals his musical education was so incomplete that his
+technique was inadequate for the expression of his message. As the
+French critic, Arthur Pougin well says, "His works bizarre though they
+be, formless as they often are, have in them a force of expression and
+a dramatic accent of which no one can deny the intensity. It would be
+unjust to pretend that he spoke for the purpose of saying nothing;
+unfortunately he is too often satisfied with merely stammering." As
+Moussorgsky himself says: "Art is a means of talking with men; it is
+not an end. Starting with the principle that human speech is subject
+to musical laws, I see in music, not only the expression of sentiment
+by means of sound, but especially the notation of a human language."
+In fact the dominant idea of his music was to bring it into closer
+relation with actual life.
+
+[Footnote 321: For biographical information consult the volume by
+Montagu-Nathan.]
+
+"In order to understand Moussorgsky's work and his attitude towards
+art, it is necessary to realise the social conditions under which he
+lived. He was a true child of the sixties, of that period of moral and
+intellectual ferment which followed the accession of Alexander II and
+the emancipation of the serfs. Of the little group of composers then
+striving to give musical expression to their newly awakened
+nationality, none was so entirely carried away by the literary and
+political movements of the time as Moussorgsky. Every man was asking
+himself and his comrades the question posed by the most popular novel
+of the day: 'What shall we do?' The answer was: 'Throw aside social
+and artistic conventions. Make art the hand-maiden of humanity. Seek
+not for beauty but for truth. Go to the people. Hold out the hand of
+fellowship to the liberated masses and learn from them the true
+purpose of life.' To this democratic and utilitarian spirit, to this
+deep compassion for the people, to this contempt for the dandyism and
+dilettantism of an earlier generation Moussorgsky strove to give
+expression in his music, as Perov expressed it in painting, as
+Tchernichevsky, Dostoyevsky, and Tolstoi expressed it in fiction. We
+may disagree with his aesthetic principles, but we must confess that
+he carried out with logical sequence and conviction a considerable
+portion of his programme. In his sincere efforts to attain great ends
+he undoubtedly overlooked the means. He could never submit to the
+discipline of a thorough musical training as Tchaikowsky and
+Rimsky-Korsakoff. He preserved his originality intact, but at a heavy
+cost. The weakness of his technique has been exaggerated by those who
+put down all his peculiarities to ignorance; but in some
+respects--particularly as regards orchestration--his craftsmanship was
+certainly unequal to the demands of his inspiration, for his aims were
+very lofty. Had this been otherwise, Moussorgsky's name would have
+been more closely linked with those of Berlioz and Richard
+Strauss."[322]
+
+[Footnote 322: Quoted from the article in Grove's Dictionary.]
+
+His acknowledged masterpieces are first, the songs, especially the
+series the _Nursery_ and the _Songs and Dances of Death_, in which we
+see mirrored with extraordinary fidelity the complex nature of the
+Russian people. Rosa Newmarch has called him the Juvenal of musicians.
+Second, his national music drama, _Boris Godounoff_--dealing with one
+of the most sensational episodes in Russian history--which, for the
+gripping vividness of its descriptions, is quite unparalleled.
+
+"_Boris Godounoff_, finished in 1870, was performed four years later
+in the Imperial Opera House. The libretto of this opera he took from
+the poetic drama of Pushkin, but he changed it, eliminating much and
+adding new scenes here and there, so that as a whole it is his own
+creation. In this work Moussorgsky went against the foreign classic
+opera in conception as well as in construction. It is a typically
+Russian music-drama, with all the richness of Slavic colors, true
+Byzantine atmosphere and characters of the medieval ages. Based on
+Russian history of about the middle of the seventeenth century, when
+an adventurous regent ascends the throne and when the court is full of
+intrigues, its theme stands apart from all other operas. The music is
+more or less, like many of Moussorgsky's songs, written in imitation
+of the old folk-songs, folk dances, ceremonial chants, and festival
+tunes. Foreign critics have considered the opera as a piece
+constructed of folk melodies. But this is not the case. There is not a
+single folk melody in Boris Godounoff, every phrase is the original
+creation of Moussorgsky."[323]
+
+[Footnote 323: Quoted from the _Art of Music_, Vol. III.]
+
+In concluding this account of Russian music let the statement be
+repeated that only by a thorough knowledge of the life and character
+of this strange yet gifted people can their music be understood. It is
+necessary therefore to become acquainted with Russian literature and
+pictorial art--with the works of Gogol, Tolstoi and Dostoyevsky and
+the paintings of Perov and Veretschagin. In this way only will be made
+clear what is otherwise inexplicable--the depth and sincerity of the
+Russian soul.
+
+The other two prominent national schools in modern times are the
+Bohemian and Scandinavian. Although from neither of these have we
+products at all comparable in breadth; or depth of meaning with those
+of the Russian school, yet each has its note of exotic individuality
+and hence deserves recognition. The Bohemian School centres about the
+achievements of Fibich, Smetana[324] and Dvo[vr]ak, and its prevalent
+characteristics are the variety of dance rhythms (Bohemia having no
+less than forty national dances) together with the peculiarly novel
+harmonic and modulatory scheme. The dances best known outside of
+Bohemia are the _Polka_[325] and the _Furiant_; the former being used
+so frequently by Smetana and Dvo[vr]ak that it has attained an
+international status. The first of the above group, Fibich
+(1850-1900), was a composer of marked versatility--there being extant
+over seven hundred works in every form--and no little originality.
+Many of his pianoforte pieces have distinct charm and atmosphere and
+should be better known. Fibich was strongly influenced by Schumann,
+and there is found in his music the same note of fantastic freedom
+prominent in the German master. But the first impression of Bohemian
+music upon the world in general was made by Smetana (1824-1884). An
+ardent follower of Liszt, he definitely succeeded in the incorporation
+of Bohemian traits with the current musical idiom just as Liszt had
+done with Hungarian folk-music. Smetana's style is thoroughly
+original, his form is free yet coherent and he has a color sense and
+power of orchestral description peculiar to his race. Bohemia is one
+of the most picturesque countries in the world and the spirit of its
+woodlands, streams and mountains is always plainly felt in Bohemian
+music. The Bohemians are an out-of-door people with an inborn instinct
+for music (with its basic factors of rhythm and sound) by which they
+express the vigorous exuberance of their temperament.[326] Smetana's
+significant work lies in his numerous operas, his symphonic poems and
+in the remarkable String Quartet in E minor entitled "Aus meinem
+Leben." The operas deal with subjects so strongly national that they
+can have but little vogue outside their own country. However, _Prodana
+Nevesta_--_The Bartered Bride_--has been universally recognized as one
+of the genuine comic operas in modern times and its spirited Overture
+(the first theme on a fugal basis) is played the world over. His six
+Symphonic Poems, comprised under the title _Mein Vaterland_, are works
+of considerable power and brilliant orchestral treatment. Perhaps the
+finest sections are _Vltava_ (Moldau), celebrating the beauties of
+Bohemia's sacred river, and _Vy[vs]ehrad_, a realistic description of
+the national fortress at Prague.[327] The Quartet in E minor, noted
+for its freedom and intimacy of style, has become a classic. Whenever
+it was performed Smetana wished the sub-title "Aus Meinem Leben" to be
+printed on the program; for, as he says in a letter to a friend, "My
+quartet is no mere juggling with tones; instead I have wished to
+present the hearer with pictures of my life. I have studied theory; I
+know what style means and I am master of it. But I prefer to have
+circumstances determine form and so have written this quartet in the
+form which it itself demanded." In the first and last of the four
+movements there is a long sustained high E, symbolic of the buzzing
+sound which the composer constantly heard as his congenital deafness
+increased. This malady finally affected his mind and was the cause of
+his tragic death in an asylum at Prague.
+
+[Footnote 324: His surname is to be accented on the first syllable--a
+fact which may be remembered from the story attributed to Liszt who,
+once asking Smetana how his name was to be pronounced received this
+reply: My name is always
+
+[Music: _Overture to Fidelio_
+
+Smetana, Smetana, Smetana]
+
+but never
+
+[Music: _Overture to Leonora, No. 3_
+
+Friedrich Smetana Friedrich Smetana.]]
+
+[Footnote 325: For example in the second movement of Smetana's Quartet
+and in Dvo[vr]ak's Suite for small orchestra, op. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 326: For a graphic description of the country and the
+customs of its people consult the essay on Dvo[vr]ak in Hadow's
+_Studies in Modern Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 327: A detailed account of these works may be found in the
+article on Smetana in _Famous Composers and their Works_ (2d series).]
+
+Although in some respects not so characteristic as Smetana,
+Dvo[vr]ak[328] (1841-1904), by reason of his greater breadth and more
+cosmopolitan style, is considered the representative Bohemian
+composer. Dvo[vr]ak's music in its simplicity and in its spontaneity
+of treatment is a reincarnation of Schubert's spirit; we feel the same
+overflowing musical life and we must make the same allowances for
+looseness of structure. Dvo[vr]ak, however, has made one contribution
+thoroughly his own--his skill in handling the orchestra. He was a born
+colorist and his scores in their clarity, in the subtle distinctions
+between richness and delicacy, are recognized masterpieces. As a
+sensuous delight to the ear they may be compared to the fine glow of
+certain Dutch canvases--those for example of Vermeer. Dvo[vr]ak's
+compositions are varied and fairly numerous (some 111 opus numbers)
+comprising operas, cantatas, chamber music, symphonies, overtures,
+pianoforte pieces and songs. From 1892 to 1895 he was in this country
+as director of the National Conservatory in New York. Three works
+composed during this period, a _Quartet_, a _Quintet_ and _The New
+World Symphony_, are of special interest to us since they were meant
+as a compliment to the possibilities of American music and also
+reflect Dvo[vr]ak's attitude toward the sources of musical
+inspiration. A true child of the people, and the embodiment of
+folk-music, he naturally searched for native material when he wished
+to compose something characteristically American. But folk-music in
+our country, as has been stated in Chapter II, is (or was at
+Dvo[vr]ak's time) practically limited to that of the Indians and the
+Negroes. It is often stated, in fact, that the New World Symphony is
+founded upon Negro tunes. This, however, is a sweeping assertion.
+There is no doubt that Dvo[vr]ak found a strong affinity between
+certain of the Southern plantation melodies and the songs of his
+native land, _e.g._, the following melody (the second theme of the
+first movement) which is similar to "Swing low, sweet chariot."
+
+[Music]
+
+[Footnote 328: For his biography, consult the Hadow essay (referred to
+above) and the chapter on Dvo[vr]ak in Mason's _From Grieg to
+Brahms_.]
+
+But the individual tone of the melodies could come only from a
+Bohemian and if they seem both Negro and Bohemian it simply proves the
+common bond existing in all folk-music.[329] This _New World Symphony_
+has had a great vogue and by reason of the warmth of its melodies and
+the rich, colorful scoring is indisputably a work full of charm.[330]
+Two prevalent traits of Dvo[vr]ak's music are noticeable in this
+symphony--the unexpectedness of the modulations and the unusual
+harmonic scheme.[331] The structure is at times rather loose,
+particularly in the Finale where the joints often crack wide open.
+But, as an offset, there is great rhythmic vitality--observe in
+particular the swing of the Trio from the Scherzo--and that sensuous
+tone-color peculiar to the composer. In fact, the scoring of the slow
+movement with its magical theme for English horn would alone
+compensate for many structural blemishes. This movement closes with a
+mysterious chord for divided double basses (four solo instruments)
+which is one of many touches in individual treatment. The Finale, in
+accordance with modern practise, although containing themes of its
+own, finally becomes a _resume_ of preceding material. The two main
+themes are striking and well contrasted; but Dvo[vr]ak was a mediocre
+architect and the movement, in comparison with the Finales of Franck
+and Tchaikowsky, is more of a potpourri than a firmly knit organic
+whole. The final page is stimulating in its bold use of dissonances.
+But we must take Dvo[vr]ak as he is. There is no question of his
+genius, for his music is spontaneous, never labored, and he has
+expressed with convincing artistic skill the emotions and ideals of
+his gifted race.
+
+[Footnote 329: The author has heard this symphony played in Prague and
+other continental cities under Bohemian conductors. It is always
+welcomed as being thoroughly characteristic of Bohemia.]
+
+[Footnote 330: For detailed analytical comment consult Vol. III of
+_Short Studies in Great Masterpieces_ by D.G. Mason.]
+
+[Footnote 331: Note for example the chords at the opening of the slow
+movement.]
+
+Scandinavian music, ethnologically considered, would comprise that of
+the three related nations, the Swedes, the Danes and the Norwegians;
+some would include even the Finns, with their eloquent spokesman
+Sibelius. Although the Danes have considerable folk-music, and as a
+people love music, they have produced no composer of distinction save
+Niels Gade (1817-1890), who was so encrusted with German habits of
+thought that his music is neither one thing or the other--certainly it
+is not characteristically Danish. The best known of the Swedish
+composers is Sjoegren from whom we have some poetic songs. He also
+attempted the larger instrumental forms but without notable success.
+
+Scandinavian music, as far as the outside world is concerned,
+practically centres about the Norwegian composer Grieg[332]
+(1843-1907) just as its dramatic art centres about Ibsen. The names,
+however, of four other Norwegian composers deserve mention: the
+pioneers Kjerulf (1815-1868) noted for his melodious songs; Svendsen
+(1840-1911) endowed with a fine sense for orchestral color; and
+Nordraak (1842-1866) the first self-conscious representative of the
+Norwegian spirit: a talented musician who exerted a marked influence
+upon Grieg--his promise cut short by an early death. In modern times
+the mantle of Grieg has fallen upon Sinding (1856-still living) whose
+songs and poetic pieces for the pianoforte have become household
+favorites. In Norwegian music we find the exuberant rhythmic vitality
+typical of a people living in the bold and highly colored scenery of
+that sun-lit land.[333] Grieg, a born lyric poet saturated with
+folk-music, has embodied this spirit in his works. His fame rests upon
+his songs and descriptive pianoforte pieces; though in his Pianoforte
+Concerto, in his Peer Gynt Suite, in the Violin Sonatas and String
+Quartet he proved that he was not lacking in power to handle larger
+forms. But most of his work is in miniature--the expression, like the
+music of Schubert and Chopin,[334] of moods short and intense. While
+Grieg's music is patterned upon Norwegian folk-dances and
+folk-melodies it is something far more. He has evoked from the
+characteristics of his native land a bold, original harmony and a
+power of color and description thoroughly his own. He might say with
+de Musset "Mon verre n'est pas grand, mais je bois dans mon verre." In
+his music we feel the sparkling sunshine and the breezes of the North.
+In fact, Grieg was the first popular impressionist and for his
+influence in humanizing music and freeing it from academic routine his
+fame will endure. We have cited in the Supplement (Nos. 68, 69) one of
+his most original songs--the melody of which was used also for the
+work _Im Fruehling_ for string orchestra--and a pianoforte piece which
+illustrates his rhythmic life and also in certain measures that
+melodic line typical of all Norwegian music: the descent from the
+leading tone, _i.e._, G, F-sharp, D.
+
+[Footnote 332: The best biography in English is that by H.T. Finck;
+the work, however, is somewhat marred by fulsome praise.]
+
+[Footnote 333: During the summer solstice it is dark for only a few
+hours; and further north, in the land, so-called, of the Midnight Sun,
+for a few weeks there is perpetual daylight.]
+
+[Footnote 334: He was called by Buelow the Chopin of the North.]
+
+For a complete appreciation therefore of national music, we must
+always take into consideration the traits and environment of the
+people from which it sprung. Music, to be sure, is a universal
+language, but each nation has used this language in its own way. The
+most striking fact in present-day music is the variety gained from a
+free expression of nationalism[335] without infringing upon
+universality of appeal.
+
+[Footnote 335: An admirable treatment of the whole subject may be
+found in Vol. III of _The Art of Music_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+THE VARIED TENDENCIES OF MODERN MUSIC
+
+
+Modern music--broadly speaking, music since the beginning of the
+twentieth century--is certainly manifesting the characteristics which
+the preceding survey has shown to be inherent in its nature: that is,
+it has grown by a course of free experimentation, it is the youngest
+of the arts, and it is a human language as well as a fine art. Hence
+we find that modern composers are making daring experiments in
+dissonance, in rhythmic variety, in subtle blends of color and, above
+all, in the treatment of the orchestra. In comparison with
+achievements in the other arts music often seems in its infancy; being
+limited by no practical or utilitarian considerations, and employing
+the boundless possibilities of sound and rhythm, there is so much
+still before it. The truth contained in the saying, that music is the
+youngest as well as the oldest of the arts, becomes more apparent year
+by year; for although a work which originally had imaginative life can
+never die, yet many former works have passed out of recognition simply
+because they have been superseded by more inspired ones, composed
+since their day. We can no longer listen with whole-hearted enthusiasm
+to many of the older symphonies, songs and pianoforte pieces, because
+Brahms, Franck, Debussy and d'Indy have given us better ones.
+
+These experiments, just referred to, have been particularly notable on
+the part of two composers of the neo-Russian group, Stravinsky and
+Scryabin. Stravinsky,[336] in his brilliant pantomime ballets,
+_L'Oiseau du Feu_, _Petroushka_, and _Le Sacre du Printemps_, has
+proved incontestably that he is a genius--it being of the essence of
+genius to create something absolutely new. These works, in their
+expressive melody, harmonic originality and picturesque orchestration,
+have widened the bounds of musical characterization. Scryabin[337]
+(1871-1915) is noted for his esoteric harmonic scheme, shown in a
+series of pianoforte preludes, sonatas and, above all, in his
+orchestral works, the _Divine Poem_, the _Poem of Ecstacy_ and
+_Prometheus_ or _Poem of Fire_. The effect of Scryabin's harmonies is
+one of great power, and, as previously said of Debussy in his earlier
+days, his imagination has undoubtedly heard sounds hitherto
+unrealized. The sensational style of _Prometheus_ is augmented by the
+use of a color machine which flashes upon a screen hues supposed to
+supplement the various moods of the music. How many of these
+experiments will be incorporated into the accepted idiom of music,
+time alone will tell; but they prove conclusively that modern music is
+thoroughly awake and is proving true to that spirit of freedom which
+is the breath of its being.
+
+[Footnote 336: For a detailed account of his life and works consult
+the essay in _Contemporary Russian Composers_ by Montagu-Nathan and
+Vol. III of _The Art of Music_.]
+
+[Footnote 337: For a comprehensive estimate of his style and
+achievements the following works will prove useful: the _Biography_,
+by Eaglefield Hull; the Essay, by Montagu-Nathan in the volume
+referred to, and an article by W.H. Hadow in the Musical Quarterly for
+Jan. 1915.]
+
+Music is, furthermore, not only a fine art in which have worked and
+are working some of the best intellects of our race, but is inevitably
+becoming a universal language. We see this clearly in the rapid growth
+of music among peoples and nations which, comparatively a short time
+ago, were thought to be quite outside the pale of modern artistic
+development. No longer is music confined exclusively to the Italians,
+French and Germans. A national spokesman for the Finns is the gifted
+Sibelius, the composer of five symphonies, several Symphonic poems,
+numerous songs and pianoforte pieces; his second Symphony in E minor
+being a work of haunting beauty, and the Fourth noted for its bold use
+of the dissonant element. The Roumanians have come to the fore in
+Enesco, who has written several characteristic works for orchestra.
+The Spaniards are endeavoring to restore their former glories--for we
+must not forget that, in past centuries, the Spanish composers Morales
+and Vittoria ranked with the great painters which that nation has
+produced. Three Spanish composers, indeed, are worthy of distinct
+recognition: Albeniz for his pianoforte pieces, _tangos_,
+_malaguenas_, etc., in which there is such a fascinating treatment of
+national dance rhythms; Granados,[338] with several operas to his
+credit, and Laparra, the composer of a fantastic suite recently played
+by the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Spanish rhythms, melodies and local
+color have been frequently incorporated in the works of other
+composers, _e.g._, by Bizet in _Carmen_, by Debussy in _Iberia_, and
+in the pianoforte piece _Soiree dans Granade_, by Chabrier in
+_Espana_, by Lalo in several works, and by the Russians, Glinka and
+Rimsky-Korsakoff, in brilliant orchestral works. The Spanish
+influence,[339] in fact, may be called one of the most potent in
+modern music.
+
+[Footnote 338: Who lost his life on the Sussex when it was torpedoed
+by the Germans.]
+
+[Footnote 339: For a comprehensive account, historical and critical,
+of this influence consult the volume by Carl Van Vechten _The Music of
+Spain_.]
+
+Although there is no doubt of the strong musical instinct inherent in
+the Hungarians--witness the prevalence of Hungarian rhythms in
+Schubert, Liszt, Brahms and others--their country has always been so
+torn with political dissensions that the lack of a national artistic
+culture is not to be wondered at. Recently however three Hungarian
+composers, Dohnanyi, Moor and Bela Bartok, have produced works
+embodying racial tendencies and yet of such significant content and
+sound workmanship as to attract the attention of the world outside.
+
+Italy, also, is awakening from a long sleep, and there is now a group
+of young men representing New Italy (of whom Malipiero and Casella are
+the best known) which should accomplish results worthy of the glorious
+musical traditions of that country.
+
+England is shaking off her subserviency[340] to the influence of
+Handel and Mendelssohn, and at last has made a promising start toward
+the achievement of works which shall rank with her glories in poetry,
+in fiction and in painting. Among the older group we have such names
+as Sullivan, with his inimitable series of operas, the _Mikado_,
+_Gondoliers_, _Iolanthe_, etc.; Parry, with some notable choral works,
+and Stanford--a most versatile man--Irish by birth, and with the humor
+and spontaneity natural to his race; his _Irish Symphony_ and his
+opera _Shamus O'Brien_ would give lustre to any period. The only
+genius of the first rank however which England has produced since the
+days of Purcell is Edward Elgar (1857-still living). Practically
+self-educated and spending his early life in his native country he
+escaped the influences of German training which so deadened the
+efforts of former composers, such as Pierson and Bennett. Elgar's
+music is thoroughly English in its sturdy vigor[341] and wholesome
+emotion. With something first-hand to say he has acquired such a
+technique in musical expression that his compositions rank in
+workmanship with those of the great continental masters. In his use of
+the modern orchestra Elgar need be considered second to none. His
+overtures _In the South_ and _Cockaigne_, his two Symphonies and his
+_Enigma Variations_ are universally acknowledged to be models of
+richly-colored and varied scoring. Although his music is English it is
+never parochial but has that note of universal import always found in
+the work of a real genius. Among the younger men there are Wallace,
+both composer and writer on musical subjects (his Threshold of music
+being particularly stimulating), Holbrook, Vaughan Williams, Roger
+Quilter, Arthur Hinton, Balfour Gardiner and John Ireland, a composer
+of genuine individuality, as is evident from his Violin Sonata in D
+Minor.
+
+[Footnote 340: Some pithy remarks on the habitual English attitude
+toward music may be found in the history of Stanford and Forsyth, page
+313, _seq._]
+
+[Footnote 341: See for example the broad theme in the middle portion
+of the March, _Pomp and Circumstance_.]
+
+Even such outlying parts of the world as Australia and South America
+have contributed executive artists of great ability though, to our
+knowledge, as yet no composer.
+
+What, now, in this connection can be said of America? This much at
+least: when we consider that, beyond the most rudimentary attempts,
+music in our land is not yet a century old, a start has been made
+which promises great things. Such pioneers as Paine, Chadwick,
+MacDowell, Foote, Parker, Osgood, Whiting and Mrs. H.H.A. Beach have
+written works, often in the larger forms, showing genuine inspiration
+and fine workmanship, many of which have won permanent recognition
+outside of their own country. Of late years a younger group has
+arisen, the chief members[342] of which are Converse, Carpenter,
+Gilbert, Hadley, Hill, Mason, Atherton, Stanley Smith, Brockway, Blair
+Fairchild, Heilman, Shepherd, Clapp, John Powell, Margaret Ruthven
+Lang, Gena Branscombe and Mabel Daniels. These composers all have
+strong natural gifts, have been broadly educated, and, above all, in
+their music is reflected a freedom, a humor and an individuality which
+may fairly be called American; that is, it is not music which
+slavishly follows the "made-in-Germany" model.[343] The composer of
+greatest genius and scope in America is undoubtedly Charles Martin
+Loeffler; but, although he has become a loyal American, and although
+his best works have been composed in this country, we can hardly claim
+him as an American composer, for his music vividly reflects French
+taste and ideals. His inspired works--in particular _La Mort de
+Tintagiles_, _The Pagan Poem_ and a Symphony (in one movement)--are of
+peculiar importance for their connection with works of literature and
+for consummate power in orchestration. Not even Debussy has expressed
+more subtly the tragic spirit of Maeterlinck than has Loeffler in _La
+Mort de Tintagiles_; and _The Pagan Poem_, founded on an Eclogue of
+Virgil portrays most eloquently the romance of those pastoral days.
+Loeffler's latest work, a String Quartet[344] dedicated to the memory
+of Victor Chapman, the Harvard aviator, is remarkable for the
+heart-felt beauty of its themes and for advanced technique in treating
+the four solo instruments.
+
+[Footnote 342: This valuation of American composers is made solely on
+the basis of published compositions.]
+
+[Footnote 343: For additional comments on this point see an article by
+the author in the Musical Quarterly for January, 1918.]
+
+[Footnote 344: Performed recently several times by the Flonzaley
+Quartet.]
+
+Let us now indulge in a few closing remarks of advice to the young
+student faced with all this perplexing novelty. Our studies should
+have made plain two definite facts: first, that the real message of
+music is contained in its melody--that part of the fabric which we can
+carry with us and sing to ourselves. Harmony and color are factors
+closely involved with melodic inspiration, but their impression is
+more fleeting; and in general, no work lacking in melody, however
+colorful or filled with daring harmonic effects, can long endure. But
+we must be judicious and fair in estimating exactly what constitutes a
+real melody. The genius is always ahead of his time; if he thought
+just as other men, he would be no genius. New types of melody are
+continually being worked out; all we can say is that the creative
+composer hears sounds in his imagination, the result of his emotional
+and spiritual experiences and of his sympathy with the world. He
+recreates these sounds in terms of notation, hoping that, as they mean
+so much to him, they may be a delight and inspiration to his
+fellowmen. If enough people like these works for a long enough time,
+they _are_; that is, they live--no matter how much they differ from _a
+priori_ standards as to what music should be.
+
+The second fact concerns the structure of music; that is, the way in
+which the thought is presented. We have seen that music always has a
+carefully planned architecture--that being necessary by reason of the
+indefiniteness of the material. But let us always remember that
+without abandoning the fundamental principles of all organic life,
+form may be--and should be--free and elastic. Every work which lives
+reveals a perfect balance between the emotional and imaginative
+factors and their logical presentation. If we are puzzled by the
+structure of a new work the assumption should be, not that it is
+formless but that, when we know the work, it will be seen to employ
+simply a new use of old and accepted principles; for the works
+analyzed must have convinced us that the principles of unity,
+contrast, balance and symmetry are eternal; and, however modified, can
+never be abandoned. The normal imagination must express itself
+logically, and can no more put forth incoherent works than the human
+body would give birth to misshapen offspring. Musical compositions,
+which after study prove to be incoherent, diffuse and flabby, are to
+be considered exceptional and not worth condemning; they are only to
+be pitied. The chief aim of the music-lover should be to become an
+intelligent and enthusiastic appreciator of the great works already
+composed, and to train himself liberally for the welcome of new works.
+Towards such an end we hope that this book may offer a helpful
+contribution.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+A
+
+_Academic Overture_ of Brahms, 233.
+
+Aeolian mode, 24.
+
+Aeschylus, compared with Brahms, 239.
+
+Albeniz, pianoforte pieces, 327.
+
+answer (to a fugue), 42.
+
+Apthorp, W.F., comments on Brahms, 238;
+  eulogy on Brahms's _First Symphony_, 246;
+  comments on _Istar_, 283.
+
+arabesque, 83.
+
+Aristophanes, his humor compared with Beethoven's, 150.
+
+Arnold, Matthew, lines on Byron apropos of Berlioz, 203;
+  stanza applicable to Brahms, 233;
+  definition of style, 234.
+
+Atherton, Percy Lee, 329.
+
+Auber, 255.
+
+augmentation, definition of, 44.
+
+
+B
+
+Babbitt, Irving, book on Romanticism, 161;
+  _The New Laocoon_, 207.
+
+Bach, Emmanuel, use of two themes, 93;
+  contributions to the Sonata-form, 100.
+
+Bach, J.S., _Well-tempered Clavichord_, 23;
+  choral (Phrygian mode), 25;
+  polyphonic style, 34;
+  _Goldberg Variations_, 37;
+  celebrated organ fugues, 41;
+  analysis of _Fugue in E-flat major_, 42-43.
+
+_Bagatelles_, of Beethoven, 166.
+
+Balakireff, works and features of style, 315-316.
+
+Baldensperger, F., eulogy of Franck, 258.
+
+Ballet music to _Prometheus_, 140.
+
+Balzac, comment on Chopin, 189.
+
+_Barcarolle_, of Chopin, color effect therein, 193;
+  analysis of, 200-201.
+
+_Bartered Bride Overture_, 121, 322.
+
+basso ostinato, 86.
+
+Baudelaire, 293.
+
+Beach, Mrs., _Menuet Italien_, 78, 329.
+
+Beethoven, 2, 5, 8:
+  motive of _Fifth Symphony_, 12;
+  _Waldstein Sonata_, 15;
+  String Quartet (Lydian mode), 26;
+  fugal passages in symphonies, 41;
+  sentences from sonatas, 58-61;
+  _Egmont Overture_, 77;
+  _Rondo Capriccio_, 82;
+  sets of Variations, 88;
+  biography, 122-126;
+  love of Nature, 125;
+  features of style, 126-129;
+  development of the Sonata-form, 126-127;
+  treatment of the Coda, 127;
+  variety of rhythm, 127-128;
+  use of dissonances, 128;
+  humor, 128-129;
+  development of Program music, 129;
+  development of varied air, 129;
+  characterization of the Symphonies, 130-132;
+  estimate of the Pianoforte Sonatas, 140;
+  pianistic effect in Sonatas, 145;
+  as a programmistic composer, 153-154;
+  quality of themes, 156;
+  dramatic use of single notes, 156-157;
+  theme of _Ninth Symphony_ compared with theme from Brahms's _First
+    Symphony_, 247.
+
+Bela Bartok, 328.
+
+Berlioz, quotation from _Grotesques de la Musique_, 21;
+  canon in _Carnaval Romain_ Overture, 37;
+  comment on Trio of _Fifth Symphony_, 150;
+  biography, 202-205;
+  names of his Parisian friends, 204;
+  features of style, 205-206;
+  _Fantastic Symphony_, analysis of, 207-211;
+  _Carnaval Romain_ Overture, analysis of, 211-212;
+  _Damnation of Faust_, instrumental numbers from, 213-214;
+  _Harold in Italy_ Symphony, analysis of, 214-215;
+  _Romeo and Juliet_ Symphony, comments on, 215-216.
+
+Bie, Oscar, 74;
+  on the style of Couperin and Rameau, 152.
+
+Bizet, _L'Arlesienne Suites_, 80.
+
+Bohemian School, 320-321.
+
+Boieldieu, comment on Beethoven, 134, 255.
+
+_bolero_, 75.
+
+Boris Godounoff, description of, 320.
+
+Borodin, works and features of style, 316-317.
+
+Boschot, work, in three parts, on Berlioz, 207.
+
+_bourree_, 75.
+
+Brahms, _First Symphony_, 8, 14, 21, 44;
+  modal expression in works, 23;
+  _Fourth Symphony_ (Phrygian mode), 25;
+  canonic style, 36;
+  _C minor Trio_, 67;
+  sets of variations, 88;
+  biography, 231-233;
+  features of style, 233-238;
+  analysis of _First Symphony_, 239-249;
+  of _Violin Sonata_, 250-252;
+  of _G minor Ballade for Pianoforte_, 252-253;
+  attitude toward program music, 253;
+  the nature of his _Intermezzi_, 253;
+  of the _Capriccios_, 253;
+  his _Rhapsodies_, 254;
+  analysis of song _Meine Liebe ist gruen_, 254;
+  other songs, 255.
+
+branle (brawl), 75.
+
+Branscombe, Gena, 329.
+
+Brenet, M., _Life of Haydn_, 104.
+
+Brockway, H., on American folk-songs, 33, 329.
+
+Browning, 1;
+  quotation apropos of the fugue, 49;
+  quotations apropos of the _Fifth Symphony_, 146, 150.
+
+Bruckner, movement from _Seventh Symphony_, 231.
+
+Bruneau, _History of Russian Music_, 314.
+
+Bull, John, 79, 85.
+
+Buelow, _Sonatas_ of E. Bach, 100;
+  comment on Grieg, 325.
+
+Burney, on the 18th Century, 103.
+
+Buxtehude, 34.
+
+Byrd, William, 12, 79, 85.
+
+Byron, influence on Schumann's style, 177.
+
+
+C
+
+_C minor Symphony_ (Beethoven), analysis of, 145-151.
+
+_C minor Symphony_ (Brahms), analysis of, 239-249.
+
+cadences, 55-57.
+
+Calvacoressi, on dominant relationship, 52.
+
+canon, 11;
+  account of, 36-37.
+
+canzona, 69.
+
+_Carnaval Romain_ Overture, analysis of, 211-212.
+
+Carpenter, John Alden, _Adventures in a Perambulator_, 80, 329.
+
+Casella, 328.
+
+_Casse-Noisette Suite_, 80.
+
+Cellini, Benvenuto, compared with Berlioz, 202;
+  opera by Berlioz, 211.
+
+Chabrier, _Bourree Fantasque_, 80, 297;
+  _Espana_, 80, 297;
+  Overture to _Gwendoline_, 99, 297;
+  account of style, 297.
+
+_chaconne_, 86;
+  Bach's for violin solo, 87.
+
+Chadwick, _Canonic Studies_, 36;
+  fugal passage in _Vagrom Ballad_, 41, 329.
+
+Chamisso, texts for Schumann's songs, 170.
+
+Chantavoine, Life of Beethoven, 159.
+
+Charpentier, _Impressions of Italy_, 80.
+
+Chausson, Ernest, account of style, 298.
+
+Chavannes, Puvis de, compared with Franck, 258.
+
+Chopin, type of melody, 10, 21;
+  _Sonata in C minor_, 67;
+  biography and features of style, 188-189;
+  analysis of _Prelude in C major_, 198;
+  _Etude in A-flat major_, 199;
+  _Mazurka in F-sharp minor_, 199;
+  analysis of _Polonaise in E-flat minor_, 200;
+  of _Barcarolle_, 200-201;
+  of _Scherzo in C-sharp minor_, 201.
+
+chromatic changes, 51.
+
+Clapp, P.G., 48, 329.
+
+coda, definition and examples of, 99.
+
+color, in different keys, 51.
+
+Combarieu, Jules, 2.
+
+Converse, F.S., Dramatic Poem, _Job_ (Phrygian mode), 26;
+  _String Quartet_, 99, 329.
+
+Corelli, 70, 74.
+
+_Coriolanus_ Overture, analysis of, 152-156.
+
+counterpoint, definition of, 11.
+
+counter-subject (of a fugue), 42.
+
+Couperin, 70, 74, 81, 85;
+  descriptive pieces, 152, 255.
+
+_courante_ (_corrente_), 75.
+
+Croatian Folk-songs (in Haydn), 101-102.
+
+_csardas_, 76.
+
+
+D
+
+_D major Sonata_ of Beethoven, analysis of, 140-145.
+
+_D Minor Symphony_ of Schumann, 179-184.
+
+d'Albert, _Suite for Pianoforte_, 78.
+
+_Damnation of Faust_, instrumental numbers from, 213-214.
+
+Daniels, Mabel, 329.
+
+Dannreuther, eulogy on Beethoven, 159;
+  comment on Berlioz's counterpoint, 209.
+
+Dargomijsky, use of whole-tone scale, 289.
+
+Debussy, modal expression in works, 23, 288-289;
+  _Pelleas et Melisande_ (Dorian mode), 24;
+  comments upon, 294;
+  _Minstrels_ (cadence in), 55-56;
+  _Sarabande_ for pianoforte, 77;
+  comment on development, 97;
+  compared with Mendelssohn, 185;
+  apropos of new music, 204;
+  features of style, 287-297;
+  whole-tone scale, 289-290;
+  titles of pianoforte pieces, 292-293;
+  on his pianoforte style, 295-296.
+
+de Musset, quotation apropos of Grieg, 325.
+
+deceptive cadence, 56.
+
+Dent, E.J., _Mozart's Operas_, 112.
+
+De Pachman, playing of Mendelssohn's pieces, 185.
+
+De Quincey, quotation from the _Dream Fugue_, 49.
+
+_Deutsches Requiem_, 233.
+
+development section of Sonata-form, 93-94, 97-98.
+
+Dickinson, Edward, estimate of Haydn, 101.
+
+diminution, definition of, 44.
+
+d'Indy, modal expression in works, 23;
+  canonic style, 36;
+  Symphonic Variations, _Istar_, 67;
+  comments on the Sonata-form, 95, 100;
+  comment on Beethoven's _Seventh Symphony_, 131;
+  comment on _Sonata Pathetique_, 142;
+  comments on D major Sonata, 145;
+  comments on _Fifth Symphony_, 145;
+  Life of Beethoven, 159;
+  comments on Franck's themes, 268;
+  biography and features of style, 280-282;
+  _Istar_, analysis of, 283-287.
+
+dissonance, discord, distinction between terms, 143.
+
+Dohnanyi, 328.
+
+Dominant, acoustical and harmonic importance of, 22-23, 52.
+
+_Don Giovanni_, 111, 119.
+
+_Don Juan_, 85.
+
+_Don Quixote_, 89.
+
+Dorian mode, 24.
+
+Dostoyevsky, 314, 319, 320.
+
+Doumic, Rene, essay on George Sand, 189.
+
+Dowland, John, his _Pavans_, 80.
+
+Duparc, Henri, account of his style, 298.
+
+Dvo[vr]ak, _New World Symphony_, 9, 21;
+  modal expression in works, 23;
+  _New World Symphony_ (Aeolian mode), 26;
+  _Suite for Orchestra_, 79;
+  works and features of style, 322-324.
+
+
+E
+
+Eichendorff, texts for Schumann's songs, 176.
+
+_Eighth Symphony_ of Beethoven, Finale, 157.
+
+Elgar, Edward, works and features of style, 328-329.
+
+Ellis, W.A., translation of Wagner's Essays, 154.
+
+Enesco, 327.
+
+enharmonic, modulation, 52-53.
+
+episode, definition of, 39-40.
+
+exposition of Sonata-form, 96.
+
+extended cadences, 62-63.
+
+
+F
+
+_F major Sonata_ of Mozart, analysis of, 113-115.
+
+Fairchild, Blair, 329.
+
+_Fantastic Symphony_, analysis of, 207-211;
+  quotation from, 207-209.
+
+Farwell, Arthur, on folk-music, 33.
+
+Faure, Gabriel, account of style, 297-298.
+
+_Faust_ Symphony, analysis of, 223-226.
+
+Fay, Amy, account of Liszt, 217.
+
+feminine ending, 57.
+
+Fibich, 321.
+
+Finck, H.T., _Songs and Song Writers_, 265;
+  _Chopin and Other Essays_, 198;
+  comments on Program Music, 226;
+  biography of Grieg, 324.
+
+Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, 79, 152.
+
+five-bar rhythm, 63-64.
+
+Flonzaley Quartet, 105.
+
+folk-songs, principle of restatement in, 16;
+  origin and importance of, 19-33.
+
+Foote, Arthur, fugal Finale to _Suite_, 41, 329.
+
+Forsyth, Cecil, eulogy of Mendelssohn, 185.
+
+_Francesca da Rimini_, 154.
+
+Franck, _Symphony_, 8, 15;
+  polyphonic structure, 13;
+  canonic style, 36;
+  canon in _Symphony_, 37;
+  in _Violin Sonata_, 37;
+  _Fugue in B minor for Pianoforte_, 41;
+  comparison of his scoring with that of Schumann, 181;
+  limitations of his pianoforte style, 190;
+  his fusion of movements compared with that of Brahms, 251;
+  biography, 256-257;
+  features of style, 257-258;
+  analysis of _D minor Symphony_, 259-268;
+  of _Sonata for Violin_, 268-274;
+  use of generative themes, 268;
+  _Symphonic Variations_, 274-280;
+  comparison of his style with that of Bach and Beethoven, 274;
+  his group of pupils, 280.
+
+French folk-song, 29.
+
+French Overture, 119.
+
+Frescobaldi, 34.
+
+Friedlaender, Max, apropos of Chabrier, 281.
+
+fugue, 11;
+  definition of, 39.
+
+Fuller-Maitland, life of Brahms, 238.
+
+_furiant_, 75, 321.
+
+
+G
+
+_G major Pianoforte Concerto_ of Beethoven, 152-158.
+
+_G minor Symphony_, analysis of, 115-119.
+
+Gade, Neils, 324.
+
+_galliard_, 75, 80.
+
+Galuppi, as a pioneer in Sonata-form, 93.
+
+Gardiner, Balfour, 329.
+
+Gautier, Theophile, eulogy of Berlioz, 207.
+
+_gavotte_, 75;
+  account of, and examples, 78-79.
+
+Gilbert, H.F., on folk-songs, 20, 33, 329.
+
+Gilman, Lawrence, essay on Berlioz, 214;
+  comments on _Istar_, 283;
+  essay on Debussy, 293;
+  comments on _Pelleas el Melisande_, 297.
+
+Glinka, 301, 315.
+
+Gluck, Ballet music, 87;
+  Operatic Overtures, 119.
+
+Goethe, eulogy on Mozart, 112.
+
+Gogol, 314, 320.
+
+Gosse, Edmund, comment on Mallarme's eclogue, 293.
+
+Gossec, as a pioneer in Sonata-form, 93.
+
+Granados, Spanish folk-dance, 167;
+  works, 327.
+
+Gregorian Chant, 10.
+
+Gregorian modes in folk-songs, 20.
+
+Gretry, comments on Sonata-form, 98, 255.
+
+Grieg, 21;
+  Canon for Pianoforte, 37;
+  _Peer Gynt Suite_, 80;
+  _Holberg Suite_, 80;
+  works and features of style, 324-325.
+
+ground bass, 86;
+  from Bach's Mass, 86.
+
+Grove, _Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies_, 130.
+
+Grove's _Dictionary_, 70, 73, 79, 81, 86, 104, 119, 154, 161, 172, 200,
+  217, 238.
+
+Guilmant, March in Dorian Mode, 24;
+  Canon for Organ, 36.
+
+Gurney, _The Power of Sound_, 2.
+
+
+H
+
+_habanera_, 76.
+
+Habets, Alfred, account of Borodin and Liszt, 316.
+
+Hadley, Henry, 329.
+
+Hadow, W.H., 72, 81, 92, 96;
+  _Studies in Modern Music_, 184, 198, 207, 238;
+  essay on Dvo[vr]ak, 321;
+  article on Scryabin, 326.
+
+Hale, Philip, comments on Saint-Saens, 256;
+  comments on Lalo, 256;
+  essay on Mozart, 112;
+  comments on _Scheherazade_, 317-318.
+
+_halling_, 76.
+
+Handel, fugue from the Messiah, 41;
+  _Harpsichord Lessons_, 74;
+  Air in Sarabande rhythm, 77;
+  _Harmonious Blacksmith_, 86;
+  Overture to _Messiah_, 119.
+
+Harmonic Series, 51.
+
+_Harold in Italy_ Symphony, analysis of, 214-215.
+
+Haydn, 21, 81, 87;
+  ancestry, 101;
+  features of style, 101-105;
+  his freedom of rhythm, 102;
+  development of the String-Quartet and the Orchestra, 102-103;
+  _Sonata in E-Flat major_, 105-106;
+  _Surprise Symphony_, 106-108;
+  comment on Minuet, 144;
+  Prelude to the _Creation_, 152.
+
+Hazlitt, comment on Mozart, 111.
+
+_Hebrides_ Overture of Mendelssohn, 185.
+
+Heilman, William C., 329.
+
+Heine, texts for songs of Schubert and Schumann, 176;
+  comment on Berlioz's music, 205.
+
+Helmholtz, 193, 291.
+
+Henderson, W.J., _Preludes and Studies_, 184.
+
+Henschel, vocal canon, 37;
+  conversation with Brahms, 233.
+
+_Heroic Symphony_, analysis of, 132-140.
+
+Herold, 255.
+
+Hill, Edward Burlingame, _Stevensoniana_, 80;
+  comments on Saint-Saens, 256;
+  essay on d'Indy, 281, 329.
+
+Hinton, Arthur, 329.
+
+Hoffman, E.T.A., Essay on _Fifth Symphony_, 151.
+
+_Holberg Suite_, 80.
+
+Holbrook, 329.
+
+Holmes, Augusta, 280.
+
+homophonic, 10.
+
+hornpipe, 75.
+
+Hull, Eaglefield, Biography of Scryabin, 326.
+
+Huneker, Life of Chopin, 198;
+  on the playing of Chopin, 199;
+  comment on Chopin's Scherzo, 201;
+  Life of Liszt, 217;
+  comment on Liszt's Songs, 220;
+  essay on Brahms, 238;
+  essay on Tchaikowsky, 306.
+
+Hungarian folk-song, 30, 328.
+
+_Hungarian Rhapsodies_, 227.
+
+Hungarian rhythms in Schubert, Liszt and Brahms, 30;
+  in Schubert's Symphonies, 166;
+  in Brahms's First Symphony, 244.
+
+
+I
+
+_Impromptus_ of Schubert, 165-166.
+
+_Indian Suite_, 80.
+
+invention, 11.
+
+_Invention in C major_, analysis of, 38-89.
+
+inversion, definition of, 43-44.
+
+Ionian mode, 24.
+
+Ireland, John, 329.
+
+Irish Folk-song, 29, 35.
+
+_Istar_, Symphonic Poem of d'Indy, as example of a varied air, 89;
+  analysis of, 283-287.
+
+Italian Overture, 119.
+
+
+J
+
+Jadassohn, Canonic Pieces, 37.
+
+James, Henry, essay on George Sand, 189.
+
+Jannequin, descriptive pieces for voices, 152.
+
+_jota_ (_aragonesa_), 76.
+
+
+K
+
+_Kaiser Quartet_, 87.
+
+Keats, quotation apropos of _Fifth Symphony_, 148;
+  quotation from, 163.
+
+Kelly, E.S., _Chopin the Composer_, 198.
+
+Kelly, Michael, _Reminiscences of Mozart_, 112.
+
+_King Lear_, quotation from by Berlioz, 207.
+
+Kjerulf, 324.
+
+Korbay, F., _Hungarian Melodies_, 30.
+
+Krehbiel, essay on Haydn, 103;
+  _The Pianoforte and its Music_, 152.
+
+_Kreisleriana_, 83.
+
+Kuhnau, _Bible Sonatas_, 152.
+
+
+L
+
+Lalo, Eduard, works and features of style, 256.
+
+Laloy, Louis, Life of Chopin, 198;
+  essay on Debussy, 294.
+
+Laparra, 327.
+
+_L'apprenti Sorcier_, 154.
+
+_L'apres-midi d'un Faune_, 154, 293-294.
+
+Lavoix, estimate of the _Fifth Symphony_, 127.
+
+Legouve, _Recollections_ of Berlioz, 205.
+
+Lekeu, 257.
+
+_L'idee fixe_, 207-210.
+
+Liebich, Mrs., essay on Debussy, 294.
+
+Liszt, 4, 21;
+  characterization of Schubert, 164;
+  _Faust_ Symphony (theme in augmentation), 45;
+  Life of Chopin, 198;
+  biography, 217-218;
+  features of style, 218-219;
+  analysis of Symphonic Poem, _Orpheus_, 221-222;
+  of _Faust_ Symphony, 223-226;
+  pianoforte compositions, 226-227;
+  alleged influence on Brahms, 232;
+  use of whole-tone scale, 289.
+
+Locke, A.W., article in _Musical Quarterly_, 151.
+
+Loeffler, Charles Martin, works and features of style, 329-330.
+
+_Lonesome Tunes_, 33.
+
+_loure_, 75;
+  example of, from Bach, 79.
+
+Lowell, J.R., definition of a classic, 161.
+
+Lully, 70, 119.
+
+Lydian mode, 24.
+
+
+M
+
+MacCunn, Hamish, _Scottish Melodies_, 28.
+
+MacDowell, _Rigaudon_, 79;
+  _Indian Suite_, 80, 329.
+
+madrigal, 69.
+
+Maeterlinck, compared with Franck, 257;
+  comment on the theatre, 294;
+  influence on Loeffler, 330.
+
+_Magic Flute_ Overture, analysis of, 119-121.
+
+Mahler, comments on his style, 231.
+
+_malaguena_, 76.
+
+Mallarme, 293.
+
+Malipiero, 328.
+
+_Manfred_ Overture, 177-179.
+
+Mannheim Orchestra, 102.
+
+Manuel, Roland, life of Ravel, 299.
+
+march, 75.
+
+_Marriage of Figaro_, 111.
+
+masculine ending, 57.
+
+Mason, D.G., 7, 9;
+  essay on Haydn, 102;
+  on Mozart, 112;
+  comment on Chopin's style, 196;
+  essay on Berlioz, 211;
+  on Saint-Saens, 256;
+  on d'Indy, 281;
+  comments on _Istar_, 283;
+  essay on Debussy, 295;
+  on Tchaikowsky, 306;
+  on Dvo[vr]ak, 322;
+  as composer, 329.
+
+_mazurka_, 75.
+
+mediant relationship, 52, 96.
+
+Mehul, 255.
+
+_Melpomene_ Overture, 154.
+
+_Melusine_ Overture of Mendelssohn, 185.
+
+Mendelssohn, 89;
+  biography and features of style, 184-186;
+  Violin Concerto, comments on, 185-186.
+
+Merkel, canon for organ, 36.
+
+_Midsummer Night's Dream_ Overture, analysis of, 186-187.
+
+Milton, quotation from _Paradise Lost_, 49.
+
+minuet, 75;
+  account of, and examples, 78.
+
+Mixolydian mode, 24.
+
+modal, chart of modes, 23-24.
+
+modulation, 51-52.
+
+_Moments Musicaux_ of Schubert, 165-166.
+
+Montagu-Nathan, _History of Russian Music_, 314, 326.
+
+Monteverde, 119.
+
+Morales, 327.
+
+Moor, 328.
+
+_Mother Goose Suite_, 81.
+
+Moussorgsky, works and features of style, 318-320.
+
+Mozart, _Magic Flute_ Overture, 40;
+  Finale of _Jupiter_ Symphony, 40, 81;
+  biography, 108-110;
+  features of style, 110-112;
+  Mozart and Haydn, reactive influence, 110-111;
+  polyphonic skill, 110, 112;
+  dramatic power, 111;
+  examples from works, 113-121.
+
+Mundy, John, descriptive pianoforte piece, 152.
+
+_musette_, 78.
+
+_Mystic Trumpeter_, 154.
+
+
+N
+
+National Music, distinctive features of, 300-301.
+
+Neefe, Beethoven's teacher, 124.
+
+_Neue Zeitschrift fuer Musik_, founded by Schumann, 174.
+
+_New World Symphony_, critical comments on, 323-324.
+
+Newman, _Musical Studies_, 154, 178, 207;
+  comment on Debussy, 296.
+
+Newmarch, Rosa, _Life of Tchaikovsky_, 305.
+
+Niecks, _Programme Music_, 152, 214, 221, 305;
+  _Life of Chopin_, 198;
+  eulogy of Liszt, 228.
+
+Nordraak, 324.
+
+
+O
+
+Organ, the, its tone compared with that of pianoforte, 191.
+
+organum, 10.
+
+_Orpheus_, Symphonic Poem, analysis of, 221-222.
+
+Osgood, George L., 329.
+
+overtones, chart of, 193.
+
+_Oxford History of Music_, 10, 12, 102, 103, 110, 119, 161, 165, 185,
+  216, 221, 226.
+
+
+P
+
+Paderewski, 77;
+  Minuet of, 78;
+  playing of Mendelssohn's pieces, 185.
+
+Paganini, connection with Berlioz, 214.
+
+Paine, J.K., _Fuga Giocosa_, 46, 49;
+  tribute to Beethoven, 129, 329.
+
+Palestrina, 34.
+
+Parker, H.W., fugue from _Hora Novissima_, 41, 329.
+
+Parry, _Evolution of the Art of Music_, 9, 16, 21, 69, 70;
+  choral works, 328.
+
+_Passacaglia_, 86;
+  of Brahms, 86;
+  of Bach for organ, 87.
+
+_passepied_, 75.
+
+Pater, Walter, remark on Romanticism, 161.
+
+_pavane_, 75;
+  example from Ravel, 79.
+
+pedals of the pianoforte, the damper and the una corda, 192-195.
+
+_Peer Gynt_ Suite, 80.
+
+period, definition of, 50.
+
+Perotin, 34.
+
+Perry, Baxter, 90.
+
+_Phaeton_, 256.
+
+Philidor, 255.
+
+Phrygian cadence, 24-25.
+
+Phrygian mode, 23;
+  Brahms's use of, 239.
+
+pianoforte, the, account of its characteristics, 189-195.
+
+plagal cadence, 55.
+
+_polka_, 75, 321.
+
+_polonaise_, 75.
+
+polyphonic, 10.
+
+polyphonic music, complete account of, 33-49.
+
+Poiree, Elie, Life of Chopin, 198.
+
+Pope, apropos of the jig, 80.
+
+Pougin, Arthur, comments on Moussorgsky, 318-319.
+
+Powell, John, 329.
+
+Pratt, _History of Music_, 10, 93, 159, 161.
+
+prelude (to Sonata-form), 99.
+
+_Prix de Rome_, won by Berlioz, 205;
+  by Debussy, 288.
+
+Prout, 85.
+
+Puccini, fugal prelude to _Madama Butterfly_, 41.
+
+Purcell, 70;
+  his Jig, 71.
+
+Pushkin, 314.
+
+
+Q
+
+Quilter, Roger, 329.
+
+
+R
+
+Rabelais, his humor compared with Beethoven's, 150, 157.
+
+Rameau, acoustical reforms of, 23, 70, 74, 81, 85;
+  descriptive pieces, 152, 255.
+
+Ravel, _Daphnis and Chloe_, 68;
+  his Pavane, 79;
+  _Mother Goose Suite_, 81;
+  works and account of style, 299-300.
+
+recapitulation (or _resume_), 98-99.
+
+Reinecke, Canonic Vocal Trios, 37.
+
+Remenyi, Brahms's tour with, 232.
+
+repetition, importance of, 12, 13;
+  types of, 14-18.
+
+Rheinberger, _Canonic Pieces_, 87;
+  _Tarantelle_ for Pianoforte, 79.
+
+rhythmic variety (five and seven beats a measure), 66-68.
+
+Richter, Jean Paul, influence on Schumann, 172.
+
+Riemann, 93.
+
+_rigaudon_, 75;
+  examples of, from Grieg, Rameau and MacDowell, 79, 81.
+
+Rimsky-Korsakoff, works and features of style, 317.
+
+_Roi d'Ys, Le_, 256.
+
+Rolland, Romain, account of Beethoven in _Jean Christophe_, 125;
+  _Life of Beethoven_, 159;
+  essay on Berlioz, 207.
+
+Romanticism and Romantic School, account of, 160-165.
+
+_Romeo and Juliet_ Symphony, comments on, 215-216.
+
+rondo, account of, 81-85.
+
+rondo-sonata form, 144.
+
+Ropartz, 257;
+  characterization of a theme in Franck's Symphony, 266.
+
+Rossetti, _Blessed Damozel_, set by Debussy, 288.
+
+Rossini, "crescendo" in Overtures, 62;
+  eulogy of Mozart, 121.
+
+_Rouet d'Omphale, Le_, 256.
+
+round, 11;
+  _Old English Rounds_, 12.
+
+rubato (tempo), definition of, 199.
+
+Rubinstein, movements in _Ocean Symphony_, 95;
+  estimate of Mozart, 111;
+  characterization of the damper pedal, 191.
+
+Runciman, quotation apropos of Weber from _Old Scores and New Readings_,
+  169-170.
+
+Russian folk-songs, 30-33.
+
+Russian music, general tendencies of, 314-315.
+
+
+S
+
+Saint-Saens, 1, 2;
+  comment on Berlioz's _Romeo and Juliet Symphony_, 216;
+  account of works and style, 255-256.
+
+_Sakuntala_, 154.
+
+_saltarello_, 75;
+  Berlioz's use of the rhythm, 211.
+
+Sammartini, as a pioneer in Sonata-form, 93.
+
+Santayana, 5.
+
+_sarabande_, 75, 76, 77.
+
+Scandinavian Music, 324.
+
+Scarlatti, Alessandro, Aria da capo, 14;
+  operatic overture, 119.
+
+Scarlatti, D., the _Cat-Fugue_, 48;
+  as virtuoso, 74;
+  anticipation of Sonata-form, 93;
+  _Courante_ for pianoforte, 79;
+  crossing of hands in Beethoven, 141, 144.
+
+Schumann, 7;
+  motive from the _Carnaval_, 13;
+  from the _Kinderscenen_, 13;
+  _Arabesque_, 14:
+  saying about folk-songs, 20;
+  Canon for organ, 36;
+  Canonic Variations, 37;
+  _Carnaval_, 68;
+  _Phantasiestuecke_, 68;
+  his use of the Rondo, 82-83;
+  Variations, 88;
+  comment on Schubert, 166;
+  biography and features of style, 172-174;
+  analysis of _Des Abends_, 174-175;
+  of _Warum_, 175-176;
+  of _Novellette in E major_, 176;
+  of Song, _Mondnacht_, 176-177;
+  of _Manfred_ Overture, 177-179;
+  characterization of the four Symphonies, 179;
+  _Symphony in D minor_, analysis of, 179-184;
+  eulogy of Brahms in the _Neue Zeitschrift_, 232.
+
+Schola Cantorum, account of, 282.
+
+Scottish folk-tune, 28.
+
+Scryabin, as harmonic innovator, 143;
+  works and features of style, 327.
+
+_seguidilla_, 76, 79.
+
+sentence, complete analysis of, 53, 54.
+
+sequence, definition of, 38.
+
+_Scheherazade Suite_, 81.
+
+scherzo, of Beethoven, 128-129.
+
+Schmitt, Florent, 280.
+
+Schubert, 21;
+  Variations, 88;
+  account of style and works, 162-169;
+  character of songs, 165;
+  symphonic style, 166;
+  chamber music, 166;
+  pianoforte style, 167;
+  as great colorist, 167-168;
+  analysis of _Unfinished Symphony_, 167-169.
+
+seven-bar rhythm, 66.
+
+Shakespeare, 1;
+  apropos of the galliard, 80.
+
+Sharp, Cecil, _English Folk-Song_, 27;
+  on American folk-songs, 33.
+
+Shepherd, Arthur, 329.
+
+Shedlock, J.S., 93, 100.
+
+shifted rhythm, 46.
+
+Sibelius, features of his style, 230, 324, 327.
+
+_siciliano_, 76.
+
+Sinding, 325.
+
+Sinigaglia, Overture, 99.
+
+Sjoegren, 324.
+
+Smetana, _Bartered Bride Overture_, 40, 121;
+  works and features of style, 321-322.
+
+Smith, Stanley, 329.
+
+Smithson, Henrietta, her life with Berlioz, 204-205.
+
+sonata and sonata-form, distinction between, 94-95.
+
+sonata-form, account of 91-100;
+  tabular view, 100.
+
+_Song of Destiny_, Brahms, 233.
+
+_Songs without Words_, Mendelssohn, 185.
+
+Spanish music, its influence in modern times, 327-328.
+
+Spitta, essay on Brahms, 238.
+
+Stamitz, J., influence on Sonata-form, 93.
+
+Stanford, Villiers, Irish folk-songs, 29;
+  features of style, 328.
+
+Stanford-Forsyth history, 121, 328.
+
+Stendhal, remark on Romanticism, 161.
+
+_Stevensoniana_, 80.
+
+Strauss, R., motive from _Till's Merry Pranks_, 18;
+  _Don Juan_, 85;
+  _Till Eulenspiegel_, 85;
+  estimate of Mozart, 111.
+
+Stravinsky, as harmonic innovator, 143;
+  works and features of style, 326-327.
+
+Streatfield, essay on Tchaikowsky, 306.
+
+stretto, 46.
+
+string-quartet, definition of, 94.
+
+subdominant, acoustical and harmonic importance, 22-23, 52.
+
+subject (of a fugue), 42-43.
+
+suite, the classical, 73-80;
+  the modern, 80-81.
+
+_Suites, French and English_, 74.
+
+Sullivan, Arthur, operas, 328.
+
+_Sumer is icumen in_ (Ionian mode) 27.
+
+Surette, T.W., comments on Bach's style, 48, 72;
+  _Development of Symphonic Music_, 159.
+
+_Surprise Symphony_, analysis of, 106-108.
+
+Svendsen, 324.
+
+Sweelinck, 34.
+
+Symonds, Arthur, _Studies in the Seven Arts_, 159.
+
+_Symphonic Etudes_, 88.
+
+symphonic poem, definition of, 149, 220.
+
+symphonic style, development of, 228-231.
+
+
+T
+
+Tallys, Thomas, vocal canon, 37.
+
+_tambourin_, 71.
+
+_tango_, 76.
+
+_tarantella_, 75.
+
+Taylor, Bayard, translation of stanza from _Faust_, 225.
+
+Tchaikowsky, Modeste, biography of his brother, 306.
+
+Tchaikowsky, P., _Fifth Symphony_, 8, 21;
+  analysis of, 306-314;
+  modal expression in works, 23;
+  _Legend_ (Aeolian mode), 26;
+  _Fourth Symphony_, finale of, 33;
+  analysis of, 305;
+  _Sixth Symphony_, 67;
+  analysis of, 305-306;
+  _Quartet in F major_, 67-68;
+  variations from Trio, 89;
+  estimate of Mozart, 111, 121;
+  biography, 302-303;
+  features of style, 303-305.
+
+Thackeray, W.M., characterization of Berlioz, 204.
+
+Thayer, Alexander, _Life of Beethoven_, 159.
+
+thematic development, 34.
+
+three-bar rhythm, 65-66.
+
+three-part form, complete account of, 72-73;
+  examples of, 73.
+
+Tiersot, J., on folk-melodies, 21;
+  _Chansons Populaires_, 30;
+  work on Berlioz, 207.
+
+_Till Eulenspiegel_, 85.
+
+Tolstoi, 315, 319, 320.
+
+tonality, principles of, 50-51.
+
+tonic, acoustical and harmonic importance of, 22-23.
+
+_Tragic Overture_, Brahms, 233.
+
+transformation of theme, its use in Schumann, 182.
+
+Turgenieff, 315.
+
+two-part form, definition of, 38;
+  complete account of, 69-72.
+
+
+V
+
+Van Vechten, book on Spanish music, 328.
+
+variation form, account of, 85-91.
+
+_Variations, in F minor_ of Haydn, 87;
+  on _Death and the Maiden_, 88;
+  _Serieuses_, 88;
+  _on a Theme from Handel_, 88;
+  on the _St. Anthony Choral_, 88;
+  (_Enigma_) by Elgar, 89;
+  _Symphoniques_, 89.
+
+Verdi, Minuet from _Falstaff_, 78.
+
+Veretschagin, 320.
+
+Verlaine, 293.
+
+_Violin Concerto_ of Beethoven, 156-157.
+
+Vittoria, 327.
+
+Vivaldi, 70.
+
+von Breuning family, 125.
+
+
+W
+
+Wagner, comment on operas, 4;
+  quality of themes, 8;
+  motive from the _Valkyrie_, 12;
+  polyphonic structure of operas, 13;
+  motive from _Tristan and Isolde_, 17;
+  fugal Prelude to third act of the _Mastersingers_, 41;
+  comments on _Leonore_ Overture, 98;
+  eulogy of Mendelssohn, 185.
+
+_Waldesrauschen_, Etude of Lizst, 227.
+
+Waldstein, friendship with Beethoven, 125.
+
+_Waldstein_ Sonata, 83.
+
+Walker, E., on English folk-music, 22.
+
+Wallace, estimate of Haydn, 102;
+  _Threshold of Music_, 291, 329.
+
+Wallaschek, R., on primitive music, 21.
+
+_Wallenstein Trilogy_ (d'Indy), 281.
+
+_waltz_, 75.
+
+Weber, _Moto Perpetuo_, 83;
+  orchestral treatment in his Overtures, 164-165;
+  account of style, 169-172;
+  _Invitation to the Dance_, arrangement by Weingartner, 169;
+  compared with that by Berlioz, 171;
+  _Oberon_ Overture, analysis of, 170-171;
+  compositions for pianoforte, 171.
+
+Weckerlin, example from _Echos du Temps Passe_, 71.
+
+Weingartner, eulogy of Berlioz, 206;
+  comments on the Symphonic Poem, 220;
+  comments on Brahms's _First Symphony_, 244, 246.
+
+Whistler, compared with Debussy, 293.
+
+Whiting, Arthur, _Scottish Melodies_, 28;
+  _Irish Melodies_, 29;
+  _Suite Moderne_, 80;
+  _Pedal Studies_, 193, 194, 329.
+
+Whitman, 1;
+  quotation from _Mystic Trumpeter_, 146.
+
+Widor, canon for organ, 36.
+
+Willaert, harmonic basis of choruses, 23.
+
+Williams, Abdy, on Brahms's rhythm, 253.
+
+Williams, Vaughan, 329.
+
+Wordsworth, quotation from, 163.
+
+Wyman, Loraine, 33.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF COMPOSITIONS REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK
+
+
+I. _Sumer is icumen in._ Old English Round.
+
+II. _To the Green Wood._ Round by Byrd.
+
+III. Finale of Wagner's _Valkyrie_.
+
+IV. _Reconnaissance_ from Schumann's _Carnaval_.
+
+V. Irish Folk Song.
+
+VI. Epilogue of Strauss's _Till's Merry Pranks_.
+
+VII. _March in Dorian Mode._ Guilmant.
+
+VIII. _Movement in Lydian Mode._ Beethoven.
+
+IX. _Canon._ Thomas Tallys.
+
+X. _Canon_ from _Etudes Symphoniques_. Schumann.
+
+XI. No. VI of the _Goldberg Variations_. J.S. Bach.
+
+XII. _Canon for Pianoforte._ Grieg.
+
+XIII. _Canon for Pianoforte._ Jadassohn.
+
+XIV. _Two-voiced Invention in C major._ J.S. Bach.
+
+XV. _Three-voiced Fugue in E-flat major._ J.S. Bach.
+
+XVI. Final portion of _Organ Fugue in G major_. J.S. Bach.
+
+XVII. _Cat Fugue for Pianoforte._ D. Scarlatti.
+
+XVIII. _Fuga Giocosa for Pianoforte._ J.K. Paine.
+
+XIX. Song, _The Evening Star_. Schumann.
+
+XX. _Gavotte in F major._ Corelli.
+
+XXI. _Waltz in A-flat major._ Schubert.
+
+XXII. _Traeumerei._ Schumann.
+
+XXIII. _Prelude in A major._ Chopin.
+
+XXIV. _Lyric Piece in E-flat major._ Grieg.
+
+XXV. _Nocturne in F major._ Chopin.
+
+XXVI. _Berceuse in G major._ Grieg.
+
+XXVII. _Intermezzo in E-flat minor._ Heilman.
+
+XXVIII. _Sarabande in D major._ J.S. Bach.
+
+XXIX. Gavotte from _Third English Suite_. J.S. Bach.
+
+XXX. Minuet from _Don Giovanni_. Mozart.
+
+XXXI. Two Minuets from _Castor and Pollux_. Rameau.
+
+XXXII. _Gigue in G major._ J.S. Bach.
+
+XXXIII. _Gigue in G major._ Mozart.
+
+XXXIV. _Courante in F minor._ D. Scarlatti.
+
+XXXV. _French Suite in E major._ J.S. Bach.
+
+XXXVI. _Soeur Monique._ Rondo by Couperin.
+
+XXXVII. _Romance in E major._ Rondo by Schumann.
+
+XXXVIII. _Rondo a Capriccio in G major._ Beethoven.
+
+XXXIX. Aria from _Dido and Aeneas_ (Ground bass). Purcell.
+
+XL. _Sonata in C major._ D. Scarlatti.
+
+XLI. Finale from _Sonata in E-flat major_. Haydn.
+
+XLII. First Movement from the _Surprise Symphony_. Haydn.
+
+XLIII. _Adagio in B minor._ Mozart.
+
+XLIV. First Movement from the _Heroic Symphony_. Beethoven.
+
+XLV. _Sonata in D Major._ Beethoven.
+
+XLVI. Finale from _Sonata in A-flat major_. Beethoven.
+
+XLVII. Portion of Slow Movement of _Seventh Symphony_. Beethoven.
+
+XLVIII. Slow Movement of _Trio in B-flat major_. Beethoven.
+
+XLIX. Theme of Slow Movement from _Sonata in E major_, Op. 109.
+Beethoven.
+
+L. _The Young Nun_. Song by Schubert.
+
+LI. Intermezzo from the _Euryanthe Overture_. Weber.
+
+LII. Portion of Fantasy Piece, _Grillen_. Schumann.
+
+LIII. _Novellette in E major._ Schumann.
+
+LIV. _Moonlight._ Song by Schumann.
+
+LV. _Venetian Boat Song._ Mendelssohn.
+
+LVI. _Barcarolle._ Chopin.
+
+LVII. _The Carnaval Romain Overture._ Berlioz.
+
+LVIII. _March of the Pilgrims_ from the _Harold in Italy Symphony_.
+Berlioz.
+
+LIX. _Forest Murmurs._ Etude by Liszt.
+
+LX. _Ballade in G minor._ Brahms.
+
+LXI. _My Love is Green as the Alder Bush._ Song by Brahms.
+
+LXII. Finale of Symphonic Poem, _Istar_. D'Indy.
+
+LXIII. _Chanson triste_ for Pianoforte. Tchaikowsky.
+
+LXIV. _Invocation to Sleep._ Song by Tchaikowsky.
+
+LXV. _Serenade._ Borodin.
+
+LXVI. _Cradle Song of the Poor._ Moussorgsky.
+
+LXVII. _Silhouette._ Dvo[vr]ak.
+
+LXVIII. _Spring Song._ Grieg.
+
+LXIX. _Dance of Spring._ Grieg.
+
+
+
+
+CRITICAL and HISTORICAL ESSAYS
+
+_By Edward MacDowell_
+
+(_Lectures Delivered at Columbia University_)
+
+Especially valuable to that circle of readers who desire to secure the
+essential elements of a liberal culture in music. With this aim, Mr.
+MacDowell outlines somewhat the technical side of music, and with it,
+gives a general idea of the history and aesthetics of the art.
+
+_Price $1.50_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TONAL COUNTERPOINT
+
+Studies in Part-Writing
+
+_By WALTER R. SPALDING_
+
+Professor of Music in Harvard University
+
+_Price $2.00_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MODERN HARMONY;
+
+ITS THEORY AND PRACTICE
+
+Arthur Foote, A.M. and Walter R. Spalding, A.M.
+
+_Price $1.50_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+JUST ISSUED
+
+MODULATION and RELATED HARMONIC QUESTIONS
+
+_By ARTHUR FOOTE_
+
+_Price $1.25_
+
+Scales and Key Relationship
+Modulation in General
+Change of Keys or Chords without Modulation
+Change of Keys by moving to a New Tonic
+Modulation by means of Various Chords
+Diatonic, Chromatic, and Enharmonic Modulation
+Harmonic Changes resulting from the Symmetrical Movement of Individual
+  Voices
+Harmonic Changes resulting from the Elision of Chords
+A Table of Modulations
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE ARTHUR P. SCHMIDT CO.
+
+BOSTON
+120 Boylston Street
+
+NEW YORK
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Music: An Art and a Language, by
+Walter Raymond Spalding
+
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