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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Music: An Art and a Language + +Author: Walter Raymond Spalding + +Release Date: November 28, 2009 [EBook #30560] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSIC: AN ART AND A LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by Adam Buchbinder, Linda Cantoni, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) Music transcribed +by Linda Cantoni. + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<div class="notes"> +<p class="center"><i>Transcriber's Notes</i></p> + +<p>Obvious printer errors in the text have been corrected. Other +questionable text is marked with red dotted underlining; hover the +mouse over the text to see a popup <span class="err" title="Transcriber's Note">Transcriber's Note</span>.</p> + +<p>This e-book contains some phrases in Greek, and some music symbols, +which may not appear correctly in some browsers, depending on what fonts +the user has installed. To see a transliteration of the Greek, or an +explanation of the symbol, hover the mouse over the text, <i>e.g.</i>, +<span lang="el" title="Greek: biblos">βιβλος</span>.</p> + +<p>To listen to the music, click on the [Listen] link. All sound files +are in MIDI format, except for some orchestral examples, which are in +MP3 format where noted. To view or download the music notation in +MusicXML format, click on the [MusicXML] link. Minor printer errors +in the notation have been corrected without note in the sound and +MusicXML files, using original printed scores as references.</p> + +<p>In the edition used to prepare this e-book, some of the music examples +contain major errors. A later printing of the same edition was used to provide +corrected examples. A <a href="#CORRECTED_MUSIC">list</a> of the +affected pages can be found at the end of this file.</p> + +<p>This e-book contains a number of external links to other e-books +at Project Gutenberg. <b>There is no guarantee that these links will +always work.</b></p> +</div> + +<p class="centertbp"><a href="#Contents">CONTENTS</a></p> + +<p class="centerbp"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="600" height="348" alt="cover" title="cover" /> +</p> + +<div class="bbox"> +<h1>MUSIC: AN ART AND A LANGUAGE</h1> + + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>WALTER RAYMOND SPALDING</h2> + + +<p class="center"><i>Price $2.50 net</i></p> + + +<p class="center">THE ARTHUR P. SCHMIDT CO.</p> + +<table style="width: 70%; padding-bottom: 1em" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="publisher"> +<tr> +<td class="center">BOSTON<br /> +120 <span class="smcap">Boylston Street</span></td> +<td class="center">NEW YORK<br /> +8 <span class="smcap">West</span> 40th <span class="smcap">Street</span></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + + + +<hr /> +<p class="center">Copyright, 1920, by <span class="smcap">The Arthur P. Schmidt Co.</span><br /> +<span class="msm">International Copyright Secured</span></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="sm">A.P.S. 11788</span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<p class="center"><span class="msm">TO MY COLLEAGUES<br /> +<br /> +IN THE DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC<br /> +<br /> +AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">William Clifford Heilman</span>, <span class="smcap">Edward Burlingame Hill</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">Archibald Thompson Davison</span>, <span class="smcap">Edward Ballantine</span><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr /> +<div class="bboxad"> +<p class="center"> +SUPPLEMENTARY<br /> +ILLUSTRATIONS<br /> +<br /> +for<br /> +<br /> +<i>MUSIC:<br /> +an ART and a LANGUAGE</i><br /> +<br /> +Vols. I & II now ready<br /> +<br /> +<span class="msm">(<i>Schmidt's Educational Series No. 257-a, b</i>)<br /> +<br /> +Price $1.00 each volume</span> +</p> +</div> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>Preface</h2> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">A</span>LTHOUGH "of the making of books there is no end," this book, on so +human a subject as music, we believe should justify itself. A +twenty-years' experience in teaching the Appreciation of Music at +Harvard University and Radcliffe College has convinced the author that +a knowledge of musical grammar and structure does enable us, as the +saying is, to get more out of music. This conviction is further +strengthened by the statement of numerous students who testify that +after analyzing certain standard compositions their attitude towards +music has changed and their love for it greatly increased.</p> + +<p>In the illustrations (published in a Supplementary Volume) no +concessions have been made to so-called "popular taste"; people have +an instinctive liking for the best when it is fairly put before them. +We are not providing a musical digest, since music requires <i>active +coöperation</i> by the hearer, nor are we trying to interpret music in +terms of the other arts. Music is itself. For those who may be +interested in speculating as to the connection between music and art, +numerous books are available—some of them excellent from their point +of view.</p> + +<p>This book concerns itself with music <i>as</i> music. It is assumed that, +if anyone really loves this art, he is willing and glad to do serious +work to quicken his sense of hearing, to broaden his imagination, and +to strengthen his memory so that he may become intelligent in +appreciation rather than merely absorbed in honeyed sounds. Music is +of such power and glory that we should be ready to devote to its study +as much time as to a foreign language. In the creed of the music-lover +the first and last article is familiarity. When we thoroughly know a +composition so that its themes sing in our memory and we feel at home +in the structure, the music will speak to us directly, and all books +and analytical comments will be of secondary importance—those of the +present writer not excepted. Special effort has been made to select +illustrations of musical worth, and upon these the real emphasis in +study should be laid.</p> + +<p>The material of the book is based on lectures, often of an informal +nature, in the Appreciation Course at Harvard University and lays no +claim to original research. The difficulty in establishing points of +approach makes it far more baffling to speak or write about music than +about the other arts. Music is sufficient unto itself. Endowed with +the insight of a Ruskin or a Pater, one may say something worth while +about painting. But in music the line between mere statistical +analysis and sentimental rhapsody must be drawn with exceeding care. +If the subject matter be clearly presented and the analyses +true—allowance being made for honest difference of opinion—every +hope will be realized.</p> + +<p>The author's gratitude is herewith expressed to Mr. Percy Lee Atherton +for his critical revision of the text and to Professor William C. +Heilman for valuable assistance in selecting and preparing the musical +illustrations.</p> + +<p class="right">W.R.S.</p> + +<p> +Cambridge, Massachusetts<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>June</i>, 1919</span><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="Contents" id="Contents"></a>Contents</h2> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="contents"> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Preliminary Considerations</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Folk-Song</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Polyphonic Music; Sebastian Bach, the Fugue</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_33'>33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Musical Sentence</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Two-Part and Three-Part Forms</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Classical and the Modern Suite</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Rondo Form</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Variation Form</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_85'>85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Sonata-Form and Its Founders</span>—<span class="smcap">Emmanuel Bach and Haydn</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_91'>91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Mozart. The Perfection of Classic Structure and Style</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Beethoven, the Tone-Poet</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Romantic Composers. Schubert, Weber</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Schumann and Mendelssohn</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Chopin and Pianoforte Style</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">XV.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Berlioz and Liszt. Program Music</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">XVI.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Brahms</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_228'>228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">XVII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">César Franck</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">XVIII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Modern French School</span>—<span class="smcap">d'Indy and Debussy</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_280'>280</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">XIX.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">National Schools</span>—<span class="smcap">Russian, Bohemian and Scandinavian</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_300'>300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">XX.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Varied Tendencies of Modern Music</span></td><td class="right"><a href='#Page_326'>326</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"><a href="#Index">Index</a></p> + +<p class="center"><a href="#LIST_OF_COMPOSITIONS_REFERRED_TO_IN_THIS_WORK">List of Compositions</a></p> + + + +<hr /> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="center"><i>Music is the universal language of mankind.</i></p> + +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">Longfellow</span>.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="poem"> +<tr> +<td> +<i>Music can noble hints impart,<br /> +Engender fury, kindle love;<br /> +With unsuspected eloquence can move<br /> +And manage all the man with secret art.</i> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">Addison</span>.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><i>Music is the sound of the circulation in nature's veins. It +is the flux which melts nature. Men dance to it, glasses +ring and vibrate, and the fields seem to undulate. The +healthy ear always hears it, nearer or more remote.</i></p> + +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">Thoreau</span>.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="poem"> +<tr> +<td> +<i>To strike all this life dead,<br /> +Run mercury into a mold like lead,<br /> +And henceforth have the plain result to show—<br /> +How we Feel hard and fast, and what we Know—<br /> +This were the prize, and is the puzzle!—which<br /> +Music essays to solve.</i> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">Browning</span>.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="center"><i>All music is what awakes from you when you are reminded by +the instruments.</i></p> + +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">Whitman</span>.</p> +</div> + + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">1</a></span></p> +<h1>Music: an Art and a Language</h1> + + + +<hr class="med" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">I</span>N approaching the study of any subject we may fairly expect that this +subject shall be defined, although some one has ironically remarked +that every definition is a misfortune. Music-lovers, however, will +rejoice that their favorite art is spared such a misfortune, for it +can not be defined. We know the factors of which music is constituted, +rhythm and sound; and we can trace the historic steps by which methods +of presentation and of style have been so perfected that by means of +this twofold material the emotions and aspirations of human beings may +be expressed and permanently recorded. We realize, and with our inborn +equipment can appreciate, the moving power of music; but to define, in +the usual sense of the term definition, what music really is, will be +forever impossible. The fact indeed that music—like love, electricity +and other elemental forces—cannot be defined is its special glory. It +is a peculiar, mysterious power;<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> quite in a class by itself, +although with certain aspects which it shares with the other arts. The +writings of all the great poets, such as Milton, Shakespeare, Browning +and Whitman, abound in eloquent tributes to the power and influence of +music, but it is noticeable that no one attempts to define it. The +mystery of music must be approached with reverence and music must be +loved for itself with perfect sincerity.</p> + +<p>Some insight, however, may be gained into the nature of music by a +clear recognition of what it is <i>not</i>, and by a comparison with the +more definite and familiar arts. Music consists of the intangible and +elusive factors of rhythm and sound; in this way differing +fundamentally from the concrete static arts such as architecture, +sculpture and painting. Furthermore, instrumental music, <i>i.e.</i>, music +freed from a dependence on words, is not an exact language like prose +and poetry.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span> It speaks to our feelings and imaginations, as it were by +suggestion; reaching for this very reason depths of our being quite +beyond the power of mere words. No one can define rhythm except by +saying that rhythm, in the sense of motion, is the fundamental fact in +the universe and in all life, both physical and human. Everything in +the heavens above and in the earth beneath is in ceaseless motion and +change; nothing remains the same for two consecutive seconds. Even the +component parts of material—such as stone and wood, which we +ordinarily speak of as concrete and stationary—are whirling about +with ceaseless energy, and often in perfect rhythm. Thus we see how +natural and vital is the art of music, for it is inseparably connected +with life itself.</p> + +<p>As for the other factor, sound is one of the most elemental and +mysterious of all physical phenomena.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> When the air is set in motion +by the vibration of certain bodies of wood, metal and other material, +we know that sound waves, striking upon the tympanum of the ear, +penetrate to the brain and imagination. Sound is a reciprocal +phenomenon; for, even if there were systematic activity of vibrating +bodies, there could be no sound without some one to hear it.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Good +musicians are known for their power of keen and discriminating +hearing; and the ear,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> as Saint-Saëns says, is the sole avenue of +approach to the musical sense. The first ambition for one who would +appreciate music should be to cultivate this power of hearing. It is +quite possible to be stone-deaf outwardly and yet hear most beautiful +sounds within the brain. This was approximately the case with +Beethoven after his thirtieth year. On the other hand, many people +have a perfect outward apparatus for hearing but nothing is registered +within.</p> + +<p>Combarieu, the French aesthetician, defines music as "the art of +thinking in tones."<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> There is food for thought in this statement, +but it seems to leave out one very important factor—namely, the +emotional. Every great musical composition reveals a carefully<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span> +planned and perfect balance between the emotional and intellectual +elements. And yet the basic impulse for the creation of music is an +emotional one; and, of all the arts, music makes the most direct +appeal to the emotions and to those shadowy, but real portions of our +being called the imagination and the soul. Emotion is as indispensable +to music as love to religion. Just as there can be no really great art +without passion, so we can not imagine music without all the emotions +of mankind: their loves, joys, sorrows, hatreds, ideals and subtle +fancies. Music, in fact, is a presentation of emotional experience, +fashioned and controlled by an overruling intellectual power.</p> + +<p>We can now foresee, though at first dimly, what is to be our line of +approach to this mystery. One of the peculiar characteristics of music +is that it is both the most natural and least artificial of the arts, +and as well the most complicated and subtle. On the one hand it is the +most natural and direct, because the materials of which it is +constituted—that is, sound and rhythm—make an instinctive appeal to +every normally equipped human being.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Every one likes to listen to +beautiful sounds merely for their sensuous effect, just as everyone +likes to look at the blue sky, the green grass and the changing hues +of a sunset; so the rhythm of music, akin to the human heart-beat and +to the ceaseless change and motion, which is the basic fact in all +life, appeals at once to our own physical vitality. This fact may be +observed at a symphony concert where so many people are wagging their +heads, beating time with their hands or even tapping on the floor with +their feet; a habit which shows a rudimentary love of music but which +for obvious reasons is not to be commended. On the other hand, music +is the most complicated of all the arts from the nature of its +constituent parts—intangible, evanescent sounds and rhythms—and from +the subtle grammar and structure by which these factors are used as +means of personal communication. This grammar of music, <i>i.e.</i>, its +methods of structure and of presentation, has been worked out through +centuries of free experimentation on the part of some of the best +minds in the world, and thus any great musical composition is an +intellectual achievement of high rank. Behind the sensuous factors, +sound and rhythm, lies always the personal message of the composer, +and if we are to grasp this and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> to make it our own, we must go with +him hand in hand so that the music actually lives again in our minds +and imaginations. The practical inference from this dual nature of the +art we are considering is clear; everyone can derive a large amount of +genuine pleasure and even spiritual exaltation, can feel himself under +the influence of a strong tonic force, merely by putting himself in +contact with music, by opening his ears and drinking in the sounds and +rhythms in their marvellous variety. The all-sufficient reason for the +lack of a complete appreciation of music is that so many people stop +at this point, <i>i.e.</i> for them music is a sensuous art and nothing +more. Wagner himself, in fact, is on record in a letter to Liszt as +saying, in regard to the appreciation of his operas: "I require +nothing from the public but healthy senses and a human heart." +Although this may be particularly true of opera, which is a composite +form of art, making so varied an appeal to the participant that +everyone can get something from its picture of life—historical, +legendary, even fictitious—as well as from the actors, the costumes +and the story, the statement is certainly not applicable to what is +called absolute music, where music is disassociated from the guiding +help of words, and expressed by the media of orchestra, string +quartet, pianoforte, and various ensemble groups. For in addition to +its sensuous appeal, music is a language used as a means of personal +expression; sometimes in the nature of an intimate soliloquy, but far +more often as a direct means of communication between the mind and +soul of the composer and of the listener. To say that we understand +the message expressed in this language just because we happen to like +beautiful sounds and stimulating rhythms is surely to be our own +dupes. We might as well say that because we enjoy hearing Italians or +Frenchmen speak their own beautiful languages we are understanding +what they say. The question, therefore, faces us: how shall we learn +this mysterious language so as readily to understand it? And the +answer is equally inevitable: by learning something of the material of +which it is composed, and above all, the fundamental principles of its +structure.</p> + +<p>In attempting to carry out this simple direction, however, we are +confronted by another of the peculiar characteristics of music. Music, +in distinction from the static, concrete and imitative arts, is always +in motion, and to follow it requires an intensity of concentration and +an accuracy of memory which can be acquired, but for which, like most +good things, we have to work. We all know the adage that "beauty is in +the eye of the beholder" and that any work of art must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span> be recreated +in the imagination of the participant. The difficulty of this process +of recreation, as applied to music, is that we have, derived from our +ordinary daily experiences, so little to help us. Anyone can begin, at +least, to understand a work of architecture; it must have doors and +windows, and should conform to practical ideas of structure. In like +manner, a painting, either a portrait or a landscape, must show some +correspondence with nature herself, and so we have definite standards +to help our imagination. But music has worked out its own laws which +are those of pure fancy, having little to do with other forms of +thought; and unless we know something of the constructive principles, +instead of recreating the work before us, we are simply lost—"drowned +in a sea of sound"—often rudely shaken up by the rhythms, but far +from understanding what the music is really saying. As the well-known +critic, Santayana, wittily says, "To most people music is a drowsy +revery relieved by nervous thrills."</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding, however, the peculiar nature of music and the +difficulty of gaining logical impressions as the sounds and rhythms +flood in upon us, there is one simple form of coöperation which solves +most of the difficulties; that is, familiarity. It is the duty of the +composer so to express himself, to make his meaning so clear, that we +can receive it with a minimum of mental friction if we can only get to +know the music. All really good music corresponds to such a standard; +that is, if it is needlessly involved, abstruse, diffuse, or turgid, +it is <i>in so far</i> not music of the highest artistic worth. In this +connection we must always remember that music does not "stay put," +like a picture on the wall. We cannot walk through it, as is the case +with a cathedral; turn back, as in a book; touch it, as with a statue. +It is not the expression of more or less definite ideas, such as we +find in prose and poetry. On the other hand, it rushes upon us with +the impassioned spirit of an eloquent orator, and what we get from it +depends almost entirely upon our own intensity of application and upon +our knowledge of the themes and of the general purpose of the work. +Only with increased familiarity does the architecture stand revealed. +Beethoven, it is said, when once asked the meaning of a sonata of his, +played it over again and replied, "It means that." Music is itself. +The question for every music-lover is: can I equip myself in such a +way as to feel at home in this language, to receive the message as +directly as possible, and finally with perfect ease and satisfaction? +This equipment demands a strong, accurate memory, a keen power of +discrimination and a sympathetic, open mind.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span></p> + +<p>Another paradoxical characteristic of music on which it is interesting +to reflect is this: Music is the oldest as well as the youngest of the +arts, <i>i.e.</i>, it has always<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> existed generically, and all human +beings born, as they are, with a musical instrument—the voice—are +<i>ipso facto</i> musicians; and yet in boundless scope of possibilities it +is just in its infancy. For who can limit the combinations of sound +and rhythm, or forecast the range of the human imagination? The +creative fancy of the composer is always in advance of contemporary +taste and criticism. Hence, in listening to new music, we should +beware of reckless assertions of personal preference. The first +question, in the presence of an elaborate work of music, should never +be, "Do I like it or not?" but "Do I understand it?" "Is the music +conveying a logical message to me, or is it merely a sea of sound?" +The first and last article in the music-lover's creed, I repeat, +should be <i>familiarity</i>. When we thoroughly know a symphony, symphonic +poem or sonata so that, for example, we can sing the themes to +ourselves, the music will reveal itself. The difference between the +trained listener and the person of merely general musical tendencies +is that the former gains a definite meaning from the music often at a +first hearing; whereas, to the latter, many hearings are necessary +before he can make head or tail of the composition. Since the creative +composer of music is a thinker in tones, our perceptions must be so +trained that, as we listen, we make sense of the fabric of sounds and +rhythms.</p> + +<p>It is evident from the foregoing observations that our approach to the +subject is to be on the intellectual side. Music, to be sure, is an +emotional art and so appeals to our emotions, but these will take care +of themselves. We all have a reasonable supply of emotion and +practically no human being is entirely deficient in the capacity for +being moved by music. We can, however, sharpen our wits and strengthen +our musical memories; for it is obvious that if we cannot recognize a +theme or remember it whenever it appears, often in an amplified or +even subtly disguised form, we are in no condition to follow and +appreciate the logical growth and development of the themes themselves +which, in a work of music, are just as real beings as the "dramatis +personae" in a play. The would-be appreciator should early recognize +the fact that listening to music is by no means passive, a means of +light amusement or to pass the time, but demands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span> coöperation of an +active nature. Whether or not we have the emotional capacity of a +creator of music may remain an open question; but by systematic mental +application we <i>can</i>, as we listen to it, get from the music that +sense which the composer meant to convey. Music—more than the other +arts—demands, to use a happy expression of D.G. Mason, that we +"mentally organize our sensations and ideas"; for the language of +music has no such fixed grammar as verbal modes of expression, and the +message, even when received, is suggestive rather than definite. In +this way only can the composition be recreated in our imaginations. +For acquiring this habit of mind, this alertness and concentration, +the start, as always, is more than half the battle. Schumann's good +advice to young composers may be transferred to the listener: "Be sure +that you invent a thoroughly vital theme; the rest will grow of itself +from this." Likewise in listening to music, one should be sure to +grasp the opening theme, the fundamental motive, in order to follow it +intelligently and to enjoy its subsequent growth into the complete +work.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p>Every piece of music, with the exception of intentionally rhapsodic +utterances, begins with some group of notes of distinct rhythmic and +melodic interest, which is the germ—the generative force—of the +whole, and which is comparable to the text of a sermon or the subject +of a drama. This introductory group of notes is called, technically, a +<i>motive</i> or moving force and may be defined as <i>the simplest unit of +imaginative life in terms of rhythm and sound</i>, which instantly +impresses itself upon our consciousness and, when heard several times, +cannot be forgotten or confused with any other motive. A musical +theme—a longer sweep of thought (to be explained later)—may consist +of several motives of which the first is generally the most important. +Just here lies the difference between the Heaven-born themes of a +truly creative composer and the bundle of notes put forth by lesser +men. These living themes pierce our imaginations and sing in our +memories, sometimes for years, whereas the inept and flabby tunes of +certain so-called composers make no strong impression and are +forgotten almost as soon as heard. Motives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span> obviously differ from each +other in regard to the intervals of the tones composing them, <i>i.e.</i>, +the up and down relationship in pitch, the duration of the tones and +their grouping into metric schemes. But a real motive is always terse, +concise, characteristic and pregnant with unrevealed meaning. The +chief glory of such creative tone-poets as Beethoven, Wagner, Brahms +and Franck is that their imaginations could give birth to musical +offspring that live for ever and are loved like life itself. The first +step, then, in the progress of the appreciator of music is the +recognition of the chief motive or motives of a composition and the +development of power to follow them in their organic growth. This +ability is particularly necessary in modern music: for frequently all +four movements of a symphony or string-quartet are based upon a motive +which keeps appearing—often in altered form and in relationships +which imply a dramatic or suggestive meaning. A few of such motives +are cited herewith, taken from works with which, as we proceed, we +shall become familiar.</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b><span class="smcap">César Franck</span>: <i>Symphony in D minor</i></b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music008a.png" width="380" height="183" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music008a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music008a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b><span class="smcap">Brahms</span>: <i>First Symphony in C minor</i></b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music008b.png" width="416" height="193" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music008b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music008b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b><span class="smcap">Tchaikowsky</span>: <i>5th Symphony</i></b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music008c.png" width="362" height="165" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music008c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music008c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"><b><span class="smcap">Dvořák</span>: Symphony <i>From the New World</i></b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music009.png" width="463" height="174" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music009.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music009.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>It is now necessary for the student to know something about the +constructive principles by which large works of music are fashioned; +not so much that he could compose these works himself, even if he had +the inspiration, but to know enough, so that the reception of the +music is not a haphazard activity but an intellectual achievement, +second only to that of the original creator. Every genuine work of art +in whatever medium, stone, color, word or tone, must exhibit <i>unity of +general effect with variety of detail</i>. That is, the material must +hold together, be coherent and convince the participant of the logical +design of the artist; not fall apart as might a bad building, or be +diffuse as a poorly written essay. And yet, with this coherence, there +must always be stimulating and refreshing variety; for a too constant +insistence on the main material produces intolerable monotony, such as +the "damnable iteration" of a mediocre prose work or the harping away +on one theme by the hack composer. In no art more than music is this +dual standard of greater importance, and in no art more difficult to +attain. For the raw material of music, fleeting rhythms and waves of +sound, is in its very nature most incoherent. Here we are not dealing +with the concrete, tangible and definite material which is available +for all the other arts, but with something intangible and elusive. We +know from the historical record<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> of musical development, that, only +after centuries of experimentation conducted by some of the best +intellects in Europe, was sufficient coherence gained so that there +could be composed music which would compare with the simplest modern +hymn-tune or part-song. And this was long after each of the other +arts—architecture, sculpture, painting and literature—had reached +points of attainment which, in many respects, have never since been +equalled.</p> + +<p>Before carrying our inquiries further, something must be said about +the two main lines of musical development which led up to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span> music as we +know it to-day. These tendencies are designated by the terms +<i>Homophonic</i> and <i>Polyphonic</i>. By homophonic,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> from Greek words +signifying a "single voice," is meant music consisting of a <i>single</i> +melodic line, as in the whole field of folk-songs (which originally +were always unaccompanied) or in the unison chants of the Greeks and +the Gregorian tones of the early church, in which there is <i>one +melody</i> though many voices may unite in singing it. Later we shall see +what important principles for the growth of instrumental music were +borrowed from the instinctive practise associated with the folk-song +and folk-dance. But history makes clear that the fundamental +principles of musical coherence were worked out in the field of music +known as the <i>Polyphonic</i>. By this term, as the derivation implies, is +meant music the fabric of which is made by the interweaving of +<i>several</i> independent melodies. For many centuries the most reliable +instrument was the human voice and the only art-music, <i>i.e.</i>, music +which was the result of conscious mental and artistic endeavor, was +vocal music for groups of unaccompanied voices in the liturgy of the +church. About the tenth century, musicians tried the crude +experiment,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> called Organum, of making two groups of singers move +in parallel fifths <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music010.png" width="633" height="91" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">Tu Patris sempiternus es Filius.</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music010.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music010.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>but during the 13th and 14th centuries a method was worked out by +which the introductory tune was made to generate its own subsequent +tissue. It was found that a body of singers could announce a melody of +a certain type and that, after they had proceeded so far, a second set +of singers could repeat the opening melodic phrase—and so likewise +often a third and a fourth set—and that all the voices could be made +to blend together in a fairly harmonious whole.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span> A piece of music +of this systematic structure is called a <i>Round</i> because the singers +take up the melody in <i>rotation</i> and at regular rhythmic periods.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> +The earliest specimen of a Round is the famous one "Sumer is icumen +in" circa 1225 (see Supplement of musical Examples No. 1), which shows +to what a high point of perfection—considering those early +days—musicians had brought their art. For, at any rate, by these +systematic, imitative repetitions they had secured the first requisite +of all music, coherence. This principle, once it was sanctioned by +growing musical instinct, and approved by convention, was developed +into such well-known types of polyphonic music as the Canon, the +Invention and the Fugue; terms which will be fully explained later on. +It is of more than passing interest to realize that these structural +principles of music were worked out in the same locality—Northern +France and the Netherlands, and by kindred intellects—as witnessed +the growth of Gothic architecture; and there is a fundamental affinity +between the interweavings of polyphonic or, as it is often called, +<i>contrapuntal</i><a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> music and the stone traceries in medieval +cathedrals. During the 13th and 14th centuries northern France, with +Paris as its centre, was the most cultivated part of Europe, and the +Flemish cities of Cambrai, Tournai, Louvain and Antwerp will always be +renowned in the history of art, as the birthplace of Gothic +architecture, of modern painting and of polyphonic music.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> A great +deal of the impetus towards the systematic repetition of the voice +parts must have been caused by practical necessity (thus justifying +the old adage); for, before the days of printed music, or even of a +well-established tradition—when everything had to be laboriously +written out or transmitted orally—whole compositions could be +rendered by the singers through the simple device of remembering the +introductory theme and joining in from memory whenever their turn +came. Compositions in fact were often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span> so recorded.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The following +old English round (circa 1609) shows clearly how the voices entered in +rotation.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music012a.png" width="630" height="258" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">1 Three blind mice, three blind mice<br /> +2 ran around thrice, ran around thrice; The<br /> +3 miller and his merry old wife ne'er laugh'd so much in all their +life.</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music012a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music012a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>For a Round in strict canonic imitation by the famous English composer +William Byrd (1542-1623) see the Supplement, Example No. 2. In due +time singers of that period became likewise very proficient in +improvising free parts about a given melody or <i>cantus firmus</i>, a +practice indicated by the term "musica ficta" which was beneficial in +stimulating the imagination to a genuine musical activity.</p> + +<p>We can now begin to realize the importance of polyphonic music. In +fact, it is not too much to assert that <i>systematic repetition</i> in +some form or other (several aspects of which we shall describe in due +season) is the most important constructive principle in music, +necessitated by the very nature of the material. This statement can be +corroborated by a glance at almost any page of music considered merely +as a <i>pattern</i>, quite regardless how the notes sound. We observe at +once that some portions of the page look much or exactly like other +portions. Frequently whole movements or long parts of a work are based +entirely upon some terse and characteristic motive. Famous examples of +this practise are the first movement of Beethoven's <i>Fifth Symphony in +C minor</i> which, with certain subsidiary themes to afford contrast, is +entirely based on the motive:</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music012b.png" width="269" height="60" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music012b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music012b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>the Finale of Wagner's opera <i>The Valkyrie</i> (see Supplement, Example +No. 3) the chief motive of which</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music012c.png" width="347" height="63" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music012c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music012c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span></p> + +<p>is presented in every phase of modulatory and rhythmic development, +and the middle portion of the <i>Reconnaissance</i> from Schumann's +<i>Carnaval</i> (see Supplement, Example No. 4.)</p> + +<p>Music, just because its substance is so elusive and requires such +alert attention on the part of the listener, cannot continually +present new material<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> without becoming diffuse; but instead, must +make its impression by varied emphasis upon the main thought. +Otherwise it would become so discursive that one could not possibly +follow it. From these historical facts as to the structure of music +certain inferences may be drawn; the vital importance of which to the +listener can hardly be exaggerated. As polyphonic treatment (the +imitation and interweaving of independent melodic lines) is the +foundation of any large work of music, be it symphony, symphonic poem +or string quartet, so the listener must acquire what may be called a +<i>polyphonic ear</i>. For with the majority of listeners, the whole +difficulty and the cause of their dissatisfaction with so-called +"classic music" is merely lack of equipment. Everyone can hear the +tune in the soprano or upper voice, for the intensity of pitch makes +it stand out with telling effect; and, as a fact, many of the best +tunes in musical literature are so placed. But how about the tune when +it is in the <i>bass</i> as is the case so frequently in Beethoven's +Symphonies or in Wagner's Operas? Some of the most eloquent parts of +the musical message are, indeed, often in the bass, the foundation +voice, and yet these are entirely ignored by the average listener. +Then what of the inner voices; and what—most important of all—when +there are beautiful melodies in <i>all parts</i> of the musical fabric, +often sounding simultaneously, as in such well-known works as César +Franck's <i>Symphony in D minor</i> and Wagner's <i>Prelude to the +Mastersingers</i>! As we face these questions squarely the need for the +listener of special training in alertness and concentration is +self-evident. A very small proportion of those who attend a symphony +concert begin to get their money's worth—to put the matter on a +perfectly practical plane—for at least 50% of the musical structure +is presented to ears without capacity for receiving it. In regard to +any work of large dimensions the final test is this: can we sing all +the themes and follow them in their polyphonic development? Then only +are we really acquainted with the work; then only, in regard to +personal like or dislike, have we any right to pass judgment upon it. +The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span> absurd attitude, far too common, of hasty, ill-considered +criticism is illustrated by the fact that while Brahms is said to have +worked for ten years on that Titanic creation, his <i>First Symphony</i>, +yet persons will hear it <i>once</i> and have the audacity to say they do +not like it. As well stroll through Chartres Cathedral and say they +did not think much of it!</p> + +<p>We must now speak of the two other manifestations of the principle of +<i>repetition</i>. Fundamentally, to be sure, they are not connected with +polyphonic music; the third type, in fact,—restatement after +contrast—being instinctively worked out in the Folk-Song (as will be +made plain later) and definitely ratified as a structural principle by +the Italian opera composer Alessandro Scarlatti in the well-known Aria +da capo. These further applications of the principle of imitation are +<i>Transposition</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the repetition of the melodic outline, and +often of the whole harmonic fabric, by shifting it up or down the +scale; and the <i>Restatement</i> of the original melody after an +intervening part in contrast, thus making a piece of music, the +formula for which may be indicated by A, B, Á. Anyone at all familiar +with musical literature must have observed both of these devices for +securing coherence and organic unity; in fact, the principle of +restatement after contrast is at the foundation of any large work, and +supplies the connecting link between the structure of the Folk-Song +and that of the most elaborate modern music. A convincing illustration +of the use of Transposition may be found in Schumann's <i>Arabesque</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music014.png" width="630" height="369" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music015a.png" width="630" height="201" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music014.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music014.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and in the opening theme of Beethoven's <i>Waldstein Sonata</i>, op. 53.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music015b.png" width="632" height="551" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music015b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music015b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>It was a favorite device of Beethoven to impress the main theme upon +the hearer by definite repetitions on various degrees of the +scale.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> For an elaborate example of Transposition nothing can +surpass the opening movement of César Franck's <i>D Minor Symphony</i>, the +entire first part of which consists of a literal repetition in F minor +of what has been previously announced in D minor.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span></p> +<p>Pieces of music which embody the principle of <i>Restatement after +Contrast</i> are so numerous that the question is merely one of selecting +the clearest examples. In the Folk-Songs of every nation, as soon as +they had passed beyond the stage of a monotonous reiteration of some +phrase which pleased the fancy, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music016.png" width="630" height="76" alt="ad infinitum!" title="ad infinitum!" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music016.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music016.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>we find hardly one in which there is not a similarity between the +closing measures and something which had gone before. (See Supplement, +Example No. 5.) For the most elementary artistic experience would +establish the fact that the only way to avoid a monotonous repetition +of the same theme is to change to a different one. And the next step +is equally axiomatic—that, presupposing the first theme gives +pleasure on its initial appearance, it will be heard with heightened +pleasure at its reappearance after intervening contrast. A +psychological principle is herein involved which cannot be proved but +which is self-justified by its own reasonableness and is further +exemplified by many experiences in daily life. Sweet things taste the +sweeter after a contrast with something acid; we like to revisit old +scenes and to return home after a vacation. No delight is keener than +the <i>renewal</i> of some aesthetic experience after its temporary +effacement through a change of appeal.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> This practice is associated +with the inherent demand, spoken of above, for Variety in Unity. No +theme is of sufficient import to bear constant repetition; in fact, +the more eloquent it is, the more sated should we become if it were +continued overlong. Monotony, furthermore, is less tolerable in music +than in the other arts because music cuts deeper, because the ear is +so sensitive an organ and because we have no way of shutting off +sound. If a particular sight or scene displeases, we can close our +eyelids; but the ear is entirely unprotected and the only way to +escape annoying sounds is to take to flight.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> We inevitably crave +contrast, change of sensation; and nothing gives more organic unity +than a return to whatever impressed us at the outset. This cyclic form +of musical expression, early discovered through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span> free experimentation, +has remained the leading principle in all modern works, and—because +derived directly from life and nature—must be permanent. We return +whence we came; everything goes in circles. We can now understand +still more the need of a strong and accurate memory; for if we do not +know whether or not we have ever heard a theme, obviously the keen +pleasure of welcoming it anew is lost to us. Furthermore, this +principle of Restatement has in modern music some very subtle uses, +and presupposes the acquisition of a real power of reminiscence. For +example, Wagner's tone-drama of <i>Tristan and Isolde</i> begins with this +haunting motive</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music017a.png" width="537" height="164" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music017a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music017a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>which, with its dual melodic lines, typifies the passionate love of +the two chief characters in the story. After three hours or more of +tragic action and musical development this motive is again introduced +in the very closing measures of the drama, to show that even in the +presence of transfiguring death this love is still their guiding +power.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music017b.png" width="629" height="451" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music018a.png" width="624" height="227" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music017b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music017b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>For those who can appreciate the significance of such treatment, this +reminiscence is one of the most sublime touches in all musical drama. +The fascinating orchestral Scherzo of Richard Strauss's <i>Till +Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks</i> likewise begins with a characteristic +motto,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music018b.png" width="625" height="224" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music18b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music18b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>which says, in the language of music—I now have a story to tell you +of a certain freakish character; and then we are regaled with the +musical portrayal of a series of Till's pranks. As an Epilogue, +Strauss improvises on this opening theme as much as to say—you have +listened to my musical story, now let us indulge in some reflections +as to the fate of poor Till, for after all he was a good fellow. (See +Supplement, Example No. 6.)</p> + +<p>It is evident, therefore, from the foregoing examples that the basic +principles of musical structure are coherence, refreshing variety and +such unity of general impression as may be gained chiefly by a +restatement, after contrast, of themes previously heard. Our +subsequent study will simply illustrate these natural laws of music in +their wider application.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE FOLK-SONG</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">I</span>N the preceding chapter we made some general inquiries into the +nature of music and of those methods by which emotion and thought are +expressed. We shall assume therefore that the following facts are +established: that in music, by reason of the intangibility and +elusiveness of the material, sound and rhythm, the principle of Unity +in Variety is of paramount importance; and that the hearer, if he +would grasp the message expressed by these sounds and rhythms, must +make a <i>conscious</i> effort of coöperation and not be content with mere +dreamy apathy. Furthermore, that Unity and Coherence are gained in +music by applying the principle of systematic Repetition or Imitation. +(We shall see, as we continue, how Variety has been secured by +contrasting themes, by episodical passages and by various devices of +rhythmic and harmonic development.)</p> + +<p>We may now investigate the growth of musical structure and expression, +as manifested in the fields of the Folk-Song and of Polyphonic music, +beginning with the Folk-Song—historically the older and more +elemental in its appeal. We cannot imagine the time when human beings +did not use their voices in some form of emotional outpouring; and, as +far back as there are any historical records, we find traces of such +activity. For many centuries these rude cries of savage races were far +removed from anything like artistic design, but the advance towards +coherence and symmetry was always the result of free +experimentation—hence vitally connected with the emotions and mental +processes of all human effort. One of the most significant of the many +sayings attributed to Daniel Webster is that "Sovereignty rests with +the people"; and it is an interesting inquiry to see what wider +application may be made of this statement in the field of art. For it +is a fact that there has seldom been an important school of music, +so-called—in any given place and period—which was not founded on the +emotional traits, the aspirations and the ideals of the people. Surely +one of the distinct by-products of the Great War is to be the +emancipation of the art of music, along with that of all the other +arts. Such a realization of its nature and powers will result that it +shall no longer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span> be a mere exotic amusement of the leisure and wealthy +classes, but shall be brought into direct touch with the rank and file +of the people; even, if you will, with the so-called "lower +classes"—that part of humanity from which, indeed, it sprung and with +which it really belongs—just human beings, just people. So in music +also we may assert that "Sovereignty rests with the people." Although +all art reflects popular sentiment to a certain extent, in no one of +the arts—as painting, sculpture and architecture—is there such a +vital record of the emotions and artistic instincts of humanity as we +find in the realm of folk-song.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> During the early period of Church +music, while theorists and scholars were struggling with the intricate +problems of polyphonic style, the people in their daily secular life +were finding an outlet for their emotions, for their joys and sorrows, +in song and in dance. This instinct for musical expression is +universal, and just because the products of such activity were +unfettered by rules, they exercised in process of time much influence +upon the development of modern style. Folk-songs are characterized by +a freshness and simplicity, a directness of utterance, which are +seldom attained by the conscious efforts of genius. "Listen carefully +to all folk-songs," says Schumann. "They are a storehouse of beautiful +melody, and unfold to the mind the innate character of the different +peoples." They are like wild flowers blooming unheeded by the wayside, +the product of the race rather than the individual, and for centuries +were only slightly known to cultivated musicians. It should be +understood that words and music were inextricably bound together and +that, with both, dancing was naturally associated; the very essence of +a people's life being expressed by this tripartite activity. Tonal +variety is a marked feature in folk-songs, many of them being in the +old Gregorian modes, while others show a decided inclination to our +modern major and minor scales. Great is the historical importance of +Folk-music, because in it we see a dawning recognition of the +principles of instrumental form, <i>i.e.</i>, the need of balanced phrases, +caused in the songs by the metrical structure of the words, and in the +dances by the symmetrical movements of the body; a recognition above +all, of the application of a definite system of tonal-centres, and of +repetition after contrast. In fact, as we look back it is evident that +the outlines of our most important design, that known as the Sonata +Form are—in a rudimentary state—found in folk-music. Folk-melodies +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span> rhythms play a large part in the music of Haydn, Schubert, +Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Grieg, Tchaikowsky and Dvořák. It seems as +if modern composers were doing for music what Luther Burbank has done +for plant life; for by grafting modern thought and feeling on to the +parent stock of popular music, they have secured a vigor attainable in +no other way. Thus some of the noblest melodies of Brahms, Grieg, and +Tchaikowsky are actual folk-tunes with slight variation or original +melodies conceived in a folk-song spirit.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> + +<p>As music, unlike the other arts, lacks any model in the realm of +nature, it has had to work out its own laws, and its spontaneity and +directness are the result. It has not become imitative, utilitarian or +bound by arbitrary conventions. As Berlioz says in the <i>Grotesques de +la Musique</i>: "Music exists by itself; it has no need of poetry, and if +every human language were to perish, it would be none the less the +most poetic, the grandest and the freest of all the arts." When we +reach the centuries in which definite records are available, we find a +wealth of folk-songs from the Continental nations: Irish, Scotch, +English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Russian, etc.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> In these +we can trace the transition from the old modes to our modern major and +minor scales; the principles of tonality and of rudimentary +modulation, the dividing of the musical thought into periodic lengths +by means of cadential endings, the instinct for contrast and for the +unity gained by restatement. No better definition of Folk-songs can be +given than that of Parry in his <i>Evolution of the Art of Music</i> where +he calls them "the first essays made by man in distributing his notes +so as to express his feelings in terms of design." In folk-tunes this +design has been dominated by the metrical phraseology of the poetic +stanzas with which they were associated; for between the structure of +melody and that of poetry there is always a close correspondence. In +Folk-songs, therefore, we find a growing instinct for balanced musical +expression and, above all, an application of the principle of +Restatement after Contrast. The following example drawn from Irish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span> +Folk-music<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>—which, for emotional depth, is justly considered the +finest in the world—will make the point clear.</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>THE FLIGHT OF THE EARLS</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music022.png" width="635" height="420" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music022.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music022.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The statement is sometimes made that the principles of our modern +system of tonality and of modulation are derived from Folk-music. This +is only partially true, for pure Folk-songs always developed under the +influence of the old medieval modes, long before the establishment of +our fixed major and minor scales. Furthermore, as these were single +unaccompanied melodies, they showed slight connection with modulation +or change of key in the modern sense of the term—which implies a +system of harmonization in several voices. It is true that there was +an instinctive and growing recognition of the importance of the three +chief tonal centres: the Tonic or Keynote, the Dominant (a perfect +fifth <i>above</i>) and the Subdominant (a perfect fifth <i>below</i>) and at +times the relative minor. All these changes are illustrated in the +melody just cited; <i>e.g.</i>, in the fourth measure<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> there is an +implication of E minor, in measures<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span> seven and eight there is a +distinct modulation to D major, the Dominant, and in the ninth measure +to C major, the Subdominant. This acceptance of other tonal +centres—distant a fifth from the main key-note—doubtless arose from +their simplicity and naturalness, and was later sanctioned by +acoustical law; the interval of a perfect fifth having one of the +simplest ratios (2-3), and being familiar to people as the first +overtone (after the octave) struck off by any sounding body—such as a +bell or an organ pipe. The Venetian composers, notably Willaert, had +also quite fully developed this principle of Tonic, Dominant and +Subdominant harmony in order to give homogeneity to their antiphonal +choruses. Even to-day these tonal centres are still used; for they are +elemental, like the primitive colors of the spectroscope. But +modulation, in the modern sense of a free shifting of the centre of +gravity to <i>any one</i> of the twelve semitones of our chromatic scale, +was not developed and accepted until after the acoustical reforms of +Rameau, and the system of tuning keyed instruments embodied in that +work called the <i>Well-tempered Clavichord</i> of Sebastian Bach. Both +these men published their discoveries about the year 1720.</p> + +<p>As we have just used the term <i>modal</i>, and since many Folk-songs in +the old modes sound peculiar or even wrong (hence the preposterous +emendations of modern editors!) because our ears can listen only in +terms of the fixed major and minor scales, a few words of explanation +concerning the nature of the medieval modes should here be given. +Their essential peculiarity is the freer relationship of tones and +semitones than is found in the definite pattern of our modern scales. +It is of great importance that the music-lover should train himself to +think naturally in these modes; for there has been a significant +return to their freedom and variety on the part of such modern +composers as Brahms, Tchaikowsky, Dvořák, d'Indy, Debussy and +others, and some of their most individual effects are gained through +the introduction of modal types of expression. The following modes are +those most commonly employed in the formation of Folk-songs.</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>DORIAN</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music023a.png" width="469" height="64" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music023a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music023a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>PHRYGIAN</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music023b.png" width="468" height="65" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music023b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music023b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>LYDIAN</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music024a.png" width="467" height="73" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music024a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music024a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>MIXOLYDIAN</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music024b.png" width="473" height="73" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music024b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music024b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>AEOLIAN</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music024c.png" width="467" height="74" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music024c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music024c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>IONIAN</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music024d.png" width="469" height="63" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music024d.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music024d.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The Dorian mode, at the outset, is identical with our modern minor +scale; its peculiarity lies in the <i>semitone</i> between the 6th and 7th +degrees and the <i>whole</i> tone between the 7th and 8th. An excellent +example of a modern adaptation of this mode may be found in Guilmant's +March for organ (see Supplement, Example No. 7). The mysterious +opening measures of Debussy's opera <i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i> also owe +their atmosphere to this mode, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music024e.png" width="628" height="221" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music024e.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music024e.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The Phrygian mode is one of the most individual to our modern ears +with its first step a <i>semitone</i> and with the <i>whole</i> tone between the +7th and 8th degrees. Under the influence of harmonic development there +was worked out a cadence, known as Phrygian, which is often found in +modern music, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music025a.png" width="413" height="162" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music025a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music025a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The opening measures of the slow movement of Brahms's <i>Fourth +Symphony</i> are an excellent example of a melody in the Phrygian mode, +<i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music025b.png" width="634" height="579" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music025b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music025b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The contrast between these measures, with their archaic flavor, and +the sudden change in measure four to the modern tonality of E major, +is very striking. Bach's well-known choral, <i>O Sacred Head now +wounded</i> also begins in the Phrygian mode, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music025c.png" width="629" height="69" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music025c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music025c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span></p> + +<p>For a beautiful modern example of this Phrygian mode see the +introduction to F.S. Converse's <i>Dramatic Poem Job</i>, for voices and +orchestra.</p> + +<p>The Lydian mode is identical with our major scale except for the +semitone between the 4th and 5th degrees. That this change, however, +gives a very characteristic effect may be seen in the passage by +Beethoven from his String-Quartet op. 132—<i>Song of Thanksgiving</i> in +the Lydian mode (see Supplement Ex. No. 8). The Mixolydian mode is +also identical with our modern major scale except for the <i>whole</i> tone +between the 7th and 8th degrees. This mode has had very slight usage +in modern music; because, with the development of harmony,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> the +instinct became so strong for a leading tone (the 7th degree)—only a +semitone distant from the upper tonic—that the original whole tone +has gradually disappeared. The Aeolian Mode, mainly identical with our +customary minor scale, has the characteristic whole tone between the +7th and 8th degrees. Examples of this mode abound in modern +literature; two excellent instances being the first theme of the +Finale of Dvořák's <i>New World Symphony</i>, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music026a.png" width="626" height="190" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music026a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music026a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and the following passage from the <i>Legend</i> for à capella voices of +Tchaikowsky, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music026b.png" width="530" height="168" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music026b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music026b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span></p> + +<p>The Ionian mode corresponds exactly with our modern major scale, and +the common people among all nations early showed a strong predilection +for its use. The Church, in fact, because of this popularity with the +people, named it the "modus lascivus" and prohibited its use in the +ecclesiastical liturgy. One of the very earliest Folk-tunes +extant—"Sumer is icumen in" (already referred to)—is in the Ionian +mode and, according to Cecil Sharp,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> the majority of English +Folk-tunes are in this same mode.</p> + +<p>We now cite a few typical folk-songs (taken from national sources) +which, in their structure, show a natural instinct for balance of +phrase and oftentimes for that organic unity of effect gained by +restatement after contrast.</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>THE TRUE LOVERS’ FAREWELL</b></p> + +<p class="title">Old English</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music027a.png" width="629" height="185" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music027a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music027a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The pattern of this song, in the Aeolian mode, is A, A, A, B. Unity is +secured by the three-fold appearance of the first phrase; and a +certain balance, by having the second phrase B twice as long (four +measures) as A.</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>THE SHIP IN DISTRESS</b></p> + +<p class="title">Old English</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music027b.png" width="631" height="273" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music028a.png" width="631" height="169" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music027b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music027b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The formula of this characteristic song in the Dorian mode is A, A, B, +A; merely an extension, through repetition, of the simple type A, B, A +which, in turn, is the basis of the fundamental structure known as the +three-part form. This will later be studied in detail. It is evident +to the musical sense how complete a feeling of coherence is gained by +the return to A after the intervening contrast of the phrase B; +evident, also, that this song is a perfect example of the principle of +unity combined with variety.</p> + +<p>We further cite a few examples from Scottish, Irish, French, Hungarian +and Russian sources. They all illustrate quaint melodic intervals and +an instinct for balance and symmetry.</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>WANDERING WILLIE</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music028b.png" width="631" height="364" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="poem"> +<tr> +<td> +Here awa', there awa', Wanderin' Willie,<br /> +Here awa', there awa', haud awa' hame.<br /> +Come to my bosom, my ain only dearie,<br /> +O tell me thou bring'st me my Willie the same. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music028b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music028b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This song<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> expresses that note of pathos often found in Scottish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span> +folk-music and is noteworthy also because the lyric poet, Robert +Burns, wrote for it words of which we give the first stanza.</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>WOULD GOD I WERE THE TENDER APPLE BLOSSOM</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music029a.png" width="636" height="398" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music029a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music029a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This Irish tune<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> is certainly one of the most perfect that can be +imagined, remarkable alike for its organic unity, gained by the +frequent use of the first ascending motive, and for the manner in +which the successive crises are reached. Note in particular the +intensity of the final climax, in measure 13, attained by a repetition +of the preceding phrase.</p> + +<p class="centertp"><b>EN PASSANT PAR LA LORRAINE AVEC MES SABOTS</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music029b.png" width="629" height="241" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music029b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music029b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span></p> + +<p>This charming song<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> from Lorraine exemplifies that rhythmic +vivacity and lightness of touch so characteristic of the French.</p> + +<p>Observe the piquant effect, in the final phrase, produced by the +elision of a measure; there being in the whole song 31 measures +instead of the normal 32 (16 + 16).</p> + +<p class="title">Old Hungarian Folk-song</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music030a.png" width="628" height="159" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music030a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music030a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Hungarian folk-music<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> is noted for its syncopated rhythm and its +peculiar metric groupings. It is also often highly embroidered with +chromatic notes; the Hungarian scale, with <i>two</i> augmented intervals, +being an intensification of our minor mode, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music030b.png" width="397" height="64" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music030b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music030b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Russia is fortunate in her musical inheritance; for not only has she a +wealth of folk-songs, but her famous composers, Balakireff, Borodin +and Rimsky-Korsakoff—who are men of letters as well—have published +remarkable editions of these national melodies. The Russian folk-songs +express, in general, a mood of sombreness or even depression—typical +of the vast, bleak expanses of that country, and of its downtrodden +people. These songs are usually in the minor mode—often with sudden +changes of rhythm—and based on the old ecclesiastical modes, the +Russian liturgy being very ancient and having an historical connection +with that of the Greek church. The folk-music of no nation is more +endowed with individuality and depth of emotion. Five characteristic +examples are herewith cited:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music031a.png" width="635" height="264" alt="I" title="I" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/music031a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music031a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music031b.png" width="636" height="176" alt="II" title="II" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/music031b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music031b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music031c.png" width="629" height="550" alt="III Harmonized by Rimsky-Korsakoff" title="III Harmonized by Rimsky-Korsakoff" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music032a.png" width="634" height="752" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/music031c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music031c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music032b.png" width="634" height="260" alt="IV" title="IV" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/music032b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music032b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music033.png" width="633" height="168" alt="V" title="V" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music033.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music033.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This last melody is of particular significance, because Tchaikowsky +has used it so prominently in the Finale of his Fourth Symphony.</p> + +<p>The growing interest in folk-music in America is a tendency concerning +which the progressive student should inform himself. For a national +basis of creative work, our country has always been at a disadvantage +in comparison with nations which, as their birthright, have much music +in their blood. Moreover, with the exception of the tunes of the +aboriginal Indians and the plantation melodies of the Negroes, it has +been asserted that America could boast no folk-songs. Recent +investigations have shown, however, that this is not entirely true. +Cecil Sharp, Henry Gilbert, Arthur Farwell and other musical scholars +have proved that there are several regions of our country, settled by +colonists from England, Ireland and Scotland, where folk-songs exist +practically in the condition in which they were first brought over. +One of the best collections of such material is the set of so-called +<i>Lonesome Tunes from the Kentucky Mountains</i>, taken down by Miss +Lorraine Wyman and Mr. Howard Brockway directly from the mountaineers +and other dwellers in that region. These melodies have great +individuality, directness and no little poetic charm. It is certainly +encouraging to feel that, in this industrial age, there are still +places where people express their emotions and ideals in song; for a +nation that has not learned to sing—or has forgotten how—can never +create music that endures.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>POLYPHONIC MUSIC; SEBASTIAN BACH</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">W</span>E have traced, in the preceding chapter, some of the fundamental +principles of design in musical expression, as they were manifested in +the Folk-music of the different nations. All music of this type was +homophonic, <i>i.e.</i>, a single melodic line, either entirely +unaccompanied or with a slight amount of instrumental support. Hence +however perfect in itself, it was necessarily limited in scope<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span> and in +opportunity for organic development. Before music could become an +independent art, set free from reliance on poetry, and could attain to +a breadth of expression commensurate with the growth in other fields +of art, there had to be established some principle of development, far +more extensive than could be found in Folk-music. This principle<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> +of "Thematic Development"—the chief idiom of instrumental music—by +which a motive or a theme is expanded into a large symphonic movement, +was worked out in that type of music known as the Polyphonic or +many-voiced; and Polyphonic music became, in turn, the point of +departure for our modern system of harmony, with its methods of key +relationship and of modulation. As we have stated in <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I</a>, the +principle of systematic repetition or imitation—first discovered and +partially applied by the musicians<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> of the early French School and +by the Netherland masters—finally culminated in the celebrated vocal +works (à capella or unaccompanied) composed by Palestrina and his +contemporaries for the Roman Catholic Liturgy. Up to this point the +whole texture of music had been conceived in connection with voices; +but with the development of the organ, so admirably suited for +polyphonic style, and the perfection of the family of stringed +instruments, the principles of polyphony were carried over and applied +to instrumental treatment. The composer who, through his constructive +genius, most fully embodied these principles<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> was John Sebastian +Bach (1685-1750). We are now prepared to explain the characteristics +of polyphonic music and then to analyze some typical examples from +Bach and other polyphonic composers. The essential difference between +homophonic and polyphonic style is implied by the terms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span> themselves. +When there is but one melody, the skill of the composer and the +attention of the listener are concentrated upon this single melodic +line; and even if there be an accompaniment, it is so planned that the +chief melody stands out in relief against it. The pre-eminence of this +chief melody is seldom usurped, although the accompaniment often has +interesting features of its own. As soon as we have more than one +melody (whether there be two, three or still others) all these +voice-parts may be of coequal importance, and the musical fabric +becomes an interwoven texture of a number of strands. The genius and +skill of the composer is now expended on securing life and interest +for each of these voices—soprano, alto, tenor, bass—which seem to be +braided together; and thus a much more comprehensive attention is +required of the listener. For instead of the single melody in the +soprano, or upper voice, of the Folk-song, we now must listen +consciously to the bass and to both of the inner voices.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Too much +emphasis cannot be laid upon the recommendation that, in appreciating +music, the first task is to train the ear to a wide range of +listening. These differences in style are often apparent just as a +pattern of design—to be seen from the following examples:</p> + +<p class="title">Homophonic Style. Irish Folk-Song</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music035.png" width="626" height="334" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music035.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music035.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span></p> + +<p class="title">Polyphonic Style. <span class="smcap">Bach</span>: Fugue in C Minor</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music036.png" width="624" height="181" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music036.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music036.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In the latter example it is evident that there is an interweaving of +<i>three</i> distinct melodic lines.</p> + +<p>The polyphonic instrumental works of Bach and his contemporaries were +called by such names as Preludes, Fugues, Canons, Inventions, Toccatas +and Fantasies; but since a complete account of all these forms would +lead too far afield, we shall confine ourselves to a description of +the Canon, the Invention and the Fugue. A Canon (from the Greek +<span lang="el" title="Greek: Kanôn">Κανών</span>, +meaning a strict rule or law) is a composition in +which there is a <i>literal</i> systematic imitation, carried out to the +end, between two or more of the voices (often with subsidiary voices +filling in), and may be considered a kind of musical dialogue in which +the second, or answering, part reënforces the message previously +uttered by the leading voice. This imitation may take place at any +degree of separation; and Canons are in existence at the interval of +the second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. The most effective Canons, +however, are those in which the answering voice is an octave away from +the leading one. Although the Canon is not a form employed frequently +by modern composers for an entire composition, Canonic imitation +appears so often in all large works for orchestra, string quartet or +ensemble combinations, that the music-lover should acquire a certain +ease in listening to a structure of this type. The Canon, moreover, is +an integral factor in the style of César Franck, d'Indy and Brahms; +and illustrations of its use abound in their works. The organ is +particularly well suited to the rendition of Canons; since, by its +facilities for tone-color, the two voices may be clearly contrasted. +Those interested in organ literature should become acquainted with the +following excellent examples: The <i>Canon in B-flat major</i>, op. 40, by +Guilmant; the 4th movement of the <i>Fifth Organ Symphony</i> by Widor; the +Canon in B minor, op. 54, by Schumann; the <i>Canon in F-sharp major</i>, +op. 30, by Merkel, and the set of <i>Ten Canonic studies</i>, op. 12, by +G.W. Chadwick. In other fields of composition the following should be +cited: The set of <i>Piano<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>forte Pieces in Canon form</i>, op. 35, by +Jadassohn; a like set by Rheinberger, op. 180; the <i>Canonic Vocal +Trios</i>, op. 156, by Reinecke and the famous Canon from the first act +of Beethoven's opera <i>Fidelio</i>. There is also a beautiful bit of +Canonic imitation between two of the upper voices in the introduction +of Berlioz's <i>Carnaval Romain Overture</i> for orchestra. One of the most +appealing Canons in modern literature is the setting for soprano and +barytone, by Henschel, of the poem <i>Oh that we two were Maying</i> by +Charles Kingsley. This example alone would sufficiently corroborate +the statement that the firmness of structure inherent in the canonic +form is perfectly compatible with genuine freedom and poetry of +inspiration. In the first movement of César Frank's <i>Symphony in D +minor</i>, at the recapitulation (page 39 of the full score) may be found +a magnificent example of the intensity of effect gained by a canonic +imitation of the main theme—in this instance between the lower and +upper voices. Possibly the finest example of canonic writing in all +literature is the Finale of César Franck's <i>Sonata in A major</i> for +Violin and Pianoforte in which, for several pages, there is an +eloquent dialogue between the two contrasting instruments. The +movement is too long for citation but it should certainly be procured +and studied. In the Trio of the Scherzo in Beethoven's <i>Seventh Sonata +for Violin and Pianoforte</i> there is a free use of canonic imitation +which will repay investigation. Lastly, the <i>Aria with 30 +Variations</i>—the so-called <i>Goldberg Variations</i> of Bach—is a perfect +storehouse of every conceivable canonic device.</p> + +<p>A few standard examples are to be found in the Supplement. These +should be played over and studied until they are thoroughly +familiar—not only for the pleasure to be derived, but for the +indispensable training afforded in polyphonic listening.</p> + +<p>Ex. No. 9 Canon by Thomas Tallys (1510-1585).</p> + +<p>Ex. No. 10 Canonic Variation by Schumann from the <i>Études +Symphoniques</i>.</p> + +<p>Ex. No. 11 of Bach's <i>Goldberg Variations</i>.</p> + +<p>Ex. No. 12 Canon in B-flat minor, op. 38, Grieg.</p> + +<p>Ex. No. 13 Canon in F-sharp major, op. 35, Jadassohn.</p> + +<p>One of the most simple and direct types of polyphonic composition is +the form known as the <i>Invention</i> in which, as the term implies, the +composer—through his <i>inventive genius</i> and by means of the +polyphonic devices of imitation and transposition—develops to a +logical conclusion some short and characteristic motive. We are +fortunate in having from Bach himself, that consummate master<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span> of +polyphony, two sets of such Inventions: fifteen for two voices, and +fifteen for three. These flights of fancy—in which art so subtly +conceals art—though originally composed for the clavichord and +harpsichord (the precursors of the pianoforte), are very effective on +our modern instrument and should be in the possession of every +music-student.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> A brief analysis is now given of the first one in +the set for two voices, and Nos. 4, 8 and 10 in this set are +particularly recommended for study; also Nos. 2, 6 and 14 among those +for three voices. The opening motive</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music038.png" width="338" height="64" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music038.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music038.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>is the foundation of the entire composition and is at once imitated, +canonically, in the lower voice. Then the two voices play about, with +figures clearly derived from the motive, until we reach, in measures +three and four, a systematic downward transposition of the material. +Such transpositions or shiftings up or down in pitch are called +<i>Sequences</i>. They are very frequent in all polyphonic composition, +give a strong sense of unity to melodic progression and are generally +carried out in groups of three, <i>i.e.</i>, the original figure and two +repetitions. After the sequence the music naturally works toward the +most nearly related key (the dominant) and in the seventh measure +reaches in that key its first objective. These Inventions of Bach, as +well as the Dance forms soon to be studied, are almost invariably in +what is known as <i>Two-part</i> form, <i>i.e.</i>, the music consists of two +main divisions, clearly marked off by cadences<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>; the first of which +modulates to the dominant or some related key while the second part, +starting in this key, works back to a final close in the home key. In +Inventions it early became customary in the second part to begin with +the same motive as the first—but in the <i>opposite</i> voice. Thus we +see, in the Invention now being discussed, that the seventh measure +begins with the original motive in the bass which, in turn, is +imitated by the Soprano—a process just the reverse of that in the +opening measures.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music039.png" width="554" height="146" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music039.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music039.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In pieces in this Two-part form the second portion is generally longer +than the first; for the composer, by the time he has reached this +second part, may consider the material sufficiently familiar to be +expanded and varied by excursions into more remote keys, and by more +intricate manipulations of the chief motive. In measure 11 we find a +modulation to D minor and then, after some free treatment of the +motive, we reach—in measure 15—a cadence in A minor. A long +sequential passage brings us, through a modulation to the subdominant +key of F major (in measures 18 and 19), to a strong closing cadence in +the home key. It should be noticed that in this Invention and in some +of the dance forms there is shown a strong leaning towards a +tripartite division of the material as is indicated by the <i>three</i> +cadences in measures 7, 15 and 22. Since, however, the middle part is +lacking in any strong <i>contrast</i>—which is such an essential factor in +the fully developed three-part form—it seems better to consider this +piece, and others like it, as a tendency rather than as a complete +embodiment of tripartite arrangement. It is expected that the music +lover will take these Inventions for what they really are and not +search in them for those notes of intense subjectivity and dramatic +power so prevalent in modern music. They are merely little pieces—a +"tour de force" in polyphonic ingenuity; music rejoicing in its own +inherent vitality. Accepted in this spirit they are invigorating and +charming.</p> + +<p>The form in which polyphonic skill reaches its highest possibilities +is the Fugue; and the immortal examples of this form are the Fugues of +John Sebastian Bach, found in his <i>Well-tempered Clavichord</i> and in +his mighty works for the organ. The fundamental structure of a fugue +is implied in the term itself (from the Latin "fuga"—flight); that +is, in a fugue the main theme or subject is always announced in a +single voice, and the remaining voices, appearing successively in +accordance with definite principles of key-relationship, seem to chase +each other about and to flee from pursuit. The several stratified +entrances of the subject are relieved by intermediate passages called +"Episodes." An Episode, as shown by the derivation +(<span lang="el" title="Greek: ipi hodos">ἰπί ὁδός</span>, +by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span> the way), +is something off the beaten path—a digression; and it is in these +episodical portions of a fugue rather than in the formalistic portions +that the genius of the composer shines forth. This is especially true +of Bach, for almost any well-trained musician can invent a subject +which will allow of satisfactory fugal treatment according to accepted +usage; but no one save Bach has ever invented such free and fanciful +episodes—so daring in scope and yet so closely connected with the +main thought. The general effect of a fugue is <i>cumulative</i>: a massing +and piling up of voices that lead to a carefully designed conclusion +which, in some of Bach's organ fugues, is positively overwhelming. A +fugue may be called a mighty crescendo, like the sound of many waters. +There is a popular conception, or rather <i>mis</i>conception, that a fugue +is a labored, dull or even "dry" form of composition, meant only as an +exhibition of pedantic skill, and quite beyond the reach of ordinary +musical appreciation. Nothing is farther from the truth, as a slight +examination of musical literature will show. For we see that the fugal +form has been used to express well-nigh every form of human emotion, +the sublime, the tragic, the romantic; very often the humorous and the +fantastic. When we recall the irresistible sparkle and dash of +Mozart's <i>Magic Flute Overture</i>, of the Overture to the <i>Bartered +Bride</i> by Smetana, of the Finale of Mozart's <i>Jupiter Symphony</i>, and +of many of the fugues in the <i>Well-tempered Clavichord</i>, it is evident +that to call a fugue "dry" is an utter abuse of language. It is true +that there are weak, artificial and dull fugues, where the +composer—frankly—had nothing to say and merely filled out the form; +but the same may be said of every type of composition, <i>i.e.</i>, among +them all are examples inspired and—less inspired. This, however, is +no indictment of the fugue <i>per se</i>, against which the only thing to +be said is that it requires on the part of the listener an exceeding +concentration. Some of the masterpieces of the world being wholly or +partially in the fugal form, it is the duty of those listening to +polyphonic music to train their powers to the same seriousness of +attention expected and freely given in the appreciation of an oration, +a drama or a cathedral. These latter manifestations of artistic +expression, to be sure, are less abstract than the fugue and more +closely related to daily life. Yet no effort is more repaying than the +mental and emotional energy expended in listening to the interweavings +of a good fugue; for, conscious of missing the periodic divisions of +the Folk-song, we have to listen to more than one melody at a time. A +fugue being a composition, as the French say, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span> "longue haleine," +our attention, in order to follow its structure, must be on the "qui +vive" every moment. The fugue, in fact, is an example of the intricate +and yet organic complexity found in all the higher forms of life +itself; and whenever a composer has wished to dwell with emphasis on a +particular theme, he almost invariably resorts to some form of fugal +treatment, strict or free. The most effective media for rendering +fugues are the chorus of mixed voices, the organ (by reason of its +pedal key-board always making the subject in the bass stand out +majestically) and the stringed orchestra which, with the "bite" of the +strings, brings out—with peculiar sharpness—the different entrances +of the subject. The student should become familiar with standard +examples in each of these classes and should, above all, seek +opportunity to hear some of the organ fugues of Bach performed on a +really fine instrument. A few well-known fugues are herewith cited in +order to stimulate the student to some investigation of his own. In +all the Oratorios of Handel and in the choral works of Bach, such as +the B minor Mass, may be found magnificent fugues—as free and vital +in their rhythmic swing as the ocean itself. Particular attention +should be called to the fugue in the Messiah "<span class="err" title="Transcriber's Note: And with His stripes we are healed">And by His stripes we were healed</span>." +One of the most impressive fugues in modern literature is the à +capella chorus <i>Urbs Syon Unica</i> from H.W. Parker's <i>Hora Novissima</i>. +From among the organ works of Bach everyone should know the Fugues in +G minor, in A minor, in D major<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> and the Toccata and Fugue in D +minor. These have all been transcribed for the pianoforte by Liszt and +so are readily available; they are often played at pianoforte recitals +by Paderewski and other virtuosi. In hearing one of these masterpieces +no one can remain unmoved or can fail to reverence the constructive +genius which fashioned such cathedrals in tone. For orchestra we have +the Prelude to Puccini's opera <i>Madama Butterfly</i>, and the beginning +of the Prelude to the third act of Wagner's <i>Mastersingers</i>. There are +striking fugal passages in Beethoven's Symphonies, <i>e.g.</i>, the first +movement of the <i>Heroic Symphony</i> and the rollicking Trio of the +Scherzo in the <i>Fifth Symphony</i>. In more modern literature there is +the fugal Finale to Arthur Foote's <i>Suite for Orchestra</i> and in +Chadwick's <i>Vagrom Ballad</i> a humorous quotation of the theme from +Bach's <i>G minor Fugue</i> for organ. One of the most superb fugues in +free style is the last movement of César Franck's <i>Prelude, Choral and +Fugue in B minor</i> for Pianoforte. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span> movement alone would refute +all charges of dullness or dryness brought against the fugue by the +unthinking or the unenlightened. A good fugue, in fact, is so full of +vitality and demands such <i>active</i> comprehension<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> on the part of +the listener that it is not difficult to imagine where the dullness +and dryness are generally found.</p> + +<p>At this point by an analysis of a fugue from the <i>Well-tempered +Clavichord</i>, let us explain some of the technical features in fugal +structure. We shall then be in a position to understand the more +subtle devices of fugal treatment and to appreciate more +enthusiastically some additional comments upon Bach's style in +general.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Fugue in E-flat Major, No. VII, in the First Book.</span></h3> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music042.png" width="633" height="370" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music042.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music042.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This fugue in three voices begins with a graceful subject, announced +in the upper voice. In the third measure this is answered by an +imitation of the subject in the alto; while the opening voice +continues with a contrasting part called the counter-subject.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> As +the whole subsequent fabric is organically derived from these two +motives, both subject and counter-subject should be played frequently +and so committed to memory. Observe also the contrasts in rhythm and +melo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span>dic outline between the subject and counter-subject. In measures +4 and 5 we have a short sequential passage leading, in measure 6, to +the third entry of the subject in the bass. Then after another +sequential passage, which includes an emphatic assertion of the +subject in the soprano (measures 11 and 12), we enter upon a long +episode which leads, at measure 17, to our first objective point of +rest—a cadence in C minor. With the entry, in this measure, of the +subject in the alto we have an interesting example of what is termed +"shifted rhythm;" the subject beginning on the third beat instead of +the first, as at the outset. In the middle portion of the fugue we +have two appearances of the subject in the related keys of C minor +(measures 17 and 18) and G minor (measures 20 and 21). Then, following +two very vigorous sequences, a modulatory return is made to the +subject in the home key, and with its normal rhythm at measure 26. A +repetition, in more brilliant form, of one of the previous episodes, +in measures 31 and 32, gives a strong impression of unity; leading in +measures 34 and 35 to a last appearance of the subject, with a +beautiful change in one of the intervals (E-flat-G-flat). The closing +measures establish the main tonality of E-flat major, rendered still +more expressive by the counterpoint associated with the last chord. As +to the general structure of this fugue, it is evidently tripartite, +the first part A presenting the material, the second part B affording +variety by modulating into different keys, and the third part A´ +reasserting the material of A and bringing the composition to a +logical close in the home key. (See Supplement Ex. No. 15.)</p> + +<p>We should now acquaint ourselves with the more subtle devices of fugal +treatment; although but one of these is employed in the fugue just +studied, which is comparatively simple in structure. I. Inversion; the +melodic outline is turned upside down while identity is retained by +means of the rhythm, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Bach</span>: 3rd English Suite</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music043a.png" width="632" height="83" alt="Theme" title="Theme" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music043a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music043a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music043b.png" width="633" height="104" alt="Inversion" title="Inversion" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music043b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music043b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span></p> + +<p>An excellent example from an orchestral work is the theme of the third +movement of Brahms's <i>C minor Symphony</i>, the second phrase of which is +an Inversion of the opening measures, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music044a.png" width="639" height="186" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music044a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music044a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>II. Augmentation and Diminution; the length of the notes is doubled or +halved while their metrical relativity is maintained, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Bach</span>: Fugue No. 8, Book I</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music044b.png" width="636" height="80" alt="Theme" title="Theme" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music044b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music044b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music044c.png" width="638" height="89" alt="Augmentation" title="Augmentation" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music044c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music044c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="right" style="padding-top: 1em; margin-right: 11em"><span class="smcap">Bach</span>: Fugue No. IX, Book II</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music044d.png" width="370" height="79" alt="Theme" title="Theme" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music044d.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music044d.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music044e.png" width="355" height="92" alt="Diminution" title="Diminution" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music044e.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music044e.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Augmentation is very frequent in modern literature when a composer, by +lengthening out the phraseology of a theme, wishes to gain for it +additional emphasis. Excellent examples are the closing measures of +Schumann's <i>Arabesque</i>, in which the reminiscence of the original +motto is most haunting, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music044f.png" width="204" height="88" alt="Motto" title="Motto" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music044f.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music044f.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music045a.png" width="632" height="202" alt="Motto augmented" title="Motto augmented" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music045a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music045a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>the Finale of Liszt's <i>Faust Symphony</i>, where the love theme of the +Gretchen movement is carried over and intoned by a solo baritone with +impressive effect, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music045b.png" width="634" height="447" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music045b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music045b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music045c.png" width="632" height="191" alt="In augmentation" title="In augmentation" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music046a.png" width="631" height="196" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/music045c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music045c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centerbp"><i>Das ewig Weibliche</i></p> + +<p>III. Shifted Rhythm; the position of the subject in the measure is so +changed that the accents fall on different beats, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="right" style="padding-top: 1em; margin-right: 10em"><span class="smcap">Bach</span>: Fugue No. V, Book II</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music046b.png" width="452" height="84" alt="Subject" title="Subject" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music046b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music046b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music046c.png" width="452" height="91" alt="Shifted" title="Shifted" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music046c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music046c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>IV. Stretto; (from the Italian verb "stringere," to draw close) that +portion of a fugue, often the climax, where the entrances are +<i>crowded</i> together, <i>i.e.</i>, the imitating voice enters before the +leading voice has finished, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="title"><i>Fuga giocosa</i>, <span class="smcap">J.K. Paine</span>, op. 41</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music046d.png" width="630" height="196" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music046d.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music046d.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The effect is obviously one of great concentration and dramatic +intensity—with a sense of impending climax—and its use is by no +means limited to fugal composition; being frequently found in all +large symphonic works of the classic and modern school. For a +magnificent example of the climactic effect produced by a Stretto, +witness the last part of Bach's Fugue in G major (see Supplement, Ex. +No. 16).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span></p> + +<p>Although there is considerable complexity in any complete fugue, and +although it requires great concentration on the part of the listener, +we should avoid thinking of the form as mechanical in any derogatory +sense, but rather as a means to a definite artistic end. Certainly no +greater mistake can be made than that of considering Bach, the supreme +master of polyphonic writing, as too austere, too involved, for the +delight and edification of every-day mortals. Bach means brook, and +the name<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> is most appropriate; for Bach is a never ceasing stream +of musical life, the fountain-head from which spring the leading +tendencies of modern music. In these days when stress is laid on the +romantic element in music, on warm emotional appeal, it is well to +consider the quality so prevalent in Bach of spiritual vitality. +Exactly because the romantic element represents the human side of +music, it is subject to the whims of fashion and is liable to change +and decay. Bach carries us into the realm of universal ideas, +inexhaustible and changeless in their power to exalt. Schumann says +that "Music owes to Bach what a religion owes to its founder"; and it +is true that a knowledge of Bach is the beginning of musical wisdom. +By some, Bach is considered dry or too reserved for companionship with +ordinary human beings. Others carelessly assert that he has no melody. +Nothing can be further from the truth than these two misconceptions. +Bach surely is not dry, because his work abounds in such vitality of +rhythm. As Parry says, in his biography, "No composer ever attained to +anything approaching the spontaneity, freshness, and winsomeness of +his dances, such as the gavottes, bourrées, passepieds and gigues in +the suites; while many of his great choruses and instrumental fugues +are inspired with a force of rhythmic movement which thrills the +hearer with a feeling of being swept into space out of the range of +common things." The charge of a lack of melody is the same which used +to be brought against Wagner. Instead of there being no melody, it is +<i>all</i> melody, so that the partially musical, who lack the power of +sustained attention, are drowned in the flood of melodic outpouring. A +strong claim, in fact, may be made for Bach as a <i>popular</i> composer in +the best sense of the term. Many of his colossal works, to be sure, +are heard but seldom, for they require the most highly trained +executive ability. But if the average music-lover will become familiar +with the French and English Suites, with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span> Preludes and Fugues of +the <i>Well-tempered Clavichord</i>, with some of the Violin Sonatas, he +will find for his imagination and mental machinery a food which, once +enjoyed, becomes indispensable. For his music has that greatest of +qualities in art as in human relationships—it wears well and <i>lasts</i>. +We all know that books which reveal everything at a first reading are +soon thrown aside, and that people whose depth of character and +sweetness of disposition we discern but slowly, often become our +life-long friends. Music which is too easily heard is identical with +that which is immediately forgotten. The first impulse created by any +great work of art is our longing to know it better. Its next attribute +is its power to arouse and hold our steady affection. These +observations may be applied literally to Bach's music, which can be +heard for a lifetime, never losing its appeal but continually +unfolding new beauties. Furthermore, in Bach, we feel the force of a +great character even more than the artistic skill with which the +personality is revealed. In this respect Bach in music is quite on a +par with Shakespeare in literature and Michael Angelo in plastic art. +With many musicians, there is so disconcerting and inexplicable a +discrepancy between their deeds as men and the artistic thoughts for +which they seem to be the unconscious media, that it is inspiring to +come into touch with one who rings true as a man whatever demands are +made upon him; whose music is free from morbidity or carnal blemish, +as pure as the winter wind, as elemental as the ocean, as uplifting as +the stars. In Bach let us always remember the noble human traits; for +the universal regard in which his work is held could never have come +merely from profound skill in workmanship, but is due chiefly to the +manly sincerity and emotional depth which are found therein. The +revival of his works, for which the world owes to Mendelssohn such a +debt, has been the single strongest factor in the development of music +during the 19th century; and their influence<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> is by no means yet at +an end, as may be seen from the glowing tributes paid to him by such +modern composers as Franck, d'Indy and Debussy.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + +<p>Two additional fugues are now given in the Supplement (see Nos. 17 and +18) for the consideration of the student: the <i>Cat-Fugue</i> of Domenico +Scarlatti, with its fantastic subject (said to have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span> suggested by +the walking of a favorite cat on the key-board) and the <i>Fuga Giocosa</i> +of John Knowles Paine, (the subject of which is the well-known +street-tune "Rafferty's lost his pig"). This latter example is not +only a brilliant piece of fugal writing but a typical manifestation of +American humor.</p> + +<p>Several eulogies of the fugue are to be found in literature; three of +the most famous are herewith appended.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="poem"> +<tr> +<td> +"Hist, but a word, fair and soft!<br /> +Forth and be judged, Master Hugues!<br /> +Answer the question I've put you so oft:<br /> +What do you mean by your mountainous fugues?<br /> +See, we're alone in the loft."<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em">—Browning, <i>Master Hugues of Saxe-Gotha</i>.</span> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Throughout, a most fantastic description of fugal style.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="poem"> +<tr> +<td> +<span style="margin-left: 2em">"Whence the sound</span><br /> +Of instruments, that made melodious chime,<br /> +Was heard, of harp and organ; and who mov'd<br /> +Their stops and chords was seen; his volant touch<br /> +Instinct through all proportions, low and high,<br /> +Fled and pursued transverse the resonant fugue."<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em">—Milton, <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/26"><i>Paradise Lost</i></a>, Book XI.</span> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Then rose the agitation, spreading through the infinite +cathedral to its agony; then was completed the passion of +the mighty fugue. The golden tubes of the organ which as yet +had but sobbed and muttered at intervals—gleaming amongst +clouds and surges of incense—threw up, as from fountains +unfathomable, columns of heart-shattering music. Choir and +antichoir were filling fast with unknown voices. Thou also, +Dying Trumpeter! with thy love which was victorious, and thy +anguish that was finishing, didst enter the tumult; trumpet +and echo—farewell love and farewell anguish—rang through +the dreadful Sanctus."</p> + +<p class="right">—From De Quincey's +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6359"><i>Dream Fugue in the "Vision of Sudden Death</i></a>."</p> +</div> + +<p>Truly a marvellous picture of the effect of a fugue in a great +medieval cathedral!</p> + + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>THE MUSICAL SENTENCE</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">B</span>EFORE passing on to an explanation of the fundamental types of +musical structure, we must give some idea of the constituent parts of +the <i>Period</i> in music. Every art has its units of expression: the +straight line, the curve, the arch, the poetic stanza and the prose +sentence. Just as poetry and prose are a series of stanzas or +sentences, so a musical composition is a succession of definitely +organized portions of thought and emotion, in terms of rhythm and +sound. In the heart of a composition, to be sure, we often find a +great freedom in the phraseology, comparable to blank verse or to a +rhapsodic kind of prose; but with few exceptions, such as a Fantasie, +every composition always <i>begins</i> with one or two periods which, in +regard to subdivision, balance and directness of statement, are +carefully planned and are complete in themselves. Before it is +possible to follow intelligently the structure of a musical sentence +we must gain a clear idea of what is meant by the frequently used +terms Tonality and Modulation. Since the evolution and acceptance of +our three modern scales:<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> the major, the minor and the +chromatic—which gained their sanction chiefly through the +investigations and compositions of Bach and Rameau—every melody and +the accompanying harmony are said to be in a certain "tonality" (or +"key") which takes its name from the first tone of the scale in +question, <i>e.g.</i>, C, E-flat, F sharp, etc. Hence this first tone is +called the Tonic or chief tone and from it ascend the other tones of +the scale. That is, a melody in E-flat major will employ only those +tones found in the scale of E-flat major, and is said to be in that +"key," or "tonality." The same would be true of the harmony involved, +<i>i.e.</i>, the chords would consist of combinations of the different +tones of this scale. When a melody, as is often the case, employs +tones <i>not</i> found in the scale in question, these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span> are called +<i>chromatic</i><a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> changes, and may or may not effect a "modulation" or +departure into another key, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music051.png" width="431" height="74" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music051.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music051.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The most important means of gaining unity and coherence in a +composition is to have it written in a clearly defined tonality, +especially at the outset. This definite tonality is the "centre of +gravity," so to speak, about which the whole composition revolves. If +this tonal centre were uncertain or wandering, we should have a +feeling of vagueness and perplexity which, except for special dramatic +effect, is never found in works of the great composers. Thus we speak +of a Symphony in C minor, of a Quartet in F major and of a Sonata in +B-flat minor;<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> this foundation key being comparable to the basic +color-scheme of a painting. There is also a particular aesthetic +effect and color-appeal associated with each key; and the listener +should train himself to be sensitive to the brilliance of such keys as +D major and E major, the richness of B major, the dignity of E-flat +major, the almost cloying sweetness of D-flat major and of G-flat +major and the tragic depth of B minor and G minor. No piece, however, +should remain for long in the same key; for music cuts so deeply into +the consciousness that there would result an intolerable monotony.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> +Even in the simplest folk-songs, therefore, we often find manifested +an instinct for those changes of tonal centre which are technically +called "Modulations." All the keys founded on the twelve semitones of +the chromatic scale are related—though in varying degrees of +closeness; and in modern music, no matter how complex the modulations +often sound, we may be sure that the composer plans them as carefully +as the painter adjusts his color-scheme. For definite acoustical<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> +and harmonic reasons,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span> however, the keys most closely related to a +given tonal centre are those situated a perfect fifth above—the +Dominant; a perfect fifth below—the Subdominant; and the Relative +Minor, the key-note of which is a minor third below, <i>e.g.</i>, A minor +in relation to C major, C minor to E-flat major. The relative minors +of the Dominant and Subdominant also bear a close relationship to a +given tonic; and into these <i>five</i> keys is made a large majority of +the modulations in any piece of music.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music052a.png" width="369" height="115" alt="Subdominant Tonic Dominant Relative Minor" title="Subdominant Tonic Dominant Relative Minor" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music052a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music052a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Beginning with Beethoven, a modulation into what are known as the +<i>mediant</i> keys became frequent; and is, in fact, a favorite change in +all modern music—the mediant keys being those situated half-way +between a Tonic and Dominant or a Tonic and Subdominant, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music052b.png" width="325" height="93" alt="Sub-mediant Mediant" title="Sub-mediant Mediant" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music052b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music052b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Anyone at all familiar with Beethoven's style will remember how often +his second theme, instead of following the more conventional line of +dominant relationship, is in a mediant key. Good examples may be found +in the first movement of the <i>Waldstein Sonata</i> and in the first and +last movements of the 8th Symphony. A little thought will make clear +that the relationships just set forth include nearly all the possible +ones save those of 2nds and 7ths. Even into these apparently distant +keys, <i>e.g.</i>, to D-flat major or to B major from C major, modulations +may easily be made by means of the "enharmonic"<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> relationship found +in that frequently used modern chord—the Augmented Sixth, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music053a.png" width="544" height="160" alt="C major B major C major D-flat major" title="C major B major C major D-flat major" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music053a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music053a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Next to rhythm, modulation is the most stimulating and enchanting +element in music. No composition of any scope can be considered truly +great unless it abounds in beautiful modulations. Certain composers, +to be sure, have in this respect more genius than others—notably +Schubert, Chopin, Wagner and Franck whose music seems to waft us along +on a magic carpet of delight. But just as Unity depends upon a +definite basic tonality, so Variety is gained by this very freedom of +modulation. Without it is monotony; with too much modulation, an +irritating restlessness. By the perfect balance in his works of these +two related elements a genius may be definitely recognized.</p> + +<p>The simplest and on the whole most frequent type of musical sentence +or period consists of eight measures, subdivided into two balancing +phrases of four measures<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> each—the component parts plainly +indicated by various cadences and endings soon to be explained. These +four-measure phrases are often, though not invariably, still further +subdivided into two sections of two measures each. Let us now +corroborate these statements by an examination of the opening sentence +of the Scherzo of Beethoven's <i>Second Sonata for Pianoforte</i>. This +concise sentence is an epitome of the chief principles of organic +musical expression. At the outset<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> we see the leading motive, which +consists of an ascending broken chord twice repeated. We see also</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music053b.png" width="253" height="100" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music053b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music053b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span></p> + +<p>the first phrase of 4 measures and the second phrase<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> of similar +length, alike subdivided into two sections of 2 measures each. In the +third measure we find a modulation into the dominant key (indicated by +the D-sharp) and in the fourth measure a cadence with a feminine +ending in this key. The second—or after—phrase corresponds exactly +to what has gone before: we have the same repetition of the motive in +a different part of the scale; and finally, in the 8th measure, a +cadence in the home key, also with feminine ending.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music054.png" width="632" height="404" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music054.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music054.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>When the sentence is played, it is evident how unsatisfactory would be +the effect if a complete stop were attempted at the 4th measure; and +how symmetrical and convincing is the impression when the eight +measures are considered an unbroken sweep of musical thought.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> +There are, in fact, a few complete compositions in musical literature +which contain but a single sentence of eight measures. As an example +may be cited the song from Schumann's <i>Lieder Album für Jugend</i>, op. +79, No. 1. (See Supplement No. 19.) For purposes of practical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span> +appreciation<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> it is enough to state that a cadence is an accepted +combination of chords (generally the tonic, dominant and subdominant) +which indicates that some objective, either temporary or final, has +been reached. When the dominant chord or any dominant harmony is +immediately followed by the tonic the cadence is called perfect or +final, and may be compared to a period in punctuation, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<table style="padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="music"> +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="right"><span class="smcap">César Franck</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center"><img src="images/music055a.png" width="158" height="172" alt="music" title="music" /></td> +<td class="center"><img src="images/music055b.png" width="447" height="197" alt="music" title="music" /></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center">[<a href="music/music055a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music055a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</td> +<td class="center">[<a href="music/music055b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music055b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>A reversal of this order produces what is called the half-cadence, +akin to the semicolon, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music055c.png" width="184" height="153" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music055c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music055c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The union of the subdominant and tonic chords is known as the Plagal +Cadence, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music055d.png" width="182" height="146" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music055d.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music055d.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and always gives a feeling of religious dignity and impressiveness. +Magnificent examples may be found in the closing measures of Wagner's +Overture to the <i>Mastersingers</i> and of Brahms' <i>First Symphony in C +minor</i>. In the final cadence of Debussy's humorous piece for +pianoforte, <i>Minstrels</i>, the effect is burlesqued, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music056a.png" width="630" height="216" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music056a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music056a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>When dominant harmony is followed by some unexpected chord we have the +so-called Deceptive Cadence, which is not unlike the mark of +interrogation (?) or even exclamation (!) <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Wagner</span>: <i>Overture to the Mastersingers</i></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music056b.png" width="631" height="216" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/music056b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music056b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Tchaikowsky</span>: <i>5th Symphony</i></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music056c.png" width="632" height="219" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music056c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music056c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This last cadence gives an effect of dramatic surprise—certainly an +exclamation of great force. One of the glories of modern music is the +daring novelty of cadential effect which has been achieved by such +composers as Franck, Debussy and Ravel; the student should try to +become more and more familiar with such harmonic combinations. A +beautiful example<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> is cited from César Franck's <i>Sonata for Violin +and Pianoforte</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music057a.png" width="631" height="576" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music057a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music057a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The two endings for phrases are classified as Masculine and Feminine +and they correspond exactly to the same effects in the metre of a +poetic stanza. When the second chord of the cadence, whatever it may +be, coincides with a <i>strong</i> beat, <i>i.e.</i>, the first beat of the +measure, the ending is Masculine, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music057b.png" width="338" height="201" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music057b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music057b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>When the chord is carried over to a weak beat of the measure the +ending is Feminine, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music058a.png" width="630" height="205" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music058a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music058a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>We now give two more examples of the eight measure Sentence which +clearly exemplify the principles just stated, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Beethoven</span>: 3rd Sonata</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music058b.png" width="632" height="390" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music058b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music058b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In this vigorous and clear-cut sentence we find in the 4th measure an +effect of surprise and suspense; for the chord on the first beat is an +inverted position of the dominant chord in the dominant key. Both the +endings are masculine, <i>i.e.</i>, the chords which end the phrases +coincide with the strong beats.</p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Beethoven</span>: 1st Sonata</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music058c.png" width="632" height="174" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music059.png" width="628" height="407" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music058c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music058c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This graceful sentence is noteworthy for the clear division of the +first phrase into two contrasting sections; whereas, in the second +phrase, a climactic effect is gained by having no marked subdivision. +In the fourth measure occurs a good example of a half-cadence. All the +endings are feminine, <i>i.e.</i>, the cadential chord occurs on a <i>weak</i> +beat of the measure.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> + +<p>Music, however, would be very rigid and would seem measured off with a +yard-stick if the sentences were equally of eight measures. The +"sing-song" effect of much so-called popular music is due to the +stereotyped metrical pattern. You can always tell just where and how +you are coming out. In order to gain a free and elastic phraseology, +composers early began to combine three four-measure phrases into a +<i>twelve</i> measure sentence. It is obvious that with three phrases there +can be more subtle effects of contrast and balance than with two, as +the following chart makes plain:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/chart.png" width="350" height="139" alt="chart" title="chart" /> +</p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Beethoven</span>: 6th Sonata</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music060.png" width="635" height="579" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music060.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music060.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In this sentence it is evident that we cannot stop at the 8th measure +and that our first definite conclusion is in measure 12. Let the +student observe the varied melodic outline in the three phrases, and +question himself as to the types of cadence and ending.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Minuetto of Beethoven’s First Sonata.</span><a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></h3> + +<p>In this beautifully constructed twelve-measure sentence we have the +main motive of the entire movement set forth in measures 1 and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span> 2; +then a contrasting secondary motive in measures 3 and 4. The second +four-measure phrase, <i>i.e.</i>, measures 5, 6, 7 and 8, repeats the +material exactly, but with a modulation into the relative major. In +measures 9 and 10 we find the secondary motive appearing in the alto +voice (which should be brought out in performance), and in measures 11 +and 12 a free ending in the relative major. The closing measures, 13 +and 14, give an echo-like effect, which will be explained when we come +to extended sentences. Such a sentence is not to be considered as one +of 14 measures, although the literal counting gives that number; for +the first complete cadence occurs in the 12th measure at the end of +the third four-measure phrase; the remaining measures being +supplementary.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> + +<p>The last type of simple, normal sentence is that of 16 measures, +divided into 4 phrases of 4 measures each. A clear distinction must be +drawn between two successive sentences of 8 measures and the long +sweep of a genuine 16 measure sentence. In the latter case there is no +complete and satisfactory stop until we reach the cadence in the 16th +measure.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">First Sentence of the First Movement of the Twelfth Sonata.</span></h3> + +<p>No difficulty will be found in following the cadences and endings of +this sentence, the long-drawn out lines of which give an impression of +repose and tranquillity. Two more excellent examples of 16 measure +sentences may be found in the Adagio of the Fifth Sonata, and in the +Scherzo of the Third; the latter movement is remarkable for the +polyphonic treatment of the opening motive.</p> + +<p>Although the three types of sentence just studied, <i>i.e.</i>, of 8, 12 +and 16 measures are the normal ones, and would include a majority of +all sentences—especially in smaller works—in large compositions +there would be an unendurable monotony and rigidity were there +invariably to be cadential pauses at every 4th measure. We all know +the deadening effect of poetry which has too great uniformity of +metric pattern; and verses of "The boy stood on the burning-deck" type +are considered thoroughly "sing-song." It is obvious that elasticity +may be gained, without disturbing the normal balance, by expanding a +sentence through the addition of extra<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span> measures, or contracting it by +the logical omission of certain measures or by the overlapping of +phrases.</p> + +<p>The simplest and most common means of enlarging a sentence is by the +extension, or repetition, of the final cadence—that effect which is +so frequent in the chamber and symphonic music of Haydn, and which has +its comic manifestation in the so-called "crescendo" of the Rossini +Operatic Overture.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Haydn</span>: <i>Quartet, op. 74, No. 2</i></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music062.png" width="630" height="759" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music062.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music062.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span></p> + +<p>As Haydn was an important pioneer in freeing instrumental structure +from dependence on the metre of words, his periods are always clearly +organized; the closing measures of this example seem, as it were, to +display a flag, telling the listener that the first breathing-place is +reached. Very often both the fore-phrase and the after-phrase have +cadential prolongations, an example of which may be found in Haydn's +Quartet, op. 71, No. 3. The two following illustrations (the first +movement of Beethoven's Fifth Sonata and the third movement of the +Fourth) furnish remarkable examples of extended 16 measure sentences; +each sentence being normal and symmetrical at the outset and then, as +the fancy of the composer catches fire, expanding in a most dramatic +fashion. Sometimes the additional measures, in an extended sentence, +are found at the start; a clear example of this is the first sentence +(with its repeated opening measure) of the Largo of the Seventh +Sonata. Sentences are also often expanded by the insertion of one or +more measures in the middle of the phrase, <i>e.g.</i>, the beginning of +the first movement of the Seventh Sonata and the corresponding place +in the Fourth. In the former sentence the first phrase is perfectly +regular, but as we reach our final cadence only in the tenth measure, +we must account for some additional measures. The polyphonic imitation +of the descending motive of measure 5 makes clear that this measure +has two repetitions. In the latter case we reach the end of the +sentence in the 17th measure and careful counting, and consideration +of the melodic outline, will convince us that the 9th measure, +emphasized by the <i>sf</i> mark, is repeated.</p> + +<p>When an extra measure is systematically introduced into each phrase of +4 measures we have what is known as "five-bar rhythm"—so prevalent in +the works of Schubert and Brahms.</p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Schubert</span>: <i>Sonata in <span title="E-flat">E♭</span> major</i></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music063.png" width="630" height="194" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music064a.png" width="634" height="400" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/music063.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music063.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Brahms</span>: <i>Ballade in G minor</i></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music064b.png" width="633" height="189" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music064b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music064b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>As everyone is familiar with the latter composition, only the melody +is cited. This propulsion of the mind forward beyond the accustomed +point of rest always produces a stimulating rhythmic effect.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p> + +<p>The normal phraseology of four and eight measures is altered at times +by the <i>omission</i> of certain measures. This often takes place at the +beginning of the sentence, as may be seen from the structure of the +so-called Anglican chant, familiar to all Protestants, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Savage</span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music064c.png" width="631" height="178" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music064c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music064c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span></p> + +<p>The beginning of Mozart's <i>Overture to Figaro</i> is also well known, +<i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music065a.png" width="633" height="184" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music065a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music065a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The elision of a measure often takes place in the middle of a phrase +as may be seen from the theme of Mendelssohn's familiar <i>Spring-Song</i>.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music065b.png" width="636" height="255" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music065b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music065b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Just as in the case of the systematic insertion of an extra measure, +which produces "five-bar rhythm," so when a measure is omitted in each +phrase which would usually consist of four measures, we have +"three-bar rhythm." This gives an effect of great concentration and +intensity and is a prevalent feature in Scottish and Hungarian +folk-music, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="title">Scotch</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music065c.png" width="636" height="161" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/music065c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music065c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="title">Hungarian</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music065d.png" width="636" height="74" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music066a.png" width="635" height="159" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music065d.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music065d.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Additional examples of three-bar rhythm may be found in the Scherzo of +Beethoven's Tenth Sonata and in the Minuet of Mozart's <i>G minor +Symphony</i>—the latter, one of the most striking examples in +literature.</p> + +<p>When a measure is systematically omitted from the normal structure of +the 8 measure sentence we have "seven-bar rhythm"; of which beautiful +examples may be found in the Scherzo of Beethoven's Sonata in B-flat +major, op. 106, and in Mozart's Quartet in F major, No. 23. As these +examples are readily accessible they are not quoted. The humorous +effect produced, in the Beethoven example, by the unexpected elision +of the 7th measure is very marked.</p> + +<p>Flexibility in the structure of a sentence is often gained by what is +known as "overlapping"<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> of phrases, <i>i.e.</i>, where the closing +measure of a sentence, the 8th or 12th for example, is identical with +the first measure of the following phrase. A clear example is this +passage from the first movement of Beethoven's Third Sonata, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music066b.png" width="631" height="194" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music066b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music066b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>As the principles of sentence-formation are closely involved with the +general subject of rhythm, something must be known about the number of +beats within the measure itself. While it is true that we Anglo-Saxons +tend to think in terms of 2 and 3 or their multiples, <i>i.e.</i>, our +customary measures consist of 2 or 4 beats or of 3, 6, 9 and 12,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span> in +modern music—particularly that of other races (the Slavs, Hungarians, +etc.)—we often find measures with 5 and 7 beats and even phrases +containing a mixture of rhythms. Three excellent examples of +compositions with measures of 5 beats each are the Slow Movement of +Chopin's Sonata in C minor, op. 4, the F-sharp major portion of +d'Indy's Symphonic Variations, <i>Istar</i>, and the second movement of +Tchaikowsky Sixth Symphony, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music067a.png" width="632" height="372" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music067a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music067a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>A delightful example of a melody with 7 beats a measure is the Andante +Grazioso of Brahms's Trio in C minor, op. 101—the result undoubtedly +of his well-known fondness for Hungarian music, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music067b.png" width="629" height="227" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music067b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music067b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The following theme from Tchaikowsky's Quartet in F major, +notwithstanding the time signature, certainly gives the effect of a +long, seven-beat measure, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music068a.png" width="631" height="200" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music068a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music068a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Those who wish to do a little investigating of their own in the field +of modern music will find interesting examples of 5/4 and 7/4 metres +in Ravel's <i>Daphnis and Chloe</i>, in d'Indy's Sonata for Violin and +Pianoforte and in the Ballet music of Stravinsky.</p> + +<p>We even find passages where, for special effect, the usual beats are +elided or extra beats inserted. Schumann was one of the most daring +experimenters in this respect and such fantastic effects are frequent +in his pianoforte works—notably in the <i>Carnaval</i>, op. 9, and in the +<i>Phantasiestücke</i>, op. 12, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Schumann</span>: <i>Carnaval</i></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music068b.png" width="629" height="321" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music068b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music068b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>With reference to all the foregoing principles and comments the +music-lover is cautioned against the assumption that music, from the +standpoint of the composer or the listener, is merely a matter of +mechanical counting; or that the "swing" of music is as regular as +that of a sewing-machine. But, as order is Heaven's first law, it is +true that music tends to move in definite, symmetrical groups; and +where departure is made from this practise the effect is one most +carefully planned. The matter deserves earnest consideration, for,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> in +what is known as the "rhythmical sense," Americans—as a people, in +comparison with foreign nations—are still woefully deficient. As +rhythm is the basic element in all music, there is nothing in which +the listener should more definitely train his faculties than in +intelligent coöperation with the freedom of the composer.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>THE TWO-PART AND THREE-PART FORMS</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">N</span>OW that a clear insight has been gained into the formation of the +normal sentence, we are in a position to understand how sentences may +be combined to make complete compositions. The simplest and most +primitive structure is that which contains <i>two</i> complete sentences; +dividing itself naturally into <i>two</i> parts and hence known as the +Two-Part Form. This form by reason of its simplicity and directness is +often found in the short pianoforte pieces of Schumann, Tchaikowsky, +Brahms, Grieg and Debussy. For a long period there was no attempt at +differentiation between vocal and instrumental style; music, in fact, +during the 15th and 16th centuries was often entitled "buon da cantare +ou suonare," <i>i.e.</i>, equally well suited for voices or instruments. +When instrumental players were in search of pieces, they simply +transferred to their instruments the voice-parts of the Madrigals and +Canzonas which were then so fashionable.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> With the development of +instruments—especially of the Violin family—and with the desire for +an instrumental style which should be independent of words, principles +of coherent design had to be evolved; and they were suggested by the +definite metre in the stanzas of the Folk-song and, above all, by the +symmetrical phrases of the Folk-dance, used to accompany the +<i>rhythmical</i> motions of the body. By a utilization of these principles +of balanced phrases, of contrasted keys and of periodic themes, +instrumental music gradually worked out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span> a structure of its own,<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> +of which we find examples in National dances and in the compositions +of such pioneers of instrumental style as the Italians Corelli and +Vivaldi, the Frenchmen Lully, Couperin and Rameau, and the Englishman +Purcell.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music070.png" width="633" height="775" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/music070.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music070.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="poem"> +<tr> +<td> +Viens dans ce bocage belle Aminte,<br /> +Sans contrainte L'on y forme des vœux;<br /> +Viens, Viens dans ce bocage belle Aminte,<br /> +Il est fait pour les plaisirs et les jeux. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="tp"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span></p> + +<p>In this rhythmic and sprightly dance of exactly 8 measures (an old +French <i>Tambourin</i> taken from Weckerlin's <i>Echos du Temps Passé</i>) we +see clearly the influence of the metrical stanza of words and of the +balanced phrases in the instrumental part, necessary to accompany the +steps of the dancers. The melody of the accompaniment was played on a +flute or some simple kind of pipe, and the bass on a Tambour de +Basque—a rude form of drum, which repeated continually the tonic and +dominant of the key; the same effect which we associate with the +Bagpipe and Hurdy-gurdy.</p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Purcell</span>: Jig.</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music071.png" width="638" height="515" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music071.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music071.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In this Jig, which was a favorite type with the English +peasantry—divided into three sentences of exactly 8 measures +each—the dance rhythm is very sharply defined. From various +dance-patterns a structural type was gradually evolved, of which the +chief features will now be indicated. The music was divided into <i>two</i> +distinct halves and it became the convention to gain length by +repeating each half—in the early days of the form, <i>literally</i> (with +a double bar and sign of repeat); later, as composers gained freedom, +with considerable amplification. Each half presented the <i>same</i> +material (it was a <i>one</i>-theme form) but the two halves were +contrasted in <i>tonality</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span> part, beginning in the +home-key, would modulate to some related key—generally the dominant; +the second part, starting out in this key, gradually modulated back to +a final cadence in the original key, and often—especially in Haydn +and Mozart—repeated the entire main sentence of the first part. The +general effect of such a form has been wittily described<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> as +resembling the actions of "the King of France who, with twenty +thousand men, marched up the hill and then marched down again"—but he +surely had no exciting adventures in between! It is evident that this +form, while favorable to coherence and unity, is lacking in scope and +in opportunity for variety and contrast. It did, however, emphasize +the principle of recapitulation; in fact it became the convention (as +we shall see in the dances of the Suite) for the closing measures of +the second part to be an exact duplicate in the home-key of that which +had been presented at the end of part one. We shall observe, as we +continue our studies, that the trend of musical composition gradually +swung over to the Three-part form, the essential feature of which is +restatement after <i>intervening contrast</i>.</p> + +<p>For illustrations of the Two-part Form see the Supplement Nos. 20, 21, +22, 23, 24.</p> + +<p>Only in such comparatively simple examples as those just cited is +found this perfect balance in the length of the two parts. We often +observe extended sentences in the first part; and it became the custom +for the second part to be considerably lengthened, to include +modulations into more remote keys and even to display certain +developments of the main material. For a striking example of a +movement which, although definitely in Two-part form, (<i>i.e.</i>, it is +in two clear divisions and has but <i>one</i> theme) is yet of considerable +scope and variety, see the Allegretto of Beethoven's Fourth Sonata. It +was, in fact, this instinct for contrasting variety in the second +part<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> which (as can be shown from historical examples)<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> +gradually led to the developing and establishment of the Three-part +form.</p> + +<p>The essentials of this structure, so frequent in all pianoforte +literature, are the existence of <i>three</i> distinct <i>parts</i>—hence the +name: a clause of assertion in the home-key; a second clause, +affording a genuine <i>contrast</i> to the first part in regard to key,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span> +melodic outline and general treatment, and a third clause of +reassertion, which shall repeat—either literally or in varied +form—the material of part one.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> In the Three-part form, as +employed in the classic Minuet and Scherzo, each of the three parts +<i>taken by itself</i> is in complete Two-part form; and as the third part +was generally a literal repetition of part one, it was not written +out, but at the end of the middle part (called the Trio, because it +was originally written in three-voiced harmony) we find the direction +"Minuet or Scherzo da capo," meaning a return to the first part. A +coda or tail-piece is often added to round out the form. As the +student will become thoroughly familiar with the Three-part form, in +connection with the classic Symphonies soon to be studied (each +Minuet, Scherzo or Trio being an example), our illustrations show the +use of this form in independent pieces and are chiefly taken from +modern literature; the object being so to interest the student in the +beauty of these compositions as to convince him that in all good music +content and design go hand is hand. For examples<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> see Supplement +Nos. 25, 26, 27.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>THE CLASSICAL AND THE MODERN SUITE</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">N</span>O sooner had the Two-and Three-part forms become accepted as definite +means of instrumental expression, than composers were eager to try +their skill in combining dance-movements in such forms into larger +groups. These compositions—known in France as Ordres, in Germany as +Suites and Partitas and in England as Lessons—though all the +movements were in the <i>same key</i>, yet showed considerable variety by +reason of the contrast in the dance rhythms. They were, moreover, +simple, direct and easily under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span>stood of the people.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> This +development was furthered by the perfecting of two groups of +instruments: The violins, by the great Italian masters; and those +precursors of our modern pianoforte, the harpsichord, clavichord and +spinet. We find, consequently, the Italians—of whom Corelli was most +prominent—combining these dances into groups called Sonate da Ballo: +and the French composers Couperin and Rameau, developing the +possibilities of keyed stringed instruments in graceful pieces to +which fantastic titles, such as <i>La Poule</i>, <i>Le Rappel des Oiseaux</i>, +etc., were often given. The greatest master of instrumental style in +these early days was the Italian, Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757). He +was famous both as composer and performer—the first, in fact, of the +long line of key-board virtuosi—and in his compositions in dance form +and in those of a more abstract type there is a sparkling fancy and an +adjustment of the thought to his instrument, which will keep them +forever immortal.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> + +<p>The grouping together of dance forms reached its highest development +through the genius of Sebastian Bach in the so-called <i>French and +English Suites</i>.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> In these compositions—in the Partitas and in the +orchestral Suite in D major, which contains the well-known Aria, often +played in transcription for Violin solo—the dance-forms are not +employed literally but are made a vehicle for the expression of varied +types of human emotion and sentiment. Nor should we overlook the +twelve <i>Harpsichord Lessons</i> of Handel—especially the superb Fugue in +E minor in the Fourth Suite—which are noteworthy for their vigor, +though, in freshness and delicacy of invention, not to be compared +with Bach's.</p> + +<p>We now give a tabulated list of the customary dance forms, both as +found in the Classic and the modern Suite or used as independent +pieces; and we shall then analyze those which have the most +characteristic rhythmic pattern.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span></p> + + +<h3>LIST OF DANCES</h3> + + +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="dances"> +<tr><td class="center"><span class="smcap"><b>Name</b></span></td><td class="center"><span class="smcap"><b>Origin</b></span></td><td class="center"><span class="smcap"><b>Meter</b></span></td><td class="center"><span class="smcap"><b>Form</b></span></td><td class="center"><span class="smcap"><b>Character</b></span></td></tr> +<tr><td>Allemande</td><td>Suabian</td><td class="center">4/4</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Moderately quick; flowing, with a rather rich harmonic texture.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Courante<br />Corrente</td><td>French<br />Italian</td><td class="center">3/4, 3/2</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Running, lively; the 2/2 type always with a change of meter at the cadences.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sarabande</td><td>Spanish</td><td class="center">3/2, 3/4</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Stately, dignified; often noble and even dramatically pathetic.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hornpipe</td><td>English</td><td class="center">4/4</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Rapid, merry, energetic.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gigue<br />Jig</td><td>Italian giga, an early violin</td><td class="center">6/8, 12/8, 4/8</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Very lively, rollicking, even jocose.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gavotte</td><td>French</td><td class="center">4/4, 2/2</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Moderately fast; well-marked rhythm, often stately.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bourrée</td><td>French</td><td class="center">4/4</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Lively, vigorous.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Minuet</td><td>French</td><td class="center">3/4, 3/8</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Moderately fast; dainty, graceful, courtly.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Passepied</td><td>French</td><td class="center">3/4</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Light, delicately animated.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Loure</td><td>French</td><td class="center">6/4, 4/4</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Rather slow, stately.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pavane</td><td>Italian</td><td class="center">2/4</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Solemn, impressive.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Galliard</td><td>Italian</td><td class="center">3/2, 2/2</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Lively, merry.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Branle<br />Brawl</td><td>French<br />English</td><td class="center">4/4, 3/4</td><td>Two-part</td><td>Lively, with great abandon.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Polonaise</td><td>Polish</td><td class="center">3/4</td><td>Varied</td><td>Dignified and courtly, but with life.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Mazurka</td><td>Polish</td><td class="center">3/4</td><td>Varied</td><td>Great range of speed and effect; at times sustained and pathetic, often bright and lively.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Polka</td><td>Bohemian</td><td class="center">2/4</td><td>Generally three-part</td><td>Merry, animated.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Furiant</td><td>Bohemian</td><td class="center">3/4</td><td>Varied</td><td>Very lively, even frenzied.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Waltz</td><td>German</td><td class="center">3/4</td><td>Two-part or three-part</td><td>Graceful; varied in effect; at times lively, often slow.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Boléro</td><td>Spanish</td><td class="center">3/4</td><td>Three-part</td><td>Brisk, well-marked rhythm.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tarantella</td><td>Italian</td><td class="center">6/8</td><td>Varied</td><td>Very lively, impassioned.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Saltarello</td><td>Italian</td><td class="center">6/8, 3/4</td><td>Varied</td><td>With quick, jumping rhythm.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rigaudon</td><td>French</td><td class="center">2/4, 4/4</td><td>Varied</td><td>Lively, gay.</td></tr> +<tr><td>March</td><td>Found in every nation</td><td class="center">4/4</td><td>Varied</td><td>Stately, with marked rhythm.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td>Csárdás</td><td>Hungarian</td><td class="center">3/4, 2/4</td><td>Varied</td><td>Impassioned; with great variety of effect.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Halling</td><td>Scandinavian</td><td class="center">2/4</td><td>Varied</td><td>Fresh, vigorous, out-of-doors atmosphere.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tango</td><td>Mexican</td><td class="center">Varied</td><td>Varied</td><td>With reckless abandon.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Habañera</td><td>Spanish</td><td class="center">2/4</td><td>Varied</td><td>Graceful; with characteristic rhythm.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Seguidilla</td><td>Spanish</td><td class="center">3/4, 3/8</td><td>Varied</td><td>Fantastic; sometimes stately, sometimes gay and lively.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Jota, often Jota Aragonesa</td><td>Spanish</td><td class="center">3/4</td><td>Free</td><td>A kind of waltz, but with more freedom in the dancing, and of a vigorous and fiery nature.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Malagueña</td><td>Spanish</td><td class="center">3/8</td><td>In couplet form</td><td>A dance of moderate movement, accompanied by guitar and castanets; languorous and sensual in mood.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Siciliano</td><td>Sicilian</td><td class="center">6/8, 12/8</td><td>Two-part, three-part, often a Rondo</td><td>Graceful; of a Pastorale nature.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="tp">The four indispensable movements of the classic or 18th century Suite +were the Allemande, the Courante, the Sarabande and the Gigue; and, +between the last two, it became customary to insert an optional number +of other dances—the most usual being the Gavotte, Bourrée, Minuet and +Passepied. In effect, the Suite was a kind of "international +Potpourri" of the dances most in vogue, and affords us a vivid +reflection of the manners and customs of the period. Many of the +English Suites begin with an elaborate polyphonic Prelude. We shall +not give a detailed analysis of all these dance movements; for the +main characteristics the tabulated list will suffice, and in the book +of Supplementary examples (see No. 35) will be found the 6th French +Suite complete. It will be more useful to center attention on those +dances which, in rhythmic pattern, are especially typical and are most +frequently employed in modern music; and we shall select, as examples +drawn from various sources, those dances which make a direct appeal. +The most characteristic of the dances are the Sarabande, the Gavotte, +the Minuet and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> Gigue; and with the last, as exemplifying the same +spirit, may be grouped the Rigaudon, Furiant, Tarantella and +Saltarello.</p> + +<p>The Sarabande is a slow, stately dance; always in triple meter +indicated by 3/2 or 3/4. Its striking features are the frequent +occurrence of the rhythmic pattern</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="music"> +<tr> +<td class="center"><img src="images/music077a.png" width="185" height="46" alt="music" title="music" /></td> +<td class="center">or</td> +<td class="center"><img src="images/music077b.png" width="238" height="44" alt="music" title="music" /></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center">[<a href="music/music077a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music077a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</td> +<td> </td> +<td class="center">[<a href="music/music077b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music077b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>in which it is evident that there is a strong accent on the weak +beats; and the prevalence of feminine endings in the cadences. The +Sarabande always displays great depth of emotion—often of a tragic +and impassioned kind; and, in the Suite, seems to have served the +composer for the same outpouring of feeling which we associate with +the slow movement in the later Sonata or Symphony. The example cited +in the Supplement (See No. 28)—taken from one of Bach's Sonatas for +'cello—is considered one of the most beautiful in existence. Other +eloquent Sarabandes may be found in the Second and Third English +Suites and in Handel's noble Air "Lascia ch'io pianga" from the opera +of <i>Rinaldo</i>. Two fine modern examples of this dance are the second +number in Paderewski's <i>Humoresques de Concert</i>, op. 14, and the +second number in the set of pieces by Debussy, <i>Pour le +Piano</i>—<i>Prélude</i>, <i>Sarabande</i>, <i>Toccata</i>. Composers sometimes employ +the Sarabande rhythm for its inherent beauty, or for dramatic purposes +without indication of the fact. Examples are the theme for variations +in Beethoven's Sonata, op. 109, and the opening measures of the +<i>Egmont Overture</i> where, by means of the characteristic Spanish +dance-rhythm, an atmosphere of oppression and dejection is +established, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music077c.png" width="630" height="226" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music077c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music077c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The Gavotte is an energetic yet dignified dance in duple rhythm (it is +almost always played too fast)—the characteristics of which are its +beginning on the half-measure and its strongly marked cadences. One of +the most stirring examples is that cited from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span> Third English Suite +(See Supplement No. 29) which, with its subdued middle portion, La +Musette,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> is an early example of tripartite arrangement. Other +gavottes<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> are the favorite one from the Fifth French Suite, that +from Handel's opera <i>Ottone</i> (so often played in organ or pianoforte +transcriptions) and, from modern literature, the charming one in +d'Albert's <i>Suite for Pianoforte</i>, op. 1.</p> + +<p>The Minuet is of particular interest, not alone because of the many +beautiful examples of its use but because it is the only dance which, +carried over from the Suite, has remained an integral movement of +Symphonic compositions. The Minuet, in its older form, was a stately +dance; the derivation of the term (French menu) referring to the +dainty steps of the dancers, always in 3/8 or 3/4 metre and beginning +on the first beat of the measure. By Haydn the character of the Minuet +was considerably changed; the tempo becomes much faster, the music +begins on the third beat of the measure instead of the first and the +mood is one of playful humor—at times even of downright jollity. In +the Minuets of Mozart the peculiar characteristics are grace and +tenderness rather than rollicking fun, <i>e.g.</i>, the charming examples +in the E-flat major and G minor Symphonies. Concerning the +transformation by Beethoven of the Minuet into the Scherzo, with its +fantastic and freakish atmosphere, we shall speak more fully in +connection with his Symphonies. Of the examples cited in the +Supplement (see Nos. 30 and 31) the former, from the first Finale of +Mozart's opera <i>Don Giovanni</i>, remains one of the most famous minuets +in existence; and the two from Rameau's opera, <i>Castor and Pollux</i>, +are of inimitable spontaneity and rhythmic grace. They are grouped in +contrasting, tripartite arrangement. In modern literature every one +knows of the melodious example for Pianoforte by Paderewski (No. 1 of +the <i>Humoresques de Concert</i>) and the <i>Menuet Italien</i> by Mrs. Beach; +that in the last scene of Verdi's <i>Falstaff</i> is also well worth +acquaintance.</p> + +<p>The last of the particularly characteristic dances is the Gigue with +its counterparts mentioned above. This is a rapid, animated dance in +6/8, 3/8, 12/8, 12/16 (sometimes 4/4) with marked rhythm; the term +being derived from giga (German, geige)—an early name for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span> fiddle—on +account of the power of accent associated with the violin family. The +Gigue is always the closing number of Bach's Suites, in order to give +a final impression of irrepressible vitality and gaiety, and is +treated with considerable polyphonic complexity; in fact, his gigues +often begin like a complete Fugue. They are all in clear-cut Two-part +form; and it became the convention for the second part to treat the +motive in <i>inverted</i> form. The example cited from Bach's Fifth French +Suite (see Supplement No. 32) is unsurpassed for rhythmic energy; the +closing measures sound as if all the bells of heaven were ringing. The +example of Mozart (see Supplement No. 33) is noteworthy for its daring +use of the dissonant element and for its free modulations. Of the +counterparts of the gigue the following are excellent examples: The +Rigaudon—the Finale of Grieg's <i>Holberg Suite</i>, the vigorous one from +Rameau's opera <i>Dardanus</i>, and MacDowell's independent piece in this +form, op. 49, No. 2; the Furiant—the Finale of Dvořák's <i>Suite for +Small Orchestra</i>, op. 30 (accessible in an effective pianoforte +arrangement for four hands); the <i>Tarantelle</i>—Chopin's independent +piece in this rhythm, op. 43, and the brilliant Finale of +Rheinberger's Pianoforte Sonata for four hands, op. 122; the +Saltarello—the last movement of Mendelssohn's <i>Italian Symphony</i> and +the main portion of Berlioz's <i>Carnaval Romain Overture</i>. One +additional example is cited (see Supplement No. 34), a Courante by D. +Scarlatti, to give an example of his pianoforte style. In connection +with these dances, especially the Sarabande, Gavotte, Loure, Pavane, +Polonaise and Tarantelle, there should be read the articles treating +of each dance in Grove's Dictionary; for these dances are so closely +connected with human activity that a knowledge of their development +broadens our horizon in many matters pertaining to social life and +civilization in general. As to specific examples of the less usual +dances, many of the quaintest are found in the works of the early +English composers: Byrd, Bull, etc., in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, +<i>e.g.</i>, <i>The Lord of Salisbury his Pavan</i>. An excellent example of the +Loure is the well-known arrangement from Bach's third 'Cello sonata. +Chopin, in his works, has glorified both the Polonaise and the +Mazurka; Bizet, in his opera Carmen, has used the Habañera and the +Seguidilla, and there is a wonderful use of the Habañera rhythm in +Debussy's descriptive piece <i>Soirée dans Grenade</i>. The French composer +Ravel in his pianoforte piece <i>Pavane pour un enfant defunt</i> has used +with remarkable effect the stately rhythm of that dance. The Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span> +composers, Albeniz and Granados, frequently employ national dance +rhythms in their pieces. The French composer Chabrier's <i>Bourrée +Fantasque</i> is a dazzling modernization of the old form; and his +<i>España</i> for full orchestra fairly intoxicates us with its dashing +rhythms based upon the Jota and the Malagueña.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Debussy's +well-known piece <i>Hommage à Rameau</i> is in the style of the Sarabande. +The allusions in literature to these dances are so frequent that only +a few can be cited. The very spirit of the Jig is given in Pope's line +"Make the soul dance upon a jig to Heaven." In speaking of the antics +of Sir Andrew Aguecheek in Twelfth Night, Shakespeare remarks—"I did +think by the excellent constitution of thy leg that it was formed +under the star of a Galliard." One of the most remarkable works of the +English composer John Dowland (born 1562) is entitled <i>Lachrymae, or +Seven Teares, figured in seven passionate Pavans</i>.</p> + +<p>The Suite, by reason of its freedom in combining different rhythms and +moods, has appealed vividly to modern composers; and the literature of +our times contains a number of Suites which should be known to the +music-lover. In these modern Suites no attempt is made to conform to +the old conventional grouping of dances. The movements are in +different keys, are often based on rhythms of an exotic or +ultra-nationalistic type—as in Tchaikowsky and Dvořák, or may +employ any material suggested by the fantastic imagination of the +composer—as in Debussy and Ravel. Among the most attractive modern +Suites may be cited: The <i>Peer Gynt</i> (put together from incidental +music to Ibsen's play) and the <i>Holberg</i> by Grieg; the two +<i>L'Arlésienne Suites</i> by Bizet (written to illustrate Daudet's +romantic story)—the first, with its dainty Minuet and brilliant +Carillons (Peal of bells); Dvořák's <i>Suite for Small Orchestra</i>, +op. 39, with its sprightly Polka and impassioned Furiant; +Tchaikowsky's five Orchestral Suites of which the best known are the +<i>Casse-Noisette</i> with its exotic rhythms and novel orchestral effects, +the <i>Mozartiana</i> and the third which closes with a brilliant +Polonaise; Brahms's <i>Serenades</i> for orchestra; Charpentier's +<i>Impressions of Italy</i> in which there is an effective use of Italian +rhythm and color; MacDowell's <i>Indian Suite</i>, with several of the +themes based on native tunes; the fascinating orchestral Suite +<i>Adventures in a Perambulator</i> by John Alden Carpenter; Arthur +Whiting's <i>Suite Moderne</i> for pianoforte; <i>Stevensoniana</i>, (based on +stanzas from Stevenson's <i>Child's Garden of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span> Verses</i>) an orchestral +Suite in four movements by Edward B. Hill; Debussy's <i>Suite +Bergamasque</i> in which is found the oft-played <i>Clair de Lune</i>; +Ravel's<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> <i>Mother Goose</i>, a delightful work—and by the same +composer the <i>Daphnis and Chloe</i> Suite, the material drawn from an +opera of the same name. In modern literature easily the most +celebrated and brilliant example of this type is the <i>Scheherazade +Suite</i> (based on the Arabian Nights) for full orchestra by +Rimsky-Korsakoff. This work in the genuine poetic quality of its +themes, in its marvellous descriptive power and in the boldness of its +orchestral effect remains unsurpassed.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>THE OLDER RONDO FORM</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">O</span>NE of the earliest instrumental forms to be worked out<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> was the +Rondo, which is merely an extension of the <i>three-part</i> principle of +"restatement after contrast" and which, by reason of its logical +appeal, has retained its place to this day. Originally the Rondo was a +combination of dance and song; that is, the performers sang and danced +in a circle—holding one another's hands. The music would begin with a +chorus in which all joined, one of the dancers would then sing a solo, +after which all would dance about and repeat the chorus; other solos +would follow, the chorus being repeated after each. The characteristic +feature, then, of this structure is the <i>continual recurrence</i> to a +principal motive after intervening contrasts—hence the name Rondo +(French, Rondeau); exemplifying a principle found not only in +primitive folk-songs and dances but in literature, <i>e.g.</i>, many of the +songs of Burns and the Rondeaux of Austin Dobson. For it is obvious +that the form answers to the simplest requirements of unity and +contrast. Frequent examples of the Rondo are found in all early +instrumental composers: Bach, <i>e.g.</i>, the charming one in C minor in +his third Partita; Couperin, Rameau, Haydn and Mozart. It is found +also in vocal works, <i>e.g.</i>, Purcell's well-known song "I Attempt from +Love's Sickness to Fly." From the standpoint of modern taste, however, +Beethoven was—with few exceptions—the first to treat the form with +real genius; and so our illustrations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span> are taken chiefly from his +works and from those of his successors. Although there need be no +arbitrary limit to the alternation of the chief part with the +subsidiary portions—in fact, Beethoven's humorous <i>Rondo Capriccio, +On a Lost Farthing</i> has as many as <i>eleven</i> sections—it gradually +became conventional for the form to consist of <i>five parts</i>: a first +presentation and two repetitions of the main theme together with two +contrasting portions called <i>Episodes</i>, to which a free Coda was often +added. The form would then be A, b, A´, c, A´´, Coda—A´ and A´´ +indicating that the repetition need not be <i>literal</i>, but often varied +rhythmically and harmonically; not, however, so as to obliterate the +original outline. For in a well-constructed Rondo the main theme must +be one of such direct appeal that we <i>look forward</i> to hearing it +<i>again</i>; and the successive repetitions must be so planned that we can +easily enjoy this pleasure of reminiscence. It also became customary +not to block off the sections with rigid cadences but often to insert +modulatory passages, thus securing a continuous flow of thought. This +practise we see particularly in Beethoven and Schumann. The form which +we are discussing is the so-called Older Rondo Form, clearly derived +from the dance described above. Beginning<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> with Beethoven, however, +we find numerous examples of a different kind of rondo treatment which +developed in connection with the Sonata Form—to be explained later. +The Rondo-Sonata Form, as it is generally called, is in fact a hybrid +type, with certain features derived from rondo structure and certain +from the pure sonata form. The Finales to Beethoven's Sonatas, when +entitled Rondos, are—with few exceptions—of this Rondo-Sonata type. +An excellent example, which should be well known, is the Finale of the +Sonata Pathétique. Although there are many cases of <i>free</i> treatment +of the rondo principle, they are all based on one or the other of +these two fundamental types. Schumann was extremely fond of this Older +Rondo Form, as may be seen from his frequent practice of writing two +Trios to the Scherzos of his Symphonies. A moment's thought will make +clear that a Scherzo with two Trios and the customary repetitions will +conform exactly to the pattern given above, <i>i.e.</i>, A, b, A´, c, A´´ +Coda, <i>e.g.</i>, Scherzo, First Trio = First Episode, First return, +Second Trio = Second Episode, Final return and Coda—five portions in +all, or six when there is a Coda. For convincing examples see the +Scherzos<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span> of the First and Second Symphonies. Schumann's well-known +<i>Arabesque</i> for pianoforte, op. 18, is a beautiful, clear-cut example +of the form; with an interpolated modulatory passage between the first +episode and first return, and a poetic Coda which has, for its closing +measures, the chief motive in augmentation (already referred to on <a href="#Page_45">p. +45</a>). To show Schumann's partiality for this form the student may be +referred to Nos. 2 and 8 of the <i>Kreisleriana</i> (op. 16) and to Nos. 1, +2 and 3 of the "Nachtstücke" (op. 23). The third of the <i>Romances</i> +(op. 28)—a remarkably free example in the grouping of the material +and in the key-relationship—is cited in the Supplement (No. 37). An +excellent example (readily accessible), popular by reason of its +freedom of treatment, as well as for its inherent sparkle and dash, is +the Finale of Weber's Sonata in C major, op. 24—the so-called <i>Moto +Perpetuo</i>. The most famous example of this form in classical +literature is undoubtedly the Finale of Beethoven's <i>Waldstein +Sonata</i>, op. 53, with its melodious and easily remembered first +subject, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music083.png" width="632" height="592" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music084.png" width="633" height="1021" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music083.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music083.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span></p> + +<p>its two episodes in A minor and C minor (which afford most dramatic +contrasts to the lyric quality of the main subject) and its glorious, +long-extended Coda of about three pages.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> + +<p>As stated above, the Older Rondo-Form has not become obsolete; indeed, +by reason of its possibilities for emphasis and contrast it has +commended itself to modern composers. Striking examples may be found +in the Finale of Brahms's Pianoforte Sonata in F minor, in the Finale +of Tchaikowsky's Fourth Symphony and, above all, in the Symphonic +Poems of Strauss, <i>Don Juan</i> and <i>Till Eulenspiegel</i>, in which the +form is admirably adapted to the dramatic needs of these descriptive +works. Additional examples, which can be readily procured, are the +Slow Movement of the <i>Sonata Pathétique</i>, op. 13, Beethoven's +well-known <i>Andante in F major</i>—remarkable for its brilliant +Coda—and his Rondo, already cited, <i>On the Lost Farthing</i>. (See +Supplement No. 38). Although there is a certain stiffness in this form +these examples afford the student excellent rudimentary practise in +ease of listening.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>THE VARIATION FORM</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">M</span>ONOTONY, as previously suggested, is more unendurable in music than +in any of the other arts. We should therefore expect to find musicians +inventing new devices to vary their thoughts so that the interest of +the hearer might be continually sustained and refreshed. Thus there +gradually grew up the form known as the Varied Air—a term meaning the +presentation of the same musical material under different aspects. As +far back as we can trace the development of instrumental structure, +there appears this instinct for varying a simple tune by +embellishments of a rhythmical and melodic nature. Examples abound in +the works of the early Italian masters, in the harpsichord pieces of +the English composers Byrd and Bull<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> and in the music of Couperin +and Rameau. But all these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span> Variations, however interesting from a +historical point<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> of view, are very labored and lack any real +poetic growth. They are, moreover, often prolonged to an interminable +length—one example, as late as Handel, consisting of an Air with +sixty-two Variations; prolixity or "damnable iteration" being as bad a +blemish in music as in any of the other arts. In the early days of +instrumental composition, about all that composers could do was "to +put the theme through its paces." That is, there was no unfolding of +the poetic possibilities of the melody. The successive variations were +all in the same key; the harmonic basis was practically unchanged and +the treatment consisted of dressing up the theme with stereotyped +embellishment-figures and of systematic rhythmic animation—produced +by the addition of more and more notes to each time unit. A standard +illustration of this type of Variations is the so-called <i>Harmonious +Blacksmith</i> of Handel from his <i>Suite in E Major</i>. This piece owes +whatever popularity it may have preserved to the sturdy swing of the +main theme and to the fact that it makes no demand on the attention of +the most untrained listener. In fairness we should state that on the +harpsichord—with its contrasting stops and key-boards—for which the +piece was composed, there is possible more variety of effect than on +the modern pianoforte.</p> + +<p>Three collateral early forms deserve a passing mention because, +notwithstanding a certain rigidity of structure, they have been used +by the great masters for the expression of sublime thoughts. These are +the Ground Bass (or, as it is sometimes called, the Basso Ostinato), +the Chaconne and the Passacaglia<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> which, in modern literature, is +well represented by the magnificent "tour de force" that serves as the +Finale to Brahms's <i>Fourth Symphony</i>. By a Ground Bass is meant a +theme, continually repeated, in the lowest voice, each time with +varied upper parts. An excellent example (see Supplement No. 39) is +the Aria "When I am laid in earth" from Purcell's Opera <i>Dido and +Aeneas</i>. It is evident that the persistent iteration of a striking +phrase in the bass gives an effect of dramatic intensity, as may be +seen in the sublime "Crucifixion" of Bach's <i>Mass in B minor</i>.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> +The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span> Chaconne and Passacaglia are old dance forms (examples of the +former being found in Gluck's Ballet Music) and are closely related to +the Ground Bass; since, in the majority of cases, we find the same +procedure in the announcement of the theme and in its subsequent +treatment. Two examples of the Chaconne from standard literature are +the famous one of Bach in D minor for solo violin and Beethoven's +thirty-two Variations in C minor for Pianoforte. The Passacaglia is of +importance as shown by the striking example for organ in C minor by +Bach on the following theme:</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music087.png" width="635" height="88" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music087.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music087.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Whoever has heard this majestic theme, which seems to bear the sorrows +of the world on its shoulders, announced on the deep-sounding pedals +will gain a lasting impression of the grandeur of Bach's style.</p> + +<p>By the time of Haydn, the technical skill of composers had improved +sufficiently so that we find in his works some genuinely interesting +examples of the Variation form, <i>e.g.</i>, the set on the well-known +Austrian hymn from the <i>Kaiser Quartet in C major</i>—in which each of +the five variations has a real individuality—and the <i>Variations in F +minor for Pianoforte</i>: remarkable as an early example of the varied +treatment of <i>two</i> themes.</p> + +<p>Most of Mozart's Variations are based upon popular themes and, in +general, may be considered as virtuoso pieces to show off the agility +of the performer. We find occasional examples, as in the Clarinet +Quintette and in the Sonata in D major, which are of more intrinsic +worth.</p> + +<p>The genius of Beethoven first revealed the full possibilities of the +form. In fact, so remarkable was his work that such creative composers +as César Franck and d'Indy consider the basic principles for our +modern development of music to be found in the Fugue of Bach and the +Varied Air of Beethoven. For, deadly dull as is the Variation form +when treated in a stereotyped manner, by very reason of its freedom +from arbitrary rules it may be a most elastic medium for the +expression of poetic genius. The composer has but to invent a striking +characteristic theme, rich in potential development, and then to let +it develop for as long as he can retain the interest of his hearers. +Likewise for a great orator the simple rule is to state a theme on +which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span> something worth while may be said and then by presenting it in +new lights and with copious illustrations to drive the truth home. The +principal and significant changes which we owe to Beethoven are the +following: complete freedom in variety of key, so that at times (as in +his op. 34) each variation is in a new key; a frequent omission of the +rigid stops at the end of each variation, <i>e.g.</i>, the Slow movement of +the <i>Fifth Symphony</i> and the third movement of the <i>Trio</i>, op. 96, so +that a continuous flow of thought is preserved; the practice, so often +followed in modern literature, of founding variations on a double +theme—of which the Finale of the <i>Heroic Symphony</i> is a striking +example. But the chief advance in Beethoven is the entirely new +conception of what variations should be; not, according to him, mere +mechanical manipulations of the subject matter, but vital products of +the imagination, as varied as the members of a human family having the +same mother. Beethoven's variations, in fact, often seem like a series +of character-pieces, each with its own individuality and yet retaining +an organic relationship to the main thought. His fondness for the form +and his mastery over it is seen by the frequency of its use in the +last Sonatas and String-Quartets. Every composer since Beethoven has +written one or more works in the Variation form; but we can mention +only the most beautiful examples and then pass on to the daring +conceptions of the modern school. The Variations by Schubert in his +String-Quartet in D minor on the Song, <i>Death and the Maiden</i>, will +amply repay study, and so will the <i>Variations Sérieuses</i>, op. 54, for +the pianoforte by Mendelssohn. As for Schumann, he was very happy in +the use of this form, and his <i>Symphonic Études</i>, op. 13—in wealth of +fancy and freedom of treatment—are quite unparalleled. His Variations +for two pianofortes, op. 46, deserve also to be known. Among the +finest examples since Beethoven are the numerous sets by Brahms, +remarkable alike for emotional power, for free and yet logical +treatment of the material and for solidity of workmanship. They +include the <i>Variations on a theme from Handel</i> for pianoforte, op. +24; the set for orchestra, op. 56a, on the <i>St. Anthony Choral</i> of +Haydn; and the two sets, op. 35, on themes from Paganini—universally +conceded to be the most brilliant examples for the pianoforte in +recent literature.</p> + +<p>To speak now particularly of the modern school, there are five +compositions in this form which, for their daring novelty and +sustained eloquence, should be familiar to every music-lover and heard +as often as possible. For they are elaborate works which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span> must be +thoroughly known to be understood and loved. (1), There is the set in +Tchaikowsky's Pianoforte Trio in A minor, op. 50; noteworthy for +freedom of modulation and for the striking individuality given to the +different transformations of the theme—two of the changes being to a +Waltz and a Mazurka. (2), <i>The Symphonic Variations</i> for Pianoforte +and Orchestra of César Franck, based on two contrasting themes, one in +the minor mode and one with modulations to the major. The variations +are not numbered and there are no rigid stops; throughout the work +Franck's marvellous power of modulation and rich harmonic texture are +eloquently manifested. (3), The <i>Istar</i> Variations for orchestra by +d'Indy is one of the most original works in the whole field; in that, +for dramatic reasons connected with the subject, the usual order is +<i>reversed</i> and the variations come <i>first</i>, gradually becoming more +and more simple until we reach the theme itself, pure and unadorned. +(4), The Symphonic Poem, <i>Don Quixote</i>, of R. Strauss, a complex set +of Variations on <i>three</i> themes which typify respectively the +characters of Cervantes' story; the Knight, his attendant, Sancho +Panza and Dulcinea. The variations are not confined to a merely +abstract or formal treatment of the material but set before us a +picture of the attributes of the characters and a description of some +of their spectacular adventures. (5), Lastly the <i>Enigma Variations</i> +for orchestra by Elgar, so-called because the identity of the basic +theme is not revealed. The variations are character-pieces which for +individuality and charm are a lasting glory to the genius of the +composer.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> + +<p>We shall now analyze, with suggestive comments, two<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> of the +well-known sets of Beethoven: the first movement of the Sonata, op. +26, and the <i>Six Variations on an original theme</i>, op. 34. The +variations from the Sonata are an early work; but, although definitely +sectionalized and with only one change of tonality, they clearly +reveal Beethoven's freedom of conception and his aversion to +stereotyped treatment. The theme itself is a suave, appealing melody, +already cited as an example of a sixteen-measure sentence, and +admirably suited for variation purposes, since it arouses at once the +expectation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span> of the listener.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> The first variation is a kind of +shadowy, mysterious outline of the theme just presented, as if the +composer were musing upon the latent possibilities of his material. +There is a quickening of interest in the second variation which, with +the theme in the bass, may be likened to a 'cello solo of a mildly +bravura nature. (Note the fantastic accents on weak beats in measures +18, 22, 23, and 24.) In the third variation comes a complete contrast +in mood; the key is changed to A-flat minor and the theme is +transformed into an elegy, all its joy crushed out. The movement +abounds in impassioned dissonances, always emphasized by <i>sf</i> marks, +and the throbbing pulsations of the bass—in the second phrase—give a +tragic intensity of feeling. With the fourth variation there enters +that spirit of playfulness so characteristic of Beethoven—the +movement being, in fact, a miniature Scherzo. The fifth and last +variation is an idyllic revery in which the composer reviews and +amplifies the many beautiful fancies which his imagination has +conceived, and closes with a coda, based on the motive of the main +theme, of tranquillity and satisfaction.</p> + +<p>The set in F major, op. 34, is a striking illustration of Beethoven's +fondness for mediant relationship, since no two variations are in the +same key; the tonic of each being a <i>third</i> below that of the +preceding. The Key-scheme is F, D, B-flat, G, E-flat, C minor; and +then, through the descent of a fifth, back to the home-key, or in +actual notes:</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music090a.png" width="405" height="114" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music090a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music090a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The first variation is a highly embellished treatment of the opening +theme; the melodic outline being merely hinted at in unimportant parts +of the phraseology, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music090b.png" width="634" height="87" alt="original theme" title="original theme" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music090b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music090b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music091.png" width="635" height="362" alt="1st Variation" title="1st Variation" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music091.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music091.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Written in the old ornate style, it is of interest chiefly for the +pianistic effect. In the second Variation we have a change both of +time and key; the impression being that of a distant march for men's +voices or for soft trombones. The third Variation, again with change +of time and key, illustrates Beethoven's fondness for a subtle +outlining of the theme. In the fourth Variation the theme is +transformed into a Minuet of graceful swing; and in the next Variation +a strong contrast is afforded by the Funeral March, the minor mode +being used for the first time. The last Variation—in the +home-key—gives a brilliant summing up of the characteristic features +of the theme. Note especially the reminiscent effect of the closing +measures.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>THE SONATA-FORM AND ITS FOUNDERS,<br /> +EMMANUEL BACH AND HAYDN</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">W</span>E have now set forth, with representative illustrations, all the +fundamental forms of instrumental music, <i>i.e.</i>, the Canon, Fugue and +Invention, the Two and Three-part forms, the Rondo and the Varied Air. +Through the perfecting of these means of expression music became a +living language of communication, ready for that development which, +through the genius of the Classic and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> Romantic masters, it was +destined to show. The essential feature of all the above forms is the +emphasis laid on <i>one theme</i>. This is strictly true of the polyphonic +forms, the Canon, Fugue<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> and Invention and of the Two-part form; +and although in the Three-part form we have a second theme, this is +merely for contrast and is often of rather slight import. The same +comment holds true of the Rondo where, notwithstanding the new +contrasting themes of the episodes, the centre of attraction is the +<i>single main theme</i>, to which constant recurrence is made. Obviously +the Varied Air is the expansion of a single theme. But the principal +characteristic of the Sonata-Form, now to be studied, is that we find +therein <i>two themes</i> of coequal importance, which may well be compared +to the hero and heroine of a novel or the two leading characters in a +drama. It is true that a composer will often in the creations of his +imagination show a marked preference for one theme over the other; +just as, in the family group to which the child owes its life, either +the man or the woman is likely to be the stronger character. But as +there can be no child without two parents, so the organism of the +Sonata-Form derives its vitality from the presence and interaction of +two living musical personalities, the first and second themes. The +first theme is so called because it is the one first presented and +because it generally furnishes the prevailing rhythmic pulse of the +movement. Yet the second theme,—exactly as important in its own way, +is often of a greater beauty; its title of "second theme" implying +nothing of a secondary nature, but merely its position in order of +appearance. No greater step was ever taken in the growth of musical +structure than this introduction of a second coequal theme; for the +principle of duality, of action and reaction between two forces, runs +throughout nature both human and physical, as is seen from the import +of the terms: man and woman, active and passive, positive and +negative, heat and cold, light and darkness. The first theme, in fact, +often resembles, in its vigor and directness, a masculine personality; +while the second theme, in grace and tenderness, resembles the +feminine. As long as music confined itself to the presentation of but +one main theme it was hampered by the same limitations which beset the +early Greek tragedians, in whose primitive plays<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> we find but one +chief actor. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span> introduction of a second theme can not be attributed +to <i>any single man</i>; indeed it resulted from a tendency of the times, +the demand of which was for more homophonic melodies rather than for +an elaborate polyphonic treatment of a single one. Embryonic traces of +a second theme we find in D. Scarlatti (see Supplement No. 40) and in +Sebastian Bach himself.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> Scarlatti,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> in fact, was often hovering +close to the Sonata-Form and in the example just cited actually +achieved it. The systematic employment of the second-theme principle, +however, is commonly attributed to Emmanuel Bach (1714-1788), although +an undue amount of praise, by certain German scholars, has been given +his achievements to the exclusion of musicians from other nations who +were working along the same lines. Any fair historical account of the +development of the Sonata-Form should recognize the Italians, +Sammartini and Galuppi; the gifted Belgian Gossec, who exercised such +a marked influence in Paris, and above all, the Bohemian Johann +Stamitz (1717-1757), the leader of the famous Mannheim Orchestra, of +whom we shall speak further when we come to the orchestra as a medium. +In many of Stamitz's Symphonies we find the essential first-movement +structure (<i>i.e.</i>, tripartite grouping with a clear second theme) and, +as Riemann says in his <i>Handbuch der Musikgeschichte</i>, "Their sincere +phraseology, their boldness of conception and the masterly <i>thematic +development</i> give Stamitz's works lasting value. Haydn and Mozart rest +absolutely upon his shoulders."<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p> + +<p>The other marked characteristic of the Sonata-Form is the <i>second</i> +part which is known as the Development Section; for, as we shall soon +explain, the structure as a whole is tripartite. In this portion of +the movement the composer has an opportunity to improvise, as it were, +with his material, using one theme or both as already presented. Dry +and labored development sections may, of course, be found in certain +Sonatas and Symphonies, but in the great works of such masters as +Beethoven, Brahms, Tchaikowsky and d'Indy the development is the most +exciting part of the movement. The hearer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span> is conducted through a +musical excursion; every device of rhythmic variety, of modulatory +change and polyphonic imitation being employed to enhance the beauty +of the themes and to reveal their latent possibilities.</p> + +<p>Before going further, it is well to point out a confusion which often +arises between the terms Sonata and Sonata-Form. When we speak of +Sonata-<i>Form</i> we mean invariably the structural treatment as to number +of themes, key-relationship, etc., of <i>any single</i> movement within a +series.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> By the term Sonata is meant a composition generally in +three or four movements, <i>e.g.</i>, First Movement, Slow Movement, Minuet +or Scherzo and Finale; of which, in most examples of the classic +school, the First Movement—and often the last—were in Sonata-Form. +An alternative name, indeed, for Sonata-Form is First Movement Form. +Beginning with Beethoven, however, composers began to exhibit great +freedom in the application of the Sonata-Form. We find Sonatas of +Beethoven, notably the set op. 31, in which every movement (even the +Scherzo) is in Sonata Form or a modification thereof; on the other +hand, there are compositions, entitled Sonatas, in which not a single +movement is in pure Sonata-Form, <i>e.g.</i>, Beethoven's Twelfth Sonata, +op. 26. These comments apply equally to many other large instrumental +works. For a symphony is merely a Sonata for Orchestra, a +String-Quartet a composition—of the same general type—for four solo +instruments<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> and there is, furthermore, a large group of ensemble +compositions: Sonatas for Violin (or any solo-instrument) and +Pianoforte; Trios, often for unusual combinations, <i>e.g.</i>, Brahms's +<i>Trio for Violin, Horn and Pianoforte</i>; Quintets and even Septets—in +all of which the distinction must be made between the terms Sonata and +Sonata-Form. Nor is there any rigid rule in regard to number of +movements or the moods expressed therein. The classic Sonata, Symphony +or Quartet, as we have stated above, generally contained three or four +movements, of which the first would be direct and vigorous in +nature—a summons to attention—cast in sonata-form, with a wealth of +material organically treated, and requiring from the listener +concentrated attention. The second movement was generally much simpler +in form, affording relief after the tension of the preceding +movement—its themes of a lyric nature, often with great depth of +emotion, sometimes even of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span> tragic import. The third movement, Minuet +or Scherzo, would portray the light, humorous side of life; and the +Finale, joyful and optimistic—its themes often bearing strongly the +sense of finality—would close the work with a general feeling of +satisfaction. It was Beethoven who first modified these principles to +suit his own poetic needs. Thus we find some of his Sonatas with only +two movements; some have three, some have four. One of Schumann's +Symphonies contains five movements and Rubinstein's <i>Ocean Symphony</i> +seven! When we reach the modern school, we shall see further freedom +as to number, order and type of movements.</p> + +<p>We are now prepared to sum up the essential characteristics of the +Sonata-Form; for there is no structure in which it is more important +for the music-lover to acquire the art of listening easily, naturally +and with a minimum of friction. The Sonata-Form is the instrumental +form "par excellence"—the Gothic Cathedral<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> of music—and has +retained its place, not because of any slavish regard for form as +such, but because it has been worked out, perfected and utilized by +the greatest of the composers. Any form with a beginning, a middle and +an ending, <i>i.e.</i>, presenting material worthy of consideration, which +allows this material to grow and realize its inherent possibilities +and then sums the matter up in a convincing, objective close; which, +furthermore, exemplifies the great principle of Duality, <i>i.e.</i>, +reveals <i>two</i> musical personalities, has as little need for +argumentative sanction as a tree or a human being. The +Sonata-Form—often, to be sure, with free modifications—predominates +in all the large instrumental compositions of the Classic, Romantic +and Modern Composers, notably of such men as Beethoven, Schumann, +Brahms, César Franck, Tchaikowsky, d'Indy and Sibelius. Anyone unable +readily to follow movements in this form, if he thinks he is receiving +the complete message of the music, is his own dupe. It would be as +logical to expect to enjoy the beauties of architecture without +perceiving the difference between a nave and a bowling-alley. The +obvious way to understand the meaning of a language is to know +something of the principles of structure and expression in that +language. Music is in very truth a language; and far too many people +get from it nothing save the appeal which comes from its emotional +power. This exciting experience is important, we may frankly +acknowledge, but there are no reasons, save apathy and indifference,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span> +why the hearer should not have all this and more too. There is no +conflict between warm emotions and an intelligent, well-trained mind. +They should go hand in hand; and in any complete artistic appreciation +each is indispensable.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> + +<p>The three main divisions of the Sonata-Form, with their essential +features, are the following: (1) the Exposition, in which two themes +in different tonalities are announced for the consideration—and, as +the composer hopes, the pleasure—of the hearer. In the works of Haydn +and Mozart this contrast of key was invariably that of Tonic and +Dominant, <i>e.g.</i>, C major and G major, or of major and relative minor, +<i>e.g.</i>, A-flat major and F minor. Beginning, however, with Beethoven +great emphasis has been laid on <i>mediant</i> relationship, <i>e.g.</i>, C +major and E major or C major and A-flat major; and in modern +composers<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> this more stimulating change has largely superseded the +former tonic and dominant grouping, <i>e.g.</i>, Brahms's <i>Third Symphony</i>. +We thus see that the harmonic feature of the Exposition is <i>Duality</i> +of Key-relationship. Between these two main themes there is always a +modulatory connection or Bridge Passage which, in the time of Haydn, +was generally of a very perfunctory, stereotyped character. Wagner +once sarcastically remarked that Haydn's transitions reminded him of +the clatter of dishes between courses at a royal feast. In Mozart we +find the bridge-passage more deftly planned, more organically +connected with what precedes and follows; but it was Beethoven who, in +this portion of the movement, first revealed its possibilities. +Throughout his works the bridge-passage is never a mere mechanical +modulation or a floundering about until the introduction of the second +theme, but is so conceived that the interest of the hearer is +increasingly aroused until, at the entrance of the second theme, he is +in the highest state of expectancy.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> A bridge-passage of this kind +often has a subsidiary theme of its own, or even several melodic +phrases, and is planned as carefully as the action by which a +dramatist leads up to the entrance of his heroine. After the second<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span> +theme we generally find a closing theme to round out the Exposition as +a whole. This practice dates from Haydn and has been much expanded by +modern composers. Witness the glorious climactic effect in César +Franck's <i>Symphony</i> and in Brahms's <i>D major Symphony</i> of the closing +themes in the Expositions of the first movements. For many years it +was the invariable custom to repeat the Exposition, and in Classic +Symphonies we always find a double bar with marks of repeat and two +endings. This practice was not an integral part of the form but was +adopted so that the hearer, by going over the themes of the Exposition +twice, might follow more intelligently their growth in the +Development. With the advance in public appreciation this repeating of +the Exposition has been largely abandoned; for there is no doubt that +to begin all over again, when a certain objective point has been +reached, breaks the continuous flow of the movement.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p> + +<p>(2) The Development, for which the Germans have the happy name of +"Freie Phantasie," or free phantasy; the composer thus giving rein to +his imagination and doing whatever he pleases, so long as he holds the +interest of his hearers and neither becomes verbose nor indulges in +mere mechanical manipulation. There are, alas! developments in which +the composer exhausts his themes and his hearers too;<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> but on work +of this kind, since it is not real development but labored jugglery, +no powder need be wasted. Beethoven began the practice, in his +Developments, of not confining himself to the themes of the Exposition +but of introducing an entirely new theme, whenever the main material +had fulfilled its purpose. The single most exciting factor in a good +development is the freedom and wealth of modulation revealed by the +daring genius of the creator; the effect being Plurality of +Key-relationship, in distinction from the two closely related keys of +the Exposition. It would often seem as if we were taken up into high +mountains or borne away to distant seas. For illustrations of this +"free phantasy" note the end of the Development in the first movement +of Beethoven's <i>Second Symphony</i> where, after great stress has been +laid in the Exposition on the two basic keys of D major and A major, +we are left in the distant tonality of C-sharp major and are then +whirled back, by a dramatic change, into the home-key<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> of the third +part. One of the most interesting studies in the workings of a great +mind is to observe how Beethoven, in his developments, allows the +excitement to subside and yet never entirely die out, and how deftly +he leads the hearer onward to the summing up of the main themes of the +exposition.</p> + +<p>(3) The Recapitulation or Résumé, in which both the themes of the +Exposition are reasserted, each in the home key—a strong final +emphasis thus being laid on <i>Unity</i> of Tonality. The bridge-passage +has to be correspondingly changed, for now the modulation is between +two themes <i>both</i> in the <i>same key</i>. To achieve such a modulation is +quite a "tour de force" as every musician knows, and often taxed the +ingenuity even of the great Beethoven. The skill by which he always +made the second theme sound fresh and vital is astounding. For a case +of "academic fumbling"—mere treading of water—in this adjustment of +key relationship, see the Recapitulation of the first movement of +Brahms's Second Symphony. To secure unbroken continuity and to avoid +vain repetitions<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> there is no portion of the Sonata-Form which has +been more modified by the inventive genius of modern composers and by +the tendency exemplified in the Symphonic Poem (to be explained in due +season). The general validity of Restatement, as shown in the +Recapitulation of the Sonata-Form, cannot be questioned; for that +depends, as so often pointed out, upon the human craving to enjoy once +more, after intervening contrast, something which has originally given +pleasure. Furthermore this sound psychological principle finds an +analogy in our own life: with its early years of striving, its middle +period of development and its closing years of climactic retrospect +and satisfaction. There is a corresponding structural treatment in the +dénoûment of a drama. In the classic composers, the Recapitulation is +almost always a literal repetition of the Exposition, although +Beethoven began to be freer, <i>e.g.</i>, in the climax of the Coriolanus +overture, where he modifies the form to meet the dramatic needs of the +subject.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> Modern composers, however, have felt that much of this +repetition was superfluous; and when they do repeat both themes, one +or the other is freely varied and made still more eloquent. For +examples, see the résumé of the first movements of Franck's +<i>Symphony</i>, of Brahms's <i>First<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span> Symphony</i> and of Tchaikowsky's +<i>Sixth</i>. The Recapitulation is often abridged by omitting the first +theme altogether and dwelling exclusively on the second; as for +example, in the Finale of Schumann's <i>Fourth Symphony</i> and in +Sinigaglia's Overture, <i>Le Baruffe Chiozzotte</i>.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p> + +<p>It remains to speak of the beginning and end of the Sonata-Form. With +Haydn it became the custom, not necessarily invariable, to introduce +the body of the movement by a Prelude which, in early days, was of +slight texture and import—often a mere preliminary "flourish of +trumpets," a presenting of arms. In Mozart we find some examples of +more artistic treatment, notably in the Overture to the <i>Magic Flute</i> +and in the prelude to the C major Quartet with its stimulating +dissonances. But in this case, as in so many others, it was Beethoven +who first showed what a Prelude should be: a subtle means of arousing +the interest and expectancy of the hearer; the effect as carefully +planned as the portico leading to a temple. To usher in the theme of +the Exposition in a truly exciting manner every means of modulation +and rhythm is employed; famous illustrations being the introductions +to the first movements of the Second, Fourth and Seventh symphonies; +and, in modern literature, those of the first movements of Brahms's +<i>First Symphony</i> and of Tchaikowsky's <i>Fifth</i>. It also became +customary to prolong the end of the movement by what is termed a Coda; +the same tendency being operative that is found in the peroration to a +speech or in the spire of a cathedral, <i>i.e.</i>, the human instinct to +end whatever we attempt as impressively and completely as possible. +This Coda, which, in Haydn and Mozart, was often a mere iteration of +trite chords—a ceasing to go—was so expanded by Beethoven that it +was the real glory of the whole movement. In fact so many eloquent +treatments of the main material were reserved for the Coda that it +often became a <i>second</i> development; and such was its scope that the +form may be considered to have <i>four</i> parts instead of three, <i>i.e.</i>, +1, Exposition, 2, Development, 3, Recapitulation, 4, Coda; parts 4 and +2 balancing each other in the same way as 3 and 1. For two of the most +famous examples in all Beethoven literature see the Codas to the First +movement of the <i>Third Symphony</i> and to the Finale of the <i>Eighth</i>.</p> + +<p class="bp">We now present a tabular view of the Sonata-Form summing up the +features just commented upon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span></p> + + +<h3>THE SONATA-FORM OR FIRST-MOVEMENT FORM</h3> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="sonata-form"> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="width: 33%"><b>A<br />Exposition</b></td> +<td class="center" style="width: 33%"><b>B<br />Development</b></td> +<td class="center" style="width: 33%"><b>A´<br />Recapitulation</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style="vertical-align: top">Introduction (optional)<br /> +<br /> +First Theme<br /> +<br /> +Modulatory bridge-passage<br /> +<br /> +Second Theme<br /> +<br /> +Closing Theme<br /> +<br /> +(Duality of Key-relationship)</td> +<td style="vertical-align: top">Free treatment and expansion, especially modulatory and rhythmic, of the themes already presented<br /> +<br /> +Sometimes new material introduced<br /> +<br /> +(Plurality of Key)</td> +<td style="vertical-align: top">First Theme, connecting passage leading to<br /> +<br /> +Second Theme (often in home-key, but not always)<br /> +<br /> +Closing Theme<br /> +<br /> +Coda<br /> +<br /> +(Special stress laid on the main tonality. Unity of Key) +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="tp">For actual musical examples it seems best to begin with the works of +Haydn. This exclusion of Philip Emmanuel Bach is not meant to minimize +what we owe him for his preliminary efforts in formulating the +tripartite Sonata structure, with its two themes and its Development +portion. Haydn is on record as saying that it was his study of six +Sonatas of Emmanuel Bach which laid the foundations for his own +instrumental style. But on the whole, the compositions of Emmanuel +Bach are of interest rather from a historical point of view than from +one purely artistic. The object of this book, furthermore, is not to +give a complete account of the evolution<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> of the Sonata-Form; but, +accepting the existence of standard works which employ this form, to +enable the student to gain a more complete appreciation of those +works. P.E. Bach wrote in the so-called "galant style"<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> of the +period which has, for our modern ears, too much embellishment and too +many meaningless, rhapsodic passages. He made a sincere effort to +invent pure instrumental melody, <i>i.e.</i>, musical expression suited to +various instruments that should be unhampered by the too definite +balance of the dance forms, by polyphonic complexities or by the +conventional artifices of operatic style. But though he wrote +skilfully for his instrument and though his style has a certain quaint +charm, on the whole it is lacking in genuine melodic warmth and +feeling. These qualities alone keep works immortal.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span></p><p>In Josef Haydn (1782-1809) we are face to face with a musician of a +different type. Haydn is popularly known as the father of the Sonata, +the Symphony and the String-Quartet; but, according to Edward +Dickinson,<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> this estimate is something of an exaggeration, for "it +overlooks the fact that a large number of composers were struggling +with the same problem and working along similar lines. Haydn was +simply the greatest in <i>genius</i> of the instrumental writers of his +day. His works have lived by virtue of the superiority, <i>i.e.</i>, the +greater spontaneity and vitality, of their contents. He should be +called the 'foster-father,' rather than the father of the symphony and +quartet for he raised them from feebleness to strength and authority." +To him must be given the honor of establishing the types of +instrumental composition which became the foundations of modern music. +Haydn, moreover, was the first musician since Sebastian Bach who had a +real personality which may be felt in his works. To speak of a piece +of music as "Haydnish" conveys as distinct a meaning as to refer to a +poetic stanza as "Miltonic." When Haydn arrived on the scene, +music—through the labors of many earnest workers—had become a +language of definite expression, with a logical grammar and with +principles of structure. The time was ripe for the use of this +language in a more artistic way, <i>i.e.</i>, for a more intense personal +expression and for more subtle treatment of the material. The composer +could count upon the public following his points; and with Haydn, +whose heart beat in sympathy with the common people, music begins to +be a truly popular art.</p> + +<p>The striking features in Haydn's works are three: (1) The wealth of +spontaneous and sparkling melodies, for he was born with this lyric +gift and never had to cudgel his wits for a tune. That instrumental +melody could make such sudden progress as we find between the dryness +of Emmanuel Bach and the freshness of Haydn, was long a puzzle to +scholars, and only recently has the proof been submitted that Haydn +was largely of Croatian ancestry. Now the Croatians of Southern +Austria are one of the most musical races in the world, with a wealth +of folk-songs and dances. Haydn therefore did not have to "invent" +melodies in the ordinary sense of the term; they were his birthright. +Many of his melodies are adaptations of actual folk-songs<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> or +original melodies coming from an imagination<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span> saturated with the +folk-song spirit.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> For this reason they seem like wild flowers in +their perennial freshness and charm. (2) The precision and clarity +with which his ideas are presented. These qualities were due to his +well-balanced and logical intellect that impressed everyone with whom +he came in contact. His style, moreover, was the result of +indefatigable labor, for he was largely self-taught. If the balance of +his phrases and the general symmetry of his style seem to our modern +taste a bit excessive, we must remember that he was a pioneer and +could run no risks in the way of non-acceptance of his message through +puzzling complexities. Everything must be so clear that the ordinary +mind could at once accept it. Nor is the "sing-song," "square-toed" +element so prevalent in Haydn as is commonly supposed. In his melody a +distinct feature—no doubt of racial origin—is his fondness for odd +rhythms of three, five and seven measures, of which examples abound in +the Quartets. In his Minuets and Finales there is a rollicking effect +of high spirits which could never have been attained by mere labored +pedantry. In his mature works we find a pervading spontaneity which is +one of the outstanding examples in all literature of "art concealing +art." Never do these works smell of the lamp, and let us remember it +is far easier to criticize them than to create them.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p> + +<p>(3) The skillful and eloquent manner in which Haydn adapted his ideas +to his favorite media of expression: the orchestra and the +string-quartet. Although he wrote a number of pianoforte sonatas, +these works, on the whole, do not represent his best thought. For they +were composed in the transitional period between the waning influence +of the harpsichord and the advent of the pianoforte, not yet come to +its own. But as for the orchestra, Haydn established<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> the grouping +of the three so-called choirs of strings, wood-wind and brass; to +which were gradually added the instruments of percussion. In his works +we begin to enjoy orchestral effect for its own sake: the dashing +vivacity of the strings, the mellowness of the wood-wind,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span> the +sonority and grandeur of the brass. Instrumental works had formerly +been composed in black and white, but now we have the interplay of +orchestral colors. No less paramount was Haydn's influence in the +handling of the four solo instruments known as the String Quartet. In +his Quartets the voices are so highly individualized that it seems as +if four intelligent and witty persons were holding a musical +conversation. Such melodic and rhythmic freedom were hitherto unknown +and his style became the point of departure for modern practice.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> +Both Mozart and Beethoven, those great masters of the String-Quartet, +acknowledged their debt of gratitude to Haydn. His success in +establishing the formation of the orchestra and the string-quartet was +chiefly due to the inestimable advantage he enjoyed of being, for so +many years, chapel-master to those celebrated patrons of music the +Princes Paul and Nicholas Esterhazy, at whose country-seat of Esterhaz +he had at his disposal, for free experimentation, a fine body of +players.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> Here Haydn worked from 1762 until 1790; and, to quote +his own words, "could, as conductor of an orchestra, make experiments, +observe what produced an effect and be as bold as I pleased. I was cut +off from the world, there was no one to confuse or torment me and I +was forced to become original."<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p> + +<p>As to the formal side of Haydn's work, he is responsible for several +distinct improvements. The different divisions of the movement are +more clearly defined—sometimes perhaps, as we look back, a bit +rigidly—but no more so than was necessary for a public just beginning +to follow easily the main outlines of the form. Haydn leads up to his +objective points in a clear-cut, logical way and there is little of +"running off into the sand" or of those otherwise aimless passages so +prevalent in Emmanuel Bach. In his best works, notably in many of the +Quartets, there is also more individuality secured for the second +theme;<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> although for highly personified and moving second themes +we have to await the greater genius of Mozart and Beethoven.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span> Whenever +we are inclined to call Haydn's style old-fashioned we must remember +that he wrote before the note of intense personal expression—the +so-called subjective element, prominent in Beethoven—had come to the +fore. The time just prior to Haydn had been called the "Pig-tail +period" (Zopf-Periode) in reference to the stiff and precise dress and +manners which had their counterpart in formality of artistic +expression. Only towards the end of his career do we feel that breath +of freedom in life and art which was generated by the French +Revolution (beginning in 1791) and by the many political and social +changes of that stirring period. From Haydn on, much more attention +should be paid to the content and meaning of the music than to the +formal handling of the material. In all worthy music, in fact, the +chief point of interest is the <i>music itself</i> which speaks to us in +its own language of sound and rhythm. A knowledge of form is but a +means to an end: for the composer, that he may express himself clearly +and convincingly, and for the listener, that he may readily receive +the message set forth. In Haydn's music we find the expression of a +real personality—though of an artless, child-like type, without great +depth of emotion or the tragic intensity of a Beethoven. Haydn was not +a philosopher, or a man of broad vision. During his epoch, artists +hardly dared to be introspective. His imagination gave birth to music, +simple though it was, as freely as the earth puts forth flowers; but, +although he wore a wig, he had a heart which was in good working +operation even in his sixty-fourth year when, during his London visit, +he fell in love with a charming widow, Madame Schroeter, whom he would +have married had not his wife been still alive.</p> + +<p>We should acquire the catholic taste to enjoy every composer for what +he really was and not criticise him for what he was not—a state which +would imply necessarily different conditions. In criticism there is no +worse error, or one more often made, than that of blaming Haydn +because he was not Beethoven; or, in our times, Tchaikowsky because +his music does not resemble that of Brahms. Blasé pedants often call +Haydn's music "tame"; we might as well apply that adjective to the +antics of a sportive kitten. As for the "amiable prattle" of his style +we do not speak in a derogatory way of the fresh, innocent voices of +children, though we need not listen to them continually. Haydn, in +short, is Haydn,<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> and the vitality and sincerity of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span> works +will always keep them immortal. In these feverish days we may dwell +upon the simplicity of "Papa Haydn," as he was affectionately called; +who would kneel down before beginning work, and who inscribed his +scores "In nomine Domini." His modest estimate of his own powers +cannot fail to touch our hearts. "I know," he said, "that God has +bestowed a talent upon me, and I thank him for it. I think I have done +my duty, and been of use in my generation by my works; let others do +the same."</p> + +<p>We shall now make a few comments on the illustrations in the +Supplement (see Exs. No. 41 and 42): the Finale of the <i>Sonata for +Pianoforte in E-flat major</i> and the first movement of the so-called +<i>Surprise Symphony in G major</i>. Haydn, of all composers, needs little +verbal elucidation; his music speaks for itself and everyone must be +sensitive to its vitality and charm. We regret that it is not +practical to give examples from the Quartets which, in many +respects—especially in the Minuets with their inexhaustible +invention<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> and their bubbling spirits—represent Haydn at his +best. But the real effect of his Quartets is so bound up with +idiomatic treatment of the strings that in any transcription for +pianoforte the music suffers grievously. It is through the score, +however, that everyone should become familiar, with the contents of +the Quartets in C major, op. 76, and D major, op. 64; the Finale of +the latter being one of the supreme examples in all chamber +literature<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> of rhythmic vitality.</p> + +<p>The Finale of the E-flat sonata, in strict Sonata-form, begins with a +lively eight-measure phrase which is at once repeated a tone higher. +The extension of the sentence shows Haydn's freedom in phraseology; +for, beginning with measure 17, we should have to count the measures +1, 2, 3, 3a, 4, 5, 6, 6a, 7, 7a, 8, 8a. In the second theme, which +begins in the 44th measure, note the piquant dissonances<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> coupled +with sforzando accents. Haydn surely liked spice as well as anyone! +The rest of the Exposition is taken up with closing passages which +accentuate the tonality of the second theme—B-flat major.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span> The +Development needs no comment, as the correspondence between the +original material and Haydn's treatment is perfectly clear. The +Recapitulation is a literal repetition of the Exposition, with the two +themes as usual in the tonic key. The movement may be considered an +example of Sonata-form in its clearest manifestation, hence an +excellent one for preliminary analytical study.</p> + +<p>In the first movement of the <i>Surprise Symphony</i>, before the body of +the work begins, we have an early example of the Prelude. This slow +Prelude, short though it be, is most carefully planned; with its +crescendo from <i>pp</i> to a <i>sf</i> forte and its free modulation it arouses +a genuine feeling of expectancy. The first theme of the Exposition +(Vivace Assai) is a happy illustration of Haydn's sparkling rhythm, +and as tossed off by the violins is of irresistible gaiety. The reader +is asked to remember that the comments on this symphony—and on all +subsequent symphonic works—are based upon the orchestral score; also +that the composition, when separated from its orchestral dress, +necessarily loses much of its real eloquence. Thus the first theme, of +a folk-dance character, is a typical violin melody; only strings—with +their incisiveness and power of subtle phrasing—can fully express its +piquancy. For private study or for class-room work, a practical +version is that for four hands; or better still, when possible, the +arrangement for two pianofortes.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> The second phrase of the first +theme is considerably expanded by repetition, as if unable to stop +from sheer exuberance, but finally reaches a cadence in the dominant +key in the 32nd measure. We are at once taken back, however, to the +home-key of G major; and, in measure 40, the first theme is repeated, +this time delicately embellished with phrases on the flute. From now +on, by reason of the emphasis laid on the key of D major, it is +evident that we are in the transitional passage and are heading +towards the announcement of the second theme. It must be said that +Haydn does not drive very straight at his mark; though it is a +pleasant touch of variety in measures 55-57 to introduce the main +theme in the minor mode, and though the fiery violin passages in the +following measures give an air of considerable excitement. What stands +for the second theme begins in measure 67. This portion of the +movement has no theme with genuine individuality, but consists<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span> of +running passages—based exclusively on tonic and dominant harmonies in +the new key, and of little import save one of general vivacity. It is, +however, decidedly alive—not stagnant or flabby—and in the orchestra +it all "comes off." We are rewarded, finally, by a clear-cut closing +theme of jaunty rhythm, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music107.png" width="634" height="200" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music107.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music107.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>which Haydn liked so much that it is presented twice, the second time +slightly embellished. The Exposition closes with the conventional +insistence upon a strong cadence in the key of the second theme. The +Development begins with some rather fragmentary treatment of the first +theme; then, after some fugitive modulation into flat keys, contents +itself with running passages and a series of iterated notes. Of +organic and sustained development, such as Haydn indeed sometimes +attained, there is little trace. Even so we must be chary of sweeping +condemnation; for there are well-planned dynamic contrasts and the +instruments are used in such a natural way—especially the figure in +the double basses (measures 149-153)—that the scene is one of +animation, though perhaps no more than one of aimless gambols. There +is sufficient modulation, so that the principle of Plurality of key is +carried out. We are suddenly but gracefully led back, in measure 155, +to the repetition of the first theme, thus beginning the +Recapitulation. This portion, with certain abbreviations, is an almost +exact duplication of the first part and emphasizes the main tonality +of G major. That Haydn was not forced to this literal repetition +through any lack of fancy is shown by the skilful amplification of the +first theme, in measures 177-184. The whole movement sparkles with +sunshine; and those ponderous "heavy-weights" who criticise it because +it is not deep or "soulful" are looking for qualities which the music +does not pretend to contain. It is the work of a wholesome, +cheerful-hearted man expressing through his favorite language his joy +in life. In listening to the music we have the same delight as in +wandering by the side of a rippling brook. The three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span> remaining +movements of the Symphony require little comment; being readily +accessible they are not given in the Supplement. The second movement, +a set of stereotyped variations, contains the explosive chord which +gave to the work its descriptive title. Needless to say that this +chord does not "surprise" <i>our</i> modern ears to any great extent. The +Minuet is one of Haydn's best—full of queer antics in rhythm and +modulation. The Finale (Allegro di molto), in the Rondo Sonata form, +is the acme of Haydn's vivacity and is a "tour de force" of brilliant +writing for the strings. In many passages they seem fairly to burn.</p> + +<p>Haydn's position in the development of music is of the first +importance. Whatever his works may "mean," they contain a rhythmic +vitality which will keep them alive for ever, and their "child-like +cheerfulness and drollery" will charm away care and sorrow as long as +the world shall last.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>MOZART. THE PERFECTION OF CLASSIC<br /> +STRUCTURE AND STYLE</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">A</span>LTHOUGH Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> (1756-1791), was, in regard to +art problems, no more of a broad thinker than Haydn (Mozart and +Schubert being pre-eminently men whose whole nature centered in +music), yet on hearing his works we are aware that aspects of form and +content have certainly changed for the better. In the first place he +was more highly gifted than Haydn; he had from his infancy the +advantage of a broad cosmopolitan experience, and he was dimly +conscious of the expanding possibilities of musical expression. It is +a perfectly fair distinction to consider Haydn an able, even brilliant +prose-writer, and Mozart a poet. Haydn we can account for, but Mozart +is the genius "born, not made"—defying classification—and his +inspired works seem to fall straight from the blue of Heaven. Whereas +Haydn, Beethoven and Schubert were all of very lowly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span> parentage<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> +(their mothers being cooks—a blessing on their heads!), Mozart's +father and mother were people of considerable general cultivation, and +in particular the father, Leopold Mozart, was an educated man and +somewhat of a composer himself, who since 1743 had been in the service +of the Archbishop of Salzburg, as director of his private orchestra. +An excellent violinist, he had written and published a treatise on +violin playing, which for many years was the standard work on the +subject. Both parents were noted for their good looks, were, moreover, +of strong character and highly respectable in every way. Among their +several children two early exhibited unusual precocity—Maria Anna, +born in 1751, and Wolfgang, still more highly gifted. The stories of +the boy's skill and general delicacy of perception may be exaggerated, +but we have sufficient valid evidence to convince us that he was a +phenomenon absolutely "sui generis." Thus, he began to improvise +between three and four, actually to compose little pieces (which we +have), when he was five, and to perform in public when he was six! In +that very year and continuing for nineteen years (until Mozart had +reached the age of twenty-five) began the memorable series of concert +tours—eleven in all—comprising Vienna, all the chief cities of Italy +and Germany, even Paris and London. These tours the father planned and +carried through with the utmost solicitude and self-sacrifice—not to +exploit the talented children, but to give them a comprehensive +education and artistic experience, and eventually to secure for his +son some distinguished post worthy his abilities. It is quite +impossible to rehearse all the details of these trips. For one who +wishes to investigate for himself they truly make fascinating reading. +A single incident, however, will show how clearly defined were the two +personalities which made up the complete Mozart; and of which one or +the other was in the ascendant throughout his life. As a man, Mozart +was light-hearted, witty—even volatile—fond of society, dancing, and +a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span> good time generally; not of the strongest intellectual power, +judged by modern standards, but, as shown by his marvellous dramatic +insight, by no means the debonair light-weight he is often +represented. Yet whenever music was under consideration he was a +changed being; he became instantly serious, and would suffer no +disrespect to himself or to his art. During the last sad years of his +career in Vienna, when he was in actual want for the bare necessities +of life, a publisher once said to him, "Write in a more popular style, +or I will not print a note of your music or give you a kreutzer." +"Then, my good sir," replied Mozart, "I have only to resign myself and +die of hunger."</p> + +<p>In Mozart's works, in distinction from the unconscious, naïve +folk-song type of Haydn, we find highly wrought instrumental melodies; +although such was his inborn spontaneity of expression that we are +never aware of the labor expended. His works are quite as clear as +those of Haydn, but they show a more conscious individuality of style. +They are not so artless, and the phraseology is more elastic—less cut +and dried. There is a higher imaginative vitality; trite, mechanical +repetitions are in general avoided, climaxes are led up to in a more +subtle manner, and a great gain is made in real organic development. +For Mozart, as a master of polyphonic treatment, is second only to +Bach. The most striking single feature in his work is the ceaseless +flow of expressive melody, notably those wondrous tunes found in his +operas, such as "Voi che sapete," "Batti, batti" and numerous others. +He had travelled so widely, so keen was his power of assimilation that +his melodic style embodied and enhanced the best qualities of +contemporary Italian, French and German practice. And yet his innate +genius was of sufficient strength to achieve this result without +lapsing into formal eclecticism. Whatever suggestions he took he made +wholly his own; and his music is nothing if not individual in its +inimitable charm and freshness. Whereas Haydn's music often smacks too +prominently of the soil, with Mozart we have the fine flower of a +broad artistic culture. In his best symphonies and string quartets the +art of music made a distinct advance and began to be capable of +expressing the universal emotions and aspirations of mankind.</p> + +<p>The reactive influence—each upon the other—of Haydn (1732-1809) and +Mozart (1756-1791) is a most interesting feature of the period.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> +By the time Mozart was ripe for his best work Haydn had formulated and +exemplified the main lines of instrumental structure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span> From this +preparatory work Mozart reaped such an advantage that in his last +compositions there is a spontaneous flowering of genius—a union of +individual content with perfect clarity of style—which has kept them +alive to this day. Haydn's last symphonies, the two Salomon sets +composed for his London tours, show in their turn abundant signs of +the stimulating influence of the younger man. The perennial importance +of form and style cannot be better understood than by recognizing the +fact that both Tchaikowsky and Richard Strauss, two of the most +fearlessly independent of modern composers, have considered Mozart as +their ideal. But even if in Mozart's best works we are not beyond the +preponderating influence of form over substance, they must be judged +on their own intrinsic merits and not with reference to progress made +since—of which, nevertheless, they were an important foundation. His +technique was quite sufficient to express what he had to say. We +seldom feel that the contents are bursting through the form, that the +spirit is too great for the body. Purity of conception and +faultlessness of workmanship were still the desiderata of music. The +world had to wait for a Beethoven before the hearer should be shaken +out of himself by a spiritual power, of which the music at best was +often an inadequate expression. This statement is meant to contain no +disparagement. Because Beethoven was more elemental we must never +belittle the genius of his predecessor. Any familiarity with Mozart's +works will convince us of the gratitude we owe him for his original +harmonies, for the stimulating contrapuntal texture and for the +perfect finish and care for detail found therein. Could we be forever +content with "abstract music"—that which justifies itself by a +fulfilment of its own inherent laws—Mozart's music would remain the +acme of the art. His fame to-day rests upon his string quartets, his +three principal symphonies, and—above all—the operas, of which Don +Giovanni and the Marriage of Figaro are noted examples. For consummate +character-drawing (so that, as Rubinstein remarks, "Each acting +personage has become an immortal type"), for interest sustained by +unflagging musical vitality, for a combination of humor and +seriousness and for ingenious and characteristic handling of the +orchestral forces, these works were unequalled until the advent of +Wagner and even to-day in their own field remain unsurpassed. The real +charm of Mozart—that sunny radiance, at times shot through with a +haunting pathos—eludes verbal description. As well attempt to put +into words the fragrance and charm of a violet. Hazlitt's fine phrase, +apropos of performance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span> says much in a few words. "Mozart's music +seems to come from the air and should return to it," and the ecstatic +eulogy of Goethe, to whom genius meant Mozart, should be familiar to +all. "What else is genius than that productive power through which +deeds arise, worthy of standing in the presence of God and of Nature, +and which, for this reason, bear results and are lasting? All the +creations of Mozart are of this class; within them there is a +generative force which is transplanted from age to age, and is not +likely soon to be exhausted or devoured."</p> + +<p>In studying Mozart's works the special points to be noticed are these: +the wider sweep and freer rhythmic variety of the melodic curve; the +more organic fusion of the different portions of a movement—Mozart's +lines of demarcation being perfectly clear but not so rigid as in +Haydn; the much greater richness of the whole musical fabric, due to +Mozart's marvellous skill in polyphony. The time had not yet come when +the composer could pique the fancy of the hearer by unexpected +structural devices or even lead him off on a false trail as was so +often done by Beethoven. Both Haydn and Mozart are homophonic +composers, <i>i.e.</i>, the outpouring of individual melodies is the chief +factor in their works; but whereas in Haydn the tune is almost +invariably in the upper voice, in Mozart we find the melody appearing +in any one of the voices and often accompanied with fascinating +imitations. See, in corroboration, any of the first three movements of +the <i>G minor Symphony</i> or the slow movement of the <i>E-flat major +Symphony</i>. In the structure of music Mozart made slight changes; the +forms were still fresh—having just been established by Haydn—and +Mozart with his genius filled them to overflowing. His one important +contribution to the development of instrumental form was the +Pianoforte Concerto; but, as a consideration of this would lead us too +far afield, the student is referred to the life of Mozart in Grove's +Dictionary and to the Oxford History, Vol. V. The literature<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> +about Mozart and his works is voluminous. Our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> chief attention +nevertheless should be centered on the works themselves rather than on +what anyone else writes about them. Certain of these criticisms, +however, are so suggestive and illuminating that the student should +become familiar with them.</p> + +<p>As illustrations<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> for comment we select the <i>F major Sonata for +Pianoforte</i>, the <i>G minor Symphony</i>, the <i>Magic Flute Overture for +Orchestra</i> and the little known but most characteristic <i>Adagio in B +minor for Pianoforte</i>. Here again, as in the case of Haydn, we must +regret that it is impracticable to give examples from the chamber +music: the String Quartets, the Quintet in G minor or from the +entrancing Clarinet Quintet. Any familiarity with Mozart's genius is +very incomplete which does not comprise the C major Quartet, +especially its heavenly Andante Cantabile; likewise the E-flat major +Quartet in the slow movement of which are the following poignant +dissonances—a striking anticipation of <i>Tristan and Isolde</i>.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music113.png" width="631" height="437" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music113.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music113.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The F major Sonata is selected to illustrate Mozart's pianoforte style +because it bubbles over with typical Mozartian melody and because the +Sonata-form is the basis of all three movements; in the first and last +strictly employed and in the slow movement somewhat modified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span> The +structure, while just as clear and easy to follow as that of Haydn, +represents an advance in the sustained interest of the transitional +passages and in the organic treatment of the Development—this being +particularly true of the Finale—the middle portion of the first +movement being not so significant. The Sonata, without prelude, begins +with a soaring, lyric melody in which the customary eight measure +formation is expanded to twelve measures. This expansion is brought +about by an imitative treatment of the fifth measure and is a +convincing example of the flexible phraseology so prominent a feature +in Mozart's style. A balancing sentence of eight measures, with an +extended cadence, brings us to the transition which is to introduce +the second theme. Observe the increasing animation of the rhythm and +how the fresh entry of the second theme (in C major) is enhanced by +the insistence on the contrasting tonality of C minor. In measure 41 +there begins the second theme, a graceful melody that is repeated with +heightened fervour and then expanded by means of various modulatory +and rhythmic devices—the interest, for a number of measures, being in +the bass. In measure 71 we have a piquant closing theme which ends in +the "good old way" with some rather formal groups of cadential chords. +The Development is short and, save for the dynamic contrasts in the +middle part, not of particular import. But though a bit naïve it is +neither labored nor dull. The Recapitulation with the necessary +adjustments of key (both themes appearing in F major) corresponds +exactly to the Exposition. In the opening melody of the Slow +movement—a dreamy, sustained Adagio—we see the beautiful use Mozart +made of the "turn," <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music114.png" width="634" height="93" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music114.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music114.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>employing it not as meaningless embroidery or to cover up deficiencies +in the instrument but as an integral factor in the melodic line, thus +anticipating Chopin and Wagner with his "essential turn." The movement +is in abridged<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> Sonata-form, <i>i.e.</i>, there is a regular Exposition +with two themes in the tonic and dominant and a corresponding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span> +Recapitulation, but the Development is entirely omitted and in its +place we find merely two modulatory measures which take us back to the +third part. Such a form arose from the feeling that the Slow Movement +should be one of direct melodic and emotional appeal and should not +concern itself with protracted discussion of the material. The two +closing measures are of a wondrous serenity, peculiar to Mozart. The +Finale, Allegro assai, in complete and elaborate Sonata-form, is one +of superb vigor and dash, the happiest example possible of Mozart's +"joie de vivre." It begins with a brilliant running theme in free +phraseology, and then, after a cadence in measure 14, is at once +followed by an out and out Waltz tune of a very seductive swing.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> +This is developed to a brilliant climax and then closes <i>pp</i> in a +delicate, wistful manner. The transition, with some canonic imitations +and stimulating sequences, leads us to the second theme at measure 50. +This—one of Mozart's loveliest melodies—is rather exceptionally in +the dominant minor (<i>i.e.</i>, C minor) and with its mood of pathetic +revery affords a wonderful contrast to the headlong dash of the first +theme. This melody alone would prove that Mozart had his moments of +deep emotion. In measure 65 begins a long closing portion which +resumes the exuberant mood characteristic of the Exposition as a +whole. The Development at first is based upon modulatory changes in +the first theme; and then, towards the middle, occurs a passage which +seems to be a counterpart of the second theme, save that it is in the +major mode. We are now carried onward through a series of passages, +with pungent dissonances and imitative phrases, to a fortissimo +dominant chord; thence through a descending cadenza-like passage we +are whirled back to the Recapitulation. In material and treatment this +corresponds exactly to the Exposition and has the same pianissimo +ending. Such an effect was a touch of genuine originality and was a +delightful contrast to the conventional flourish of trumpets with +which the Finale of the period was expected to end. Music is often +most impressive when most subdued.</p> + +<p>The G minor Symphony is universally acknowledged to be the highest +achievement of 18th century instrumental music and is also premonitory +of that subjective spirit peculiar to the 19th century. It will remain +immortal so long as human beings are capable of being touched by a +sincere revelation of emotion combined with a perfection of utterance +which seems fairly Divine. This delicate treatment and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span> this exquisite +finish are two prominent characteristics of Mozart's style. Truly the +Symphony is the quintessence of Mozart in terms of sound and rhythm, +and we need but to listen to his message and receive it with grateful +appreciation. The work contains the four customary movements, all of +them (save the three-part Minuet and Trio) in complete Sonata-form. +The first movement begins at once with a gracefully poised theme sung +by the violins, a theme which may be likened in its outlines to the +purity of a Greek statue. The entrancing effect of this melody cannot +be realized except on the orchestra, for it seems to float on the +gently pulsating chords of the violas like a beautiful flower. +Everyone who hears the work is at once arrested by this highly +original treatment, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music116a.png" width="635" height="507" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music116a.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music116a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The transition is short but leads us in a happy state of expectancy +through a change of rhythm from the graceful outlines of the first +theme to the vigorous phrase</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music116b.png" width="634" height="74" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music116b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music116b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span></p> + +<p>and by a bold run, thrice repeated, to the entrance of the second +theme in measure 43. This theme, in the customary relative major +(B-flat), illustrates Mozart's fondness for the chromatic element +which gives to many of his melodies such a haunting appeal. The +closing portion, beginning at measure 71, is an example of Mozart's +spontaneous skill in polyphonic writing. It is based entirely on the +motive of the main theme in delightful imitations tossed about by +different sections of the orchestra. The second part is a genuine +Development, since the musical life never flags in its contrapuntal +vitality; the theme appears in all parts of the texture—upper, inner +and lower voices—and we are carried vigorously onward by the daring +modulations. Just at the close of the Development we see Mozart's +constructive skill in the fusion of this part with the subsequent +Recapitulation. A series of drifting chromatic chords in the flutes +and oboes, like light fleecy clouds, keeps us in a state of suspended +wonder when quietly there emerges the first theme and the return home +has begun. It is one of the truly poetic touches in musical literature +and has been often imitated—especially by Tchaikowsky in his <i>Fifth</i> +and <i>Sixth Symphonies</i>.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> The Recapitulation corresponds exactly +with the Exposition, but an added pathos is given to the second theme +by its appearance in the tonic key of G minor. Observe the impassioned +intensity of the climax in measures 13-19 (counting back from the +end). The mood of dreamy contemplation with which the Slow Movement +begins cannot be translated into words; why attempt it? We have the +music which, coming from the divinely gifted imagination of the +composer, reveals in its own language a message of pathetic longing +and ideal aspiration. The movement is very concise but in complete +Sonata-form, and with an orchestration felicitous in the treatment of +the horns and the wood-wind instruments. The Minuet, noteworthy for +the three-measure rhythm of the opening phrase,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music117.png" width="635" height="76" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music117.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music117.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>shows clearly the new life which Mozart infused into the old form by +his remarkable polyphonic skill. Note at the outset of the second part +the vigorous effect of the theme in the bass and the frequency<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span> of +biting dissonances. The charming grace and simplicity of the Trio are +indescribable; here again we find an eloquent use of the wood-wind +group. The Finale, in complete Sonata-form, begins with a perfectly +balanced periodic theme, presented in Two-part form, <i>i.e.</i>, two +sentences of eight measures, each repeated. If from our present +standpoint we feel that the tone of this movement is a bit light to +follow the serious thoughts of the preceding movements, let us +remember that it was composed when the Finale was meant merely to "top +off" a work; and that, if it radiated a general atmosphere of sunshine +and satisfaction, its purpose was fulfilled. For the Finale, which, +like the glorious splendor of an autumn day, is the crowning objective +towards which the other movements have been striving, we must wait for +Beethoven and his modern successors. In fact we may express the +general trend of a Haydn or a Mozart Symphony by a decrescendo, thus +<img src="images/decrescendo.jpg" width="40" height="12" alt="decrescendo symbol" title="decrescendo symbol" /> +<i>i.e.</i>, the real genius of the composer is shown +in the first three movements; whereas, beginning with Beethoven, we +find an organic climactic effect<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> from the first movement to the +last, thus <img src="images/crescendo.jpg" width="42" height="12" alt="crescendo symbol" title="crescendo symbol" />. +But to carry such criticisms too far is +ungracious and unjust. Mozart's themes, both the first and the second +(beginning in measure 55), with their tripping contredance rhythms, +fill our hearts with life and carry us irresistibly onward. And the +Development has some surprises in store, for now the dramatic genius +of Mozart asserts itself. Note the bold leaps and daring modulations +of the opening measures. Nothing trite or formal here! The strong +polyphonic treatment of the first theme, beginning in measure 120 and +sustained with unflagging energy for seventy measures, makes this one +of the most stimulating developments in symphonic literature, not +excepting Beethoven himself. The Recapitulation, in subject matter, is +an exact duplication of the Exposition and allows us to recover +gradually from our excitement and to return to the ordinary world of +men and events. The presentation of the second theme, however, shows +Mozart's mastery of melodic variation. The substance is the same, but +the import of the melody is intensified, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music118.png" width="632" height="82" alt="Exposition" title="Exposition" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music119a.png" width="633" height="159" alt="Exposition" title="Exposition" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music118.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music118.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music119b.png" width="636" height="252" alt="Recapitulation" title="Recapitulation" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music119b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music119b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The Overtures to Mozart's three operas: The <i>Marriage of Figaro</i>, <i>Don +Giovanni</i> and the <i>Magic Flute</i> are of particular interest, not only +for the beauty of their contents but because they are our earliest +examples of the Overture fashioned in complete Sonata form. Originally +the Overture had been a prelude to the opening of a play, a prelude of +the lightest and most meagre nature. Examples, beginning with +Monteverde, abound in all the early Italian opera composers.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> +Lully of the French school and Alessandro Scarlatti of the Italian +were the first to amplify these beginnings and to establish a definite +standard of structure. In both schools this standard represented an +application of the Three-part form principle; the French arranging +their contrasts, slow, fast, slow (the so-called French overture—of +which we have an example in Handel's Messiah) and the Italians, fast, +slow, fast (the so-called Italian Overture). Although Gluck +(1714-1787) did much to establish a more dramatic connection between +the overture and the play, even the best of his Overtures, Iphigenia +in Aulis, is a rather loosely expanded tripartite structure with a +good many meaningless passages. But Mozart, coming after Haydn's +definite establishment of the Sonata-form and with the growing +interest of the public in instrumental music for its own sake as an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> +incentive, could take advantage of these circumstances to display his +genius and to delight his hearers with a piece of genuine music. This +he did and his operatic overtures are of such distinct import and +self-sufficiency that they are often detached from the opera itself +and played as concert numbers. The Magic Flute Overture is also +noteworthy because of the polyphonic treatment of the first theme +which is a definite fugal presentation in four voices. The second +theme, beginning in measure 64, and soon repeated, is light and +winning, meant to supplement rather than to contrast strongly with the +first theme, which indeed keeps up at the same time, in the inner +voices, its rhythmic impetuosity. The Exposition ends with a graceful +closing phrase, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music120a.png" width="635" height="189" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music120a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music120a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and the usual cadence in the dominant key. It is considered that the +Adagio chords for the trombones, interpolated between the Exposition +and the Development, are suggestive of the religious element in the +play that is to follow. The Development is remarkable for the spirited +imitative treatment of the first theme, for the bold way in which the +voices cut into each other and for the fusion of its closing measures +with the Recapitulation. The chief feature in this brilliant passage +is a piling up of the theme in stretto form (see measures 148-153). +The Recapitulation is somewhat shortened and the melodic outline of +the second theme is slightly changed; otherwise it corresponds with +the Exposition. After the closing phrase we have some pungent +dissonances, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music120b.png" width="382" height="186" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music120b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music120b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span></p> + +<p>Rossini, it is said, was never tired of eulogizing this Overture and +certainly for spontaneity and vigor it is unrivalled.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p> + +<p>The last illustration from Mozart is his <i>Adagio in B minor</i> (see +Supplement No. 43) an independent piece, far too little known, in +complete Sonata-form. The haunting pathos in the theme, the exquisite +loveliness in the whole fabric instantly reach the hearer's heart. +Analytical comment seems quite unnecessary; a child can "follow" the +music, but only he with a ripe knowledge of human life can begin to +fathom its deep mystery.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> When we see such modern passages as the +following, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music121.png" width="635" height="526" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music121.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music121.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Tchaikowsky's love for Mozart's music is readily understood. Indeed, +we cannot refrain from urging everyone to cultivate such a love +himself; for in the works of Mozart are found a purity, a sanity and a +delight in creation which keep them alive and make them in very truth +"things of beauty and a joy forever."</p> + + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>BEETHOVEN, THE TONE-POET</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">A</span>S Beethoven was such an intensely subjective composer, a knowledge of +his personality and environment is indispensable for a complete +appreciation of his works.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p> + +<p>Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770-1827), born at Bonn on the Rhine, though +his active career is associated with Vienna, may be called the first +thinker in music; for at last the art is brought into correlation with +man's other powers and becomes a living reflex of the tendencies and +activities of the period. Notwithstanding the prodigious vitality of +Bach's work, we feel that his musical sense operated abstractly like a +law of Nature and that he was an unconscious embodiment, as it were, +of the deep religious sentiment of his time and of the sturdy +independence of his race. At any period and in any place Bach would +have been Bach. Beethoven's music, however, in its intense personality +and as a vivid expression of the ideals of his fellow men, was +different from any the world had heard before. There were three +paramount advantages in his equipment: first, Beethoven was a strong +character who only happened to find in music his most suitable means +of self-expression. The full import of his works cannot be understood +unless he is recognized, great creative artist that he was, as first +and foremost a unique personality. Had he not written a note of music +we should have sufficient historical evidence to assure ourselves of +the vigor of his intellect and the elevation of his ideals. Whereas +Haydn and Mozart are to be judged purely as musicians, in Beethoven it +is always something underlying the musical symbols which claims our +allegiance. Furthermore he had the inestimable advantage of finding +the mechanical structure of instrumental music carefully formulated by +his predecessors. The stone had been quarried, the rough cutting done +and the blocks lay ready for a genius to use in the erection of his +own poetically conceived edifice. And these forms were still fresh and +vigorous; they had not yet hardened into formalism. In Beethoven's +works we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span> rarely find form employed for its own sake, as a mere "tour +de force" of skilful workmanship, rather is it made to adapt itself to +the individual needs of the composer. Finally Beethoven's career +coincided with momentous changes and upheavals in the social, +political and artistic world. He is the embodiment of that spirit of +individualism, of human freedom and self-respect which found its +expression in the French Revolution, in our American War of +Independence and in the entire alteration of social standards. +Beethoven at all costs resolved to be himself. With him music ceases +to be a mere "concourse of sweet sounds"; it must always bring some +message to the brooding human soul, and be something more than a +skilful example of abstract ingenuity. These personal tendencies of +Beethoven were fostered by the spirit of the times, and his music +became in turn a vital expression of revolt against existing +conditions and of passionate aspiration towards something better. He +was the first musician to free himself from the enervating influence +of having to write exclusively for aristocratic patronage. Such was +the social emancipation of the period that he could address himself at +first hand to a musical public eagerly receptive and constantly +growing. His representative works could never have been composed in +the time of Haydn and Mozart; for though in formal structure the +logical development of preceding methods—Beethoven being no reckless +iconoclast—in individual content they reveal a freedom of utterance +which took its rise in tendencies hitherto unknown. Beethoven's mighty +personality and far-reaching influence can not be stated in a few +formulae. An extensive library covering his life and times is +accessible to the interested layman, and a thorough appreciation of +his masterpieces is a spiritual possession which everyone must gain +individually. Since Beethoven's works compel a man to think for +himself, the constructive power of the creator must be met with an +analogous activity on the part of the receptive hearer. The +symphonies, for example, are more than cunningly contrived works of +musical art; they are human documents of undying power to quicken and +exalt the soul which will submit itself to their influence. +Beethoven's great instrumental compositions are few in number in +comparison with the voluminous and uneven output of his predecessors. +Thus from Haydn we have 125 symphonies, from Mozart about 40, from +Beethoven 9. Of Haydn's symphonies possibly a half dozen have +permanent vitality; of Mozart's four; of Beethoven's all, with the +possible exception of the experimental first. Condensation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span> subject +matter, conciseness of style, a ceaseless exaltation of quality above +quantity are the prominent features in Beethoven's work. All adipose +tissue is relentlessly excised, and the finished creation resembles a +human being in perfect physical condition—the outward mechanical +organism subservient to the spirit within.</p> + +<p>Beethoven's life is of supreme interest and importance, for his music +is the direct expression of himself, of his joys and sorrows. His +ancestry raises many perplexing questions as to the influence of +heredity and the sources of genius. In the first place Beethoven was +not a pure-blooded German, but partly Flemish on his father's side. +His paternal grandfather, Ludwig van<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> Beethoven, was a man of +strong character and of a certain musical aptitude, who had migrated +from the neighborhood of Antwerp to Bonn where he served as court +musician to the Elector of Cologne. The paternal grandmother early +developed a passion for drink and ended her days confined in a +convent. The son of this couple, Johann (the father of the composer) +was a tenor singer in the court chapel at Bonn and soon became a +confirmed drunkard. He seems to be a mere intermediary between +grandfather and grandson. In 1767 he married a young widow, Maria +Keverich, a woman of warm affections and depth of sentiment, whose +life was bound up in the care of her gifted son. The tender love +between Beethoven and his mother was a bright spot in his early years, +in many ways so sordid and unhappy. Unfortunately she was delicate, of +consumptive tendencies, and died when Ludwig was but seventeen. "She +has been to me a good and loving mother," he writes, "and my best +friend." As we ponder on such facts and then consider for what +Beethoven stands, we can only exclaim, "God works in a mysterious way, +his wonders to perform." It was early seen that the young Beethoven +had unusual ability, and so the shiftless father, with the example of +Mozart's precocity before him, submitted the boy to a deal of enforced +drudgery in the way of harpsichord and violin practice. He had one +good teacher however, Neefe, who records that the boy of thirteen +played the harpsichord with energetic skill and had mastered the +Preludes and Fugues of the Well-Tempered Clavichord. Beethoven's +general education was sadly neglected, and when he was thirteen +practically ceased. These deficiencies were a source of mortification +all his life. He spelled atrociously, was never sure of his addition +and subtraction and so was often involved in altercations with +landlords and washerwomen. By nature Beethoven was of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> strong, eager +intellect. He became an omnivorous reader, and later in life acquired +a working facility in Latin, French, Italian and English. The first +period of his life ends with his departure in 1792 for Vienna, whither +he was sent by the Elector to study with Haydn. In summing up its +special incidents we are struck first by the vivid and lasting +impression which Beethoven, in spite of his lowly origin and +deficiencies in education and cultivation, made upon wealthy and +refined people of distinction, simply through his extraordinary +personality and unmistakable sincerity. Two of these friends were the +von Breuning family, including the charming daughter Eleanore—one of +Beethoven's early loves—and the cultivated and influential Count +Waldstein, in whose companionship he became acquainted with the German +poets and with the dramas of Shakespeare. For a vivid picture of these +boyish years the student is recommended to the Romance, +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7979"><i>Jean Christophe</i></a> (by Romain Rolland) which, though somewhat idealized, is +mainly on a historical basis. Two of Beethoven's most unique +characteristics date from this period. First, his constant habit of +drawing inspiration directly from Nature, of which he was a passionate +and persistent lover. He says of himself "No one can love the country +as I love it. Here alone can I learn wisdom. Every tree exclaims to me +'Holy, Holy, Holy.'" In long walks through wood and field he would +allow his thoughts to germinate, giving himself up utterly to creative +emotion. When in this state of mind Madame von Breuning used to say +that he was in his "raptus." Consequently, in comparison with the +works of previous composers, which often have a note of primness and +artificial restraint—they smell a bit of the lamp and the +study—those of Beethoven have the elemental power of Nature herself, +especially shown in the vigor and variety of the rhythm. Second, he +would always carry sketch books in which to jot down ideas as they +came to him. These he would polish and improve—sometimes for +years—before they took final shape. Many of these sketch books<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> +have been preserved and edited, and they illustrate, most vividly, +Beethoven's method of composing: slow, cautious, but invincible in its +final effect; an idea frequently being altered as many as twenty +times. At the age of twenty-two he was chiefly known as a pianist with +wonderful facility in improvisation; his compositions had been +insignificant. The next eight years—up to 1800, when Beethoven was +thirty—were spent in acquainting himself with the Viennese +aristocracy and in building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span> up a public clientèle. Then follows the +marvellous period until 1815 in which his power of inspiration was at +its height, and which gave to the world a body of work for magnitude +and variety never surpassed: all the symphonies except the Ninth, the +first twenty-seven pianoforte Sonatas, five concertos for pianoforte +and orchestra, the opera of Fidelio, several Overtures, numerous +string quartets and ensemble chamber music. We realize even more +vividly the heroic and sublime character of Beethoven when we learn +that, as early as 1798, there began the signs of that deafness which +altered his whole life. By nature he was hypersensitive, proud and +high-strung, and these qualities were so aggravated by his malady that +he became suspicious, at times morose, and his subsequent career was +checkered with the violent altercations, and equally spasmodic +renewals of friendship, which took place between him and his best +friends. His courage was extraordinary. Thus we find him writing: +"Though at times I shall be the most miserable of God's creatures, I +will grapple with Fate, it shall never pull me down." On the artistic +side this affliction had its compensations in that it isolated the +composer from outer distractions, and allowed him to lay entire stress +on the spiritual inner side of his art; certainly this is one of the +strongest notes in his music—the pure fancy manifested therein. As a +deaf musician he is comparable to the blind seer who penetrates more +deeply into the mysteries of life than those whose physical eyesight +is perfect. Beethoven's closing years form a period of manifold +complications, caused by the care of his scapegrace nephew, by his +settled deafness and precarious financial position. Yet he grimly +continued to compose, his last works being of titanic dimensions such +as the Choral symphony, the Mass in D and the last Quartets and +Pianoforte Sonatas. Beethoven died on March 26, 1827; nature most +appropriately giving a dramatic setting to the event by a terrific +storm of hail and snow, lightning and thunder. It would take too long +to dwell on the many characteristics of the man Beethoven. Power, +individuality and sincerity were stamped upon him, and his music is +just what we should expect from his nature. He embodied all the +longings, the joys and sorrows of humanity, and gave them such burning +utterance that the world has listened ever since.</p> + +<p>To touch now upon a few of the formal aspects of Beethoven's work, as +far as verbal analysis can help, it may be asserted that he is the +acknowledged master of the Sonata Form as Bach was of the Fugue, and +in his hands this form, and also the Air with Variations, were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span> raised +to a potency the influence of which is felt even to-day. From +beginning to end every portion of the Sonata Form was made over and +vitalized. Instead of the perfunctory "flourish of trumpets" which +served previous composers for an introduction, this portion with +Beethoven deftly leads on the hearer to a contemplation of the main +work, and is as carefully planned as the porch of a great Cathedral. +For examples, witness the continually growing excitement generated in +the introductions to the Second and Seventh Symphonies, the breathless +suspense of the introduction to the Fourth, and the primeval, +mysterious beginning of the Ninth. And then what a difference in the +character and emotional suggestiveness of the themes, that with +Beethoven are actual human voices, dramatic characters, which once met +can never be forgotten. As Lavoix says of the Fifth Symphony, "Is not +this a drama in its purity, where passion is no longer the attribute +of a theatrical work, but the expression of our own individual +feelings?" No longer are the transitions mere mechanical connections, +but a portion of the structure which, though subsidiary, is yet +organically developed from that which precedes and inevitably related +to that which follows. In the development section we find the real +Beethoven. Here his marvellous freshness of invention found full play. +Such inexhaustible fancy, such coherence of structure, such subtlety +of transformation were unknown in former times, when development was +often as lifeless as the perfunctory motions of an automaton. +Beethoven's developments are no mere juggling with tones; they are +vast tonal edifices, examples of what the imagination of man +controlled by intellect can achieve. Possibly Beethoven's greatest +skill as a musical architect was shown in his treatment of the Coda, +which became the crowning climax of a movement, a last driving home +with all possible eloquence of the message heretofore presented. The +end of previous compositions had too often been a mere ceasing to go, +a running down, but in Beethoven there is usually a strong objective +point towards which everything converges.</p> + +<p>Fully conscious as he was of the throbbing human message it was his +mission to reveal, we may be sure that Beethoven spared no effort to +enhance the expressive capabilities of music as a language. Certain +aspects of his style in this respect are strikingly noticeable in +every one of his representative works. First, the marvellous rhythmic +vitality. Note the absence of the former sing-song rhythm of Haydn; in +its stead we hear the heart-beat, now fast, now slow, of a living<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span> +human being. No longer can the hearer in dreamy apathy beat time with +his foot. Second, his use of the fiercest dissonances to express the +heights and depths of our stormy human existence. In listening to +contemporary works nothing should persuade us more strongly to a +sympathetic tolerance, or at any rate to a suspension of judgment, +than the fact that many of Beethoven's most individual cries (surely +in his case the outward expression of what he heard within, those very +outbursts which to-day ring longest in our consciousness) were +considered at the time of their creation as the ravings of a mad-man. +Dissonances, both acoustically and psychologically, are a vital +principle in music. In no respect was his music more original than in +his Promethean boldness in their use. One of his favorite conceptions +was that music should strike fire from the soul of man; it was not +meant to lull the hearer into a drowsy revery, but to awaken his +spiritual consciousness with a shock at times positively galvanic. A +third feature is his subtlety in expression, as is shown by the minute +indications in which every page of his work abounds. The crescendos, +often leading to a sudden drop to pianissimo, the long stretches of +hushed suspense, the violent sforzandos on unimportant beats, the +plasticity of periodic formation, all these workings of a rich +imagination first gave music its place as the supreme art of human +expression.</p> + +<p>A word must be spoken concerning two forms which we owe to Beethoven's +constructive genius. In place of the former naïve Minuet, so +characteristic of the formal manners of its time, he substituted a +movement with a characteristic name—the Scherzo, which opened up +entirely new possibilities. No mere literary distinction between wit +and humor<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> can explain the power of Beethoven's Scherzos; only +through his own experience of life can the hearer fathom their +secrets. The expression of real humor, akin to that spirit which is +found in Cervantes, Swift, Mark Twain and Abraham Lincoln, was a +genuine contribution of Beethoven. Deep thinkers alone are capable of +humor which, to quote a recent writer, is "that faculty of imagination +so humane and sympathetic in its nature that it can perceive at the +same time serious and jocose things. It can feel the pathos of a scene +on life's stage and yet have an eye for the incongruities of the +actors. It is imagination, the feel of kinship with the universal +human soul." Beethoven's Scherzos are as varied as life itself. Who +can forget the boisterous vitality of this movement in the Eroica, +which quite sweeps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span> us off our feet, the haunting mystery of the +Scherzo of the Fifth Symphony, or listen unmoved to the grim +seriousness, alternating with touching pathos, in the Scherzo of the +Ninth? Secondly, his conception of the Air and Variations was so +different from anything previously known that he may fairly be called +its creator. With him variations became poetic transformations, and +the notable works in this form of Brahms, Tchaikowsky, Franck and +d'Indy are only freer manifestations of Beethoven's method. Upon two +last features, his use of titles and his individualizing of the +orchestral instruments, we cannot dwell in detail. Although program +music in its literal sense dates back several centuries, +Beethoven—far more than was customary before—used external +suggestions or incidents, often intimate subjective experiences, as +the quickening impulse to his imagination. We know from his own words +that, while composing, he generally had some mental picture before +him. Very often we are not given the clue to his thoughts, but the +titles, familiar to every one, which he did use, such as the <i>Heroic</i> +and <i>Pastoral</i> Symphonies, the <i>Coriolanus</i> and <i>Egmont</i> Overtures, +those to several of the Sonatas, are full of import and show clearly +that he was engaged in no mere abstract music making for its own sake. +These works are the point of departure for the significant development +of modern music along this path. With Beethoven the orchestra began to +assume its present importance, and the instruments are no longer +treated as mere producers of sound and rhythm, but often as living +beings. How eloquent is the message of the Horns in the Trio to the +Scherzo of the <i>Heroic</i>! Berlioz compares the double basses in the +Fifth Symphony to the gambols of sportive elephants, and instances +might be multiplied. But words are futile in describing the wonders of +Beethoven. A striking tribute is that of Professor John K. Paine. "In +instrumental music Beethoven is pre-eminent, from all points of view, +formally, aesthetically and spiritually. Like Shakespeare's, his +creations are distinguished by great diversity of character; each is a +type by itself. Beethoven is the least of a mannerist of all +composers. His compositions are genuine poems, which tell their +meaning to the true listener clearly and unmistakably in the language +of tones, a language however which cannot be translated into mere +words."</p> + +<p>We are now in a position to approach intelligently, enthusiastically +and reverently the mighty works of Beethoven which, though built upon +the foundations of Haydn and Mozart, yet take us into an entirely new +world of power and fancy. For illustrations we se<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span>lect the first +movement of the <i>Third</i> or <i>Heroic</i> Symphony; the <i>Seventh Sonata in D +major</i> for Pianoforte; the <i>Fifth Symphony in C minor</i> (entire) and +the <i>Coriolanus</i> Overture. In regard to the symphonies it is +understood that the emphasis on certain ones and the omission of +others implies no ultra-critical attitude. Each of Beethoven's +symphonies has its characteristic attributes and each is the work of a +genius. But just as in Nature some mountains are more majestic than +others, so concerning the nine symphonies we may say that their order +of excellence as endorsed by the consensus of mankind would be as +follows. The First Symphony is somewhat experimental, composed when +Beethoven was working out his technique of expression. It is closely +modeled on the style of Haydn and, though showing certain daring +touches and though perfectly direct and sincere, is not of marked +individuality. In the Second Symphony a long advance is made, for we +find numerous traits which are thoroughly distinctive of the genius of +Beethoven: the exciting Prelude to the first movement; the heavenly +Larghetto, one of the first slow movements of real emotional power; +the rollicking Scherzo (note the fantastic touches in the Trio) and +the splendor of the last pages of the Finale, which can only be +compared to a sunset with its slowly fading colors and its last burst +of glory. The general style of the Second Symphony however is that of +Haydn and Mozart, though raised to the highest pitch of eloquence. In +the Third Symphony the complete Beethoven steps forth. It was his +declaration of independence, and in this work, as he himself said, he +began a completely new line of activity; it was also his own favorite +among the symphonies.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> Heretofore there had been no such +impassioned utterance as is revealed in the first movement of this +Third Symphony and there have been few, if any, to equal it since. The +Fourth Symphony is an entrancing work and shows Beethoven's +inexhaustible variety of mood; since, save for the "grand manner" +peculiar to all his works, it differs strikingly from the Third and +the Fifth. It was composed during the happiest period of Beethoven's +life and is related in its whole character to his emotions and +aspirations at that time.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> The slow movement is the most sublime +love-song in music. The Fifth Symphony is undoubtedly the most popular +of them all, in the true sense of the term.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> The reason<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span> for this +verdict is the unparalleled combination in a single work of the +emotional intensity found in the first movement, the touching appeal +of the slow movement, the mystery, followed by the reckless display of +spirit, in the Scherzo and the paean of rejoicing which rings through +the Finale. The Sixth or Pastoral, Beethoven's one excursion into the +realm of tone-painting based on natural phenomena, is of interest more +as a point of departure for the work of his successors than for its +intrinsic message. The conception of the possibilities of musical +description has so widened since Beethoven, and the facilities for +orchestral color so increased, that this symphony, though it has many +characteristic beauties, sounds a bit old-fashioned. The Seventh is +one of the most original of them all, incomparable for its rhythmic +vitality—the Apotheosis of the Dance, as Wagner called it.<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> If +rhythm be the basis of music and of life itself, this symphony is +thoroughly alive from start to finish, hence immortal. The Eighth is +the embodiment of Beethoven's (possibly) most individual trait—his +abounding humor. Never before had symphonic music played such pranks +as are found here, especially in the Finale. The Symphony is in fact a +prolonged Scherzo<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a>—the third movement (a Minuetto) being merely +for contrast. The Ninth Symphony, composed in the philosophic period +of Beethoven's life, when he was attempting still greater heights, is +a vast work, the first three movements purely instrumental, and the +Finale, for the first time in symphonic literature, a union of solo +voices and chorus with the instrumental forces. The text was taken +from Schiller's "Ode to Joy." The spirit of the poem made a strong +appeal to Beethoven's humanitarian and democratic aspirations and +there is no question of the grandeur of his conception. But it is not +carping criticism to say that his thoughts were too heaven-soaring for +a perfect realization through any earthly means. Beethoven moreover +was seldom happy in writing for the human voice—he thought in terms +of the instru<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span>ments—and it is not to be denied that there are several +passages in the Finale which consist of mere boisterous shouting. No +one save believers in plenary inspiration can give to this Finale the +whole-hearted admiration that is paid to the three instrumental +movements which are pure gold; especially the seraphic Adagio and the +Gargantuan Scherzo with its demoniacal rhythmic energy. To sum up the +foregoing estimates, if the student is forced to select and cannot +become equally familiar with all of the nine symphonies, a reasonable +order of study would be the following: the Fifth, the Third, the +Seventh, the Eighth, the Fourth, the Ninth, the Second, the Sixth and +the First. See Supplement No. 44.</p> + +<p>We shall now make a few comments<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> on the first movement of the +<i>Third</i> or <i>Heroic Symphony</i>, merely to stimulate the hearer's +interest, for the music may be trusted to make its own direct appeal. +After two short, sonorous chords, which summon us to attention, the +first theme, allegro con brio, with its elemental, swinging rhythm, is +announced by the 'cellos. It is often glibly asserted that these notes +of the tonic triad are the whole of the first theme. This is a great +misconception, for although the motive in the first four measures is +the generative basis for the entire movement, the arresting, dramatic +note of the theme is the C-sharp in measure five. This theme in fact +is a typical example of Beethoven's broad sweeps of thought; for +prolonged with secondary melodic phrases in the first violins and +flutes, its real close does not come until the 13th measure, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music132.png" width="634" height="194" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music133a.png" width="560" height="280" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music132.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music132.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>After a varied repetition of the first motive of the theme, there +occurs a passage (measures 23-33)<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> which illustrates one of the +most characteristic features in all Beethoven's work, <i>i.e.</i>, those +sharp dislocations of the rhythm, indicated by the sforzando accents +(<i>sf</i>) on beats usually <i>unaccented</i> and often coupled with strong +dissonances. Although the basic rhythm is triple, the beats for +several measures are in groups of two quarter notes or their +equivalent, one half note, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music133b.png" width="636" height="406" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music133b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music133b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>No longer can we drift along in dreamy apathy; our vitality is +quickened as by the gusts of a tornado. There have been those who for +the first time in their lives were jarred from the even tenor of their +way<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span> by these impassioned onslaughts. When Beethoven's Symphonies were +first played in Paris, it is reported that the operatic composer +Boieldieu was much disconcerted, because, as he said, he liked +"musique qui me berce." The transition (measures 43-81) is a +remarkable example of Beethoven's power of creating ever more and more +excitement and expectancy. It contains <i>three</i> subsidiary melodic +phrases, each of increasing rhythmic animation, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music134.png" width="635" height="587" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music134.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music134.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and fairly whirls us into the beautiful contemplative theme at measure +81. This theme embodies some entrancing modulations into remote keys, +and then, after one of Beethoven's typical passages of hushed +pianissimo (beginning in measure 97) we are led through a series of +sforzandos, crescendos and titanic ejaculations to the overpowering +dissonances in measure 145, which with the tonic chord close the +Exposition in the dominant key. The Development (measures 164-396) is +extremely long and varied, but a perfect manifestation of spontaneous, +organic treatment—each portion growing inevitably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span> from what has +preceded and marching irresistibly onward to its objective goal. Every +modulatory, rhythmic and polyphonic device is employed to vary and +intensify the message; yet, notwithstanding the diversity of the +material, we are held spellbound by the directness and coherence of +the thought. Such is Beethoven's passionate insistence on the right to +speak out just what he felt that in one stupendous passage (measures +246-277) it seems as if the very Heavens were falling about our heads. +At measure 282 a theme of ideal repose is interpolated—just the +contrast needed after the preceding cataclysm. The Development proper +is renewed in measure 298 and after a repetition of the interpolated +theme in measures 320-335 the rhythm of the first theme asserts itself +in all its majesty, carrying us upward to a veritable table-land of +sublimity. From this we are brought down through a series of +decrescendo, modulatory chords, like drifting mists, to an almost +complete cessation of musical life—nothing but a pianissimo tremolo +on the strings. From this hush there floats in upon us the rhythmic +motive of the first theme; then, with a <i>ff</i> chord of the dominant, we +are suddenly brought back into the sunshine of the main theme, and the +Recapitulation has begun. This portion with certain happy changes in +modulation—note the beautiful variant on the horn in measures +406-414, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music135a.png" width="636" height="93" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music135a.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music135a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>—preserves the customary emphasis on the main tonality of E-flat +major, ending in measures 549-550 with the same dissonances which +closed the Exposition. Then are declaimed by the full orchestra those +two dramatic outbursts which usher in the Coda and which may be +likened to "Stop! Listen! the best is yet to come." The blunt, +intentional disjunction of the harmony adds weight to the assertion, +<i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music135b.png" width="630" height="193" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music136.png" width="370" height="186" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music135b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music135b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Here we have a convincing illustration of Beethoven's individual +conception that the Coda should be a second and final development; +special points of interest and treatment being held in store, so that +it becomes a truly crowning piece of eloquence. Observe how the +reappearance of the interpolated theme balances the Coda with the +Development proper and how the various rhythms of the Exposition are +concentrated in the last page. Finally a series of bold, vibrato leaps +in the first violins—based on the dominant chord—brings this +impassioned movement to a close.</p> + +<p>A lack of space prevents the inclusion in the Supplement of the rest +of the Symphony, but the student is urged to make himself familiar +with the three remaining movements: the Marcia Funèbre, the Scherzo +and the Finale. The Funeral March is justly ranked with that of Chopin +in his B-flat minor Sonata and that of Wagner in the last act of the +<i>Götterdämmerung</i> as one of the most eloquent in existence, and +contains melodies so touching that they could have come only from the +very soul of Beethoven. Especially noteworthy is the aspiring melody +of the middle, contrasting portion (Maggiore) where the spirit, freed +from earthly dross, seems to mount to the skies in a chariot of fire. +The third part, where the minor mode is resumed, abounds in dramatic +touches; especially that fugal passage, where the ecclesiastical tone, +combined with pealing trumpets, brings before us some funeral pageant +in a vast, medieval cathedral. The Coda, beginning in A-flat major, +with an impressive mood of resignation, illustrates at its close a +psychological use of programmistic effect; for the first theme, +treated as a real person, disintegrates before our very +eyes—becoming, as it were, a disembodied spirit. Nothing can show +more clearly than this passage the widening of the expressive powers +of music which we owe to the genius of Beethoven. The same effect with +a slightly different dramatic purpose is found at the end of the +<i>Coriolanus</i> Overture.</p> + +<p>The Scherzo, allegro vivace, in triple time, but marked <i>one</i> beat a +measure = 116 (almost two measures per second!), is unsurpassed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span> for +sustained brilliancy and daring rhythmic changes. It is so +idiomatically conceived for orchestra that only the barest idea can be +gained from a pianoforte transcription. The prevailing background is a +mass of shimmering strings, marked by Beethoven "<i>sempre pp e +staccato</i>" and against this stands out a buoyant, folk-song type of +melody on the oboe. After some mysterious and fantastic modulations a +<i>ff</i> climax is reached which leads to the famous syncopated passage +where the orchestra seems to hurl itself headlong into space, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music137a.png" width="631" height="387" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music137a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music137a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The Trio, with its three hunting horns, gives a fresh, woodland note +typifying Beethoven's love of nature. Some mysterious modulations lead +us back from the dim recesses of the forest to the sparkling animation +of the Scherzo. In this part of the movement Beethoven plays one of +his characteristic practical jokes; for, just where we expect the same +syncopated effect as before, the time is changed from 3/4 to 2/2, the +duration of the measure remaining the same, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music137b.png" width="631" height="191" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music138a.png" width="633" height="231" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music137b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music137b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This effect may be likened to the uproarious guffaws of a giant. The +Coda has a clear reminiscence of the dramatic C-sharp in the main +theme of the first movement, <i>e.g.</i><a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music138b.png" width="635" height="229" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music138b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music138b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Such an organic connection between movements begins to be very +frequent in Beethoven's works.</p> + +<p>The Finale, Allegro molto, has caused considerable difficulty to the +commentators for reasons known only to themselves. Different forms are +assigned to it by different critics; one regrets the falling off of +inspiration, another asserts that the movement "does not fulfill the +requirements which the human mind makes of art; it leaves us +confused." Poor Beethoven! But why all this pother? If the inner +evidence of the music itself be any justification for structural +classification, this wonderful, inspired Finale is a series of free +Variations<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> on a double theme of which the parts are related to +each other as Soprano and Bass, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music139a.png" width="634" height="187" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music139a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music139a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>By beginning the first two variations with the less important of the +two melodies (<i>i.e.</i>, the <i>bass</i>) Beethoven is simply indulging in his +fondness for piquing the fancy of the hearer by starting him on a +false trail—not giving away, as it were, his real purpose too soon. +Yet from the first announcement of the leading melody in the Third +Variation it assumes increasing importance, through successive +appearances in E-flat major, B minor, D major and C major, until after +a long fugal development we reach the inspired passage (Poco Andante +con espressione), <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music139b.png" width="636" height="376" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music139b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music139b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>in which the main theme is stated first in its noble simplicity and +then enhanced by an obligato melody on the oboe. It is one of the most +eloquent passages in all symphonic literature. At its last appearance +the real theme comes fully to its own—for the <i>first</i> time in the +<i>bass</i>, that fundamental voice—where it is declaimed <i>ff</i> in gorgeous +splendor by all the lower instruments of the orchestra. It is evident +that not even the most inspired genius can sustain such a flight for +ever, and after this magnificent paean the workings of Beethoven's +imagi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>nation resemble those of Nature herself. Following a tranquil +intermediary passage in A-flat major we enter upon one of those long, +mysterious periods of hushed suspense which may be compared to a long +expanse of open country or to the fading lights on the sea at sunset. +The last page, beginning with the Presto, is sheer orchestral +jubilation of the most intoxicating kind. We may picture an +enthusiastic gathering, with hats thrown aloft and shouts of triumph +ringing from every throat. It is of historical interest to know that +the theme of this Finale must have been a favorite with Beethoven, for +he had used it in three former works: a <i>Contre-dance</i>, as the basis +for a set of <i>Pianoforte Variations</i> and in the <i>Ballet Music to +Prometheus</i>. It may not be too fanciful to trace a dramatic +relationship between its use in portraying the daring spirit who first +stole fire from Heaven and as the crowning message of a work meant to +glorify all heroic endeavor. A thorough familiarity with this movement +will repay the student not only as exemplifying Beethoven's freedom of +expression but indeed as a point of departure for so many modern works +in free variation form. See Supplement No. 45.</p> + +<p>To illustrate Beethoven's Pianoforte compositions we shall now analyze +the <i>Seventh Sonata in D major</i>, op. 10, No. 3. Only wholesale +hero-worshipers consider all of the thirty-two Sonatas of equal +significance. It is true that, taken as a whole, they are a storehouse +of creative vitality and that in each there is something, somewhere, +which strikes a spark; for everything which Beethoven wrote was +stamped with his dominating personality. But the fire of genius burns +more steadily in some of the Sonatas than in others. It is the very +essence of genius to have its transcendent moments; only mediocrity +preserves a dead level. It is therefore no spirit of fault finding +which leads us to centre our attention upon those Sonatas which have +best stood the test of time and which never fail to convince us of +their "raison d'être": the <i>Appassionata</i>, the <i>Waldstein</i>, the +<i>C-sharp minor</i>, the <i>Pathétique</i>, the <i>Sonata in G major</i>, op. 14, +No. 2, and <i>all</i> the last five, especially the glorious one in <i>A-flat +major</i>, op. 119. It is futile to deny that some of the early sonatas +are experimental and that certain others do not represent Beethoven at +his best, being more the result of his constructive power than of an +impelling message which had to be expressed. The D major Sonata has +been selected for study because, though composed in Beethoven's first +period, it is thoroughly characteristic, and because its performance +is within<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span> the powers of the average intelligent amateur. The full +beauty of the later Sonatas can be realized only by great virtuosi who +devote to them years of study. The work is in four movements: the +first, complete Sonata-form; the second, modified Sonata-form; the +third, Three-part; the Finale, a freely treated Rondo-Sonata-form. The +first movement, Presto, begins with a vigorous presentation of the +main theme which ends in measure 22 with the last of three <i>ff</i> +octaves. The unusually long transition, containing a subsidiary theme +in B minor, is remarkable for its onrushing excitement and for the +playful false leads which usher in the second theme. After a brilliant +cadence in the dominant key, one would suppose this theme might be +announced in measure 53, but not so; after three measures of cantabile +melody, progress is interrupted by a group of descending octave leaps. +A second attempt is now made, this time in A minor, only to be +thwarted by a still more capricious octave descent. This time, +however, after a dramatic pause, we are rewarded with a clear-cut, +periodic melody beginning in measure 66, against which the rhythm of +the first theme keeps up a gentle undercurrent. Some interesting +modulations develop into a series of descending octaves which, +accompanied by <i>sf</i> chords, lead to the closing portion. This +brilliant passage accentuates the dominant key of the second theme. +After a short tranquillo phrase and some free imitations of the main +theme we repeat the Exposition, or go on to the Development ushered in +by a bold change to the mediant key of B-flat major. After several +appearances of the main theme in the bass, Beethoven takes a leaf out +of D. Scarlatti's book and revels in some crossing of the hands and +some wide leaps. The Recapitulation corresponds exactly with the first +part until we reach the Coda in measure 298, which affords a striking +example of Beethoven's power of climax. After a long period of +suspense an imitative treatment of the first theme, with kettle-drum +effect in the bass, leads to a stringendo ascending passage which +closes with two crashing dissonances and two peculiarly grouped +chords, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music141.png" width="637" height="183" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music141.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music141.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span></p> + +<p>They have a hard, cutting brilliance all their own and give just the +touch of color needed to finish this dazzling movement.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p> + +<p>In the Slow Movement, Largo e Mesto, there is a depth of emotion quite +unparalleled in the early history of music.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> Certainly no composer +since Bach had uttered such a message. As soon as the movement begins +we are convinced that it represents the outpouring of a soul capable +of deep meditations upon life and its mysteries, and with the +eloquence at its command to impress these thoughts upon the hearer. +The number of themes and their key relationship are those of +Sonata-form, but instead of the usual development we have a new +contrasting theme of great pathos in the major mode. Observe the +poignancy of the dissonances, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music142.png" width="489" height="219" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music142.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music142.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>in the second theme of the Exposition which begins in measure 17, and +the passionate outcries in measures 35 and 37 of the middle portion. +Just before the Recapitulation, in measures 41-43, is an early example +of Beethoven's fondness for instrumental recitative—music speaking +with a more intimate appeal than words. The movement ends with an +impassioned Coda which, beginning with the main theme in the bass and +working up, more and more agitato, to a powerful climax, dies away +with mysterious fragments of the opening measures. The dissonant +element so characteristic of the whole movement is retained to the +end, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music143.png" width="485" height="202" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music143.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music143.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The growing importance of dissonance may be seen from a comparison of +this movement with the average slow movements of Haydn and Mozart +These, although they have serenity and grace, beauty and finish of +form, and are sincere manifestations of the genius of their creators, +are yet lacking in passion. This placid mood and amiability of style +is shown by the comparatively slight employment of dissonances. By +unthinking and uncultivated persons dissonances<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> are often +considered as something harsh, repellant—hence to be avoided. But +dissonances contain the real life and progress of music. They arouse, +even take by storm our imaginations and shake us out of our +equanimity. Consonant chords represent stability, satisfaction and, +when over-used, inertia. The genius of the composer is shown in +establishing just the <i>right proportion</i> between these two elements; +but if there is to be any disproportion let us have <i>too much</i> rather +than too little dissonance, for then, at any rate, the music is +<i>alive</i>. Since Beethoven the whole development of music as a human +language shows the preponderating stress laid on dissonance; to this +fact a knowledge of the works of Schumann, Chopin, Wagner, Debussy and +Franck will amply testify.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> The same analogy holds equally in all +realms of life, human and physical. The truest development of +character depends on the warring elements of good and evil. Honest +discontent is the first step to progress. Dissonance is the yeast of +music and should be welcomed for its invigorating influence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span></p><p>The third movement, Minuetto, may be taken as a reply to Haydn's +well-known wish "Oh! that some one would write us a new Minuet." Well, +here it is—with all the grace and charm of the 18th century type and +yet with more import, especially in the Coda with its haunting +retrospect. The rhythmic formation of the opening sentence would be +clearer if two measures had been thrown into <i>one</i>, for the swing is +clearly that of a 6/4 measure. The Trio, with its Scarlatti-like +crossing of the hands, is a playful bit of badinage, affording a +delightful contrast to the Minuetto. Such genuine variety in mood +makes the Three-part Form of lasting worth.</p> + +<p>The Finale, Allegro, with its capricious fortissimo outbursts and +unexpected sforzandos is a characteristic example of Beethoven's +freedom of utterance. Any cast-iron conception of form was entirely +foreign to his nature; instead, he made form the servant of the freest +flights of fancy. The movement begins as if it were to be worked out +in the so-called Rondo Sonata-form—a hybrid, tripartite structure +related to the Sonata-form in that it has <i>two</i> themes in the first +and last portions, and to the Rondo in that the middle portion is a +free Episode instead of the customary development of former material. +The salient feature by which this form may always be recognized is +that the Exposition closes with a <i>definite return</i> to the first +theme—thus emphasizing the Rondo aspect—instead of with an expanded +cadence based upon the second theme. As we have stated before (see +<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Chapter IX</a>), many of Beethoven's Finales are in this mixed form, clear +examples of which may be found in the last movements of the Fourth, +Eighth and Twelfth Sonatas. The Finale of the Twelfth Sonata has been +included in the Supplement in order to make this important form +familiar to the student. To return now to the Finale of the sonata we +are studying. Its first two portions correspond exactly to the usual +practice in the Rondo-Sonata form just explained; <i>i.e.</i>, we find in +the Exposition a first theme, a modulatory transition, a second theme +(beginning in measure 17) and a definite repetition of the first +theme, in measures 25-32. Then, after two measures of bold modulation, +begins the middle, episodical passage which, closing with a whimsical +cadenza-like passage, leads back to the beginning of the third part. +After a complete, slightly varied appearance of the first theme, +Beethoven does not repeat the second theme, as we should expect, but +allows his fancy to indulge in a series of brilliant passages, +exciting modulations and dynamic contrasts. All this freedom is held +together by insistence on the fundamental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span> rhythmic motive (measures +72-83). A final embellished statement of the first theme ushers in the +fiery Coda, in measure 92, which ends with a long running passage; +beneath, we hear reminiscences of the main theme. It is often stated +that Beethoven's Sonatas are lacking in pianistic effect, and it is +true that his pianoforte works do not bring out the possibilities of +color and sonority as we find them, for example, in Chopin and +Debussy—the orchestra and the string-quartet being indeed his +favorite media of expression. Yet during his entire early career +Beethoven was famous as a performer and improviser on the pianoforte +and some, at any rate, of his deepest thoughts have been confided to +that instrument. That he was not at all insensible to the beauty of +pianistic effect for its own sake is shown by the syncopated, shadowy +chords in measures 101-105, the whole justification for which lies in +their enchanting sound.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Symphony No. 5</span><a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></h3> + +<p>The <i>Fifth Symphony in C minor</i>, op. 67, is deservedly popular because +it is so human; a translation, in fact, of life itself into the +glowing language of music. Beethoven's emotional power was so deep and +true that, in expressing himself, he spoke, like every great +philosopher, poet or artist, for all mankind. Which one of us in his +own experience, has not felt the same protests against relentless Fate +that find such uncontrollable utterance in the first movement? Who, +again, is untouched by that angelic message, set before us in the +second movement, of hope and aspiration, of heroic and even +<i>warlike</i><a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> resolution, mingled with the resignation which only +great souls know? The third movement (Allegro)—in reality a Scherzo +of the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span> fantastic type, though not so marked—might well typify +the riddle of the Universe. We indeed "see through a glass darkly," +and yet there is no note of despair. Amid the sinister mutterings of +the basses there ring out, on the horns and trumpets, clarion calls to +action. While we are in this world we must live its life; a living +death is unendurable. The Finale, Allegro maestoso, is a majestic +declaration of unconquerable faith and optimism—the intense +expression of Beethoven's own words, "I will grapple with Fate, it +shall never pull me down"—to be compared only with Browning's "God's +in his heaven, all's right with the world," and the peroration to +Whitman's <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1322/1322-h/1322-h.htm#2H_4_0255"><i>Mystic Trumpeter</i></a>, "Joy, joy, over all joy!" No adequate +attempt could be made to translate the music into words. The Symphony +is extremely subjective; indeed, autobiographic. For all historical +details as to its composition, the reader is referred to the Grove +essay,<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> and for eulogistic rhapsodies nothing can surpass the +essay of Berlioz, that prince of critics. We shall content ourselves +with a few comments of a structural nature and then trust the student +to seek a performance of the work by a good orchestra. Of the first +movement (Allegro con brio)<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> the dominant characteristics, +especially in comparison with the wealth of material in the <i>Heroic</i>, +are conciseness and intensity. It starts at once, without prelude, +with the motive—one of the tersest in music—from which is developed, +polyphonically, the first theme, <i>e.g.</i><a name="FNanchor_A_154" id="FNanchor_A_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_154" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music146.png" width="630" height="345" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music146.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music146.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span></p><p>Everything is concentrated in the highest degree and the assault upon +our consciousness is of corresponding power. A tempestuous transition +leads to two short <i>sf</i> chords and then in measure 59, announced <i>ff</i> +by the horns, appears the first phrase of the second theme, based on +the same motive as the first, but in the relative major (E-flat), +<i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music147.png" width="632" height="219" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music147.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music147.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>It is answered by a second phrase of marked simplicity and +loveliness—a mood, indeed, of resignation. This is only momentary, +however, for the relentless rhythm of the chief motive continues to +assert itself in the basses until, as it gathers headway after a short +closing phrase (95-99), it is thundered out <i>ff</i> by the full orchestra +in a series of descending groups. The Development continues the same +resistless impetuosity. Note the grim effect of the empty fifths and +fourths in measures 126-127. Once only is there a slackening of the +titanic, elemental drive—in the mysterious passage (212-239) where +the pent-up fury of the composer seems to have exhausted itself. It is +only, however, a lull in the storm which breaks forth with renewed +energy in the Recapitulation and Coda. Observe the pathetic commentary +which the solo oboe makes upon the main theme at the outset of the +third part (268)—a flower growing out of the débris of the avalanche. +The Coda begins, at measure 374, with a passionate insistence upon the +fundamental rhythm, driven home with sharp hammer-blows and, as in all +Beethoven's symphonic movements, furnishes an overpowering climax, not +a mere perfunctory close. The second Movement, in A-flat major, is a +series of free<a name="FNanchor_154_155" id="FNanchor_154_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_155" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> Variations (five in number) based on a theme, +Andante con moto,<a name="FNanchor_155_156" id="FNanchor_155_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_156" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> of great rhythmic vitality, peculiarly rich and +suave—announced, as it is, by 'celli and violas in unison, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music148.png" width="634" height="494" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music148.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music148.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The first two presentations of the theme are in each case followed by +a passage of martial character which bursts triumphantly into C major. +There is an orchestral touch of great beauty and originality in the +first and second variations (beginning in measures 49 and 98 +respectively), where a solo clarinet—later a flute, oboe and +bassoon—prolongs a single tone which seems to float above the melody +like a guiding star.<a name="FNanchor_156_157" id="FNanchor_156_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_157" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> A passage of special significance is that in +measures 123-146, where Beethoven indulges in a touching soliloquy +upon his main theme. It is mysteriously introduced by the repetition, +eight times, <i>pp</i>, of the dominant chord (the simplest medium of +suspense) which seems to say "Hush, I have something most intimate +reveal." The Coda (Più Moto) begins with a mood of wistful reverie, +but the clouds are soon dispelled and the movement ends in radiant +sunshine.</p> + +<p>The salient structural feature in the last two movements<a name="FNanchor_157_158" id="FNanchor_157_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_158" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> is that +they are merged together; there is no pause after the Scherzo; and +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span> movements are further interlocked by an interpolation, in the +middle of the Finale, of a portion of the preceding Scherzo—a kind of +inter-quotation or cross reference. This composite movement is a +striking example of the organic relationship which Beethoven succeeded +in establishing—between the different movements of the symphony. +Prior to him, it is fair to say—to use a homely simile—that a sonata +or a symphony resembled a train of different cars merely linked +together, one after the other; whereas the modern work, as +foreshadowed by Beethoven, is a vestibuled train: one indivisible +whole from beginning to end.<a name="FNanchor_158_159" id="FNanchor_158_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_159" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> But before the Fifth Symphony there +had been no such systematic unification; for it is not too much to say +that the whole work is based upon the persistent iteration of a single +note in varied rhythmic groups. Thus in the first movement we find +continually the rhythm <img src="images/music149a.png" width="119" height="35" alt="music" title="music" />; in the second, in several places +<img src="images/music149b.png" width="152" height="34" alt="music" title="music" />; +in the Scherzo <img src="images/music149c.png" width="146" height="32" alt="music" title="music" />; +and in the Finale <img src="images/music149d.png" width="249" height="31" alt="music" title="music" />. +Furthermore a C, repeated by the kettle-drums for fifty measures, is +the chief factor in the connecting link between the Scherzo and the +Finale. We shall observe this tendency to interconnection still +further developed by Schumann in his Fourth Symphony, by Liszt in the +Symphonic Poem<a name="FNanchor_159_160" id="FNanchor_159_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_160" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> (to be treated later), and a climax of attainment +reached in such highly unified works as César Franck's D minor +Symphony and Tchaikowsky's Fifth. To return to the Scherzo, well +worthy of note is the Trio, in free fugal form (its theme announced by +the ponderous double basses), because it is such a convincing +illustration of the humorous possibilities inherent in fugal style. +The way in which the voices<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span> chase each other about—compared by +Berlioz<a name="FNanchor_160_161" id="FNanchor_160_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_161" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> with the gambols of a delighted elephant—and their +spasmodic attempts at assertion, produce an effect irresistibly droll. +The humour is as broad as that of Aristophanes or Rabelais. Words are +powerless to describe the thrill of the last fifty measures which +launch us into the Finale. We may merely observe that this long +passage, <i>pp</i> throughout until the last molto crescendo, and with the +rhythmic element reduced to a minimum, makes more of an impact upon +our imagination than that of the loudest orchestral forces ever +conceived. We are reminded of the effect of the "still, small voice" +after the thunders on Sinai. The Finale, with its majestic opening +theme in fanfare, contains a wealth of material and is conceived +throughout in the utmost spirit of optimistic joy and freedom.<a name="FNanchor_161_162" id="FNanchor_161_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_162" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> +The Exposition has a subsidiary theme of its own, beginning at measure +26, which reappears with rhythmic modification (diminution), and most +eloquently announced by the bassoons, in the first section of the +final Coda. After the brilliant second theme (45-63) there is an +impressive closing theme (with some biting <i>fp</i> dissonances) which +forms the basis of the Presto portion of the Coda. The Development is +a marvellous treatment of the second theme, in imitation, modulation +and climactic growth; the rhythm <img src="images/music149d.png" width="249" height="31" alt="music" title="music" />, so vitally connected with +the whole work, persisting with stupendous energy. In the final +measures it would seem as if Beethoven were storming the very heavens. +Here occurs the quotation from the preceding Scherzo which binds the +movements together and serves as a point of departure for a still +greater climax. It seems unreasonable to expect a higher flight, but +the genius of Beethoven is equal to the effort. If, before, we have +reached the heavens, now we pierce them. The brilliant Coda—note the +ascending runs for the piccolo—is in three sections, the first based +on the subsidiary theme, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music150.png" width="634" height="113" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music150.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music150.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>the second on the closing theme in quickened tempo, <i>e.g.</i>,<a name="FNanchor_B_163" id="FNanchor_B_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_163" class="fnanchor">[B]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music151a.png" width="632" height="387" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music151a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music151a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and the third, a canonic treatment of the opening fanfare, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music151b.png" width="632" height="333" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music151b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music151b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>in which the orchestra seems to tumble head over heels in a paroxysm +of delight. The movement closes with prolonged shouts of victory and +exultation.<a name="FNanchor_162_164" id="FNanchor_162_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_164" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span></p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Coriolanus Overture</span></h3> + +<p>This dramatic work is of great importance, not only for its emotional +power and eloquence, but because it represents a type of Program +music, <i>i.e.</i>, music with a suggestive title, which Beethoven was the +first to conceive and to establish. From the inherent connection +between the materials of music (sound and rhythm) and certain natural +phenomena (the sound and rhythm of wind, wave and storm, the call of +birds, etc.) it is evident that the possibility for Program—or +descriptive—music has always existed.<a name="FNanchor_163_165" id="FNanchor_163_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_165" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> That is, the imagination +of musicians has continually been influenced by external sights, +sounds and events; and to their translation into music suggestive +titles have been given, as a guide to the hearer. Thus we find +Jannequin, a French composer of the 16th century, writing two +pieces—for <i>voices</i>!—entitled "<i>Les cris de Paris</i>" and "<i>La +Bataille—défaite des Suisses à la journée de Marignan</i>;" in the +former of which are introduced the varied cries of street venders and +in the latter, imitations of fifes, drums, cannon and all the bustle +and noises of war. In the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book there is a +Fantasie by John Mundy of the English school, in which such natural +phenomena as thunder, lightning and fair weather are delineated. There +is a curious similarity between the musical portrayal of lightning in +this piece<a name="FNanchor_164_166" id="FNanchor_164_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_166" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> of Mundy and that of Wagner in the <i>Valkyrie</i>. In the +<i>Bible Sonatas</i> of the German composer Kuhnau (1660-1722) we have a +musical description of the combat between David and Goliath. Anyone at +all familiar with the music of Couperin and Rameau will recall the +variety of fantastic titles assigned to their charming pieces for the +claveçin—almost always drawn from the field of nature: birds, bees, +butterflies, hens, windmills, even an eel! It is but fair to state +that we also find attempts at character drawing, even in those early +days, as is indicated by such titles as <i>La Prude</i>, <i>La Diligente</i>, +<i>La Séduisante</i>.<a name="FNanchor_165_167" id="FNanchor_165_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_167" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> Haydn's portrayal of Chaos, in the Prelude to +the <i>Creation</i>, is a remarkable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> mood-picture and shows a trend in +quite a different direction. All these instances corroborate the +statement that, in general, composers were influenced by external +phenomena and that their program music was of an imitative and often +frankly literal kind. From what we know of Beethoven's nature and +genius, however, we should imagine that he would be far more +interested in the emotions and struggles of the soul and we find that +such indeed is the case. With the exception of the <i>Pastoral Symphony</i> +with its bird-calls and thunderstorm and the <i>Egmont</i> Overture with +its graphic description of a returning victorious army, his program +music invariably aims at the description of character and the manner +in which it is influenced by events—<i>not</i>, be it understood, at a +musical portrayal of the events themselves. This difference in type is +generally indicated by the terms <i>subjective</i> and <i>objective</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, +program music is subjective, when it deals with the emotions and moods +of real or historical persons; objective, when it is based upon +incidents or objects of the actual world. It is evident that in +subjective program music an adjustment must be made, for the dramatic +needs of the subject are to be considered as well as the inherent laws +of music itself. We may state that the widening of the conception of +form, so marked in modern music, has been caused by the need of such +an adjustment; for as composers became more cultivated, more in touch +with life and of more richly endowed imagination, the arbitrary +conventions of strict form had perforce to yield to the demands of +dramatic treatment. This implies not that program music is without a +definite structure, only that the <i>form</i> is <i>different</i>—modified by +the needs of the subject. As there is no other point in aesthetics +which has caused more loose thinking, a few further comments may be +pertinent. Some critics go so far as to deny the right of existence to +all program music.<a name="FNanchor_166_168" id="FNanchor_166_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_168" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> Of course there is good as well as bad program +music, but to condemn it <i>per se</i> is simply to fly in the face of +facts, for a large proportion of the music since Beethoven is on a +poetic basis and has descriptive titles. Others claim that they cannot +understand it. But that is their loss, not the fault of the music; the +composer writes it and it is for us to acquire the state of mind to +appreciate it. Another misleading allegation, often heard, is that a +piece of program music should be so clear and self-sufficient that the +hearer needs to know nothing of the title to derive the fullest +enjoyment. But this simply begs the question. As well say that in +listening to a song we need to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span> know nothing of the meaning of the +text. It is true that in listening to Beethoven's <i>Coriolanus</i>, for +example, any sensitive hearer will be impressed by the vitality of the +rhythm and the sheer beauty of orchestral sound. But to hold that such +a hearer gets as much from the work as he who knows the underlying +drama and can follow sympathetically the correspondence between the +characters and their musical treatment is to indulge in reckless +assertion. The true relationship between composer and hearer is this: +when works are entitled <i>Coriolanus</i>, <i>Melpomene</i>, <i>Francesca da +Rimini</i>, <i>Sakuntala</i>, <i>L'après-midi d'un Faune</i>, <i>The Mystic +Trumpeter</i>, <i>L'apprenti Sorcier</i>, and the composers reveal therein the +influence such subjects have had upon their imagination, they are +paying a tacit compliment to the hearer whose breadth of intelligence +and cultivation they expect to be on a par with their own. If such be +not the case, the fault is not the composer's; the burden of proof is +on the listener.<a name="FNanchor_167_169" id="FNanchor_167_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_169" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> Let us now trace certain relationships between +the drama of <i>Coriolanus</i> and the musical characterization of +Beethoven. The Overture was composed as an introduction to a tragedy +by the German playwright von Collin, but as the play is obsolete and +as both von Collin and Shakespeare went to Plutarch for their sources, +a familiarity—which should be taken for granted<a name="FNanchor_168_170" id="FNanchor_168_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_170" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>—with the +English drama will furnish sufficient background for an appreciation +of the music. The scene before the city gates is evidently that in +which Volumnia and Virgilia plead with the victorious warrior to +refrain from his fell purpose of destruction. The work is in +Sonata-form, since the great Sonata principle of <i>duality</i> of <i>theme</i> +exactly harmonizes with the two main influences of the drama—the +masculine and the feminine. It is of particular interest to observe +how the usual methods of Sonata-form procedure are modified to suit +the dramatic logic of the subject. The work begins Allegro con brio, +with three sustained Cs—as if someone were stamping with heavy +foot—followed by a series of assertive <i>ff</i> chords for full orchestra +(note the piercing dissonance in the 7th measure),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span> which at once +establishes an atmosphere of headstrong defiance. The first theme, +beginning in measure 15 with its restless rhythm, is not meant to be +beautiful in the ordinary sense of the term—"a concourse of sweet +sounds"; rather is it a dramatic characterization, a picture in terms +of music, of the reckless energy and the fierce threats which we +naturally associate with Coriolanus. The theme is repeated and then +the transition develops this masculine mood in an impassioned +manner—observe the frequency of <i>sf</i> accents and the crashing +dissonances<a name="FNanchor_169_171" id="FNanchor_169_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_171" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>—until a sustained note on the violins, followed by a +descending cantabile phrase, brings us to the second theme, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music155.png" width="635" height="98" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music155.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music155.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This theme, in distinction from the first, typifies the appeal for +mercy made by the women in the drama. No contrast could be stronger +than that between these two themes—the first, impulsive, staccato, of +sweeping range, and in the minor; the second, suave, legato, +restrained and in the major. They show indeed how powerfully +Beethoven's imagination was impressed by the subject. After an +eloquent expansion of the second theme there follow several stormy +measures (the deprecations of the women are at first of no avail) that +lead through a crescendo to a closing theme, at measure 83, in which +the mood of defiant assertion is strongly marked. The exposition +closes in this mood, in measure 100, and the following Development +accentuates it through several successions of restless, crescendo +passages until a <i>ff</i> descent sweeps us back to the Recapitulation, in +measure 151. It is now evident that the furious intentions of the +warrior have raged themselves out, for not only is the theme which +represents him much shortened but it loses somewhat of its former +fiery intensity. From here on, the trend of the music is largely +modified by the dramatic demands of the subject. That the appeals of +the women are beginning to prevail is evident from the emphasis laid +on the second theme, which gives its message no less than <i>three</i> +times, instead of the single appearance which we should expect in the +usual Recapitulation. The third appeal, in measures 247-253, is +rendered most pathetic by being expressed in the minor mode. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span> the +Coda there are fitful flare-ups of the relentless purpose, but that +the stubborn will has been softened is evident from the slowing down +of the rhythm, in measures 285-294. Finally, in the wonderful closing +passage, we have a picture of broken resolves and ruined hopes. The +theme disintegrates and fades away—a lifeless vision. Although much +of the structure in this overture is identical with that which +prevails in absolute music—for, after all, the composer must be true +to the laws of his medium of expression—there is enough <i>purely +dramatic</i> treatment to justify the foregoing analysis. Beethoven, at +any rate, called the overture Coriolanus, and we may be sure he meant +it to <i>represent</i> Coriolanus and to be something more than a skillful +combination of sounds and rhythms.</p> + +<p>We now add a few last words on the quality of Beethoven's themes in +his moments of supreme inspiration. The unshaken hold which his music +has upon the affections of mankind is due chiefly to two striking +characteristics: first, the way in which he dramatized +everything—themes, instruments, even <i>single</i> notes, <i>i.e.</i>, treating +them as actual factors in life itself rather than as artistic +abstractions; second, the spirituality and sublimity in his immortal +message. The first quality is exemplified in a number of passages, +notably in the first movement of the Violin Concerto and in the Finale +of the Eighth Symphony. In the opening measures of the Concerto the +use of the single note D-sharp, and the entry <i>pp</i> of the F natural in +the following passage—in each case, entirely disconnected from the +normal rules of musical grammar—are most dramatic, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music156.png" width="629" height="319" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music157a.png" width="633" height="283" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music156.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music156.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>At the mysterious entrance of the F natural in this passage it would +seem as if some mighty spirit were suddenly looking over our shoulder. +In the Finale of the Eighth Symphony what can be more startling than +the sudden explosive entrance of the unrelated C-sharp—before the +orchestra continues its mad career—which can be compared only to the +uproarious laughter of Rabelais himself, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music157b.png" width="630" height="414" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music157b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music157b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>There are numerous examples in Beethoven showing his dramatic use of +such orchestral instruments as the bassoons, horns, kettle-drums and +double basses. Possibly the most striking<a name="FNanchor_170_172" id="FNanchor_170_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_172" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> is the Slow Movement of +the G major Pianoforte Concerto—that inspired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> dialogue, as it has +been eloquently called, "between Destiny and the human soul," in which +the touching appeals of the solo instrument are constantly interrupted +by the sinister mutterings and forebodings of the strings. Observe +especially the closing measures where the basses, alone are heard +<i>pp</i>, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music158.png" width="636" height="654" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music158.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music158.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>A spiritual quality escapes verbal definition; but just as we can feel +it in certain characters, and just as we recognize the sublime in +nature and in such works of art as a cathedral or a Shakespearian +Drama, so we may find it in the following specific examples from his +works: the Trio of the second movement of the Seventh Symphony; the +Slow Movement theme of the B-flat major Trio and the Slow Movement of +the Sonata op. 109. (See Supplement Nos. 47, 48, 49.) Anyone who +allows these themes to sink into his consciousness is carried into a +realm of ideality where he begins to recognize the truth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span> that "the +things which are unseen are eternal." Music of this transporting power +is far above that which merely excites, amuses or even fascinates; and +of such music Beethoven is the poet for all time.</p> + +<p>We have referred above to the voluminous literature extant concerning +Beethoven. Several scholars, in fact—notably Alexander Thayer and Sir +George Grove—have devoted a large part of their lives to finding out +all there is to be known about his life and works. Obviously the +layman cannot be expected to become familiar with this entire mass of +historical and critical writing. The following books, however, may be +considered indispensable aids to those who would become cultivated +appreciators of Beethoven's masterpieces: the <i>Life of Beethoven</i> by +Alexander Thayer—a great glory to American scholarship; the life in +Grove's Dictionary; the illuminating Biography by d'Indy (in French +and in English); <i>Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies</i> by Grove; the +<i>Oxford History of Music</i>, Vol. V; and the essay by Mason in his +<i>Beethoven and his Forerunners</i>.<a name="FNanchor_171_173" id="FNanchor_171_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_173" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> We cite, in closing, a +eulogy<a name="FNanchor_172_174" id="FNanchor_172_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_174" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> by Dannreuther—in our opinion the most eloquent ever +written on Beethoven's genius:</p> + +<p>"While listening," says Mr. Dannreuther, "to such works as the +Overture to Leonora, the Sinfonia Eroica, or the Ninth Symphony, we +feel that we are in the presence of something far wider and higher +than the mere development of musical themes. The execution in detail +of each movement and each succeeding work is modified more and more by +the prevailing sentiment. A religious passion and elevation are +present in the utterances. The mental and moral horizon of the music +grows upon us with each renewed hearing. The different movements—like +the different particles of each movement—have as close a connection +with one another as the acts of a tragedy, and a characteristic +significance to be understood only in relation to the whole; each work +is in the full sense of the word a revelation. Beethoven speaks a +language no one has spoken before, and treats of things no one has +dreamt of before: yet it seems as though he were speaking of matters +long familiar, in one's mother tongue;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span> as though he touched upon +emotions one had lived through in some former existence.... The warmth +and depth of his ethical sentiment is now felt all the world over, and +it will ere long be universally recognised that he has leavened and +widened the sphere of men's emotions in a manner akin to that in which +the conceptions of great philosophers and poets have widened the +sphere of men's intellectual activity."</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h3>THE ROMANTIC COMPOSERS. SCHUBERT AND WEBER</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">D</span>URING the latter part of Beethoven's life—he died in 1827—new +currents were setting in, which were to influence profoundly the trend +of modern music. Two important, though in some respects unconscious, +representatives of these tendencies were actually working +contemporaneously with Beethoven, von Weber (1786-1826) and Schubert +(1797-1828). Beethoven himself is felt to be a dual personality in +that he summed up and ratified all that was best in his predecessors, +and pointed the way for most of the tendencies operative since his +time. For the designation of these two contrasting, though not +exclusive, ideals, the currently accepted terms are Classic and +Romantic. So many shades of meaning have unfortunately been associated +with the word Romantic that confusion of thought has arisen. It is +also true that the so-called Romanticists, including poets and +painters as well as musicians, in their endeavors to break loose from +the formality of the Classic period, have indulged in many irritating +idiosyncracies. We are beginning to see clearly that a too violent +expression of individuality destroys a most vital factor in +music—universality of appeal. Yet the Romantic School cannot be +ignored. To its representatives we owe many of our finest works, and +they were the prime movers in those strivings toward freedom and +ideality which have made the modern world what it is. The term +Romantic is perfectly clear in its application to literature, from +which music borrowed it. It refers to the movement begun about the +year 1796 among such German poets as Tieck, the two Schlegels and +Novalis, to restore the poetic legends of the middle ages, written in +the Romance dialects, and to embody in their own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span> works the fantastic +spirit of this medieval poetry.<a name="FNanchor_173_175" id="FNanchor_173_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_175" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> In reference to music, however, +the terms Classic and Romantic are often vague and misleading, and +have had extreme interpretations put upon them.<a name="FNanchor_174_176" id="FNanchor_174_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_176" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> Thus, to many, +"romantic" implies ultra-sentimental, mawkish or grotesque, while +everything "classic" is dry, uninspired and academic. How often we +hear the expression, "I am not up to classic music; let me hear +something modern and romantic." Many scholars show little respect for +the terms and some would abolish them altogether. Everything, however, +hinges upon a reasonable definition. Pater's well-known saying that +"Romanticism is the addition of strangeness to beauty" is fair; and +yet, since strangeness in art can result only from imaginative +conception, it amounts to nothing more than the truism that romantic +art is imbued with personality. Hence Stendhal is right in saying that +"All good art was Romantic in its day"; <i>i.e.</i>, it exhibited as much +warmth and individuality as the spirit of its times would allow. +Surely Bach, Haydn and Mozart were real characters, notwithstanding +the restraint which the artificialities of the period often put upon +their utterance. On the other hand, work at first pronounced to be +romantic establishes, by a universal recognition of its merit, the +claim to be considered classic, or set apart; what is romantic to-day +thus growing to be classic<a name="FNanchor_175_177" id="FNanchor_175_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_177" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> tomorrow. It is evident, therefore, +that the terms interlock and are not mutually exclusive. It is a +mistaken attitude to set one school off against the other, or to prove +that one style is greater than the other; they are simply different. +Compositions of lasting worth always manifest such a happy union of +qualities that, in a broad sense, they may be called both romantic and +classic, <i>i.e.</i>, they combine personal emotion and imagination with +breadth of meaning and solidity of structure.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span></p><p>Beginning, however, with Schubert and Weber—the two first +representatives of the romantic group—there is a marked novelty of +content and style; and if we drop the terms and confine ourselves to +the inner evidence of the music itself, we note a difference which may +be felt and to a certain extent formulated. To take extreme types for +the sake of vivid contrast, let us compare the compositions of Haydn +and Mozart with those of Berlioz and Liszt. In the former there is +repose, restraint and a perfect finish in the structural presentation; +a feeling of serenity comes over us as we listen. In the latter, a +peculiar intensity of expression, an attempt to fascinate the listener +by the most intimate kinds of appeal, especially to the senses and +fancy, regardless of any liberties taken with former modes of +treatment. The purely classical composer is always master of his +subject, whereas the romanticist is often carried away by it. +Classical works are objectively beautiful, commending themselves to +everyone like works of nature, or, let us say, like decorative +patterns in pure design. Romantic works are subjective, charged with +individuality and demand a sensitive and sympathetic appreciation on +the part of the hearer. It is evident that many of these tendencies +are found clearly outlined in the works of Beethoven. In fact, as has +been said, he was not only the climax of the classical school, but the +founder of the new era—opening a door, as it were, into the +possibilities of a more intense, specialized form of emotional +utterance and a freer conception of form. These special +characteristics were so fully developed by Beethoven's successors, +Schubert, Weber, Schumann, Chopin, etc. that they are always grouped +together as the Romantic School. A striking feature in this whole +Romantic group is the early flowering of their genius and the +shortness of their lives—Weber, forty years, Schubert, thirty-one, +Schumann, forty-six, Mendelssohn, thirty-eight, Chopin, forty. In the +case of all the composers we have hitherto studied, with the exception +of Mozart, their masterpieces have been the result of long years of +patient, technical study and hence show that finish and maturity of +style which come only with time. But the precocity of the Romanticists +is astounding! Many of Schubert's famous pieces were composed in his +earliest manhood; Mendelssohn's <i>Midsummer Night's Dream</i> Overture +dates from his sixteenth year; Schumann's best pianoforte works were +composed before he was thirty. The irresistible spontaneity and vigor +of all these works largely atone for any blemishes in treatment. We +feel somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span> the same in the case of Keats and Shelley in comparison +with Milton, and are reminded of Wordsworth's lines, "Bliss was it in +that hour to be alive, but to be young was very Heaven."<a name="FNanchor_176_178" id="FNanchor_176_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_178" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> Why +expect senatorial wisdom and the fancy of youth in any one person!</p> + +<p>A most important distinction between a classical and a romantic +composer is the knowledge and love of literature shown by the latter. +Although Haydn kept a note-book on his London tours, and although we +have a fair number of letters from Mozart, in neither of these men do +we find any appreciation of general currents of thought and life. In +many of Beethoven's works we have seen how close was the connection +between literature and musical expression. All the Romantic composers, +with the exception of Schubert, were broadly cultivated, and several +could express themselves artistically in words as well as in notes. +They may not have been on this account any better composers, as far as +sheer creative vitality is concerned, but it is evident that their +imaginations were nourished in quite a different way and hence a novel +product was to be expected. Romantic music has been defined as a +reflex of poetry expressed in musical terms, at times fairly trembling +on the verge of speech. Music can not, to be sure, describe matters of +fact, but the Romantic composers have brought it to a high degree of +poetical suggestiveness. Thus the horn-calls of Weber and Schubert +remind us of "the horns of Elfland faintly blowing" and much romantic +music arouses our imaginations and enchants our senses in the same way +as the lines of Keats where he tells of "Magic casements opening on +the foam of perilous seas in fairy lands forlorn," the chief glory of +which is not any precise intellectual idea they convey, but the +fascinating picture which carries us from the land of hard and fast +events into the realm of fancy. Schumann claimed that his object in +writing music was so to influence the imagination of the listeners +that they could go on dreaming for themselves. A second characteristic +is the freedom of form. Considering that a free rein to their fancy +was incompatible with strict adherence to traditional rules, the +Romantic spirits refused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span> to be bound by forms felt to be inadequate. +Although this attitude sometimes resulted in diffuseness and +obscurity, on the whole (as Goethe says of romantic literature) "a +wider and more varied subject matter and a freer form has been +attained." The chief aim of romantic art being to arouse the +imagination, we find a predilection for the use of solo wood-wind +instruments, which are capable of such warmth and variety of +tone-color. Whereas in the classical masters, and even generally in +Beethoven, the melodies are likely to be the upper voice of a harmonic +mass, or assigned to groups of instruments, Weber and Schubert in +particular showed the eloquence to be gained by the use of such +warm-blooded <i>solo</i> instruments as the horn, the oboe and the +clarinet. Schubert fairly conjures with the horn, often holding us +spellbound with its haunting appeal, <i>e.g.</i>, in the well-known second +movement of the C major Symphony, the calls of which, as Schumann +said, "seem to come from another world." Schubert was anything but a +thinker, and reflected unconsciously the tendencies which were in the +air; but his wonderful gift of lyric melody was thoroughly in keeping +with the individual expression for which Romanticism stood. He said +himself that his compositions were the direct result of his inmost +sorrows. He was steeped in romantic poetry and the glowing fancy in +his best work leads us to condone the occasional prolixity referred to +by Schumann as "heavenly length." Schubert was well named by Liszt the +most poetic of musicians, <i>i.e.</i>, a creator of pure beauty which +enthralls the imagination of the hearer. Why expect the work of any +one composer to manifest all possible merits? If we crave dynamic +power of emotion or sublimity of thought we may have recourse to Bach +and Beethoven; but the spontaneous charm of Schubert never grows old; +and it is not without interest to note that his music fulfils the +definition of one of the most poetic composers of our time, Debussy, +who claims that music is chiefly meant "to give pleasure."</p> + +<p>We note these same tendencies in Weber as shown in the overtures to +his three Romantic operas, <i>Der Freischütz</i>, <i>Euryanthe</i> and <i>Oberon</i>, +which are the foundations of the modern art of dramatic orchestration, +<i>i.e.</i>, the intensification of certain ideas and situations by the +special tone color and register of solo-instruments or by a novel use +of customary means, <i>e.g.</i>, the divided violins in the mysterious +passage of the <i>Euryanthe</i> overture. Another favorite means of +arresting the attention was by modulation; not used in a constructive +sense, simply to pass from one point to another, or to connect themes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span> +in different keys, but to furnish the ear with a purely sensuous +delight, corresponding to that which the eye derives from the +kaleidoscopic colors of a sunset. The works of Schubert, Chopin and to +a lesser degree of Schumann abound in these shifting harmonies by +which we seem to be wafted along on a magic carpet. A final +characteristic, shared by all the Romantic composers, is the +prevalence of titles—the logical result of the close connection +between music, literature and the world of outward events,—thus +Mendelssohn's Overture to the <i>Midsummer Night's Dream</i> with its +romantic opening chords, his <i>Hebrides</i> Overture, the musical record +of a trip to Scotland, and Schumann's <i>Manfred</i>, from Byron. Liszt +even went so far as to draw inspiration from a painting, as in his +<i>Battle of the Huns</i>, and again from a beautiful vase in <i>Orpheus</i>.</p> + +<p>We shall now make a few specific comments on the style of Schubert and +Weber and then analyze some of their representative works. Schubert +was a born composer of songs, and though his works for Pianoforte, +String quartet and Orchestra were of marked significance and have +proved of lasting value, the instinct for highly individualized, lyric +melody predominates, and all his instrumental compositions may fairly +be called "Songs without words."<a name="FNanchor_177_179" id="FNanchor_177_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_179" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> It is evident that the +solo-song, unencumbered by structural considerations, is one of the +best media for expressing the Romantic spirit, and many of its fairest +fruits are found in this field. Schubert's songs are often tone-dramas +in which the expressive powers of music are most eloquently +employed.<a name="FNanchor_178_180" id="FNanchor_178_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_180" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> Note the poetic touches of character-drawing and of +description in the <i>Young Nun</i> (see Supplement No. 50). Schubert's +pianoforte compositions are miniature tone-poems, mood-pictures—their +titles: <i>Impromptus</i> and <i>Moments Musicaux</i>, speak for +themselves—making no pretense to the scope and elaborate structure of +movements in Sonata-form,<a name="FNanchor_179_181" id="FNanchor_179_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_181" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> yet of great import not only for their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span> +intrinsic beauty but as the prototypes of the numerous lyric and +descriptive pieces of Schumann, Brahms, Grieg, Debussy and others. +Their charm lies in the heart-felt melodies and surprising +modulations. While neither sublime nor deeply introspective, they make +the simple, direct appeal of a lovely flower. In the development of +music they are as important as the modern short story in the field of +literature; which, in distinction to the old "three-decker" novel, +often really <i>says more</i> and says it so concisely that our interest +never flags. This tendency to the short, independent piece had been +begun by Beethoven in his <i>Bagatelles</i> (French "trifles"); but these, +as has been aptly said, were "mere chips from the work-shop" whereas +in a short piece of Schubert we find the quintessence of his genius. +He was a prolific composer in the field of chamber music, and the +Trios for Violin, 'Cello and Pianoforte, the A minor Quartet, the C +major Quintet and, above all, the posthumous Quartet in D minor, which +contains the entrancing Variations on the song <i>Death and the Maiden</i>, +are still as fresh as when they were composed. In these works we do +not look for architectonic power—we must admit, in fact, at the risk +of seeming ungracious, that Schubert is diffuse at times—but our +senses are so enthralled by the imaginative freedom and by the +splendor of color, that all purely intellectual judgment is suspended. +The magician works his wonders; it is for us to enjoy. We have from +Schubert seven complete Symphonies and the so-called <i>Unfinished in B +minor</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the first two movements and the fragment of a Scherzo. +Of these the <i>Fourth</i> (<i>Tragic</i>), composed in 1816, foreshadows the +real Schubert and is occasionally heard to-day. But the immortal ones +are the B minor and the C major, the latter composed in 1828 (the last +year of his life) and never heard by its author.<a name="FNanchor_180_182" id="FNanchor_180_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_182" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> Of this work +Schumann said that "a tenth Muse had been added to the nine of +Beethoven." This symphony is specially characterized by the +incorporation of Hungarian types of melody, particularly in the first +and in the last movement. It is indeed a storehouse of beauty, but the +"high moments" are in the last two movements—the fairly intoxicating +Trio of the Scherzo, which seems as if Nature herself were singing to +us, and the gorgeous Finale with its throbbing rhythms. The first +movement is laid out on a vast scale and holds the attention +throughout, but the second movement, notwithstanding its wondrous +theme, suffers from a lack of concentration; the sweetness is so +long-drawn out that we become sated.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span></p><p>As examples<a name="FNanchor_181_183" id="FNanchor_181_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_183" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> for analytical comment we select the Menuetto in B +minor from the Fantasia for Pianoforte, op. 78; the fourth Impromptu +in A-flat major from the set, op. 90, and the B minor Symphony for +orchestra. The Menuetto, though one of Schubert's simpler pieces—the +first part in an idealized Mozartian vein—yet exemplifies in the Trio +one of the composer's most characteristic traits, the predilection for +those bewitching alternations,<a name="FNanchor_182_184" id="FNanchor_182_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_184" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> like sunlight and shadow, between +the major and the minor mode.</p> + +<p>The Impromptu in A-flat major, one of several equally fine ones, is +notable for the wealth of its iridescent modulations and for the note +of genuine pathos and passion in the middle portion in the minor mode. +Schubert might well say that his most inspired music came from his +sorrows.</p> + +<p>The <i>Unfinished Symphony</i> requires less comment and elucidation than +perhaps any other symphonic composition. The two movements are in +definite Sonata-form—the first, strict, the second, with +modifications; but the quality of the themes is quite different from +that to which we have been accustomed in classical treatment. Instead +of the terse, characteristic motive which, often at first +uncompromisingly bare, impresses us as its latent possibilities are +revealed, we have a series of lyric, periodic melodies which make +their instant appeal. In Schubert everything sings; thus in the first +part of the Exposition of the Allegro we have <i>three</i> distinct +melodies: the introductory phrase, the accompaniment figure which has +a melodic line of its own, and the first theme proper. In any +consideration of this work from a pianoforte version we must always +remember how much the beauty and eloquence of the themes depend upon +the solo instruments to which they are assigned. For Schubert was one +of the first, as well as one of the greatest, of "Colorists." By the +use of this pictorial term in music we mean that the tone-quality of +certain instruments—the mellow, far-echoing effect of the horn,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span> the +tang of the oboe, the passionate warmth of the clarinet<a name="FNanchor_183_185" id="FNanchor_183_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_185" class="fnanchor">[183]</a>—appeals +to our sense of hearing in the same way in which beautiful colors—the +green grass, the blue sky, the hues of a sunset—delight our sight. A +striking example of Schubert's genius in utilizing tone-color to suit +structural needs is found in the transition beginning at measure 38. +This is a single tone on the horn (with a modulatory ending) announced +<i>forte</i> and then allowed to die away, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>sf</i> +<img src="images/decrescendo.jpg" width="40" height="12" alt="decrescendo symbol" title="decrescendo symbol" />. +So powerful is the horn in evoking a spirit of suspense and +revery that this tone introduces the beautiful, swaying second theme +more impressively than a whole series of routine modulations. The +Development speaks for itself. Though there is little polyphonic +treatment, it holds our interest by reason of the harmonic variety and +the dramatic touches of orchestration. In Schubert we do not look for +the development of a complicated plot but give ourselves up +unreservedly to the enjoyment of pure melodic line, couched in terms +of sensuously delightful tone-color. The transitional passage of the +Recapitulation (measures 231-253) illustrates Schubert's fondness for +modulation just for its own sake; we care not what the objective point +of the music may be—enthralled, as we are, by the magical shifts of +scene. In the Second Movement, likewise, the chief beauty—especially +of the second theme—consists in the lyric quality, in the color of +the solo instruments, the oboe, clarinet and horn, and in the +enharmonic changes, <i>e.g.</i>, where, in measures 80-95, the theme +modulates from C-sharp minor to D-flat major. Note in the orchestral +score the charming dialogue in this passage between the clarinet, oboe +and flute. The Development, based upon the second theme, with some +effective canonic treatment, shows that Schubert was by no means +entirely lacking in polyphonic skill. At any rate he can work wonders +with the horn, for at the close of the Development (measures 134-142) +by the simple device of an octave leap, <i>ppp</i>, he veritably transports +the listener, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music168.png" width="631" height="206" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music169.png" width="632" height="213" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music168.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music168.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The Coda has a dream-like quality all its own.</p> + +<p>Weber's permanent contribution to musical literature has proved to be +his operas—a form of art not treated in this book. But the whole +nature of his genius was so closely related to the Romantic spirit, as +shown in the intimate connection between literature and music, in his +descriptive powers and his development of the orchestra, that for the +sake of comprehensiveness some familiarity should be gained with the +essential features of his style. Of Weber it may be said with +conviction that there is hardly a composer of acknowledged rank in +whom style, <i>i.e.</i>, the way and the medium by which musical thought is +presented, so prevails over the substance of the thought itself. There +are few if any of Weber's melodies which are notable for creative +power, and as a harmonist he was lamentably weak. It has been +scathingly said, though with considerable truth, that all his melodies +are based upon an alternation of tonic and dominant chords!<a name="FNanchor_184_186" id="FNanchor_184_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_186" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> But +when we consider what his themes are meant to describe, the pictures +they evoke and their orchestral dress, we must acknowledge in Weber +the touch of real poetic genius. To quote Runciman<a name="FNanchor_185_187" id="FNanchor_185_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_187" class="fnanchor">[185]</a>—</p> + +<p>"If you look, and look rightly, for the right thing in Weber's music, +disappointment is impossible, though I admit that the man who +professes to find there the great qualities he finds in Mozart, +Beethoven, or any of the giants, must be in a very sad case. Grandeur, +pure beauty, and high expressiveness are alike wanting. Weber's claim +to a place amongst the composers is supported in a lesser de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>gree by +the gifts which he shared, even if his share was small, with the +greater masters of music, than by his miraculous power of vividly +drawing and painting in music the things that kindled his imagination. +Being a factor of the Romantic movement, that mighty rebellion against +the tyranny of a world of footrules and ledgers, he lived in a world +where two and two might make five or seven or any number you pleased, +and where footrules were unknown; he took small interest in drama +taken out of the lives of ordinary men and enacted amidst every-day +surroundings; his imagination lit up only when he thought of haunted +glens and ghouls and evil spirits, the fantastic world and life that +goes on underneath the ocean, or of men or women held by ghastly +spells."</p> + +<p>Weber's present-day fame rests upon the Overtures to his three operas +of <i>Der Freischütz</i>, <i>Euryanthe</i> and <i>Oberon</i>, which are often played +in detached concert form and hold their own for their romantic glow +and for the brilliancy of orchestral effect. By employing for his +thematic material the leading melodies of the operas themselves Weber +has created what may be called epitomized dramas which, if we have any +knowledge of what the titles imply, present us with realistic +pictures. For the use of special tone-color to enhance the dramatic +situation Weber is the precursor of that type of orchestration which +has reached such heights in Wagner and other moderns. From the above +comments it is evident that only the barest idea of the Overtures can +be gained from a pianoforte version; we have selected <i>Oberon</i><a name="FNanchor_186_188" id="FNanchor_186_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_188" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> +because it suffers less than either of the others. Everyone, however, +should become familiar with the mysterious, boding passage in the +introduction to <i>Der Freischütz</i> (taken from the scene in the Wolf's +Glen) and the Intermezzo from <i>Euryanthe</i> for muted, divided +strings,<a name="FNanchor_187_189" id="FNanchor_187_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_189" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> which accompanies the apparition of the ghost. This is +<i>genuine</i> descriptive music for it really <i>sounds ghostly</i>. (See +Supplement No. 51.)</p> + +<p>The <i>Oberon Overture in D major</i>, begins with the intoning of the +motto of Oberon's magic horn, and then follows a passage for muted +strings (piano e adagio sostenuto) and for delicate combinations of +the wood-wind instruments, which gives us a picture of the moonlit +glens of fairyland, peopled with airy spirits. The vision is +dispelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span> by a sudden <i>ff</i> chord for full orchestra which, from its +setting, is one of the loudest effects in music, thoroughly +characteristic of Weber's penchant for dramatic contrast. The main +body of the work (allegro con fuoco) opens with a dashing theme for +the strings of great brilliancy, most typical of Weber. Though we may +feel that it has little substance (note the tonic and dominant +foundation of the harmony) we cannot be insensible to its abounding +vigor. It is not alone the ponderous things which should move our +imaginations; even a soap-bubble is a wonderful phenomenon. The theme +is expanded to a climax, in measure 28 (counting from the allegro), of +great sonority and considerable harmonic boldness. After some +reminiscent appearances of the introductory horn-call, a +long-sustained dominant note introduces the second theme which seems a +bit cloying, to be sure, but is just suited to the melting tone-color +of the clarinet. The closing theme borders on triviality; the +Exposition ends, however, with some exceedingly brilliant +improvisations on the rhythmic figure of the main theme. The following +Development is rather flimsy and we need expend upon it no critical +powder. Weber was a great colorist but not a great architect. These +qualities are united only too seldom. In the Recapitulation, which is +shortened by the omission of the second theme—rather overworked in +the Development—he is once more on his own ground of rhythmic life +and dazzling orchestral color. At the close we are convinced that the +overture has accomplished its purpose of graphically depicting the +revels of Fairy-land.</p> + +<p>Although they are seldom<a name="FNanchor_188_190" id="FNanchor_188_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_190" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> played to-day, no account of Weber would +be complete which entirely passed over his compositions for the +Pianoforte, <i>i.e.</i>, the four Sonatas, the concert piece in F minor and +the originally conceived <i>Invitation to the Dance</i>, often played in +the orchestral version of Berlioz which is so much better than the +inflated, bombastic one by Weingartner. Weber is classed as one of the +founders of the "brilliant school" of pianoforte playing which, +chiefly through the genius of Franz Liszt, has done so much to enlarge +the sonorous and coloristic possibilities of the instrument. Here +again Weber's fame rests more upon his influence than upon lasting +achievement; as to the importance of this influence, however, there +can be no doubt.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span></p> +<p>The student will be repaid for informing<a name="FNanchor_189_191" id="FNanchor_189_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_191" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> himself as fully as +possible concerning Weber's career and artistic ideals, for he was a +genuine though early exponent of Romantic tendencies. Of marked +versatility, of no mean literary skill and of such social magnetism +and charm that he might properly be considered a man of the world, as +well as an artist, Weber was thus enabled to do pioneer work in +raising the standard of musicianship and in bringing the art of music +and ordinary, daily life into closer touch.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3>SCHUMANN AND MENDELSSOHN</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">I</span>N distinction from pioneers like Schubert, slightly tinged with +Romanticism, and Weber who, though versatile, was somewhat lacking in +creative vigor, Schumann (1810-1856) stands forth as the definite, +conscious spokesman of the Romantic movement in German art just as +Berlioz was for art in France. He was endowed with literary gifts of a +high order, had a keen critical and historical sense and wrote freely +and convincingly in support of his own views and in generous +recognition of the ideals of his contemporaries. Many of his swans, to +be sure, proved later to be geese, and it is debatable how much good +was done by his rhapsodic praise to young Brahms; whether in fact he +did not set before the youngster a chimerical ideal impossible of +attainment. Schumann early came under the influence of Jean Paul +Richter, that incarnation of German Romanticism, whom he placed on the +same high plane as Shakespeare and Beethoven. An intimate appreciation +of much that is fantastic and whimsical in Schumann is possible only +through acquaintance with the work of this Jean Paul. Schumann's first +compositions were for the pianoforte—in fact his original +ambition<a name="FNanchor_190_192" id="FNanchor_190_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_192" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> was to be a pianoforte virtuoso—and to-day his +permanent significance depends on the spontaneity in conception and +the freedom of form manifested in these piano<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span>forte works and in his +romantic songs. Here we have the "ipsissimus Schumann," as von Bülow +so well remarks. Schumann's pianoforte style is compounded of two +factors: first, his intensely subjective and varied imagination which, +nourished by the love of Romantic literature, craved an individual +mode of expression; second, a power of concentration and of organic +structure which was largely derived from a study of Bach and of the +later works of Beethoven. Schumann saw that the regularity of abstract +form, found in the purely classical writers, was not suited to the +full expression of his moods and so he worked out a style of his own, +although in many cases this was simply a logical amplification or +modification of former practice. In his pianoforte compositions, then, +we find a striking freedom in the choice of subject, which is +generally indicated by some poetically descriptive title, <i>e.g.</i>, +<i>Waldscenen</i>, <i>Nachtstücke</i>, <i>Fantasiestücke</i>, <i>Novelletten</i>, +<i>Kreisleriana</i>, <i>Humoreske</i>, etc. The danger in this form of subject +matter is that it often degenerates into sentimentality coupled with a +corresponding spinelessness of structure. This danger Schumann avoids +by a style noticeable for terseness and structural solidity. His +effort was to give significance to every note; all verbiage, +meaningless scale passages and monotonous arpeggios were swept away, +while the imagination was aroused by the bold use of dissonances and +by the variety of tone-color. A thoroughly novel feature was the +flexibility of the rhythm, which breaks from the old "sing-song" +metres and abounds in syncopations, in contrasted accents, and in +subtle combinations of metrical groups; every effort being made to +avoid the tyranny of the bar-line.</p> + +<p>Schumann's career was peculiar in that, beginning as a pianoforte +composer, he tried successively every other form as well—the song, +chamber music, works for orchestra, and for orchestra with solo voices +and chorus—and won distinction to a greater or less degree in every +field save that of the opera. Notwithstanding the beauty of poetic +inspiration enshrined in the four symphonies, a grave defect is the +quality of orchestral tone which greets the ear, especially the modern +ear accustomed to the many-hued sonority of Wagner, Tchaikowsky, +Debussy and others. These symphonies have been called "huge pieces for +four hands" which were afterwards orchestrated, and the allegation is +not without truth, as real orchestral glow and brilliancy is so often +lacking. Each one, however, has notable features, <i>e.g.</i>, the sublime +Adagio of the 2d, and the touching Romanza of the 4th, and each is +worthy of study; for Schumann in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> certain aspects furnishes the best +avenue of approach to the modern school. In the Fourth Symphony he +obliterates the pauses between the movements and fuses them all +together; calling it a Symphony "in einem Satze" and anticipating the +very same procedure that Schönberg follows in his String Quartet which +has had recent vogue. Schumann's chief contribution to the development +of the German Song lay in the pianoforte part, which with Schubert and +Mendelssohn might properly be called an accompaniment, however rich +and varied. But in Schumann the pianoforte attains to a real +independence of style, intensifying in the most subtle and delicate +way every shade of poetic feeling in the text. In fact, it is often +used to reveal some deep meaning beyond the expressive power of words. +This is seen in the closing measures of "Moonlight" where the voice +ceases in suspense, and the instrument completes the eloquence of the +message. Schumann's great achievement as a literary man was his +founding, in 1834, of the <i>Neue Zeitschrift für Musik</i>, to which he +himself contributed many stimulating and suggestive essays, opposing +with might and main the Philistinism which so pervaded the music of +his time. He even established an imaginary club, called the +Davidsbund, to storm the citadel of Philistia.</p> + +<p>The best eulogy of Schumann is the recognition that many of the +tendencies in modern music, which we now take for granted, date from +him: the exaltation of freedom and fancy over mere formal +presentation, the union of broad culture with musical technique, and +the recognition of music as the art closest in touch with the +aspirations of humanity. He was an idealist with such perseverance and +clearness of aim that his more characteristic work can never die.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Des Abends.</span></h3> + +<p>The <i>Fantasiestücke</i><a name="FNanchor_191_193" id="FNanchor_191_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_193" class="fnanchor">[191]</a>, op. 12, of which this piece is the first, +amply justify their title, for they abound in soaring thoughts, in +fantastic, whimsical imaginings and in novel modes of utterance and +structure. Every number of the set is a gem, <i>In der Nacht</i> being +perhaps the most poetic of Schumann's short pieces for the pianoforte. +They are thoroughly pianistic and evoke from the instrument all its +possibilities of sonority and color. In point of texture they +illustrate that happy combination, which Schumann worked out, of lyric +melo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span>dies on a firmly knit polyphonic basis. They are also +programmistic in so far as Schumann believed in music of that type. +There is no attempt to tell a detailed story or to have the music +correspond literally to definite incidents. The titles merely afford a +verbal clue to the general import and atmosphere of the music. Thus in +regard to the piece under consideration, the mere mention of eventide +is supposed to be enough to stimulate thought in any one with a +sensitive imagination, and the music is a suggestive expression of +Schumann's own intimate reveries. The piece is in extended two-part +form—each part repeated—and rounded out with an eloquent Coda. The +rhythmic scheme is of particular significance for it illustrates not +only the composer's fondness for inventing new combinations, but, as +well, suggests most delicately the mood of the piece. It would +evidently be false art to write a piece, entitled Evening, in a +vigorous, arousing rhythm, such as might be associated with a noon-day +sun, when we often see the heat-waves dancing over the fields. On the +other hand Schumann, by a subtle blending of triple time in the main +upper melody and duple time in the lower, suggests that hazy +indefiniteness appropriate to the time of day when the life of Nature +seems momentarily subsiding and everything sinking to rest, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music175.png" width="447" height="222" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music175.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music175.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In many measures of the second part (<i>i.e.</i>, 21-24) the accent is so +disguised that it seems as if we were in a twilight revery, quite +apart from matters of time and space.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Warum</span>?</h3> + +<p>This piece is a happy illustration of the intensity of meaning and the +conciseness of structure which Schumann gained by the application of +polyphonic imitation. It is difficult to say exactly what <i>Warum</i> +signifies. It was characteristic of the Romantic unrest of the German +mind to question everything—especially "Why am I not more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span> happy in +love?" The motto may be considered a Carlyle-like "everlasting why." +At any rate the composition is an example of music speaking more +plainly than words; for no one can fail to recognize the haunting +appeal in the theme with its long-drawn out final note after the +upward leap. It is a real musical question, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music176.png" width="394" height="79" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music176.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music176.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><i>Grillen</i>, the next piece in the set, deserves careful study. It is +too long to present as a whole, but we cite the middle part (See +Supplement No. 52) as it is such a convincing example of syncopated +effect (<i>i.e.</i>, the persistent placing of the accent on weak beats), +and of elasticity in the metric scheme.</p> + + +<h3><i>Novellette in E major.</i></h3> + +<p>This piece illustrates the vigor and massiveness of Schumann's +pianoforte style. Note the sonority gained by the use of widely spaced +chords. For the brilliant effect demanded, there should be a liberal +use of the damper pedal.<a name="FNanchor_192_194" id="FNanchor_192_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_194" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> We likewise find, beginning with the +third brace, some characteristic polyphonic imitations which give to +the movement a remarkable concentration. In the middle contrasting +portion it seems as if Schumann had taken a leaf out of Chopin's +book—a beautiful, lyric melody floating on an undercurrent of +sonorous, arpeggio chords. The theme is presented in dialogue form, +first in the upper voice, next in an inner voice and finally in the +bass. (See Supplement No. 53.)</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Song</span>, <i>Mondnacht</i>.</h3> + +<p>No estimate of Schumann would be fair or comprehensive without some +mention of his songs; upon which, together with his pianoforte +compositions, his immortality tends more and more to rest. +Notwithstanding the many poetic and dramatic touches in Schubert's +accompaniments, those of Schumann are on the whole more finely +wrought; for he had the advantage of Schubert in being, himself, a +pianist of high attainment, thoroughly versed in pianistic effects. +His imagination was also more sensitive to subtle shades of meaning in +the text and he was inspired by the wonderful lyrics of Heine, +Eichendorff and Chamisso who in Schubert's day had written very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span> +little. Special features of Schumann's songs are the instrumental +preludes and postludes, the prelude establishing just the right +setting for the import of the words and the postlude commenting on the +beautiful message which the voice has just delivered. In <i>Mondnacht</i>, +for example, (as previously mentioned), note how the voice stops in +suspense and in what an eloquent revery the accompaniment completes +the picture. (See Supplement No. 54.)</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Overture to</span> <i>Manfred</i>.</h3> + +<p>This Overture, the first of a set of incidental numbers which Schumann +composed to illustrate Byron's dramatic poem, represents some of his +most typical inspiration, and so is well worthy of our study. The +music is labored at times, especially in the Development, and the +orchestration is often dry and stereotyped. But the conception was a +powerful one, and there is a genuine correspondence between the nature +of the music and the spirit of the poem. It is evident that the +subject made a deep impression on Schumann, whose own imagination, +addicted to mysterious and even morbid broodings, was strongly akin to +that of Byron's fictitious character. The composition is program music +of the subjective order, comparable to Beethoven's <i>Coriolanus</i>, +<i>i.e.</i>, the themes are dramatic characterizations: the first typifying +the stormy nature of Manfred; the second, with its note of pleading, +the mysterious influence over the recluse of the spirit of Astarte. As +in all works of this kind the music cannot be readily appreciated +without a knowledge of the poem which it illustrates.<a name="FNanchor_193_195" id="FNanchor_193_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_195" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> As for the +structure, Schumann clings too closely to the Sonata-form. The music +is eloquent just in proportion as he gives his fancy free rein; where +he tries to force the themes into an arbitrary mould, the result is +unsatisfactory—especially the development, which is neither very +dramatic nor interesting from a purely musical point of view. The work +opens with three spasmodic syncopated<a name="FNanchor_194_196" id="FNanchor_194_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_196" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> chords, and then follow +twenty-four measures (lento and at first pianissimo) of a preludial +nature with suggestions of the Manfred theme. The movement becomes +gradually faster and more impassioned until, in measure 26, we reach +the presentation of the first theme (allegro agitato) which, with its +frequent syncopations,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> is characteristic of Manfred's restless +nature. The transition begins in measure 39; at first with a +repetition of the main theme, which soon modulates to F-sharp minor, +in which key the second theme enters, in measure 51. This theme—in +three portions—seems to embody different aspects of the feminine +influence of Astarte. The first portion, measures 51-61, with its +undulating, chromatic outline, may be said to typify the haunting +apparition so real to Manfred's imagination and yet so intangible; the +second, 62-67, contains a note of impassioned protest, and the third, +68-77, is a love message of tender consolation. If this interpretation +seem too subjective, a careful reading of the drama where Astarte +appears (pp. 284-285 in the Everyman's Edition) will, we believe, +corroborate it. The rest of the Exposition consists in a treatment of +the Astarte motive, primarily of a musical nature; though there is a +real dramatic intensity in measures 96-103, which are an expansion of +the love message with its characteristic "appoggiatura." The +Development, beginning in measure 132, is a striking example of how +difficult it was—even for an exponent of freedom in musical +expression like Schumann—to break loose from the shackles of +arbitrary form. The musical thought is kept in motion, to be sure, but +that is about all; for the treatment is often very labored, and +nothing is added to the dramatic picture. The world had to await the +work of Tchaikowsky, and Strauss for a satisfactory adjustment<a name="FNanchor_195_197" id="FNanchor_195_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_197" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> +between the demands of dramatic fitness and the needs of musical +structure. In the Coda, beginning measure 258, Schumann—now that he +is free from considerations of structure—gains a dramatic effect of +truly impressive power. The horns, supported by trumpets and +trombones, intone a funeral dirge of touching solemnity (evidently +suggested by the closing death scene of the drama) while, above, hover +portions of the Astarte motive, as if even in his death her influence +was paramount in Manfred's imagination, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music178.png" width="633" height="179" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music179.png" width="526" height="175" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music178.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music178.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding certain blemishes, this Overture at the time of its +composition was a landmark in the development of program music, and if +to our modern tastes it seems a bit antiquated, this is largely +because of the great progress which has since been made.<a name="FNanchor_196_198" id="FNanchor_196_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_198" class="fnanchor">[196]</a></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Symphony in D Minor</span>.</h3> + +<p>This Symphony is selected from Schumann's four, both for the peculiar +romantic beauty of its themes and because the form in which it is cast +makes it an important connecting link between the freedom of +structure, instituted by Beethoven, and the Symphonic Poem of Liszt +and other modern composers. All of Schumann's symphonies contain +genuine beauties and should be familiar to the cultivated musician. +Perhaps the first in B-flat major is the most sustained, and it has a +freshness and buoyancy summed up in its title, the <i>Spring</i>, by which +it is popularly known. The exuberance of the Finale is pure Schumann +and is expressed with an orchestral eloquence in which he was +frequently lacking.<a name="FNanchor_197_199" id="FNanchor_197_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_199" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> The Second Symphony is notable for its +sublime Adagio, Schumann's love-song—comparable to the slow movement +of Beethoven's Fourth. At some future day, conductors will have the +courage to play this movement by itself like a magnificent Torso, for +indubitably the other movements have aged beyond recall. The Third +Symphony, known as the <i>Rhenish</i> (composed when Schumann was living at +Düsseldorf on the Rhine) is significant for its incorporation of +popular melodies from the Rhineland, and for the movement, scored +chiefly for trombones and other brass instruments, which gives a +picture of some ceremonial occasion in the Cologne Cathedral.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span></p> +<p>The Fourth Symphony is an uneven work, for there are many places where +Schumann's constructive power was unequal to his ideal conceptions. We +often can see the joints, and the structure—in places—resembles a +rag-carpet rather than the organic texture of an oriental rug. But the +spontaneous outpouring of melody touches our emotions and well-nigh +disarms criticism. Schumann had constantly been striving for a closer +relationship<a name="FNanchor_198_200" id="FNanchor_198_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_200" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> between the conventional movements of the symphony; +and his purpose, in the structural treatment adopted, is indicated by +the statement published in the full score—"Introduction, Allegro, +Romanze, Scherzo und Finale <i>in einem Satze</i>" <i>i.e.</i>, the work is to +be considered as a <i>continuous whole</i> and not broken up into arbitrary +movements with rigid pauses between. The long drawn-out +Introduction,<a name="FNanchor_199_201" id="FNanchor_199_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_201" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> with its mysterious harmonies, leads us into the +land of romance, and a portion of this introduction is happily carried +over and repeated in the Romanze. The First movement proper, from +<i>Lebhaft</i>, seems at first as if it were to be in the customary +Sonata-form; the Exposition beginning with two themes in the normal +relationship of minor and relative major, though to be sure the second +theme is more of a supplementary expansion of the first than one which +provides a strong contrast. But after the double bar and repeat, this +first theme is developed in a free preludial manner as if it were +continually leading up to a climax. We are finally rewarded by a new +theme of great warmth which amply makes up for any lack of +individuality in the second theme proper, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music180.png" width="637" height="113" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music180.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music180.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The rest of the movement consists of additional improvisations, rather +too rigidly sectionalized, on the first theme and a second appearance +of the interpolated theme. This theme, with rhythmic modifications, +serves also as the basis for the brilliant Coda; for there is no +Recapitulation proper, and it is evident that the movement is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span> an +extended prelude for what is to come—a first portion of the work as a +whole. After a dramatic pause,<a name="FNanchor_200_202" id="FNanchor_200_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_202" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> which enhances the feeling of +expectancy (so prominent in the first movement) followed by a +sustained modulatory chord, the Romanze begins with a plaintive theme +in A minor. The mood is that of an idealized serenade, and in the +original score the accompaniment for the oboe melody was given to the +guitar<a name="FNanchor_201_203" id="FNanchor_201_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_203" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> to secure the appropriate atmosphere. After the first +statement of the theme there is an interpolated quotation of the +characteristic passage from the introduction, which serves to bind the +movements together both in structure and in relationship of mood. The +movement is in clear-cut three-part form and the middle contrasting +section in the major mode reveals a sustained descending melody played +by the body of strings, which is delicately embellished by an obligato +variant given to a solo violin, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music181a.png" width="634" height="192" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music181a.mid">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music181a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>At first the 'cellos, also, re-enforce this melody.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music181b.png" width="635" height="189" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music182a.png" width="634" height="181" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music181b.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music181b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The effect is that of an ethereal voice commenting on the beauty of +the main theme. This obligato part is of special significance, since +with rhythmic change it forms the chief theme of the Trio in the +following movement. The Romanze closes with a simple return to the +plaintive oboe melody, this time in D minor. The tonality is purposely +indefinite to accentuate the wistful feeling of the movement—the last +chords having the suspense of a dominant ending. After a short pause +we are at once whirled into the dashing Scherzo which seems to +represent the playful badinage of a Romantic lover. The Trio affords a +delightful reminiscence of the Romanze and, from a structural point of +view, is an early example of the principle of "transformation of +theme"<a name="FNanchor_202_204" id="FNanchor_202_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_204" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> which plays so important a role in the works of Liszt, +Franck, Tchaikowsky and Dvořák. For the melody, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music182b.png" width="639" height="271" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music182b.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music182b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>is a rhythmic variant of the former obligato of the solo violin, and +has this characteristic, which gives a peculiar note of surprise, that +it always begins on the third beat of the measure. Following a +repetition of the Scherzo the movement ends eloquently with a +coda-like return to the Trio which, after some modulatory changes, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span> +broken up into detached fragments, seeming to vanish into thin air. +There is no pause between the end of the Scherzo and the introduction, +based on the theme of the first movement, which ushers in the Finale. +This movement is in Sonata-form with a modified +Recapitulation—<i>i.e.</i>, the first theme is not repeated—and with a +passionate closing theme, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music183a.png" width="390" height="95" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music183a.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music183a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>which atones for the intentional incompleteness with which the first +movement ends. The main theme is a compound of a vigorous march-like +motive, closely related to one of the subsidiary phrases of the first +movement, and a running figure in the bass—the derivation of which is +obvious. After a rather labored transition<a name="FNanchor_203_205" id="FNanchor_203_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_205" class="fnanchor">[203]</a>—surely the most +mechanical passage in the whole work—we are rewarded by a melody of +great buoyancy and rhythmic life, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music183b.png" width="636" height="201" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music183b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music183b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The free Fantasie begins with a contrapuntal working-out of a figure +taken from the first theme, but it suffers from a persistent emphasis +on what, after all, is an uninteresting rhythm <img src="images/music183c.png" width="130" height="25" alt="music" title="music" />; there is, +furthermore, a rigid grouping of the phrases in twos and fours. +Schumann's instinct was a wise one in omitting the main theme of the +Recapitulation and in leading, as soon as possible, to the repetition +of the delightful second theme—the gem of the movement—which now +makes its orthodox appearance in the tonic. After some ejaculatory +measures, which remind us of the beginning of the Development, we have +the impassioned closing theme, referred to above, which ushers in the +free and brilliant Coda, worked up contrapuntally with ever increasing +speed. The movement ends with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span> Schumannesque syncopations. The D minor +Symphony, thus, although not a perfect work of art, is a significant +one and repays intimate study. A long life may safely be predicted for +it by reason of the fervor and charm of its melodies. An important +historical status it will always hold, for it is the honorable +ancestor of such great symphonies as César Franck's in D minor and +Tchaikowsky's in E minor, in which we find the same freedom of form +and the same fusion of material attempted by Schumann's daring +spirit.<a name="FNanchor_204_206" id="FNanchor_204_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_206" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p> + +<p>Closely connected with Schumann, chronologically and also by certain +executive associations, <i>e.g.</i>, the Leipsic Conservatory, is the +career of Mendelssohn (1809-1847). There was much in common between +the two; they both were extremely versatile, of strong literary bent +and naturally drawn to the same media of expression: pianoforte, solo +voices and orchestra. And yet, so dissimilar were the underlying +strains in their temperaments that their compositions, as an +expression of their personalities, show little in common. Schumann, as +we have seen, was fantastic, mystical, a bold, independent thinker, +the quintessence of the Romantic spirit. Mendelssohn, on the other +hand, though not lacking in poetic fancy and warmth, was cautious—a +born conservative; and his early classical training, together with the +opulent circumstances of his life, served as a natural check upon the +freedom of genius. His dazzling precocity—witness the <i>Midsummer +Night's Dream</i> Overture, composed while he was in his seventeenth +year—and a great popular success were surely not the best stimuli to +make him delve into the depths of his imagination. Undoubtedly he did +a valuable service, in his day, in uniting the leading tendencies of +the two schools: the exuberant fancy of the Romantic, and the reserve +and finish of the Classic. He has been aptly called a "Romanticist +with a classical equipment." If any appraisement be necessary to the +detriment of one or the other, it must be conceded that Schumann was +the greater genius. A just estimate of Mendelssohn's work is +difficult, for his career was so meteoric and in his life he was so +overvalued that now, with the opposite swing of the pendulum, he is as +often underrated. He was assuredly a great artist, for what he had to +say was beautifully expressed; the question hinges on the actual worth +of the message. With perfect finish there often goes a lack of power +and objective<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span> energy; somewhat the same difference that we feel +between skillful gardening and the free vitality of Nature. Although +Mendelssohn's music delights and charms there is a prevailing lack of +that deep emotion which alone can move the soul. And yet a composer +whom Wagner called "the greatest of landscape painters" and whose best +works have stood the test of time can by no means be scorned. His +descriptive Overtures for orchestra: the <i>Hebrides</i>, the <i>Midsummer +Night's Dream</i> and the <i>Fair Melusine</i>; his <i>Variations Sérieuses</i> for +Pianoforte and some of the <i>Songs without Words</i><a name="FNanchor_205_207" id="FNanchor_205_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_207" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> contain a +genuinely poetic message, flawlessly expressed. As for the pianoforte +music, when the <i>Songs without Words</i> are called "hackneyed" we must +remember that only compositions of truly popular appeal ever have +sufficient vogue to warrant the application of this opprobrious term. +In the pianoforte <i>Scherzos</i> and in the <i>Rondo Capriccioso in E major</i> +there is without doubt a vitality and a play of fancy easier to +criticize than to create. The prevalent mood in Mendelssohn's music is +one of sunny-hearted lightness and emotional satisfaction; and if this +be a one-sided presentation of life, it is no more so, as Pratt well +says in his <i>History of Music</i>, than the picture of gloom and sorrow +which certain other composers continually emphasize. The fact that his +descriptive Overtures, just mentioned, have been surpassed—owing to +the recent expansion in orchestral possibilities of tone-color—must +not blind us to the beauty of their content, or make us forget the +impetus they have given to modern composers. No one could possibly +find in the <i>Hebrides</i> Overture that subtle descriptive fancy or that +wealth of orchestral coloring which exists in Debussy's marvellous +<i>Sea Pieces</i>; and yet the Mendelssohn composition is a genuine +reflection of nature in terms of music and can still be heard with +sustained attention. Wagner<a name="FNanchor_206_208" id="FNanchor_206_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_208" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> praises highly its orchestral +effects; and a modern scholar, Cecil Forsyth,<a name="FNanchor_207_209" id="FNanchor_207_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_209" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> considers the +tone-painting quite irresistible. A sincere tribute of admiration +should also be paid to Mendelssohn's <i>Concerto for Violin and +Orchestra</i>. Written in the most idiomatic style for the solo +instrument and containing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span> real <i>violin melodies</i> it is still one of +the few great works in its class. Any final critical estimate of +Mendelssohn—no matter how earnest the effort to be absolutely +fair—is inevitably involved with personal prejudices. If his music +appeals to any one, it is liked extremely and no one need be ashamed +of enjoying it, for it is sincerely felt and beautifully expressed. +Mendelssohn, himself, doubtless knew perfectly well that he was not +Bach, Beethoven or Schubert. For those whose natures crave a more +robust message, more fire and a deeper passion, there are the works of +those other composers to which they may turn.</p> + +<p>Let us now analyze the <i>Midsummer Night's Dream</i> Overture,<a name="FNanchor_208_210" id="FNanchor_208_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_210" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> "his +first and highest flight" to quote Schumann. In this work we do not +find a characterization by musical means of the emotions of the +dramatis personae, as in the <i>Coriolanus</i> Overture; and there is +little specific correspondence between the type of theme and definite +incidents, except possibly at the beginning of the Recapitulation, +where the low tones of the Bass Tuba<a name="FNanchor_209_211" id="FNanchor_209_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_211" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> may be thought to represent +the snores of Bottom, as the fairies hover about him. Anyone familiar +with <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1778">Shakespeare's play</a>—and such a knowledge is indispensible for a +complete enjoyment of the music—will see that Mendelssohn's object +was to give a broad, general picture of the fairy world and to +intensify, by his music, the fancy and humor found in the play. The +introductory sustained chords, pianissimo, are a happy illustration of +his deftness in tone-painting; for, assigned to the ethereal flutes +and clarinets, they constitute, as Niecks ingeniously expresses it, a +"magic formula" which ushers us into the moonlit realm of fairyland. +The first theme in E minor (Allegro di molto: throughout <i>pp</i> and +staccato), announced by the strings, is a graphic representation of +the playful antics of the nimble elves and fairies. Its course is +twice interrupted by a peculiar, prolonged chord which seems to say, +"Hush! you are listening to the activities of beings not of this +every-day, humdrum world." The first theme has a second part in E +major (beginning at measure 62) of a pompous, march-like nature, which +may be thought to represent the dignity of Duke Theseus and his train. +The Overture being in complete Sonata-form,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span> there occurs at this +point a short transition based on the rhythm of the first theme; +followed by a lovely cantabile melody—the second theme proper—that +typifies the romantic love pervading the play. This theme also is +expanded into several sections; the first of which may portray the +clownish Athenian tradespeople, and the second, the brays of Bottom +after he has been transformed into an ass, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music187.png" width="635" height="201" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music187.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music187.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The free fantasia, an improvisation on the first theme—although +containing a few perfunctory manipulations—sustains interest, as a +whole, by its modulations and by the suggestive orchestral effects. +The closing measures, where the pizzicato 'cellos and double basses +seem to imitate the light, tripping footsteps of the elves, is +genuinely realistic. The Recapitulation, which begins with the same +chords as the Introduction, is an illustration of bondage to classic +practise; for here they have no dramatic significance and are merely a +concession to routine procedure.<a name="FNanchor_210_212" id="FNanchor_210_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_212" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> The first theme and the +transition, however, are effectively abridged so that the second +theme, by far the most appealing in the whole work, stands out in +greater prominence. Then follows a brilliant expansion of the closing +portions of the second theme, until we reach the Coda. This begins +with a reminiscence of the first theme which fades away into a +modified presentation of the Duke Theseus theme, followed by four +long-drawn out Amens.<a name="FNanchor_211_213" id="FNanchor_211_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_213" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> These may signify the blessing which, in +the play, the elves bestow upon the Ducal house. The Introductory +chords dissolve the dream which the music has evoked, and we are back +once more in the world of reality.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span></p><p>To suggest the attitude which we of to-day should take towards +Mendelssohn—he may justly be admired as a musician of great natural +gifts, of high ideals and of unusually finished technique in many +branches of composition. It is ungracious to censure him because he +lacks the gripping emotional power of a Beethoven or a Wagner. Those +who indulge in such narrow criticism condemn only themselves.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h3>CHOPIN AND PIANOFORTE STYLE</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">A</span>LTHOUGH Chopin (1809-1849) was less aggressively romantic than others +of the group we have been considering, in many respects his music +represents the romantic spirit in its fairest bloom. Not even yet has +full justice been done him—although his fame is growing—since he is +often considered as a composer of mere "salon-pieces" which, though +captivating, are too gossamer-like to merit serious attention. Chopin +was a life-long student of Bach; and much of his music, in its +closeness of texture, shows unmistakably the influence of that master. +Together with Schumann, he broke away from the strict formality of the +old classic forms and instituted the reign of freely conceived +tone-poems for the pianoforte: the form being conditioned by the +poetic feelings of the composer. As far as fundamental principles of +architecture are concerned, his pieces are generally simple, modeled +as they are on the two and three-part form and that of the rondo. When +he attempted works of large scope, where varied material had to be +held together, he was lamentably deficient, <i>e.g.</i>, in his Sonatas. In +fact, even in such pieces as the Études and Scherzos, in the +presentation of the material we find occasional blemishes. But there +are so many other wonderful qualities that this weakness may be +overlooked. In spite of a certain deficiency in form, Chopin is +indisputably a great genius. Far too much stress has been laid on the +delicacy of his style to the exclusion of the intensity and bold +dramatic power that characterize much of his music<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span> to a marked +degree. Though of frail physique,<a name="FNanchor_212_214" id="FNanchor_212_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_214" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> and though living in an +environment which tended to overdevelop his fastidious nature, Chopin +had a fiery soul, which would assert itself with unmistakable force. +His music by no means consists solely of melting moods or languorous +sighs; he had a keen instinct for the dissonant element (witness +passages in the G minor Ballade); he was a daring harmonic innovator; +and much of his music is surcharged with tragic significance. A born +stylist, he nevertheless did not avoid incessant labor to secure the +acme of finish. So perfect in his works is the balance between +substance and treatment, that they make a direct appeal to +music-lovers of every nation. In listening to Chopin we are never +conscious of turgidity, of diffuseness, of labored treatment of +material. All is direct, pellucid; poetic thoughts are presented in a +convincingly beautiful manner. He was a great colorist as well, and in +his work we must recognize the fact that color in music is as distinct +an achievement of the imagination as profound thought or beauty of +line. Chopin's position in regard to program music is an interesting +subject for speculation. Few of his works bear specifically +descriptive titles; and it is well known that he had little sympathy +with the extreme tendencies of Berlioz and Liszt. Yet there is, in +general, something more than an abstract presentation of musical +material, however beautiful. The varied moods aroused by the Ballades +and Nocturnes, the actual pictures we see in the Polonaises, must have +had their counterpart in definite subjective experiences in the life +of the composer, and so from a broad psychological standpoint—even in +the absence of explanatory titles—we may call Chopin a thoroughly +romantic tone-poet; indeed, as Balzac says, "a soul which rendered +itself audible."</p> + +<p>As Chopin composed so idiomatically for his chosen instrument, the +pianoforte, to which he devoted himself exclusively,<a name="FNanchor_213_215" id="FNanchor_213_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_215" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> no +understanding or adequate appreciation of the subtleties of his style +is possible without some knowledge of the nature and attributes of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span> +this instrument which, in our time, has become the universal medium +for the rendering of music. All of Chopin's works were not only +published for the pianoforte but were conceived in <i>terms</i> of the +pianoforte; his style in this respect being quite unique in the +history of musical art. For there are noble and poetically inspired +thoughts of many composers which may be satisfactorily presented +through a number of media: pianoforte, organ, string-quartet or +voices. This fact has been the cause of many so-called transcriptions +of orchestral or string-quartet music for the organ. A composer, +furthermore, often publishes a work for a certain instrument when the +inner evidence shows that, during the period of creation, he actually +had some other medium in mind. Beethoven's Sonatas abound<a name="FNanchor_214_216" id="FNanchor_214_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_216" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> in +effects which, for their complete realization, require an orchestra; +so that, notwithstanding the beauty of the thought, his style is often +anything but pianistic. In certain of César Franck's pianoforte works +we are conscious of his predilection for the organ, as the spirit of +the music demands a sustained volume of sound which the organ, with +its powerful lungs, alone can give. But if the full beauty of Chopin's +conception is to be gained, his music must be played on the pianoforte +and on nothing else. The pianoforte has, to be sure, several +limitations; it is not per se a loud instrument in comparison with a +trumpet or an organ, and the whole nature of its tone is +evanescent—that is, as soon as the tone is produced, it begins to +fade away, <img src="images/decrescendo.jpg" width="40" height="12" alt="decrescendo symbol" title="decrescendo symbol" />. +This latter apparent limitation, +however, is in fact one of its most suggestive beauties; for nothing +is more stimulating to the imagination than the dying away of a +beautiful sound, as may be felt in the striking of a clear-toned bell, +or in the wonderful diminuendo of the horn. This effect, inherent in +pianoforte tone, should be more utilized rather than deplored, +especially since dwelling on a delightful harmony or a single dramatic +note is a definite characteristic of "tempo rubato"—that peculiar +feature of Chopin's rhythm. The pianoforte can neither steadily +sustain a tone <img src="images/sustain.png" width="72" height="12" alt="sustaining symbol" title="sustaining symbol" /> +nor increase it <img src="images/crescendo.jpg" width="42" height="12" alt="crescendo symbol" title="crescendo symbol" />; +achievements for which the strings and the wind instruments are so +valued. On the other hand, the instrument has the merits of great +sonority and marvellous coloristic possibilities; and when music is +composed for the pianoforte by one who understands its secrets and, +furthermore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span> when it is properly played, it is quite the finest<a name="FNanchor_215_217" id="FNanchor_215_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_217" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> +instrument ever yet brought under the control of a single performer. +Again, the pianoforte is not meant for great rapidity of utterance, +such as, for instance, we associate with the violin, the flute or the +clarinet. It is, in fact, often played <i>too fast</i>, sounding like a +pianola or a machine rather than an instrument with a soul. If there +be no lingering over the notes, beautiful effects have no opportunity +to be heard. Rapidity and brilliance on the pianoforte do not depend +on so many notes per second but on vitality and precision of accent. +These admirable qualities of the instrument are due to the great +number of vibrating metal strings (in a modern concert-grand, about +two hundred and thirty, <i>i.e.</i>, three strings to each of the twelve +notes of the seven octaves, save for a few of the lowest bass notes); +to the large sounding board (about twenty-four square feet, on the +largest model), and above all to the damper pedal which Rubinstein—so +appropriately—calls the soul of the pianoforte. The very term +Pianoforte implies a wealth of meaning; for a special glory of the +instrument is its power of shading, its flexibility of utterance, from +piano to forte or vice versa. The limits themselves, to be sure, are +not so striking as in certain other instruments, <i>e.g.</i>, the +pianoforte cannot produce the almost ghostly whisper of which the +clarinet is capable, nor can it equal the trumpet or the trombone in +intensity or volume. But it can produce a very beautiful pianissimo; +and if a sense of relativity be kept, and soft effects begun quietly +enough, it can be made to sound with remarkable brilliancy. The +pianoforte should always be played with a keen regard for this power +of shading, of nuance; the tones should undulate like the winds or the +waves. Anything like the steady sostenuto level for which the organ +shows itself so fitted is, except for special effects, entirely +foreign to the nature of the pianoforte. Nor should we ever attempt to +make it, per se, a loud, overpowering instrument. Its forte and its +brilliancy are purely relative; and, when forced to do something +unsuited to its real nature, it protests with a hard, unmelodious +tone.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span></p><p>Likewise the two pedals,<a name="FNanchor_216_218" id="FNanchor_216_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_218" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> when their technical names are +understood, imply their own meaning, just as their popular +designations hint at the way in which they are often abused. The pedal +employed by the <i>right</i> foot, properly called the "damper pedal," is +so named because, by its action, <i>all</i> the dampers of the key-board +may be raised simultaneously. This allows the strings to vibrate +together and to send forth great waves of colored sound like those +produced by an Aeolian harp; an effect similar to that heard when a +sea-shell is held to the ear. The pianoforte, in fact, has aptly been +called "a harp laid on its back" to which the action of keys has been +applied. Accordingly an open, flowing style (arpeggio) is one of the +idioms best suited to its nature. To secure proper contrast, a +massive, chordal style is sometimes employed by such composers as +Schumann, Brahms and Franck—even at times by Chopin himself; but that +the extended arpeggio (often merely two voices, with the body of tone +secured by the pedal) is the norm may be seen from almost any page of +Chopin's compositions. The resonance and carrying power of these waves +are intensified by raising the lid<a name="FNanchor_217_219" id="FNanchor_217_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_219" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> of the pianoforte; for then +they are brought to a focus and projected into space. The effect +produced by raising the dampers is appropriate and beautiful, not +alone with consonant chords but, at times, equally with chords that +are unrelated; which, were they sustained for long by an organ, would +be intolerably harsh. But the tone of the pianoforte is so fleeting +that such a mixture ensures great brilliance and warmth without undue +jargon, and is thus akin to the blending of strange colors by modern +painters. Many people, in fact, play the pianoforte with too <i>little</i>, +rather than too <i>much</i>, pedal; or with too much pedal used the wrong +way! A definite attempt should be made to cultivate a feeling for +color and warmth of tone; a hard, colorless tone on the pianoforte +being a great blemish as it is so unnecessary. The following passage +illustrates the above points.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span></p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Chopin</span>: <i>Barcarolle</i></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music193a.png" width="632" height="253" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music193a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music193a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>There is really no such thing on the pianoforte as a "pure" single +tone. It is an acoustical law that no tone exists by itself, but +always generates a whole series of overtones<a name="FNanchor_218_220" id="FNanchor_218_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_220" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> or "upper partials," +as they are called, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music193b.png" width="637" height="107" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music193b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music193b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Even what we call the perfectly consonant chord of C major, <i>e.g.</i>, +<img src="images/music193c.png" width="94" height="63" alt="music" title="music" /> +[<a href="music/music193c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music193c.xml">MusicXML</a>] would be slightly qualified and colored by the B-flat, and +this effect has actually been utilized by Chopin in the final cadence +of his Prelude in F major, No. 23, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music193d.png" width="634" height="182" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music194.png" width="631" height="229" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music193d.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music193d.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In this example the E-flat must be very delicately accented and <i>both</i> +pedals freely used.</p> + +<p>Let it be clearly understood, therefore, that the damper +pedal—popularly but erroneously called the "loud pedal"—has nothing +to do with "noise" as such. Its purpose is to amplify and color the +waves of sound and these waves may vary all the way from <i>pp</i> to <i>ff</i>. +The dynamic gradation of pianoforte tone is caused by the amount of +force with which the hammer strikes the wires; and this power is +applied by the attack and pressure of the fingers. The damper pedal +will, to be sure, reinforce fortissimo effects, but logically it is +only a <i>means</i> of <i>reinforcement</i> and should never be used so that a +mere "roar of sound" is produced. The normal pianoforte tone, however, +is that brought forth in connection with the damper pedal, and only to +gain an effect of intentional coolness and dryness do we see in +pianoforte literature the direction "senza pedal"; passages so marked +being often most appropriate as a strong contrast to highly colored +ones.<a name="FNanchor_219_221" id="FNanchor_219_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_221" class="fnanchor">[219]</a></p> + +<p>An important adjunct of the instrument, though even less intelligently +used, is the pedal employed by the left foot; that popularly known as +the "soft pedal," but of which the technical name is the "una corda" +pedal. By this device on a grand pianoforte the whole key-board is +shifted from left to right, so that the hammers strike but <i>two</i> wires +in each group of three, and the third wire of the set is left free to +vibrate sympathetically. Thus a very etherial, magical quality of tone +is produced, especially in the upper ranges of the instrument. In the +middle register, passages played forte or fortissimo will have a +richness comparable to the G string of a violin. The effect is +analogous to that of a viol d'amour which has, as is well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span> known +(stretched underneath the strings, which produce the actual tone) a +set of additional strings, freely vibrating. Although this "una +corda"<a name="FNanchor_220_222" id="FNanchor_220_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_222" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> pedal may be used in a dynamic sense to reduce, as it +were, the size of the instrument, its chief purpose is coloristic, +<i>i.e.</i>, to make possible a <i>special quality</i> of tone. This statement +is proved by directions in pianoforte literature as far back as +Beethoven, in whose Sonatas we find the dynamic marks of <i>f</i> and <i>ff</i> +coupled with the proscribed use of the una corda pedal. In any case, +this left-foot pedal should not be abused; for, just because the tone +quality produced thereby is so beautiful and characteristic, it soon +becomes, if constantly employed, rather cloying. The dynamic gradation +of tone is primarily a matter for the control of the fingers, <i>i.e.</i>, +the touch. The damper pedal is for sonority and color; the una corda +for special shades, and all three factors—touch and the two +pedals—are combined in pianistic effects which only a trained +technique and artistic judgment can regulate.<a name="FNanchor_221_223" id="FNanchor_221_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_223" class="fnanchor">[221]</a></p> + +<p>Even a slight analysis of Chopin's style proves that it is based upon +logical inferences, drawn from the series of overtones as they are +generated and reinforced by the very nature of the pianoforte. From +the wide spacing of the lower tones of the series Chopin derived the +extended grouping of his arpeggios, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music195.png" width="253" height="169" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music195.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music195.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span></p> + +<p class="title">Prelude, No. 19</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music196a.png" width="635" height="228" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music196a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music196a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>so that the <i>chord</i> of the <i>10th</i>, instead of the former grouping +within the octave, may be considered the basis of his harmonic scheme. +By this means a great gain was made in richness and sonority. Another +striking feature of Chopin's style is found in those groups of +spray-like, superadded notes with which the melody is embellished. It +is evident, in many cases at least, that these tones are not merely +embroidery in the ordinary sense. Rather do they represent a +reinforcement of the overtones, ideally or actually present, in +connection with bass tones and chords used in the lower part of the +musical fabric. As a striking example<a name="FNanchor_222_224" id="FNanchor_222_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_224" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> see the long series of +descending non-harmonic tones in the Coda of the <i>B major Nocturne</i>, +op. 9, No. 3, and note the delicate colors in the closing arpeggio +chord (to be played with a free use of both pedals).</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music196b.png" width="635" height="425" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music197.png" width="637" height="918" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music196b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music196b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In general, Chopin's style is homophonic—wondrous lyric melodies +which seem to float on waves of richly colored sound. But there is +also much subtly used polyphony, <i>i.e.</i>, delightful phrases in inner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span> +voices and imitative effects between the different parts. In +comparison, however, with Schumann's style (which is largely on a +polyphonic basis) Chopin is a decidedly homophonic composer.<a name="FNanchor_223_225" id="FNanchor_223_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_225" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> A +great deal of interesting and instructive reading on Chopin is +available and the following works are especially recommended: +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4939"><i>Chopin, the Man and his Music</i></a> by Huneker; the <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4973"><i>Life of Chopin</i></a> by Niecks; the +essay on Chopin in Mason's <i>Romantic Composers</i> and in Hadow's +<i>Studies in Modern Music</i>; the volume on Chopin by Elié Poirée in the +series <i>Les Musiciens Célèbres</i>; and the same by Louis Laloy in the +series <i>Les Maîtres de la Musique</i>; the <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4386"><i>Life</i></a> by Liszt (well known +and most valuable as coming from a contemporary and brother musician); +finally a somewhat rhapsodic essay by H.T. Finck in +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/18560"><i>Chopin and Other Essays</i></a>.</p> + +<p>We select, as being thoroughly representative, the following works for +comment: the first Prelude, the A-flat major Étude, the F-sharp minor +Mazurka, the E-flat minor Polonaise, the Barcarolle and the C-sharp +minor Scherzo.<a name="FNanchor_224_226" id="FNanchor_224_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_226" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Prelude in C Major, Op. 28, No. 1.</span></h3> + +<p>This Prelude, the first of the set of 24, is an excellent example of +the sonority Chopin gained from widely extended chords in the bass; by +the use—characteristically bold—of dissonances (measures 13-20), and +by the sensuous richness of the closing measures, in which a wonderful +wave of sound is produced through the damper pedal, in connection with +the blending of the tonic, dominant and subdominant chords. The +prelude is a kind of intensified Bach and may well be compared with +that prelude in the same key which begins the immortal well-tempered +Clavichord. All the Preludes, for their poetic import, finished style +and pianistic effect, are masterpieces of the first rank. Schumann +well says of them: "They are sketches, eagle's feathers, all strangely +intermingled. But in every piece we recognize the hand of Frédéric +Chopin; he is the boldest, the proudest poet-soul of his time."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Étude in A-flat Major, Op. 25, No. 1.</span></h3> + +<p>This étude, deservedly popular, may be considered the example <i>par +excellence</i> of Chopin's style. The lyric beauty of the melody, the +fascinating modulations, the shades of color alike justify the +following rhapsodic comments of Schumann, "Imagine that an Aeolian +harp possessed all the musical scales, and that the hand of an artist +were to cause them to intermingle in all sorts of fantastic +embellishments, yet in such a way as to leave everywhere audible a +deep fundamental tone and a soft, continuously singing upper voice, +and you will get about the right idea. But it would be an error to +think that Chopin, in playing this étude, permitted every one of the +small notes to be distinctly heard. It was rather an undulation of the +A-flat major chord, here and there thrown aloft by the pedal. +Throughout the harmonies one always heard in great tones a wondrous +melody, while once only, in the middle of the piece, besides that +chief song, a tenor voice became prominent. After the étude a feeling +came over one as of having seen in a dream a beatific picture which, +when already half awake, one would gladly once more recall."</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Mazurka in F-sharp Minor, Op. 6, No. 1.</span></h3> + +<p>As Franz Liszt says in his life of Chopin, "The Mazurka is not only a +dance, it is a national poem, and like all poems of conquered nations, +is shaped so as to let the blazing flames of patriotic feeling shimmer +out through the transparent veil of popular melody." The chief +peculiarity of the Mazurka (which is always in triple rhythm, with a +latitude in speed from Presto to Mesto) is the scheme of +accentuation—the normal accent on the first beat being systematically +transferred to the second and third beats. We also find in the Mazurka +frequent indications for the use of the so-called "tempo rubato," a +proper conception of which is so essential in the performance of +Chopin's music. Tempo rubato—so often abused!—literally meaning +borrowed time, is simply free rhythm emancipated from rigid, +scholastic bonds. As Huneker well says, "Chopin must be played in +curves" with emotional freedom; just as the heart, when excited, +increases the speed of its pulsations, and in moments of calm and +depression slows down. The jerky, really unrhythmical playing of +certain performers reminds us of a person suffering from <i>palpitation</i> +of the heart. Liszt's description of the rubato is most suggestive: "A +wind plays in the leaves, life unfolds and develops beneath them, but +the tree remains the same." In Chopin, accordingly, the ground rhythm +should always be preserved, though varied with subtle, and yet logical +fluctuations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Polonaise in E-flat Minor, Op. 26, No. 11.</span></h3> + +<p>The Polonaise<a name="FNanchor_225_227" id="FNanchor_225_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_227" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> is the great national dance of the Poles; an +impassioned and yet stately pageant in which, as Liszt says, "The +noblest traditional feelings of ancient Poland are represented." This +dance—or rather, processional march—is always in triple rhythm and +based on a definite rhythmic formula: either <img src="images/music200a.png" width="194" height="36" alt="music" title="music" /> +or <img src="images/music200b.png" width="177" height="31" alt="music" title="music" />. The frequent feminine endings are also a characteristic feature, <i>e.g.</i>, +the cadence in the well known military Polonaise in A major:</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music200c.png" width="634" height="210" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music200.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music200.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>To return to the example being considered,—it is in Three-part form +(A, B, A, with Coda) the first part in the minor mode; the second part +beautifully contrasted by being in B major—introduced by the implied +enharmonic change from E-flat to D-sharp. This first part, remarkable +for its passionate, headlong impetuosity, should dispel any idea that +Chopin was a weak sentimentalist. Although of a delicate constitution +he certainly had a fiery soul. The second part, sotto voce—note the +feminine endings—reminds us of the muffled music of a military band +as it passes by.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Barcarolle in F-sharp Major, Op. 60.</span></h3> + +<p>This composition, in many ways the most wonderful single piece we have +from Chopin, is the quintessence of his genius. It seems, in fact, to +contain everything: appealing melodies, wealth of harmony, bold +dissonances (note in particular the 6th and 7th measures of the Coda), +brilliant embellishments; and withal, it is written in a pianistic +style which, for richness and warmth of color, is quite unsurpassed. +It is also most sincerely conceived, intensifying the suggestiveness +of the descriptive title. Would that objective program<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span> music were +always so true to life and to the real nature of music! It is in free +three-part form, the first part of a calm nature in which we are +rocked on gently undulating waves; a more rhythmic second part where, +as Kullak says, the bass seems to suggest the monotonous steadiness of +oar-strokes; an interlude, marked "dolce sfogato," introduced by some +delightful modulations, as if in a quiet nook the poet were dreaming +of the beauties of love and nature; an impassioned return to the chief +subject, together with a partial presentation of the middle portion; +and finally a long and brilliant coda. The composition is unique in +romantic literature for its power to arouse the imagination, or, as +Schumann so well says, "to set people romancing for themselves."</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Scherzo in C-sharp Minor, Op. 39.</span></h3> + +<p>The four Scherzos, for passion and eloquence, rank among Chopin's most +characteristic works, though it seems impossible to trace a logical +correspondence between the former classic meaning of the term +"Scherzo" and the contents revealed to us in these poems; save that +they are all in triple rhythm, hence on a dance-form basis. As Niecks +well says, "There is in them neither frolicsomeness nor humor"—such, +for example, as we find in Beethoven's Scherzos—and he suggests that +"Capriccio" might be a less misleading designation. But, however +inexplicable the title which Huneker thinks Chopin may have applied in +serious jest, there is no doubt of the uncompromising dignity of the +utterance, and there is often a grim irony, a wayward scorn, which a +liberal interpretation might well consider attributes of humor. These +were marked traits in Chopin's nature, and the Scherzos are their +revelation in terms of music. Schumann's well-known comment is +apropos—"How is gravity to clothe itself if jest goes about in dark +veils?" This Scherzo (Presto con fuoco) is in extended three-part +form; the dominant note of the first part being one of feverish +agitation, which expresses itself in spasmodic outbursts. The second +part, with its broad cantabile melody of a hymn-like character, +reveals a calmer mood. The last note of each phrase is adorned +throughout with lovely coloristic embellishments. After a return to +the first theme, the second part is also repeated; this time with +striking modulatory changes which strongly resemble the mood of +Wotan's Farewell, in the third Act of Wagner's <i>Valkyrie</i>. A long and +fiery coda of new thematic material closes the work. The major ending +is like a shaft of light dispelling storm-tossed clouds.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span></p> + +<p>Chopin's works are so instinct with genius and have proved to be so +immortal that they may well be considered as ideal witnesses to the +triumph of quality over mere quantity or sensational display. To-day, +when we suffer from musical bombast, their refined message is of +special significance.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3>BERLIOZ AND LISZT. PROGRAMME MUSIC</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">T</span>HERE is no doubt that Hector Berlioz (1803-1869), however varied the +appeal of his music to different temperaments, is an artistic +personality to be reckoned with; one not to be ticketed and laid on +the shelf. Although a century and more has elapsed since his birth the +permanent value of his music is still debated, often amusingly enough, +by those who seem unaware that, whatever the theoretical rights of the +case, in practice his principles are the reigning ones in modern +music. As Berlioz stands as the foremost representative of program +music and never wrote anything without a title, it is certain that +before his music or influence can be appreciated, the mind must be +cleared of prejudice and we must recognize that modern program music +is a condition—an artistic fact, not a theory—and that the tendency +towards specific, subjective expression (whether manifested in song, +opera or symphonic poem) is a dominant one among present day +composers. It is true that all music is the expression in tones of the +imagination of the composer; true, also, that music must fulfil +certain conditions of its own being. But imaginations differ. That of +Berlioz, for example, was quite a new phenomenon; and as for the +working principles of musical composition, they are as much subject to +modification as any other form of human experimentation. Berlioz, +himself, says that he never intended to subvert the laws of music, +only to make a new and individual use of them. As he was no abstract +maker of music, his autobiography—one of the most fascinating in the +history of art, only to be compared with that of Benvenuto +Cellini—should be familiar to all who would penetrate the secrets of +his style. Berlioz's compositions, in fact, are more specifically +autobiographic than those of any other notable musician. Both in his +music and his literary works are the same notes of passionate +insistence on his own point of view, of radical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span> dislike for accepting +conditions as they were (he says of himself that he loved to make the +barriers crack) and of fondness for brilliant outward effect. In +considering Berlioz, one is always reminded of Matthew Arnold's lines +on Byron, who resembles Berlioz so closely.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="poem"> +<tr> +<td> +"He taught us little; but our soul<br /> +Had felt him, like the thunder's roll.<br /> +With shivering heart the strife we saw<br /> +Of passion with eternal law;<br /> +And yet with reverential awe<br /> +We watch'd the fount of fiery life<br /> +Which served for that Titanic strife." +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Only realize that Berlioz's <i>Fantastic Symphony</i> was composed but +twenty-one years after Haydn's death, and compare the simple, +self-centered Haydn with the restless, wide-visioned Berlioz, of a +mentality positively omnivorous; who, in addition to his musical +achievements, was a brilliant critic and <i>littérateur</i>, a man of +travel and wide acquaintance with the world. Then indeed you will +appreciate what an enormous change had come over music. A mere mention +of the authors from whom Berlioz drew his subjects: Shakespeare, +Goethe, Byron, Scott, Virgil, Hugo, shows the wide range of his +reading and the difference in output which would inevitably result. +The previous impersonal attitude towards music is shown by the very +names of compositions which, broadly speaking (till the beginning of +the 19th century) were seldom more than Symphony, Sonata, or Quartet, +No. so and so; while the movements, in an equally mechanical way, were +known by the designations of tempo: allegro, adagio, andante, +etc.—those "senseless terms," as Beethoven himself says. Beginning +pre-eminently with Berlioz, composers have had more highly cultivated +imaginations, much more to say; and the wider range of emotion +resulting therefrom has necessitated differences of form and +treatment. A frequent misconception on the part of the layman is that +worthy music should be so constructed that the hearer be spared all +mental exertion. As long as it was certain that a composer would +present just so many themes in a prescribed order and treated in the +routine fashion, listening to music was a comparatively easy task. +Since Berlioz, music has made ever greater demands on the hearer; who +only when his receptivity is of an equal degree of cultivation with +the creative power of the composer, can grasp the full meaning of the +music. The first step, therefore, toward an appreciation of Berlioz is +to recognize the peculiar,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> picturesque power of his imagination, +which was of an entirely new order, and may be called musico-poetic in +distinction from purely musical activity. This form of double +consciousness is equally necessary on the part of the hearer. As +Debussy, the modern French composer, so well says, people often do not +understand or enjoy new music because it differs from "une musique" +<i>i.e.</i>, from a conventional and unvarying type which they have in +their mind. The real effect of Berlioz's "<i>Carnaval Romain</i>" Overture, +to take a simple example, is to complement and intensify the mental +picture which any well-read person—or better still, any one who has +actually visited Rome—will have of this characteristic incident in +Italian life. If the work be considered merely as abstract music, +notwithstanding the stimulation and delight caused by the rhythmic +vitality and by the orchestral effects, the real poetic purpose of the +composer remains unfulfilled. This peculiar quality of Berlioz was +partly the result of his fiery excitable temperament and partly the +reactive effect of the environment in which he found himself. What an +amazing group in Paris (beginning about 1830) was that with which he +was associated! De Musset, de Vigny, Liszt, Rossini, Meyerbeer, +Balzac, Dumas, Chopin, Heine, Delacroix, Géricault: young men +representing every art and several nationalities, all under the lead +of Hugo, that prince of Romanticists; their object being—revolt from +conventional standards and a complete expression of their own +personalities. Hugo, as he says in the famous preface to Cromwell, was +tearing down the plaster which hides the facade of the fair temple of +art; Dumas had just demolished Racine; Géricault and Delacroix, by +their daring conceptions, were founding our modern school of painting. +Into this maelstrom of revolution, Berlioz—he of the flaming locks, +"that hairy Romantic" as Thackeray calls him—flung himself with +temperamental ardor; for he was a born fighter and always in +opposition to someone. The audacity and dramatic energy of his +compositions are but the natural result of the tendencies of the +period. Berlioz's early career is of extreme interest to us +English-speaking people, because the first strong stimulus to his +imagination came from his acquaintance with the dramas of Shakespeare. +In 1827, some of the dramas, (such as Hamlet, and Romeo and Juliet) +were played in Paris by an English company, and their effect upon +Berlioz was overwhelming. He would wander about the streets raving of +Shakespeare; he promptly fell in love with the most beautiful actress +in the troupe—Henrietta Smithson, whom he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span> later married<a name="FNanchor_226_228" id="FNanchor_226_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_228" class="fnanchor">[226]</a>—and +then began the frenzied period of composing and concert giving, which +came to a climax in the <i>Fantastic Symphony</i> first performed in 1830. +Berlioz's courage and perseverance are shown by his winning the Prix +de Rome, after four failures! His two years in Italy (his picture may +still be seen at the Villa Medici), replete with amusing and thrilling +incidents, were, on the whole the happiest period of his stormy life.</p> + +<p>But we must pass to some brief comments upon the characteristics, pro +and con, of his style. In the first place it was extremely original; +showed little or no connection with former composers; has had no +imitators, and cannot be parodied. Berlioz likewise possessed great +range of emotion—though he rarely touched the sublime; a power of +laying out works on a vast scale, and, in general, of achieving with +unerring certainty the effects desired. The poet Heine said that much +of Berlioz's music reminded him of "primeval monsters and fabulous +empires." And what a master he was of rhythm!—one of the greatest in +music! Prior to his work, and that of Schumann among the Germans, the +classic rhythms were becoming rather stereotyped; and the vigorous +elasticity introduced by these two composers has widened incalculably +the range of dramatic effect. But his indisputable claim to lasting +recognition is his genius in the treatment of the orchestra. Berlioz +had an inborn instinct for sensuous tonal effect for its own sake, and +not as the clothing of an abstract idea. With him the art of making +that composite instrument, the orchestra, give forth the greatest +beauty and variety of sound became an end in itself; and from his +ingenious and innovating effects has been evolved the orchestra as we +hear it to-day. Berlioz thought, so to speak, in terms of orchestral +color. In his melodies we do not feel that the drawing, the contour of +the pure line, is the chief thing; but that the assignment of the +melody to just the right instrument, and the color-effect thereby +produced, are integral parts of the conception. Notwithstanding the +fact that some of his effects are extravagant or at times bizarre, he +must be credited with revealing possibilities in orchestral shading +and color which, still further developed by Wagner, Strauss and +Tchaikowsky, have become conventional means of expression. Some of his +most celebrated and satisfying works, in addition to those mentioned, +are the <i>Harold in Italy</i> Symphony, with its personification by a solo +viola of the chief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span> character; the <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> Symphony, for +both vocal and instrumental forces (of which the ball-scene with its +wondrous love-melody and the <i>Queen Mab</i> Scherzo—unequalled for +daintiness—represent his highest attainments as a tone-poet) and, +most popular of all, the <i>Damnation of Faust</i> based on scenes from +Goethe's poem. The bewitching incidental pieces for orchestra alone, +such as the <i>Ballet of Sylphs</i> and the <i>Rakoczy March</i>, are often +played at symphony concerts, and are familiar to everyone. Certain +blemishes in Berlioz's music are obvious and need not be +over-emphasized. There is often more style and outward effect than +real substance. His works excite, but how seldom do they exalt! For he +was frequently deficient in depth of emotion and in latent +warmth—qualities quite different from the hectic glow and the +feverish passion which his French admirers, Tiersot and Boschot, claim +to be genuine attributes of musical inspiration, of power to compel +universal attention. We of other nations can only firmly dissent. +Without question his work has never succeeded in calling forth the +spontaneous love of a large body of admirers.<a name="FNanchor_227_229" id="FNanchor_227_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_229" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> In an eloquent +passage the conductor and critic Weingartner sums up the case: +"Berlioz will always represent a milestone in the development of +music, for he is the real founder of the modern school. He did not +approach that ethical depth, that ideal purity which surround +Beethoven's name with such unspeakable glory, but no composer since +Beethoven, except Wagner, has enriched music with so many new means of +expression as this great Frenchman. Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner are the +heroes of the last half of the 19th century, just as Haydn, Mozart, +Beethoven, Weber and Schubert were of the first."</p> + +<p>As Berlioz is, if possible, even more idiomatic for the orchestra than +Chopin for the pianoforte, no conception of the real quality of his +message can be gained from transcriptions, however good. His +works<a name="FNanchor_228_230" id="FNanchor_228_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_230" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> must be studied at first hand in the orchestral score and +then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span> heard in performance by an excellent orchestra. Some preliminary +acquaintance and appreciation, however, of characteristic features in +his style is possible from arrangements and so we select for comment +the following works and movements: The <i>Fantastic Symphony</i>, the +<i>Carnaval Romain</i> Overture, the <i>Ballet des Sylphes</i> and the <i>Feux +Follets</i> from the <i>Damnation of Faust</i>, the <i>Pilgrim's March</i> from the +<i>Childe Harold</i> Symphony and the Slow Movement from the <i>Romeo and +Juliet</i> Symphony.<a name="FNanchor_229_231" id="FNanchor_229_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_231" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> There is much valuable and stimulating +reading<a name="FNanchor_230_232" id="FNanchor_230_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_232" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> about Berlioz and his influence; for, as Théophile +Gautier acutely remarks, "S'il fut un grand génie, on peut le discuter +encore, le monde est livré aux controverses; mais nul ne penserait à +nier qu'il fut un grand caractère." The <i>Symphonie</i><a name="FNanchor_231_233" id="FNanchor_231_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_233" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> +<i>fantastique</i>, op. 14, <i>épisode de la vie d'un artiste</i>, in five +movements is significant for being the first manifestation of +Berlioz's conviction that music should be yet more specifically +expressive, since it is founded on a characteristic theme, called +l'idée fixe which typifies the heroine, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music207.png" width="633" height="195" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music208.png" width="641" height="1030" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music209.png" width="641" height="633" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music207.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music207.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This theme, with modifications appropriate to the changes in the +character and the environment, is repeated in each movement. As for +the theme itself, frankly it does not amount to much; it certainly +fails to take our emotions by storm or sing itself into our hearts. +Berlioz's harmonization is very bald, and as to his attempts at +development,<a name="FNanchor_232_234" id="FNanchor_232_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_234" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> the less said the better. Of course whatever Berlioz +writes for the orchestra <i>sounds</i> well; of that there is no doubt. But +this is not enough; any more than we are convinced by a person's +statements or arguments merely because he happens to have a beautiful +speaking voice. This dramatization of a musical theme was, after all, +nothing iconoclastically new and Berlioz is perfectly right in +claiming that he was merely extending the possibilities of that same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span> +type of theme as is found in Beethoven himself, <i>e.g.</i>, in the +<i>Coriolanus</i> Overture and to a certain extent in the Fifth Symphony. +If, furthermore, we look back from the dramatic and highly personified +use made of themes in modern music, in the works of Strauss, +Tchaikowsky, Franck and even Brahms (<i>e.g.</i>, his First Symphony with +its motto-theme) we can see that this symphony of Berlioz is an +important link in a perfectly logical chain of development. This +melody, then, l'idée fixe, appears in each of the five movements; +undergoing, however, but slight purely thematic development, being +introduced and modified primarily for dramatic purposes. In the second +movement,<a name="FNanchor_233_235" id="FNanchor_233_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_235" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> <i>Un Bal</i>, two phrases drawn from it are sung <i>pp</i> by +the clarinet as an indication that, amid the gaieties of the dance, +the vision of the beloved one is ever present. In the <i>Scène aux +Champs</i> it is modified and eloquently declaimed by the flute and oboe, +<i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music210.png" width="632" height="219" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music210.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music210.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>At the close of the movement occurs one of Berlioz's most novel and +realistic effects—the imitation of the rumbles of distant thunder +produced by four kettle-drums tuned in a very peculiar way (see page +75 of the orchestral score, Breitkopf and Härtel edition). In the +fourth movement, <i>Marche au Supplice</i>, four measures of l'idée fixe +are introduced just at the moment when the head of the hero is to be +chopped off. This is done for purely theatric purposes and certainly +makes our flesh creep—as Berlioz no doubt intended. The most +spectacular effect, however, is in the last movement, <i>Songe d'une +Nuit du Sabbat</i>, where the theme is parodied to typify the degraded +appearance which the beloved one takes in the distorted dreams of her +lover, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music211.png" width="636" height="228" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music211.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music211.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The impression made by the Symphony depends largely upon the attitude +of the hearer. In this work we are not to look for the sublimity and +emotional depth of a Bach or Beethoven any more than we expect a +whimsical comedy of Aristophanes to resemble an epic poem of Milton. +But for daring imagination, for rhythmic vitality and certainty of +orchestral effect, it was and remains a work<a name="FNanchor_234_236" id="FNanchor_234_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_236" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> of genius.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Carnaval Romain Overture</span><br /> +(<span class="smcap">See Supplement No. 57</span>)</h3> + +<p>This work is one of Berlioz's most brilliant pieces, with an +orchestral life and color all its own. The material is taken from his +opera <i>Benvenuto Cellini</i>;<a name="FNanchor_235_237" id="FNanchor_235_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_237" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> the checquered career of this artist +having made an irresistible appeal to Berlioz's love of the unusual +and the spectacular. The body of the work is based on the Italian +national dance, the Saltarello; and with this rhythm as a steadying +background Berlioz achieves a continuity sometimes lacking in his +work. The mere thought of the sights, sounds and colors of that +important event in the life of Rome would be enough to inflame his +susceptible imagination, and so here we have Berlioz at his very best. +The overture begins, allegro assai con fuoco, with a partial +announcement of the saltarello theme by the violins and violas, freely +imitated by the wood-wind instruments, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music212a.png" width="633" height="199" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music212a.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music212a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>After a sudden prolonged silence and some crescendo trills the first +periodic melody is introduced, sung by the English horn—the tune +taken from an aria of Benvenuto in the first act. The melody is soon +repeated in the dominant key by the violas and then, treated +canonically, by the 'cellos and violins. The canon really tells and +shows that Berlioz, as is often alleged, was not <i>altogether</i> lacking +in polyphonic skill. The rhythm is now gradually quickened and leads +to the main body of the work, in 6/8 time, based on the Italian +folk-dance—the Saltarello which, as its name implies, is of a +"skipping" nature. The music is freely developed from the two +following themes; there is no second theme proper, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music212b.png" width="637" height="182" alt="music (a)" title="music (a)" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music212b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music212b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music212c.png" width="639" height="171" alt="music (b)" title="music (b)" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music212c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music212c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Toward the close there is a return to the introductory melody which is +treated contrapuntally by the bassoons and other wind-instruments. The +saltarello resumes its sway and is worked up to a fiery ending; +especially brilliant are the closing chords scored for full brass with +trills on the cornets.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span></p> + +<p>Two of Berlioz's most poetically conceived descriptive pieces are the +<i>Menuet des Feux-Follets</i> and the <i>Ballet des Sylphes</i>, incidental +orchestral numbers from the <i>Damnation of Faust</i>; for they illustrate +convincingly what one means by the claim that Berlioz thought in terms +of orchestral color and suggestion. To give a musical picture of such +airy and fantastic imaginings by the mere repetition of conventional +formulae would obviously be of no avail. Berlioz's genius is equal to +the situation; and as we listen to the music we can really see the +flickering of the Will o' the Wisps and feel the graceful swaying of +the Sylphs as they hover about the sleeping Faust. To suggest the +Feux-Follets Berlioz ingeniously gives the theme to two piccolos in +thirds, which are supported by a rich but subdued mass of wind +instruments, horns and trumpets, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music213.png" width="638" height="593" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music213.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music213.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>With equal felicity does he create the picture of the delicate, +graceful Sylphs. Any boisterous rhythmic activity would be quite out +of place; and so, above a sustained ground tone on muted 'cellos and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span> +basses (which continues through the piece), and the slightest +suspicion of motion on the second violins and violas, there floats in +the first violins one of the most perfectly rounded and exquisite +melodies in existence, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music214.png" width="639" height="380" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music214.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music214.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In the closing measures there is a charming shadowy dialogue between +kettle-drums (struck with sponge-headed sticks) and harps, in +harmonics, carrying out Berlioz's stage directions—"Les esprits de +l'air se balancent quelque temps autour de Faust endormi et +disparaissent peu à peu." The piece ends with a chord barely whispered +on the clarinets, <i>pppp</i>, which, as Hadow aptly suggests, reminds us +of vanishing soap bubbles.</p> + +<p>Berlioz's most sustained and perfect work, both in content and +treatment, is universally acknowledged to be the <i>Harold en Italie</i> +Symphony<a name="FNanchor_236_238" id="FNanchor_236_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_238" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> in four movements for full orchestra and solo viola. +There is little actual correspondence between the scenes of Byron's +poem and the musical portrayal; and in fact, as Liszt says, "The title +clearly shows that the composer wished to render the impression which +the magnificent nature of Italy could not fail to make on a soul such +as that of Harold languishing in sorrow." The significant features of +the work are the melody for solo viola, recurring<a name="FNanchor_237_239" id="FNanchor_237_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_239" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> in each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span> +movement, which typifies Harold—that "melancholy dreamer," <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music215.png" width="639" height="170" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music215.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music215.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and the dazzling sensationalism of the Finale (Orgy of Brigands) +which, when it was once played "con amore" by a fine orchestra, called +forth from Berlioz the following eulogy,—"Sublime! I thank you, +gentlemen, and I wonder at you; you are perfect brigands." The finale +is also notable in that the opening portion is a reminiscence, a +passing in review, of the chief themes of the preceding movements. +Berlioz, we may surmise, was following the precedent established by +Beethoven in the finale of the <i>Ninth Symphony</i>, and, although his +treatment is rather mechanical and lacking in any such dramatic logic +as justified Beethoven, a certain organic connection between the +movements is undoubtedly secured. A portion of the second movement, +<i>March of Pilgrims</i> singing the evening prayer, is cited in the +Supplement (See No. 58) chiefly because it is one of Berlioz's noblest +inspirations, giving an eloquent picture of a procession approaching, +passing by and losing itself in the distance—a long crescendo and +diminuendo. At every eighth measure the March melody is interrupted by +the muffled chant of the pilgrims, very effectively scored for brass +instruments, pianissimo. In the middle of the piece a contrast is +gained by the introduction of a religious chant. The closing measures +of this movement are of haunting beauty—a mysterious effect being +produced by an intentional mixture of tonalities (the sustained B in +the flute and oboe being answered by a C on the horns and harp, while +beneath are heard fragments of the March theme in the main key on the +pizzicato double basses).<a name="FNanchor_238_240" id="FNanchor_238_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_240" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> Berlioz's most pretentious orchestral +composition is that called in the full title "Romeo and Juliet, +dramatic symphony, with choruses, vocal solos, and a prologue in +choral recitative, com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span>posed after Shakespeare's tragedy." +Notwithstanding many touches of genius, it is a very uneven work and +is too much a conglomerate of styles—narrative, lyrical, dramatic, +theatric and symphonic—for the constructive ability of the author to +weld into a living whole. There are several portions which, however +noble and glorious may have been Berlioz's conception,<a name="FNanchor_239_241" id="FNanchor_239_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_241" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> and +however inspired by Shakespeare's genius, do not "come off." Two of +the numbers, on the other hand, are worthy of the highest praise—the +<i>Love Scene</i> and the <i>Queen Mab Scherzo</i>. Of the latter Saint-Saëns +writes—"The famous Scherzo is worth even more than its reputation. It +is a miracle of lightness and gracefulness. Beside such delicacies and +transparencies the <i>finesses</i> of Mendelssohn in the <i>Midsummer Night's +Dream</i> seem heavy." The main theme is fascinating in its daintiness +and sparkle, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music216.png" width="638" height="276" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music216.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music216.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Berlioz considered the <i>Love Scene</i> his finest inspiration and there +are few pieces comparable with it for passionate utterance. The +orchestration is wonderful for richness and variety.<a name="FNanchor_240_242" id="FNanchor_240_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_242" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p> + +<p>After a careful study of the foregoing examples the reader, we hope, +is in a position to make a fair estimate of Berlioz's power and to +realize his great significance. It should be understood that this +music is intensely subjective and so requires a sympathetic and +cultivated attitude on the part of the listener. To the writer at +least, there remains one vital lack in Berlioz's music,—that of the +<i>dissonant element</i>. It often seems as if his conceptions could not be +fully realized for want of sheer musical equipment, largely due to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span> +insufficient early training. For what is music without dissonance? +Surely "flat, stale and unprofitable" even if, in Berlioz's case, this +deficiency is offset by great rhythmic vitality and gorgeous color. +Yet in his best works<a name="FNanchor_241_243" id="FNanchor_241_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_243" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> there is such a strong note of +individuality, indeed such real character, that they are deserving of +sincere respect and admiration, although by everybody they may not be +deeply loved. We should, furthermore, always remember that, if +Berlioz's poverty of harmonic effect is sometimes annoying, he never +falls into the humdrum ruts of those who have had a stereotyped +academic training. His genius was unhampered by any conventional +harmonic vocabulary, and hence it could always express itself freely. +That he was a real genius no one can fairly doubt.</p> + +<p>All the qualities which have been enumerated as typical of the +romantic temperament: warmth of sentiment, broad culture, love of +color and the sensuous side of music, freedom of form, and stress laid +on the orchestra as the most eloquent means of expression, reach their +climax in Franz Liszt (1811-1886). Born near Vienna of a Hungarian +father and a German mother, but chiefly associated with Paris, Weimar, +Budapest and Rome, he is certainly the most picturesque and versatile +figure in the music of the 19th century; for he worked and won fame as +a pianoforte virtuoso—probably the greatest the world has known—as a +prolific composer for pianoforte, orchestra and voice, as a teacher, +conductor and man of letters, and withal spent a large part of his +time, strength and fortune in helping young artists and in producing +works which otherwise might never have seen the light. His life is of +constant and varied interest, so spectacular at times that it seems +like a fairy tale.<a name="FNanchor_242_244" id="FNanchor_242_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_244" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> As a mere boy he began to receive adulation +for his precocity; at the height of his career he was loaded with +honors and wealth; in his old age he was a favorite with everyone of +distinction and influence in France, Germany, England and Italy. +Nevertheless he preserved, throughout, the integrity of his character +and the nobility of his disposition. Whatever may be the final +estimate of his powers as a creative artist, as a man he has earned +nothing but eulogy;<a name="FNanchor_243_245" id="FNanchor_243_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_245" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> for seldom has any one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span> been freer from the +faults of vanity, petty jealousy and envy which so often mar the +artistic temperament. Liszt's generous encouragement and financial +support of Wagner in the struggling days of his unpopularity have +never been surpassed in the brotherhood of art.</p> + +<p>Liszt is akin to Berlioz in many respects; we feel the same natural +tendency to derive musical inspiration from external sources, poetic, +pictorial or from the realm of Nature. Purely as a musician, however, +Liszt was far greater, with a wider vocabulary and more power in +thematic development. His work also is somewhat uneven; moments of +real beauty alternating with passages which are trivial, bombastic or +mere lifeless padding. When we bear in mind Liszt's unparalleled +versatility, his output in quantity and variety is so amazing—there +being well over 1,000 works of about every kind—that it is unfair to +expect the style to be as finely wrought as the original conception is +noble. A serious and unbiased study of his best compositions will +convince one that Liszt is entitled to high rank as a musician of +genuine poetic inspiration. The average music-lover is prone to dwell +upon him as the composer of <i>Les Préludes</i>, the <i>Hungarian +Rhapsodies</i>, and as the somewhat flashy transcriber of operatic +potpourris, such as the <i>Rigoletto Fantasie</i>. But <i>Les Préludes</i>, +notwithstanding a certain charm and the clever manner in which the +music (without becoming minutely descriptive) supplements the poem of +Lamartine, is yet barred from the first rank by its mawkishness of +sentiment and by its cloying harmonies. The most significant among the +symphonic poems are <i>Orpheus</i> with its characteristic crescendos and +diminuendos; <i>Tasso</i> of great nobility and pathos, and <i>Mazeppa</i>, a +veritable tour de force of descriptive writing. To hear any one of +these masterpieces can not fail to alter the opinion of those who may +have considered Liszt as exclusively given over to sensational +effects. As for the <i>Hungarian Rhapsodies</i>, which Liszt intended as a +kind of national ballade and so, for the basic themes and rhythms, +drew largely on Hungarian Folk music, here again the public, with its +fondness for being dazzled, has laid exclusive stress on the flashy +ones to the detriment of those containing much that is noble and of +enduring worth. In his transcriptions of standard songs Liszt did as +valuable a public service as any popularizer, and has thereby made +familiar the melodies of Schubert and Schumann to hundreds who +otherwise would know nothing of them. In considering Liszt's +pianoforte works we must remember that he was a born virtuoso with a +natural fondness for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span> exploiting the possibilities of his instrument, +and with an amazing technique as a performer. When the sincerity of a +composer is in question there is a great difference as to what should +be the standard of judgment, whether the work be for orchestra or for +pianoforte. In writing for orchestra the composer naturally centres +himself on the pure ideas and their treatment, as the execution is +something entirely external to himself. In works for pianoforte, +however, the composer who is also a virtuoso will often, and quite +justifiably, introduce passages of purely pianistic effect which in +other circumstances would amount to a confession of deficient +imagination. That Liszt at times abused his facility in decoration +need not be gainsaid, and yet how poetic and eloquent are his best +pianoforte compositions!—the <i>Études</i>, the <i>Waldesrauschen</i>, the +<i>Ballade</i> and, above all, the <i>Sonata in B minor</i>.<a name="FNanchor_244_246" id="FNanchor_244_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_246" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> Much unjust +criticism has been expended upon Liszt for treating the pianoforte +like an orchestra. As a matter of fact he widened, in a perfectly +legitimate way, the possibilities of the instrument as to sonority, +wealth and variety of color-effect. According to the testimony of +contemporary colleagues, Rubinstein, Taussig and von Bülow who, had +they not been convinced of his supremacy, might well have been +jealous, Liszt was incontestably the greatest interpreter of Bach, +Beethoven and Chopin; and his power as a Beethoven scholar is attested +by the poetically annotated edition of the Sonatas. It is often +asserted that Liszt lacked spontaneous melodic invention. This is a +hard saying unless taken in a relative sense. We may grant that Liszt +was neither a Schubert nor a Mozart, and yet recognize in his works +some extremely haunting melodies. His creative power was acknowledged +by Wagner and in a very practical manner. In fact, after a comparative +study of their works, one is amazed at the number of melodies which +Wagner borrowed from Liszt and at the generous complaisance of the +latter. The reactive influence of Liszt and Wagner, each upon the +other, is an interesting chapter in the development of modern art. +Liszt was undoubtedly encouraged in his revolutionary aims by Wagner's +fiery courage. Wagner, on his side, owed much to Liszt's unselfish +generosity; and with his more powerful constructive gifts worked up +into enduring form motives which, internal evidence clearly shows, +came from Liszt himself.</p> + +<p>Just a few closing words as to Liszt's specific contributions to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span> +expansion of musical structure. He was an advanced leader in the +"program school," being endowed with considerably more constructive +power than Berlioz, who often fell between two stools: in that while +his subject demanded the freest treatment, he lacked the vigor to +break away from the formal routine of his classic models. In Liszt's +orchestral works, however, the term "Symphonic Poem"—one of his own +invention—is fully justified, <i>i.e.</i>, they are <i>symphonic</i> in that +they have organic unity, although this is not attained by preserving +the classic number and arrangement of themes; and they are also +<i>poetic</i>, being not a presentation of abstract tone patterns, but +illustrative of some external idea which shapes the course of the +music entirely to its own needs.<a name="FNanchor_245_247" id="FNanchor_245_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_247" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> The distinguishing quality of +the Symphonic Poem is its unbroken continuity. Although objective +points are reached, and while there are broad lines of demarcation +with reference to the varied moods of the poem to be illustrated, +there are <i>no rigid stops</i>—everything is fused together into a +continuous whole. Liszt was an advocate of persistent development, +<i>i.e.</i>, the music going out into space like a straight line instead of +returning on itself. Inner evidence shows, however, that although he +avoided many needless and conventional repetitions, he could not +entirely throw overboard the cyclical law of restatement; for there is +not one of his <i>Symphonic Poems</i> which does not repeat, at the end, +thematic material already heard. Liszt carried the principle of theme +transformation still further than Berlioz; and, as a German, tended to +lay stress rather on the psychological aspects of character than on +those outward theatric events which appeal to French taste. The +difference is well shown by a comparison of the <i>Damnation of Faust</i> +with Liszt's <i>Faust</i> Symphony, considered his most inspired orchestral +work. Liszt must not be forgotten as a song-writer, especially for his +settings to Goethe's poems; which, as Huneker says, are masterpieces +and contain, in essence, all the dramatic lyricism of modern writers, +Strauss included. In these songs the instrumental part is of special +import; Liszt in pianistic treatment anticipating Hugo Wolf with his +"Songs for Voice and Pianoforte," <i>i.e.</i>, the voice and the instrument +are treated as coequal factors.</p> + +<p>The works of Liszt selected for analytical comment are the Symphonic +Poem <i>Orpheus</i>, the <i>Faust</i> Symphony and the Pianoforte Étude, +<i>Waldesrauschen</i>. The student, however, should become familiar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span> with +several others<a name="FNanchor_246_248" id="FNanchor_246_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_248" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> of the Symphonic Poems, notably <i>Tasso</i>, <i>Les +Préludes</i> and <i>Mazeppa</i>; with the Pianoforte Sonata in B minor in one +movement, in which Liszt works on the same plan as Schumann in the +Fourth Symphony; with the descriptive pianoforte pieces and études; +and with the songs, of which <i>Kennst du das Land</i>, <i>Die Lorelei</i> and +<i>Du bist wie eine Blume</i> are beautiful examples.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Symphonic Poem, Orpheus</span></h3> + +<p>In this work, as must always be the case in poetically suggestive +music, the composer trusts to the general intelligence and insight of +the listener. For a mere mention of the name Orpheus may well call up +the vision of a majestic, godlike youth proclaiming his message of joy +and peace to soften the unruly passions of men and animals.</p> + +<p>It is said that Liszt's imagination was kindled by a beautiful +representation of Orpheus playing on the lyre, which decorates an +Etruscan vase in the Louvre. The aim of the music was thus to +intensify and supplement the visual effect. The Poem begins with soft, +sustained calls on the horns, creating a mood of expectancy, +interspersed with modulatory arpeggios on the harp serving to complete +the legendary picture. In these Symphonic Poems, we must always +observe how closely the nature of the themes and the whole import of +the music are involved with the orchestral dress. For Liszt, though +not perhaps so brilliant and sensational as Berlioz, was equally a +great master of orchestral coloring and poetic suggestion by means of +appropriate instruments; often, too, more delicate and refined. In +measure 15 begins for sustained strings the stately march which +typifies the gradual approach of Orpheus. The second phrase of the +march, beginning in measure 38, has received the compliment of being +appropriated, almost literally, by Wagner in the second act of the +<i>Valkyrie</i> for the march motive with which Wotan is ushered in. Some +beautiful modulatory developments of the march theme, with which the +original horn calls are united, lead to the impassioned theme in E +major, sung by an English horn, which is the message of Orpheus to the +sons of men, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music222.png" width="638" height="329" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music222.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music222.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The theme is expanded by means of striking modulations until, in +measure 102, it is presented by the full orchestra. Some rather +meaningless repetitions, in detached phrases, of the Orpheus theme +bring us, in measure 130, to a return of the original march which is +finally proclaimed <i>ff</i> with great power and sonority. It seems to +typify the triumphant justification of Orpheus's appearance. The +dissonant modulations in the following passage, beginning measure 155, +(in which the double basses take a dramatic part) have been thought by +some to represent realistically the uncouth roars of forest monsters. +These outcries finally subside and in the Coda, beginning at measure +180, we have first a beautiful reminiscence of Orpheus's message and +then a last announcement of the march theme, which is now presented in +the form of a long diminuendo, as if the God-like apparition were +slowly withdrawing from our sight. A series of shifting modulations +(adagio and pianissimo) seems to bring a cloud before our enraptured +senses, and the work closes with a long sustained chord in C major, +<i>ppp</i>, giving an elemental idea of peace and satisfaction. From the +standpoint of musical structure the work is a crescendo followed by a +diminuendo and, poetically considered, is a convincing picture in +terms of music of the effect made upon Liszt's imagination by the +legend of Orpheus. Observe that, although the composition is free in +form, it is <i>not</i> formless.<a name="FNanchor_247_249" id="FNanchor_247_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_249" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> The main lines are the familiar ones +of statement, contrast and restatement, <i>i.e.</i>, three-part form, and +the key-relationship is clear and carefully planned.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span></p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Faust Symphony</span></h3> + +<p>This work, although embodying Liszt's favorite ideas of dramatic +characterization and transformation of theme as found in the Symphonic +Poems, more nearly resembles the ordinary symphony in that it is in +three distinct movements—with pauses between—which stand, +respectively, for the three chief characters in Goethe's drama: Faust, +Gretchen and Mephistopheles. In the <i>Faust</i> Symphony the principle of +transformation or metamorphosis of themes is of such importance that +it may be defined as their rhythmic, melodic and harmonic modification +for the purpose of changing the meaning to correspond with a +modification in the characters for which they stand. The first +movement sets before us five themes illustrative of the most prominent +traits in the complex nature of Faust; the three most important being +(<i>a</i>) typical of brooding, speculative inquiry, (<i>b</i>) the longing of +love, (<i>c</i>) the enthusiasm and chivalry of Faust, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music223a.png" width="639" height="120" alt="music (a)" title="music (a)" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music223a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music223a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music223b.png" width="636" height="206" alt="music (b)" title="music (b)" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music223b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music223b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music223c.png" width="638" height="181" alt="music (c)" title="music (c)" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music223c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music223c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The development of these themes is entirely free, the musical texture +being held together by a general application of the principle of +contrast and by a logical key-scheme. The second movement has two main +themes, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music224a.png" width="636" height="412" alt="music (a)" title="music (a)" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music224a.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music224a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music224b.png" width="637" height="197" alt="music (b)" title="music (b)" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music224b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music224b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>which portray eloquently the sweetness and dreamy ecstacy of +Gretchen's nature. In the course of this portrayal there appear +several themes from the first movement showing, by their +transformation, the effect upon the introspective Faust of the +awakening influence of love. Thus the love theme appears as—</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music224c.png" width="366" height="94" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music224c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music224c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and also later in this form—</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music224d.png" width="641" height="93" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music224d.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music224d.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span></p> + +<p>Towards the close of the movement there is a subtle reference to the +chivalrous theme, as follows—</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music225.png" width="417" height="92" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music225.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music225.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Much of the appeal of the music depends upon the orchestration which +throughout is of remarkable beauty.</p> + +<p>In the final movement, entitled Mephistopheles, there are a few +independent themes which portray the malign influence of the spirit of +Evil—the movement is marked Allegro vivace ironico!—but most of the +material is a transformation of the Faust themes which are here +burlesqued, parodied; as if all the noble aspirations of Faust were +being mocked and set at naught. This treatment is a perfectly logical +result of the correspondence, for which Liszt was striving, between +the music and the spirit of the underlying drama. As for the final +impressiveness of his artistic message, the composer may well have +felt that the effect would be indefinite without the specific meaning +which words alone can give. For the style is very subjective +throughout; that is, if the hearer is in a responsive condition, an +effect is produced on his imagination—otherwise, not. To close the +work, therefore, in the most moving and dignified manner, Liszt, with +unerring instinct and following the precedent of Beethoven in the +Ninth Symphony, introduces a chorus of men's voices—marked Andante +Mistico—which intones the famous stanza "Alles Vergängliche"<a name="FNanchor_248_250" id="FNanchor_248_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_250" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> at +the close of the second part of Faust; while, above this chorus, a +solo tenor proclaims the motto of the redeeming love of woman, "Das +ewig Weibliche"—a sentiment so dear to the German<a name="FNanchor_249_251" id="FNanchor_249_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_251" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> mind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span> and one +that plays such an important part in the music dramas of Wagner. A +dramatic and musical connection between the movements is established +by using, for this solo part, the melody (intensified by augmentation) +which in the second movement typified the love and charm of Gretchen, +<i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music226.png" width="641" height="97" alt="music: Das ewig Weibliche" title="music: Das ewig Weibliche" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music226.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music226.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the ultra sensationalism in some of Liszt's works +there is no doubt that, in the closing pages of Faust, he has produced +an effect of genuine power and of inspired musical beauty.<a name="FNanchor_250_252" id="FNanchor_250_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_252" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> +<i>Faust</i>, in fact, may be called a great work because of the character +of its leading melodies, its freedom of structure and expression and +its wealth of appropriate orchestral color. For these merits we may +overlook certain dreary passages where it would surely seem as if the +imagination of the composer were not able to translate into tones all +the phases of Goethe's stupendous drama.<a name="FNanchor_251_253" id="FNanchor_251_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_253" class="fnanchor">[251]</a></p> + +<p>In a book such as this, chiefly concerned with broad principles of +structure and style, it would be out of place to attempt a detailed +account of Liszt's numerous and varied pianoforte compositions. But +they can by no means be left out of consideration by anyone who wishes +to gain a comprehensive estimate of his influence. For although the +fundamental principles of pianoforte style, both in writing for the +instrument and in playing upon it, are derived from Chopin and +Schumann,<a name="FNanchor_252_254" id="FNanchor_252_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_254" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> Liszt so amplified the work of these men and added so +many novel features of his own in pianistic effect and especially in +execution that he is rightly considered a genius of the instrument. He +certainly brought out of the pianoforte a sonority and wealth of color +which heretofore had been associated only with the orchestra. The +chief groups of the pianoforte works are (1) the transcriptions of +songs, notably of Schubert and Schumann, and of operas, particularly +of Wagner. In this group should also be included the re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span>markable +arrangement for solo-pianoforte of all the Beethoven Symphonies. (2) +The Études, especially the set entitled "<i>Études d'exécution +transcendante</i>"—a description which clearly shows the idea Liszt set +before himself and indubitably attained; of this set the one in F +minor is particularly fine. (3) The world-famed <i>Hungarian +Rhapsodies</i>, fifteen in number, based on national melodies and +rhythms. In these Liszt aspired to be the poet of his nation, and they +are still among the most important manifestations of the national +spirit so prominent in our modern music. Perhaps the most eloquent and +celebrated are the 2d, the 12th and the 14th. Even if at times they +are overencrusted with effects meant primarily for display, the +rhythmic vitality and color of the melodies cannot be withstood.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Concert Étude</span>, <i>Waldesrauschen</i><br /> +(<span class="smcap">See Supplement No.</span> 59)</h3> + +<p>This composition begins with a swaying, cantabile theme for the left +hand very characteristic of Liszt, which stands out in relief against +some beautifully placed arabesque figures in the upper register of the +instrument—the whole to be played una corda, dolce con grazia. It +really is a poetic picture, in terms of music, of the delicious murmur +of the woods. In the 15th measure the theme is transferred to the +right hand, in octaves, over sonorous, widely extended groups below. +The theme is expanded through a series of striking modulations and +then returns, in measure 30, to the left hand in a single melodic +line. This middle portion, measures 30-50, is very beautiful in its +genuine atmospheric treatment. Towards its close, however, Liszt's +fondness for sensational effect rather runs away with him and there is +a good deal, in measures 50-60 (marked martellato, strepitoso and +<i>fff</i>), which is rather difficult to reconcile with the poetic +subject. Perhaps a mighty wind is roaring through the trees! In +measure 61 the theme is once more presented in amplified form by the +right hand, più mosso and molto appassionata, and worked up to a +brilliant climax—ending with an interlocking trill and a long, +descending passage of delightful sensuous effect. The closing +measures, una corda and dolcissimo, afford a reminiscence of the +haunting appeal of the chief melody. All in all, in spite of a certain +admixture of alloy, here is a poetic composition, a real tone-picture +of the woods and of the effects implied by the title. Certainly a +piece which, in its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span> picturesque suggestiveness and pianistic +treatment, may fairly be called the ancestor of much that is beautiful +in such modern composers as Debussy and Ravel.</p> + +<p>As a final estimate of Liszt and as a suggestion for the student's +attitude we cite from Niecks the following quotation, since, in our +opinion, it is true and forcibly expressed:</p> + +<p>"Liszt's works are too full of originality and striking expressiveness +to deserve permanently the neglect that has been their lot. Be, +however, the ultimate fate of these works what it may, there will +always remain to Liszt the fame of a daring striver, a fruitful +originator and a wide-ranging quickener."</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<h3>BRAHMS</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">A</span>FTER the novel and brilliant work of the Romanticists had reached its +height in the compositions just studied, it seemed as if there were +nothing more for music to do. Wagner, with his special dramatic aims +and gorgeous coloring, loomed so large on the horizon that for a time +all other music was dwarfed. It is, therefore of real significance +that just in this interregnum two men, born in the early years of the +19th century, were quietly laying the foundations for eloquent works +in absolute or symphonic music. These men were Johannes Brahms +(1833-1897) and César Franck (1822-1890). Following a few preliminary +remarks about the significance of symphonic style in general, the next +chapters will be devoted to an account of their works and influence.</p> + +<p>A striking feature in the development of music since 1850 is the +number of symphonies produced by the representative composers of the +various nations; and the manner in which these works embody certain +phases of style and manifest national tendencies is a subject of great +interest. Ever since Beethoven, there has been a universal feeling +that the symphony is the form in which a composer should express his +highest thoughts. If Wagner and Richard Strauss seem to be exceptions, +we must remember that their work for orchestra is thoroughly symphonic +both in material and in scope. The difference is chiefly one of terms. +Wagner claimed that he merely applied to dramatic purposes Beethoven's +thematic development; and the tone-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span>poems of Strauss are symphonies in +essence though on a free poetic basis. Every composer has taken up the +writing of a symphony with a serious purpose and often comparatively +late in life. To be sure, Beethoven's first Symphony, op. 21, was +composed in his thirtieth year; but for the works which manifest most +strongly his personality, such as the Third, Fifth and Ninth, we have +to wait until a later period. Schumann essayed symphonic composition +only after his technique had been developed in every other field. +Brahms's first Symphony, on which he is said to have worked ten years, +is op. 68. César Franck looked forward to a Symphony as the climax of +his career. The day has passed when a composer could dash off +symphonies by the dozen; quality and genuine personality in each work +are the modern requirements. Thus from Brahms we have four symphonies, +from Tchaikowsky six, from Bruckner nine—a dangerously large +number!—from Sibelius five, from Elgar two, from d'Indy three; and, +even if a composer write but a single really inspired and noble +symphony—as for example, César Franck—he is in so far immortal. For +the symphonic form is the product of too much intense striving (think +of Beethoven's agonies of conception!) to be treated lightly. +Beginning with the operatic overture of Lully and Scarlatti, called +"Sinfonia avanti l'opera," down through the labors of Stamitz, Gossec, +Emmanuel Bach, Haydn and Mozart, this form, as we know it to-day, is +the result of at least a century and a half of sustained, constructive +work. A musician who wishes to compose a symphony is brought face to +face with the formidable question, "Have I a real message to utter and +the technical skill to present it in communicable form?" There are no +accessory appeals to the other senses in the way of a dramatic story, +scenic effect, dancing and costumes—as in opera—to cloak poverty of +invention and to mollify the judgment of the listener. I grant that +the composition of an original opera is a high achievement, but we +know how many composers have won success in the operatic field from +whom we should never expect a symphony. From comparatively few have we +great works in both forms. Consider, furthermore, how complicated a +tool is the present orchestra, <i>as</i> a tool, to say nothing of the +invention of ideas. Many years of study are required to attain a +certainty of calculation in sonority and <i>nuance</i>, and the mere +writing out the score of a symphony requires unremitting toil. We all +pay homage to life: human life in men, women and children, and the +life of nature in animals, birds, trees and flowers. Let us ever +remember that the imagination also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span> has its products and the themes of +a symphony may certainly be considered <i>its</i> children. The public +often seems to have slight idea of the sanctity and mystery of a +musical idea. Composers are considered people with a kind of "knack" +in writing down notes. In reality, a musical idea is as wonderful a +thing as we can conceive—a miracle of life and yet intangible, +ethereal. The composer apparently creates something out of nothing, +pure fancy being wrought into terms of communication. Since the close +of the Romantic period proper, the Symphonic composers of universal +recognition have been Brahms, Franck, Tchaikowsky, d'Indy, Sibelius, +Bruckner, Mahler, Dvořák, Elgar, and a few lesser men of the +Russian and French schools. Their works carry still further the +principles which can be traced from Beethoven down through the +Romantic School, <i>i.e.</i>, the chief themes are of a highly subjective +nature, often in fact being treated like actual characters in a drama; +and great freedom is shown in regard to mood and order of the usual +symphonic movements—this being particularly true of Mahler and +Bruckner. A distinct feature of interest in the work of Tchaikowsky, +Dvořák and Sibelius is the introduction of exotic types of melody +and rhythm, drawn from national sources. Thus Tchaikowsky, who said +that he wished all his instrumental music to sound like a glorified +Russian folk-song, uses rhythms of 5 and (in his chamber music) 7 +beats a measure, with frequent touches of old modal harmony. Dvořák +founds his harmony and modulations on the exceedingly chromatic scale +of the Bohemians; and his piquant and dashing rhythms could come only +from a nation which has no less than forty national dances. In +listening to Sibelius, we are conscious of the wild sweep of the wind, +of unchained forces of nature; and there are the same traits of virile +strength and grim dignity which have made the Kalevala, Finland's +national poem, one of the great epics of the world. Although Brahms +never lets us forget that he is a Teuton, there are frequent traces in +his compositions of the Hungarian element—so dear to all the Viennese +composers—as well as of German folk-songs; and the most artistic +treatment we have of Hungarian rhythms is found in his two sets of +Hungarian dances.</p> + +<p>It is manifestly beyond the scope of a single book to treat +comprehensively each of the symphonists in the list just cited, so I +shall dwell chiefly upon the characteristics of Brahms, Franck, +Tchaikowsky and d'Indy as probably the greatest, and touch only +incidentally upon the others, as of somewhat lesser import; though if +anyone<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span> take issue with this preference in regard to Mahler and +Bruckner I shall not combat him. For I believe Mahler to be a real +genius; feeling, however, that his wonderful conceptions are sometimes +not expressed in the most convincing manner. There is no doubt that +Mahler has not yet received his bigger part in due valuation, but his +time will surely come. As for Bruckner, we have from him some of the +most elemental and powerful ideas in modern music—witness the dirge +in the <i>Seventh Symphony</i> with its impressive scoring for trombones +and Bayreuth tubas, a movement Beethoven might have signed; although +with the virgin gold there is mixed, it must be confessed, a large +amount of crude alloy, and there are dreary stretches of waste sand.</p> + +<p>Johannes Brahms, like Beethoven, with whom his style has many +affinities, was a North-German, born in 1833 in the historic seaport +town of Hamburg.<a name="FNanchor_253_255" id="FNanchor_253_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_255" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> Brahms came of lowly though respectable and +intelligent parents, his father being a double-bass player in one of +the theatre orchestras. That the positiveness of character, so +conspicuous in his famous son, was an inherited trait may be seen from +the following anecdote. The director of the theatre orchestra once +asked father Brahms not to play so loud; whereupon he replied with +dignity, "Herr Kapellmeister, this is my double-bass, I want you to +understand, and I shall play it as loud as I please." The music of +Brahms in its bracing vigor has been appropriately compared to a +mixture of sea air and the timbre of this instrument.</p> + +<p>Brahms's mother was a deeply religious woman who imbued her son with a +seriousness of purpose which runs through all his work. From his +earliest years he was trained for music, as a matter of course, and +showed marked precocity as a pianist, though it soon became evident +that he also was endowed with rare creative gifts. The young student +made such progress under Marxsen, a famous teacher of the period, that +at the age of fifteen he gave a public concert, on the program of +which stood some original pieces of his own. The next few years were +spent in diligent study and in the composition of some of his early +works, of which the Scherzo op. 4 is the most significant. Brahms was +extraordinarily precocious and during these formative years manifested +a trait which is noticeable throughout his career—that of knowing +exactly what end he had in view and of setting to work quickly and +steadily to attain it. Finally in 1853, when he was twenty, he was +invited to participate in the memorable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span> concert-tour with the +Hungarian Violinist Remenyi, which was the cause of his being brought +before the public under the auspices of three such sponsors as +Schumann, Liszt and Joachim. It seems that, at one of the concerts in +a small town, the pianoforte was a semitone too low, whereupon young +Brahms transposed at sight a difficult Beethoven Sonata into the +requisite higher key. This remarkable feat of musicianship so +impressed Joachim, who was in the audience, that he gave Brahms two +letters of introduction—one to Liszt at Weimar and one to Schumann at +Düsseldorf on the Rhine. Following up these letters, Brahms now spent +six weeks at Weimar with Liszt, assimilating important points of +method and style. Although the two natures were somewhat +unsympathetic, Liszt was so impressed with the creative power and +character of Brahms's first compositions, that he tried to adopt him +as an adherent of the advanced school of modern music; while Brahms +was led, as some would claim, through Liszt's influence to an +appreciation of the artistic effects to be found in Hungarian music. +Brahms's visit to Schumann in the autumn of 1853 was in its +consequences a significant incident. After hearing Brahms's music, +Schumann wrote for the "Neue Zeitschrift" an article entitled "Neue +Bahnen" ("New Paths") in which the young composer was heralded as the +master for whom the world had been waiting, the successor of Beethoven +in the symphonic style. Through Schumann's influence, the publishers +Breitkopf and Härtel at once brought out Brahms's first works, which +were by no means received by the public with general favor; in fact +they provoked as bitter discussion as those of Wagner, and made +headway slowly. For four years—from 1854 to 1858—Brahms was in the +service of the Prince of Lippe-Detmold, a small principality near +Hanover, where the court was a quiet one, thus affording ample time +for composition and private study. Brahms's strength of purpose and +unusual power of self-criticism are shown by the way in which this +period was spent. Although he had made a brilliant début, Brahms now +imposed upon himself a course of rigorous technical training, appeared +seldom before the public and published no compositions; his object +being to free himself from a narrow subjectivity and to give scope to +his wide human sympathies and to his passion for perfection of +utterance. It seemed to him that a plausible originality might +degenerate into mere idiosyncrasy, and that universality of appeal +should be a musician's highest goal. When he resigned his post and +came before the public with his first large work, a concerto for +pianoforte and or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span>chestra, the gain made in increased power and +resources was evident. The greatest tribute which can be paid Brahms +is that he has summed up and united the classic principles of +clearness and solidity of workmanship with the warmth and spontaneity +of the Romantic School. In 1862 Brahms settled in Vienna where, for +thirty-five years, his career was entirely free from external +incidents of note; his time spent in quiet steady work and in the +attainment of artistic ideals. His slow logical development is like +that of Beethoven, due to the fact that his works were far from +numerous, but finished with the greatest care. The standard of +creative quality is also very high; comparatively few of Brahms's +works are not altogether alive. Matthew Arnold's beautiful lines on +labor are applicable to Brahms. "Work which in lasting fruit outgrows +far noisier schemes; accomplished in repose; too great for haste; too +high for rivalry." Brahms thus described to Mr. Henschel, a former +conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, his ideals concerning +composing: "There is no real creating without hard work; that which +you call invention is simply an inspiration from above, for which I am +not responsible, which is no merit of mine." And again, "Whether a +composition is beautiful is one consideration, but perfect it must +be." The few of his compositions which show connection with outward +events are the <i>Deutsches Requiem</i>, his best-known choral work (in +commemoration of his mother's death) and the <i>Academic Overture</i>, +composed in place of the conventional thesis, when—in 1880—the +University of Breslau conferred on him a doctor's degree. This +Overture, based on several convivial student songs, is on the whole +his most genial composition for orchestra and has won a deserved +popularity the world over.<a name="FNanchor_254_256" id="FNanchor_254_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_256" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> For sustained fancy his most beautiful +work for chorus and orchestra is the <i>Schicksalslied</i> (<i>Song of +Destiny</i>). Symphonic composition, as has been said, came in the latter +part of Brahms's career, his first work in that form being op. 68. +After that, within a few years, three other symphonies were composed. +His last works include the significant pianoforte pieces called +<i>Intermezzi</i>—not all equally inspired, but many representing the +finest flower of Brahms's genius; four serious songs for bass voice, +and one posthumous work, <i>Eleven Choral Preludes for Organ</i>. Brahms +died in 1897 and lies buried in Vienna not far from Beethoven and +Schubert.</p> + +<p>From Brahms we have beautiful works in every branch of com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>position +save the opera and symphonic poem. (He once said he would risk neither +an opera nor getting married!) Very few of his works have titles, and +in this respect he stood somewhat aloof from that strong tendency in +modern times—the connection between music and poetic and literary +sources of inspiration. But he had a right to choose his own line of +effort; it is for us to become familiar with his works as they are. +They comprise about two hundred songs, three pianoforte sonatas and +many lesser pieces, two concertos for pianoforte and orchestra, a +wonderfully fine violin concerto, four symphonies—each with a +character of its own—and a large group of chamber compositions: +string quartets, sonatas for violin and pianoforte, trios, and a +number of works for unusual ensemble combinations—the Trio for +Violin, Horn and Pianoforte being the best known.</p> + +<p>As to the nature of Brahms's music the following comments are +submitted for consideration. He was not a colorist or a stylist in the +broad sense of those terms, <i>i.e.</i>, color and style were not the prime +ingredients in his music. There is light and shade in Brahms but +seldom that rich and varied glow found, for example, in +Rimsky-Korsakoff—that supreme master of orchestral coloring. As for +style, it may be said that his work fulfils Matthew Arnold's +definition of that desirable quality, "To have something to say and to +say it in the most simple and direct manner possible." We sometimes +feel, however, that he is thinking more of what he has to say than of +outward eloquence of expression. But when there are so many +composers<a name="FNanchor_255_257" id="FNanchor_255_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_257" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> in whom there is far more style than substance, we +should not carp at Brahms for the "stuff" in his work. The matter +might be put in a nut-shell by saying that Brahms is Brahms; you +accept him or leave him, as you see fit. The bulk of his music not +only has stood the test of time but becomes more potent each year; +surely this is the highest possible endorsement. He is rightly +considered a great master of pure melodic line and a consummate +architect, especially in the conciseness and concentration of certain +compositions, <i>e.g.</i>, the Third Symphony, and in his superb mastery of +the Variation form which is the basis of some of his most famous works +for orchestra and for pianoforte. His texture is of marked richness +and variety; seldom do we find verbiage or lifeless padding. He has +been called the Browning of music—a deep thinker in tones. Genuine +appreciation of Brahms presupposes work on the part of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span> the +music-lover; and the recognition should be more general that the +imaginative stimulation gained only through work is one of the +blessings music has to bestow.</p> + +<p>It is often alleged, indeed, that to enjoy Brahms one <i>has</i> to work. +Of course, but what repaying work! This may be said equally of +Shakespeare, of Dante, of Browning, of Bach and of every poet with a +serious message. The vitality of Brahms's creative power, like that of +Beethoven, is seen in his rhythm. He had a highly developed rhythmic +sense, and in his fondness for syncopations, for contrasted accents +and for complicated metric groups he is the logical successor of +Schumann. One of his favorite devices is the altered grouping of the +notes in a measure, so that there is a contrast between duple and +triple rhythm, <i>e.g.</i>, the following passage in the Second Symphony, +where an effect of great vigor is produced.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music235.png" width="640" height="648" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music235.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music235.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span></p> + +<p>There are never in Brahms weak or conventional rhythms. He is also one +of the great modern song-composers, representing with Strauss, Wolf +and Mahler the culmination of the German Lied. In his songs there is a +warmth and depth of sentiment as yet unsurpassed, and the +accompaniment is always a highly wrought factor in the work. In +estimating the value of Brahms's compositions as a whole, it is +difficult to hold the balance true. Those to whom he is sympathetic +through an affinity of temperament revere him as one of the great +geniuses for all time, while to others his message is not of such +convincing power. The effect of inborn temperament in the personal +appeal made by any composer is vividly shown by the estimate which +Tchaikowsky and Brahms had for one another. Each felt respect for the +sincerity and artistic skill of his contemporary, at the same time +regretfully acknowledging that the essence of the music meant little +to him. To Tchaikowsky Brahms seemed cold and lacking in melodic +spontaneity; to Brahms, on the other hand, Tchaikowsky seemed +superficial, sensational. The gist of the matter is that Brahms was a +Teuton and wrote with characteristic Teutonic reserve and dignity. +Tchaikowsky, being a Slav, wrote with the impassioned lack of +restraint and volatility of mood associated with that people. How +could it be otherwise? Each was a genuine artist, expressing his +natural feelings with clearness and conviction; and each should be +respected for what he did: <i>not</i> one at the expense of the other. In +Brahms, however, the question does arise of facility of expression +versus worthiness of expression. He had an unparalleled technique in +the manipulation of notes but whether there was always an emotional +impulse behind what he wrote is debatable. For there are these two +contrasting types in every art: works which come from the heart +(remember Beethoven's significant inscription at the end of his +Mass),<a name="FNanchor_256_258" id="FNanchor_256_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_258" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> and those which come from the head. This brings us face to +face with the perplexing question as to the essence of music. To some +it is a record of intellectual activity tinged with emotion; to +others, an emotional outpouring controlled by intellect. These two +types of music will always exist, being the natural expression of the +corresponding classes in human nature.</p> + +<p>Brahms's music is sometimes called dry, but this is a misuse of terms. +To draw an analogy from another sense, we might rejoin that the best +champagne is "sec," all the superfluous, cloying sugar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span> being removed. +There is plenty of saccharine music in the world for those who like +it. In Brahms, however, we find a potential energy and a manly +tenderness which cannot be ignored even by those who are not +profoundly thrilled by his message. He was a sincere idealist and +composed to please his own high standards, never thinking of outward +effect nor testing the pulse of the fickle public. As a man there is +no doubt that he was warm-hearted and vigorous, but his was not the +nature to come forward with captivating geniality. On the contrary he +expects the hearer to come to him, and is too reserved to meet you +more than half-way. That this austerity has proved a bar in the way of +a wide-spread fame, while to be regretted, is unavoidable; remove +these characteristics from Brahms and he ceases to be Brahms. Those, +however, who may think that Brahms is always austere and grim, holding +himself aloof from broad human emotion, should remember that he has +done more than any other modern composer to idealize the Waltz; and, +if the atmosphere of his symphonic style be too rarified, they may +well begin their effort in appreciation with those charming Waltzes +op. 39 (both for solo pianoforte and for a four-hand arrangement); the +<i>Hungarian Dances</i>, and—most beautiful of all—the <i>Liebeslieder +Walzer</i> for chorus and pianoforte (four-hands). Anyone who knows these +works cannot fail to become a genuine lover of Brahms. To be of the +earth and yet to strike the note of sublimity is a paradox. For, in +Brahms at his best, we surely find more of the sublime, of true +exalted aspiration, than in any other modern composer save César +Franck. To strike this note of sublimity is the highest achievement of +music—its proper function; a return, as it were, to the abode whence +it came. Such music is far beyond that which is merely sensuous, +brilliantly descriptive, or even dramatically characteristic. Much of +present day music excites and thrills but does not exalt. Brahms, in +his great moments, lifts us high above the earth. His universal +acceptance is alike hindered by a deficiency which, though as natural +as his reserve, may yet justly be cited against him—the occasional +monotony of his color scheme. In the symphonies, notwithstanding the +dignity and sincerity of thought, we find pages in the style of an +engraving which would be more effective as a glowing canvas, <i>e.g.</i>, +in the slow movement of the Second Symphony and in the last two +movements of the Fourth. Many consider, however, that Brahms's +orchestral treatment is exactly suited to the seriousness of his +ideas; so it comes down to a question of individual taste. That he had +his own delicate feeling for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span> color and sensuous effect is shown in +many pages of the chamber music, especially in those works for unusual +combinations, <i>e.g.</i>, the Clarinet Quintet, and the Trio for Violin, +Horn and Pianoforte. No one in modern times has used more eloquently +that romantic instrument, the horn. See, for example, the Coda to the +first movement of the D major Symphony and the slow movement of the +Third Symphony. We must gratefully acknowledge the lasting quality of +his music—without question it wears well. In fact, difficult though +it be to comprehend at a first hearing, the more it is heard, the more +it is enjoyed. Brahms's<a name="FNanchor_257_259" id="FNanchor_257_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_259" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> music is steadily growing in popularity. +His orchestral works and chamber music are applauded to-day, although +twenty-five years ago they were received with apathy and scornful +indifference.</p> + +<p>As a representative work in each of the four fields in which Brahms +created such masterpieces we have selected, for detailed analysis, the +<i>First Symphony</i>, the <i>Sonata for Violin and Pianoforte in A major</i>, +the <i>Ballade in G minor</i> and the <i>Song</i>, <i>Meine Liebe ist grün wie der +Fliederbusch</i>. All four of Brahms's symphonies may justly be +considered great, each in its own way. For Brahms is not a man with a +single message and has not written one large symphony in different +sections, as, in a broad sense, may be said of Tchaikowsky. The +Second, on account of the spontaneity and direct appeal of its themes, +is undoubtedly the most popular. It contains a first movement of a +quasi-Mendelssohnian suavity and lyric charm; a slow movement which is +a meditation of the profundity of Bach himself; a third movement, +allegretto, based on a delightful waltz of the Viennese Ländler type +and a Finale of a Mozartian freshness and vigor—the second theme +being specially notable for its broad sweep. The whole work is a +convincing example of Brahms's vitality and "joie de vivre." The Third +symphony is a marvel of conciseness and virile life. The Fourth, +though not in all respects so inspired as the others, is famous for +its beautiful slow movement—with an impressive introduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span> in the +Phrygian mode (Brahms often showing a marked fondness for old modal +harmony)—and for the Finale, which is an illustration of his +polyphonic skill in modernizing the variation form, the Passacaglia or +ground bass. But the First,<a name="FNanchor_258_260" id="FNanchor_258_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_260" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> it seems to us, is the greatest, in +scope, in wealth of material, in its remarkable combination of +dramatic, epic and lyric elements and in an intensity of feeling and +sublimity of thought peculiar to Brahms. It is extremely subjective, +of deep ethical value, and sets forth a message of optimism and +undying hope. The structural basis is a motto, often recurring in the +work, which (whatever it may mean) is evidently—like the theme of the +C minor symphony—some fierce protest against fate. The symphony, as a +whole, represents a triumphant progress from darkness to light; and +this meaning is made evident by the ever-brightening mood of the +successive movements, the tone of which is strengthened by the scheme +of key-relationship—based on an ascending series of major thirds, +<i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music239.png" width="407" height="80" alt="C Minor, E major, A-flat major, C major." title="C Minor, E major, A-flat major, C major." /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music239.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music239.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The work is somewhat uneven—never weak—but at times a bit labored; +as if the composer were consciously wrestling with great thoughts. +This, however, is nothing against it, because equally true of large +works in other fields of art, <i>e.g.</i>, the Agamemnon of Aeschylus or +Wagner's Tetralogy. It cannot be understood, much less appreciated, +without close attention and earnest thought, for it presents the +struggles and aspirations of mankind and is not meant solely to +delight or entertain. When the hearer has made it his own it is a +priceless possession for all time. The Prelude to the first movement, +un poco sostenuto, is of impressive solemnity, developed from the +motto, and based on the almost persistent iteration of the pedal notes +C and G—the tonic and dominant. It proclaims that a serious meaning +is to be revealed, and this meaning is accentuated by the +orchestration which with its stratified grouping of melodic lines has +a grim strength characteristic of Brahms.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music240a.png" width="633" height="239" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music240a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music240a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The first movement proper, Allegro, in complete sonata-form, begins +with a <i>ff</i> announcement of the impassioned, chromatic motto, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music240b.png" width="376" height="109" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music240b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music240b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Note the cutting effect of the dissonant tones F-sharp and A-flat! +From this motto grows the melodic part of the first theme in two +balancing phrases, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music240c.png" width="637" height="195" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music240c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music240c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Then follow some stormy measures of dissonant chords and warring +rhythms until the theme rages itself out, in measure 52. The +transition begins with some sharp staccato chords, as if summoning to +further attention. It gradually cools down through a series of +beautiful modulations and, in measure 84, the second theme—introduced +by calls on the horn and sung by the oboe—enters in the relative +major key of E-flat. This also is based on the ascending, chromatic +line of the <i>motto</i>; still further organic unity being gained by the +bass, which has the same melodic figure as the second phrase of the +first theme, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music241a.png" width="639" height="367" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music241a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music241a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Much of the previous fierceness, however, has abated and the remainder +of the second theme is of a rare loveliness, with mysterious answering +calls between oboes, clarinets and horns. The <i>pp</i> dominant ninth +chords at the beginning of the closing portion (measures 120-122) give +a positively shuddering effect and then the combat of clashing rhythms +is renewed. The development begins with a series of shifting +harmonies, at first <i>ff</i> and then <i>pp</i>—a lull before the storm—as if +preparing the way for a still more terrific assault upon our emotions. +It is tempestuous throughout; based at first on material taken from +the preceding codetta and ending with an extended presentation of the +motto over an iterated pedal note on the dominant, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music241b.png" width="456" height="207" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music241b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music241b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The fusion of the development with the recapitulation is skillfully +handled, and the motto is proclaimed, beginning at measure 298, in a +series of ascending strata, with overwhelming force. The third part, +with slight abridgment and necessary adjustment of key-relationship, +conforms exactly to the exposition. There is the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span> agitato closing +portion as before, and then the Coda proper, beginning at measure 421, +emphasizes with fiery accents the mood of storm and stress +characteristic of the movement as a whole. After the fury has +subsided, the dramatic motto asserts itself in the closing measures, +poco sostenuto; the problem is still unsolved and the last C major +chord is but a ray of light cast on troubled waters.</p> + +<p>The second movement, andante sostenuto—in three-part form—begins +with a tender melody expressing a mood of deep resignation and +religious hope. No sooner has it started, however, than there creeps +in the sinister motto, as if to remind us that life is undeniably +stern and grim, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music242a.png" width="628" height="405" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music242a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music242a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In measure 17 there enters a closing theme, sung by the oboe, of +ineffable beauty which is used in the third part as the climax of the +movement. It surely seems to come from another world and is one of the +most sublime melodies by Brahms or any one else. Its climax is +impressively united with the main theme in the bass, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music242b.png" width="629" height="208" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music243a.png" width="631" height="230" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music242b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music242b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The middle portion, beginning in measure 38, is a meditation—in +dialogue form—for solo oboe and clarinet, worked up to an eloquent +climax in the key of the relative minor, C-sharp. The third part, +beginning measure 66, with the addition of some lovely modulatory +changes, corresponds to part one; save that the melody is varied by +Brahms's favorite device of three notes to a beat in one voice against +two in another. Beginning in measure 90, the wondrous closing theme of +the first part is sung by a solo violin, reinforced by oboe and horn. +It is finally entrusted, in the home key, to the horn alone, above +which the solo violin soars in ecstacy, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music243b.png" width="629" height="189" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music243b.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music243b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Some diminuendo, descending passages lead to a reminiscent portion of +the first theme and then, in measure 116, the grim motto enters, but +this time without prevailing; for, in measures 122-124, it is finally +exorcised and the movement closes with the seraphic calm of a soft, +rich chord in E major, above which is heard a star-like note on the +solo violin.</p> + +<p>The third movement is an Allegretto; it being Brahms's custom in +each<a name="FNanchor_259_261" id="FNanchor_259_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_261" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> of his symphonies to substitute a movement of this type in +place of the conventional Scherzo or Minuet. This movement clearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> in +three-part form, is thrown in to furnish relief after the emotional +tension of the movement preceding. It has no obvious organic +connection with the other movements, but is just the right thing in +its surroundings, with a note of vitality which does much to brighten +the scene and to prepare the way for the Finale. The opening theme in +A-flat major is in two phrases of <i>five</i> measures each—a favorite +rhythm with Brahms—given out by the clarinet over a pizzicato bass in +the 'cellos. The melodic formation is unusual in that the latter +phrase is an inversion of the first, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music244a.png" width="628" height="161" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music244a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music244a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>After some descending passages in thirds and sixths—one of the +characteristic<a name="FNanchor_260_262" id="FNanchor_260_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_262" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> effects in Brahms's style—the theme is repeated +in the violins with richer scoring. The descending passage returns and +this time leads to the entrance of a subsidiary theme in F minor. In +measures 50-51 occurs one of those cases of melodic germination which +entitles Brahms to be called a genuine <i>creative</i> artist. The melody +with its dashing, Hungarian zest sounds like something brand-new and +yet is logically derived from the main theme by diminution, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music244b.png" width="628" height="228" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music244b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music244b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This is real poetic creation, it being the prime object of a poet to +create in music something out of apparent nothing. After these +viva<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span>cious developments the first part ends with a slight repetition +of the main theme. The middle part, beginning measure 71, in 6/8 time +and in the enharmonic key of B major (E-flat = D-sharp) is noteworthy +for its rhythmic swing, bold syncopations and contrasted accents; see +especially measures 97-107. At the beginning of the third part there +is an effective blending of the rhythm which has just prevailed with +the graceful lines of the first theme. The fabric is made up of +effective changes, modulatory and rhythmic, in the material from the +first part. At the Coda, più tranquillo, there is a delightful +reminiscence of the rhythm of the middle portion carried out to the +very end by the double basses.<a name="FNanchor_261_263" id="FNanchor_261_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_263" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></p> + +<p>The Finale is one of the most thrilling perorations in music; not a +perfunctory close, but a veritable Apotheosis of victorious +aspiration, giving an irresistible contrast to the first movement. +Whereas, before, there was nothing but conflict, now all is triumphant +joy. This movement is laid out on a vast scale, with a wealth of +material, including a long Prelude with a distinct theme of its own +and an extended Coda. The body of the movement is in abridged sonata +form, <i>i.e.</i>, there is a complete Exposition with first, second and +closing themes, and the usual Recapitulation, but <i>no</i> Development +proper. This lack is made good by considerable variation and expansion +in the first part of the Résumé. The Prelude begins Adagio with some +strains which, like smouldering embers, remind us of the sinister +motto of the first movement—note the same dissonant tones A-flat and +F-sharp. The following measures are of indefinite nature, beginning +piano and pizzicato as if a great body were gathering headway slowly. +The pace gradually quickens and we are led through a series of +impetuous stringendo runs to a <i>ff</i> chord which, accompanied by a <i>ff</i> +roll on the kettle-drums, sounds like a clap of thunder and which, as +the reverberations die away, ushers in a most moving theme<a name="FNanchor_262_264" id="FNanchor_262_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_264" class="fnanchor">[262]</a>—given +out forte and sempre passionato on the horn over a <i>pp</i> muted tremolo +on the strings with a background of <i>pp</i> trombones, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music246.png" width="631" height="463" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music246.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music246.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This inspired passage<a name="FNanchor_263_265" id="FNanchor_263_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_265" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> has been eloquently described by W.F. +Apthorp as follows:</p> + +<p>"Amid hushed, tremulous harmonies in the strings, the horn and +afterward the flute pour forth an utterly original melody, the +character of which ranges from passionate pleading to a sort of wild +exultation according to the instrument that plays it. The coloring is +enriched by the solemn tones of the trombones, which appear for the +first time in this movement. It is ticklish work trying to dive down +into a composer's brain, and surmise what special outside source his +inspiration may have had; but one cannot help feeling that this whole +wonderful episode may have been suggested to Brahms by the tones of +the Alpine horn, as it awakens the echoes from mountain after mountain +on some of the high passes in the Bernese Oberland. This is certainly +what the episode recalls to any one who has ever heard those poetic +tones and their echoes. A short, solemn, even ecclesiastical +interruption by the trombones and bassoons is of more thematic +importance. As the horn-tones gradually die away, and the cloud-like +harmonies in the strings sink lower and lower—like mist veiling the +landscape—an impressive pause ushers in the Allegro."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span></p> + +<p>After the flute has repeated this theme there is an interpolation of +an important choral-like phrase (referred to above), <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music247a.png" width="630" height="205" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music247a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music247a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>for it is later used as the climax of the Finale—in fact, of the +whole work—and its tone of religious fervor, accentuated by the +scoring for trombones and bassoons, is a clear indication of the ideal +message which Brahms meant to convey. The body of the movement, +Allegro non troppo ma con brio, begins with a majestic, sweeping +theme<a name="FNanchor_264_266" id="FNanchor_264_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_266" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> of great rhythmic vitality and elasticity announced by the +strings, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music247b.png" width="636" height="271" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music248a.png" width="639" height="107" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music247b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music247b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>It is at once repeated with richer scoring and then some exciting +transitional passages lead, after a slight phrase taken from the chief +theme of the prelude, to the second theme, animato, in G major, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music248b.png" width="637" height="189" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music248b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music248b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This has some rhythmical expansion and then a quieter part, dolce e +piano, beginning measure 71. Some rushing <i>ff</i> passages bring us, in +measure 107, to the brilliant closing theme with its staccato, triplet +rhythm. The Exposition ends in E minor, in measure 122, after a series +of forte, staccato chords. The Recapitulation begins at once after two +modulatory chords, and though sufficient stress is laid on the <i>first +theme</i>, there is so much development of previous material that it +serves for both the customary second and third parts. A good deal of +adverse criticism has been expended on this portion of the movement +and it is possible that Brahms's remarkable technique in handling his +material ran away with him. But the music is always striving toward +some goal, and even if it has to plough through desperate seas, there +is no weakness or faltering. This part of the work is not beautiful in +the popular sense of the term, but no one can fail to be impressed +with its character. A climax is finally reached, in measure 224, with +a fortissimo statement of the chief theme of the prelude, and then, +after this has cooled down, diminuendo e calando, the second theme +enters in the home key. The rest of the recapitulation corresponds +closely with the exposition. The Coda begins, in measure 306, with a +shadowy outline of modulatory chords, as if slumbering forces were +slowly awakening; and, becoming more crescendo and stringendo, reveals +its full glory at the Più Allegro. This portion, based on quickened +phrases of the first theme, seems charged with superhuman energy, and +mounting higher and higher culminates in a majestic proclamation of +the choral-like motto of the prelude, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music249a.png" width="629" height="457" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music249a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music249a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>On hearing this it always seems as if the heavens above us really +opened. The rest of the Coda is a scene of jubilation with ever more +life and light. The dissonant tones of F-sharp and A-flat try to lift +their heads but this time are crushed forever by the triumphant +fundamental chords of C major, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music249b.png" width="632" height="327" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music249b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music249b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The movement, in keeping with its serious message, ends with a +prolonged and brilliant Plagal Cadence in which the double basses and +the trombone surge upward with elemental power.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Sonata for Violin and Pianoforte</span></h3> + +<p>Of Brahms's three Sonatas for violin and pianoforte, respectively, in +D minor, A major and G major, that in A major has been selected to +give some idea of his chamber music, on account of the spontaneous +appeal of its melodies and because its performance is possible for +fairly well equipped executants. In many respects the D minor Sonata +is the greatest of the three, but it is a work exceedingly difficult +of execution and interpretation. The A major Sonata needs few +comments, as the music speaks for itself. The work is in three +movements, the first in complete sonata-form with the two customary +themes, each of distinct lyric charm and hence eminently suited to the +singing qualities of the violin; the second movement a fusion of the +two normal middle ones, and the Finale a Rondo, freely treated. The +first movement, Allegro amabile, begins with a suave theme, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music250a.png" width="636" height="89" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music250a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music250a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>the first interval of which, a descending leap from the third to the +leading tone, always seems to make a distinct appeal.<a name="FNanchor_265_267" id="FNanchor_265_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_267" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> After the +customary transition appears the second theme, announced by the +pianoforte in measure 50, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music250b.png" width="629" height="399" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music250b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music250b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span></p> + +<p>showing Brahms's fondness for contrasted rhythms—three notes to a +beat in one hand against two in the other. After a repetition by the +violin there is a spirited closing theme in measure 75, of great +importance later. The Development, one of Brahms's best, manifests +real organic growth; there is nothing labored or perfunctory. It is +based on the first theme and the closing theme of the Exposition, +<i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music251a.png" width="635" height="98" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music251a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music251a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The Reprise beginning in measure 158, shows the usual treatment. The +Coda, from measure 219, is long and, like codas of Beethoven, has +features of a second development. The movement ends with brilliant +arpeggios in the pianoforte against octaves and double stops in the +violin. In the second movement, Andante tranquillo, in F major, Brahms +fuses<a name="FNanchor_266_268" id="FNanchor_266_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_268" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> together the moods usually associated with the slow +movement and the scherzo, playing one off against the other; the slow +theme appearing three times—at its final appearance with eloquent +modulations—and the rapid one twice, with contrast gained the second +time through pizzicato effects on the violin. The two themes are as +follows:—</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music251b.png" width="628" height="102" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music251b.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music251b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music251c.png" width="629" height="232" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music251c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music251c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The short, dashing Coda is based on the vivace theme, with sonorous +chords on the violin, both pizzicato and arco.</p> + +<p>The Finale, Allegretto grazioso, is a convincing example of how<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> such +a rigid form as the Older Rondo can be freshened up and revitalized by +the hand of a master, for the main theme, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music252.png" width="627" height="209" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music252.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music252.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>has such genuine melodic life that we always recur to it with pleasure +and yet at each appearance it is so deftly varied that no monotony is +felt. The two episodes afford stimulating contrasts and need no +comment. The main theme at its third appearance is in the subdominant +key, with effective rhythmic modifications. The movement is a +remarkable illustration of idiomatic style for each of the +instruments: the violin part, sustained and cantabile; the pianoforte +part, broken up and of remarkable color and sonority. The last page of +the Coda, almost exclusively in double stops for the violin, brings a +rousing close to a masterpiece.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Ballade in G minor for Pianoforte</span><br /> +(<span class="smcap">See Supplement No. 60</span>)</h3> + +<p>Although the most important factor in Brahms's pianoforte pieces is +Brahms himself, a careful examination of his works in this field shows +that his style is fashioned from an intelligent, and by no means +slavish assimilation of important features in the works of his great +predecessors. Thus we find the same melodic warmth as in Schubert, the +rhythmic vitality and massive harmony so prominent in Schumann and the +extended arpeggios and chords, the color and richness, peculiar to +Chopin. From among the numerous and beautiful compositions of Brahms +for solo pianoforte we have selected the Ballade in G minor because it +represents a somewhat unusual and hence seldom recognized side of his +genius—the specifically dramatic. When a composer calls his piece a +Ballade, as in the case of compositions so entitled by Chopin and +Liszt, we may assume that there is some dramatic or subjective meaning +behind the notes; and the hearer is at liberty to give play to his own +imagination and to receive the message as something more than music in +the ordinary abstract<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span> or absolute sense. From the inner evidence of +this Ballade of Brahms it seems to the writer<a name="FNanchor_267_269" id="FNanchor_267_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_269" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> not too fanciful to +consider it a picture of a knight-errant in medieval times setting out +on his adventures. Observe the vigorous swing of the opening theme in +that five-measure rhythm so dear to Brahms. But in the middle portion, +in the romantic key of B major,<a name="FNanchor_268_270" id="FNanchor_268_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_270" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> the woman appears—perhaps some +maiden imprisoned in a tower—and she sings to the knight a song of +such sweetness that he would fain forsake duty, battle, everything! +The contrast of opposing wills<a name="FNanchor_269_271" id="FNanchor_269_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_271" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> is dramatically indicated by an +interpolation, after the maiden's first appeal, of the martial theme +of the knight, as if he felt he should be off instead of lingering, +enchanted by her song. Notwithstanding a still more impassioned +repetition of the song, the Knight is firm, tears himself away and +continues on his course; how great the wrench, being clearly indicated +by the unusual modulations in measures 72-76. The enchanting song, +however, still lingers with him and he dwells with fond regret upon +bygone scenes and dreams which were unattainable. In this piece is +seen Brahms's aristocratic distinction in the treatment of program +music. The subject is portrayed broadly—there are no petty +details—and the music itself, to anyone with a sensitive imagination, +tells the story clearly. Hence a detailed poetic interpretation is out +of place, since only to the suggester would it have meaning.</p> + +<p>So many of Brahms's pianoforte compositions are of great beauty and +significance that, although space is lacking for further comment on +definite examples, we urge the music-lover to study the following: the +second Intermezzo<a name="FNanchor_270_272" id="FNanchor_270_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_272" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> in B-flat minor of op. 117, perhaps the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span> +beautiful single piece Brahms has written—remarkable for its rhythmic +texture and for the equalization of both hands, which was one of his +chief contributions to pianoforte style; the second Intermezzo of op. +119, the middle part of which is significant for the extended arpeggio +grouping for the left hand (Brahms following Chopin's lead in this +respect); the sixth Intermezzo of op. 118, a superb piece for sonority +and color; the third Intermezzo in op. 119, (grazioso e giocoso) and +the B minor Capriccio op. 76—both in Brahms's happiest vein of +exuberant vitality; the sixth Intermezzo in op. 116, a beautiful +example, in its polyphonic texture, of modernized Schumann; and, above +all, the mighty Rhapsodies in E-flat major, op. 112 No. 4 and the one +in G minor op. 79—this latter, one of Brahms's most dramatic +conceptions, and an example, as well, of complete sonata-form used for +an independent composition.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Song</span>—<i>Meine Liebe ist grün wie der Fliederbusch</i><br /> +(<span class="smcap">See Supplement No. 61</span>)</h3> + +<p>Whatever Brahms is or is not, he is universally recognized as an +inspired song-composer and those who do not know his songs are cut off +from one of the greatest joys music has to offer. As Huneker so well +says, "Although his topmost peaks are tremendously remote, and glitter +and gleam in an atmosphere almost too thin for dwellers of the plains, +in his songs he was as simple, as manly, as tender as Robert Burns." +In Brahms's songs we cannot say which is the most significant factor: +the words, the vocal part or the accompaniment; all go together to +make up a perfect whole. Brahms had discernment in the selection of +texts suited to inspire poetic creation. His melodies are always +appropriate to the spirit of the words, yet truly lyric and singable, +and the accompaniment catches and intensifies every subtle shade of +meaning. If any one factor is of special beauty, however, it is the +instrumental part; for here Brahms's great genius in pianoforte style +came to the fore and in utilizing every resource of the instrument to +glorify the spirit of the text, he is a worthy successor of Schubert, +Schumann and Franz. Note how in this song the passionate glow of the +poem is reflected in the gorgeous modulations and sonority of the +pianoforte part. Especially remarkable is the interlude between the +stanzas, with its wealth of dissonances and waves of flashing color. +After this surely no one can say that Brahms had no feeling for +sensuous effect, at any rate on the pianoforte. Other famous songs of +Brahms which should be familiar to the stu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span>dent are the following: +<i>Wie Melodien zieht es mir</i>, <i>Feldeinsamkeit</i>, <i>Minnelied</i>, <i>Von +ewiger Liebe</i>, <i>Immer leiser wird mein Schlummer</i>, <i>Sapphische Ode</i>, +<i>Vergebliches Ständchen</i>. An excellent essay on Brahms as a song +composer will be found in the preface to the <i>Forty Songs of Brahms</i> +in the Musician's Library (The Oliver Ditson Company).</p> + +<p>The foregoing illustrations have made clear, we trust, the inspiration +and power of Brahms's varied message. His music, therefore, must be +approached reverently, sympathetically and with an earnest desire for +a better understanding, for Brahms is veritably a giant.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<h3>CÉSAR FRANCK</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">B</span>EFORE an appreciation of the significant works and influence of César +Franck can be gained, it is necessary to have a broad historical +perspective of what had been the trend and the limitations of French +music prior to his career. Since the time of Couperin and Rameau, +musical composition in France had been devoted almost exclusively to +opera—with its two types of grand opera and opéra-comique—and in +this field there had been some French musicians of real, though +possibly rather slight, genius: Philidor, Méhul, Grétry, Boieldieu, +Hérold and Auber. One searches in vain through French literature for +great symphonies, string-quartets, violin sonatas or pianoforte +compositions of significance. Berlioz, as we have seen, had composed a +number of orchestral works; but, from the standpoint of absolute +music, even these rather beg the question as they are so extremely +programmistic, dramatic or even theatric. This one-sided development +of French music was chiefly caused by the people's innate fondness for +the drama, and by the national genius for acting, mimicry and dancing.</p> + +<p>Prior to the advent of Franck there were two important pioneers in the +broadening tendency which finally became noticeable, Saint-Saëns and +Lalo. For great assimilative power, for versatility, for clarity of +expression and a finish and finesse peculiarly French, Camille +Saint-Saëns (1835-still living) is certainly one of the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> +remarkable musicians of the nineteenth century. His works are +numerous, always "well-made" and, though lacking in emotional depth, +by no means without charm and grace. They comprise ensemble works: +trios, etc., several concertos and symphonies and four symphonic +poems. Of these, the third concerto for pianoforte, with its Bach-like +introduction, the third violin concerto, the two symphonic poems, <i>Le +Rouet d'Omphale</i> and <i>Phaëton</i> and, in particular, the third symphony +in C minor, still hold their own. Whatever Saint-Saëns has to say is +well said; and if the French have modified their previous opinion that +the only vehicle for musical expression was the opera, it is largely +through the influence of his compositions. This C minor symphony, +first performed in London in 1886, shares with Lalo's symphony in G +minor (1887) the claim to be, in all French literature, the first +instrumental work of large scope free from programmistic tendencies. +Saint-Saëns<a name="FNanchor_271_273" id="FNanchor_271_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_273" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> and Lalo fairly popularized the Sonata form and their +works are worthy of great respect; since, through them, the public +became accustomed to symphonic style and was prepared for the +subsequent greater works of Franck, d'Indy and Chausson. Although not +so versatile as Saint-Saëns nor so varied in output, Eduard Lalo +(1823-1892) should decidedly not be overlooked. He was of Spanish +origin and this racial strain is noticeable in the vivacity of his +rhythm, in the piquant individuality of his melodies and in his +brilliant and picturesque orchestration. His characteristic work is +represented by a series of Concertos and Rhapsodies in which he +employs Spanish, Russian and Norwegian themes. He did not escape the +French predilection for operatic fame and his best work is probably +the well-known opera <i>Le Roi d'Ys</i>, from which the dramatic overture +is often played separately. His G minor symphony, however, will always +be considered an important landmark in the development of French +instrumental music.<a name="FNanchor_272_274" id="FNanchor_272_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_274" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p> + +<p>César Franck (1822-1890) was a composer of such innate spirituality +that to analyze and classify him in a formal manner seems well-nigh +irreverent. His music once heard is never forgotten, and when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> +thoroughly known is loved for all time. Nor is an elaborate +biographical account necessary; for Franck, more than any other modern +composer, has been fortunate in that his life and works have been +sympathetically presented to the world by a distinguished +contemporary, his most famous pupil d'Indy—himself a gifted composer +and a man of rare literary powers. His biography of César Franck (in +French and in English) should certainly be read by all who would keep +abreast of modern tendencies. Franck's message, however, is so +remarkable and his style so individual, that a few definite comments +may be made concerning the structural features of his work and the +essential attributes, thereby expressed, of his inspiring personality. +Franck was a Belgian born at Liège—one of that long line of musicians +who, though born elsewhere, have become thoroughly identified with +French thought and standards; and there is much in his music which +finds a parallel in the literary qualities of another Belgian artist, +Maeterlinck, for in both is that same haunting indefiniteness, that +same symbolic aspiration. Nothing in Franck is rigid, square-toed; his +music is suggestive of a mystic idealism, the full expression of +which, from its very nature is unattainable. Franck's outward life was +simple, without excitement or diversion of any kind. When he was not +giving lessons or composing, he was active in the service of the Roman +Catholic Church, in which he was a devout believer. For a number of +years he was organist at Sainte Clotilde, and his style thereby was +influenced strongly. A distinct note of religious exaltation runs +through much of his music; for Franck was a fine character, of +spotless purity of life and of such generosity and elevation of soul +that his pupils looked upon him as a real father and always called him +"Pater Seraphicus." He was universally acknowledged to be the greatest +improviser on the organ since Bach himself. Even Liszt, who heard him +in 1866, left the church, lost in amazement; evoking the name of the +great Sebastian as the only possible comparison.</p> + +<p>Franck's services to the development of music are twofold: 1st, as an +inspired composer of varied works, which are more and more becoming +understood and loved; 2d, as a truly great teacher, among his notable +pupils being d'Indy, Chausson, Duparc, Ropartz, and the gifted but +short-lived Lekeu. In Franck's music, fully as remarkable as the +content—the worthy expression of his poetic nature—is its organic +structure. He was the first composer of the French School to use +adequately the great forms of symphonic and chamber music<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span> which had +been worked out hitherto by the Germans: Bach, Haydn, Mozart, +Beethoven, etc. If during the last thirty years, composers of the +modern French School have put forth a number of instrumental works of +large dimensions (chamber music, symphonies, symphonic poems and +pianoforte sonatas), it is to Franck more than to any other man, by +reason of his own achievements in these fields and his stimulating +influence on others, that this significant fact is due. A striking +feature of Franck's music is the individual harmonic scheme, +fascinating because so elusive. He was a daring innovator in +modulations and in chromatic effect; and has, perhaps, added more +genuinely new words to our vocabulary than any one since Wagner. The +basis of Franck's harmony is the novel use of the so-called augmented +harmonies which, in their derivation, are chromatically altered +chords. These are resolved by Franck in a manner remarkably free, and +are often submitted to still further chromatic change. In revealing +new possibilities he has, in fact, done for these chords what Wagner +did for the chord of the ninth. Any page of Franck's music will +exemplify this statement, and as an illustration we have cited, in the +Supplement, the first part of the Prelude in E major. A life-long +student of Bach and Beethoven, Franck believed—as a cardinal +principle—that great ideas were not enough; they must be welded +together with inexorable logic. And so his chief glory as a musical +architect is the free use he makes of such organic forms as the Canon, +the Fugue and the Varied Air. Franck was likewise a pioneer in +establishing in a sonata or symphony a new conception as to the +relationship of the movements. This he effected by the use of what may +be called "generative motives" which, announced in the first movement +of a work, are found with organic growth, modulatory and rhythmic, in +all the succeeding portions. Such a method of gaining unity had been +hinted at by Beethoven in his Fifth Symphony, was further developed by +Schumann and Liszt and, since the example of Franck, has become a +recognized principle in all large cyclic works. The following estimate +of his music by F. Baldensperger is worthy of citation. "The +contemplative character of Franck's music which explains his entire +technique is rare at the epoch in which his life was cast, an epoch of +realism, generally inspired by a taste for the picturesque and the +dramatic. Posterity will place César Franck in a niche similar to that +of Puvis de Chavannes, whose inspiration, indifferent to all worldly +solicitations, flowed willingly, like that of Franck, into the paths +of reverie, and pursued its way like a beautiful river of quiet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span> +waters, undisturbed by waves or rapids, and reflecting the eternal +calm of the sky."</p> + +<p>As representative works<a name="FNanchor_273_275" id="FNanchor_273_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_275" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> we have chosen, for analytical comments +the <i>D minor Symphony</i> (Franck's only work in this field), the +<i>Sonata</i> for violin and pianoforte and the <i>Symphonic Variations</i> for +pianoforte and orchestra. Franck has also composed a very beautiful +Quintet for strings and pianoforte—considered by some the most +sublime chamber work of recent times; a String Quartet, notable for +its interrelationship of themes and movements; two elaborate +compositions for pianoforte solo, the <i>Prelude, Chorale and Fugue</i> +(the fugue showing a masterly combination of strict fugal style and +free form) and the <i>Prelude, Aria and Finale</i>; a wealth of organ +works—the three <i>Chorales</i> being of special beauty—and several +Symphonic Poems of lesser importance. His purely vocal works, +oratorios and church music lie outside the province of this book.</p> + +<p>The Symphony<a name="FNanchor_274_276" id="FNanchor_274_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_276" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> in D minor is in three movements; the first in +complete and elaborate sonata-form, the second a fusion of the two +customary middle movements, and the Finale (though fundamentally on a +sonata-form basis) an organic summing-up of the chief themes of the +entire work. The first movement begins, Lento, with the main theme +proper (thesis) the motive<a name="FNanchor_275_277" id="FNanchor_275_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_277" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> of which is the foundation of the +whole work, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music259.png" width="458" height="190" alt="Violas, 'Cellos and Double Basses" title="Violas, 'Cellos and Double Basses" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music259.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music259.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The phraseology of the theme is noticeable for its flexibility; since +the first phrase is expanded to five measures and the second phrase +(antithesis), with a descending motive, to seven, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music260.png" width="633" height="861" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music260.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music260.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The harmony of this second phrase illustrates a striking feature in +Franck's style, namely the fact that his resolutions seldom come out +as expected but, instead, drift imperceptibly into other channels. In +measure 13 there begins a long series of modulatory developments of +the main theme—of a preludial nature—but <i>not</i> a mere prelude in the +ordinary sense. That this entire opening portion is the <i>main<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span> body</i> +of the work is seen by a comparison with what takes place at the +beginning of the recapitulation. In measure 29, allegro non troppo, we +begin with a presentation of the motive in the usual first-movement +mood. The answering phrase, antithesis, is now quite different; and, +in measure 48, is developed—with some new contrapuntal voices—to a +half cadence in F minor. This whole portion, both the Lento and the +Allegro, is now repeated almost literally (the one slight change being +in measures 56-57) in this new key, a minor third higher than the +original. To begin a first movement in this way, <i>i.e.</i>, with such a +strong contrast of moods is very novel and striking, but as Franck was +a devoted student of Beethoven, it would seem that, by presenting his +theme in different strata, he was simply expanding the practise<a name="FNanchor_276_278" id="FNanchor_276_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_278" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> +of that master in order to impress his message upon the listener's +memory. The repetition of the Allegro part now leads through some rich +modulations to the entrance of the second theme, in measure 99. This +lovely melody, characteristic of Franck's tenderness,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music261.png" width="627" height="380" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music261.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music261.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>is noteworthy for the imitations between the violins and the 'cellos +and basses. It shows, furthermore, that peculiar quality in Franck's +style which comes from his elusive modulations. In measures 109-110 we +are at a loss to tell just what direction the music will take when +almost miraculously, in measure 111, we find ourselves in D-flat +major<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span>—in which key the whole theme is now repeated. Some stimulating +modulations bring us, in measure 129, to a most energetic and aspiring +melody, considered by some another part of the second theme, but which +certainly has the note of a closing theme and also the structural +position of a closing theme, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music262a.png" width="630" height="178" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music262a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music262a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>It is developed with great brilliancy through a series of mediant +modulations, in which the originality of Franck's harmonic scheme is +very apparent. The exposition ends with some dreamy, pianissimo +reminiscences of the closing theme in the mediant keys of F, D and B +major, delicately scored for the wood-wind instruments and horns. The +development begins, in measure 191, with the motive of the closing +theme which, combined with other phrases from the exposition, is used +persistently in the bass for a number of measures. The material is +developed climactically until, in measure 229, we find an impressive +treatment of the second descending phrase of the first +theme—originally in augmentation and later in diminution, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music262b.png" width="479" height="98" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music262b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music262b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music262c.png" width="630" height="78" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music262c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music262c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The rest of the development is clearly derivable from material already +presented. After a final <i>ff</i> climax there begins, in measure 287, a +series of beautiful entries <i>pp</i> of the closing theme for the +clarinet, oboe and flute. This is the spot in a sonata-form movement +where appears the hand of the master; for the excitement of the free +fantasy must cool down without entirely dying out, and there must also +be a fresh crescendo of energy for the restatement of themes in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span> +part following. Franck handles the situation with convincing skill; +and some climactic measures, in which the main theme hints at the +return, lead us, in measure 333, to the recapitulation. This is one of +the most powerful and eloquent parts of the movement, for the whole +first theme is presented canonically—the announcement in the +trombones, tuba and basses being answered, a half measure later, by +trumpets and cornets. The rest of the recapitulation, with necessary +modulations and slight expansion, corresponds closely to the first +portion. The coda, beginning after the same echo-effects heard at the +close of the exposition, is founded on one of the counterpoints of the +first subject, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music263a.png" width="635" height="68" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music263a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music263a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Gathering headway it leads to an imposing assertion <i>fff</i>, in canon +form, of the main motto which concludes, with a widely spaced chord, +in the brilliant<a name="FNanchor_277_279" id="FNanchor_277_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_279" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> orchestral key of D major.</p> + +<p>The second movement begins with a series of subdued, pizzicato chords +(for strings and harp) which establish the mood and later furnish the +harmonic background for the main theme. This haunting melody, +announced—in measure 16—by the English horn and afterwards +strengthened by the clarinet and flute, is clearly derived from the +motto of the first movement, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music263b.png" width="637" height="269" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music263b.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music263b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and is a notable example of the free phraseology and long sweep +peculiar to Franck. Although extending 32 measures it never loses its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span> +continuity, for every measure grows inevitably from what has preceded. +It begins with two identical eight-measure phrases; the second of +which, with a different harmonic ending, is varied by a cantabile +counter theme in the violas—causing thereby, with the upper voice, +some delightful dissonant effects. The last eight-measure phrase, also +varied by a counterpoint in the 'cellos, ends with a characteristic, +Franckian modulation; keeping us in suspense until the last moment, +and then debouching unexpectedly into B-flat major. In this key there +follows a long-breathed, cantabile melody—at first for strings alone, +but scored with increasing richness. It abounds in modulatory changes +and expresses, throughout, the note of mystical exaltation so +prominent in Franck's nature. It ends in measures 81-86 with an +eloquent cadence, largamente and pianissimo, in B-flat major and is +followed by a partial restatement of the first theme; thus giving, to +this portion of the movement, a feeling of three-part form. Then, +after some preliminary phrases, begins the piquant theme in G minor, +in triplet rhythm, which takes the place of the conventional Scherzo, +<i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music264a.png" width="636" height="86" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music264a.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music264a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>for, as we have stated, the structural feature of this movement is the +fusion of the two customary middle movements. This theme, mostly <i>pp</i> +(con sordini and vibrato)—daintily scored for strings and light +wood-wind chords—closes, in measures 131-134, with a cadence in G +minor. The following portion, beginning in E-flat major, but often +modulating—its graceful theme sung by the clarinets, dolce +espressivo, answered by flutes and oboes—<i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music264b.png" width="632" height="89" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music264b.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music264b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>evidently takes the place of a trio and is one of the most poetic +parts of the movement. After some effective development there is a +return, in measure 175, to the G minor scherzo-theme in the strings; +soon joined, in measure 183, by the slow theme on the English +horn—the structural union of the two moods being thus established, +<i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music265a.png" width="628" height="362" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music265a.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music265a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The rest of the movement is a free but perfectly organic improvisation +on the chief melodies already presented. It is richly scored, with +dialogue effects between the several orchestral choirs; especially +beautiful are the two passages in B major, poco più lento, scored <i>pp</i> +for the complete wood-wind group and horns. The closing measures have +lovely echoes between wood-wind and strings, and the final cadence is +one of the most magical in all Franck; holding us off to the very last +from our goal and finally reaching it in a chord of unforgettable +peace and satisfaction, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music265b.png" width="628" height="444" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music265b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music265b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span></p> + +<p>The Finale in D major, allegro non troppo, is a remarkable example in +modern literature of that tendency, growing since Beethoven, not to +treat the last movement as an unrelated independent portion but, +instead, as an organic summing up of all the leading themes. This +cyclic use of themes—transferring them from one movement to +another—is one of Franck's important contributions to musical +architecture. The movement has two themes of its own, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music266a.png" width="633" height="159" alt="1st theme" title="1st theme" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music266a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music266a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music266b.png" width="630" height="211" alt="2d theme" title="2d theme" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music266b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music266b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and at first proceeds along regular sonata-form lines, <i>i.e.</i>, with an +exposition, development and recapitulation. After vigorous summons to +attention the first theme is given out by the 'cellos and bassoons. It +is expanded at some length, repeated <i>ff</i> by the full orchestra, and +then after bold modulations leads, in measure 72, to the second theme +in B major, happily called by Ropartz the "theme of triumph."<a name="FNanchor_278_280" id="FNanchor_278_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_280" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> +After a quieter portion of sombre tone in B minor we reach, in measure +124, an interpolation of the slow movement theme, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music266c.png" width="516" height="81" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music266c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music266c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span></p> + +<p>sung by the English horn against a triplet accompaniment in the +strings; the fundamental beat—the time now changed from 2/2 to +3/4—preserving the same value. Now we begin to foresee that this +theme is to be the climax of the whole work. In measure 140 the +development proper is resumed; based, at first, on some modulatory and +imitative treatment of the first theme and followed by two <i>ff</i> +sostenuto announcements of the jubilant second theme. After these have +subsided there are a number of measures (più lento) of a shadowy +outline, developed from preceding melodic phrases. The pace gradually +quickens, the volume of sound increases and we are brought, through a +series of pungent dissonances and stimulating syncopations, to a +brilliant assertion of the first theme in D major. This again waxes +more and more eloquent until it bursts into a truly apocalyptic +proclamation of the slow movement theme for full orchestra which, +closing in D major, is the real climax of the movement and indeed of +the work. Franck, however, still wishes to impress upon us some of his +other thoughts—they are really too lovely not to be heard once +more—and so, after an intermediary passage consisting entirely of +successive ninth chords,<a name="FNanchor_279_281" id="FNanchor_279_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_281" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> there is a reminiscence of the whole +closing theme of the first movement now for low strings alone—the +violins playing on the G string—later for the wood-wind and finally +echoed by the high strings <i>ppp</i>. As this fades away we reach one of +the most inspired passages of the whole work—in its mood of +mysterious suggestion truly indescribable. Over a slow elemental kind +of <i>basso ostinato</i> there appear first the dramatic motto and then +other portions of preceding themes, as if struggling to come to the +light. A long exciting crescendo leads to a complete statement of the +main theme of the Finale, with a canonic treatment of which the work +ends, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music267.png" width="627" height="211" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music268a.png" width="630" height="197" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music267.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music267.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>That both the first and last movements end with canons is indeed +noteworthy; Franck thus clearly showing his belief that in no other +way than by polyphonic imitation could such intensity of utterance be +gained.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Sonata for Violin and Pianoforte in A Major</span></h3> + +<p>This Sonata ranks with those of Brahms as being among the great works +in its class. Some of its lovers, in fact, would risk an unqualified +superlative and call it the greatest. It certainly is remarkable for +its inspired themes, its bold harmonies, its free and yet organic +structure and for that sublime fervor which was the basis of Franck's +genius. It is, in two respects, at least, a highly original work: in +the unusual moods of the several movements, and in the relationship +between the two instruments. For although it is a violin sonata, the +emphasis in many respects is laid on the pianoforte part which +requires great virtuoso power of performance,—the violin, at times, +having the nature more of an obligato. There are four movements, the +first in abridged sonata form, <i>i.e.</i>, there is no development; the +second in complete and elaborate sonata form; the third, a kind of +free rhapsody, supplying an intermezzo between the third and fourth +movements and organically connected with the Finale. This, in free +rondo-form, with a main theme of its own treated canonically, sums up +the chief themes which have preceded. The work exemplifies Franck's +practise of generative themes; for d'Indy claims<a name="FNanchor_280_282" id="FNanchor_280_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_282" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> that the whole +structure is based on three motives, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music268b.png" width="639" height="80" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music268b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music268b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>the rising and falling inflexion of which he typifies by what is +called a "torculus" (<img src="images/torculus.png" width="25" height="12" alt="torculus symbol" title="torculus symbol" />)! +Whether such minute analysis +is necessary for the listener may be open to question; but it is true +that in hearing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> the work one is struck by the homogeneity of the +material. The first movement is an impassioned kind of revery—in a +mood more often associated with the slow movement, in character +somewhat like the beginning of Beethoven's C-sharp minor Sonata. After +some preludial ninth chords the dreamy first theme is given out, molto +dolce, by the violin, supported by rich harmonies on the pianoforte, +the use of the augmented chords being prominent, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music269a.png" width="635" height="592" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music269a.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music269a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Some natural expansion and development lead, in measure 31, to the +broad and vigorous second theme, sempre forte e largamente, announced +by the pianoforte, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music269b.png" width="631" height="180" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music269b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music269b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span></p> + +<p>This ends in F-sharp minor and is at once followed by a closing +portion, <i>i.e.</i>, a repetition of the second theme with an elaborate +arpeggio accompaniment and some fragmentary phrases of the first theme +on the violin. Its last measures<a name="FNanchor_281_283" id="FNanchor_281_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_283" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> are striking for the bold use of +augmented chords and for the wide spacing which gives an organ-like +sonority. The recapitulation, beginning in measure 63 with still +richer harmonization, is almost identical with the exposition; the +second theme appearing logically in the home key. The closing measures +of the coda, which starts in measure 97, illustrate Franck's genius in +the chromatic alteration of chords.</p> + +<p>The second movement, in a structural sense the most normal of the +four, speaks for itself. It is stormy and dramatic, with a number of +passages marked passionato and molto fuoco, and presents a rather +unusual side of Franck's quiet nature. The two themes are strong and +well contrasted: the first for the pianoforte, the second for the +violin, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music270a.png" width="634" height="382" alt="1st theme" title="1st theme" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music270a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music270a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music270b.png" width="632" height="171" alt="2d theme" title="2d theme" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music270b.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music270b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span></p> + +<p>The development begins at the quasi lento, measure 80, with the second +(<i>b</i>) of the generative motives which is to play an important role in +the Fantasia and the Finale. It is rather broken up into sections, but +holds the interest through its unflagging rhythmic vigor and daring +dissonances. Franck's contrapuntal skill is shown here in the closing +measures (130-134) where a phrase from the second theme on the violin, +dolcissimo espressivo, is united with a phrase of the first theme on +the pianoforte, hinting at the return. The recapitulation, beginning +in measure 138, is perfectly normal and leads to a coda which, +becoming more and more animated, ends with brilliant bravura effects +for each instrument.</p> + +<p>The third movement, entitled <i>Recitative-Fantasia</i>, is notable for its +long declamations for the violin alone, and for its introduction of a +theme from the preceding movement and of one to be repeated in the +Finale. Thus the organic relationship between the various movements is +shown and is still further emphasized in the Finale. The mood is often +very impassioned (once <i>fff</i>) and dramatic, with several passages +specifically marked. This music alone, which sounds like nothing +before or since, would stamp Franck as an absolutely original genius. +In measure 53 appears a long pianissimo meditation by the violin on a +phrase—the second generative motive (<i>b</i>)—from the preceding +movement, supported by beautifully spaced arpeggio chords on the +pianoforte, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music271.png" width="638" height="294" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music271.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music271.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In measure 71 occurs the first appearance of the bold theme which is +to be twice used for episodes in the Finale, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music272.png" width="640" height="667" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music272.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music272.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The closing cadence<a name="FNanchor_282_284" id="FNanchor_282_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_284" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> of the movement, one of the most original and +truly beautiful in all literature as it seems to the writer, furnishes +a marvellous contrast to the stormy measures immediately preceding.</p> + +<p>The Finale is perhaps the most spontaneous canon in existence, an +imitative dialogue between the two instruments; this form (which is +often rigid and mechanical) being used so easily that it seems as if +each instrument were naturally commenting upon the message of the +other. Observe also the sonorous background provided for the violin +melody by the widely spaced chords on the pianoforte, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music273a.png" width="638" height="572" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music273a.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music273a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The first episode, beginning in F-sharp minor at measure 38, is based +on the third generative phrase (<i>c</i>) brought over from the Fantasia +and embroidered by running passages (delicato) on the violin. This +leads to a return of the canonic first theme which, with an +interchange of statement and answer and with free modulations, is +developed to a brilliant climax—the canon still persisting—in the +dominant key of E major. Some transitional modulations, in which the +excitement cools down, bring us to the second episode, in B-flat +minor. This at first develops the phrase (<i>b</i>) from the middle part of +the second movement, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music273b.png" width="568" height="177" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music273b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music273b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span></p> + +<p>and later, also in the bass, a phrase from the main theme, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music274a.png" width="493" height="106" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music274a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music274a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>It is soon followed by a bold entrance of the dramatic theme from the +Fantasia which, twice presented—the second time grandioso—leads to a +thrilling cadence in C major. The third and last refrain is a complete +restatement of the original canon and closes in A major with a still +more brilliant imitative treatment of the passage formerly in the +dominant. The last measures—with the high trill on the violin and +cutting dissonances on the pianoforte—are far too exciting for mere +verbal description.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Symphonic Variations for Pianoforte and Orchestra</span></h3> + +<p>This is one of Franck's most significant works, containing all his +individual characteristics: melodic intensity, novel chromatic harmony +and freedom of form combined with coherence. Franck always claimed +that the variation form, rightly treated, was a perfect medium for +free, imaginative expression; surely this work is a manifestation of +his belief. A careful study will justify the statement that his style +is founded on that of Bach and Beethoven; for the naturalness of these +melodic variations can be compared only with the <i>Passacaglia in C +minor</i>, and the general structure of the work finds its prototype in +the Finale of the <i>Heroic Symphony</i>. It is a set of free variations, +or rather organic transformations of two themes; the first sombre, +entirely in the minor, the second brighter, with some passing emphasis +on the major. The variations are not numbered and there are no rigid +stops; though, of course, when objective points are reached, there is +natural punctuation. The two themes, as follows—a striking example of +Franck's peculiar harmonic scheme—should be carefully studied, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music274b.png" width="636" height="183" alt="1st theme" title="1st theme" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music275a.png" width="635" height="417" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music274b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music274b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music275b.png" width="636" height="592" alt="2d theme" title="2d theme" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music276a.png" width="642" height="212" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music275b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music275b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The work opens with a series of restless dotted notes for the strings +<i>ff</i> which diminish and retard to an entrance of the first theme, più +lento, for the pianoforte; the two phrases of which are interrupted by +a passage, somewhat modified, from the introduction. Some preludial +measures, expanding the material presented, bring us at B<a name="FNanchor_283_285" id="FNanchor_283_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_285" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> to a +premonitory statement of the second theme <i>pp</i> (in wood-wind and +pizzicato strings) over a muffled roll of the kettle-drums on C-sharp, +<i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music276b.png" width="632" height="170" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music276b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music276b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Then follows a long rhapsodic presentation of the first theme for +pianoforte solo—the melody in octaves and the accompaniment in the +widest arpeggios possible. This passage is one of great sonority and +reveals clearly the influence of the organ upon Franck's style. Some +further measures of general development, containing at E a +reminiscence of the first theme, bring us (after an elaborate +half-cadence on the dominant of F-sharp minor) to the entrance of the +second theme. Now that all the melodic material has been presented, +Franck allows it to grow and blossom. In the first variation at F we +have phrases of the second theme broken up into a dialogue between +strings, wood-wind and pianoforte; and in the second at G the violas +and 'cellos sing the whole second theme accompanied by some ingenious +figuration on the pianoforte. This is followed at H by a brilliant +amplification for the solo instrument, lightly accom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span>panied on the +orchestra, of phrases already heard and leads at I to a fortissimo +orchestral tutti in D major—the next variation—which proclaims a +portion of the second theme. This is developed with great power on +both instruments and is combined, nine measures after J, with a +variant of the first theme. At K there is a bold treatment of the +second theme (sostenuto) for oboes and clarinets against rushing +octaves on the pianoforte.</p> + +<p>At L we have some further development of the second theme, the melody +being in the strings with a background of broken triplet chords on the +pianoforte. We now reach at M—molto più lento—the most poetic +variation of the work. All the 'cellos, dolce e sostenuto, sing the +second theme in the rich key of F-sharp major, the closing phrases +answered by the wood-wind; while the pianoforte supports them with +coloristic, arabesque-like broken chords containing a melodic pattern +of their own. At N the 'cellos continue with phrases from the first +theme, the accompaniment being in extended arpeggios against a +background of sustained strings (<i>ppp</i> con sordino). A climax is +gradually reached which ends, smorzando, with a descending chromatic +run on the pianoforte, followed by a long trill on C-sharp which +ushers in the closing portion of the work. The structure, as a whole, +is divided into three main portions: the first preludial, the second +sombre and often meditative—largely in the minor—the third entirely +in the major and of extraordinary brilliance and vivacity. At the +Allegro non troppo after the trill, we find a variant of the first +theme for the 'cellos and basses in F-sharp major, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music277.png" width="633" height="110" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music277.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music277.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>accompanied by broken chords on the pianoforte and wood-wind. This is +followed at P by a free treatment for pianoforte, con fuoco, of the +first theme which develops at Q into a most pianistic presentation (in +the upper register of the instrument) of the phrase just announced by +the 'cellos. In the fifth measure after R the basses begin, pizzicato +but forte, a modified statement of the second theme, accompanied by a +new counter melody on the pianoforte, dolce ma marcato, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music278a.png" width="634" height="220" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music278a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music278a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This leads into a brilliant climax for orchestra alone based on the +first theme which, at the very end, modulates to E-flat major. Then +follows an episodical portion of unusual beauty—a long, dreamy +passage, dolce rubato, for solo pianoforte, in which the first theme +is merely hinted at in shadowy outlines, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music278b.png" width="634" height="350" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music278b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music278b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Abounding in fascinating modulations and coloristic effects it shows +Franck's genius equally for real melodic germination with an avoidance +of all perfunctory manipulation of his material. This leads, four +measures after T, to an entrance <i>pp</i> in the wood-wind, of a variant +of the first theme. Due to the effect of contrasted accents the +passage is most exciting—two rhythms being treated at once. A climax +for full orchestra brings us at V to a repetition of the former +pianoforte presentation of the first theme, followed as before, at W +by the counter-melody against the second theme, forte, in the basses. +The first theme, now in complete control, is here proclaimed most +eloquently in antiphonal form between the full orchestra and +pianoforte, <i>e.g.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music279.png" width="640" height="1005" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music279.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music279.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span></p> + +<p>The work ends with a rapid iteration, molto crescendo, of the first +motive—in diminution. Now that we have reviewed the entire +composition, there is one feature worthy of special emphasis. The +structure as a whole (as we have stated) is clearly divided into three +main parts; but when we examine the third part by itself, we find that +it follows the lines of the sonata-form. For there is a first portion, +with a main theme in F-sharp major, and a second theme—the new +melody—in D major; the passage for pianoforte in E-flats major stands +for the development, and the movement concludes with a distinct third +portion, both first and second theme being in the home key. Thus the +structure represents a carefully planned union of the variation form +and the sonata-form which were special favorites of Franck. The work, +which, after earnest study, will surely be enjoyed and loved, ranks +with the <i>Istar Symphonic Variations</i> by d'Indy and the two sets on +themes from Paganini by Brahms as the acme of what the variation form +may indeed be when treated by a master.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<h3>THE MODERN FRENCH SCHOOL—D’INDY AND DEBUSSY</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">N</span>OT only as the most distinguished of César Franck's pupils, but by +reason of his undoubted musicianship and marked versatility—his works +being in well nigh every form—Vincent d'Indy (1851-still living) is +rightly considered to be the most representative composer of his +branch of the modern French school.<a name="FNanchor_284_286" id="FNanchor_284_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_286" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> Whether history will accord +to him the rank of an inspired genius it is as yet too early to +decide; but for the sincerity and nobility of his ideas, for his +finished workmanship and the influence he has exerted, through his +many-sided personality, in elevating public taste and in the education +of young musicians, he is worthy of our gratitude. D'Indy is a +patriotic Frenchman believing profoundly that French music has an +important <i>rôle</i> to bear; who has incarnated this belief in a series +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span> works of such distinction that, if not unqualifiedly loved, they +at least compel recognition. If he swings a bit too far in his +insistence upon the exclusive glories of French genius, let us +remember that the modern Germans<a name="FNanchor_285_287" id="FNanchor_285_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_287" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> have been just as one-sided from +their point of view—and with even less tangible proof of attainment. +For it seems incontestable that, since the era of Wagner and Brahms, +the modern French and Russian Schools have contributed to the +development of music more than all the other nations combined. It is +for us in America who, free from national prejudice, can stand off and +take an impartial view, to appreciate the good points in <i>all</i> +schools. A detailed account of d'Indy's life and works will not be +necessary, for the subject has been admirably and comprehensively +treated by D.G. Mason in his set of <i>Essays on Contemporary Composers</i> +and in the article by E.B. Hill in the <i>Art of Music</i>, Vol. 3.</p> + +<p>D'Indy's compositions, as in the case of Franck, are not numerous, but +finely wrought and of distinct and varied individuality. His chief +instrumental<a name="FNanchor_286_288" id="FNanchor_286_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_288" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> works comprise a <i>Wallenstein Trilogy</i> (three +symphonic poems based on Schiller's drama) notable for descriptive +power and orchestral effect; a Symphony for orchestra and pianoforte +on a mountain air<a name="FNanchor_287_289" id="FNanchor_287_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_289" class="fnanchor">[287]</a>—one of his best works, because the folk-song +basis furnishes a melodic warmth which elsewhere is sometimes lacking; +a set of Symphonic Variations on the Assyrian legend of Istar; a +remarkable Sonata for violin and pianoforte; a String-Quartet, all the +movements of which are based on a motto of four notes, and lastly the +Symphony in B-flat major—considered his masterpiece—in which the +same process of development from generative motives is followed as in +César Franck. All these works contain certain salient characteristics +proceeding directly from d'Indy's imagination and intellect. There is +always an ideal and noble purpose, a stoutly knit musical fabric and +melodies—d'Indy's own melodies, sincerely felt and beautifully +presented. Whether they have abounding power to move the heart of the +listener is, indeed, the point at issue. Since d'Indy is on record as +saying, "There is in art, truly, nothing but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span> heart that can +produce beauty," it is evident that he believes in the emotional +element in music. That there is a difference of opinion however, as to +what makes emotional power is shown by his estimate of Brahms (set +forth in his <i>Cours de Composition Musicale</i>, pp. 415-416) in the +statement that, though Brahms is a fine workman, his music lacks the +power to touch the heart (faire vibrer le coeur). There is no doubt +that, in any question of Brahms versus d'Indy, such has not been the +verdict of outside opinion. D'Indy is admired and respected, whereas +Brahms has won the love of those who know him; and the truth in the +saying, "Securus judicat orbis terrarum" is surely difficult to +contravene. D'Indy's melodies can always be minutely analysed<a name="FNanchor_288_290" id="FNanchor_288_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_290" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> and +they justify the test; but we submit that the great melodies of the +world speak to us in more direct fashion. For there is, in his music, +a seriousness which at times becomes somewhat austere. He seems so +afraid of writing pretty tunes or ear-tickling music, that we often +miss a sensuous, emotional warmth. He hates the commonplace, +cultivating the ideal and religion of beauty. Bruneau, himself a noted +French critic and composer, says, "No one will deny his surprising +technique or his unsurpassed gifts as an orchestral writer, but we +might easily wish him more spontaneity and less dryness." We cannot, +however, miss the dignity and elevation of style found in d'Indy's +works or fail to be impressed by their wonderfully planned musical +architecture. His music demands study and familiarity and well repays +such effort. D'Indy's work, as a teacher, centres about the "Schola +Cantorum" so-called, in which several talented American students from +Harvard and other Universities have already worked. Here all schools +of composition are thoroughly studied, and the rigid and formal +methods of the Conservatoire abandoned. D'Indy believes that the +materials for the structure of modern music are to be found in the +Fugue of Bach, and in the cyclical Sonata Form and the free Air with +Variations of Beethoven—these forms, by reason of their inherent +logic and simplicity, allowing scope for infinite freedom of +treatment. D'Indy is also a thoroughly modern composer in that he is +an artist in words as well as in notes. His life of César Franck is a +model of biographical style, and he has recently published a life of +Beethoven refreshingly different from the stock narratives. In fine, +d'Indy is a genius, in whom the intellectual aspects of the art, +rather than purely emotional appeal, are clearly in the ascendant.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span></p> +<p>We shall now comment briefly on one, only, of d'Indy's compositions, +the Symphonic Poem, <i>Istar</i>, which is a set of variations<a name="FNanchor_289_291" id="FNanchor_289_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_291" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> treated +in a manner as novel as it is convincing; the work beginning with +variations which gradually become less elaborate until finally only +the theme itself is heard in its simple beauty. This reversal of +customary treatment is sanctioned by the nature of the subject, and +the correspondence between dramatic logic and musical procedure is +admirably planned. The story of the work is that portion of the +Assyrian epic Izdubar which describes, to quote Apthorp's translation +of the French version, "how Istar, daughter of Sin, bent her steps +toward the immutable land, towards the abode of the dead, towards the +seven-gated abode where He entered, toward the abode whence there is +no return." Then follows a description of the raiment and the jewels +of which she is stripped at the entrance to each of the gates. "Istar +went into the immutable land, she took and received the waters of +life. She presented the sublime Waters, and thus, in the presence of +all, set free the Son of Life, her young lover." The structural +novelty of the work is that, beginning with complexity—typifying the +gorgeously robed Istar—the theme discloses itself little by little, +as she is stripped of her jewels, until at last, when she stands forth +in the full splendor of nudity, the theme is heard unaccompanied, like +Isis unveiled or, to change the figure, like a scientific law which +has been disclosed. The work is based on three generative themes; the +second, derived from the first and of subsidiary importance, called by +d'Indy the motif d'appel. It plays its part, however, since it +introduces the work and serves as a connection between the variations, +seven in all. These themes are as follows:</p> + +<p>1. Principal theme:</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music283.png" width="635" height="172" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music284a.png" width="636" height="283" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music283.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music283.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>2. Motif d'appel.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music284b.png" width="232" height="61" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music284b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music284b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>3. Subsidiary theme, in form of a march.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music284c.png" width="636" height="82" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music284c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music284c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>By following the poem the imaginative listener can readily appreciate +the picturesque suggestiveness of the composer. The work opens with a +mysterious intoning, by a muted horn, of the motif d'appel, and then +follows a triple presentation of the march theme in F minor, scored +for wood-wind and low strings—the melody sung at first by the violas +and clarinets and later by the bass clarinet and 'cellos. This +original scoring establishes just the appropriate atmosphere for an +entrance to the abode of captivity.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music284d.png" width="636" height="200" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music285a.png" width="632" height="200" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music284d.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music284d.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The first variation, in F major, employing all the tone-color of the +full orchestra, is a gorgeous picture of the Oriental splendor of +Istar. It is noteworthy that each variation contains a modulation to a +key a semitone higher, thus affording a factor of unity amid the +elaborate flowerings of the musical thought. The second variation, in +E major scored for strings and wood-wind, is significant for the way +in which the original theme is expanded into a flowing melody. The +logical derivation of the fabric from the first intervals of the main +theme is obvious, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music285b.png" width="633" height="518" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music286a.png" width="634" height="197" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music285b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music285b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The fourth variation, in F-sharp major, scored for pizzicato strings +and staccato wood-wind, with light touches on horns, trumpets, +cymbals, triangle and harps, introduces the scherzo mood into the work +and with its persistent 5/4 rhythm is of fascinating effect.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music286b.png" width="639" height="501" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music286b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music286b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The loveliest variation for warmth and emotional appeal is the sixth, +in A-flat major (at O in the orchestral score) for strings with the +gradual addition of the wood-wind and harps. Its climax certainly does +much to atone for any dryness found in d'Indy's other works.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music287.png" width="633" height="687" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music287.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music287.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In the next variation, at P, the trend of the work becomes +increasingly manifest for it is written in only two voices, scored for +flute and violins and is a dramatic preparation for the announcement +of the complete main theme which is now proclaimed in unison by the +full orchestra. The work closes with a transformation of the opening +march into F major, its majestic rhythm symbolizing the successful +result of Istar's quest (See Supplement No. 62.)</p> + +<p>Debussy, Claude Achille, (1862-1918) is certainly the embodiment, as a +composer, of Pater's saying that "Romanticism<a name="FNanchor_290_292" id="FNanchor_290_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_292" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> is the addition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span> of +strangeness to beauty"; for when we listen to his music we are +conscious of material and of forms of treatment which we have never +heard before. Debussy has listened to the promptings of his own subtle +imagination and has evolved a style as novel as it is beautiful. As +with all real originators, Debussy at the outset was fiercely +challenged, and his music even to-day calls forth intolerant remarks +on the part of those who are suspicious of all artistic progress and +evolution. In this connection it is worthy of note that the French, +notwithstanding their national doctrine of liberty, have been chary of +applying this to composers who were departing from the beaten path. +Berlioz, whom now they acclaim as one of their greatest artists, was +welcomed as he deserved only after his fame had been established among +the Germans. Bizet was but slightly appreciated during his life. +Franck met with fierce opposition from the routine members of the +profession; and Debussy, although the work by which he won the "Prix +de Rome" in 1884 was acknowledged to be one of the most interesting +which had been heard at the Institute for years, was afterwards +severely criticized for the setting made in Rome to Rossetti's +<i>Blessed Damozel</i> because, forsooth, he had strayed too far from +established and revered tradition. We Americans may have a distinct +feeling of pride in the knowledge that the music of Debussy, the +strongest note of which is personal freedom—the inherent right of the +artist to express in his own way the promptings of his +imagination—was widely studied and appreciated in this land of the +free before it had begun to have anything like a universal acceptance +among the French themselves.</p> + +<p>But can any connection with the past be traced in the style of this +remarkable<a name="FNanchor_291_293" id="FNanchor_291_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_293" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> composer, and can we discover any sources, in the +world of nature, from which he has derived the materials for his novel +and fascinating harmonies? When we definitely analyze Debussy's +harmonic scheme, we see that he looks both forward and back. Much of +his original tone coloring is derived from the old church modes such +as the Lydian, the Dorian and the Phrygian; for example, the +mysterious opening chords of his opera, and the following passage from +<i>La Cathédrale engloutie</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music289a.png" width="634" height="764" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music289a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music289a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>He is also extremely fond of a scale of whole tones, which had been +somewhat anticipated by Liszt and members of the Russian<a name="FNanchor_292_294" id="FNanchor_292_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_294" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> school. +In this the normal perfect 4th and 5th and the major 6th become +augmented, thus producing a very peculiar but alluring harmonic basis.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music289b.png" width="412" height="65" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music289b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music289b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music290a.png" width="636" height="484" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music290a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music290a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music290b.png" width="636" height="462" alt="Reflets dans l'eau" title="Reflets dans l'eau" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music290b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music290b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>Modern composers have been feeling for some time that harmonic scope +was needlessly limited by clinging too closely to the major and minor +diatonic scales; and Brahms, Tchaikowsky and Franck have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span> all +introduced the old modes for special contrasts of color. But no one +has used them so subtly as Debussy. In his music they often take the +place of our customary scales with their deep-rooted harmonic +tendencies and perpetual suggestion of traditional cadences. This +return to the greater flexibility and variety of the old modes is a +significant feature in modern music and Debussy's example in this +respect has been highly beneficial. As to his alleged use of new +material, an astute French critic has observed that "a revolution is +merely an evolution rendered apparent." By no means all of music can +be found in nature, but the basis is there, and it remains for the +artistic imagination to select and to amplify. Already many years ago +the scientist Helmholtz said, "Our system of scales and of harmonic +tissues does not rest upon unalterable natural laws, but is partly at +least the result of aesthetic principles of selection, which have +already changed, and will change still further with the progressive +development of humanity."<a name="FNanchor_293_295" id="FNanchor_293_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_295" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> In other words the limits of +receptivity of the human ear cannot be foreseen nor can the workings +of the artistic imagination be prescribed. The so-called Chord of +Nature,<a name="FNanchor_294_296" id="FNanchor_294_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_296" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> consisting of the overtones struck off by any sounding +body, and re-enforced on the pianoforte with its large sounding board, +contains in epitome this basic material of music; and the several +octaves represent in a striking manner the harmonic combinations used +at different periods of development. Thus during the early centuries +nothing but triads were in use; only gradually were 7th chords—those +of four factors—introduced. Wagner was the first to realize the +possibilities of chords of the 9th, 11th, and 13th. In Debussy these +combinations are used as freely as triads, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music291.png" width="632" height="240" alt="Pelléas et Mélisande" title="Pelléas et Mélisande" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music291.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music291.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music292a.png" width="635" height="249" alt="La fille aux cheveux de lin" title="La fille aux cheveux de lin" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music292a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music292a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music292b.png" width="631" height="290" alt="Reflets dans l'eau" title="Reflets dans l'eau" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music292b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music292b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>and he has gone far beyond anything known before in a subtle use of +the extreme dissonant elements, his sensitive imagination evidently +hearing sounds hitherto unrealized. This surmise is corroborated by +Debussy's own statement that, while serving as a young man on garrison +duty, he took great delight in listening to the overtones of bugles +and of the bells from a nearby convent. This chromatic style had been +anticipated by Chopin whose use of the harmonic series in those +prismatic, spray-like groups of superadded tones is such a striking +feature in his pianoforte works. There is, therefore, nothing outré or +bizarre in Debussy's idiom; it is but a logical continuation of former +tendencies. His works show great variety and comprise pianoforte +pieces, many songs, a remarkable string quartet, some daringly +original tone-poems for full orchestra, several cantatas, and—most +unique of all—his opera of <i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i>, based on the +well-known play by Maeterlinck. A few comments may profitably be made +on each of these types. With few exceptions all his pianoforte pieces +have suggestive titles, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Reflets dans l'eau</i>, <i>Jardins sous la +pluie</i>, <i>La soirée dans Grenade</i>, <i>Poissons d'or</i>, <i>Voiles</i>, <i>Le vent +dans la plaine</i>, <i>Bruyères</i>. They are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span> mood-pictures in which the +composer has tried to imprison certain elusive states of mind—or the +impressions made on his susceptible imagination by the phenomena of +Nature: the subtly blended hues of a sunset, the changing rhythm of +drifting clouds, the indefinite murmur of the sea, the dripping of +rain. For Debussy, like Beethoven before him, is a passionate lover of +Nature. To quote his own words, he finds his great object lessons of +artistic liberty in "the unfolding of the leaves in Spring, in the +wavering winds and changing clouds." Again, "It benefits me more to +watch a sunrise than to listen to a symphony. Go not to others for +advice, but take counsel from the passing breezes, which relate the +history of the world to those who listen." Thus we see that Debussy +submits himself to the spells of Nature and tries to transmute them +into sound. The only analogies to use in a verbal description of his +music must be drawn from nature, for in each are the same shadowy +pictures, the same melting outlines.<a name="FNanchor_295_297" id="FNanchor_295_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_297" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> Debussy has a close affinity +with that school of painters known as impressionists or +symbolists—Manet, Monet, Dégas, Whistler—and is doing with novel +combinations of sound, with delicate effects of light and shade, what +they have done for modern freedom in color. His music has been called +a "sonorous impressionism." It might equally well be phrased "rhythmic +sound." To those conservatives who find it difficult to think in terms +of musical color, and wish <i>their</i> imagination rather than that of +genius to be the standard, the retort of the artist Whistler is +applicable: To a lady who viewing one of his sunsets remarked, "But, +Mr. Whistler, I have never seen a sunset like that" came the reply +"Yes, Madam, but don't you wish you had?" In his songs Debussy has +been most fastidious as to choice of texts, his favorite poets being +Verlaine, Baudelaire and Mallarmé, called "symbolists," since the aim +of their art is to resemble music and to leave for the reader a wide +margin for symbolic interpretation. His songs throughout are +imaginative and fanciful in the highest degree, and the instrumental +part a beautiful background of color. Of Debussy's compositions for +orchestra the one to win—and possibly to deserve—the most lasting +popularity is <i>L'après-midi d'un Faune</i>, which is an extraordinary +translation into music of the veiled visions and the shadowy beings of +an eclogue of Mallarmé in which, as Edmund Gosse says, "Words are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span> +used in harmonious combinations merely to suggest moods or conditions, +never to state them definitely."<a name="FNanchor_296_298" id="FNanchor_296_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_298" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> By perfect rhythmic freedom, and +by delicately-colored waves of sound Debussy has expressed in a manner +most felicitous just the atmosphere of remoteness, and of primeval +simplicity. By many this work is considered the most hypnotic +composition in existence, and the writer trusts that his readers have +heard a poetic interpretation of it by a fine orchestra. The salient +features of Debussy's style are found in <i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i>—by +far the most important operatic work since Wagner. Maeterlinck's play +deals with legendary, mysterious, symbolic beings, and the entire +subject-matter was admirably suited to Debussy's genius. As +Maeterlinck says, "The theatre should be the reflex of life, not this +external life of outward show, but the true inner life which is +entirely one of contemplation." This opera is quite different from any +previously written, in that the characters sing throughout in +<i>recitative</i> now calm, now impassioned, but never in set, periodic +arias. In fact, here we have at last a true musical <i>speech</i>, which is +indeed another thing from music set to words. Debussy has defended +this peculiar style in the following words: "Melody is, if I may say +so, almost anti-lyric, and powerless to express the constant change of +emotion or life. Melody is suitable only for the song (<i>chanson</i>), +which confirms a fixed sentiment. I have never been willing that my +music should hinder, through technical exigencies, the changes of +sentiment and passion felt by my characters. It is effaced as soon as +it is necessary that these should have perfect liberty in their +gestures as in their cries, in their joy as in their sorrow."</p> + +<p>Now that we may look forward to no more compositions from +Debussy<a name="FNanchor_297_299" id="FNanchor_297_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_299" class="fnanchor">[297]</a>—he died in March, 1918—it is certainly fitting to +attempt a forecast as to the permanent worth of his achievements and +his influence upon future development. Like all music his compositions +may be judged from several points of view: the worth of the content, +the perfection or inadequacy of style and the manner in which the +media of presentation are used. To begin with the last +characteristic—there is no doubt that Debussy has enlarged the +resources of our two chief modern instruments, the pianoforte and the +orchestra. By him the pianoforte is always treated according to its +true nature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span> <i>i.e.</i>, as an intimate, coloristic instrument and, in +amplifying all its resources of tone-color, flexible rhythm and +descriptive power he is the worthy successor of Chopin. In his +orchestral compositions such as the <i>Nocturnes</i> (<i>Clouds</i>, <i>Festivals</i> +and <i>Sirens</i>), the <i>Sea Pieces</i> and <i>Images</i>, of which the <i>Rondes de +Printemps</i> and <i>Ibéria</i> are the most significant, there is a union of +warmth and delicacy as individual as it is rare. <i>Ibéria</i>, in fact, +for vitality of imagination and flawless workmanship may be considered +the acme of Debussy's orchestral style. The great resources of the +modern orchestra are often abused. Compositions are rich and gorgeous +but at the same time inflated, turgid and bombastic. Certain works of +Richard Strauss and Mahler are examples in point. Debussy's treatment, +however, of the varied modern orchestra is remarkable for its economy. +The melodic lines stand out clearly, there is always a rich supporting +background and we are convinced that everything sounds just as the +composer meant. As to the structure and style of his music, these are +more subtle matters to estimate. We may acknowledge at once that +Debussy's style is free and individual, for he has written his music +his own way, with slight regard for academic models. But a thorough +examination of his works shows no evidence of carelessness or +uncertainty of aim. There is, to be sure, nothing of that routine +development of musical material which we associate with classic +practice—instead a free, imaginative growth. But there is always a +definite structural foundation to support the freedom of expression. +This coherence is sometimes gained by a single dominating note about +which everything is grouped, as, in the <i>Soirée dans Grenade</i>, the +C-sharp and in the <i>Reflets dans l'eau</i>, an F. Most of Debussy's +compositions imply the principles, albeit freely used, of Two- and +Three-part form and the fundamental laws of key-relationship and of +artistic contrast.</p> + +<p>In considering the value of Debussy's message, <i>i.e.</i>, the content of +his music, the animus and predilection of the hearer have to be taken +into account. For his music is so intensely subjective and intimate +that you like it or not, as the case may be. Many persons, however, +become very fond of it, when they have accustomed themselves to its +peculiar idiom. The charge that there is in Debussy no melody of a +purely musical nature, as some critics have asserted,<a name="FNanchor_298_300" id="FNanchor_298_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_300" class="fnanchor">[298]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span> seems to +the writer too sweeping and not supported by the inner evidence. It +may be granted that Debussy's melodic line is very fluid and elastic, +like Wagner's "continuous melody," not definitely sectionalized by +balanced phrases or set cadences. But it surely has its own right to +existence—music being pre-eminently the art of freedom—and let us +remember that Nature herself has melting outlines, shadowy vistas and +subtle rhythms. Debussy, in fact, is the poet of the "indefinite" and +the "suggestive" and his music has had a great influence in freeing +expression from scholastic bonds. Even from the standpoint of the +popular conception of "tune" it is difficult to see what objection can +be made to the following melodies:</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music296a.png" width="632" height="118" alt="L'isle joyeuse" title="L'isle joyeuse" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music296a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music296a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music296b.png" width="631" height="113" alt="Poissons d'or" title="Poissons d'or" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music296b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music296b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music296c.png" width="627" height="123" alt="Cortège" title="Cortège" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music296c.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music296c.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>It cannot be denied that such an individual style as Debussy's is +liable to manneristic treatment, though whether he should be called +"the prince of mannerists"<a name="FNanchor_299_301" id="FNanchor_299_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_301" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> is decidedly open to debate. Some +critics feel that he has over-used the whole-tone scale and it must be +confessed, he has a rather affected fondness for a formula of +block-like chords, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music296d.png" width="551" height="190" alt="Danse sacrée" title="Danse sacrée" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music296d.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music296d.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span></p> + +<p>But these, after all, are but "spots on the sun." To sum up our +conclusions: the following merits in Debussy's music, it seems to me, +cannot be gainsaid. He has widened incalculably the vocabulary of +music and has expressed in poetic and convincing fashion moods which +never before had been attempted. In his work are new revelations of +the power of the imagination. As Lawrence Gilman keenly remarks, "He +has known how to find music (in <i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i>) for the +sublime reflection of Arkel, 'If I were God, I should pity the hearts +of men.'" Debussy was also gifted with rare critical ability and many +of his observations are worthy of deep consideration. For +example—"Music should be cleared of all scientific apparatus. Music +should seek humbly to give pleasure; great beauty is possible between +these limits. Extreme complexity is the opposite of art. Beauty should +be perceptible; it should impose itself on us, or insinuate itself, +without any effort on our part to grasp it. Look at Leonardo da Vinci, +Mozart! These are great artists."</p> + +<p>No account of modern French music would be satisfactory which omitted +to mention several composers who, though of somewhat lesser importance +than d'Indy and Debussy, have nevertheless achieved works of +distinction and charm. These are Chabrier, Fauré, Duparc, Chausson and +Ravel. Chabrier (1841-1894) is noted for a bold exuberance and +vividness of expression, for a sense of humor and for a power of +orchestral color and brilliance which have not been duplicated. His +style is entirely his own and he is a veritable incarnation of "vis +Gallica." Born in the South of France, the hot blood of that magic +land seems to throb in his music. We have from him several pianoforte +compositions of marked originality, in particular the <i>Bourrée +Fantasque</i>, some inimitable songs, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Les Cigales</i> and <i>La +Villanelle des petits Canards</i> and, most famous of all, his Rhapsody +for orchestra entitled <i>España</i>, based on Spanish themes. This work +has proved to be a landmark in descriptive power and shares with +Rimsky-Korsakoff's <i>Scheherazade</i> the claim of being the most +brilliant piece of orchestral writing in modern times. Some of +Chabrier's best work is in his opera of <i>Gwendoline</i>, especially the +Prelude to the second act which is often played by itself.</p> + +<p>Although Fauré (1845-still living) is more versatile and prolific than +Chabrier, his fame rests upon his achievements in two fields—the song +and pianoforte composition. Some of his pianoforte pieces are, to be +sure, of a light, <i>salon</i> type; yet in many we find a true,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span> poetic +sentiment and they are all written in a thoroughly pianistic idiom. In +fact, prior to Debussy Fauré was the only Frenchman worthy to compare +in mastery of pianoforte style with Chopin, Schumann and Liszt. As a +song composer Fauré ranks with the highest in modern times. The exotic +charm and finesse of workmanship in such songs as <i>Clair de Lune</i>, +<i>Les Roses d'Ispahan</i> cannot be denied and the instrumental part is +always worthy of the composer's genius for pianoforte style, <i>e.g.</i>, +the accompaniment to <i>Nell</i> being a model in its free polyphony and +richness of effect. Fauré has been fastidious in his selection of +texts and he is fortunate to have been able to avail himself of the +genius of such lyric poets as Leconte de Lisle, Baudelaire, Verlaine, +Sully-Prudhomme and others. Indeed as a song-composer Fauré may fairly +be grouped with the great German masters. His songs are not German +songs, but they are just as subtle in expressing all that is fine in +French spirit as those of Schumann and Brahms in their Teutonic +sentiment. For this reason alone Fauré is a commanding figure in +modern French music. He is also the author of a violin sonata which +has enjoyed a popularity second only to that of Franck and a Quintet +for pianoforte and strings of distinct originality.</p> + +<p>Duparc (1848-still living) one of the earliest of César Franck's +pupils—though working in practically but a single field and though by +reason of ill health he has written nothing since 1885—will always +hold high rank for the beauty and breadth of his songs, especially +<i>L'invitation au Voyage</i>, <i>Extase</i> and <i>Phydilé</i>. This last is +considered by the writer the most exquisite song in modern literature; +its melody, its modulations, its accompaniment alike are +flawless.<a name="FNanchor_300_302" id="FNanchor_300_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_302" class="fnanchor">[300]</a></p> + +<p>Chausson (1855-1899) the most gifted of Franck's pupils, though +without d'Indy's strength of character, was killed by an unfortunate +accident<a name="FNanchor_301_303" id="FNanchor_301_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_303" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> just as he was ready for an adequate self-expression. He +had a sensitive imagination, an individual harmonic style; and in +those works which he has left—notably several songs, a Quartet for +pianoforte and strings and the Symphony in B-flat major, op. 20—there +is found a spirit of genuine romantic inspiration.</p> + +<p>Although Ravel (1875-still living) cannot claim to be a pioneer like +Debussy—since in his music there are frequent traces of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span> +exuberance of Chabrier, the suavity of Fauré, the atmosphere and +impressionistic tendencies of Debussy and the exoticism of the +Neo-Russians—yet he is indeed no empty reflection of these men, for +he has his own bold, fantastic style and has been a daring +experimenter in freedom of harmony and structure. One finds a power of +ironic brilliance and of unexpected harmonic transformations certainly +new in modern literature. Ravel<a name="FNanchor_302_304" id="FNanchor_302_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_304" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> is one of the most versatile and +prolific of all the younger Frenchmen having composed significant +works in at least four fields: songs, particularly the set entitled +<i>Histoires Naturelles</i>, which reveal an unusual instinct for delicate +description; and pianoforte pieces of which <i>Miroirs</i>, the dazzling +tour de force <i>Jeux d'eau</i>, the <i>Valses nobles et sentimentales</i>, the +<i>Sonatine</i>, the <i>Pavane</i> and, above all, the Poems, <i>Gaspard de la +Nuit</i> (<i>Ondine</i>, <i>Le Gibbet</i><a name="FNanchor_303_305" id="FNanchor_303_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_305" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> and <i>Scarbo</i>) are conspicuous +examples of his style. Furthermore in the field of chamber music are +found a String Quartet, remarkable for inspiration and for certainty +of workmanship, and a Trio (for pianoforte, violin and 'cello) which +is one of the most brilliant modern works, of convincing originality +in its freedom of rhythm, <i>e.g.</i>, the opening measures of the first +movement.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music299.png" width="634" height="402" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music299.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music299.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span></p> + +<p>Finally, for orchestra his <i>Spanish Rhapsody</i> ranks with Chabrier's +<i>España</i> and Debussy's <i>Ibéria</i> as the acme of descriptive power and +of orchestral color. His <i>Mother Goose Suite</i> (originally a set of +four-hand pieces but since orchestrated with incomparable finesse) +illustrates his humor and play of fancy. It has become a truly popular +concert number. Ravel's chef d'oeuvre the "choreographic symphony" +<i>Daphnis et Chloé</i> displays an extraordinary synthetic grasp, for all +the factors—plot, action, the musical fabric, a large orchestra and a +chorus of mixed voices behind the scenes—are held together with a +master hand. This work ranks with Debussy's <i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i> as +the most significant dramatic work of recent years.</p> + +<p>It is evident, we trust, from the foregoing somewhat condensed +estimates that the modern French school is very much alive, that it +has to its credit numerous distinct achievements and that it contains +the promise of still further growth. The French nature, which is +highly emotional and yet, at its best, always controlled<a name="FNanchor_304_306" id="FNanchor_304_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_306" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> by a +regard for fitness and clarity of thought, is particularly suited to +express itself worthily in music, for in no other form of artistic +endeavor is this balance more requisite. Music without emotion is, to +be sure, like "sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal" and dies in short +order. On the other hand, music which is a mere display of crude +emotion soon palls. The works of modern French composers deserve +enthusiastic study for their charm, their finish and their refined +emotional power.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<h3>NATIONAL SCHOOLS—RUSSIAN, BOHEMIAN AND SCANDINAVIAN</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">B</span>EFORE beginning an account of Tchaikowsky, the most noted though not +necessarily the greatest of the Russian composers, a few words may be +said concerning nationalism in music, the chief representatives of +which are the Russians, the Bohemians, the Scandinavians and the +Hungarians. Of these, however, the present-day Russian School is the +most active and contributes constantly new factors to musical +evolution. This grafting of forms of expression derived from the +outlying nations on to the parent-stock of music<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span>—which for some +three hundred years had been in the exclusive control of Italy, +Germany and France—has been a stimulating factor in the development +of the last half-century. For the idiom of music was becoming somewhat +stereotyped, and it has been noticeably revitalized by the +incorporation of certain "exotic" traits, of which there run through +all national music these three: (1) the use, in their folk-songs, of +other forms of scale and mode than are habitual with ourselves; (2) +the preference given to the minor mode and the free commingling of +major and minor; (3) the great rhythmic variety and especially the use +of groups foreign to our musical sense, such as measures of 5 and 7 +beats, and the intentional placing of the accent on parts of the +measure which with us are ordinarily unaccented. Every country has its +folk-songs—the product of national rather than individual genius—but +Russia, in the number and variety of these original melodies is most +exceptional. The Russian expresses himself spontaneously in song, and +so we find appropriate music for every activity or incident in daily +life: planting songs, reaping songs, boating songs, wedding songs, +funeral songs; Russian soldiers sing on the march and even enter upon +a desperate charge with songs on their lips. In certain battles of the +Crimean War this fact caused much comment from the English officers. +For many centuries the bulk of the Russian people has been +downtrodden; and the country, with its endless steppes and gloomy +climate, is hardly such as to call forth the sparkling vivacity found +in the Scandinavian and Hungarian songs. The prevalent mood in Russian +folk-songs is one of melancholy or of brooding, wistful +tenderness—very often in the old Greek modes, the Aeolian, Dorian and +Phrygian. From this we see the close connection existing between the +Russian and Greek Churches. The Russian liturgy is exceedingly old, +and Russian church music, always unaccompanied, has long been +celebrated for its dignified character, especially those portions +rendered by men's voices, which are capable of unusually low +notes,<a name="FNanchor_305_307" id="FNanchor_305_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_307" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> as majestic as those of an organ.</p> + +<p>During the entire 18th century the development of music in Russia was +in the hands of imported Italians; the beginnings of a national type +being first made in the works of Glinka, born 1804. By the middle of +the 19th century two schools had arisen, the Neo-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span>Russian group of +Balakireff, Borodin, Cui, Rimsky-Korsakoff and Moussorgsky, who +believed in the extreme development of national traits in melody, +rhythm and color; and a second group which was more cosmopolitan in +its tastes and believed that Russian music, without abandoning its +national flavor, could be written in a style of universal appeal. The +chief members of this group were Rubinstein and Tchaikowsky, and +distinguished pupils of the latter, in particular Rachmaninoff and +Glazounoff. To the world at large Tchaikowsky, of them all, has made +the strongest appeal; though he himself said that Rimsky-Korsakoff as +an orchestral colorist was more able, and certainly Moussorgsky has a +more strongly marked individuality. Tchaikowsky (1840-1893) like so +many of the Russian composers, began as a cultivated amateur who +showed no special musical gifts, save a sensitive nature and a general +fondness for the art. He studied in the school of jurisprudence and +won a post in the Ministry of Justice. In 1861, however, his musical +nature awaking with a bound, he gave up all official work and for the +sake of art faced a life of poverty. Under the teaching of Nicholas +Rubinstein at the Petrograd Conservatory he made such amazing progress +that in five years he himself was Professor of Harmony at Moscow and +had begun his long series of compositions—at first operas of merely +local fame. There now followed years of great activity spent in +teaching and composing—well-known works being the first String +Quartet and the Pianoforte Concerto in B-flat minor, first performed +by von Bülow at Boston in '88. At this period his health completely +broke down, the immediate cause being an unhappy marriage. He finally +rallied but had to travel abroad for a year, and for the rest of his +life his temper, never bright, was overcast with gloom. There now +entered Tchaikowsky's life Frau von Meck, the woman who played the +part of fairy godmother. She greatly admired his music, was wealthy +and generous and, that he might have entire leisure for composition, +settled upon him a liberal annuity. Their relationship is one of the +most remarkable in the annals of art; for, fearing that the ideal +would be shattered, they met but once, quite by accident, and +Tchaikowsky was "acutely embarrassed." We have a lengthy and +impassioned correspondence, and Tchaikowsky's 4th Symphony, dedicated +"à mon meilleur ami," is the result of this friendship. In 1891, +invited to New York for the dedication of Carnegie Hall, he made his +memorable American tour. His success was genuine, and was the +beginning of the popularity his music has always enjoyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span> in this +country. For several years Tchaikowsky had been working at his Sixth +Symphony, to which he himself gave the distinctive title "Pathetic." +This work ends with one of the saddest dirges in all literature, +although Tchaikowsky, during its composition, as we know from his +letters, had never been in a happier state of mind or worked more +passionately and freely. He himself says, "I consider it the best, +especially the most open-hearted of all my works." When, however, he +suddenly died in 1893, there were rumors of suicide, but it is now +definitely settled that his death was caused by cholera.<a name="FNanchor_306_308" id="FNanchor_306_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_308" class="fnanchor">[306]</a></p> + +<p>To turn now to his achievements, it may be asserted that Tchaikowsky +was marvellously versatile, composing in every form save for the +organ; for productiveness, only Mozart, Schubert and Liszt can be +compared with him. His works comprise eight operas, six symphonies, +six symphonic poems, three overtures, four orchestral suites, two +pianoforte concertos, a violin concerto, three string quartets, a +wonderful trio, about one hundred songs and a large number of +pianoforte pieces. In addition he made several settings of the Russian +liturgy and edited many volumes of church music. Whatever may be the +final estimate of his music, it assuredly has great vogue at present, +for it is an intense expression of that mental and spiritual unrest so +characteristic of our times. As Byron was said to have but one +subject, himself, so all Tchaikowsky's music is the message of his +highly emotional and feverish sensibility. He is invariably eloquent +in the presentation of his material, although the thoughts are often +slight and the impression made not lasting. He pours out his emotions +with the impulsiveness and abandon so characteristic of his race, and +this lack of serenity, of restraint, is surely his gravest weakness. +We are reminded by his music of a fire which either glows fitfully or +bursts forth into a fierce uncontrolled blaze, but where a steady +white heat is too often missing. His style has been concisely +described as fiery exultation on a basis of languid melancholy. To all +this we may retort that what he lacks in profundity and firm control, +he makes up in spontaneity, wealth of imagination and, above all, +warmth of color. It is illogical to expect his music to be different +from what it is. He expressed himself sincerely and his style is the +direct outcome of his own temperament plus his nationality. +Tchaikowsky was widely read in modern literature—Dickens and +Thackeray being favorite authors—and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span> had travelled much. The breadth +of his cultivation is shown in the subjects of his symphonic poems and +the texts of his songs, which are from Shakespeare, Dante, Goethe and +Bryon. However much estimates may differ as to the import of +Tchaikowsky's message, he is universally recognized as a superb +"colorist," one of the masters of modern orchestral treatment; who, by +his subtle feeling for richness and variety of tone, has enlarged the +means of musical expression. This is especially shown in the +characteristic use he makes of the orchestra in its lower ranges. As +Brahms, for depth of thought, was compared with Browning, so +Tchaikowsky may well be likened to such poets as Shelley and +Swinburne, so exquisite is his instinct for tonal beauty and for +delicacy of shading. At times, to be sure, he fairly riots in gorgeous +colors—this being the result of his Slavic blood—but few composers +have been able to achieve such brilliancy without becoming vulgar.</p> + +<p>As to the charge of pessimism often made against Tchaikowsky, he was a +thinker, an explorer into the mysteries of human aspiration and +disappointment,<a name="FNanchor_307_309" id="FNanchor_307_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_309" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> and his music seems weighted down with the riddle +of the universe. This introspective dejection, however, is a natural +result of his temperament and his nationality. If to us of a more +hopeful outlook upon life it seems morbid, we should simply remember +that our conditions have been different. A distinction must likewise +be made between the expression of such feelings in art and their +influence in actual life. As a man Tchaikowsky was practical, +conscientious, and did not in the least allow his feelings to +emasculate him. He was a prodigious worker and throughout his career, +in the face of ill health and many adverse circumstances, showed +immense courage. His creed was no ignoble one—"To regret the past, to +hope in the future, and never to be satisfied with the present; this +is my life." And to a gushing patroness of art who asked him what were +his ideals, his simple reply was "My ideal is to become a good +composer." Certain English critics in their fault-finding have been +particularly boresome, because, forsooth, Tchaikowsky's music does not +show the serenity of Brahms or the solidity or stolidity of their own +composers. To the well-fed and prosperous Briton "God's in his Heaven, +all's right with the world" is hardly an expression of faith, but a +certainty of existence. Not so with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span> Russian, upon whom the +oppression of centuries has left its stamp. This same note of gloomy +or even morbid introspection is found in some of the great literature +of the world—in the Bible, the Greek Tragedies and in Shakespeare. +Granted that optimism is the only working creed for every-day life, +until the millenium arrives a sincere and artistic expression of the +sorrows of humanity will always strike a note in oppressed souls.</p> + +<p>Each of Tchaikowsky's last three symphonies is a remarkable work. The +Fourth is most characteristically Russian and certainly the most +striking in its uncompromising directness of expression. The first +movement announces a recurrent, intensely subjective motto typical of +that impending Fate which would not allow Tchaikowsky happiness.<a name="FNanchor_308_310" id="FNanchor_308_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_310" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> +The slow movement is based upon a Russian folk song of a melancholy +beauty, sung by the oboe, and another, already cited (see <a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chapter II</a>, +<a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>), is incorporated in the Finale. The Scherzo is unique as an +orchestral <i>tour de force</i>; for, with the exception of a short middle +portion for wood-wind and brass, it is for the string orchestra +playing pizzicato throughout. The effect is extremely fantastic and +resembles that of ghosts flitting about in their stocking-feet or of +sleep-chasings, to use Whitman's expression.<a name="FNanchor_309_311" id="FNanchor_309_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_311" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> The Finale is a riot +of natural, primitive joy, a picture—as the composer says—of a +popular festivity. "When you find no joy within you, go among the +people, see how fully they give themselves up to joyous feelings." +Fate sounds its warning, but in vain; nothing can repress the +exultation of the composer. "Enjoy the joy of others and—you still +can live." The work is sensational, even trivial in places; but it +reveals sincerity and elemental life. The composer lays himself bare +and we see a real man—not a masked hypocrite—with all his joys and +sorrows, caught, as Henley would say, "in the fell clutch of +circumstance," bludgeoned by Fate.</p> + +<p>The Sixth Symphony, the Pathetic, is the most popular and, on the +whole, Tchaikowsky's most sustained work. It owes its hold upon public +esteem to the eloquent way in which it presents that "maladie du +siècle" which, in all modern art,<a name="FNanchor_310_312" id="FNanchor_310_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_312" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> is such a prominent note. The +mood may be a morbid one but we cannot mistake the con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span>viction with +which it is treated. The work is likewise significant because of the +novel grouping of movements. The first is in complete sonata form and +for finished architecture will stand comparison with any use of that +form. The themes are eloquent, well contrasted and organically +developed. The orchestration is a masterpiece.<a name="FNanchor_311_313" id="FNanchor_311_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_313" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> The second +movement is the one famous for its use of five beats a measure +throughout; and its trio, on a persistent pedal note D, is a striking +example of the Russian tendency to become fairly obsessed with one +rhythm. It is an intentional, artistic use of monotony and may be +compared to the limitless Russian Steppes. If it seem strange to +Western Europeans, it should be remembered that the music is Russian +and portrays a mood perfectly natural to that people. The third +movement is a combination of a scherzo and a march—of a most +unbridled fury. The Finale is a threnody, one of overpowering grief, +the motto of which might be "vanity of vanities, all is vanity." It +abounds in soul-stirring orchestral eloquence and invariably makes a +deep impression.</p> + +<p>For special comment we have selected Tchaikowsky's<a name="FNanchor_312_314" id="FNanchor_312_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_314" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> Fifth Symphony +in E minor since, being a union of Russian and Italian +characteristics, it reveals that eclecticism so prominent in his +style. It is also an admirable example of organic relationship between +the movements. This symphony, like the Fourth, contains a recurrent +motto of sombre nature in the minor mode which, appearing in the first +three movements with some dramatic implication, is changed in the +Finale to the major and used as the basis for a march of rejoicing. +The first and last movements are in elaborate sonata-form; the second +and third in three-part form. The Finale is one of the most striking +examples in modern literature of a <i>résumé</i> of preceding themes and +hence a convincing proof of the composer's constructive power. The +symphony begins with a long prelude announcing the motto. Scored for +clarinets, bassoons and low strings it shows vividly that peculiar +impression which Tchaikowsky secured by using the lower ranges of the +orchestra.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music307a.png" width="631" height="372" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music307a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music307a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The melody itself seldom moves above middle C, and its effect is +enhanced by the quality of the clarinets in their chalumeau register. +The first theme of the movement proper (beginning at the Allegro con +anima), on the same harmonic basis as the motto and derived from it +rhythmically, is given out <i>pp</i> by a solo clarinet and solo bassoon, +accompanied by very light detached chords in the strings, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music307b.png" width="634" height="368" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music307b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music307b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This is elaborately and brilliantly developed until, in measure 79 +(counting from the Allegro), we reach a transitional, subsidiary theme +in B minor. This is followed by some striking sequences, exquisitely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span> +scored, and then (at un pochettino più animato) there is a quickened +presentation of the transitional theme, interspersed by syncopated +calls—on the horns and wood-wind—a presentation which introduces the +second theme in D major, marked molto più tranquillo. This melody, +sung by the violins against an obbligato in the wood-wind, is clearly +Italian in its grace and suavity and establishes that wonderful +contrast so prominent in Tchaikowsky—the warmth and exuberance of the +South set against the grim austerity of the North.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music308a.png" width="634" height="226" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music308a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music308a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This theme, expanded (stringendo and crescendo) into a series of +exciting climaxes <i>fff</i> leads, after some modulatory phrases derived +from the transitional theme, to the Development which begins in B-flat +major. Throughout this is a fine piece of work—with real thematic +growth, bold modulations and no "padding." It should refute completely +any erroneous opinion that Tchaikowsky was lacking in power of organic +treatment. The connection between the Development and the +Recapitulation is skilfully managed and the third part does not bore +us but is welcomed as something we would gladly hear again. There is a +long and stormy Coda—a second development in true Beethoven +style—which finally ends <i>ppp</i> in the lowest depths of the orchestra, +in the same mood as the opening measures.</p> + +<p>The second movement, Andante cantabile, con alcuna licenza, with its +melting theme on the solo horn, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music308b.png" width="639" height="191" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/music309a.png" width="507" height="184" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music308b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music308b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>—accompanied later by answering phrases on the clarinet—might seem a +bit too "luscious" were it not for the beauty and finish of the +orchestration. The movement is in rather loose three-part form—as the +title would imply—the joints being somewhat obvious in certain +places, <i>e.g.</i>, measures 39-45. The themes, however, have that +intensity peculiar to Tchaikowsky, and the original orchestral +treatment, especially in the use of the horns, enhances their effect. +The middle contrasting portion, starting in F-sharp minor, shows some +very effective polyphonic imitations based on the following theme:</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music309b.png" width="631" height="418" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music309b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music309b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>At the climax of its development the motto is proclaimed <i>fff</i> in a +most arresting manner—its effect being due to the unusual pedal point +which makes a chord of the second with the upper voices, <i>e.g.</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music310a.png" width="632" height="361" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music310a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music310a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The third part with slight expansions corresponds to the first. At its +close, just before the Coda, we have a second appearance of the +motto—this time, on account of the fierce dissonances, with even more +sinister effect.<a name="FNanchor_313_315" id="FNanchor_313_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_315" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> The closing measures are of great beauty by +reason of the imitations on the strings and the dreamy, reminiscent +phrase on the clarinets, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music310b.png" width="635" height="396" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music310b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music310b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The third movement, a Waltz, with a graceful theme, in clear-cut +three-part form, needs little comment. If any one considers it too<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span> +light or even trivial for a place in a symphony he might study the +individual orchestration and then try to compose one like it! The +second and third parts are ingeniously fused together—Tchaikowsky +following the practise of Mozart, his favorite master, in the first +movement of the G minor Symphony. In the Russian philosophy of life, +however, there is no such thing as perpetual joy; so, even amid scenes +of festivity, the motto obtrudes itself as if to ask "What right have +you to be dancing when life is so stern and grim?" See measures 23-28 +from end of movement.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music311.png" width="633" height="354" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music311.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music311.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The Finale, in complete sonata-form and laid out on a large scale, for +several reasons is of distinct significance. It is a carefully planned +<i>résumé</i> of preceding themes; it contains several examples of those +periods of depression or exultation (especially on a pedal-point) so +characteristic of the Slav, and lastly, there are pages of extreme +brilliancy. In fact, the orchestration throughout is of such +convincing power that it refutes any charge of sensationalism or mere +bombast. If to us the music seem unrestrained, unbridled, we are to +remember that the Russian temperament is prone to a reckless display +of emotion just as in their churches they like to "lay the colors on +thick." The movement begins with an extended prelude in which the +original sombre motto is transformed into a stately, march-like theme. +This is presented twice with continually richer scoring and more +rhythmic animation. The closing measures of the prelude are a specific +instance of that protracted mood of depression spoken of above. The +movement proper begins at the Allegro vivace with a fierce, +impassioned theme,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music312a.png" width="631" height="401" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music312a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music312a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>which leads, in measure 25, to a subsidiary theme treated at first in +free double counterpoint<a name="FNanchor_314_316" id="FNanchor_314_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_316" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> and later canonically.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music312b.png" width="631" height="436" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music312b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music312b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span></p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music313a.png" width="631" height="186" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music313a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music313a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>This is developed with more and more animation until the announcement, +in measure 71, of the second theme in D major. Here we see the first +instance of that organic relationship for which the movement is noted; +for this theme</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music313b.png" width="635" height="440" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music313b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music313b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>is evidently derived by rhythmic modification from that of the +preceding slow movement. It is brilliantly expanded and leads +directly—there being no double bar and repeat—to the development in +measure 115. This part of the movement evades description; it is +throughout most eloquent and exciting. In measures 153-160 all the +bells of Russia seem to be pealing! With measure 177 begins (marcato +largamente) an impressive treatment in the bass of the second theme, +answered shortly after in the upper voice. This is developed to a +climax which, in turn, is followed by one of those long periods of +"cooling down" which prepare us for the Recapitulation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span> in measure +239. This corresponds exactly with the Exposition, ending with two +passages (poco meno mosso and molto vivace),—based upon the rhythm of +the motto—which usher in the long, elaborate Coda. This begins, +maestoso, with an impressive statement of the march theme, scored in +brilliant fashion, with rushing figures in the wood-wind instruments. +It seems to portray some ceremonial in a vast cathedral with trumpets +blaring and banners flying. A still more gorgeous treatment (marziale, +energico, con tutta forza) leads to the Presto based on the subsidiary +theme (cited on <a href="#Page_312">page 312</a>), which fairly carries us off our feet. The +last portion of the Coda (molto meno mosso) is an animated yet +dignified proclamation of the main theme of the first movement—the +work thus concluding with an unmistakable effect of unity.</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music314.png" width="638" height="395" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music314.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/music314.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>The subject of Russian music<a name="FNanchor_315_317" id="FNanchor_315_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_317" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> is too vast for any adequate +treatment within the limits of a single book, but there are several +other composers in addition to Tchaikowsky of such individuality and +remarkable achievement as to warrant some notice. These men, +Balakireff, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakoff and Moussorgsky, have done for +the free expression of the Russian temperament in music what Pushkin, +Gogol and Dostoyevsky represent in literature. "To<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span> understand fully +the tendencies of Neo-Russian music, and above all to sympathize with +the spirit in which this music is written, the incredible history of +Holy Russia, the history of its rulers and people—the mad caprices +and horrid deeds of the Romanoffs, who, in centuries gone by, +surpassed in restless melancholy and atrocity the insane Caesars, and +were more to be pitied, as well as detested, than Tiberius or +Nero—the nature of the landscape, the waste of steppes, the +dreariness of winter, and the loneliness of summer—the barbaric +extravagance of aristocratic life—the red tape, extortion, and +cruelty of officers—the sublime patience of the common people—the +devotion of the enduring, starving multitude to the Tsar—all this +should be as familiar as a twice-told tale. There should also be a +knowledge of Russian literature, from the passion of Pushkin and the +irony of Gogol, to Turgenieff's tales of life among the serfs, and the +novels of Tolstoi, in which mysticism and realism are strangely +blended. Inasmuch as Neo-Russian music is founded upon the folk-songs +of that country, one should know first of all the conditions that made +such songs possible, and one should breathe the atmosphere in which +musicians who have used such songs have worked."<a name="FNanchor_316_318" id="FNanchor_316_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_318" class="fnanchor">[316]</a></p> + +<p>The first real leader after the wholesome beginnings made by Glinka +(with his operas, <i>A Life for the Czar</i> and <i>Ludmilla</i>) was Balakireff +(1837-1910) who finding his country almost entirely under the dominion +of Italian and German music, proclaimed the doctrine that Russia, with +its wealth of folk-songs and its undoubted emotional power should +create its own music. Like many of the Russians Balakireff was an +amateur, but in the true sense of that term, <i>i.e.</i>, he loved music +for its own sake. He therefore set to work vigorously to combat +foreign influences and to manifest in original works a spirit true to +his own genius and to the tendencies of his native land. Though +educated as a lawyer he had acquired through a study of Mozart, +Berlioz and Liszt a thorough technique and so was equipped to put into +practise his watchword which was individual liberty. "I believe in the +subjective, not in the objective power of music," he said to his +pupils. "Objective music may strike us with its brilliancy, but its +achievement remains the handiwork of a mediocre talent. Mediocre or +merely talented musicians are eager to produce effects, but the ideal +of a genius is to reproduce his very self, in unison with the object +of his art. There is no doubt that art requires technique,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span> but it +must be absolutely unconscious and individual.... Often the greatest +pieces of art are rather rude technically, but they grip the soul and +command attention for intrinsic values. This is apparent in the works +of Michelangelo, of Shakespeare, of Turgenieff, and of Mozart. The +beauty that fascinates us most is that which is most individual. I +regard technique as a necessary but subservient element. It may, +however, become dangerous and kill individuality as it has done with +those favorites of our public, whose virtuosity I despise more than +mere crudities." Balakireff's actual works are few in number since he +spent most of his time in organizing schools of music and in teaching +others; but in those works which we have<a name="FNanchor_317_319" id="FNanchor_317_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_319" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> there is a strong note +of freedom not to be missed. His Symphonic Poem <i>Tamara</i> and his +fantasy for pianoforte <i>Islamey</i> are remarkable for that semi-oriental +exotic spirit so prevalent in Russian music. Many of his songs also +are of genuine beauty.</p> + +<p>Borodin (1834-1887) is the ne plus ultra example of that versatility +in which the modern Russian School is unique. As a surgeon and doctor +he enjoyed a high position; as a chemist he made original researches +and wrote treatises which were recognized as distinct contributions to +science; he was one of the earliest scholars in the world to advocate +that women should have the same education as men and was one of the +founders (about 1870) of a medical school for women in Petrograd. So +tireless was he in these varied activities, it seems a miracle that he +could also become one of the best pianists of his time (he played well +also the violin and the flute) and according to Liszt,<a name="FNanchor_318_320" id="FNanchor_318_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_320" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> one of the +most able orchestral masters of the nineteenth century. But as +evidence of this amazing fact are his works, comprising two symphonies +(the second in B minor often heard in this country) two string +quartets, the first strikingly original, thematically, harmonically +and in idiomatic use of the instruments; a small Suite for pianoforte, +of which the Serenade is cited in the Supplement; an opera, <i>Le Prince +Igor</i>—remarkable for its picturesque description and Oriental +coloring, of which the composer himself said "Prince Igor is +essentially a national opera, which can be of interest only to us +Russians who love to refresh our patriotism at the sources of our +history and to see the origins of our nationality live again upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span> +stage;" a symphonic poem <i>Dans les Steppes de l'Asie centrale</i> +and—showing some of his most characteristic work—the <i>Paraphrases</i> +written in collaboration with Korsakoff, Liadoff and Cui as a kind of +musical joke. This composition,<a name="FNanchor_319_321" id="FNanchor_319_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_321" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> a set of twenty-four variations +founded on the tune popularly known as "chop-sticks" is dedicated "to +little pianists capable of executing the theme with a finger of each +hand." For the paraphrases themselves a player of considerable +technique is required. In Borodin's style we always find a glowing +color-scheme of Slavic and Oriental elements. As a modern Russian +composer says, "It is individually descriptive and extremely +modern—so modern that the audience of to-day will not be able to +grasp all its intrinsic beauties."</p> + +<p>The most widely known and in many respects the most gifted of the +Neo-Russian group is Rimsky-Korsakoff (1844-1908). He has been aptly +characterized as the Dégas or Whistler of music, and for his +marvellous powers of description, especially of the sea, and for his +command of orchestral tone-painting he is considered the storyteller +par excellence in modern music. As in the case of Borodin we are +filled with amazement at the power of work and the versatility in +Korsakoff's nature. For many years he was an officer in the Russian +navy and throughout his life was involved with official duties. Yet he +found time for a number of compositions of originality and finished +workmanship. These comprise the symphonic poems <i>Antar</i>, <i>Sadko</i> and +<i>Scheherazade</i>;<a name="FNanchor_320_322" id="FNanchor_320_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_322" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> a <i>Spanish Caprice</i> for full orchestra; twelve +operas of which the best known in this country is the fascinating <i>Le +Coq d'Or</i>; a concerto for pianoforte and orchestra; a large number of +songs and many choruses for men's and women's voices. His treatises on +harmony and orchestration are standard works, the latter being the +authority in modern treatment of the orchestra. His <i>Scheherazade</i> is +undoubtedly the most brilliant descriptive work in modern literature, +for an account of which we quote the eloquent words of Philip Hale.</p> + +<p>"<i>Scheherazade</i> (Op. 35) is a suite inspired by the Arabian Nights. +The Sultan, persuaded of the falseness and faithlessness of woman, had +sworn to put every one of his wives to death in turn after the first +night. But Scheherazade saved her life by interesting him in the +stories she told him for a thousand and one nights. Many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span> marvels were +told by her in Rimsky-Korsakoff's fantastic poem,—marvels and tales +of adventure: 'The Sea and Sinbad's Ship'; 'The Story of the Three +Kalandars'; 'The Young Prince and the Young Princess'; 'The Festival +at Bagdad'; 'The Ship that went to pieces against a rock surmounted by +a bronze warrior.' As in Berlioz's <i>Fantastic Symphony</i>, so in this +suite, there is a theme which keeps appearing in all four movements. +For the most part it is given to a solo violin. It is a free melodic +phrase in Oriental bravura, gently ending in a free cadenza. There is +no development of themes in this strange work. There is constant +repetition in different tonalities; there is an exceedingly skillful +blending of timbres; there is a keen sense of possible orchestral +effects. A glance at the score shows how sadly the pedagogue might go +astray in judgment of the work, without a hearing of it, and +furthermore, the imagination of the hearer must be in sympathy with +the imagination of the composer, if he would know full enjoyment: for +this symphonic poem provokes swooning thoughts, such as come to the +partakers of leaves and flowers of hemp; there are the stupefying +perfumes of charred frankincense and grated sandal-root. The music +comes to the listener of western birth and mind, as the Malay who +knocked among English mountains at De Quincey's door. You learn of +Sinbad, the explorer, who is nearer to us than Nansen; of the Kalandar +Prince who spent a mad evening with the porter and the three ladies of +Bagdad, and told of his incredible adventures; and Scheherazade, the +narrator, she too is merely a shape in a dream; she fades away, and +her soul dies on the high note exhaled by the wondering violin.</p> + +<p>"The melody of this Russian is wild, melancholy, exotic; a droning +such as falls from the lips of white-bearded, turbaned, venerable men, +garrulous in the sun; and then again, there is the reckless chatter of +the babbler in the market-place, heated with unmixed wine."</p> + +<p>The most boldly individual of all Russian composers is +Moussorgsky<a name="FNanchor_321_323" id="FNanchor_321_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_323" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> (1831-1881). Although of intense inspiration and of +uncompromising ideals his musical education was so incomplete that his +technique was inadequate for the expression of his message. As the +French critic, Arthur Pougin well says, "His works bizarre though they +be, formless as they often are, have in them a force of expression and +a dramatic accent of which no one can deny the intensity. It would be +unjust to pretend that he spoke for the purpose of saying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span> nothing; +unfortunately he is too often satisfied with merely stammering." As +Moussorgsky himself says: "Art is a means of talking with men; it is +not an end. Starting with the principle that human speech is subject +to musical laws, I see in music, not only the expression of sentiment +by means of sound, but especially the notation of a human language." +In fact the dominant idea of his music was to bring it into closer +relation with actual life.</p> + +<p>"In order to understand Moussorgsky's work and his attitude towards +art, it is necessary to realise the social conditions under which he +lived. He was a true child of the sixties, of that period of moral and +intellectual ferment which followed the accession of Alexander II and +the emancipation of the serfs. Of the little group of composers then +striving to give musical expression to their newly awakened +nationality, none was so entirely carried away by the literary and +political movements of the time as Moussorgsky. Every man was asking +himself and his comrades the question posed by the most popular novel +of the day: 'What shall we do?' The answer was: 'Throw aside social +and artistic conventions. Make art the hand-maiden of humanity. Seek +not for beauty but for truth. Go to the people. Hold out the hand of +fellowship to the liberated masses and learn from them the true +purpose of life.' To this democratic and utilitarian spirit, to this +deep compassion for the people, to this contempt for the dandyism and +dilettantism of an earlier generation Moussorgsky strove to give +expression in his music, as Perov expressed it in painting, as +Tchernichevsky, Dostoyevsky, and Tolstoi expressed it in fiction. We +may disagree with his aesthetic principles, but we must confess that +he carried out with logical sequence and conviction a considerable +portion of his programme. In his sincere efforts to attain great ends +he undoubtedly overlooked the means. He could never submit to the +discipline of a thorough musical training as Tchaikowsky and +Rimsky-Korsakoff. He preserved his originality intact, but at a heavy +cost. The weakness of his technique has been exaggerated by those who +put down all his peculiarities to ignorance; but in some +respects—particularly as regards orchestration—his craftsmanship was +certainly unequal to the demands of his inspiration, for his aims were +very lofty. Had this been otherwise, Moussorgsky's name would have +been more closely linked with those of Berlioz and Richard +Strauss."<a name="FNanchor_322_324" id="FNanchor_322_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_324" class="fnanchor">[322]</a></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span></p> +<p>His acknowledged masterpieces are first, the songs, especially the +series the <i>Nursery</i> and the <i>Songs and Dances of Death</i>, in which we +see mirrored with extraordinary fidelity the complex nature of the +Russian people. Rosa Newmarch has called him the Juvenal of musicians. +Second, his national music drama, <i>Boris Godounoff</i>—dealing with one +of the most sensational episodes in Russian history—which, for the +gripping vividness of its descriptions, is quite unparalleled.</p> + +<p>"<i>Boris Godounoff</i>, finished in 1870, was performed four years later +in the Imperial Opera House. The libretto of this opera he took from +the poetic drama of Pushkin, but he changed it, eliminating much and +adding new scenes here and there, so that as a whole it is his own +creation. In this work Moussorgsky went against the foreign classic +opera in conception as well as in construction. It is a typically +Russian music-drama, with all the richness of Slavic colors, true +Byzantine atmosphere and characters of the medieval ages. Based on +Russian history of about the middle of the seventeenth century, when +an adventurous regent ascends the throne and when the court is full of +intrigues, its theme stands apart from all other operas. The music is +more or less, like many of Moussorgsky's songs, written in imitation +of the old folk-songs, folk dances, ceremonial chants, and festival +tunes. Foreign critics have considered the opera as a piece +constructed of folk melodies. But this is not the case. There is not a +single folk melody in Boris Godounoff, every phrase is the original +creation of Moussorgsky."<a name="FNanchor_323_325" id="FNanchor_323_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_325" class="fnanchor">[323]</a></p> + +<p>In concluding this account of Russian music let the statement be +repeated that only by a thorough knowledge of the life and character +of this strange yet gifted people can their music be understood. It is +necessary therefore to become acquainted with Russian literature and +pictorial art—with the works of Gogol, Tolstoi and Dostoyevsky and +the paintings of Perov and Veretschagin. In this way only will be made +clear what is otherwise inexplicable—the depth and sincerity of the +Russian soul.</p> + +<p>The other two prominent national schools in modern times are the +Bohemian and Scandinavian. Although from neither of these have we +products at all comparable in breadth; or depth of meaning with those +of the Russian school, yet each has its note of exotic individuality +and hence deserves recognition. The Bohemian School<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span> centres about the +achievements of Fibich, Smetana<a name="FNanchor_324_326" id="FNanchor_324_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_326" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> and Dvořák, and its prevalent +characteristics are the variety of dance rhythms (Bohemia having no +less than forty national dances) together with the peculiarly novel +harmonic and modulatory scheme. The dances best known outside of +Bohemia are the <i>Polka</i><a name="FNanchor_325_327" id="FNanchor_325_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_327" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> and the <i>Furiant</i>; the former being used +so frequently by Smetana and Dvořák that it has attained an +international status. The first of the above group, Fibich +(1850-1900), was a composer of marked versatility—there being extant +over seven hundred works in every form—and no little originality. +Many of his pianoforte pieces have distinct charm and atmosphere and +should be better known. Fibich was strongly influenced by Schumann, +and there is found in his music the same note of fantastic freedom +prominent in the German master. But the first impression of Bohemian +music upon the world in general was made by Smetana (1824-1884). An +ardent follower of Liszt, he definitely succeeded in the incorporation +of Bohemian traits with the current musical idiom just as Liszt had +done with Hungarian folk-music. Smetana's style is thoroughly +original, his form is free yet coherent and he has a color sense and +power of orchestral description peculiar to his race. Bohemia is one +of the most picturesque countries in the world and the spirit of its +woodlands, streams and mountains is always plainly felt in Bohemian +music. The Bohemians are an out-of-door people with an inborn instinct +for music (with its basic factors of rhythm and sound) by which they +express the vigorous exuberance of their temperament.<a name="FNanchor_326_328" id="FNanchor_326_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_328" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> Smetana's +significant work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span> lies in his numerous operas, his symphonic poems and +in the remarkable String Quartet in E minor entitled "Aus meinem +Leben." The operas deal with subjects so strongly national that they +can have but little vogue outside their own country. However, <i>Prodana +Nevesta</i>—<i>The Bartered Bride</i>—has been universally recognized as one +of the genuine comic operas in modern times and its spirited Overture +(the first theme on a fugal basis) is played the world over. His six +Symphonic Poems, comprised under the title <i>Mein Vaterland</i>, are works +of considerable power and brilliant orchestral treatment. Perhaps the +finest sections are <i>Vltava</i> (Moldau), celebrating the beauties of +Bohemia's sacred river, and <i>Vyšehrad</i>, a realistic description of +the national fortress at Prague.<a name="FNanchor_327_329" id="FNanchor_327_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_329" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> The Quartet in E minor, noted +for its freedom and intimacy of style, has become a classic. Whenever +it was performed Smetana wished the sub-title "Aus Meinem Leben" to be +printed on the program; for, as he says in a letter to a friend, "My +quartet is no mere juggling with tones; instead I have wished to +present the hearer with pictures of my life. I have studied theory; I +know what style means and I am master of it. But I prefer to have +circumstances determine form and so have written this quartet in the +form which it itself demanded." In the first and last of the four +movements there is a long sustained high E, symbolic of the buzzing +sound which the composer constantly heard as his congenital deafness +increased. This malady finally affected his mind and was the cause of +his tragic death in an asylum at Prague.</p> + +<p>Although in some respects not so characteristic as Smetana, +Dvořák<a name="FNanchor_328_330" id="FNanchor_328_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_330" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> (1841-1904), by reason of his greater breadth and more +cosmopolitan style, is considered the representative Bohemian +composer. Dvořák's music in its simplicity and in its spontaneity +of treatment is a reincarnation of Schubert's spirit; we feel the same +overflowing musical life and we must make the same allowances for +looseness of structure. Dvořák, however, has made one contribution +thoroughly his own—his skill in handling the orchestra. He was a born +colorist and his scores in their clarity, in the subtle distinctions +between richness and delicacy, are recognized masterpieces. As a +sensuous delight to the ear they may be compared to the fine glow of +certain Dutch canvases—those for example of Vermeer. Dvořák's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span> +compositions are varied and fairly numerous (some 111 opus numbers) +comprising operas, cantatas, chamber music, symphonies, overtures, +pianoforte pieces and songs. From 1892 to 1895 he was in this country +as director of the National Conservatory in New York. Three works +composed during this period, a <i>Quartet</i>, a <i>Quintet</i> and <i>The New +World Symphony</i>, are of special interest to us since they were meant +as a compliment to the possibilities of American music and also +reflect Dvořák's attitude toward the sources of musical +inspiration. A true child of the people, and the embodiment of +folk-music, he naturally searched for native material when he wished +to compose something characteristically American. But folk-music in +our country, as has been stated in <a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chapter II</a>, is (or was at +Dvořák's time) practically limited to that of the Indians and the +Negroes. It is often stated, in fact, that the New World Symphony is +founded upon Negro tunes. This, however, is a sweeping assertion. +There is no doubt that Dvořák found a strong affinity between +certain of the Southern plantation melodies and the songs of his +native land, <i>e.g.</i>, the following melody (the second theme of the +first movement) which is similar to "Swing low, sweet chariot."</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/music323.png" width="636" height="194" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/music323.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/music323.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>But the individual tone of the melodies could come only from a +Bohemian and if they seem both Negro and Bohemian it simply proves the +common bond existing in all folk-music.<a name="FNanchor_329_331" id="FNanchor_329_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_331" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> This <i>New World Symphony</i> +has had a great vogue and by reason of the warmth of its melodies and +the rich, colorful scoring is indisputably a work full of charm.<a name="FNanchor_330_332" id="FNanchor_330_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_332" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> +Two prevalent traits of Dvořák's music are noticeable in this +symphony—the unexpectedness of the modulations and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">324</a></span> unusual +harmonic scheme.<a name="FNanchor_331_333" id="FNanchor_331_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_333" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> The structure is at times rather loose, +particularly in the Finale where the joints often crack wide open. +But, as an offset, there is great rhythmic vitality—observe in +particular the swing of the Trio from the Scherzo—and that sensuous +tone-color peculiar to the composer. In fact, the scoring of the slow +movement with its magical theme for English horn would alone +compensate for many structural blemishes. This movement closes with a +mysterious chord for divided double basses (four solo instruments) +which is one of many touches in individual treatment. The Finale, in +accordance with modern practise, although containing themes of its +own, finally becomes a <i>résumé</i> of preceding material. The two main +themes are striking and well contrasted; but Dvořák was a mediocre +architect and the movement, in comparison with the Finales of Franck +and Tchaikowsky, is more of a potpourri than a firmly knit organic +whole. The final page is stimulating in its bold use of dissonances. +But we must take Dvořák as he is. There is no question of his +genius, for his music is spontaneous, never labored, and he has +expressed with convincing artistic skill the emotions and ideals of +his gifted race.</p> + +<p>Scandinavian music, ethnologically considered, would comprise that of +the three related nations, the Swedes, the Danes and the Norwegians; +some would include even the Finns, with their eloquent spokesman +Sibelius. Although the Danes have considerable folk-music, and as a +people love music, they have produced no composer of distinction save +Niels Gade (1817-1890), who was so encrusted with German habits of +thought that his music is neither one thing or the other—certainly it +is not characteristically Danish. The best known of the Swedish +composers is Sjögren from whom we have some poetic songs. He also +attempted the larger instrumental forms but without notable success.</p> + +<p>Scandinavian music, as far as the outside world is concerned, +practically centres about the Norwegian composer Grieg<a name="FNanchor_332_334" id="FNanchor_332_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_334" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> +(1843-1907) just as its dramatic art centres about Ibsen. The names, +however, of four other Norwegian composers deserve mention: the +pioneers Kjerulf (1815-1868) noted for his melodious songs; Svendsen +(1840-1911) endowed with a fine sense for orchestral color; and +Nordraak (1842-1866) the first self-conscious representative of the +Norwegian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span> spirit: a talented musician who exerted a marked influence +upon Grieg—his promise cut short by an early death. In modern times +the mantle of Grieg has fallen upon Sinding (1856-still living) whose +songs and poetic pieces for the pianoforte have become household +favorites. In Norwegian music we find the exuberant rhythmic vitality +typical of a people living in the bold and highly colored scenery of +that sun-lit land.<a name="FNanchor_333_335" id="FNanchor_333_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_335" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> Grieg, a born lyric poet saturated with +folk-music, has embodied this spirit in his works. His fame rests upon +his songs and descriptive pianoforte pieces; though in his Pianoforte +Concerto, in his Peer Gynt Suite, in the Violin Sonatas and String +Quartet he proved that he was not lacking in power to handle larger +forms. But most of his work is in miniature—the expression, like the +music of Schubert and Chopin,<a name="FNanchor_334_336" id="FNanchor_334_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_336" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> of moods short and intense. While +Grieg's music is patterned upon Norwegian folk-dances and +folk-melodies it is something far more. He has evoked from the +characteristics of his native land a bold, original harmony and a +power of color and description thoroughly his own. He might say with +de Musset "Mon verre n'est pas grand, mais je bois dans mon verre." In +his music we feel the sparkling sunshine and the breezes of the North. +In fact, Grieg was the first popular impressionist and for his +influence in humanizing music and freeing it from academic routine his +fame will endure. We have cited in the Supplement (Nos. 68, 69) one of +his most original songs—the melody of which was used also for the +work <i>Im Frühling</i> for string orchestra—and a pianoforte piece which +illustrates his rhythmic life and also in certain measures that +melodic line typical of all Norwegian music: the descent from the +leading tone, <i>i.e.</i>, G, F-sharp, D.</p> + +<p>For a complete appreciation therefore of national music, we must +always take into consideration the traits and environment of the +people from which it sprung. Music, to be sure, is a universal +language, but each nation has used this language in its own way. The +most striking fact in present-day music is the variety gained from a +free expression of nationalism<a name="FNanchor_335_337" id="FNanchor_335_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_337" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> without infringing upon +universality of appeal.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<h3>THE VARIED TENDENCIES OF MODERN MUSIC</h3> + + +<p class="tp"><span class="dropcap">M</span>ODERN music—broadly speaking, music since the beginning of the +twentieth century—is certainly manifesting the characteristics which +the preceding survey has shown to be inherent in its nature: that is, +it has grown by a course of free experimentation, it is the youngest +of the arts, and it is a human language as well as a fine art. Hence +we find that modern composers are making daring experiments in +dissonance, in rhythmic variety, in subtle blends of color and, above +all, in the treatment of the orchestra. In comparison with +achievements in the other arts music often seems in its infancy; being +limited by no practical or utilitarian considerations, and employing +the boundless possibilities of sound and rhythm, there is so much +still before it. The truth contained in the saying, that music is the +youngest as well as the oldest of the arts, becomes more apparent year +by year; for although a work which originally had imaginative life can +never die, yet many former works have passed out of recognition simply +because they have been superseded by more inspired ones, composed +since their day. We can no longer listen with whole-hearted enthusiasm +to many of the older symphonies, songs and pianoforte pieces, because +Brahms, Franck, Debussy and d'Indy have given us better ones.</p> + +<p>These experiments, just referred to, have been particularly notable on +the part of two composers of the neo-Russian group, Stravinsky and +Scryabin. Stravinsky,<a name="FNanchor_336_338" id="FNanchor_336_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_338" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> in his brilliant pantomime ballets, +<i>L'Oiseau du Feu</i>, <i>Petroushka</i>, and <i>Le Sacre du Printemps</i>, has +proved incontestably that he is a genius—it being of the essence of +genius to create something absolutely new. These works, in their +expressive melody, harmonic originality and picturesque orchestration, +have widened the bounds of musical characterization. Scryabin<a name="FNanchor_337_339" id="FNanchor_337_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_339" class="fnanchor">[337]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">327</a></span> +(1871-1915) is noted for his esoteric harmonic scheme, shown in a +series of pianoforte preludes, sonatas and, above all, in his +orchestral works, the <i>Divine Poem</i>, the <i>Poem of Ecstacy</i> and +<i>Prometheus</i> or <i>Poem of Fire</i>. The effect of Scryabin's harmonies is +one of great power, and, as previously said of Debussy in his earlier +days, his imagination has undoubtedly heard sounds hitherto +unrealized. The sensational style of <i>Prometheus</i> is augmented by the +use of a color machine which flashes upon a screen hues supposed to +supplement the various moods of the music. How many of these +experiments will be incorporated into the accepted idiom of music, +time alone will tell; but they prove conclusively that modern music is +thoroughly awake and is proving true to that spirit of freedom which +is the breath of its being.</p> + +<p>Music is, furthermore, not only a fine art in which have worked and +are working some of the best intellects of our race, but is inevitably +becoming a universal language. We see this clearly in the rapid growth +of music among peoples and nations which, comparatively a short time +ago, were thought to be quite outside the pale of modern artistic +development. No longer is music confined exclusively to the Italians, +French and Germans. A national spokesman for the Finns is the gifted +Sibelius, the composer of five symphonies, several Symphonic poems, +numerous songs and pianoforte pieces; his second Symphony in E minor +being a work of haunting beauty, and the Fourth noted for its bold use +of the dissonant element. The Roumanians have come to the fore in +Enesco, who has written several characteristic works for orchestra. +The Spaniards are endeavoring to restore their former glories—for we +must not forget that, in past centuries, the Spanish composers Morales +and Vittoria ranked with the great painters which that nation has +produced. Three Spanish composers, indeed, are worthy of distinct +recognition: Albeniz for his pianoforte pieces, <i>tangos</i>, +<i>malagueñas</i>, etc., in which there is such a fascinating treatment of +national dance rhythms; Granados,<a name="FNanchor_338_340" id="FNanchor_338_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_340" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> with several operas to his +credit, and Laparra, the composer of a fantastic suite recently played +by the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Spanish rhythms, melodies and local +color have been frequently incorporated in the works of other +composers, <i>e.g.</i>, by Bizet in <i>Carmen</i>, by Debussy in <i>Ibéria</i>, and +in the pianoforte piece <i>Soirée dans Granade</i>, by Chabrier in +<i>España</i>, by Lalo in several works, and by the Russians, Glinka and +Rimsky-Korsakoff, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span> brilliant orchestral works. The Spanish +influence,<a name="FNanchor_339_341" id="FNanchor_339_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_341" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> in fact, may be called one of the most potent in +modern music.</p> + +<p>Although there is no doubt of the strong musical instinct inherent in +the Hungarians—witness the prevalence of Hungarian rhythms in +Schubert, Liszt, Brahms and others—their country has always been so +torn with political dissensions that the lack of a national artistic +culture is not to be wondered at. Recently however three Hungarian +composers, Dohnányi, Moor and Béla Bartok, have produced works +embodying racial tendencies and yet of such significant content and +sound workmanship as to attract the attention of the world outside.</p> + +<p>Italy, also, is awakening from a long sleep, and there is now a group +of young men representing New Italy (of whom Malipiero and Casella are +the best known) which should accomplish results worthy of the glorious +musical traditions of that country.</p> + +<p>England is shaking off her subserviency<a name="FNanchor_340_342" id="FNanchor_340_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_342" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> to the influence of +Handel and Mendelssohn, and at last has made a promising start toward +the achievement of works which shall rank with her glories in poetry, +in fiction and in painting. Among the older group we have such names +as Sullivan, with his inimitable series of operas, the <i>Mikado</i>, +<i>Gondoliers</i>, <i>Iolanthe</i>, etc.; Parry, with some notable choral works, +and Stanford—a most versatile man—Irish by birth, and with the humor +and spontaneity natural to his race; his <i>Irish Symphony</i> and his +opera <i>Shamus O'Brien</i> would give lustre to any period. The only +genius of the first rank however which England has produced since the +days of Purcell is Edward Elgar (1857-still living). Practically +self-educated and spending his early life in his native country he +escaped the influences of German training which so deadened the +efforts of former composers, such as Pierson and Bennett. Elgar's +music is thoroughly English in its sturdy vigor<a name="FNanchor_341_343" id="FNanchor_341_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_343" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> and wholesome +emotion. With something first-hand to say he has acquired such a +technique in musical expression that his compositions rank in +workmanship with those of the great continental masters. In his use of +the modern orchestra Elgar need be considered second to none. His +overtures<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span> <i>In the South</i> and <i>Cockaigne</i>, his two Symphonies and his +<i>Enigma Variations</i> are universally acknowledged to be models of +richly-colored and varied scoring. Although his music is English it is +never parochial but has that note of universal import always found in +the work of a real genius. Among the younger men there are Wallace, +both composer and writer on musical subjects (his Threshold of music +being particularly stimulating), Holbrook, Vaughan Williams, Roger +Quilter, Arthur Hinton, Balfour Gardiner and John Ireland, a composer +of genuine individuality, as is evident from his Violin Sonata in D +Minor.</p> + +<p>Even such outlying parts of the world as Australia and South America +have contributed executive artists of great ability though, to our +knowledge, as yet no composer.</p> + +<p>What, now, in this connection can be said of America? This much at +least: when we consider that, beyond the most rudimentary attempts, +music in our land is not yet a century old, a start has been made +which promises great things. Such pioneers as Paine, Chadwick, +MacDowell, Foote, Parker, Osgood, Whiting and Mrs. H.H.A. Beach have +written works, often in the larger forms, showing genuine inspiration +and fine workmanship, many of which have won permanent recognition +outside of their own country. Of late years a younger group has +arisen, the chief members<a name="FNanchor_342_344" id="FNanchor_342_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_344" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> of which are Converse, Carpenter, +Gilbert, Hadley, Hill, Mason, Atherton, Stanley Smith, Brockway, Blair +Fairchild, Heilman, Shepherd, Clapp, John Powell, Margaret Ruthven +Lang, Gena Branscombe and Mabel Daniels. These composers all have +strong natural gifts, have been broadly educated, and, above all, in +their music is reflected a freedom, a humor and an individuality which +may fairly be called American; that is, it is not music which +slavishly follows the "made-in-Germany" model.<a name="FNanchor_343_345" id="FNanchor_343_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_345" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> The composer of +greatest genius and scope in America is undoubtedly Charles Martin +Loeffler; but, although he has become a loyal American, and although +his best works have been composed in this country, we can hardly claim +him as an American composer, for his music vividly reflects French +taste and ideals. His inspired works—in particular <i>La Mort de +Tintagiles</i>, <i>The Pagan Poem</i> and a Symphony (in one movement)—are of +peculiar importance for their connection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span> with works of literature and +for consummate power in orchestration. Not even Debussy has expressed +more subtly the tragic spirit of Maeterlinck than has Loeffler in <i>La +Mort de Tintagiles</i>; and <i>The Pagan Poem</i>, founded on an Eclogue of +Virgil portrays most eloquently the romance of those pastoral days. +Loeffler's latest work, a String Quartet<a name="FNanchor_344_346" id="FNanchor_344_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_346" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> dedicated to the memory +of Victor Chapman, the Harvard aviator, is remarkable for the +heart-felt beauty of its themes and for advanced technique in treating +the four solo instruments.</p> + +<p>Let us now indulge in a few closing remarks of advice to the young +student faced with all this perplexing novelty. Our studies should +have made plain two definite facts: first, that the real message of +music is contained in its melody—that part of the fabric which we can +carry with us and sing to ourselves. Harmony and color are factors +closely involved with melodic inspiration, but their impression is +more fleeting; and in general, no work lacking in melody, however +colorful or filled with daring harmonic effects, can long endure. But +we must be judicious and fair in estimating exactly what constitutes a +real melody. The genius is always ahead of his time; if he thought +just as other men, he would be no genius. New types of melody are +continually being worked out; all we can say is that the creative +composer hears sounds in his imagination, the result of his emotional +and spiritual experiences and of his sympathy with the world. He +recreates these sounds in terms of notation, hoping that, as they mean +so much to him, they may be a delight and inspiration to his +fellowmen. If enough people like these works for a long enough time, +they <i>are</i>; that is, they live—no matter how much they differ from <i>a +priori</i> standards as to what music should be.</p> + +<p>The second fact concerns the structure of music; that is, the way in +which the thought is presented. We have seen that music always has a +carefully planned architecture—that being necessary by reason of the +indefiniteness of the material. But let us always remember that +without abandoning the fundamental principles of all organic life, +form may be—and should be—free and elastic. Every work which lives +reveals a perfect balance between the emotional and imaginative +factors and their logical presentation. If we are puzzled by the +structure of a new work the assumption should be, not that it is +formless but that, when we know the work, it will be seen to employ +simply a new use of old and accepted principles; for the works<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span> +analyzed must have convinced us that the principles of unity, +contrast, balance and symmetry are eternal; and, however modified, can +never be abandoned. The normal imagination must express itself +logically, and can no more put forth incoherent works than the human +body would give birth to misshapen offspring. Musical compositions, +which after study prove to be incoherent, diffuse and flabby, are to +be considered exceptional and not worth condemning; they are only to +be pitied. The chief aim of the music-lover should be to become an +intelligent and enthusiastic appreciator of the great works already +composed, and to train himself liberally for the welcome of new works. +Towards such an end we hope that this book may offer a helpful +contribution.</p> + + + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="Index" id="Index"></a>Index</h1> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<h3>A</h3> + +<p> +<i>Academic Overture</i> of Brahms, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Aeolian mode, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Aeschylus, compared with Brahms, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Albeniz, pianoforte pieces, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.<br /> +<br /> +answer (to a fugue), <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Apthorp, W.F., comments on Brahms, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eulogy on Brahms's <i>First Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on <i>Istar</i>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +arabesque, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Aristophanes, his humor compared with Beethoven's, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Arnold, Matthew, lines on Byron apropos of Berlioz, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stanza applicable to Brahms, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of style, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Atherton, Percy Lee, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Auber, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +augmentation, definition of, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>B</h3> + +<p> +Babbitt, Irving, book on Romanticism, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>The New Laocoön</i>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bach, Emmanuel, use of two themes, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contributions to the Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bach, J.S., <i>Well-tempered Clavichord</i>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">choral (Phrygian mode), <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">polyphonic style, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Goldberg Variations</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">celebrated organ fugues, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of <i>Fugue in E-flat major</i>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>-<a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bagatelles</i>, of Beethoven, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Balakireff, works and features of style, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>-<a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Baldensperger, F., eulogy of Franck, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ballet music to <i>Prometheus</i>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Balzac, comment on Chopin, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Barcarolle</i>, of Chopin, color effect therein, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>-<a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bartered Bride Overture</i>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +basso ostinato, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Baudelaire, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Beach, Mrs., <i>Menuet Italien</i>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Beethoven, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">motive of <i>Fifth Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Waldstein Sonata</i>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">String Quartet (Lydian mode), <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fugal passages in symphonies, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sentences from sonatas, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>-<a href='#Page_61'>61</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Egmont Overture</i>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Rondo Capriccio</i>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sets of Variations, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>-<a href='#Page_126'>126</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">love of Nature, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">features of style, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>-<a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development of the Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>-<a href='#Page_127'>127</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of the Coda, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">variety of rhythm, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>-<a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of dissonances, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">humor, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>-<a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development of Program music, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development of varied air, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characterization of the Symphonies, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>-<a href='#Page_132'>132</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of the Pianoforte Sonatas, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pianistic effect in Sonatas, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as a programmistic composer, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>-<a href='#Page_154'>154</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quality of themes, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dramatic use of single notes, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>-<a href='#Page_157'>157</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theme of <i>Ninth Symphony</i> compared with theme from Brahms's <i>First Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Béla Bartok, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Berlioz, quotation from <i>Grotesques de la Musique</i>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">canon in <i>Carnaval Romain</i> Overture, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Trio of <i>Fifth Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>-<a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names of his Parisian friends, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">features of style, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>-<a href='#Page_206'>206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Fantastic Symphony</i>, analysis of, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>-<a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Carnaval Romain</i> Overture, analysis of, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>-<a href='#Page_212'>212</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Damnation of Faust</i>, instrumental numbers from, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>-<a href='#Page_214'>214</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Harold in Italy</i> Symphony, analysis of, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>-<a href='#Page_215'>215</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Romeo and Juliet</i> Symphony, comments on, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>-<a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bie, Oscar, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the style of Couperin and Rameau, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bizet, <i>L'Arlésienne Suites</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bohemian School, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>-<a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Boieldieu, comment on Beethoven, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>bolero</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Boris Godounoff, description of, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Borodin, works and features of style, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>-<a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Boschot, work, in three parts, on Berlioz, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>bourrée</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brahms, <i>First Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modal expression in works, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Fourth Symphony</i> (Phrygian mode), <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">canonic style, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>C minor Trio</i>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sets of variations, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>-<a href='#Page_233'>233</a>;</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">features of style, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>-<a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of <i>First Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>-<a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>Violin Sonata</i>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>-<a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>G minor Ballade for Pianoforte</i>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>-<a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward program music, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the nature of his <i>Intermezzi</i>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the <i>Capriccios</i>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his <i>Rhapsodies</i>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of song <i>Meine Liebe ist grün</i>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">other songs, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +branle (brawl), <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Branscombe, Gena, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brenet, M., <i>Life of Haydn</i>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brockway, H., on American folk-songs, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Browning, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quotation apropos of the fugue, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quotations apropos of the <i>Fifth Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bruckner, movement from <i>Seventh Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bruneau, <i>History of Russian Music</i>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bull, John, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bülow, <i>Sonatas</i> of E. Bach, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Grieg, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Burney, on the 18th Century, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Buxtehude, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Byrd, William, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Byron, influence on Schumann's style, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>C</h3> + +<p> +<i>C minor Symphony</i> (Beethoven), analysis of, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>-<a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>C minor Symphony</i> (Brahms), analysis of, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>-<a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.<br /> +<br /> +cadences, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>-<a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Calvacoressi, on dominant relationship, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.<br /> +<br /> +canon, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">account of, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>-<a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +canzona, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Carnaval Romain</i> Overture, analysis of, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>-<a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Carpenter, John Alden, <i>Adventures in a Perambulator</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Casella, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Casse-Noisette Suite</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cellini, Benvenuto, compared with Berlioz, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opera by Berlioz, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Chabrier, <i>Bourrée Fantasque</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>España</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Overture to <i>Gwendoline</i>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">account of style, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>chaconne</i>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bach's for violin solo, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Chadwick, <i>Canonic Studies</i>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fugal passage in <i>Vagrom Ballad</i>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Chamisso, texts for Schumann's songs, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chantavoine, Life of Beethoven, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Charpentier, <i>Impressions of Italy</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chausson, Ernest, account of style, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chavannes, Puvis de, compared with Franck, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chopin, type of melody, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonata in C minor</i>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography and features of style, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>-<a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of <i>Prelude in C major</i>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Étude in A-flat major</i>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Mazurka in F-sharp minor</i>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of <i>Polonaise in E-flat minor</i>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>Barcarolle</i>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>-<a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>Scherzo in C-sharp minor</i>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +chromatic changes, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Clapp, P.G., <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +coda, definition and examples of, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.<br /> +<br /> +color, in different keys, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Combarieu, Jules, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Converse, F.S., Dramatic Poem, <i>Job</i> (Phrygian mode), <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>String Quartet</i>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Corelli, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Coriolanus</i> Overture, analysis of, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>-<a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.<br /> +<br /> +counterpoint, definition of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.<br /> +<br /> +counter-subject (of a fugue), <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Couperin, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descriptive pieces, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>courante</i> (<i>corrente</i>), <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Croatian Folk-songs (in Haydn), <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>-<a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>csárdás</i>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>D</h3> + +<p> +<i>D major Sonata</i> of Beethoven, analysis of, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>-<a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>D Minor Symphony</i> of Schumann, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>-<a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.<br /> +<br /> +d'Albert, <i>Suite for Pianoforte</i>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Damnation of Faust</i>, instrumental numbers from, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>-<a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Daniels, Mabel, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dannreuther, eulogy on Beethoven, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Berlioz's counterpoint, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dargomijsky, use of whole-tone scale, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Debussy, modal expression in works, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>-<a href='#Page_289'>289</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i> (Dorian mode), <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments upon, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Minstrels</i> (cadence in), <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>-<a href='#Page_56'>56</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sarabande</i> for pianoforte, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on development, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compared with Mendelssohn, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">apropos of new music, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">features of style, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>-<a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">whole-tone scale, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>-<a href='#Page_290'>290</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">titles of pianoforte pieces, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>-<a href='#Page_293'>293</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on his pianoforte style, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>-<a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +de Musset, quotation apropos of Grieg, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.<br /> +<br /> +deceptive cadence, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dent, E.J., <i>Mozart's Operas</i>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.<br /> +<br /> +De Pachman, playing of Mendelssohn's pieces, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.<br /> +<br /> +De Quincey, quotation from the <i>Dream Fugue</i>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Deutsches Requiem</i>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.<br /> +<br /> +development section of Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>-<a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>-<a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dickinson, Edward, estimate of Haydn, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +diminution, definition of, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.<br /> +<br /> +d'Indy, modal expression in works, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">canonic style, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Symphonic Variations, <i>Istar</i>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on the Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Beethoven's <i>Seventh Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on <i>Sonata Pathétique</i>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on D major Sonata, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on <i>Fifth Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Life of Beethoven, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on Franck's themes, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography and features of style, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>-<a href='#Page_282'>282</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Istar</i>, analysis of, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>-<a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +dissonance, discord, distinction between terms, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dohnányi, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dominant, acoustical and harmonic importance of, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>-<a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Don Giovanni</i>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Don Juan</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Don Quixote</i>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dorian mode, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dostoyevsky, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Doumic, René, essay on George Sand, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dowland, John, his <i>Pavans</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Duparc, Henri, account of his style, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dvořák, <i>New World Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modal expression in works, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>New World Symphony</i> (Aeolian mode), <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Suite for Orchestra</i>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works and features of style, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>-<a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</span><br /> +</p> + +<h3>E</h3> + +<p> +Eichendorff, texts for Schumann's songs, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Eighth Symphony</i> of Beethoven, Finale, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Elgar, Edward, works and features of style, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>-<a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ellis, W.A., translation of Wagner's Essays, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Enesco, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.<br /> +<br /> +enharmonic, modulation, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-<a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.<br /> +<br /> +episode, definition of, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>-<a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.<br /> +<br /> +exposition of Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.<br /> +<br /> +extended cadences, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>-<a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>F</h3> + +<p> +<i>F major Sonata</i> of Mozart, analysis of, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>-<a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fairchild, Blair, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Fantastic Symphony</i>, analysis of, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>-<a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quotation from, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>-<a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Farwell, Arthur, on folk-music, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fauré, Gabriel, account of style, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>-<a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Faust</i> Symphony, analysis of, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>-<a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fay, Amy, account of Liszt, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.<br /> +<br /> +feminine ending, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fibich, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Finck, H.T., <i>Songs and Song Writers</i>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Chopin and Other Essays</i>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on Program Music, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography of Grieg, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +five-bar rhythm, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>-<a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Flonzaley Quartet, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.<br /> +<br /> +folk-songs, principle of restatement in, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin and importance of, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>-<a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Foote, Arthur, fugal Finale to <i>Suite</i>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Forsyth, Cecil, eulogy of Mendelssohn, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Francesca da Rimini</i>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Franck, <i>Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">polyphonic structure, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">canonic style, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">canon in <i>Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in <i>Violin Sonata</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Fugue in B minor for Pianoforte</i>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comparison of his scoring with that of Schumann, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">limitations of his pianoforte style, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his fusion of movements compared with that of Brahms, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>-<a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">features of style, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>-<a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of <i>D minor Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>-<a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>Sonata for Violin</i>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>-<a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of generative themes, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Symphonic Variations</i>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>-<a href='#Page_280'>280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comparison of his style with that of Bach and Beethoven, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his group of pupils, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +French folk-song, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +French Overture, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Frescobaldi, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Friedländer, Max, apropos of Chabrier, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.<br /> +<br /> +fugue, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Fuller-Maitland, life of Brahms, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>furiant</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>G</h3> + +<p> +<i>G major Pianoforte Concerto</i> of Beethoven, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>-<a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>G minor Symphony</i>, analysis of, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>-<a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gade, Neils, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>galliard</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Galuppi, as a pioneer in Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gardiner, Balfour, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gautier, Théophile, eulogy of Berlioz, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>gavotte</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">account of, and examples, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>-<a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Gilbert, H.F., on folk-songs, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Gilman, Lawrence, essay on Berlioz, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on <i>Istar</i>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on Debussy, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on <i>Pelléas el Mélisande</i>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Glinka, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gluck, Ballet music, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Operatic Overtures, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Goethe, eulogy on Mozart, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gogol, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gosse, Edmund, comment on Mallarmé's eclogue, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gossec, as a pioneer in Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Granados, Spanish folk-dance, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Gregorian Chant, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gregorian modes in folk-songs, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Grétry, comments on Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Grieg, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canon for Pianoforte, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Peer Gynt Suite</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Holberg Suite</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works and features of style, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>-<a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +ground bass, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from Bach's Mass, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Grove, <i>Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies</i>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Grove's <i>Dictionary</i>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Guilmant, March in Dorian Mode, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canon for Organ, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Gurney, <i>The Power of Sound</i>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>H</h3> + +<p> +<i>habañera</i>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Habets, Alfred, account of Borodin and Liszt, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hadley, Henry, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hadow, W.H., <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Studies in Modern Music</i>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on Dvořák, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">article on Scryabin, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hale, Philip, comments on Saint-Saëns, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on Lalo, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on Mozart, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on <i>Scheherazade</i>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>-<a href='#Page_318'>318</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>halling</i>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Handel, fugue from the Messiah, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Harpsichord Lessons</i>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Air in Sarabande rhythm, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Harmonious Blacksmith</i>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Overture to <i>Messiah</i>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Harmonic Series, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Harold in Italy</i> Symphony, analysis of, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>-<a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Haydn, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancestry, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">features of style, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>-<a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his freedom of rhythm, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development of the String-Quartet and the Orchestra, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>-<a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonata in E-Flat major</i>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>-<a href='#Page_106'>106</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Surprise Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>-<a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Minuet, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prelude to the <i>Creation</i>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hazlitt, comment on Mozart, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Hebrides</i> Overture of Mendelssohn, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Heilman, William C., <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Heine, texts for songs of Schubert and Schumann, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Berlioz's music, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Helmholtz, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Henderson, W.J., <i>Preludes and Studies</i>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Henschel, vocal canon, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conversation with Brahms, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Heroic Symphony</i>, analysis of, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>-<a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hérold, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hill, Edward Burlingame, <i>Stevensoniana</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on Saint-Saëns, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on d'Indy, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hinton, Arthur, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hoffman, E.T.A., Essay on <i>Fifth Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Holberg Suite</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Holbrook, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Holmès, Augusta, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.<br /> +<br /> +homophonic, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +hornpipe, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hull, Eaglefield, Biography of Scryabin, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Huneker, Life of Chopin, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the playing of Chopin, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Chopin's Scherzo, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Life of Liszt, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Liszt's Songs, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on Brahms, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on Tchaikowsky, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hungarian folk-song, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Hungarian Rhapsodies</i>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hungarian rhythms in Schubert, Liszt and Brahms, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Schubert's Symphonies, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brahms's First Symphony, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</span><br /> +</p> + +<h3>I</h3> + +<p> +<i>Impromptus</i> of Schubert, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>-<a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Indian Suite</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +invention, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Invention in C major</i>, analysis of, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>-<a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.<br /> +<br /> +inversion, definition of, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>-<a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ionian mode, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ireland, John, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Irish Folk-song, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Istar</i>, Symphonic Poem of d'Indy, as example of a varied air, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>-<a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Italian Overture, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>J</h3> + +<p> +Jadassohn, Canonic Pieces, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.<br /> +<br /> +James, Henry, essay on George Sand, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jannequin, descriptive pieces for voices, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>jota</i> (<i>aragonesa</i>), <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span><br /> +</p> + +<h3>K</h3> + +<p> +<i>Kaiser Quartet</i>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Keats, quotation apropos of <i>Fifth Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quotation from, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Kelly, E.S., <i>Chopin the Composer</i>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kelly, Michael, <i>Reminiscences of Mozart</i>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>King Lear</i>, quotation from by Berlioz, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kjerulf, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Korbay, F., <i>Hungarian Melodies</i>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Krehbiel, essay on Haydn, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>The Pianoforte and its Music</i>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Kreisleriana</i>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kuhnau, <i>Bible Sonatas</i>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>L</h3> + +<p> +Lalo, Eduard, works and features of style, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Laloy, Louis, Life of Chopin, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on Debussy, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Laparra, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>L'apprenti Sorcier</i>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>L'après-midi d'un Faune</i>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>-<a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lavoix, estimate of the <i>Fifth Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Legouvé, <i>Recollections</i> of Berlioz, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lekeu, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>L'idée fixe</i>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>-<a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Liebich, Mrs., essay on Debussy, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Liszt, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characterization of Schubert, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Faust</i> Symphony (theme in augmentation), <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Life of Chopin, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>-<a href='#Page_218'>218</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">features of style, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>-<a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of Symphonic Poem, <i>Orpheus</i>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>-<a href='#Page_222'>222</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>Faust</i> Symphony, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>-<a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pianoforte compositions, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>-<a href='#Page_227'>227</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alleged influence on Brahms, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of whole-tone scale, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Locke, A.W., article in <i>Musical Quarterly</i>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Loeffler, Charles Martin, works and features of style, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>-<a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Lonesome Tunes</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>loure</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">example of, from Bach, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Lowell, J.R., definition of a classic, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lully, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lydian mode, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>M</h3> + +<p> +MacCunn, Hamish, <i>Scottish Melodies</i>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br /> +<br /> +MacDowell, <i>Rigaudon</i>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Indian Suite</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +madrigal, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Maeterlinck, compared with Franck, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on the theatre, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence on Loeffler, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Magic Flute</i> Overture, analysis of, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>-<a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mahler, comments on his style, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>malagueña</i>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mallarmé, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Malipiero, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Manfred</i> Overture, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>-<a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mannheim Orchestra, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Manuel, Roland, life of Ravel, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.<br /> +<br /> +march, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Marriage of Figaro</i>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.<br /> +<br /> +masculine ending, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mason, D.G., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on Haydn, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Mozart, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Chopin's style, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on Berlioz, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Saint-Saëns, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on d'Indy, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on <i>Istar</i>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on Debussy, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Tchaikowsky, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Dvořák, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as composer, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>mazurka</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +mediant relationship, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Méhul, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Melpomene</i> Overture, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Melusine</i> Overture of Mendelssohn, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mendelssohn, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography and features of style, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>-<a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Violin Concerto, comments on, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>-<a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Merkel, canon for organ, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Midsummer Night's Dream</i> Overture, analysis of, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>-<a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Milton, quotation from <i>Paradise Lost</i>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br /> +<br /> +minuet, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">account of, and examples, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mixolydian mode, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +modal, chart of modes, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>-<a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +modulation, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>-<a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Moments Musicaux</i> of Schubert, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>-<a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Montagu-Nathan, <i>History of Russian Music</i>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Monteverde, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Morales, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Moor, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Mother Goose Suite</i>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Moussorgsky, works and features of style, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>-<a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mozart, <i>Magic Flute</i> Overture, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Finale of <i>Jupiter</i> Symphony, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>-<a href='#Page_110'>110</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">features of style, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>-<a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mozart and Haydn, reactive influence, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>-<a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">polyphonic skill, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dramatic power, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">examples from works, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>-<a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mundy, John, descriptive pianoforte piece, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>musette</i>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Mystic Trumpeter</i>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>N</h3> + +<p> +National Music, distinctive features of, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>-<a href='#Page_301'>301</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Neefe, Beethoven's teacher, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Neue Zeitschrift für Musik</i>, founded by Schumann, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>New World Symphony</i>, critical comments on, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>-<a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Newman, <i>Musical Studies</i>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Debussy, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Newmarch, Rosa, <i>Life of Tchaikovsky</i>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Niecks, <i>Programme Music</i>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Life of Chopin</i>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eulogy of Liszt, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Nordraak, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>O</h3> + +<p> +Organ, the, its tone compared with that of pianoforte, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.<br /> +<br /> +organum, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Orpheus</i>, Symphonic Poem, analysis of, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>-<a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Osgood, George L., <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +overtones, chart of, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Oxford History of Music</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>P</h3> + +<p> +Paderewski, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minuet of, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">playing of Mendelssohn's pieces, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Paganini, connection with Berlioz, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Paine, J.K., <i>Fuga Giocosa</i>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribute to Beethoven, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Palestrina, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parker, H.W., fugue from <i>Hora Novissima</i>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parry, <i>Evolution of the Art of Music</i>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">choral works, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Passacaglia</i>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Brahms, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Bach for organ, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>passepied</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pater, Walter, remark on Romanticism, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>pavane</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">example from Ravel, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +pedals of the pianoforte, the damper and the una corda, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>-<a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Peer Gynt</i> Suite, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +period, definition of, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pérotin, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Perry, Baxter, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Phaëton</i>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Philidor, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Phrygian cadence, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>-<a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Phrygian mode, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brahms's use of, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +pianoforte, the, account of its characteristics, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>-<a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +plagal cadence, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>polka</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>polonaise</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +polyphonic, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +polyphonic music, complete account of, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>-<a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Poirée, Elié, Life of Chopin, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pope, apropos of the jig, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pougin, Arthur, comments on Moussorgsky, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>-<a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Powell, John, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pratt, <i>History of Music</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +prelude (to Sonata-form), <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Prix de Rome</i>, won by Berlioz, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">by Debussy, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Prout, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Puccini, fugal prelude to <i>Madama Butterfly</i>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Purcell, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his Jig, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pushkin, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>Q</h3> + +<p> +Quilter, Roger, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>R</h3> + +<p> +Rabelais, his humor compared with Beethoven's, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rameau, acoustical reforms of, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descriptive pieces, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Ravel, <i>Daphnis and Chloe</i>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his Pavane, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Mother Goose Suite</i>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works and account of style, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>-<a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +recapitulation (or <i>résumé</i>), <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>-<a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reinecke, Canonic Vocal Trios, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Remenyi, Brahms's tour with, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.<br /> +<br /> +repetition, importance of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">types of, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>-<a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Rheinberger, <i>Canonic Pieces</i>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Tarantelle</i> for Pianoforte, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +rhythmic variety (five and seven beats a measure), <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>-<a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Richter, Jean Paul, influence on Schumann, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Riemann, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>rigaudon</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">examples of, from Grieg, Rameau and MacDowell, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Rimsky-Korsakoff, works and features of style, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Roi d'Ys, Le</i>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rolland, Romain, account of Beethoven in <i>Jean Christophe</i>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Life of Beethoven</i>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essay on Berlioz, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Romanticism and Romantic School, account of, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>-<a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Romeo and Juliet</i> Symphony, comments on, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>-<a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.<br /> +<br /> +rondo, account of, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>-<a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +rondo-sonata form, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ropartz, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characterization of a theme in Franck's Symphony, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Rossetti, <i>Blessed Damozel</i>, set by Debussy, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rossini, "crescendo" in Overtures, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eulogy of Mozart, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Rouet d'Omphale, Le</i>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.<br /> +<br /> +round, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Old English Rounds</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +rubato (tempo), definition of, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rubinstein, movements in <i>Ocean Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of Mozart, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characterization of the damper pedal, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Runciman, quotation apropos of Weber from <i>Old Scores and New Readings</i>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>-<a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Russian folk-songs, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>-<a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Russian music, general tendencies of, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>-<a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>S</h3> + +<p> +Saint-Saëns, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Berlioz's <i>Romeo and Juliet Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">account of works and style, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>-<a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sakuntala</i>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>saltarello</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Berlioz's use of the rhythm, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Sammartini, as a pioneer in Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Santayana, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>sarabande</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Scandinavian Music, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Scarlatti, Alessandro, Aria da capo, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">operatic overture, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Scarlatti, D., the <i>Cat-Fugue</i>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as virtuoso, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">anticipation of Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Courante</i> for pianoforte, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">crossing of hands in Beethoven, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Schumann, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">motive from the <i>Carnaval</i>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from the <i>Kinderscenen</i>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Arabesque</i>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>:</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">saying about folk-songs, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canon for organ, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canonic Variations, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Carnaval</i>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Phantasiestücke</i>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his use of the Rondo, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>-<a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Variations, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comment on Schubert, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography and features of style, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>-<a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of <i>Des Abends</i>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>-<a href='#Page_175'>175</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>Warum</i>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>-<a href='#Page_176'>176</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>Novellette in E major</i>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Song, <i>Mondnacht</i>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>-<a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>Manfred</i> Overture, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>-<a href='#Page_179'>179</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characterization of the four Symphonies, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Symphony in D minor</i>, analysis of, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>-<a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eulogy of Brahms in the <i>Neue Zeitschrift</i>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Schola Cantorum, account of, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Scottish folk-tune, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Scryabin, as harmonic innovator, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works and features of style, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>seguidilla</i>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.<br /> +<br /> +sentence, complete analysis of, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.<br /> +<br /> +sequence, definition of, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Scheherazade Suite</i>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.<br /> +<br /> +scherzo, of Beethoven, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>-<a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schmitt, Florent, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schubert, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Variations, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">account of style and works, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>-<a href='#Page_169'>169</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of songs, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">symphonic style, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chamber music, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pianoforte style, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as great colorist, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>-<a href='#Page_168'>168</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of <i>Unfinished Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>-<a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +seven-bar rhythm, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Shakespeare, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">apropos of the galliard, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Sharp, Cecil, <i>English Folk-Song</i>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on American folk-songs, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Shepherd, Arthur, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Shedlock, J.S., <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +shifted rhythm, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sibelius, features of his style, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>siciliano</i>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sinding, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sinigaglia, Overture, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sjögren, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Smetana, <i>Bartered Bride Overture</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works and features of style, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>-<a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Stanley, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Smithson, Henrietta, her life with Berlioz, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>-<a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.<br /> +<br /> +sonata and sonata-form, distinction between, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>-<a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.<br /> +<br /> +sonata-form, account of 91-<a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tabular view, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Song of Destiny</i>, Brahms, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Songs without Words</i>, Mendelssohn, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spanish music, its influence in modern times, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>-<a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spitta, essay on Brahms, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stamitz, J., influence on Sonata-form, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stanford, Villiers, Irish folk-songs, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">features of style, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Stanford-Forsyth history, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stendhal, remark on Romanticism, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Stevensoniana</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Strauss, R., motive from <i>Till's Merry Pranks</i>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Don Juan</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Till Eulenspiegel</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of Mozart, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Stravinsky, as harmonic innovator, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works and features of style, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>-<a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Streatfield, essay on Tchaikowsky, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>.<br /> +<br /> +stretto, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br /> +<br /> +string-quartet, definition of, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.<br /> +<br /> +subdominant, acoustical and harmonic importance, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>-<a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.<br /> +<br /> +subject (of a fugue), <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>-<a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.<br /> +<br /> +suite, the classical, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>-<a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the modern, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>-<a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Suites, French and English</i>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sullivan, Arthur, operas, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Sumer is icumen in</i> (Ionian mode) 27.<br /> +<br /> +Surette, T.W., comments on Bach's style, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Development of Symphonic Music</i>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Surprise Symphony</i>, analysis of, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>-<a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Svendsen, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sweelinck, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Symonds, Arthur, <i>Studies in the Seven Arts</i>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Symphonic Études</i>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.<br /> +<br /> +symphonic poem, definition of, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.<br /> +<br /> +symphonic style, development of, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>-<a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>T</h3> + +<p> +Tallys, Thomas, vocal canon, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>tambourin</i>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>tango</i>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>tarantella</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Taylor, Bayard, translation of stanza from <i>Faust</i>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tchaikowsky, Modeste, biography of his brother, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tchaikowsky, P., <i>Fifth Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>-<a href='#Page_314'>314</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modal expression in works, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Legend</i> (Aeolian mode), <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Fourth Symphony</i>, finale of, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sixth Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>-<a href='#Page_306'>306</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Quartet in F major</i>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>-<a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">variations from Trio, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of Mozart, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>-<a href='#Page_303'>303</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">features of style, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>-<a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Thackeray, W.M., characterization of Berlioz, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thayer, Alexander, <i>Life of Beethoven</i>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.<br /> +<br /> +thematic development, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +three-bar rhythm, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>-<a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +three-part form, complete account of, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>-<a href='#Page_73'>73</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">examples of, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Tiersot, J., on folk-melodies, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Chansons Populaires</i>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">work on Berlioz, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Till Eulenspiegel</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tolstoi, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.<br /> +<br /> +tonality, principles of, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>-<a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br /> +<br /> +tonic, acoustical and harmonic importance of, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>-<a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Tragic Overture</i>, Brahms, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.<br /> +<br /> +transformation of theme, its use in Schumann, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Turgenieff, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.<br /> +<br /> +two-part form, definition of, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complete account of, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>-<a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</span><br /> +</p> + +<h3>V</h3> + +<p> +Van Vechten, book on Spanish music, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +variation form, account of, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>-<a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Variations, in F minor</i> of Haydn, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on <i>Death and the Maiden</i>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sérieuses</i>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>on a Theme from Handel</i>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the <i>St. Anthony Choral</i>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>Enigma</i>) by Elgar, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Symphoniques</i>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Verdi, Minuet from <i>Falstaff</i>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Veretschagin, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Verlaine, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Violin Concerto</i> of Beethoven, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>-<a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vittoria, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vivaldi, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.<br /> +<br /> +von Breuning family, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<h3>W</h3> + +<p> +Wagner, comment on operas, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quality of themes, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">motive from the <i>Valkyrie</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">polyphonic structure of operas, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">motive from <i>Tristan and Isolde</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fugal Prelude to third act of the <i>Mastersingers</i>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on <i>Leonore</i> Overture, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eulogy of Mendelssohn, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Waldesrauschen</i>, Étude of Lizst, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Waldstein, friendship with Beethoven, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Waldstein</i> Sonata, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Walker, E., on English folk-music, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wallace, estimate of Haydn, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Threshold of Music</i>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Wallaschek, R., on primitive music, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Wallenstein Trilogy</i> (d'Indy), <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>waltz</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Weber, <i>Moto Perpetuo</i>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">orchestral treatment in his Overtures, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>-<a href='#Page_165'>165</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">account of style, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>-<a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Invitation to the Dance</i>, arrangement by Weingartner, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compared with that by Berlioz, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Oberon</i> Overture, analysis of, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>-<a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compositions for pianoforte, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Weckerlin, example from <i>Echos du Temps Passé</i>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Weingartner, eulogy of Berlioz, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on the Symphonic Poem, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on Brahms's <i>First Symphony</i>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Whistler, compared with Debussy, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Whiting, Arthur, <i>Scottish Melodies</i>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Irish Melodies</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Suite Moderne</i>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Pedal Studies</i>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Whitman, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quotation from <i>Mystic Trumpeter</i>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Widor, canon for organ, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Willaert, harmonic basis of choruses, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Williams, Abdy, on Brahms's rhythm, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Williams, Vaughan, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wordsworth, quotation from, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wyman, Loraine, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.<br /> +</p> + + + + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_COMPOSITIONS_REFERRED_TO_IN_THIS_WORK" id="LIST_OF_COMPOSITIONS_REFERRED_TO_IN_THIS_WORK"></a>LIST OF COMPOSITIONS REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK</h2> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="list of compositions"> +<tr><td class="right">I.</td><td><i>Sumer is icumen in.</i> Old English Round.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">II.</td><td><i>To the Green Wood.</i> Round by Byrd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">III.</td><td>Finale of Wagner's <i>Valkyrie</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">IV.</td><td><i>Reconnaissance</i> from Schumann's <i>Carnaval</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">V.</td><td>Irish Folk Song.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">VI.</td><td>Epilogue of Strauss's <i>Till's Merry Pranks</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">VII.</td><td><i>March in Dorian Mode.</i> Guilmant.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">VIII.</td><td><i>Movement in Lydian Mode.</i> Beethoven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">IX.</td><td><i>Canon.</i> Thomas Tallys.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">X.</td><td><i>Canon</i> from <i>Études Symphoniques</i>. Schumann.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XI.</td><td>No. VI of the <i>Goldberg Variations</i>. J.S. Bach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XII.</td><td><i>Canon for Pianoforte.</i> Grieg.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XIII.</td><td><i>Canon for Pianoforte.</i> Jadassohn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XIV.</td><td><i>Two-voiced Invention in C major.</i> J.S. Bach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XV.</td><td><i>Three-voiced Fugue in E-flat major.</i> J.S. Bach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XVI.</td><td>Final portion of <i>Organ Fugue in G major</i>. J.S. Bach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XVII.</td><td><i>Cat Fugue for Pianoforte.</i> D. Scarlatti.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XVIII.</td><td><i>Fuga Giocosa for Pianoforte.</i> J.K. Paine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XIX.</td><td>Song, <i>The Evening Star</i>. Schumann.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XX.</td><td><i>Gavotte in F major.</i> Corelli.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXI.</td><td><i>Waltz in A-flat major.</i> Schubert.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXII.</td><td><i>Träumerei.</i> Schumann.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXIII.</td><td><i>Prelude in A major.</i> Chopin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXIV.</td><td><i>Lyric Piece in E-flat major.</i> Grieg.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXV.</td><td><i>Nocturne in F major.</i> Chopin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXVI.</td><td><i>Berceuse in G major.</i> Grieg.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXVII.</td><td><i>Intermezzo in E-flat minor.</i> Heilman.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXVIII.</td><td><i>Sarabande in D major.</i> J.S. Bach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXIX.</td><td>Gavotte from <i>Third English Suite</i>. J.S. Bach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXX.</td><td>Minuet from <i>Don Giovanni</i>. Mozart.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXI.</td><td>Two Minuets from <i>Castor and Pollux</i>. Rameau.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXII.</td><td><i>Gigue in G major.</i> J.S. Bach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXIII.</td><td><i>Gigue in G major.</i> Mozart.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXIV.</td><td><i>Courante in F minor.</i> D. Scarlatti.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXV.</td><td><i>French Suite in E major.</i> J.S. Bach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXVI.</td><td><i>Soeur Monique.</i> Rondo by Couperin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXVII.</td><td><i>Romance in E major.</i> Rondo by Schumann.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXVIII.</td><td><i>Rondo à Capriccio in G major.</i> Beethoven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXIX.</td><td>Aria from <i>Dido and Aeneas</i> (Ground bass). Purcell.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XL.</td><td><i>Sonata in C major.</i> D. Scarlatti.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLI.</td><td>Finale from <i>Sonata in E-flat major</i>. Haydn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLII.</td><td>First Movement from the <i>Surprise Symphony</i>. Haydn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLIII.</td><td><i>Adagio in B minor.</i> Mozart.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLIV.</td><td>First Movement from the <i>Heroic Symphony</i>. Beethoven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLV.</td><td><i>Sonata in D Major.</i> Beethoven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLVI.</td><td>Finale from <i>Sonata in A-flat major</i>. Beethoven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLVII.</td><td>Portion of Slow Movement of <i>Seventh Symphony</i>. Beethoven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLVIII.</td><td>Slow Movement of <i>Trio in B-flat major</i>. Beethoven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLIX.</td><td>Theme of Slow Movement from <i>Sonata in E major</i>, Op. 109. Beethoven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">L.</td><td><i>The Young Nun</i>. Song by Schubert.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LI.</td><td>Intermezzo from the <i>Euryanthe Overture</i>. Weber.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LII.</td><td>Portion of Fantasy Piece, <i>Grillen</i>. Schumann.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LIII.</td><td><i>Novellette in E major.</i> Schumann.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LIV.</td><td><i>Moonlight.</i> Song by Schumann.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LV.</td><td><i>Venetian Boat Song.</i> Mendelssohn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LVI.</td><td><i>Barcarolle.</i> Chopin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LVII.</td><td><i>The Carnaval Romain Overture.</i> Berlioz.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LVIII.</td><td><i>March of the Pilgrims</i> from the <i>Harold in Italy Symphony</i>. Berlioz.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LIX.</td><td><i>Forest Murmurs.</i> Étude by Liszt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LX.</td><td><i>Ballade in G minor.</i> Brahms.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LXI.</td><td><i>My Love is Green as the Alder Bush.</i> Song by Brahms.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LXII.</td><td>Finale of Symphonic Poem, <i>Istar</i>. D'Indy.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LXIII.</td><td><i>Chanson triste</i> for Pianoforte. Tchaikowsky.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LXIV.</td><td><i>Invocation to Sleep.</i> Song by Tchaikowsky.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LXV.</td><td><i>Serenade.</i> Borodin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LXVI.</td><td><i>Cradle Song of the Poor.</i> Moussorgsky.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LXVII.</td><td><i>Silhouette.</i> Dvořák.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LXVIII.</td><td><i>Spring Song.</i> Grieg.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LXIX.</td><td><i>Dance of Spring.</i> Grieg.</td></tr> +</table> + + + +<hr /> + +<div class="bboxad"> +<h2>CRITICAL and HISTORICAL<br /> +ESSAYS</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>By <span class="u">Edward MacDowell</span></i></p> + +<p class="center">(<i>Lectures Delivered at Columbia University</i>)</p> + +<p><span class="dropcap">E</span>specially valuable to that circle of readers who desire to secure the +essential elements of a liberal culture in music. 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SCHMIDT CO.</span></b></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="publisher"> +<tr> +<td class="center">BOSTON<br /> +120 Boylston Street</td> +<td class="center">NEW YORK<br /> +8 West 40th Street</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>FOOTNOTES</h2> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For suggestive comments on this point see the essays +<i>Harmonie et Melodie</i> by Saint-Saëns, Chapters I and II.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See Chapter II of Gurney's <i>Power of Sound</i>, a book +remarkable for its insight.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> It is understood that this statement is made in a +subjective rather than a purely physical sense. See the <i>Century +Dictionary</i> under <i>Sound</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Il y a donc, dans l'art des sons, quelque chose qui +traverse l'oreille comme un portique, la raison comme un vestibule et +qui va plus loin. +</p><p class="right"> +<span class="smcap">Harmonie et Melodie, Chapter II</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>La musique, ses lois, son evolution</i>, by Jules +Combarieu.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Just as some people are color-blind there are those who +are tone-deaf—to whom, that is, music is a disagreeable noise—but +they are so few as to be negligible.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> From earliest times, mothers have doubtless crooned to +their infants in instinctive lullabies.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> In this connection we cannot refrain from suggesting the +improvement which should be made in the concert manners of the public. +How often, at the beginning of a concert, do we see people removing +their wraps, looking at their neighbors, reading the programme book, +etc., instead of concentrating on the music itself; with the result +that the composition is often well on its way before such people have +found their bearings.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Compare Parry's <i>Evolution of the Art of Music</i>, passim +and D.G. Mason's <i>Beethoven and his Forerunners</i>, Chapter I.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> In comparatively recent times the term has been widened +to include music in which there is one <i>chief</i> melody to which other +portions of the musical texture are subordinate; <i>e.g.</i>, the +homophonic style of Chopin in whose works the chief melody, often in +the upper voice, seems to float on underlying waves of sound.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> For a complete account of these early attempts which +finally led to part-writing see Chapter IV in the first volume of the +<i>Oxford History of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> An historical account of this development as far as it +is ascertainable may be found in the fifth chapter of Pratt's <i>History +of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Consult the article on the Round in <i>Grove's +Dictionary</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> A rather crude English adaptation of the Latin term +"Punctus contra punctum" which refers to the notes as punctūs +(plural) or dots which were pricked with a stylus into the medieval +manuscripts. In this phrase the emphasis is on the <i>contra</i>, +signifying a combination of <i>different</i> melodies and rhythms, and +calling attention to that higher importance which, everywhere in art, +is caused by contrasted elements.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> For an interesting account of this tripartite activity +see Naumann's <i>History of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See the facsimile of the original manuscript of "<i>Sumer +is icumen in</i>" cited in the first volume of the <i>Oxford History of +Music</i>, pp. 326-332.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> For a simple, charming example of persistent use of a +motive see Schumann's pianoforte piece <i>Kind im Einschlummern</i>, No. 12 +of the <i>Kinderscenen</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Another well-known example is the first theme of the +first movement of the <i>Sonata in F minor</i> (<i>Appassionata</i>) op. 57. +This the student can look up for himself.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> For some additional comments on this broad principle see +the first Chapter (passim) of Parry's <i>Evolution of the Art of +Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Everyone has experienced the agony of hearing the +beginner practice, in an adjoining room, the same piece for hours at a +time!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> For an eloquent presentation of the significance of +Folk-music see the article by Henry F. Gilbert in the <i>Musical +Quarterly</i> for October, 1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> For an able account of the important role that +folk-melodies are taking in modern music see Chapter V of <i>La Chanson +Populaire en France</i> by Julian Tiersot.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> The same statement is true of the Oriental nations, the +Arabians, Persians and Greeks, who are left out of the enumeration +only because their development in many respects has been along +different lines from ours. For suggestive speculations as to early +music among all nations see <i>Primitive Music</i> by Richard Wallaschek.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> For illuminating comments on the Folk-music of all the +English-speaking peoples see Chapter XII of Ernest Walker's <i>History +of Music in England</i>. The famous Petrie collection of Irish Folk-tunes +should also be consulted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> In counting the measures of a phrase always consider the +first <i>complete</i> measure,—<i>never</i> a partial measure—as <i>one</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> The chief reason for this leading tone, in addition to +the natural tendency of singers to raise their voices as near as +possible to the upper tonic, was so that the dominant chord, the third +of which is always the 7th degree, might invariably be a <i>Major</i> +Triad.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> For many suggestive comments on the whole subject see +his book <i>English Folk-Song</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The example quoted, together with others equally +beautiful, may be found in the collection edited by the Scottish +composer, Hamish MacCunn. See, as well, the <i>Cycle of Old Scotch +Melodies</i> arranged for four solo voices with pianoforte accompaniment +by Arthur Whiting.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> For Irish folk-songs the best collections are the one by +Villiers Stanford and a <i>Cycle</i> by Arthur Whiting, prepared in the +same way as that just cited on Scottish melodies.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Taken from an excellent collection of <i>Chansons +Populaires</i> edited by Julien Tiersot.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> The best popular collection of Hungarian melodies is +that by Francis Korbay, the texts for which were translated and +arranged by the American novelist, J.S. of Dale. It is well known what +artistic use has been made of Hungarian melodies and rhythms by +Schubert, Liszt and Brahms.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> The statement might be qualified by saying that, since +Beethoven, instrumental style has become a happy mixture of homophony +for the chief melodies and polyphony for the supporting harmonic +basis. Stress is laid in the above text on the polyphonic aspect +merely to emphasize the matter under discussion.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Notable names are Léonin and Pérotin, both organists of +Nôtre Dame at Paris.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Although this is not the place to set forth all the +details of this development, in the interest of historical justice we +should not think of Bach without gratefully acknowledging the +remarkable work of such pioneers as the Dutchman, Sweelinck +(1562-1621), organist at Amsterdam; the Italian, Frescobaldi +(1583-1644), organist at Rome, and—greatest of all, in his +stimulating influence upon Bach—the Dane, Buxtehude (1636-1707), +organist at Lübeck. Sweelinck and Frescobaldi may fairly be called the +founders of the genuine Fugue, and there is a romantic warmth in +Buxtehude's best work which makes it thoroughly modern in sentiment.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> In connection with the statement that music has +developed according to natural law, it is worth noting that the +four-part chorus early became the standard for both vocal and +instrumental groups for the simple reason that there exist two kinds +of women's voices—soprano and alto, and two of men's voices—tenor +and bass. Originally, the chief voice in the ecclesiastical chorus was +the tenor (teneo), because the tenors <i>sustained</i> the melody. Below +them were the basses (bassus, low); above the tenors came the altos +(altus, high) and still higher the sopranos (sopra, above).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> The best edition is that by Busoni, published by +Breitkopf and Härtel.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> This technical term as well as others will later be more +fully explained.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Whenever Percy Grainger performs this fugue in his own +arrangement for pianoforte, he always electrifies an audience.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> It is worthy of observation that, for those who will +listen to them intelligently, fugues do not merely demand such a state +of mind but actually <i>generate</i> it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> It is left to the teacher to explain to the student the +key-relationship of Subject and Answer, and the difference between +fugues, tonal and real; for as these points have rather more to do +with composition they play but a slight part in listening to a fugue.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Beethoven, commenting on the name, majestically said: +"He is no brook; he is the open sea!"</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> For a very suggestive article on this point by Philip +Greeley Clapp see the Musical Quarterly for April, 1916.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Some eloquent comments on Bach's style and significance +may be found in Chapter III of <i>The Appreciation of Music</i> by Surette +and Mason.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> It is assumed that the music-lover has, as his +birthright, an instinctive knowledge of the grouping of tones and +semitones in our modern scales. Those who may wish to refresh their +knowledge are recommended to the second Chapter in Foote and +Spalding's <i>Harmony</i>, and to the chapter on Scales in Parry's +<i>Evolution of the Art of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Color in music is brought about chiefly through their +use.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> As for example the famous one of Chopin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Even great composers have at times made this mistake, +<i>e.g.</i>, Mendelssohn in the first movement of the <i>Scotch Symphony</i>, +where the interminable length of the portion in A minor (of all keys!) +is simply deadening in its effect. Compare also the <i>Prelude to the +Rheingold</i>; where, however—for dramatic purposes—to depict the world +as "without form and void" Wagner remains in the key of E-flat major +for some 150 measures!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> It is left to the teacher to explain, by the ratios +found in the overtones of the Harmonic Series, the validity of this +statement.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Some modern theorists, <i>e.g.</i>, Calvacoressi (see the New +Music Review for September, 1909) have thought that the dominant +relationship was "overworked." It is true that the great charm of +modern music is its freedom and boldness in modulation; but the +dominant keys can never be entirely abandoned, for the relationship +between them and a tonic is as elemental as that between the colors of +the spectroscope.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Two tones are said to be "enharmonic" when, although +written differently, they sound the same on an instrument of fixed +temperament like the pianoforte, or organ, <i>e.g.</i>, D-sharp and E-flat, +E and F-flat. A violin, however, can make a distinction between such +notes and often does.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> This assertion holds for most of our Western European +music; though in Hungarian and Scotch music we find a natural fondness +for phrases of <i>three</i> measures, and the Croatians are known for their +phrases of <i>five</i> measures so often used by both Haydn and Schubert. +But it is true that we <i>tend</i> to think in groups which are some +multiple of 2, <i>i.e.</i>, either 4, 8, 12 or 16 measures.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Always count the first <i>complete</i> measure as <i>one</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> The two phrases are often designated Thesis and +Antithesis.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> In listening to a clock it is impossible to think of the +ticks singly, or otherwise than in groups of two: an accented beat and +an unaccented; although the beats are of equal strength and duration. +This principle of dual balance is derived from the rhythmic pulsation +of the human heart and, as we shall see, runs through all music.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Whenever this book is used in class, the teacher can +easily explain, on the pianoforte and by charts, the different +cadential effects. For those who have sufficient harmonic insight +Chapter XIV in Foote and Spalding's <i>Modern Harmony</i> is worth +consulting.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> See also the strikingly original cadences in Debussy's +<i>L'Isle joyeuse</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Another interesting eight-measure sentence may be found +at the beginning of the slow movement of Beethoven's Eighth Sonata, in +which every section differs from any one of the others; in the opening +sentence of the first movement of the Tenth Sonata—noticeable for the +indefiniteness of the cadences until the final close is reached in +measure 8, and in the first sentence of the Allegretto of the Sixth +Sonata which is one long sweep, with only the faintest indications of +subdivision.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Lack of space will prevent hereafter the citation in +actual notes of the examples from Beethoven. His works are readily +accessible, and it may even be assumed that every music-lover owns the +Pianoforte Sonatas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Another excellent example of a 12 measure sentence with +an extended cadence may be found at the beginning of the first +movement of the Third Beethoven Sonata.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> For a burlesque of this practise see the closing +measures of the Scherzando movement of Beethoven's Eighth Symphony.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Other charming examples of five-bar rhythm may be found +in Schubert's Quartet in A minor, op. 29, and in the opening choral +(St. Anthony) of Brahms's <i>Orchestral Variations</i>, op. 56a.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> This effect is clearly brought out in symphonic music +where one portion of the orchestra, with a certain tone color, may be +ending a phrase at the same moment at which another part, with a +contrasting tone color, begins. An excellent example is the first +theme of the Slow movement of Schumann's Second Symphony (measures +7-8).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> For a complete account of this process see Parry's +<i>Evolution of the Art of Music</i>, p. 115 <i>seq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> This book makes no attempt to give an historical account +of the development of instrumental form. The subject is set forth +comprehensively in the article on Form in Grove's Dictionary (Vol. II, +p. 73) and in the Fifth and Sixth Chapters of Parry's <i>Evolution of +the Art of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> See <i>The Appreciation of Music</i> by Surette and Mason, p. +36.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> As an illustration of this tendency see the Scherzo of +Beethoven's Second Sonata, the second part of which has a new theme of +its own, although the movement as a whole is clearly in Two-part +form.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> See <i>The Sonata Form</i> by W.H. Hadow, Chapter III.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> The three-part form is derived partly from the Italian +"da Capo Aria" and partly from the fundamental instinct for +restatement which we have seen in the Folk-song.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Additional illustrations, which will repay study are the +following: the Allegretto of Beethoven's Sixth Sonata; the Schubert +Impromptu, op. 90, No. 4; Brahms's Intermezzo, op. 117, No. 1 and the +Ballade in G minor, op. 118, No. 3, and for orchestra—in extended +treatment—Debussy's <i>Prélude à l'après-midi d'un Faune</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> For an interesting and comprehensive account of this +development see Grove's Dictionary, Volume IV, article on the Suite.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> For extensive comments on Scarlatti's style see <i>The +History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players</i> by Oscar Bie, pp. +68-90.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> These titles, according to Parry (see his life of Bach, +Chapters IV and XII passim), were not given by Bach himself but were +assigned, in the case of the French Suites, to denote the delicacy of +treatment found therein, and in the English, a certain massive style.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> So-called because it is written on a sustained bass note +or pedal point; a feature of the Musette (the French name for Bagpipe) +being its persistent drone bass on the tonic and the dominant.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> An interesting example may also be found in Grieg's +<i>Holberg Suite for Pianoforte</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> For a vivid description of these dances see Chabrier's +<i>Lettres à Nanette</i>, Paris, 1910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> See also <i>Le Tombeau de Couperin</i> in which is a very +novel Rigaudon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> For a complete account of the historical development see +the article on Form in Grove's Dictionary Vol. II and Hadow's <i>Sonata +Form</i>, Chapter IX.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> There is an early example in the Rondo of Mozart's +Sonata for Pianoforte in B-flat major.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> For a complete detailed analysis of the movement see +Prout, <i>Applied Forms</i>, pp. 120-121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> We would cite the piece entitled <i>Les Buffons</i> by Bull, +and Byrd's variations to the popular tune the <i>Carman's Whistle</i>, +which latter have considerable archaic charm and distinction; for Byrd +was a real genius. These are readily accessible in popular editions.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Consult the comprehensive article on Variations in +Grove's Dictionary, Vol. V.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> For the derivation of the term consult the interesting +article in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. IV.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> A work before which Schumann said every musician should +prostrate himself in adoration.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> For a detailed account see the third volume of D.G. +Mason's <i>Appreciation of Music</i> series.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> These compositions are not printed in the Supplement, as +it may be assumed that the student can readily procure them. They are +published in a number of editions.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> For some illuminating comments on the whole Sonata see +Baxter Perry's <i>Descriptive Analysis of Pianoforte Works</i>. (The +Theodore Presser Co.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Except in the comparatively rare cases where we have a +Fugue on two subjects.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Illuminating comments on this point will be found in +<i>Outlines of Musical Form</i> from W.H. Hadow's <i>Studies in Modern Music</i> +(2nd Series).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> See the prelude in D major of the second book of the +<i>Well-tempered Clavichord</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> For further information consult the first chapter of +J.S. Shedlock's <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17074"><i>The Pianoforte Sonata</i></a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> For an extended account of this development see the +second chapter, Vol. II, of <i>The Art of Music</i> (The National Society +of Music, N.Y.). See also Chapter XIX of Pratt's <i>History of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> The form is also sometimes used independently, as in +Brahms's <i>Rhapsody in G minor</i> and often, of course, in the Overture.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i>, 1st Violin, 2d Violin, Viola and Violoncello.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> See the eloquent comments on this analogy by d'Indy in +his <i>Course in Composition</i>, Vol. II, Chap. 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> "Art is not more a riot of the passions than it is a +debauch of the senses; it contains, no doubt, sensuous and emotional +elements, the importance of which there is no need to undervalue, but +it is only artistic if it subordinate them to the paramount claims of +reason." W.H. Hadow, <i>Studies in Modern Music</i> (second series), +preface.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Some composers have also experimented with still freer +key-relationships.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> For striking examples see the Expositions of the first +movements of Beethoven's <i>Third Symphony</i> and of Tchaikowsky's <i>Sixth +Symphony</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> The ultra-conservative attitude of Brahms is shown by +his retention of the double bar and repeat, although this is often +ignored by modern conductors.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> It was probably a development of this kind which called +forth the characteristic comment from Debussy who once remarked to a +friend at a concert, "Let us flee! he is going to develop."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> See Grétry's amusing comments on the Sonata-Form cited +by Romain Rolland in the essays <i>Musicians of Former Days</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> See also Wagner's comments on the <i>Third Leonora +Overture</i>, cited by Ernest Newman in his <i>Musical Studies</i>, pp. +134-135.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Additional illustrations of this treatment may be found +in Chabrier's Overture to <i>Gwendoline</i> and in the first movement of +F.S. Converse's <i>String Quartet</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Those interested in this development should consult +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17074"><i>The Pianoforte Sonata</i></a> by J.S. Shedlock, and above all, d'Indy's +<i>Course of Musical Composition</i>, Part III.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> This, according to d'Indy, was so-called because +pleasing to the ladies who played an important part in the elaborate +court ceremonial of that day.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Six of P.E. Bach's Sonatas edited by von Bülow are +readily accessible and some excellent comments upon the most +significant ones may be found in Shedlock (see <a href="#Footnote_103_103">above</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> See his <i>Study of the History of Music</i>, p. 154.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> See for example the <i>Salomon Symphony in E-flat</i>, every +movement of which is founded on a Croatian folk-song.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> For a comprehensive account of this whole subject +consult the <i>Oxford History of Music</i>, Vol. V, Chapter VIII, and +Mason's <i>Beethoven and His Forerunners</i>, essay on Haydn.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Witness for example, the attitude taken by Wallace in +his <i>Threshold of Music</i>, pp. 148-153.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> For the early and significant achievements in +orchestral effect of the Mannheim Orchestra under its famous leader +Stamitz, see <i>The Art of Music</i>, Vol. 8, Chapter II.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> For interesting comments on the String Quartets see +Hadden's <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3788"><i>Life of Haydn</i></a>, pp. 174-175.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <i>The Oxford History of Music</i>, Vol. V, Chapter I, and +<i>The Present State of Music in Germany</i> by Burney present a vivid +picture of the times and of the results of 18th century patronage.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> For an entertaining account of the two London visits, +which took place during the latter part of his career, see the essay +<i>Haydn in London</i> by Krehbiel in his <i>Music and Manners</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> In many cases Haydn's second theme is merely a varied +version of the first.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Haydn's life is of great interest in showing the traits +which are reflected in his music. Everyone should read the biography +in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. II, p. 348, and the excellent life by M. +Brenet in <i>Les Maîtres de la Musique</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Haydn himself used to speak of his melodic invention as +"a stream which bursts forth from an overflowing reservoir."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> In every large city there are, of course, frequent +opportunities to hear the Quartets of Haydn played by such famous +organizations as the Flonzaley Quartet etc. The student is urged to +take advantage of these occasions.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> Those who erroneously think that there is nothing of +the dissonant element in Haydn should examine the Prelude to <i>The +Creation</i>—a real anticipation, in its use of the chromatic element, +of <i>Tristan and Isolde</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> All symphonic scores give a much better effect when +performed on two pianofortes than in a four-hand arrangement for a +single instrument. The freedom in control of both pedals possessed by +each player secures a greater richness and sonority of tone and it is +much easier to make prominent voices stand out in relief.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Amadeus (the beloved of God).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> We may appropriately state that in regard to ancestry +and environment all four of the so-called Viennese masters, Haydn, +Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert are distinct refutations of the claims +so persistently made by German scholars that everything good in music +we owe to the Teutons. Haydn was largely Croatian; Mozart was strongly +influenced by non-Teutonic folk-music (Tyrolese melodies frequently +peep out in his works); Schubert's forebears came from Moravia and +Silesia; and Beethoven was partly Dutch. If there be any <i>single</i> race +to which the world owes the art of music it is the Italians, for they +invented most of the instruments and hinted at all the vocal and +instrumental forms. We may be grateful to the Germans for their +persevering appropriation of what others had begun; only let them not +claim <i>all</i> the credit.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> For extended comment, see the <i>Oxford History of +Music</i>, Vol. V, p. 246, <i>seq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> We recommend especially the refreshing essay by Philip +Hale in <i>Famous Composers and Their Works</i>; the chapter on Mozart in +<i>Beethoven and His Forerunners</i> by D.G. Mason; and, as throwing light +on aspects of his personality which are little known, "<i>Mozart +Revealed in his Own Words</i>" by Kerst-Krehbiel (see especially the +chapter on Mozart's religious nature, p. 142 and passim); the +fascinating <i>Reminiscences of Michael Kelly</i>, a personal friend of the +composer; and, above all, the monumental life of Mozart, unhappily as +yet incomplete, by Wyzewa and St. Foix. The third chapter of Vol. II +of <i>The Art of Music</i> is also well worth reading; and in <i>Mozart's +Operas, a Critical Study</i> by E.J. Dent are found valuable comments on +his dramatic style, so prominent a feature in many of his instrumental +works.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> The first three compositions are not given in the +Supplement, because readily available in several standard editions. +The same recommendations, as given in connection with Haydn, apply to +the performance of the <i>G minor Symphony</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> This modification became a favorite with Beethoven, +notable examples being the Slow movement of the Fifth Sonata, where +the Development is represented by a single chord; the Slow movement of +the D minor Sonata, op. 31; and, above all, the Allegretto Scherzando +of the Eighth Symphony, where a series of contrasted accents keeps the +interest alive and leads most deftly to the Recapitulation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> In measures 20 and 21 may be found some striking +syncopations—an anticipation of what now-a-days is known as +"rag-time."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> See the Waltz movement of the <i>Fifth Symphony</i> and the +second movement of the <i>Sixth</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> This expanding of interest is distinctly felt in +Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, in Brahms's First, in Tchaikowsky's Fifth +and in that by César Franck.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> For a complete account of this development see Grove's +Dict. Vol. III under <i>Overture</i> and the Oxford History, Vol. IV, page +286, <i>seq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> Its companion in modern literature is the Overture to +the <i>Bartered Bride</i> (by the Bohemian composer Smetana), which also +begins with a brilliant fugal treatment of the theme.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> For some illuminating comments on this subtle character +of Mozart's creations see the Stanford-Forsyth History of Music, p. +254.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Hence is given a more extended biographical account +than in the case of former composers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> The prefix van is not a symbol of nobility.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> See the two <i>Beethoveniana</i> by Nottebohm.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> The derivation of the word is worthy of note; it means +moisture, juice, something not dry. Humor is certainly the juice of +human nature.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> See Beethoven, Kerst-Krehbiel, p. 45.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> Read the appropriate essay in <i>Beethoven and His Nine +Symphonies</i> by Sir George Grove.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Vox populi, vox Dei.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> D'Indy, however, in his <i>Beethoven</i> (p. 61, English +translation) dissents from this view; not at all convincingly, it +would seem to us. For the basic rhythm of each movement is on a +definite dance metre and the theme of the first movement is a regular +Irish jig (Beethoven at one time being very much interested in Irish +folk-dances) with its typical three final notes, <i>e.g.</i> +</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/fnmusic139.png" width="635" height="56" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/fnmusic139.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/fnmusic139.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> It was written, to use Beethoven's own words, in an +"aufgeknöpft" (unbuttoned) condition, <i>i.e.</i>, free, untramelled, +rather than straight-laced, swaddled in conventions.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> These are based in this work and in all Symphonic +compositions on the full orchestral score (in the Peters edition); the +student is therefore recommended to adopt this practise. For in +Beethoven and all orchestral writers the thought and expression are so +integrally bound up with the tone color and idiom of the various +instruments that when their works are reduced to another medium much +of the eloquence is lost. For those who cannot handle an orchestral +score there are adequate arrangements for 2 hands, 4 hands and for 2 +pianofortes in several standard editions. Those who have an advanced +pianoforte technique should certainly become familiar with the +virtuoso-transcriptions of the Beethoven Symphonies by Franz Liszt.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> It is an excellent practise to number the measures of a +score in groups of <i>10</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> D-flat being the enharmonic equivalent of C-sharp. +[<i>Transcriber's Note:</i> In the original, the footnote marker is in the music notation, bar 3.]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> The variations are not numbered and the demarcations +indicated only by certain cadential objective points.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> By Beethoven everything is carefully planned. Note in +performance the contrast of mood suggested by these final chords and +the sombre register of the opening chords of the Slow Movement.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> According to d'Indy it is more truly pathetic than the +entire so-called <i>Pathetic Sonata</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> A frequent confusion of thought is shown in the use of +the words "discord" and "dissonance." A discord is an unrelated noise, +as when one bangs with both fists on the key-board. A dissonance is a +logical introduction of intervals or chords made up of jarring factors +for their stimulating effect upon the imagination.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Two of the greatest innovators in this direction, +Scryabin and Stravinsky, have been working in our own day, and there +is no doubt that by their daring experiments they have enlarged the +expressive powers of music. While it is obvious that the dramatic +effect of to-day stimulates the experimentation of tomorrow, +contrariwise, the immediate contribution of each innovator is to +render more clear the work of his predecessor, up to that moment the +confessed iconoclast.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> For a very clear tabular view of the structure of this +Sonata see d'Indy's <i>Cours de Composition Musicale</i>, Book II, p. 332.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> This is not given in the Supplement. See preceding +remarks apropos of the Third Symphony. The comments are based, as +usual, on the full orchestral score.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> This interpretation of d'Indy is based upon the +prevalence in the movement of the conventional martial rhythm +<img src="images/fnmusic151.png" width="30" height="25" alt="music" title="music" /> +and carries, we must acknowledge, considerable weight. It is, however, +distinctly subjective and prevents no one from gaining quite a +different impression. We should be more inclined to accept the views +of the noted French scholar had he not been so wide of the mark, while +speaking of the Seventh Symphony, as to deny any appearance of +dance-rhythm in the first movement But the Irish composer, Villiers +Stanford, has shown conclusively that the theme is based upon the +rhythm of an Irish Hornpipe. Thus do the wise ones disagree! +Meanwhile, we others have the <i>music itself</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> <i>Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies</i> by Sir George +Grove.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Beethoven's favorite mark of tempo and expression.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_154" id="Footnote_A_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_154"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> There are also some <i>p</i> holding notes on the bassoons. +[<i>Transcriber's Note:</i> In the original, the footnote marker is in +the music notation, bar 6.]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_155" id="Footnote_154_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_155"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Free, in that they are not numbered and are not +separated by rigid cadences; in that episodical passages—often of a +rhapsodic nature—are interpolated.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_156" id="Footnote_155_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_156"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> The tempo is often taken by conductors too slowly, thus +losing much of its buoyancy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_157" id="Footnote_156_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_157"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> While listening to this passage one is instinctively +reminded of Keats's "Bright and steadfast star, hung aloft the +night."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_158" id="Footnote_157_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_158"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Taken separately, the movements are perfectly normal; +the Scherzo in the usual Three-part form and the Finale in complete +Sonata-form.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_159" id="Footnote_158_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_159"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> There are traces of this striving for organic unity in +several of the early Sonatas, notably in the <i>Sonata Pathétique</i>, +where the motive of the first theme of the Finale is identical with +that of the second theme of the opening movement <i>e.g.</i> +</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/fnmusic158a.png" width="255" height="63" alt="1st Movement" title="1st Movement" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/fnmusic158a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/fnmusic158a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/fnmusic158b.png" width="275" height="72" alt="Finale" title="Finale" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/fnmusic158b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/fnmusic158b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p> +Also in the C-sharp minor Sonata, op. 27, we find a case of melodic +relationship between a phase in the introductory meditation and the +main theme of the Minuet.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_160" id="Footnote_159_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_160"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> A Symphonic Poem is a descriptive composition for +orchestra which incorporates many of the customary symphonic moods; +but the form is free, largely dependent on the poetic basis, and the +structure is without stops, being one continuous whole.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_161" id="Footnote_160_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_161"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> His exact words are—"Le milieu (the trio) ressemble +assez aux ébats d'un éléphant en gaieté—mais le monstre s'éloigne et +le bruit de sa folle course se perd graduellement."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_162" id="Footnote_161_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_162"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Its motto might well be Browning's famous lines: "How +good is man's life, how fit to employ all the heart and the soul and +the senses forever in joy."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_163" id="Footnote_B_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_163"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> This pianoforte figure being a very inadequate substitute +for the restless tremolo of the violas, <i>i.e.</i>, <img src="images/fnmusicb.png" width="108" height="43" alt="music" title="music" style="padding-top: .3em" />. [<a href="music/fnmusicb.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/fnmusicb.xml">MusicXML</a>] +[<i>Transcriber's Note:</i> In the original, the footnote marker is in the +music notation, bar 1.]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_164" id="Footnote_162_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_164"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> For suggestive comments by the noted critic E.T.A. +Hoffmann, one of the first to realize the genius of Beethoven, and for +a complete translation of his essay on the Fifth Symphony see the +article by A.W. Locke in the Musical Quarterly for January, 1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_165" id="Footnote_163_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_165"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> A complete account of this development may be found in +the first two chapters of Niecks's <i>Programme Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_166" id="Footnote_164_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_166"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> For an excellent description of this piece, as well as +others of the period, see the volume by Krehbiel <i>The Pianoforte and +Its Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_167" id="Footnote_165_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_167"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> A comprehensive and invaluable description of the works +and style of Couperin and Rameau may be found in the <i>History of the +Pianoforte and its Players</i> by Oscar Bie. For an early example of what +is now called "poetic atmosphere" everyone should know Couperin's +piece <i>Les Barricades Mystérieuses</i> which is more suggestive when +played on the claveçin with its delicate tone.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_168" id="Footnote_166_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_168"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> A favorite term of opprobrium is that the program is a +"crutch."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_169" id="Footnote_167_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_169"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> There are several essays which will help the student +toward clear thinking on this important subject: the valuable essay +<i>Program Music</i> in Newman's <i>Musical Studies</i>, the article on the +subject in Grove's Dictionary, and the exhaustive volume by Niecks; +some of his views, however, are extreme and must be accepted with +caution. Above all should be read Wagner's interpretation of +Coriolanus in his essay on the Overture (English translation by W.A. +Ellis).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_170" id="Footnote_168_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_170"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Twenty-five years' experience as a college teacher, +however, has proved that <i>too much</i> may be taken for granted!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_171" id="Footnote_169_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_171"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> It is unfortunate that the diminished seventh chord +does not sound so fierce to our modern ears as it undoubtedly did in +Beethoven's time, but that is simply because we have become accustomed +to more strident effects.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_172" id="Footnote_170_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_172"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> See, however, the octave leaps of the kettle-drums in +the Scherzo of the Ninth Symphony.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_173" id="Footnote_171_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_173"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> Suggestive comments from a literary point of view may +also be found in these works: <i>Studies in the Seven Arts</i>, Symonds; +<i>Beethoven</i> by Romain Rolland—with an interesting though +ultra-subjective introduction by Carpenter; <i>The Development of +Symphonic Music</i> by T.W. Surette; <i>Beethoven</i> by Walker; <i>Beethoven</i> +by Chantavoine in the series <i>Les Maîtres de la Musique</i>. As to the +three successive "styles" under which Beethoven's works are generally +classified there is an excellent account in Pratt's <i>History of +Music</i>, p. 419.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_174" id="Footnote_172_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_174"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> This passage is to be found in the Life in Grove's +Dictionary.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_175" id="Footnote_173_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_175"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> For a more complete historical account see the article +"Romantic" in Grove's Dictionary and the introduction to Vol. VI of +<i>The Oxford History of Music</i>. <i>Rousseau and Romanticism</i> by Professor +Irving Babbitt presents the latest investigations in this important +field.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_176" id="Footnote_174_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_176"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Some very sane comments may be found in Pratt's +<i>History of Music</i>, pp. 427, 501, 502.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_177" id="Footnote_175_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_177"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> "A <i>classic</i> is properly a book"—and the same would be +true of a musical composition—"which maintains itself by that happy +coalescence of matter and style, that innate and requisite sympathy +between the thought that gives life and the form that consents to +every mood of grace and dignity, and which is something neither +ancient nor modern, always new and incapable of growing old." +</p><p class="right"> +Lowell, <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/8503"><i>Among My Books</i></a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_178" id="Footnote_176_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_178"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> Compare also the definition of genius by Masters in the +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1280"><i>Spoon River Anthology</i></a>:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="poem"> +<tr> +<td> +"In youth my wings were strong and tireless,<br /> +But I did not know the mountains.<br /> +In age I knew the mountains<br /> +But my weary wings could not follow my vision—<br /> +Genius is wisdom and youth." +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_179" id="Footnote_177_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_179"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> Schubert was of incredible versatility and fecundity; +he literally tried his hand at everything: operas, church-music, +ensemble combinations. Since, however, he exercised little power of +selection or revision much of this music has become obsolete. The joke +is well-known that he could set a theatre notice to music, and his +rule for composing was "When I have finished one song I begin +another."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_180" id="Footnote_178_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_180"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> For an original, though at times rhapsodic, study of +Schubert's vocal style see H.T. Finck's <i>Songs and Song Writers</i>, and +the last chapter of the Fifth Volume of the Oxford History.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_181" id="Footnote_179_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_181"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> Schubert did compose a number of Pianoforte Sonatas in +the conventional form, but with the exception of the one in A minor +they seem diffuse and do not represent him at his best; they certainly +have not held their own in modern appeal.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_182" id="Footnote_180_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_182"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> For the account of its exciting discovery in Vienna by +Schumann in 1838, after a neglect of ten years, see the life of +Schubert in Grove's Dictionary.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_183" id="Footnote_181_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_183"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> For lack of space no one of these compositions is cited +in the Supplement, but they are all readily available.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_184" id="Footnote_182_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_184"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> This tendency is prevalent in folk-music, especially +that of the Russians and Scandinavians. Schubert, however, was the +<i>first</i> to make such systematic and artistic use of the effect. For a +beautiful modern example see the Spanish folk-dance by Granados, +<i>e.g.</i>, +</p> +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/fnmusic182.png" width="633" height="81" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/fnmusic182.mp3">Listen (MP3)</a>] [<a href="music/fnmusic182.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_185" id="Footnote_183_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_185"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> So appropriately called by Berlioz the "heroine of the +orchestra."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_186" id="Footnote_184_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_186"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> A striking illustration of this progression (surely +Weber's most characteristic mannerism) is naïvely supplied by +Weingartner; when, in his own orchestral arrangement of Weber's +<i>Invitation to the Dance</i>, for the final climax he assembles all the +leading themes in combination—an effect made possible only by their +common harmonic basis.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_187" id="Footnote_185_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_187"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> This whole article is well worth reading and may be +found in that breezy though somewhat erratic volume called +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15369"><i>Old Scores and New Readings</i></a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_188" id="Footnote_186_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_188"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> Not given in the Supplement since good arrangements for +two and four hands are numerous. To gain the real effect the student +is strongly advised to consult the orchestral score.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_189" id="Footnote_187_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_189"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> The genesis of so many similar effects in modern music, +notably in Wagner.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_190" id="Footnote_188_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_190"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> Perhaps the whirligig of time may restore them; who can +say?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_191" id="Footnote_189_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_191"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> The life in Grove's Dictionary is well worth while; +there are essays by Krehbiel and others and, above all, the +biographical and critical accounts in the two French series: <i>Les +Musiciens Célèbres</i>, and <i>Les Maîtres de la Musique</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_192" id="Footnote_190_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_192"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> Because of an unfortunate accident to one of his +fingers this ambition, however, had to be abandoned. The world thereby +gained a great composer.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_193" id="Footnote_191_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_193"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> As the music is readily procurable the student should +make himself familiar with the entire set.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_194" id="Footnote_192_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_194"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> A beautiful contrast may be made by playing the section +in F major with the "una corda" pedal throughout.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_195" id="Footnote_193_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_195"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> The <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20158/20158-h/20158-h.htm#MANFRED">poem</a> is easily procured in a volume of Everyman's +Library.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_196" id="Footnote_194_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_196"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> These chords are an amusing example of a "paper +effect," for unless you watch the conductor's beat, it is impossible +to feel the syncopation. There being no first beat proper, the chords +are syncopated against the air!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_197" id="Footnote_195_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_197"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> For pertinent comments on this point see Newman's essay +on Program Music, pp. 134-135, in his <i>Musical Studies</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_198" id="Footnote_196_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_198"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> In studying this work consult, if possible, the +orchestral score. For those who need a condensed two-hand arrangement, +the Litolff edition is to be recommended.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_199" id="Footnote_197_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_199"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> It is more than a matter of mere chronology to realise +that the D minor Symphony was composed in the same year as the B-flat +major. It was afterwards revised and published as No. 4, but the +vitality and spontaneity of its themes come from the first gush of +Schumann's inspiration.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_200" id="Footnote_198_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_200"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> We find traces of this tendency in the First Symphony, +where the Slow Movement and the Scherzo are linked together, likewise +in the Second, where the motto of the first movement is repeated at +the end of the Scherzo.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199_201" id="Footnote_199_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_201"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> The analysis is based, as usual, on the orchestral +score; for class-room study there are excellent editions for two and +four hands.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_202" id="Footnote_200_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_202"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> Concert-goers may well be reminded that there should be +<i>no</i> applause between the movements of this work. One of the most +pernicious ideas of the public is that as soon as the music ceases, +handclapping should begin; whereas a complete silence is often the +very means the composer employs for intensifying what has been said +and preparing for what is to come. Let us ponder the cryptic remark +attributed to Mozart that "the rests in music are more important than +the notes."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_203" id="Footnote_201_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_203"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> This was afterwards withdrawn as impracticable. What a +pity that Schumann wrote before the harp as a member of the orchestra +had come into its own. For the mood which he was trying to establish +compare the scoring of this Romanza with that in the Slow movement of +Franck's Symphony.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_204" id="Footnote_202_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_204"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> In Brahms, who was something of a conservative as to +freedom of form, there is a striking example in the connection between +the second movement and the Finale of the Third Symphony.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_205" id="Footnote_203_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_205"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> Schumann was a true poet in the spontaneity of his +themes, but often an unsuccessful architect when connecting them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204_206" id="Footnote_204_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_206"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> For a detailed and illuminating study of this symphony +and of Schumann's style in general see the last essay in <i>Preludes and +Studies</i> by W.J. Henderson. Another excellent essay may be found in +<i>Studies in Modern Music</i> by W.H. Hadow.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_207" id="Footnote_205_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_207"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> Several of these were constantly played by both +Paderewski and De Pachman, two of the greatest virtuosi of our day: +surely a convincing tribute!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_208" id="Footnote_206_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_208"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> See the <i>Oxford History of Music</i>, Vol. VI, pp. 80-84. +Anyone who cares to see what Wagner owed to Mendelssohn may compare +the opening theme, and its treatment, of the <i>Fair Melusine</i> Overture +with the music of the Rhine Maidens in the <i>Rheingold</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207_209" id="Footnote_207_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_209"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> See his treatise on Orchestration, p. 194.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208_210" id="Footnote_208_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_210"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> This is exceptionally effective in the four-hand +version—in fact, it was often played as a pianoforte duet by his +sister Fanny and himself—although the real poetic effect is +inseparably connected with the orchestral treatment.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209_211" id="Footnote_209_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_211"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> Originally these tones were played by the Ophicleide or +Serpent (now obsolete).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210_212" id="Footnote_210_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_212"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> This, after all, is a rather subtle point for a boy of +seventeen to be called upon to consider. Perhaps if he had been that +kind of a boy he might not have written the Overture at all!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211_213" id="Footnote_211_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_213"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> The ecclesiastical formula for an Amen being the +so-called Plagal cadence of subdominant and tonic chords.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212_214" id="Footnote_212_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_214"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> He was born of a Polish mother and a French father, and +these mixed strains of blood account fundamentally for the leading +characteristics of his music. From the former strain came the +impassioned, romantic and at times chivalrous moods, prominent in all +Polish life and art; and from the latter the grace, charm and finish +which we rightly associate with the French nature. For side-lights on +Chopin's intimacy with George Sand see the well-known essays by Henry +James and René Doumic.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213_215" id="Footnote_213_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_215"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> The few exceptions being the Polish Songs, the Trio for +Violin, 'Cello and Pianoforte and the orchestral accompaniment to the +two Concertos.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214_216" id="Footnote_214_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_216"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> There will occur to every one numerous passages in +which the pianoforte is expected to be a kettle-drum, or where the +figuration is far better suited to the violin than to the hand in +connection with keys.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215_217" id="Footnote_215_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_217"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> This by reason of its combined powers in melody, +harmony and rhythm. Some of these qualities it shares, to be sure, +with the organ; but the organ is inherently lacking in rhythm, and its +solid, block-like tones do not exercise the same fascination upon the +imagination as do the fleeting sounds of the pianoforte. It is, of +course, possible and desirable to enjoy both instruments—each in its +own proper sphere, and each for its characteristic effects.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216_218" id="Footnote_216_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_218"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> It is understood that all the comments are based on the +action of a concert-grand pianoforte, since on an upright or a +square—because of mechanical limitations of space—the effects are +quite different.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_219" id="Footnote_217_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_219"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> In this connection, even at the risk of seeming to +preach, let the advice be given that <i>nothing</i> should ever be put on +top of a grand pianoforte: neither flowers, afternoon tea-sets, +bird-cages, books, nor even an aquarium! For the lid is not merely a +cover, but an additional sounding-board, and must always be in +readiness to be so used. The pianoforte as a coloristic instrument, in +short, is completely itself <i>only</i> when played with the lid raised.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_220" id="Footnote_218_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_220"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> An instrument designed to reinforce these upper tones, +so that they may be clearly heard, is to be found in any Physical +Laboratory. That these tones really vibrate "sympathetically" may be +proved by striking <i><span class="err" title="Transcriber's Note: Music example indicates sf">ff</span></i> this note <img src="images/fnmusic218.png" width="93" height="82" alt="With damper pedal" title="With damper pedal" /> and then pressing down +<i>very lightly</i> the keys of G and E just above middle C, thus removing +the individual dampers of these notes. In a quiet room the tones are +distinctly audible. For another rewarding experiment of the same +nature, see the Introduction to the first volume of Arthur Whiting's +<i>Pedal Studies</i> and the well-known treatise of Helmholtz.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219_221" id="Footnote_219_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_221"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> For a complete and illuminating treatise on the pedals +and their artistic use, see the aforesaid two volumes of <i>Pedal +Studies</i> by Arthur Whiting (G. Schirmer, New York).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220_222" id="Footnote_220_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_222"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> The term dates from the period when this pedal +controlled three shifts: una corda, due corde and tre corde; the +hammer striking respectively one, two or three strings. The whole +mechanism is well implied in the German word <i>Verschiebung</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, +the shoving along—so frequent in Schumann's works, <i>e.g.</i>, the middle +part of his <i>Vogel als Prophet</i> from the <i>Waldscenen</i>, op. 82, No. 7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221_223" id="Footnote_221_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_223"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> American pianofortes also have a middle pedal called +the "sustaining pedal," by which tones in the lower register may be +prolonged. It has not proved to be of great value, though there are +occasional passages, <i>e.g.</i>, the closing measures of the second +movement of César Franck's <i>Violin Sonata</i>, where it may be +effectively employed.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_224" id="Footnote_222_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_224"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> For a commentary on this passage see D.G. Mason's essay +on Chopin in <i>The Romantic Composers</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_225" id="Footnote_223_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_225"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> For a detailed analysis of many special features of +style see the volume by Edgar Stillman Kelly, <i>Chopin the Composer</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_226" id="Footnote_224_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_226"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> To save space, no one of these pieces except the +Barcarolle is given in the Supplement, since they are readily +accessible. The <i>Barcarolle</i>, however, is given in order to make it +better known; for although it is one of the most inspired and +beautifully expressed of all Chopin's works, it is heard comparatively +seldom. The best editions of the works are those of Kullak, Mikuli and +Klindworth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225_227" id="Footnote_225_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_227"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> For an account of its origin see the chapter in +Huneker's book and the article on the Polonaise in Grove's +Dictionary.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226_228" id="Footnote_226_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_228"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> For a convincing account of this tragic marriage see +the volume of <i>Recollections</i> by Ernest Legouvé.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227_229" id="Footnote_227_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_229"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> It is understood that this is merely a personal opinion +of the writer and might well have been prefaced by the Socratic "it +seems to me." Too much criticism reminds us of wine-tasting—Mr. +So-and-So likes port, Mr. So-and-So sherry. The object of fair-minded +appreciation is to understand clearly just what each composer set out +to do, <i>i.e.</i>, what was the natural tendency of his individual genius; +then the only question is: did or did he not do this well? It is +futile to blame him because he was not someone else or did not achieve +what he never set out to do.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228_230" id="Footnote_228_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_230"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> The best edition is the complete one, beautifully +engraved and with critical comments, by Malherbe and Weingartner. This +is expensive, but should be found in any large library.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229_231" id="Footnote_229_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_231"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> The only citations possible in the Supplement are the +Overture and portions of a few of the others.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230_232" id="Footnote_230_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_232"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> Particularly to be recommended are the following: the +essay in <i>Musical Studies</i> by Newman; that by R. Rolland in <i>Musiciens +d'aujourd'hui</i> (in French and in English); <i>Berlioz et la société de +son temps</i> by J. Tiersot; the essay in <i>Studies in Modern Music</i> by +Hadow; Berlioz's own <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/26370"><i>Mémoires</i></a> (in French and in English) and his +entertaining essays, <i>A Travers Chants</i>, <i>Grotesques de la Musique</i> +and <i>Soirées d'Orchestre</i>; the excellent résumé of Berlioz's writings +in the <i>Amateur Series</i> by W.F. Apthorp; the <i>Symphony since +Beethoven</i> by Weingartner; and, above all, the monumental work by +Boschot in three parts—<i>La Jeunesse d'un Romantique</i>, <i>Un Romantique +sous Louis Philippe</i>, <i>Le Crépuscule d'un Romantique</i>. There is an +amusing but far from convincing assault against Berlioz as a programme +composer and, to a certain extent, against Romanticism in general, in +the <i>New Laocoön</i> by Professor Irving Babbitt.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231_233" id="Footnote_231_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_233"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> On the title page of the autograph copy of the full +score is inscribed the following quotation from King Lear: "As flies +to wanton boys are we to the Gods; they kill us for their sport."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_234" id="Footnote_232_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_234"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> Dannreuther, in his essay in the Sixth Volume of the +<i>Oxford History of Music</i>, speaks of the peculiar process of +"rabbeting" which serves Berlioz in the place of counterpoint, and the +criticism, though caustic, holds much truth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_235" id="Footnote_233_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_235"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> This movement is also of interest as an early example +of the Waltz among the conventional symphonic moods. The example has +been followed by Tchaikowsky in the third movement of his Fifth +Symphony.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234_236" id="Footnote_234_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_236"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> For further comments on this Symphony see Mr. Mason's +essay in the <i>Romantic Composers</i>, an essay which, while thoughtful, +strikes the writer as somewhat biased.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_237" id="Footnote_235_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_237"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> For an entertaining account of the subject matter of +the opera see Chapter VII of Boschot's <i>Un Romantique sous Louis +Philippe</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236_238" id="Footnote_236_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_238"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> For an extended analysis of the work and also for an +account of the alleged connection of the virtuoso Paganini with its +composition, see the essay in Niecks' <i>Programme Music</i>. There are, in +addition, interesting comments in <i>Stories of Symphonic Music</i> by +Lawrence Gilman.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237_239" id="Footnote_237_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_239"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> An early example of the modern principle of +transformation and transference by theme.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238_240" id="Footnote_238_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_240"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> A striking illustration of "association of ideas" may +be gained from a comparison of the end of this movement with the +closing measures of Strauss's <i>Thus Spake Zarathustra</i>; it seems +incredible that Strauss did not have Berlioz's effect in his mind.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239_241" id="Footnote_239_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_241"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> See the <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/26370"><i>Mémoires</i></a> for a rhapsodic account of his state +of mind at this time—"basking in the warm rays of Shakespeare's +imagination and believing it in his power to arrive at the marvellous +island where rises the temple of pure Art."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240_242" id="Footnote_240_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_242"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> For extended comments and a long citation of the actual +music see the Sixth Volume of the <i>Oxford History of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241_243" id="Footnote_241_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_243"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> For valuable analytical comments on Berlioz's +orchestral style see Vol. VIII, Chapter X, of the <i>Art of Music</i> +(César Saerchinger, N.Y.), and for biographical details and matters of +general import, Vol. II, Chap. IX.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242_244" id="Footnote_242_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_244"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> The best biographies in English are the one by Huneker +and that in Vol. 2 of Grove's Dictionary.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243_245" id="Footnote_243_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_245"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> For a lively description of his influence as a +pianoforte teacher see <i>Music Study in Germany</i> by Amy Fay.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244_246" id="Footnote_244_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_246"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> For a most entertaining description of this work see +the Huneker Biography, pp. 64-70.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245_247" id="Footnote_245_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_247"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> For stimulating comments see <i>The Symphony since +Beethoven</i> by Weingartner, pp. 71-86.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_248" id="Footnote_246_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_248"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> An enlightening and comprehensive account of each of +these may be found in Niecks's <i>Programme Music</i> already referred to. +See also Chapter VII, pp. 141-155 in Vol. VI of the <i>Oxford History</i> +for what is perhaps a rather biased point of view. There is an +excellent tabulation of the themes from <i>Les Préludes</i> in Mason's +<i>Romantic Composers</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247_249" id="Footnote_247_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_249"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> An allegation often brought against Liszt's work by +those whose conception of "form" is that of a cast-iron mould.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248_250" id="Footnote_248_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_250"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> Translated as follows by Bayard Taylor:—</p> + +<p class="center">Chorus Misticus</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="poem"> +<tr> +<td> +All things transitory<br /> +But as symbols are sent;<br /> +Earth's insufficiency<br /> +Here grows to Event;<br /> +The Indescribable,<br /> +Here it is done:<br /> +The Woman-Soul leadeth us<br /> +Upward and on! +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249_251" id="Footnote_249_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_251"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> The way in which the Germans in the recent war have +applied this doctrine raises, we must say, many searching questions.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250_252" id="Footnote_250_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_252"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> That this is the verdict of the public is shown by the +fact that, whenever of late years <i>Faust</i> has been given by the Boston +Symphony Orchestra, it has had to be repeated by popular request.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251_253" id="Footnote_251_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_253"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> For further comments on the work see Huneker's <i>Franz +Liszt</i>, pp. 141-146 and the third part (on Program Music) of Finck's +<i>R. Strauss, The Man and His Works</i>. Also Chap. VII passim in Vol. VI +of the Oxford History.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252_254" id="Footnote_252_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_254"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> Weber and Schubert had, of course, done valuable +pioneer work.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253_255" id="Footnote_253_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_255"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> Noted as being the original centre of national German +opera and for its associations with the early career of Handel.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254_256" id="Footnote_254_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_256"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> Another very fine work in this class is the <i>Tragic +Overture</i>, worthy of the deepest study.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255_257" id="Footnote_255_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_257"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> We cite Saint-Saëns, as one instance.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256_258" id="Footnote_256_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_258"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> "From the heart it has come, to the heart it shall +go."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257_259" id="Footnote_257_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_259"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> For literature on Brahms the following works are +recommended: the comprehensive <i>Life</i> by Fuller-Maitland; the essay in +Hadow's <i>Studies in Modern Music</i>; that in Mason's <i>From Grieg to +Brahms</i>; that by Spitta in <i>Studies in Music</i> by Robin Grey; the first +essay in <i>Mezzotints in Modern Music</i> by Huneker; the biographical and +critical article in Grove's Dictionary; Chapter IX in Volume 8 of the +<i>Art of Music</i>, and Chapter XIII in Volume 2. There are also some +stimulating remarks on Brahms's style in general, and on the attitude +of a past generation towards his work, in those delightful essays, in +2 volumes, <i>By the Way, About Music</i> by the late well-known critic, +W.F. Apthorp.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258_260" id="Footnote_258_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_260"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> The eloquence of the work is so integrally involved +with its orchestral dress that it should always be studied, if +possible, in the full score. For class-room work excellent editions +are available for two and four hands.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_259_261" id="Footnote_259_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_261"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> The only slight exception is the third movement of the +Fourth Symphony which, being marked Allegro giocoso, partakes somewhat +of the nature of a Scherzo.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260_262" id="Footnote_260_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_262"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> "Those eternal sixths and thirds." Weingartner later +publicly recanted and became a whole-souled convert to Brahms. (See +<i>The Symphony since Beethoven</i>, latest edition.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261_263" id="Footnote_261_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_263"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> A similar effect may be found in the closing measures +of the first movement of Beethoven's Eighth Symphony.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_262_264" id="Footnote_262_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_264"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> There is a striking analogy between the intervals of +this theme and those of a well-known peal in a cathedral chime, <i>e.g.</i> +</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/fnmusic262.png" width="395" height="54" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/fnmusic262.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/fnmusic262.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p>In both the same elemental effect is produced by using the natural +tones of the harmonic series (see <a href="#Page_193">page 193</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_263_265" id="Footnote_263_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_265"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> See also a similar eulogy by Weingartner in his <i>The +Symphony since Beethoven</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_264_266" id="Footnote_264_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_266"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> There is a statement in many books that this is a +reminiscence of the theme in the Finale of the Ninth Symphony. How +such a legend started it is difficult to say; it must be due to what +the late W.F. Apthorp called "purblind criticism." For my part I see a +resemblance in only one measure—save that both melodies are in +quadruple rhythm—between the theme of Brahms and the following:— +</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/fnmusic264.png" width="636" height="192" alt="music" title="music" /> +</p> + +<p class="centerbp">[<a href="music/fnmusic264.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/fnmusic264.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_265_267" id="Footnote_265_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_267"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> It is used at the beginning of three other well-known +melodies, <i>e.g.</i>, the slow movement of Beethoven's <i>Ninth Symphony</i>, +in the middle part of Schumann's <i>Aufschwung</i> and in the first phrase +of Wagner's <i>Preislied</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_266_268" id="Footnote_266_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_268"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> This practice he has adopted in several other works and +it is also the structural feature in the slow movement of César +Franck's D minor Symphony.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_269" id="Footnote_267_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_269"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> It is to be understood that this is a purely personal +interpretation and if any one wishes to consider the piece merely as +absolute music with a strong masculine theme in the minor, a lyric +melody in the major for the natural contrast, and a coda referring in +a general way to the first theme, there is no way to disprove the +contention. That Brahms, however, was not entirely averse to out and +out programmistic treatment is seen from his two pieces on specific +poetic texts, <i>i.e.</i>, the first number in op. 10 on the <i>Scottish +Ballads of Edward</i> and the <i>Lullaby</i> in op. 117 on the Scottish +Folk-song <i>Sleep Soft, My Child</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268_270" id="Footnote_268_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_270"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> The same key that Wagner uses for the end of <i>Tristan +and Isolde</i> and César Franck for the gorgeous Finale of the <i>Prelude, +Chorale and Fugue</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269_271" id="Footnote_269_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_271"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> The subject is the same as the story of the Sirens in +the <i>Odyssey</i> or of the <i>Lorelei</i> in German Legend.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270_272" id="Footnote_270_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_272"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> For further comments on the phraseology see <i>The Rhythm +of Modern Music</i> by Abdy Williams, pp. 75-77. We may add that the +pieces called <i>Intermezzi</i>, are generally of a meditative, somber +nature; whereas the <i>Capriccios</i> are more sprightly, even whimsical in +spirit.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_271_273" id="Footnote_271_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_273"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> For further comments on the style and influence of +Saint-Saëns see the essay Mason's <i>From Grieg to Brahms</i>; the article +by Professor E.B. Hill in the third volume of the <i>Art of Music</i>; and, +for some pungent and witty remarks, the Program Book of the Boston +Symphony Orchestra (edited by Philip Hale) for Nov. 22, 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_272_274" id="Footnote_272_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_274"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> For a comprehensive and discriminating account of his +style see the Boston Symphony Orchestra Program Book, for January 17, +1919.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_273_275" id="Footnote_273_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_275"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> On account of the length of these works it is +impossible to include any of them in the Supplement.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274_276" id="Footnote_274_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_276"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> Study, if possible, the orchestral score. For +class-room work there is an excellent four-hand arrangement by the +composer, and one for two hands by Ernest Alder.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_275_277" id="Footnote_275_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_277"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> This terse phrase is identical with motives from +several other works, <i>e.g.</i>, the beginning of Liszt's <i>Les Préludes</i>, +the motive "Muss es sein?" in Beethoven's quartet, opus 135, and the +Fate motive in Wagner's <i>Valkyrie</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_276_278" id="Footnote_276_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_278"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> See for example the opening measures of the <i>Waldstein</i> +and of the <i>Appassionata</i> Sonata.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277_279" id="Footnote_277_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_279"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> Brilliant by reason of the fact that the four principal +tones in D major, D, A, G, E are <i>open</i> strings on the violin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278_280" id="Footnote_278_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_280"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> The scoring of this theme for trumpets, cornets and +trombones has been severely criticized and it is true that the cornet +is an instrument to be employed and played with discretion. The +writer, however, has heard performances of this work in which the +cornets seemed to give just that ringing note evidently desired by +Franck.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279_281" id="Footnote_279_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_281"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> The harmony of this passage is most characteristic of +Franck and should be carefully studied.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280_282" id="Footnote_280_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_282"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> See his <i>Course in Composition</i>, book II, pp. 423-426.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281_283" id="Footnote_281_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_283"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> Note the correspondence between these measures in the +first part and the measures just before the end in the second part.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_282_284" id="Footnote_282_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_284"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> Already cited on <a href="#Page_57">page 57</a>, <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapter IV</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_283_285" id="Footnote_283_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_285"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> The indication by letters is the same in the full score +as in the version for two pianofortes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_284_286" id="Footnote_284_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_286"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> This school may be said to contain two groups: one, the +pupils of César Franck—d'Indy, Chausson, Duparc, Rousseau, Augusta +Holmès and Ropartz, the chief feature in whose style is a +modernization of classic practice; a second consisting of Debussy, +Ravel, Dukas and Florent Schmitt, whose works manifest more extreme +individualistic tendencies.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_285_287" id="Footnote_285_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_287"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> The well-known German scholar and editor Max +Friedländer, who visited this country in 1910, acknowledged—in a +conversation with the writer—that he had never even heard of +Chabrier!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_286_288" id="Footnote_286_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_288"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> D'Indy's significant contributions to operatic and +choral literature, such as <i>Fervaal</i>, <i>L'étranger</i>, <i>Le Chant de la +Cloche</i> and <i>La Légende de St. Christophe</i>, lie without our province.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_287_289" id="Footnote_287_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_289"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> From the Cévennes region whence d'Indy's family +originally came.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_288_290" id="Footnote_288_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_290"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> See the elaborate analysis by Mr. Mason in the essay +above referred to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_289_291" id="Footnote_289_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_291"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> For a detailed analysis the student is referred to the +account by the composer himself in his <i>Cours de Composition +Musicale</i>, part II, pp. 484-486; to Gilman's <i>Studies in Symphonic +Music</i> and to Vol. 3 of Mason's <i>Short Studies of Great +Masterpieces</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290_292" id="Footnote_290_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_292"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> From this comparison we should not wish it to be +understood that Debussy is merely an addition to the standard Romantic +group of Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, etc.; his style, however, is surely +Romantic in the broad sense of the term, <i>i.e.</i>, highly imaginative +and individual.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_291_293" id="Footnote_291_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_293"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> The <i>très exceptionnel, très curieux, très solitaire +Claude Debussy</i> as he has been aptly characterized.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292_294" id="Footnote_292_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_294"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> The first authentic use being probably by Dargomijsky +in his opera the <i>Stone Guest</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293_295" id="Footnote_293_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_295"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> For an enlightening amplification of this point see the +first chapter of Wallace's <i>The Threshold of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294_296" id="Footnote_294_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_296"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_193">page 193</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_295_297" id="Footnote_295_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_297"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> For further suggestive comments on Debussy's style +consult the <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16488"><i>Essay on Pelléas et Mélisande</i></a> by Lawrence Gilman (G. +Schirmer, New York) and in particular an article by the same author in +the Century Magazine for August, 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_296_298" id="Footnote_296_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_298"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> Gosse also calls it a <i>famous miracle of +intelligibility</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_297_299" id="Footnote_297_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_299"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> The best books yet written on Debussy and his style are +those by Mrs. Liebich and Louis Laloy. Consult also the comprehensive +essay by E.B. Hill in Vol. III of the <i>Art of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_298_300" id="Footnote_298_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_300"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> See the 2d volume of <i>Great Composers</i> by D.G. Mason +and also the essay on Debussy in <i>Contemporary Composers</i> by the same +author.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299_301" id="Footnote_299_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_301"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> According to Ernest Newman in a well-known article in +the Musical Times (London).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300_302" id="Footnote_300_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_302"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> An excellent collection of modern French songs may be +found in the two volumes published by the Oliver Ditson Co. in the +Musicians Library.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301_303" id="Footnote_301_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_303"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> While he was riding a bicycle.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_302_304" id="Footnote_302_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_304"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> The best account of his works and style is to be found +in the volume <i>Maurice Ravel et son oeuvre</i> by Roland Manuel.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_303_305" id="Footnote_303_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_305"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> <i>Le Gibbet</i> is without doubt the most realistic piece +of musical description in our time.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_304_306" id="Footnote_304_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_306"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> Witness the wonderful manifestation of these qualities +by the French in the recent war.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_305_307" id="Footnote_305_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_307"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> In Grove's Dictionary, under Bass, occurs this +statement: This voice, found, or at least cultivated, only in Russia +is by special training made to descend to FF <img src="images/fnmusic305.png" width="90" height="60" alt="music" title="music" /> [<a href="music/fnmusic305.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/fnmusic305.xml">MusicXML</a>].</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_306_308" id="Footnote_306_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_308"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> The writer had this statement from the lips of +Tchaikowsky's own brother, Modeste.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_307_309" id="Footnote_307_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_309"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> See the passage from his diary (quoted on page 504 of +the <i>Biography</i> by his brother) in which he writes—"What touching +love and compassion for mankind lie in these words: 'Come unto me, all +ye that labor and are heavy laden!' In comparison with these simple +words all the Psalms of David are as nothing."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_308_310" id="Footnote_308_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_310"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> See the detailed program by the composer himself, cited +in Nieck's <i>Program Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_309_311" id="Footnote_309_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_311"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> For this simile I am indebted to Mr. Philip Hale.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_310_312" id="Footnote_310_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_312"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> For further comment see the Life of Tchaikowsky by Rosa +Newmarch.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311_313" id="Footnote_311_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_313"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> As may be seen by the number of illustrations from it +in text books!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_312_314" id="Footnote_312_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_314"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> The authoritative work on Tchaikowsky is <i>The Life and +Letters</i> by his brother Modeste; the abridged biography by Rosa +Newmarch should also be read. There are excellent essays in +<i>Mezzotints in Modern Music</i> by Huneker; in Streatfield's volume +<i>Modern Composers</i> and in Mason's <i>From Grieg to Brahms</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313_315" id="Footnote_313_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_315"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> The passage has already been cited in <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapter IV</a> as an +example of a deceptive cadence.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_314_316" id="Footnote_314_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_316"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> By double counterpoint is meant such a grouping of the +voices that they may be inverted (the upper voice becoming the lower +and vice versa) and sound equally well. For further comments, together +with illustrative examples, consult Chapter IX of Spalding's <i>Tonal +Counterpoint</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_315_317" id="Footnote_315_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_317"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> The most authoritative work in English is the <i>History +of Russian Music</i> by Montagu-Nathan; in French there are the Essays +<i>Musiques de Russie</i> by Bruneau.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316_318" id="Footnote_316_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_318"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> Quoted from the chapter on Russian music in <i>Famous +Composers and Their Works</i> (2d series).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_317_319" id="Footnote_317_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_319"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> Towards the end of his life he destroyed many of his +compositions.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_318_320" id="Footnote_318_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_320"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> For a delightful account of the friendship of these two +composers consult the volume <i>Borodin and Liszt</i> by Alfred Habets +(translated by Rosa Newmarch).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_319_321" id="Footnote_319_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_321"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> According to Liszt "a compendium of musical science in +the form of a jest."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_320_322" id="Footnote_320_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_322"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> This work in structure is a Suite, <i>i.e.</i>, there are +four distinct, separated movements.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_321_323" id="Footnote_321_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_323"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> For biographical information consult the volume by +Montagu-Nathan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_322_324" id="Footnote_322_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_324"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> Quoted from the article in Grove's Dictionary.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323_325" id="Footnote_323_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_325"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> Quoted from the <i>Art of Music</i>, Vol. III.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324_326" id="Footnote_324_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_326"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> His surname is to be accented on the first syllable—a +fact which may be remembered from the story attributed to Liszt who, +once asking Smetana how his name was to be pronounced received this +reply: My name is always</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/fnmusic324a.png" width="633" height="93" alt="Overture to Fidelio" title="Overture to Fidelio" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/fnmusic324a.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/fnmusic324a.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centerbp">Smétana, Smétana, Smétana</p> + +<p>but never</p> + +<p class="centertp"> +<img src="images/fnmusic324b.png" width="635" height="86" alt="Overture to Leonora, No. 3" title="Overture to Leonora, No. 3" /> +</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="music/fnmusic324b.mid">Listen</a>] [<a href="music/fnmusic324b.xml">MusicXML</a>]</p> + +<p class="centerbp">Friedrich Smetána Friedrich Smetána.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_325_327" id="Footnote_325_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_327"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> For example in the second movement of Smetana's Quartet +and in Dvořák's Suite for small orchestra, op. 39.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_326_328" id="Footnote_326_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_328"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> For a graphic description of the country and the +customs of its people consult the essay on Dvořák in Hadow's +<i>Studies in Modern Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_327_329" id="Footnote_327_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_329"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> A detailed account of these works may be found in the +article on Smetana in <i>Famous Composers and their Works</i> (2d series).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_328_330" id="Footnote_328_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_330"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> For his biography, consult the Hadow essay (referred to +above) and the chapter on Dvořák in Mason's <i>From Grieg to +Brahms</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329_331" id="Footnote_329_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_331"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> The author has heard this symphony played in Prague and +other continental cities under Bohemian conductors. It is always +welcomed as being thoroughly characteristic of Bohemia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_330_332" id="Footnote_330_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_332"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> For detailed analytical comment consult Vol. III of +<i>Short Studies in Great Masterpieces</i> by D.G. Mason.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_331_333" id="Footnote_331_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_333"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> Note for example the chords at the opening of the slow +movement.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_332_334" id="Footnote_332_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_334"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> The best biography in English is that by H.T. Finck; +the work, however, is somewhat marred by fulsome praise.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_333_335" id="Footnote_333_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_335"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> During the summer solstice it is dark for only a few +hours; and further north, in the land, so-called, of the Midnight Sun, +for a few weeks there is perpetual daylight.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_334_336" id="Footnote_334_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_336"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> He was called by Bülow the Chopin of the North.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335_337" id="Footnote_335_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_337"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> An admirable treatment of the whole subject may be +found in Vol. III of <i>The Art of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_336_338" id="Footnote_336_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_338"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> For a detailed account of his life and works consult +the essay in <i>Contemporary Russian Composers</i> by Montagu-Nathan and +Vol. III of <i>The Art of Music</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_337_339" id="Footnote_337_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_339"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> For a comprehensive estimate of his style and +achievements the following works will prove useful: the <i>Biography</i>, +by Eaglefield Hull; the Essay, by Montagu-Nathan in the volume +referred to, and an article by W.H. Hadow in the Musical Quarterly for +Jan. 1915.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_338_340" id="Footnote_338_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_340"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> Who lost his life on the Sussex when it was torpedoed +by the Germans.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_339_341" id="Footnote_339_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_341"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> For a comprehensive account, historical and critical, +of this influence consult the volume by Carl Van Vechten <i>The Music of +Spain</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_340_342" id="Footnote_340_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_342"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> Some pithy remarks on the habitual English attitude +toward music may be found in the history of Stanford and Forsyth, page +313, <i>seq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341_343" id="Footnote_341_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_343"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> See for example the broad theme in the middle portion +of the March, <i>Pomp and Circumstance</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_342_344" id="Footnote_342_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_344"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> This valuation of American composers is made solely on +the basis of published compositions.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343_345" id="Footnote_343_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_345"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> For additional comments on this point see an article by +the author in the Musical Quarterly for January, 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_344_346" id="Footnote_344_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_346"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> Performed recently several times by the Flonzaley +Quartet.</p></div> + + + +<hr /> +<div class="notes"> +<h2><a name="CORRECTED_MUSIC" id="CORRECTED_MUSIC"></a>CORRECTED MUSIC</h2> + +<p class="tp">In the edition used to prepare this e-book, music +examples on the pages in the list below contained major errors, <i>e.g.</i>, music +systems were erroneously repeated or were taken from a different +example. The corrected examples in this e-book are from a later +printing of the same edition.</p> + +<ul> +<li><a href="#Page_27">Page 27</a> (The Ship in Distress)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_29">Page 29</a> (Would God I Were the Tender Apple Blossom)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_31">Page 31</a> (examples I and II)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_44">Page 44</a> (first example)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_71">Page 71</a></li> +<li><a href="#Page_119">Page 119</a> (Recapitulation)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_141">Page 141</a></li> +</ul> +</div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Music: An Art and a Language, by +Walter Raymond Spalding + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSIC: AN ART AND A LANGUAGE *** + +***** This file should be named 30560-h.htm or 30560-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/5/6/30560/ + +Produced by Adam Buchbinder, Linda Cantoni, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) 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