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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 2
+       "Demijohn" to "Destructor"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 15, 2009 [EBook #30685]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+  (1) A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are
+  underlined in the HTML version.
+
+  (2) Chapter headings were originally constructed as side-notes. They
+  were placed here at the head of their respective paragraphs, and moved
+  to paragraph's start where given at paragraph's middle. See HTML
+  version for the original headers placement.
+
+
+                       ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+                          ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+                        VOLUME VIII slice II
+
+                       Demijohn to Destructor
+
+
+
+
+DEMIJOHN, a glass bottle or jar with a large round body and narrow neck,
+encased in wicker-work and provided with handles. The word is also used
+of an earthenware jar, similarly covered with wicker. The capacity of a
+demijohn varies from two to twelve gallons, but the common size contains
+five gallons. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the word is an
+adaptation of a French _Dame Jeanne_, or Dame Jane, an application of a
+personal name to an object which is not uncommon; cf. the use of "Toby"
+for a particular form of jug and the many uses of the name "Jack."
+
+
+
+
+DEMISE, an Anglo-French legal term (from the Fr. _démettre_, Lat.
+_dimittere_, to send away) for a transfer of an estate, especially by
+lease. The word has an operative effect in a lease implying a covenant
+for "quiet enjoyment" (see LANDLORD AND TENANT). The phrase "demise of
+the crown" is used in English law to signify the immediate transfer of
+the sovereignty, with all its attributes and prerogatives, to the
+successor without any interregnum in accordance with the maxim "the king
+never dies." At common law the death of the sovereign _eo facto_
+dissolved parliament, but this was abolished by the Representation of
+the People Act 1867, § 51. Similarly the common law doctrine that all
+offices held under the crown determined at its demise has been negatived
+by the Demise of the Crown Act 1901. "Demise" is thus often used loosely
+for death or decease.
+
+
+
+
+DEMIURGE (Gr. [Greek: dêmiourgos], from [Greek: dêmios], of or for the
+people, and [Greek: ergon], work), a handicraftsman or artisan. In Homer
+the word has a wide application, including not only hand-workers but
+even heralds and physicians. In Attica the demiurgi formed one of the
+three classes (with the Eupatridae and the geomori, georgi or agroeci)
+into which the early population was divided (cf. Arist. _Ath. Pol._
+xiii. 2). They represented either a class of the whole population, or,
+according to Busolt, a commercial nobility (see EUPATRIDAE). In the
+sense of "worker for the people" the word was used throughout the
+Peloponnese, with the exception of Sparta, and in many parts of Greece,
+for a higher magistrate. The demiurgi among other officials represent
+Elis and Mantineia at the treaty of peace between Athens, Argos, Elis
+and Mantineia in 420 B.C. (Thuc. v. 47). In the Achaean League (q.v.)
+the name is given to ten elective officers who presided over the
+assembly, and Corinth sent "Epidemiurgi" every year to Potidaea,
+officials who apparently answered to the Spartan harmosts. In Plato
+[Greek: dêmiourgos] is the name given to the "creator of the world"
+(_Timaeus_, 40) and the word was so adopted by the Gnostics (see
+GNOSTICISM).
+
+
+
+
+DEMMIN, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, on the navigable river
+Peene (which in the immediate neighbourhood receives the Trebel and the
+Tollense), 72 m. W.N.W. of Stettin, on the Berlin-Stralsund railway.
+Pop. (1905) 12,541. It has manufactures of textiles, besides breweries,
+distilleries and tanneries, and an active trade in corn and timber.
+
+The town is of Slavonian origin and of considerable antiquity, and was a
+place of importance in the time of Charlemagne. It was besieged by a
+German army in 1148, and captured by Henry the Lion in 1164. In the
+Thirty Years' War Demmin was the object of frequent conflicts, and even
+after the peace of Westphalia was taken and retaken in the contest
+between the electoral prince and the Swedes. It passed to Prussia in
+1720, and its fortifications were dismantled in 1759. In 1807 several
+engagements took place in the vicinity between the French and Russians.
+
+
+
+
+DEMOCHARES (c. 355-275 B.C.), nephew of Demosthenes, Athenian orator and
+statesman, was one of the few distinguished Athenians in the period of
+decline. He is first heard of in 322, when he spoke in vain against the
+surrender of Demosthenes and the other anti-Macedonian orators demanded
+by Antipater. During the next fifteen years he probably lived in exile.
+On the restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307 he
+occupied a prominent position, but was banished in 303 for having
+ridiculed the decree of Stratocles, which contained a fulsome eulogy of
+Demetrius. He was recalled in 298, and during the next four years[1]
+fortified and equipped the city with provisions and ammunition. In 296
+(or 295) he was again banished for having concluded an alliance with the
+Boeotians, and did not return until 287 (or 286). In 280 he induced the
+Athenians to erect a public monument in honour of his uncle with a
+suitable inscription. After his death (some five years later) the son of
+Demochares proposed and obtained a decree (Plutarch, _Vitae decem
+oratorum_, p. 851) that a statue should be erected in his honour,
+containing a record of his public services, which seem to have consisted
+in a reduction of public expenses, a more prudent management of the
+state finances (after his return in 287) and successful begging missions
+to the rulers of Egypt and Macedonia. Although a friend of the Stoic
+Zeno, Demochares regarded all other philosophers as the enemies of
+freedom, and in 306 supported the proposal of one Sophocles, advocating
+their expulsion from Attica. According to Cicero (_Brutus_, 83)
+Demochares was the author of a history of his own times, written in an
+oratorical rather than a historical style. As a speaker he was noted for
+his freedom of language (_Parrhesiastes_, Seneca, _De ira_, iii. 23). He
+was violently attacked by Timaeus, but found a strenuous defender in
+Polybius (xii. 13).
+
+   See also Plutarch, _Demosthenes_, 30, _Demetrius_, 24, _Vitae decem
+   oratorum_, p. 847; J. G. Droysen's essay on Demochares in
+   _Zeitschrift für die Altertumswissenschaft_ (1836), Nos. 20, 21.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the "four years' war" and the chronological questions involved,
+    see C. W. Müller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._ ii. 445.
+
+
+
+
+DEMOCRACY (Gr. [Greek: dêmokratia], from [Greek: dêmos], the people,
+i.e. the commons, and [Greek: kratos], rule), in political science, that
+form of government in which the people rules itself, either directly, as
+in the small city-states of Greece, or through representatives.
+According to Aristotle, democracy is the perverted form of the third
+form of government, which he called [Greek: politeia], "polity" or
+"constitutional government," the rule of the majority of the free and
+equal citizens, as opposed to monarchy and aristocracy, the rule
+respectively of an individual and of a minority consisting of the best
+citizens (see GOVERNMENT and ARISTOCRACY). Aristotle's restriction of
+"democracy" to _bad_ popular government, i.e. mob-rule, or, as it has
+sometimes been called, "ochlocracy" ([Greek: ochlos], mob), was due to
+the fact that the Athenian democracy had in his day degenerated far
+below the ideals of the 5th century, when it reached its zenith under
+Pericles. Since Aristotle's day the word has resumed its natural
+meaning, but democracy in modern times is a very different thing from
+what it was in its best days in Greece and Rome. The Greek states were
+what are known as "city-states," the characteristic of which was that
+all the citizens could assemble together in the city at regular
+intervals for legislative and other purposes. This sovereign assembly of
+the people was known at Athens as the Ecclesia (q.v.), at Sparta as the
+Apella (q.v.), at Rome variously as the Comitia Centuriata or the
+Concilium Plebis (see COMITIA). Of representative government in the
+modern sense there is practically no trace in Athenian history, though
+certain of the magistrates (see STRATEGUS) had a quasi-representative
+character. Direct democracy is impossible except in small states. In the
+second place the qualification for citizenship was rigorous; thus
+Pericles restricted citizenship to those who were the sons of an
+Athenian father, himself a citizen, and an Athenian mother ([Greek: ex
+amphoin astoin]). This system excluded not only all the slaves, who were
+more numerous than the free population, but also resident aliens,
+subject allies, and those Athenians whose descent did not satisfy this
+criterion ([Greek: tô genei mê katharoi]). The Athenian democracy, which
+was typical in ancient Greece, was a highly exclusive form of
+government.
+
+With the growth of empire and nation states this narrow parochial type
+of democracy became impossible. The population became too large and the
+distance too great for regular assemblies of qualified citizens. The
+rigid distinction of citizens and non-citizens was progressively more
+difficult to maintain, and new criteria of citizenship came into force.
+The first difficulty has been met by various forms of representative
+government. The second problem has been solved in various ways in
+different countries; moderate democracies have adopted a low property
+qualification, while extreme democracy is based on the extension of
+citizenship to all adult persons with or without distinction of sex. The
+essence of modern representative government is that the people does not
+govern itself, but periodically elects those who shall govern on its
+behalf (see GOVERNMENT; REPRESENTATION).
+
+
+
+
+DEMOCRATIC PARTY, originally DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PARTY, the oldest of
+existing political parties in the United States. Its origin lay in the
+principles of local self-government and repugnance to social and
+political aristocracy established as cardinal tenets of American
+colonial democracy, which by the War of Independence, which was
+essentially a democratic movement, became the basis of the political
+institutions of the nation. The evils of lax government, both central
+and state, under the Confederation caused, however, a marked
+anti-democratic reaction, and this united with the temperamental
+conservatism of the framers of the constitution of 1787 in the shaping
+of that conservative instrument. The influences and interests for and
+against its adoption took form in the groupings of Federalists and
+Anti-Federalists, and these, after the creation of the new government,
+became respectively, in underlying principles, and, to a large extent,
+in personnel, the Federalist party (q.v.) and the Democratic-Republican
+party.[1] The latter, organized by Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the
+Federalists dominated by Alexander Hamilton, was a real party by 1792.
+The great service of attaching to the constitution a democratic bill of
+rights belongs to the Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republican party,
+although this was then amorphous. The Democratic-Republican party gained
+full control of the government, save the judiciary, in 1801, and
+controlled it continuously thereafter until 1825. No political
+"platforms" were then known, but the writings of Jefferson, who
+dominated his party throughout this period, take the place of such. His
+inaugural address of 1801 is a famous statement of democratic
+principles, which to-day are taken for granted only because, through the
+party organized by him to secure their success, they became universally
+accepted as the ideal of American institutions. In all the colonies,
+says John Adams, "a court and a country party had always contended";
+Jefferson's followers believed sincerely that the Federalists were a new
+court party, and monarchist. Hence they called themselves "Republicans"
+as against monarchists,--standing also, incidentally, for states' rights
+against the centralization that monarchy (or any approach to it)
+implied; and "Democrats" as against aristocrats,--standing for the
+"common rights of Englishmen," the "rights of man," the levelling of
+social ranks and the widening of political privileges. In the early
+years of its history--and during the period of the French Revolution and
+afterwards--the Republicans sympathized with the French as against the
+British, the Federalists with the British as against the French.
+
+Devotion to abstract principles of democracy and liberty, and in
+practical politics a strict construction of the constitution, in order
+to prevent an aggrandizement of national power at the expense of the
+states (which were nearer popular control) or the citizens, have been
+permanent characteristics of the Democratic party as contrasted with its
+principal opponents; but neither these nor any other distinctions have
+been continuously or consistently true throughout its long course.[2]
+After 1801 the commercial and manufacturing nationalistic[3] elements of
+the Federalist party, being now dependent on Jefferson for protection,
+gradually went over to the Republicans, especially after the War of
+1812; moreover, administration of government naturally developed in
+Republican ranks a group of broad-constructionists. These groups fused,
+and became an independent party.[4] They called themselves _National_
+Republicans, while the Jacksonian Republicans soon came to be known
+simply as Democrats.[5] Immediately afterward followed the tremendous
+victory of the Jacksonians in 1828,--a great advance in radical
+democracy over the victory of 1800. In the interval the Federalist party
+had disappeared, and practically the entire country, embracing
+Jeffersonian democracy, had passed through the school of the Republican
+party. It had established the power of the "people" in the sense of that
+word in present-day American politics. Bills of rights in every state
+constitution protected the citizen; some state judges were already
+elective; very soon the people came to nominate their presidential
+candidates in national conventions, and draft their party platforms
+through their convention representatives.[6] After the National
+Republican scission the Democratic party, weakened thereby in its
+nationalistic tendencies, and deprived of the leadership of Jackson,
+fell quickly under the control of its Southern adherents and became
+virtually sectional in its objects. Its states' rights doctrine was
+turned to the defence of slavery. In thus opposing anti-slavery
+sentiment--inconsistently, alike as regarded the "rights of man" and
+constitutional construction, with its original and permanent
+principles--it lost morale and power. As a result of the contest over
+Kansas it became fatally divided, and in 1860 put forward two
+presidential tickets: one representing the doctrine of Jefferson Davis
+that the constitution recognized slave-property, and therefore the
+national government must protect slavery in the territories; the other
+representing Douglas's doctrine that the inhabitants of a territory
+might virtually exclude slavery by "unfriendly legislation." The
+combined popular votes for the two tickets exceeded that cast by the
+new, anti-slavery Republican party (the second of the name) for Lincoln;
+but the election was lost. During the ensuing Civil War such members of
+the party as did not become War Democrats antagonized the Lincoln
+administration, and in 1864 made the great blunder of pronouncing the
+war "a failure." Owing to Republican errors in reconstruction and the
+scandals of President Grant's administration, the party gradually
+regained its strength and morale, until, having largely subordinated
+Southern questions to economic issues, it cast for Tilden for president
+in 1876 a popular vote greater than that obtained by the Republican
+candidate, Hayes, and gained control of the House of Representatives.
+The Electoral Commission, however, made Hayes president, and the quiet
+acceptance of this decision by the Democratic party did it considerable
+credit.
+
+Since 1877 the Southern states have been almost solidly Democratic; but,
+except on the negro question, such unanimity among Southern whites has
+been, naturally, factitious; and by no means an unmixed good for the
+party. Apart from the "Solid South," the period after 1875 is
+characterized by two other party difficulties. The first was the attempt
+from 1878 to 1896 to "straddle" the silver issue;[7] the second, an
+attempt after 1896 to harmonize general elements of conservatism and
+radicalism within the party. In 1896 the South and West gained control
+of the organization, and the national campaigns of 1896 and 1900 were
+fought and lost mainly on the issue of "free silver," which, however,
+was abandoned before 1904. After 1898 "imperialism," to which the
+Democrats were hostile, became another issue. Finally, after 1896, there
+became very apparent in the party a tendency to attract the radical
+elements of society in the general re-alignment of parties taking place
+on industrial-social issues; the Democratic party apparently attracting,
+in this readjustment, the "radicals" and the "masses" as in the time of
+Jefferson and Jackson. In this process, in the years 1896-1900, it took
+over many of the principles and absorbed, in large part, the members of
+the radical third-party of the "Populists," only to be confronted
+thereupon by the growing strength of Socialism, challenging it to a
+farther radical widening of its programme. From 1860 to 1908 it elected
+but a single president (Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897).[8]
+All American parties accepted long ago in theory "Jeffersonian
+democracy"; but the Democratic party has been "the political champion of
+those elements of the [American] democracy which are most democratic. It
+stands nearest the people."[9] It may be noted that the Jeffersonian
+Republicans did not attempt to democratize the constitution itself. The
+choice of a president was soon popularized, however, in effect; and the
+popular election of United States senators is to-day a definite
+Democratic tenet.[10]
+
+   BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For an exposition of the party's principles see Thomas
+   Jefferson, _Writings_, ed. by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York,
+   1892-1899); J. P. Foley (ed.), _The Jeffersonian Cyclopaedia_ (New
+   York, 1900); and especially the _Campaign Text-Books_ of more recent
+   times, usually issued by the national Democratic committee in
+   alternate years, and M. Carey, _The Democratic Speaker's Handbook_
+   (Cincinnati, 1868). For a hostile criticism of the party, see W. D.
+   Jones, _Mirror of Modern Democracy_; _History of the Democratic Party
+   from 1825 to 1861_ (New York, 1864); Jonathan Norcross, _History of
+   Democracy Considered as a Party-Name and a Political Organization_
+   (New York, 1883); J. H. Patton, _The Democratic Party: Its Political
+   History and Influence_ (New York, 1884). Favourable treatises are R.
+   H. Gillet, _Democracy in the United States_ (New York, 1868); and
+   George Fitch, _Political Facts: an Historical Text-Book of the
+   Democratic and Other Parties_ (Baltimore, 1884). See also, for
+   general political history, Thomas H. Benton, _Thirty Years' View_ (2
+   vols., New York, 1854-1856, and later editions); James G. Blaine,
+   _Twenty Years of Congress_ (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1893); S.
+   S. Cox, _Three Decades of Federal Legislation_ (Providence, 1885); S.
+   P. Orth, _Five American Politicians: a Study in the Evolution of
+   American Politics_ (Cleveland, 1906), containing sketches of four
+   Democratic leaders--Burr, De Witt Clinton, Van Buren and Douglas; J.
+   Macy, _Party Organization and Machinery_ (New York, 1904); J. H.
+   Hopkins, _History of Political Parties in the United States_ (New
+   York, 1900); E. S. Stanwood, _History of the Presidency_ (last ed.,
+   Boston, 1904); J. P. Gordy, _History of Political Parties_, i. (New
+   York, 1900); H. J. Ford, _Rise and Growth of American Politics_ (New
+   York, 1898); Alexander Johnston, _History of American Politics_ (New
+   York, 1900, and later editions); C. E. Merriam, _A History of
+   American Political Theories_ (New York, 1903), containing chapters on
+   the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian Democracy; and James A. Woodburn,
+   _Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States_ (New
+   York, 1903).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The prefix "Democratic" was not used by Jefferson; it became
+    established, however, and official.
+
+  [2] Under the rubric of "strict construction" fall the greatest
+    struggles in the party's history: those over the United States Bank,
+    over tariffs--for protection or for "revenue" only--over "internal
+    improvements," over issues of administrative economy in providing for
+    the "general welfare," &c. The course of the party has frequently
+    been inconsistent, and its doctrines have shown, absolutely
+    considered, progressive latitudinarianism.
+
+  [3] "Nationalistic" is used here and below, not in the sense of a
+    general nationalistic spirit, such as that of Jackson, but to
+    indicate the centralizing tendency of a broad construction of
+    constitutional powers in behalf of commerce and manufactures.
+
+  [4] Standing for protective tariffs, internal improvements, &c.
+
+  [5] It should be borne in mind, however, that the Democratic party of
+    Jackson was not strictly _identical_ with the Democratic-Republican
+    party of Jefferson,--and some writers date back the origin of the
+    present Democratic party only to 1828-1829.
+
+  [6] The Democratic national convention of 1832 was preceded by an
+    Anti-Masonic convention of 1830 and by the National-Republican
+    convention of 1831; but the Democratic platform of 1840 was the first
+    of its kind.
+
+  [7] The attitude of the Republican party was no less inconsistent and
+    evasive.
+
+  [8] It controlled the House of Representatives from 1874 to 1894
+    except in 1880-1882 and 1888-1890; but except for a time in
+    Cleveland's second term, there were never simultaneously a Democratic
+    president and a Democratic majority in Congress.
+
+  [9] Professor A. D. Morse in _International Monthly_, October 1900.
+    He adds, "It has done more to Americanize the foreigner than all
+    other parties." (It is predominant in the great cities of the
+    country.)
+
+  [10] In connexion with the prevalent popular tendency to regard the
+    president as a people's tribune, it may be noted that a strong
+    presidential veto is, historically, peculiarly a Democratic
+    contribution, owing to the history of Jackson's (compare Cleveland's)
+    administration.
+
+
+
+
+DEMOCRITUS, probably the greatest of the Greek physical philosophers,
+was a native of Abdera in Thrace, or as some say--probably wrongly--of
+Miletus (Diog. Laërt. ix. 34). Our knowledge of his life is based almost
+entirely on tradition of an untrustworthy kind. He seems to have been
+born about 470 or 460 B.C., and was, therefore, an older contemporary of
+Socrates. He inherited a considerable property, which enabled him to
+travel widely in the East in search of information. In Egypt he settled
+for seven years, during which he studied the mathematical and physical
+systems of the ancient schools. The extent to which he was influenced by
+the Magi and the Eastern astrologists is a matter of pure conjecture. He
+returned from his travels impoverished; one tradition says that he
+received 500 talents from his fellow-citizens, and that a public funeral
+was decreed him. Another tradition states that he was regarded as insane
+by the Abderitans, and that Hippocrates was summoned to cure him.
+Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died at the age of ninety; others make
+him as much as twenty years older. His works, according to Diogenes
+Laërtius, numbered seventy-two, and were characterized by a purity of
+style which compares favourably with that of Plato. The absurd epithet,
+the "laughing philosopher," applied to him by some unknown and very
+superficial thinker, may possibly have contributed in some measure to
+the fact that his importance was for centuries overlooked. It is
+interesting, however, to notice that Bacon (_De Principiis_) assigns to
+him his true place in the history of thought, and points out that both
+in his own day and later "in the times of Roman learning" he was spoken
+of in terms of the highest praise. In the variety of his knowledge, and
+in the importance of his influence on both Greek and modern speculation
+he was the Aristotle of the 5th century, while the sanity of his
+metaphysical theory has led many to regard him as the equal, if not the
+superior, of Plato.
+
+His views may be treated under the following heads:--
+
+1. _The Atoms and Cosmology_ (adopted in part at least from the
+doctrines of Leucippus, though the relations between the two are
+hopelessly obscure). While agreeing with the Eleatics as to the eternal
+sameness of Being (nothing can arise out of nothing; nothing can be
+reduced to nothing), Democritus followed the physicists in denying its
+oneness and immobility. Movement and plurality being necessary to
+explain the phenomena of the universe and impossible without space
+(not-Being), he asserted that the latter had an equal right with Being
+to be considered existent. Being is the Full ([Greek: plêres], plenum);
+not-Being is the Void ([Greek: kenon], _vacuum_), the infinite space in
+which moved the infinite number of atoms into which the single Being of
+the Eleatics was broken up. These atoms are eternal and invisible;
+absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be diminished (hence
+the name [Greek: atomos], "indivisible"); absolutely full and
+incompressible, they are without pores and entirely fill the space they
+occupy; homogeneous, differing only in figure (as A from N), arrangement
+(as AN from NA), position (as N is Z on its side), magnitude (and
+consequently in weight, although some authorities dispute this). But
+while the atoms thus differ in quantity, their differences of quality
+are only apparent, due to the impressions caused on our senses by
+different configurations and combinations of atoms. A thing is only hot
+or cold, sweet or bitter, hard or soft by convention ([Greek: nomô]);
+the only things that exist in reality ([Greek: eteê]) are the atoms and
+the void. Locke's distinction between primary and secondary qualities is
+here anticipated. Thus, the atoms of water and iron are the same, but
+those of the former, being smooth and round, and therefore unable to
+hook on to one another, roll over and over like small globes, whereas
+the atoms of iron, being rough, jagged and uneven, cling together and
+form a solid body. Since all phenomena are composed of the same eternal
+atoms (just as a tragedy and a comedy contain the same letters) it may
+be said that nothing comes into being or perishes in the absolute sense
+of the words (cf. the modern "indestructibility of matter" and
+"conservation of energy"), although the compounds of the atoms are
+liable to increase and decrease, appearance and disappearance--in other
+words, to birth and death. As the atoms are eternal and uncaused, so is
+motion; it has its origin in a preceding motion, and so on _ad
+infinitum_. For the Love and Hate of Empedocles and the _Nous_
+(Intelligence) of Anaxagoras, Democritus substituted fixed and necessary
+laws (not chance; that is a misrepresentation due chiefly to Cicero).
+Everything can be explained by a purely mechanical (but not fortuitous)
+system, in which there is no room for the idea of a providence or an
+intelligent cause working with a view to an end. The origin of the
+universe was explained as follows. An infinite number of atoms was
+carried downwards through infinite space. The larger (and heavier),
+falling with greater velocity, overtook and collided with the smaller
+(and lighter), which were thereby forced upwards. This caused various
+lateral and contrary movements, resulting in a whirling movement
+([Greek: dinê]) resembling the rotation of Anaxagoras, whereby similar
+atoms were brought together (as in the winnowing of grain) and united to
+form larger bodies and worlds. Atoms and void being infinite in number
+and extent, and motion having always existed, there must always have
+been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar atoms, in
+various stages of growth and decay.
+
+2. _The Soul._--Democritus devoted considerable attention to the
+structure of the human body, the noblest portion of which he considered
+to be the soul, which everywhere pervades it, a psychic atom being
+intercalated between two corporeal atoms. Although, in accordance with
+his principles, Democritus was bound to regard the soul as material
+(composed of round, smooth, specially mobile atoms, identified with the
+fire-atoms floating in the air), he admitted a distinction between it
+and the body, and is even said to have looked upon it as something
+divine. These all-pervading soul atoms exercise different functions in
+different organs; the head is the seat of reason, the heart of anger,
+the liver of desire. Life is maintained by the inhalation of fresh atoms
+to replace those lost by exhalation, and when respiration, and
+consequently the supply of atoms, ceases, the result is death. It
+follows that the soul perishes with, and in the same sense as, the body.
+
+3. _Perception._--Sensations are the changes produced in the soul by
+external impressions, and are the result of contact, since every action
+of one body (and all representations are corporeal phenomena) upon
+another is of the nature of a shock. Certain emanations ([Greek:
+aporrhoai, aporrhoiai]) or images ([Greek: eidôla]), consisting of
+subtle atoms, thrown off from the surface of an object, penetrate the
+body through the pores. On the principle that like acts upon like, the
+particular senses are only affected by that which resembles them. We see
+by means of the eye alone, and hear by means of the ear alone, these
+organs being best adapted to receive the images or sound currents. The
+organs are thus merely conduits or passages through which the atoms pour
+into the soul. The eye, for example, is damp and porous, and the act of
+seeing consists in the reflection of the image ([Greek: deikelon])
+mirrored on the smooth moist surface of the pupil. To the interposition
+of air is due the fact that all visual images are to some extent
+blurred. At the same time Democritus distinguished between obscure
+([Greek: skotiê]) cognition, resting on sensation alone, and genuine
+([Greek: gnêsiê]), which is the result of inquiry by reason, and is
+concerned with atoms and void, the only real existences. This knowledge,
+however, he confessed was exceedingly difficult to attain.
+
+It is in Democritus first that we find a real attempt to explain colour.
+He regards black, red, white and green as primary. White is
+characteristically smooth, i.e. casting no shadow, even, flat; black is
+uneven, rough, shadowy and so on. The other colours result from various
+mixtures of these four, and are infinite in number. Colour itself is not
+objective; it is found not in the ultimate _plenum_ and _vacuum_, but
+only in derived objects according to their physical qualities and
+relations.
+
+4. _Theology._--The system of Democritus was altogether anti-theistic.
+But, although he rejected the notion of a deity taking part in the
+creation or government of the universe, he yielded to popular prejudice
+so far as to admit the existence of a class of beings, of the same form
+as men, grander, composed of very subtle atoms, less liable to
+dissolution, but still mortal, dwelling in the upper regions of air.
+These beings also manifested themselves to man by means of images in
+dreams, communicated with him, and sometimes gave him an insight into
+the future. Some of them were benevolent, others malignant. According to
+Plutarch, Democritus recognized one god under the form of a fiery
+sphere, the soul of the world, but this idea is probably of later
+origin. The popular belief in gods was attributed by Democritus to the
+desire to explain extraordinary phenomena (thunder, lightning,
+earthquakes) by reference to superhuman agency.
+
+5. _Ethics._--Democritus's moral system--the first collection of ethical
+precepts which deserves the name--strongly resembles the negative side
+of the system of Epicurus. The _summum bonum_ is the maximum of pleasure
+with the minimum of pain. But true pleasure is not sensual enjoyment; it
+has its principle in the soul. It consists not in the possession of
+wealth or flocks and herds, but in good humour, in the just disposition
+and constant tranquillity of the soul. Hence the necessity of avoiding
+extremes; too much and too little are alike evils. True happiness
+consists in taking advantage of what one has and being content with it
+(see ETHICS).
+
+   BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fragments edited by F. Mullach (1843) with commentary
+   and in his _Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum_, i. (1860). See also
+   H. Ritter and L. Preller, _Historia philosophiae_ (chap. i. ad fin.);
+   P. Lafaist (Lafaye), _Dissertation sur la philosophie atomistique_
+   (1833); L. Liard, _De Democrito philosopho_ (Paris, 1873); H. C.
+   Liepmann, _Die Leucipp-Democritischen Atome_ (Leipzig, 1886); F. A.
+   Lange, _Geschichte des Materialismus_ (Eng. trans. by E. C. Thomas,
+   1877); G. Hart, _Zur Seelen- und Erkenntnislehre des Democritus_
+   (Leipzig, 1886); P. Natorp, _Die Ethika des Demokritos_ (Marburg,
+   1893); A. Dyroff, _Demokritstudien_ (Leipzig, 1899); among general
+   works C. A. Brandis, _Gesch. d. Entwickelungen d. griech.
+   Philosophie_ (Bonn, 1862-1864); Ed. Zeller, _Pre-Socratic Philosophy_
+   (Eng. trans., London, 1881); for his theory of sense-perception see
+   especially J. I. Beare, _Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition_
+   (Oxford, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+DEMOGEOT, JACQUES CLAUDE (1808-1804), French man of letters, was born in
+Paris on the 5th of July 1808. He was professor of rhetoric at the lycée
+Saint Louis, and subsequently assistant professor at the Sorbonne. He
+wrote many detached papers on various literary subjects, and two reports
+on secondary education in England and Scotland in collaboration with H.
+Montucci. His reputation rests on his excellent _Histoire de la
+littérature française depuis ses origines jusqu'à nos jours_ (1851),
+which has passed through many subsequent editions. He was also the
+author of a _Tableau de la littérature française au XVII^e siècle_
+(1859), and of a work (3 vols., 1880-1883) on the influence of foreign
+literatures on the development of French literature. He died in Paris in
+1894.
+
+
+
+
+DEMOGRAPHY (from Gr. [Greek: dêmos], people, and [Greek: graphein], to
+write), the science which deals with the statistics of health and
+disease, of the physical, intellectual, physiological and economical
+aspects of births, marriages and mortality. The first to employ the word
+was Achille Guillard in his _Éléments de statistique humaine ou
+démographie comparée_ (1855), but the meaning which he attached to it
+was merely that of the science which treats of the condition, general
+movement and progress of population in civilized countries, i.e. little
+more than what is comprised in the ordinary vital statistics, gleaned
+from census and registration reports. The word has come to have a much
+wider meaning and may now be defined as that branch of statistics which
+deals with the life-conditions of peoples.
+
+
+
+
+DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM (1667-1754), English mathematician of French
+extraction, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, on the 26th of May 1667. He
+belonged to a French Protestant family, and was compelled to take refuge
+in England at the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Having
+laid the foundation of his mathematical studies in France, he prosecuted
+them further in London, where he read public lectures on natural
+philosophy for his support. The _Principia mathematica_ of Sir Isaac
+Newton, which chance threw in his way, caused him to prosecute his
+studies with vigour, and he soon became distinguished among first-rate
+mathematicians. He was among the intimate personal friends of Newton,
+and his eminence and abilities secured his admission into the Royal
+Society of London in 1697, and afterwards into the Academies of Berlin
+and Paris. His merit was so well known and acknowledged by the Royal
+Society that they judged him a fit person to decide the famous contest
+between Newton and G. W. Leibnitz (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). The life
+of Demoivre was quiet and uneventful. His old age was spent in obscure
+poverty, his friends and associates having nearly all passed away before
+him. He died at London, on the 27th of November 1754.
+
+   The _Philosophical Transactions_ contain several of his papers. He
+   also published some excellent works, such as _Miscellanea analytica
+   de seriebus et quadraturis_ (1730), in 4to. This contained some
+   elegant and valuable improvements on then existing methods, which
+   have themselves, however, long been superseded. But he has been more
+   generally known by his _Doctrine of Chances, or Method of Calculating
+   the Probabilities of Events at Play_. This work was first printed in
+   1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. It was reprinted in
+   1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition
+   was afterwards published with additions in 1756. He also published a
+   _Treatise on Annuities_ (1725), which has passed through several
+   revised and corrected editions.
+
+   See C. Hutton, _Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary_ (1815).
+   For _Demoivre's Theorem_ see TRIGONOMETRY: Analytical.
+
+
+
+
+DEMONETIZATION, a term employed in monetary science in two different
+senses. (a) The depriving or divesting of a metal of its standard
+monetary value. From 1663 to 1717 silver was the standard of value in
+England and gold coins passed at their market value. The debasement and
+underrating of the silver coinage insensibly brought about the
+demonetization of silver in England as a standard of value and the
+substitution of gold. During the latter half of the 19th century, the
+tremendous depreciation of silver, owing to its continually increasing
+production, and consequently the impossibility of preserving any ratio
+of stability between it and gold, led to the abandonment or
+demonetization of the metal as a standard and to its use merely as token
+money. (b) The withdrawal of coin from circulation, as, for example, in
+England that of all pre-Victorian gold coins under the provisions of the
+Coinage Act 1889, and the royal proclamation of the 22nd of November
+1890.
+
+
+
+
+DEMONOLOGY ([Greek: Daimôn], demon, genius, spirit), the branch of the
+science of religions which relates to superhuman beings which are not
+gods. It deals both with benevolent beings which have no circle of
+worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below the rank of gods, and
+with malevolent beings of all kinds. It may be noted that the original
+sense of "demon" was a benevolent being; but in English the name now
+connotes malevolence; in German it has a neutral sense, e.g.
+_Korndämonen_. Demons, when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to
+either of the classes of spirits recognized by primitive animism (q.v.);
+that is to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable souls, or
+discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body; a sharp
+distinction is often drawn between these two classes, notably by the
+Melanesians, the West Africans and others; the Arab _jinn_, for example,
+are not reducible to modified human souls; at the same time these
+classes are frequently conceived as producing identical results, e.g.
+diseases.
+
+Under the head of demons are classified only such spirits as are
+believed to enter into relations with the human race; the term therefore
+includes (1) human souls regarded as genii or familiars, (2) such as
+receive a cult (for which see ANCESTOR WORSHIP), and (3) ghosts or other
+malevolent revenants; excluded are souls conceived as inhabiting another
+world. But just as gods are not necessarily spiritual, demons may also
+be regarded as corporeal; vampires for example are sometimes described
+as human heads with appended entrails, which issue from the tomb to
+attack the living during the night watches. The so-called Spectre
+Huntsman of the Malay Peninsula is said to be a man who scours the
+firmament with his dogs, vainly seeking for what he could not find on
+earth--a buck mouse-deer pregnant with male offspring; but he seems to
+be a living man; there is no statement that he ever died, nor yet that
+he is a spirit. The incubus and succubus of the middle ages are
+sometimes regarded as spiritual beings; but they were held to give very
+real proof of their bodily existence. It should, however, be remembered
+that primitive peoples do not distinguish clearly between material and
+immaterial beings.
+
+_Prevalence of Demons._--According to a conception of the world
+frequently found among peoples of the lower cultures, all the affairs of
+life are supposed to be under the control of spirits, each ruling a
+certain element or even object, and themselves in subjection to a
+greater spirit. Thus, the Eskimo are said to believe in spirits of the
+sea, earth and sky, the winds, the clouds and everything in nature.
+Every cove of the seashore, every point, every island and prominent rock
+has its guardian spirit. All are of the malignant type, to be
+propitiated only by acceptable offerings from persons who desire to
+visit the locality where it is supposed to reside. A rise in culture
+often results in an increase in the number of spiritual beings with whom
+man surrounds himself. Thus, the Koreans go far beyond the Eskimo and
+number their demons by thousands of billions; they fill the chimney, the
+shed, the living-room, the kitchen, they are on every shelf and jar; in
+thousands they waylay the traveller as he leaves his home, beside him,
+behind him, dancing in front of him, whirring over his head, crying out
+upon him from air, earth and water.
+
+Especially complicated was the ancient Babylonian demonology; all the
+petty annoyances of life--a sudden fall, a headache, a quarrel--were set
+down to the agency of fiends; all the stronger emotions--love, hate,
+jealousy and so on--were regarded as the work of demons; in fact so
+numerous were they, that there were special fiends for various parts of
+the human body--one for the head, another for the neck, and so on.
+Similarly in Egypt at the present day the _jinn_ are believed to swarm
+so thickly that it is necessary to ask their permission before pouring
+water on the ground, lest one should accidentally be soused and vent his
+anger on the offending human being. But these beliefs are far from being
+confined to the uncivilized; Greek philosophers like Porphyry, no less
+than the fathers of the Church, held that the world was pervaded with
+spirits; side by side with the belief in witchcraft, we can trace
+through the middle ages the survival of primitive animistic views; and
+in our own day even these beliefs subsist in unsuspected vigour among
+the peasantry of the more uneducated European countries. In fact the
+ready acceptance of spiritualism testifies to the force with which the
+primitive animistic way of looking at things appealed to the white races
+in the middle of the last century.
+
+_Character of Spiritual World._--The ascription of malevolence to the
+world of spirits is by no means universal. In West Africa the Mpongwe
+believe in local spirits, just as do the Eskimo; but they are regarded
+as inoffensive in the main; true, the passer-by must make some trifling
+offering as he nears their place of abode; but it is only occasionally
+that mischievous acts, such as the throwing down of a tree on a
+passer-by, are, in the view of the natives, perpetuated by the Ombuiri.
+So too, many of the spirits especially concerned with the operations of
+nature are conceived as neutral or even benevolent; the European peasant
+fears the corn-spirit only when he irritates him by trenching on his
+domain and taking his property by cutting the corn; similarly, there is
+no reason why the more insignificant personages of the pantheon should
+be conceived as malevolent, and we find that the _Petara_ of the Dyaks
+are far from indiscriminating and malignant, though disease and death
+are laid at their door.
+
+_Classification._--Besides the distinctions of human and non-human,
+hostile and friendly, the demons in which the lower races believe are
+classified by them according to function, each class with a distinctive
+name, with extraordinary minuteness, the list in the case of the Malays
+running to several score. They have, for example, a demon of the
+waterfall, a demon of wild-beast tracks, a demon which interferes with
+snares for wild-fowl, a baboon demon, which takes possession of dancers
+and causes them to perform wonderful feats of climbing, &c. But it is
+impossible to do more than deal with a few types, which will illustrate
+the main features of the demonology of savage, barbarous and
+semi-civilized peoples.
+
+(a) Natural causes, either of death or of disease, are hardly, if at
+all, recognized by the uncivilized; everything is attributed to spirits
+or magical influence of some sort. The spirits which cause disease may
+be human or non-human and their influence is shown in more than one way;
+they may enter the body of the victim (see POSSESSION), and either
+dominate his mind as well as his body, inflict specific diseases, or
+cause pains of various sorts. Thus the Mintra of the Malay Peninsula
+have a demon corresponding to every kind of disease known to them; the
+Tasmanian ascribed a gnawing pain to the presence within him of the soul
+of a dead man, whom he had unwittingly summoned by mentioning his name
+and who was devouring his liver; the Samoan held that the violation of a
+food tabu would result in the animal being formed within the body of the
+offender and cause his death. The demon theory of disease is still
+attested by some of our medical terms; epilepsy (Gr. [Greek: epilêpsis],
+seizure) points to the belief that the patient is possessed. As a
+logical consequence of this view of disease the mode of treatment among
+peoples in the lower stages of culture is mainly magical; they endeavour
+to propitiate the evil spirits by sacrifice, to expel them by spells,
+&c. (see EXORCISM), to drive them away by blowing, &c.; conversely we
+find the Khonds attempt to keep away smallpox by placing thorns and
+brushwood in the paths leading to places decimated by that disease, in
+the hope of making the disease demon retrace his steps. This theory of
+disease disappeared sooner than did the belief in possession; the
+energumens ([Greek: energoumenoi]) of the early Christian church, who
+were under the care of a special clerical order of exorcists, testify to
+a belief in possession; but the demon theory of disease receives no
+recognition; the energumens find their analogues in the converts of
+missionaries in China, Africa and elsewhere. Another way in which a
+demon is held to cause disease is by introducing itself into the
+patient's body and sucking his blood; the Malays believe that a woman
+who dies in childbirth becomes a _langsuir_ and sucks the blood of
+children; victims of the lycanthrope are sometimes said to be done to
+death in the same way; and it is commonly believed in Africa that the
+wizard has the power of killing people in this way, probably with the
+aid of a familiar.
+
+(b) One of the primary meanings of [Greek: daimôn] is that of genius or
+familiar, tutelary spirit; according to Hesiod the men of the golden
+race became after death guardians or watchers over mortals. The idea is
+found among the Romans also; they attributed to every man a genius who
+accompanied him through life. A Norse belief found in Iceland is that
+the _fylgia_, a genius in animal form, attends human beings; and these
+animal guardians may sometimes be seen fighting; in the same way the
+Siberian shamans send their animal familiars to do battle instead of
+deciding their quarrels in person. The animal guardian reappears in the
+_nagual_ of Central America (see article TOTEMISM), the _yunbeai_ of
+some Australian tribes, the _manitou_ of the Red Indian and the bush
+soul of some West African tribes; among the latter the link between
+animal and human being is said to be established by the ceremony of the
+blood bond. Corresponding to the animal guardian of the ordinary man, we
+have the familiar of the witch or wizard. All the world over it is held
+that such people can assume the form of animals; sometimes the power of
+the shaman is held to depend on his being able to summon his familiar;
+among the Ostiaks the shaman's coat was covered with representations of
+birds and beasts; two bear's claws were on his hands; his wand was
+covered with mouse-skin; when he wished to divine he beat his drum till
+a black bird appeared and perched on his hut; then the shaman swooned,
+the bird vanished, and the divination could begin. Similarly the
+Greenland _angekok_ is said to summon his _torngak_ (which may be an
+ancestral ghost or an animal) by drumming; he is heard by the bystanders
+to carry on a conversation and obtain advice as to how to treat
+diseases, the prospects of good weather and other matters of importance.
+The familiar, who is sometimes replaced by the devil, commonly figured
+in witchcraft trials; and a statute of James I. enacted that all persons
+invoking an evil spirit or consulting, covenanting with, entertaining,
+employing, feeding or rewarding any evil spirit should be guilty of
+felony and suffer death. In modern spiritualism the familiar is
+represented by the "guide," corresponding to which we have the
+theosophical "guru."
+
+(c) The familiar is sometimes an ancestral spirit, and here we touch the
+fringe of the cult of the dead (see also ANCESTOR WORSHIP). Especially
+among the lower races the dead are regarded as hostile; the Australian
+avoids the grave even of a kinsman and elaborate ceremonies of mourning
+are found amongst most primitive peoples, whose object seems to be to
+rid the living of the danger they run by association with the ghost of
+the dead. Among the Zulu the spirits of the dead are held to be friendly
+or hostile, just as they were in life; on the Congo a man after death
+joins the good or bad spirits according as his life has been good or
+bad. Especially feared among many peoples are the souls of those who
+have committed suicide or died a violent death; the woman who dies in
+childbed is held to become a demon of the most dangerous kind; even the
+unburied, as restless, dissatisfied spirits, are more feared than
+ordinary ghosts. Naturally spirits of these latter kinds are more
+valuable as familiars than ordinary dead men's souls. We find many
+recipes for securing their aid. In the Malay Peninsula the blood of a
+murdered man must be put in a bottle and prayers said over; after seven
+days of this worship a sound is heard and the operator puts his finger
+into the bottle for the polong, as the demon is called, to suck; it will
+fly through the air in the shape of an exceedingly diminutive female
+figure, and is always preceded by its pet, the pelesit, in the shape of
+a grasshopper. In Europe a similar demon is said to be obtainable from a
+cock's egg. In South Africa and India, on the other hand, the magician
+digs up a dead body, especially of a child, to secure a familiar. The
+evocation of spirits, especially in the form of necromancy, is an
+important branch of the demonology of many peoples; and the
+peculiarities of trance mediumship, which seem sufficiently established
+by modern research, go far to explain the vogue of this art. It seems to
+have been common among the Jews, and the case of the witch of Endor is
+narrated in a way to suggest something beyond fraud; in the book of
+magic which bears the name of Dr Faustus may be found many of the
+formulae for raising demons; in England may be mentioned especially Dr
+Dee as one of the most famous of those who claimed before the days of
+modern spiritualism (q.v.) to have intercourse with the unseen world and
+to summon demons at his will. Sometimes the spirits were summoned to
+appear as did the phantoms of the Greek heroes to Odysseus; sometimes
+they were called to enter a crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING); sometimes they
+are merely asked to declare the future or communicate by moving external
+objects without taking a visible form; thus among the Karens at the
+close of the burial ceremonies the ghost of the dead man, which is said
+to hover round till the rites are completed, is believed to make a ring
+swing round and snap the string from which it hangs.
+
+(d) The vampire is a particular form of demon which calls for some
+notice. In the Malay Peninsula, parts of Polynesia, &c., it is conceived
+as a head with attached entrails, which issues, it may be from the
+grave, to suck the blood of living human beings. According to the Malays
+a _penanggalan_ (vampire) is a living witch, and can be killed if she
+can be caught; she is especially feared in houses where a birth has
+taken place and it is the custom to hang up a bunch of thistle in order
+to catch her; she is said to keep vinegar at home to aid her in
+re-entering her own body. In Europe the Slavonic area is the principal
+seat of vampire beliefs, and here too we find, as a natural development,
+that means of preventing the dead from injuring the living have been
+evolved by the popular mind. The corpse of the vampire, which may often
+be recognized by its unnaturally ruddy and fresh appearance, should be
+staked down in the grave or its head should be cut off; it is
+interesting to note that the cutting off of heads of the dead was a
+neolithic burial rite.
+
+(e) The vampire is frequently blended in popular idea with the
+Poltergeist (q.v.) or knocking spirit, and also with the werwolf (see
+LYCANTHROPY).
+
+(f) As might be expected, dream demons are very common; in fact the word
+"nightmare" (A. S. _mær_, spirit, elf) preserves for us a record of this
+form of belief, which is found right down to the lowest planes of
+culture. The Australian, when he suffers from an oppression in his
+sleep, says that Koin is trying to throttle him; the Caribs say that
+Maboya beats them in their sleep; and the belief persists to this day in
+some parts of Europe; horses too are said to be subject to the
+persecutions of demons, which ride them at night. Another class of
+nocturnal demons are the incubi and succubi, who are said to consort
+with human beings in their sleep; in the Antilles these were the ghosts
+of the dead; in New Zealand likewise ancestral deities formed liaisons
+with females; in the Samoan Islands the inferior gods were regarded as
+the fathers of children otherwise unaccounted for; the Hindus have rites
+prescribed by which a companion nymph may be secured. The question of
+the real existence of incubi and succubi, whom the Romans identified
+with the fauns, was gravely discussed by the fathers of the church; and
+in 1418 Innocent VIII. set forth the doctrine of lecherous demons as an
+indisputable fact; and in the history of the Inquisition and of trials
+for witchcraft may be found the confessions of many who bore witness to
+their reality. In the _Anatomy of Melancholy_ Burton assures us that
+they were never more numerous than in A.D. 1600.
+
+(g) Corresponding to the personal tutelary spirit (supra, b) we have the
+genii of buildings and places. The Romans celebrated the birthday of a
+town and of its genius, just as they celebrated that of a man; and a
+snake was a frequent form for this kind of demon; when we compare with
+this the South African belief that the snakes which are in the
+neighbourhood of the kraal are the incarnations of the ancestors of the
+residents, it seems probable that some similar idea lay at the bottom of
+the Roman belief; to this day in European folklore the house snake or
+toad, which lives in the cellar, is regarded as the "life index" or
+other self of the father of the house; the death of one involves the
+death of the other, according to popular belief. The assignment of genii
+to buildings and gates is connected with an important class of
+sacrifices; in order to provide a tutelary spirit, or to appease
+chthonic deities, it was often the custom to sacrifice a human being or
+an animal at the foundation of a building; sometimes we find a similar
+guardian provided for the frontier of a country or of a tribe. The house
+spirit is, however, not necessarily connected with this idea. In Russia
+the _domovoi_ (house spirit) is an important personage in folk-belief;
+he may object to certain kinds of animals, or to certain colours in
+cattle; and must, generally speaking, be propitiated and cared for.
+Corresponding to him we have the drudging goblin of English folklore.
+
+(h) It has been shown above how the animistic creed postulates the
+existence of all kinds of local spirits, which are sometimes tied to
+their habitats, sometimes free to wander. Especially prominent in
+Europe, classical, medieval and modern, and in East Asia, is the spirit
+of the lake, river, spring, or well, often conceived as human, but also
+in the form of a bull or horse; the term Old Nick may refer to the
+water-horse Nök. Less specialized in their functions are many of the
+figures of modern folklore, some of whom have perhaps replaced some
+ancient goddess, e.g. Frau Holda; others, like the Welsh Pwck, the
+Lancashire boggarts or the more widely found Jack-o'-Lantern (Will o'
+the Wisp), are sprites who do no more harm than leading the wanderer
+astray. The banshee is perhaps connected with ancestral or house
+spirits; the Wild Huntsman, the Gabriel hounds, the Seven Whistlers,
+&c., are traceable to some actual phenomenon; but the great mass of
+British goblindom cannot now be traced back to savage or barbarous
+analogues. Among other local sprites may be mentioned the kobolds or
+spirits of the mines. The fairies (see FAIRY), located in the fairy
+knolls by the inhabitants of the Shetlands, may also be put under this
+head.
+
+(i) The subject of plant souls is referred to in connexion with animism
+(q.v.); but certain aspects of this phase of belief demand more detailed
+treatment. Outside the European area vegetation spirits of all kinds
+seem to be conceived, as a rule, as anthropomorphic; in classical
+Europe, and parts of the Slavonic area at the present day, the tree
+spirit was believed to have the form of a goat, or to have goats' feet.
+
+Of special importance in Europe is the conception of the so-called "corn
+spirit"; W. Mannhardt collected a mass of information proving that the
+life of the corn is supposed to exist apart from the corn itself and to
+take the form, sometimes of an animal, sometimes of a man or woman,
+sometimes of a child. There is, however, no proof that the belief is
+animistic in the proper sense. The animal which popular belief
+identified with the corn demon is sometimes killed in the spring in
+order to mingle its blood or bones with the seed; at harvest-time it is
+supposed to sit in the last corn and the animals driven out from it are
+sometimes killed; at others the reaper who cuts the last ear is said to
+have killed the "wolf" or the "dog," and sometimes receives the name of
+"wolf" or "dog" and retains it till the next harvest. The corn spirit is
+also said to be hiding in the barn till the corn is threshed, or it may
+be said to reappear at midwinter, when the farmer begins to think of his
+new year of labour and harvest. Side by side with the conception of the
+corn spirit as an animal is the anthropomorphic view of it; and this
+element must have predominated in the evolution of the cereal deities
+like Demeter; at the same time traces of the association of gods and
+goddesses of corn with animal embodiments of the corn spirit are found.
+
+(j) In many parts of the world, and especially in Africa, is found the
+conception termed the "otiose creator"; that is to say, the belief in a
+great deity, who is the author of all that exists but is too remote from
+the world and too high above terrestrial things to concern himself with
+the details of the universe. As a natural result of this belief we find
+the view that the operations of nature are conducted by a multitude of
+more or less obedient subordinate deities; thus, in Portuguese West
+Africa the Kimbunda believe in Suku-Vakange, but hold that he has
+committed the government of the universe to innumerable _kilulu_ good
+and bad; the latter kind are held to be far more numerous, but
+Suku-Vakange is said to keep them in order by occasionally smiting them
+with his thunderbolts; were it not for this, man's lot would be
+insupportable.
+
+Sometimes the gods of an older religion degenerate into the demons of
+the belief which supersedes it. A conspicuous example of this is found
+in the attitude of the Hebrew prophets to the gods of the nations, whose
+power they recognize without admitting their claim to reverence and
+sacrifice. The same tendency is seen in many early missionary works and
+is far from being without influence even at the present day. In the
+folklore of European countries goblindom is peopled by gods and
+nature-spirits of an earlier heathendom. We may also compare the Persian
+_devs_ with the Indian _devas_.
+
+_Expulsion of Demons._--In connexion with demonology mention must be
+made of the custom of expelling ghosts, spirits or evils generally.
+Primitive peoples from the Australians upwards celebrate, usually at
+fixed intervals, a driving out of hurtful influences. Sometimes, as
+among the Australians, it is merely the ghosts of those who have died in
+the year which are thus driven out; from this custom must be
+distinguished another, which consists in dismissing the souls of the
+dead at the close of the year and sending them on their journey to the
+other world; this latter custom seems to have an entirely different
+origin and to be due to love and not fear of the dead. In other cases it
+is believed that evil spirits generally or even non-personal evils such
+as sins are believed to be expelled. In these customs originated perhaps
+the scapegoat, some forms of sacrifice (q.v.) and other cathartic
+ceremonies.
+
+   BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_;
+   Skeat, _Malay Magic_; Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_;
+   Callaway, _Religion of the Amazulu_; Hild, _Étude sur les démons_;
+   Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_, i. 731; _Trans. Am. Phil. Soc._
+   xxvi. 79; Calmet, _Dissertation sur les esprits_; Maury, _La Magie_;
+   L. W. King, _Babylonian Magic_; Lenormant, _La Magie chez les
+   Chaldéens_; R. C. Thompson, _Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia_;
+   Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_; Roskoff, _Geschichte des Teufels_;
+   Sibly, _Illustration of the Occult Sciences_; Scott, _Demonology_;
+   Pitcairn, _Scottish Criminal Trials_; _Jewish Quarterly Rev._ viii.
+   576, &c.; Horst, _Zauberbibliothek_; _Jewish Encyclopedia_, s.v.
+   "Demonology." See also bibliography to POSSESSION, ANIMISM and other
+   articles.                                               (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS (1806-1871), English mathematician and logician, was
+born in June 1806, at Madura, in the Madras presidency. His father,
+Colonel John De Morgan, was employed in the East India Company's
+service, and his grandfather and great-grandfather had served under
+Warren Hastings. On the mother's side he was descended from James
+Dodson, F.R.S., author of the _Anti-logarithmic Canon_ and other
+mathematical works of merit, and a friend of Abraham Demoivre. Seven
+months after the birth of Augustus, Colonel De Morgan brought his wife,
+daughter and infant son to England, where he left them during a
+subsequent period of service in India, dying in 1816 on his way home.
+
+Augustus De Morgan received his early education in several private
+schools, and before the age of fourteen years had learned Latin, Greek
+and some Hebrew, in addition to acquiring much general knowledge. At the
+age of sixteen years and a half he entered Trinity College, Cambridge,
+and studied mathematics, partly under the tuition of Sir G. B. Airy. In
+1825 he gained a Trinity scholarship. De Morgan's love of wide reading
+somewhat interfered with his success in the mathematical tripos, in
+which he took the fourth place in 1827. He was prevented from taking his
+M.A. degree, or from obtaining a fellowship, by his conscientious
+objection to signing the theological tests then required from masters of
+arts and fellows at Cambridge.
+
+A career in his own university being closed against him, he entered
+Lincoln's Inn; but had hardly done so when the establishment, in 1828,
+of the university of London, in Gower Street, afterwards known as
+University College, gave him an opportunity of continuing his
+mathematical pursuits. At the early age of twenty-two he gave his first
+lecture as professor of mathematics in the college which he served with
+the utmost zeal and success for a third of a century. His connexion with
+the college, indeed, was interrupted in 1831, when a disagreement with
+the governing body caused De Morgan and some other professors to resign
+their chairs simultaneously. When, in 1836, his successor was
+accidentally drowned, De Morgan was requested to resume the
+professorship.
+
+In 1837 he married Sophia Elizabeth, daughter of William Frend, a
+Unitarian in faith, a mathematician and actuary in occupation, a notice
+of whose life, written by his son-in-law, will be found in the _Monthly
+Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society_ (vol. v.). They settled in
+Chelsea (30 Cheyne Row), where in later years Mrs De Morgan had a large
+circle of intellectual and artistic friends.
+
+As a teacher of mathematics De Morgan was unrivalled. He gave
+instruction in the form of continuous lectures delivered extempore from
+brief notes. The most prolonged mathematical reasoning, and the most
+intricate formulae, were given with almost infallible accuracy from the
+resources of his extraordinary memory. De Morgan's writings, however
+excellent, give little idea of the perspicuity and elegance of his viva
+voce expositions, which never failed to fix the attention of all who
+were worthy of hearing him. Many of his pupils have distinguished
+themselves, and, through Isaac Todhunter and E. J. Routh, he had an
+important influence on the later Cambridge school. For thirty years he
+took an active part in the business of the Royal Astronomical Society,
+editing its publications, supplying obituary notices of members, and for
+eighteen years acting as one of the honorary secretaries. He was also
+frequently employed as consulting actuary, a business in which his
+mathematical powers, combined with sound judgment and business-like
+habits, fitted him to take the highest place.
+
+De Morgan's mathematical writings contributed powerfully towards the
+progress of the science. His memoirs on the "Foundation of Algebra," in
+the 7th and 8th volumes of the _Cambridge Philosophical Transactions_,
+contain some of the most important contributions which have been made to
+the philosophy of mathematical method; and Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, in the
+preface to his _Lectures on Quaternions_, refers more than once to those
+papers as having led and encouraged him in the working out of the new
+system of quaternions. The work on _Trigonometry and Double Algebra_
+(1849) contains in the latter part a most luminous and philosophical
+view of existing and possible systems of symbolic calculus. But De
+Morgan's influence on mathematical science in England can only be
+estimated by a review of his long series of publications, which
+commence, in 1828, with a translation of part of Bourdon's _Elements of
+Algebra_, prepared for his students. In 1830 appeared the first edition
+of his well-known _Elements of Arithmetic_, which did much to raise the
+character of elementary training. It is distinguished by a simple yet
+thoroughly philosophical treatment of the ideas of number and magnitude,
+as well as by the introduction of new abbreviated processes of
+computation, to which De Morgan always attributed much practical
+importance. Second and third editions were called for in 1832 and 1835;
+a sixth edition was issued in 1876. De Morgan's other principal
+mathematical works were _The Elements of Algebra_ (1835), a valuable but
+somewhat dry elementary treatise; the _Essay on Probabilities_ (1838),
+forming the 107th volume of _Lardner's Cyclopaedia_, which forms a
+valuable introduction to the subject; and _The Elements of Trigonometry
+and Trigonometrical Analysis, preliminary to the Differential Calculus_
+(1837). Several of his mathematical works were published by the Society
+for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, of which De Morgan was at one
+time an active member. Among these may be mentioned the _Treatise on the
+Differential and Integral Calculus_ (1842); the _Elementary
+Illustrations of the Differential and Integral Calculus_, first
+published in 1832, but often bound up with the larger treatise; the
+essay, _On the Study and Difficulties of Mathematics_ (1831); and a
+brief treatise on _Spherical Trigonometry_ (1834). By some accident the
+work on probability in the same series, written by Sir J. W. Lubbock and
+J. Drinkwater-Bethune, was attributed to De Morgan, an error which
+seriously annoyed his nice sense of bibliographical accuracy. For
+fifteen years he did all in his power to correct the mistake, and
+finally wrote to _The Times_ to disclaim the authorship. (See _Monthly
+Notices_ of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxvi. p. 118.) Two of
+his most elaborate treatises are to be found in the _Encyclopaedia
+metropolitana_, namely the articles on the Calculus of Functions, and the
+Theory of Probabilities. De Morgan's minor mathematical writings were
+scattered over various periodicals. A list of these and other papers
+will be found in the _Royal Society's Catalogue_, which contains
+forty-two entries under the name of De Morgan.
+
+In spite, however, of the excellence and extent of his mathematical
+writings, it is probably as a logical reformer that De Morgan will be
+best remembered. In this respect he stands alongside of his great
+contemporaries Sir W. R. Hamilton and George Boole, as one of several
+independent discoverers of the all-important principle of the
+quantification of the predicate. Unlike most mathematicians, De Morgan
+always laid much stress upon the importance of logical training. In his
+admirable papers upon the modes of teaching arithmetic and geometry,
+originally published in the _Quarterly Journal of Education_ (reprinted
+in _The Schoolmaster_, vol ii.), he remonstrated against the neglect of
+logical doctrine. In 1839 he produced a small work called _First
+Notions of Logic_, giving what he had found by experience to be much
+wanted by students commencing with _Euclid_. In October 1846 he
+completed the first of his investigations, in the form of a paper
+printed in the _Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society_
+(vol. viii. No. 29). In this paper the principle of the quantified
+predicate was referred to, and there immediately ensued a memorable
+controversy with Sir W. R. Hamilton regarding the independence of De
+Morgan's discovery, some communications having passed between them in
+the autumn of 1846. The details of this dispute will be found in the
+original pamphlets, in the _Athenaeum_ and in the appendix to De
+Morgan's _Formal Logic_. Suffice it to say that the independence of De
+Morgan's discovery was subsequently recognized by Hamilton. The eight
+forms of proposition adopted by De Morgan as the basis of his system
+partially differ from those which Hamilton derived from the quantified
+predicate. The general character of De Morgan's development of logical
+forms was wholly peculiar and original on his part.
+
+Late in 1847 De Morgan published his principal logical treatise, called
+_Formal Logic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and Probable_.
+This contains a reprint of the _First Notions_, an elaborate development
+of his doctrine of the syllogism, and of the numerical definite
+syllogism, together with chapters of great interest on probability,
+induction, old logical terms and fallacies. The severity of the treatise
+is relieved by characteristic touches of humour, and by quaint anecdotes
+and allusions furnished from his wide reading and perfect memory. There
+followed at intervals, in the years 1850, 1858, 1860 and 1863, a series
+of four elaborate memoirs on the "Syllogism," printed in volumes ix. and
+x. of the _Cambridge Philosophical Transactions_. These papers taken
+together constitute a great treatise on logic, in which he substituted
+improved systems of notation, and developed a new logic of relations,
+and a new onymatic system of logical expression. In 1860 De Morgan
+endeavoured to render their contents better known by publishing a
+_Syllabus of a Proposed System of Logic_, from which may be obtained a
+good idea of his symbolic system, but the more readable and interesting
+discussions contained in the memoirs are of necessity omitted. The
+article "Logic" in the _English Cyclopaedia_ (1860) completes the list
+of his logical publications.
+
+Throughout his logical writings De Morgan was led by the idea that the
+followers of the two great branches of exact science, logic and
+mathematics, had made blunders,--the logicians in neglecting
+mathematics, and the mathematicians in neglecting logic. He endeavoured
+to reconcile them, and in the attempt showed how many errors an acute
+mathematician could detect in logical writings, and how large a field
+there was for discovery. But it may be doubted whether De Morgan's own
+system, "horrent with mysterious spiculae," as Hamilton aptly described
+it, is fitted to exhibit the real analogy between quantitative and
+qualitative reasoning, which is rather to be sought in the logical works
+of Boole.
+
+   Perhaps the largest part, in volume, of De Morgan's writings remains
+   still to be briefly mentioned; it consists of detached articles
+   contributed to various periodical or composite works. During the
+   years 1833-1843 he contributed very largely to the first edition of
+   the _Penny Cyclopaedia_, writing chiefly on mathematics, astronomy,
+   physics and biography. His articles of various length cannot be less
+   in number than 850, and they have been estimated to constitute a
+   sixth part of the whole _Cyclopaedia_, of which they formed perhaps
+   the most valuable portion. He also wrote biographies of Sir Isaac
+   Newton and Edmund Halley for Knight's _British Worthies_, various
+   notices of scientific men for the _Gallery of Portraits_, and for the
+   uncompleted _Biographical Dictionary_ of the Useful Knowledge
+   Society, and at least seven articles in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek
+   and Roman Biography_. Some of De Morgan's most interesting and useful
+   minor writings are to be found in the _Companions to the British
+   Almanack_, to which he contributed without fail one article each year
+   from 1831 up to 1857 inclusive. In these carefully written papers he
+   treats a great variety of topics relating to astronomy, chronology,
+   decimal coinage, life assurance, bibliography and the history of
+   science. Most of them are as valuable now as when written.
+
+   Among De Morgan's miscellaneous writings may be mentioned his
+   _Explanation of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere_, 1836,
+   including a description of the maps of the stars, published by the
+   Useful Knowledge Society; his _Treatise on the Globes, Celestial and
+   Terrestrial_, 1845, and his remarkable _Book of Almanacks_ (2nd
+   edition, 1871), which contains a series of thirty-five almanacs, so
+   arranged with indices of reference, that the almanac for any year,
+   whether in old style or new, from any epoch, ancient or modern, up to
+   A. D. 2000, may be found without difficulty, means being added for
+   verifying the almanac and also for discovering the days of new and
+   full moon from 2000 B. C. up to A. D. 2000. De Morgan expressly draws
+   attention to the fact that the plan of this book was that of L. B.
+   Francoeur and J. Ferguson, but the plan was developed by one who was
+   an unrivalled master of all the intricacies of chronology. The two
+   best tables of logarithms, the small five-figure tables of the Useful
+   Knowledge Society (1839 and 1857), and Shroen's Seven Figure-Table
+   (5th ed., 1865), were printed under De Morgan's superintendence.
+   Several works edited by him will be found mentioned in the _British
+   Museum Catalogue_. He made numerous anonymous contributions through a
+   long series of years to the _Athenaeum_, and to _Notes and Queries_,
+   and occasionally to _The North British Review_, _Macmillan's
+   Magazine_, &c.
+
+   Considerable labour was spent by De Morgan upon the subject of
+   decimal coinage. He was a great advocate of the pound and mil scheme.
+   His evidence on this subject was sought by the Royal Commission, and,
+   besides constantly supporting the Decimal Association in periodical
+   publications, he published several separate pamphlets on the subject.
+
+   One marked characteristic of De Morgan was his intense and yet
+   reasonable love of books. He was a true bibliophile and loved to
+   surround himself, as far as his means allowed, with curious and rare
+   books. He revelled in all the mysteries of watermarks, title-pages,
+   colophons, catch-words and the like; yet he treated bibliography as
+   an important science. As he himself wrote, "the most worthless book
+   of a bygone day is a record worthy of preservation; like a telescopic
+   star, its obscurity may render it unavailable for most purposes; but
+   it serves, in hands which know how to use it, to determine the places
+   of more important bodies." His evidence before the Royal Commission
+   on the British Museum in 1850 (Questions 5704*-5815,* 6481-6513, and
+   8966-8967), should be studied by all who would comprehend the
+   principles of bibliography or the art of constructing a catalogue,
+   his views on the latter subject corresponding with those carried out
+   by Panizzi in the _British Museum Catalogue_. A sample of De Morgan's
+   bibliographical learning is to be found in his account of
+   _Arithmetical Books, from the Invention of Printing_ (1847), and
+   finally in his _Budget of Paradoxes_. This latter work consists of
+   articles most of which were originally published in the Athenaeum,
+   describing the various attempts which have been made to invent a
+   perpetual motion, to square the circle, or to trisect the angle; but
+   De Morgan took the opportunity to include many curious bits gathered
+   from his extensive reading, so that the _Budget_, as reprinted by his
+   widow (1872), with much additional matter prepared by himself, forms
+   a remarkable collection of scientific _ana_. De Morgan's
+   correspondence with contemporary scientific men was very extensive
+   and full of interest. It remains unpublished, as does also a large
+   mass of mathematical tracts which he prepared for the use of his
+   students, treating all parts of mathematical science, and embodying
+   some of the matter of his lectures. De Morgan's library was purchased
+   by Lord Overstone, and presented to the university of London.
+
+In 1866 his life became clouded by the circumstances which led him to
+abandon the institution so long the scene of his labours. The refusal of
+the council to accept the recommendation of the senate, that they should
+appoint an eminent Unitarian minister to the professorship of logic and
+mental philosophy, revived all De Morgan's sensitiveness on the subject
+of sectarian freedom; and, though his feelings were doubtless excessive,
+there is no doubt that gloom was thrown over his life, intensified in
+1867 by the loss of his son George Campbell De Morgan, a young man of
+the highest scientific promise, whose name, as De Morgan expressly
+wished, will long be connected with the London Mathematical Society, of
+which he was one of the founders. From this time De Morgan rapidly fell
+into ill-health, previously almost unknown to him, dying on the 18th of
+March 1871. An interesting and truthful sketch of his life will be found
+in the _Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society_ for the 9th
+of February 1872, vol. xxii. p. 112, written by A. C. Ranyard, who says,
+"He was the kindliest, as well as the most learned of men--benignant to
+every one who approached him, never forgetting the claims which weakness
+has on strength."
+
+De Morgan left no published indications of his opinions on religious
+questions, in regard to which he was extremely reticent. He seldom or
+never entered a place of worship, and declared that he could not listen
+to a sermon, a circumstance perhaps due to the extremely strict
+religious discipline under which he was brought up. Nevertheless there
+is reason to believe that he was of a deeply religious disposition.
+Like M. Faraday and Sir I. Newton he entertained a confident belief in
+Providence, founded not on any tenuous inference, but on personal
+feeling. His hope of a future life also was vivid to the last.
+
+It is impossible to omit a reference to his witty sayings, some
+specimens of which are preserved in Dr Sadler's most interesting _Diary
+of Henry Crabb Robinson_ (1869), which also contains a humorous account
+of H. C. R. by De Morgan. It may be added that De Morgan was a great
+reader and admirer of Dickens; he was also fond of music, and a fair
+performer on the flute. (W. S. J.)
+
+His son, WILLIAM FREND DE MORGAN (b. 1839), first became known in
+artistic circles as a potter, the "De Morgan" tiles being remarkable for
+his rediscovery of the secret of some beautiful colours and glazes. But
+later in life he became even better known to the literary world by his
+novels, _Joseph Vance_ (1906), _Alice for Short_ (1907), _Somehow Good_
+(1908) and _It Never Can Happen Again_ (1909), in which the influence of
+Dickens and of his own earlier family life were conspicuous.
+
+
+
+
+DEMOSTHENES, the great Attic orator and statesman, was born in 384 (or
+383) B.C. His father, who bore the same name, was an Athenian citizen
+belonging to the deme of Paeania. His mother, Cleobule, was the daughter
+of Gylon, a citizen who had been active in procuring the protection of
+the kings of Bosporus for the Athenian colony of Nymphaeon in the
+Crimea, and whose wife was a native of that region. On these grounds the
+adversaries of Demosthenes, in after-days, used absurdly to taunt him
+with a traitorous or barbarian ancestry. The boy had a bitter foretaste
+of life. He was seven years old when his father died, leaving property
+(in a manufactory of swords, and another of upholstery) worth about
+£3500, which, invested as it seems to have been (20% was not thought
+exorbitant), would have yielded rather more than £600 a year, £300 a
+year was a very comfortable income at Athens, and it was possible to
+live decently on a tenth of it. Nicias, a very rich man, had property
+equivalent, probably, to not more than £4000 a year. Demosthenes was
+born then, to a handsome, though not a great fortune. But his
+guardians--two nephews of his father, Aphobus and Demophon, and one
+Therippides--abused their trust, and handed over to Demosthenes, when he
+came of age, rather less than one-seventh of his patrimony, perhaps
+between £50 and £60 a year. Demosthenes, after studying with Isaeus
+(q.v.)--then the great master of forensic eloquence and of Attic law,
+especially in will cases[1]--brought an action against Aphobus, and
+gained a verdict for about £2400. But it does not appear that he got the
+money; and, after some more fruitless proceedings against Onetor, the
+brother-in-law of Aphobus, the matter was dropped,--not, however, before
+his relatives had managed to throw a public burden (the equipment of a
+ship of war) on their late ward, whereby his resources were yet further
+straitened. He now became a professional writer of speeches or pleas
+([Greek: logographos]) for the law courts, sometimes speaking himself.
+Biographers have delighted to relate how painfully Demosthenes made
+himself a tolerable speaker,--how, with pebbles in his mouth, he tried
+his lungs against the waves, how he declaimed as he ran up hill, how he
+shut himself up in a cell, having first guarded himself against a
+longing for the haunts of men by shaving one side of his head, how he
+wrote out Thucydides eight times, how he was derided by the Assembly and
+encouraged by a judicious actor who met him moping about the Peiraeus.
+He certainly seems to have been the reverse of athletic (the stalwart
+Aeschines upbraids him with never having been a sportsman), and he
+probably had some sort of defect or impediment in his speech as a boy.
+Perhaps the most interesting fact about his work for the law courts is
+that he seems to have continued it, in some measure, through the most
+exciting parts of his great political career. The speech for Phormio
+belongs to the same year as the plea for Megalopolis. The speech against
+Boeotus "Concerning the Name" comes between the First Philippic and the
+First Olynthiac. The speech against Pantaenetus comes between the speech
+"On the Peace" and the Second Philippic.
+
+
+Political career and creed.
+
+The political career of Demosthenes, from his first direct contact with
+public affairs in 355 B.C. to his death in 322, has an essential unity.
+It is the assertion, in successive forms adapted to successive moments,
+of unchanging principles. Externally, it is divided into the chapter
+which precedes and the chapter which follows Chaeronea. But its inner
+meaning, the secret of its indomitable vigour, the law which harmonizes
+its apparent contrasts, cannot be understood unless it is regarded as a
+whole. Still less can it be appreciated in all its large wisdom and
+sustained self-mastery if it is viewed merely as a duel between the
+ablest champion and the craftiest enemy of Greek freedom. The time
+indeed came when Demosthenes and Philip stood face to face as
+representative antagonists in a mortal conflict. But, for Demosthenes,
+the special peril represented by Philip, the peril of subjugation to
+Macedon, was merely a disastrous accident. Philip happened to become the
+most prominent and most formidable type of a danger which was already
+threatening Greece before his baleful star arose. As Demosthenes said to
+the Athenians, if the Macedonian had not existed, they would have made
+another Philip for themselves. Until Athens recovered something of its
+old spirit, there must ever be a great standing danger, not for Athens
+only, but for Greece,--the danger that sooner or later, in some shape,
+from some quarter--no man could foretell the hour, the manner or the
+source--barbarian violence would break up the gracious and undefiled
+tradition of separate Hellenic life.
+
+What was the true relation of Athens to Greece? The answer which he gave
+to this question is the key to the life of Demosthenes. Athens, so
+Demosthenes held, was the natural head of Greece. Not, however, as an
+empress holding subject or subordinate cities in a dependence more or
+less compulsory. Rather as that city which most nobly expressed the
+noblest attributes of Greek political existence, and which, by her
+preeminent gifts both of intellect and of moral insight, was primarily
+responsible, everywhere and always, for the maintenance of those
+attributes in their integrity. Wherever the cry of the oppressed goes up
+from Greek against Greek, it was the voice of Athens which should first
+remind the oppressor that Hellene differed from barbarian in postponing
+the use of force to the persuasions of equal law. Wherever a barbarian
+hand offered wrong to any city of the Hellenic sisterhood, it was the
+arm of Athens which should first be stretched forth in the holy strength
+of Apollo the Averter. Wherever among her own children the ancient
+loyalty was yielding to love of pleasure or of base gain, there, above
+all, it was the duty of Athens to see that the central hearth of Hellas
+was kept pure. Athens must never again seek "empire" in the sense which
+became odious under the influence of Cleon and Hyperbolus,--when, to use
+the image of Aristophanes, the allies were as Babylonian slaves grinding
+in the Athenian mill. Athens must never permit, if she could help it,
+the re-establishment of such a domination as Sparta exercised in Greece
+from the battle of Aegospotami to the battle of Leuctra. Athens must aim
+at leading a free confederacy, of which the members should be bound to
+her by their own truest interests. Athens must seek to deserve the
+confidence of all Greeks alike.
+
+
+Theoric fund.
+
+Such, in the belief of Demosthenes, was the part which Athens must
+perform if Greece was to be safe. But reforms must be effected before
+Athens could be capable of such a part. The evils to be cured were
+different phases of one malady. Athens had long been suffering from the
+profound decay of public spirit. Since the early years of the
+Peloponnesian War, the separation of Athenian society from the state had
+been growing more and more marked. The old type of the eminent citizen,
+who was at once statesman and general, had become almost extinct.
+Politics were now managed by a small circle of politicians. Wars were
+conducted by professional soldiers whose troops were chiefly
+mercenaries, and who were usually regarded by the politicians either as
+instruments or as enemies. The mass of the citizens took no active
+interest in public affairs. But, though indifferent to principles, they
+had quickly sensitive partialities for men, and it was necessary to keep
+them in good humour. Pericles had introduced the practice of giving a
+small bounty from the treasury to the poorer citizens, for the purpose
+of enabling them to attend the theatre at the great festivals,--in other
+words, for the purpose of bringing them under the concentrated influence
+of the best Attic culture. A provision eminently wise for the age of
+Pericles easily became a mischief when the once honourable name of
+"demagogue" began to mean a flatterer of the mob. Before the end of the
+Peloponnesian War the festival-money (_theoricon_) was abolished. A few
+years after the restoration of the democracy it was again introduced.
+But until 354 B.C. it had never been more than a gratuity, of which the
+payment depended on the treasury having a surplus. In 354 B.C. Eubulus
+became steward of the treasury. He was an able man, with a special
+talent for finance, free from all taint of personal corruption, and
+sincerely solicitous for the honour of Athens, but enslaved to
+popularity, and without principles of policy. His first measure was to
+make the festival-money a permanent item in the budget. Thenceforth this
+bounty was in reality very much what Demades afterwards called it,--the
+cement ([Greek: kolla]) of the democracy.
+
+
+Forensic speeches in Public causes.
+
+Years before the danger from Macedon was urgent, Demosthenes had begun
+the work of his life,--the effort to lift the spirit of Athens, to
+revive the old civic loyalty, to rouse the city into taking that place
+and performing that part which her own welfare as well as the safety of
+Greece prescribed. His formally political speeches must never be
+considered apart from his forensic speeches in public causes. The
+Athenian procedure against the proposer of an unconstitutional law--i.e.
+of a law incompatible with existing laws--had a direct tendency to make
+the law court, in such cases, a political arena. The same tendency was
+indirectly exerted by the tolerance of Athenian juries (in the absence
+of a presiding expert like a judge) for irrelevant matter, since it was
+usually easy for a speaker to make capital out of the adversary's
+political antecedents. But the forensic speeches of Demosthenes for
+public causes are not only political in this general sense. They are
+documents, as indispensable as the Olynthiacs or Philippics, for his own
+political career. Only by taking them along with the formally political
+speeches, and regarding the whole as one unbroken series, can we see
+clearly the full scope of the task which he set before him,--a task in
+which his long resistance to Philip was only the most dramatic incident,
+and in which his real achievement is not to be measured by the event of
+Chaeronea.
+
+A forensic speech, composed for a public cause, opens the political
+career of Demosthenes with a protest against a signal abuse. In 355
+B.C., at the age of twenty-nine, he wrote the speech "Against
+Androtion." This combats on legal grounds a proposal that the out-going
+senate should receive the honour of a golden crown. In its larger
+aspect, it is a denunciation of the corrupt system which that senate
+represented, and especially of the manner in which the treasury had been
+administered by Aristophon. In 354 B.C. Demosthenes composed and spoke
+the oration "Against Leptines," who had effected a slender saving for
+the state by the expedient of revoking those hereditary exemptions from
+taxation which had at various times been conferred in recognition of
+distinguished merit. The descendants of Harmodius and Aristogeiton alone
+had been excepted from the operation of the law. This was the first time
+that the voice of Demosthenes himself had been heard on the public
+concerns of Athens, and the utterance was a worthy prelude to the career
+of a statesman. He answers the advocates of the retrenchment by pointing
+out that the public interest will not ultimately be served by a
+wholesale violation of the public faith. In the same year he delivered
+his first strictly political speech, "On the Navy Boards" (Symmories).
+The Athenians, irritated by the support which Artaxerxes had lately
+given to the revolt of their allies, and excited by rumours of his
+hostile preparations, were feverishly eager for a war with Persia.
+Demosthenes urges that such an enterprise would at present be useless;
+that it would fail to unite Greece; that the energies of the city should
+be reserved for a real emergency; but that, before the city can
+successfully cope with any war, there must be a better organization of
+resources, and, first of all, a reform of the navy, which he outlines
+with characteristic lucidity and precision.
+
+Two years later (352 B.C.) he is found dealing with a more definite
+question of foreign policy. Sparta, favoured by the depression of Thebes
+in the Phocian War, was threatening Megalopolis. Both Sparta and
+Megalopolis sent embassies to Athens. Demosthenes supported Megalopolis.
+The ruin of Megalopolis would mean, he argued, the return of Spartan
+domination in the Peloponnesus. Athenians must not favour the tyranny of
+any one city. They must respect the rights of all the cities, and thus
+promote unity based on mutual confidence. In the same year Demosthenes
+wrote the speech "Against Timocrates," to be spoken by the same Diodorus
+who had before prosecuted Androtion, and who now combated an attempt to
+screen Androtion and others from the penalties of embezzlement. The
+speech "Against Aristocrates," also of 352 B.C., reproves that foreign
+policy of feeble makeshifts which was now popular at Athens. The
+Athenian tenure of the Thracian Chersonese partly depended for its
+security on the good-will of the Thracian prince Cersobleptes.
+Charidemus, a soldier of fortune who had already played Athens false,
+was now the brother-in-law and the favourite of Cersobleptes.
+Aristocrates proposed that the person of Charidemus should be invested
+with a special sanctity, by the enactment that whoever attempted his
+life should be an outlaw from all dominions of Athens. Demosthenes
+points out that such adulation is as futile as it is fulsome. Athens can
+secure the permanence of her foreign possessions only in one way--by
+being strong enough to hold them.
+
+
+Principles of policy.
+
+Thus, between 355 and 352, Demosthenes had laid down the main lines of
+his policy. Domestic administration must be purified. Statesmen must be
+made to feel that they are responsible to the state. They must not be
+allowed to anticipate judgment on their deserts by voting each other
+golden crowns. They must not think to screen misappropriation of public
+money by getting partisans to pass new laws about state-debtors. Foreign
+policy must be guided by a larger and more provident conception of
+Athenian interests. When public excitement demands a foreign war, Athens
+must not rush into it without asking whether it is necessary, whether it
+will have Greek support, and whether she herself is ready for it. When a
+strong Greek city threatens a weak one, and seeks to purchase Athenian
+connivance with the bribe of a border-town, Athens must remember that
+duty and prudence alike command her to respect the independence of all
+Greeks. When it is proposed, by way of insurance on Athenian possessions
+abroad, to flatter the favourite of a doubtful ally, Athens must
+remember that such devices will not avail a power which has no army
+except on paper, and no ships fit to leave their moorings.
+
+
+Athens and Philip.
+
+But the time had gone by when Athenians could have tranquil leisure for
+domestic reform. A danger, calling for prompt action, had at last come
+very near. For six years Athens had been at war with Philip on account
+of his seizure of Amphipolis. Meanwhile he had destroyed Potidaea and
+founded Philippi. On the Thracian coasts he had become master of Abdera
+and Maronea. On the Thessalian coast he had acquired Methone. In a
+second invasion of Thessaly, he had overthrown the Phocians under
+Onomarchus, and had advanced to Thermopylae, to find the gates of Greece
+closed against him by an Athenian force. He had then marched to Heraeon
+on the Propontis, and had dictated a peace to Cersobleptes. He had
+formed an alliance with Cardia, Perinthus and Byzantium. Lastly, he had
+begun to show designs on the great Confederacy of Olynthus, the more
+warlike Miletus of the North. The First Philippic of Demosthenes was
+spoken in 351 B.C. The Third Philippic--the latest of the extant
+political speeches--was spoken in 341 B.C. Between these he delivered
+eight political orations, of which seven are directly concerned with
+Philip. The whole series falls into two great divisions. The first
+division comprises those speeches which were spoken against Philip while
+he was still a foreign power threatening Greece from without. Such are
+the First Philippic and the three orations for Olynthus. The second
+division comprises the speeches spoken against Philip when, by
+admission to the Amphictyonic Council, he had now won his way within the
+circle of the Greek states, and when the issue was no longer between
+Greece and Macedonia, but between the Greek and Macedonian parties in
+Greece. Such are the speech "On the Peace," the speech "On the Embassy,"
+the speech "On the Chersonese," the Second and Third Philippics.
+
+
+First Philippic.
+
+The First Philippic, spoken early in 351 B.C., was no sudden note of
+alarm drawing attention to an unnoticed peril. On the contrary, the
+Assembly was weary of the subject. For six years the war with Philip had
+been a theme of barren talk. Demosthenes urges that it is time to do
+something, and to do it with a plan. Athens fighting Philip has fared,
+he says, like an amateur boxer opposed to a skilled pugilist. The
+helpless hands have only followed blows which a trained eye should have
+taught them to parry. An Athenian force must be stationed in the north,
+at Lemnos or Thasos. Of 2000 infantry and 200 cavalry at least one
+quarter must be Athenian citizens capable of directing the mercenaries.
+
+Later in the same year Demosthenes did another service to the cause of
+national freedom. Rhodes, severed by its own act from the Athenian
+Confederacy, had since 355 been virtually subject to Mausolus, prince
+([Greek: dynastês]) of Caria, himself a tributary of Persia. Mausolus
+died in 351, and was succeeded by his widow Artemisia. The democratic
+party in Rhodes now appealed to Athens for help in throwing off the
+Carian yoke. Demosthenes supported their application in his speech "For
+the Rhodians." No act of his life was a truer proof of statesmanship. He
+failed. But at least he had once more warned Athens that the cause of
+political freedom was everywhere her own, and that, wherever that cause
+was forsaken, there a new danger was created both for Athens and for
+Greece.
+
+
+Euboean War.
+
+Next year (350) an Athenian force under Phocion was sent to Euboea, in
+support of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria, against the faction of
+Cleitarchus. Demosthenes protested against spending strength, needed for
+greater objects, on the local quarrels of a despot. Phocion won a
+victory at Tamynae. But the "inglorious and costly war" entailed an
+outlay of more than £12,000 on the ransom of captives alone, and ended
+in the total destruction of Athenian influence throughout Euboea. That
+island was now left an open field for the intrigues of Philip. Worst of
+all, the party of Eubulus not only defeated a proposal, arising from
+this campaign, for applying the festival-money to the war-fund, but
+actually carried a law making it high treason to renew the proposal. The
+degree to which political enmity was exasperated by the Euboean War may
+be judged from the incident of Midias, an adherent of Eubulus, and a
+type of opulent rowdyism. Demosthenes was choragus of his tribe, and was
+wearing the robe of that sacred office at the great festival in the
+theatre of Dionysus, when Midias struck him on the face. The affair was
+eventually compromised. The speech "Against Midias" written by
+Demosthenes for the trial (in 349) was neither spoken nor completed, and
+remains, as few will regret, a sketch.
+
+
+Olynthiacs.
+
+It was now three years since, in 352, the Olynthians had sent an embassy
+to Athens, and had made peace with their only sure ally. In 350 a second
+Olynthian embassy had sought and obtained Athenian help. The hour of
+Olynthus had indeed come. In 349 Philip opened war against the Chalcidic
+towns of the Olynthian League. The First and Second Olynthiacs of
+Demosthenes were spoken in that year in support of sending one force to
+defend Olynthus and another to attack Philip. "Better now than later,"
+is the thought of the First Olynthiac. The Second argues that Philip's
+strength is overrated. The Third--spoken in 348--carries us into the
+midst of action.[2] It deals with practical details. The festival-fund
+must be used for the war. The citizens must serve in person. A few
+months later, Olynthus and the thirty-two towns of the confederacy were
+swept from the earth. Men could walk over their sites, Demosthenes said
+seven years afterwards, without knowing that such cities had existed. It
+was now certain that Philip could not be stopped outside of Greece. The
+question was, What point within Greece shall he be allowed to reach?
+
+
+Peace between Philip and Athens.
+
+End of Phocian War.
+
+Eubulus and his party, with that versatility which is the privilege of
+political vagueness, now began to call for a congress of the allies to
+consider the common danger. They found a brilliant interpreter in
+Aeschines, who, after having been a tragic actor and a clerk to the
+assembly, had entered political life with the advantages of a splendid
+gift for eloquence, a fine presence, a happy address, a ready wit and a
+facile conscience. While his opponents had thus suddenly become warlike,
+Demosthenes had become pacific. He saw that Athens must have time to
+collect strength. Nothing could be gained, meanwhile, by going on with
+the war. Macedonian sympathizers at Athens, of whom Philocrates was the
+chief, also favoured peace. Eleven envoys, including Philocrates,
+Aeschines, and Demosthenes, were sent to Philip in February 346 B.C.
+After a debate at Athens, peace was concluded with Philip in April.
+Philip on the one hand, Athens and her allies on the other, were to keep
+what they respectively held at the time when the peace was ratified. But
+here the Athenians made a fatal error. Philip was bent on keeping the
+door of Greece open. Demosthenes was bent on shutting it against him.
+Philip was now at war with the people of Halus in Thessaly. Thebes had
+for ten years been at war with Phocis. Here were two distinct chances
+for Philip's armed intervention in Greece. But if the Halians and the
+Phocians were included in the peace, Philip could not bear arms against
+them without violating the peace. Accordingly Philip insisted that they
+should not be included. Demosthenes insisted they should be included.
+They were not included. The result followed speedily. The same envoys
+were sent a second time to Philip at the end of April 346 for the
+purpose of receiving his oaths in ratification of the peace. It was late
+in June before he returned from Thrace to Pella--thus gaining, under the
+terms, all the towns that he had taken meanwhile. He next took the
+envoys with him through Thessaly to Thermopylae. There--at the
+invitation of Thessalians and Thebans--he intervened in the Phocian War.
+Phalaecus surrendered. Phocis was crushed. Philip took its place in the
+Amphictyonic Council, and was thus established as a Greek power in the
+very centre, at the sacred hearth, of Greece. The right of precedence in
+consultation of the oracle ([Greek: promanteia]) was transferred from
+Athens to Philip. While indignant Athenians were clamouring for the
+revocation of the peace, Demosthenes upheld it in his speech "On the
+Peace" in September. It ought never to have been made on such terms, he
+said. But, having been made, it had better be kept. "If we went to war
+now, where should we find allies? And after losing Oropus, Amphipolis,
+Cardia, Chios, Cos, Rhodes, Byzantium, shall we fight about the shadow
+of Delphi?"
+
+
+Second Philippic.
+
+Third Philippic.
+
+During the eight years between the peace of Philocrates and the battle
+of Chaeronea, the authority of Demosthenes steadily grew, until it
+became first predominant and then paramount. He had, indeed, a
+melancholy advantage. Each year his argument was more and more cogently
+enforced by the logic of facts. In 344 he visited the Peloponnesus for
+the purpose of counteracting Macedonian intrigue. Mistrust, he told the
+Peloponnesian cities, is the safeguard of free communities against
+tyrants. Philip lodged a formal complaint at Athens. Here, as elsewhere,
+the future master of Greece reminds us of Napoleon on the eve of the
+first empire. He has the same imperturbable and persuasive effrontery in
+protesting that he is doing one thing at the moment when his energies
+are concentrated on doing the opposite. Demosthenes replied in the
+Second Philippic. "If," he said, "Philip is the friend of Greece, we are
+doing wrong. If he is the enemy of Greece, we are doing right. Which is
+he? I hold him to be our enemy, because everything that he has hitherto
+done has benefited himself and hurt us." The prosecution of Aeschines
+for malversation on the embassy (commonly known as _De falsa
+legatione_), which was brought to an issue in the following year, marks
+the moral strength of the position now held by Demosthenes. When the
+gravity of the charge and the complexity of the evidence are considered,
+the acquittal of Aeschines by a narrow majority must be deemed his
+condemnation. The speech "On the Affairs of the Chersonese" and the
+Third Philippic were the crowning efforts of Demosthenes. Spoken in the
+same year, 341 B.C., and within a short space of each other, they must
+be taken together. The speech "On the Affairs of the Chersonese" regards
+the situation chiefly from an Athenian point of view. "If the peace
+means," argues Demosthenes, "that Philip can seize with impunity one
+Athenian possession after another, but that Athenians shall not on their
+peril touch aught that belongs to Philip, where is the line to be drawn?
+We shall go to war, I am told, when it is necessary. If the necessity
+has not come yet, when will it come?" The Third Philippic surveys a
+wider horizon. It ascends from the Athenian to the Hellenic view. Philip
+has annihilated Olynthus and the Chalcidic towns. He has ruined Phocis.
+He has frightened Thebes. He has divided Thessaly. Euboea and the
+Peloponnesus are his. His power stretches from the Adriatic to the
+Hellespont. Where shall be the end? Athens is the last hope of Greece.
+And, in this final crisis, Demosthenes was the embodied energy of
+Athens. It was Demosthenes who went to Byzantium, brought the estranged
+city back to the Athenian alliance, and snatched it from the hands of
+Philip. It was Demosthenes who, when Philip had already seized Elatea,
+hurried to Thebes, who by his passionate appeal gained one last chance,
+the only possible chance, for Greek freedom, who broke down the barrier
+of an inveterate jealousy, who brought Thebans to fight beside
+Athenians, and who thus won at the eleventh hour a victory for the
+spirit of loyal union which took away at least one bitterness from the
+unspeakable calamity of Chaeronea.
+
+
+Municipal activity.
+
+But the work of Demosthenes was not closed by the ruin of his cause.
+During the last sixteen years of his life (338-322) he rendered services
+to Athens not less important, and perhaps more difficult, than those
+which he had rendered before. He was now, as a matter of course,
+foremost in the public affairs of Athens. In January 337, at the annual
+winter Festival of the Dead in the Outer Ceramicus, he spoke the funeral
+oration over those who had fallen at Chaeronea. He was member of a
+commission for strengthening the fortifications of the city ([Greek:
+teichopoios]). He administered the festival-fund. During a dearth which
+visited Athens between 330 and 326 he was charged with the organization
+of public relief. In 324 he was chief ([Greek: architheoros]) of the
+sacred embassy to Olympia. Already, in 336, Ctesiphon had proposed that
+Demosthenes should receive a golden crown from the state, and that his
+extraordinary merits should be proclaimed in the theatre at the Great
+Dionysia. The proposal was adopted by the senate as a bill ([Greek:
+probouleuma]); but it must be passed by the Assembly before it could
+become an act ([Greek: psêphisma]). To prevent this, Aeschines gave
+notice, in 336, that he intended to proceed against Ctesiphon for having
+proposed an unconstitutional measure. For six years Aeschines avoided
+action on this notice. At last, in 330, the patriotic party felt strong
+enough to force him to an issue. Aeschines spoke the speech "Against
+Ctesiphon," an attack on the whole public life of Demosthenes.
+Demosthenes gained an overwhelming victory for himself and for the
+honour of Athens in the most finished, the most splendid and the most
+pathetic work of ancient eloquence--the immortal oration "On the Crown."
+
+
+Affair of Harpalus.
+
+In the winter of 325-324 Harpalus, the receiver-general of Alexander in
+Asia, fled to Greece, taking with him 8000 mercenaries, and treasure
+equivalent to about a million and a quarter sterling. On the motion of
+Demosthenes he was warned from the harbours of Attica. Having left his
+troops and part of his treasure at Taenarum, he again presented himself
+at the Peiraeus, and was now admitted. He spoke fervently of the
+opportunity which offered itself to those who loved the freedom of
+Greece. All Asia would rise with Athens to throw off the hated yoke.
+Fiery patriots like Hypereides were in raptures. For zeal which could be
+bought Harpalus had other persuasions. But Demosthenes stood firm. War
+with Alexander would, he saw, be madness. It could have but one
+result,--some indefinitely worse doom for Athens. Antipater and Olympias
+presently demanded the surrender of Harpalus. Demosthenes opposed this.
+But he reconciled the dignity with the loyalty of Athens by carrying a
+decree that Harpalus should be arrested, and that his treasure should be
+deposited in the Parthenon, to be held in trust for Alexander. Harpalus
+escaped from prison. The amount of the treasure, which Harpalus had
+stated as 700 talents, proved to be no more than 350. Demosthenes
+proposed that the Areopagus should inquire what had become of the other
+350. Six months, spent in party intrigues, passed before the Areopagus
+gave in their report ([Greek: apophasis]). The report inculpated nine
+persons. Demosthenes headed the list of the accused. Hypereides was
+among the ten public prosecutors. Demosthenes was condemned, fined fifty
+talents, and, in default of payment, imprisoned. After a few days he
+escaped from prison to Aegina, and thence to Troezen. Two things in this
+obscure affair are beyond reasonable doubt. First, that Demosthenes was
+not bribed by Harpalus. The hatred of the Macedonian party towards
+Demosthenes, and the fury of those vehement patriots who cried out that
+he had betrayed their best opportunity, combined to procure his
+condemnation, with the help, probably, of some appearances which were
+against him. Secondly, it can hardly be questioned that, by withstanding
+the hot-headed patriots at this juncture, Demosthenes did heroic service
+to Athens.
+
+
+End of Lamian War.
+
+Demosthenes condemned.
+
+Next year (323 B.C.) Alexander died. Then the voice of Demosthenes,
+calling Greece to arms, rang out like a trumpet. Early in August 322 the
+battle of Crannon decided the Lamian War against Greece. Antipater
+demanded, as the condition on which he would refrain from besieging
+Athens, the surrender of the leading patriots. Demades moved the decree
+of the Assembly by which Demosthenes, Hypereides, and some others were
+condemned to death as traitors. On the 20th of Boedromion (September 16)
+322, a Macedonian garrison occupied Munychia. It was a day of solemn and
+happy memories, a day devoted, in the celebration of the Great
+Mysteries, to sacred joy,--the day on which the glad procession of the
+Initiated returned from Eleusis to Athens. It happened, however, to have
+another association, more significant than any ironical contrast for the
+present purpose of Antipater. It was the day on which, thirteen years
+before, Alexander had punished the rebellion of Thebes with
+annihilation.
+
+
+Flight to Calauria.
+
+Death.
+
+The condemned men had fled to Aegina. Parting there from Hypereides and
+the rest, Demosthenes went on to Calauria, a small island off the coast
+of Argolis. In Calauria there was an ancient temple of Poseidon, once a
+centre of Minyan and Ionian worship, and surrounded with a peculiar
+sanctity as having been, from time immemorial, an inviolable refuge for
+the pursued. Here Demosthenes sought asylum. Archias of Thurii, a man
+who, like Aeschines, had begun life as a tragic actor, and who was now
+in the pay of Antipater, soon traced the fugitive, landed in Calauria,
+and appeared before the temple of Poseidon with a body of Thracian
+spearmen. Plutarch's picturesque narrative bears the marks of artistic
+elaboration. Demosthenes had dreamed the night before that he and
+Archias were competing for a prize as tragic actors; the house applauded
+Demosthenes; but his chorus was shabbily equipped, and Archias gained
+the prize. Archias was not the man to stick at sacrilege. In Aegina,
+Hypereides and the others had been taken from the shrine of Aeacus. But
+he hesitated to violate an asylum so peculiarly sacred as the Calaurian
+temple. Standing before its open door, with his Thracian soldiers around
+him, he endeavoured to prevail on Demosthenes to quit the holy precinct.
+Antipater would be certain to pardon him. Demosthenes sat silent, with
+his eyes fixed on the ground. At last, as the emissary persisted in his
+bland persuasions, he looked up and said,--"Archias, you never moved me
+by your acting, and you will not move me now by your promises." Archias
+lost his temper, and began to threaten. "Now," rejoined Demosthenes,
+"you speak like a real Macedonian oracle; before you were acting. Wait a
+moment, then, till I write to my friends." With these words, Demosthenes
+withdrew into the inner part of the temple,--still visible, however,
+from the entrance. He took out a roll of paper, as if he were going to
+write, put the pen to his mouth, and bit it, as was his habit in
+composing. Then he threw his head back, and drew his cloak over it. The
+Thracian spearmen, who were watching him from the door, began to gibe at
+his cowardice. Archias went in to him, encouraged him to rise, repeated
+his old arguments, talked to him of reconciliation with Antipater. By
+this time Demosthenes felt that the poison which he had sucked from the
+pen was beginning to work. He drew the cloak from his face, and looked
+steadily at Archias. "Now you can play the part of Creon in the tragedy
+as soon as you like," he said, "and cast forth my body unburied. But I,
+O gracious Poseidon, quit thy temple while I yet live; Antipater and his
+Macedonians have done what they could to pollute it." He moved towards
+the door, calling to them to support his tottering steps. He had just
+passed the altar of the god, when he fell, and with a groan gave up the
+ghost (October 322 B.C.).
+
+
+Political character.
+
+As a statesman, Demosthenes needs no epitaph but his own words in the
+speech "On the Crown,"--_I say that, if the event had been manifest to
+the whole world beforehand, not even then ought Athens to have forsaken
+this course, if Athens had any regard for her glory, or for her past, or
+for the ages to come._ The Persian soldier in Herodotus, following
+Xerxes to foreseen ruin, confides to his fellow-guest at the banquet
+that the bitterest pain which man can know is [Greek: polla phroneonta
+mêdenoss krateein],--complete, but helpless, prescience. In the grasp of
+a more inexorable necessity, the champion of Greek freedom was borne
+onward to a more tremendous catastrophe than that which strewed the
+waters of Salamis with Persian wrecks and the field of Plataea with
+Persian dead; but to him, at least, it was given to proclaim aloud the
+clear and sure foreboding that filled his soul, to do all that true
+heart and free hand could do for his cause, and, though not to save, yet
+to encourage, to console and to ennoble. As the inspiration of his life
+was larger and higher than the mere courage of resistance, so his merit
+must be regarded as standing altogether outside and above the struggle
+with Macedon. The great purpose which he set before him was to revive
+the public spirit, to restore the political vigour, and to re-establish
+the Panhellenic influence of Athens,--never for her own advantage
+merely, but always in the interest of Greece. His glory is, that while
+he lived he helped Athens to live a higher life. Wherever the noblest
+expressions of her mind are honoured, wherever the large conceptions of
+Pericles command the admiration of statesmen, wherever the architect and
+the sculptor love to dwell on the masterpieces of Ictinus and Pheidias,
+wherever the spell of ideal beauty or of lofty contemplation is
+exercised by the creations of Sophocles or of Plato, there it will be
+remembered that the spirit which wrought in all these would have passed
+sooner from among men, if it had not been recalled from a trance, which
+others were content to mistake for the last sleep, by the passionate
+breath of Demosthenes.
+
+
+Oratory.
+
+The orator in whom artistic genius was united, more perfectly than in
+any other man, with moral enthusiasm and with intellectual grasp, has
+held in the modern world the same rank which was accorded to him in the
+old; but he cannot enjoy the same appreciation. Macaulay's ridicule has
+rescued from oblivion the criticism which pronounced the eloquence of
+Chatham to be more ornate than that of Demosthenes, and less diffuse
+than that of Cicero. Did the critic, asks Macaulay, ever hear any
+speaking that was less ornamented than that of Demosthenes, or more
+diffuse than that of Cicero? Yet the critic's remark was not so
+pointless as Macaulay thought it. Sincerity and intensity are, indeed,
+to the modern reader, the most obvious characteristics of Demosthenes.
+His style is, on the whole, singularly free from what we are accustomed
+to regard as rhetorical embellishment. Where the modern orator would
+employ a wealth of imagery, or elaborate a picture in exquisite detail,
+Demosthenes is content with a phrase or a word. Burke uses, in reference
+to Hyder Ali, the same image which Demosthenes uses in reference to
+Philip. "Compounding all the materials of fury, havoc, desolation, into
+one black cloud, he hung for a while on the declivity of the mountains.
+Whilst the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on
+this menacing meteor, which darkened all their horizon, it suddenly
+burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the
+Carnatic." Demosthenes forbears to amplify. "The people gave their
+voice, and the danger which hung upon our borders went by like a cloud."
+To our modern feeling, the eloquence of Demosthenes exhibits everywhere
+a general stamp of earnest and simple strength. But it is well to
+remember the charge made against the style of Demosthenes by a
+contemporary Greek orator, and the defence offered by the best Greek
+critic of oratory. Aeschines reproached the diction of Demosthenes with
+excess of elaboration and adornment ([Greek: periergia]). Dionysius, in
+reply, admits that Demosthenes does at times depart from
+simplicity,--that his style is sometimes elaborately ornate and remote
+from the ordinary usage. But, he adds, Demosthenes adopts this manner
+where it is justified by the elevation of his theme. The remark may
+serve to remind us of our modern disadvantage for a full appreciation of
+Demosthenes. The old world felt, as we do, his moral and mental
+greatness, his fire, his self-devotion, his insight. But it felt also,
+as we can never feel, the versatile perfection of his skill. This it was
+that made Demosthenes unique to the ancients. The ardent patriot, the
+far-seeing statesman, were united in his person with the consummate and
+unapproachable artist. Dionysius devoted two special treatises to
+Demosthenes,--one on his language and style ([Greek: lektikos topos]),
+the other on his treatment of subject-matter ([Greek: pragmatikos
+topos]). The latter is lost. The former is one of the best essays in
+literary criticism which antiquity has bequeathed to us. The idea which
+it works out is that Demosthenes has perfected Greek prose by fusing in
+a glorious harmony the elements which had hitherto belonged to separate
+types. The austere dignity of Antiphon, the plain elegance of Lysias,
+the smooth and balanced finish of that middle or normal character which
+is represented by Isocrates, have come together in Demosthenes. Nor is
+this all. In each species he excels the specialists. He surpasses the
+school of Antiphon in perspicuity, the school of Lysias in verve, the
+school of Isocrates in variety, in felicity, in symmetry, in pathos, in
+power. Demosthenes has at command all the discursive brilliancy which
+fascinates a festal audience. He has that power of concise and lucid
+narration, of terse reasoning, of persuasive appeal, which is required
+by the forensic speaker. His political eloquence can worthily image the
+majesty of the state, and enforce weighty counsels with lofty and
+impassioned fervour. A true artist, he grudged no labour which could
+make the least part of his work more perfect. Isocrates spent ten years
+on the _Panegyricus_. After Plato's death, a manuscript was found among
+his papers with the first eight words of the _Republic_ arranged in
+several different orders. What wonder, then, asks the Greek critic, if
+the diligence of Demosthenes was no less incessant and minute? "To me,"
+he says, "it seems far more natural that a man engaged in composing
+political discourses, imperishable memorials of his power, should
+neglect not even the smallest details, than that the veneration of
+painters and sculptors, who are darkly showing forth their manual tact
+and toil in a corruptible material, should exhaust the refinements of
+their art on the veins, on the feathers, on the down of the lip, and the
+like niceties."
+
+
+Works.
+
+More than half of the sixty-one speeches extant under the name of
+Demosthenes are certainly or probably spurious. The results to which the
+preponderance of opinion leans are given in the following table. Those
+marked a were already rejected or doubted in antiquity; those marked m,
+first in modern times:[3]
+
+
+  I. DELIBERATIVE SPEECHES.
+
+   GENUINE.
+
+        Or. 14. On the Navy Boards                         354  B.C.
+        Or. 16. For the People of Megalopolis              352   "
+        Or.  4. First Philippic                            351   "
+        Or. 15. For the Rhodians                           351   "
+        Or.  1. First Olynthiac                            349   "
+        Or.  2. Second Olynthiac                           349   "
+        Or.  3. Third Olynthiac                            348   "
+        Or.  5. On the Peace                               346   "
+        Or.  6. Second Philippic                           344   "
+        Or.  8. On the Affairs of the Chersonese           341   "
+        Or.  9. Third Philippic                            341   "
+
+   SPURIOUS.
+
+    (a) Or.  7. On Halonnesus (by Hegesippus)              342  B.C.
+
+                         _Rhetorical Forgeries_.
+
+    (a) Or. 17. On the Treaty with Alexander.
+    (a) Or. 10. Fourth Philippic.
+    (m) Or. 11. Answer to Philip's Letter.[4]
+    (m) Or. 12. Philip's Letter.
+    (m) Or. 13. On the Assessment ([Greek: syntxis]).
+
+
+  II. FORENSIC SPEECHES.
+
+  A. IN PUBLIC CAUSES.
+
+   GENUINE.
+
+        Or. 22. In ([Greek: kata]) Androtionem             355   B.C.
+        Or. 20. Contra ([Greek: pros]) Leptinem            354    "
+        Or. 24. In Timocratem                              352    "
+        Or. 23. In Aristocratem                            352    "
+        Or. 21. In Midiam                                  349    "
+        Or. 19. On the Embassy                             343    "
+        Or. 18. On the Crown                               330    "
+
+   SPURIOUS.
+
+    (a) Or. 58. In Theocrinem                              339   B.C.
+    (a) Or. 25, 26. In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical forgeries).
+
+  B. IN PRIVATE CAUSES.
+
+   GENUINE.
+
+        Or. 27, 28. In Aphobum I. et II.                   364   B.C.
+    (m) Or. 30, 31. Contra Onetora I. et II.               362    "
+        Or. 41. Contra Spudiam                              ?     "
+    (m) Or. 55. Contra Calliclem                            ?
+        Or. 54. In Cononem                                 356    "
+        Or. 36. Pro Phormione                              352    "
+    (m) Or. 39. Contra Boeotum de Nomine                   350    "
+        Or. 37. Contra Pantaenetum                         346-5  "
+    (m) Or. 38. Contra Nausimachum et Diopithem             ?
+
+   SPURIOUS.
+
+    (_The first eight of the following are given by Schäfer to
+        Apollodorus._)
+
+    (m) Or. 52. Contra Callippum.                          369-8 B.C.
+    (a) Or. 53. Contra Nicostratum                   after 368    "
+    (a) Or. 49. Contra Timotheum                           362    "
+    (m) Or. 50. Contra Polyclem                            357    "
+    (a) Or. 47. In Evergum et Mnesibulum                   356    "
+    (m) Or. 45, 46. In Stephanum I. et II.                 351    "
+    (a) Or. 59. In Neaeram                    349[343-0, Blass]   "
+    (m) Or. 51. On the Trierarchic Crown (by           360-359    "
+                  Cephisodotus?)
+    (m) Or. 43. Contra Macartatum                           ?
+    (m) Or. 48. In Olympiodorum.                     after 343    "
+    (m) Or. 44. Contra Leocharem                            ?
+    (a) Or. 35. Contra Lacritum                            341    "
+    (a) Or. 42. Contra Phaenippum                           ?
+    (m) Or. 32. Contra Zenothemin                           ?
+    (m) Or. 34. Contra Phormionem                           ?
+    (m) Or. 29. Contra Aphobum pro Phano
+    (a) Or. 40. Contra Boeotum de Dote                     347   "
+    (m) Or. 57. Contra Eubulidem                           346-5 "
+    (m) Or. 33. Contra Apaturium                            ?
+    (a) Or. 56. In Dionysodorum                 not before 322-1 "
+
+   Or. 60 ([Greek: epitaphios]) and Or. 61 (Greek: erôtikos) are works
+   of rhetoricians. The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used
+   by the composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of
+   Aeschines. The 56 [Greek: prooimia], exordia or sketches for
+   political speeches, are by various hands and of various dates.[5]
+   They are valuable as being compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from
+   other classical models.
+
+
+Literary history of Demosthenes.
+
+The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared only with
+the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous appreciation,
+recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfection. Dionysius, the
+closest and most penetrating of his ancient critics, exhausts the
+language of admiration in showing how Demosthenes united and elevated
+whatever had been best in earlier masters of the Greek idiom.
+Hermogenes, in his works on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes as [Greek:
+ho rhêtôr], _the_ orator. The writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows
+no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes has risen. From his
+own younger contemporaries, Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded
+their theory of rhetoric in large part on his practice, down to the
+latest Byzantines, the consent of theorists, orators, antiquarians,
+anthologists, lexicographers, offered the same unvarying homage to
+Demosthenes. His work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian,
+Basilicus, Aelius, Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to his speeches
+were drawn up by rhetoricians so distinguished as Numenius and Libanius.
+Accomplished men of letters, such as Julius Vestinus and Aelius
+Dionysius, selected from his writings choice passages for declamation or
+perusal, of which fragments are incorporated in the miscellany of
+Photius and the lexicons of Harpocration, Pollux and Suidas. It might
+have been anticipated that the purity of a text so widely read and so
+renowned would, from the earliest times, have been guarded with jealous
+care. The works of the three great dramatists had been thus protected,
+about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension. But no such good fortune
+befell the works of Demosthenes. Alexandrian criticism was chiefly
+occupied with poetry. The titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed,
+registered, with those of the other orators, in the catalogues ([Greek:
+rhêtorikoi pinakes]) of Alexandria and Pergamum. But no thorough attempt
+was made to separate the authentic works from those spurious works which
+had even then become mingled with them. Philosophical schools which,
+like the Stoic, felt the ethical interest of Demosthenes, cared little
+for his language. The rhetoricians who imitated or analysed his style
+cared little for the criticism of his text. Their treatment of it had,
+indeed, a direct tendency to falsify it. It was customary to indicate by
+marks those passages which were especially useful for study or
+imitation. It then became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt or
+interweave such passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes, wrote
+on [Greek: metabolai kai metapoiêseis tôn Dêmosthenous chôriôn],
+"adaptations or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes." Such
+manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions in the
+original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed on the thought,
+sentiment and style of Demosthenes, comparatively little care was
+bestowed on his subject-matter. He was studied more on the moral and the
+formal side than on the real side. An incorrect substitution of one name
+for another, a reading which gave an impossible date, insertions of
+spurious laws or decrees, were points which few readers would stop to
+notice. Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demosthenes
+were the most universally popular of the classical prose-writers, the
+text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps of all, was also the
+least pure. His more careful students at length made an effort to arrest
+the process of corruption. Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical
+recension, and called [Greek: Attikiana (antigrapha)], came to be
+distinguished from the vulgates, or [Greek: dêmôdeis ekdoseis].
+
+
+Manuscripts.
+
+Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes--upwards of 170 in
+number--one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This is
+_Parisinus_ [Sigma] 2934, of the 10th century. A comparison of this MS.
+with the extracts of Aelius, Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third
+Philippic favours the view that it is derived from an [Greek:
+Attikianon], whereas the [Greek: dêmôdeis ekdoseis], used by Hermogenes
+and by the rhetoricians generally, have been the chief sources of our
+other manuscripts. The collation of this manuscript by Immanuel Bekker
+first placed the textual criticism of Demosthenes on a sound footing.
+Not only is this manuscript nearly free from interpolations, but it is
+the sole voucher for many excellent readings. Among the other MSS., some
+of the most important are--_Marcianus_ 416 F, of the 10th (or 11th)
+century, the basis of the Aldine edition; _Augustanus_ I. (N 85),
+derived from the last, and containing scholia to the speeches on the
+Crown and the Embassy, by Ulpian, with some by a younger writer, who was
+perhaps Moschopulus; _Parisinus_ [Upsilon]; _Antverpiensis_
+[Omega]--the last two comparatively free from additions. The fullest
+authority on the MSS. is J. T. Vömel, _Notitia codicum Demosth_., and
+Prolegomena Critica to his edition published at Halle (1856-1857), pp.
+175-178.[6]
+
+
+Scholia.
+
+The extant scholia on Demosthenes are for the most part poor. Their
+staple consists of Byzantine erudition; and their value depends chiefly
+on what they have preserved of older criticism. They are better than
+usual for the [Greek: Peri stephanou, Kata Timokratous]; best for the
+[Greek: Peri parapresbeias]. The Greek commentaries ascribed to Ulpian
+are especially defective on the historical side, and give little
+essential aid. Editions:--C. W. Müller, in _Orat. Att._ ii. (1847-1858);
+_Scholia Graeca in Demosth. ex cod. aucta et emendata_ (Oxon., 1851; in
+W. Dindorf's ed.).
+
+   BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Editio princeps_ (Aldus, Venice, 1504); J. J. Reiske
+   (with notes of J. Wolf, J. Taylor, J. Markland, &c., 1770-1775);
+   revised edition of Reiske by G. H. Schäfer (1823-1826); I. Bekker, in
+   _Oratores Attici_ (1823-1824), the first edition based on codex
+   [Sigma] (see above); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and H. Sauppe
+   (1850); W. Dindorf (in Teubner series, 1867, 4th ed. by F. Blass,
+   1885-1889); H. Omont, facsimile edition of codex [Sigma] (1892-1893);
+   S. H. Butcher in Oxford _Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca_ (1903
+   foll.); W. Dindorf (9 vols., Oxford, 1846-1851), with notes of
+   previous commentators and Greek scholia; R. Whiston (political
+   speeches) with introductions and notes (1859-1868). For a select list
+   of the numerous English and foreign editions and translations of
+   separate speeches see J. B. Mayor, _Guide to the Choice of Classical
+   Books_ (1885, suppt. 1896). Mention may here be made of _De corona_
+   by W. W. Goodwin (1901, ed. min., 1904); W. H. Simcox (1873, with
+   Aeschines _In Ctesiphontem_); and P. E. Matheson (1899); _Leptines_
+   by J. E. Sandys (1890); _De falsa legatione_ by R. Shilleto (4th ed.,
+   1874); _Select Private Orations_ by J. E. Sandys and F. A. Paley (3rd
+   ed., 1898, 1896); _Midias_ by W. W. Goodwin (1906). C. R. Kennedy's
+   complete translation is a model of scholarly finish, and the
+   appendices on Attic law, &c., are of great value. There are indices
+   to Demosthenes by J. Reiske (ed. G. H. Schäfer, 1823); S. Preuss
+   (1892). Among recent papyrus finds are fragments of a special lexicon
+   to the _Aristocratea_ and a commentary by Didymus (ed. H. Diels and
+   W. Schubart, 1904). Illustrative literature: A. D. Schäfer,
+   _Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (2nd ed., 1885-1887), a masterly and
+   exhaustive historical work; F. Blass, _Die attische Beredsamkeit_
+   (1887-1898); W. J. Brodribb, "Demosthenes" in _Ancient Classics for
+   English Readers_ (1877); S. H. Butcher, _Introduction to the Study of
+   Demosthenes_ (1881); C. G. Böhnecke, _Demosthenes, Lykurgos,
+   Hyperides, und ihr Zeitalter_ (1864); A. Bouillé, _Histoire de
+   Démosthène_ (2nd ed., 1868); J. Girard, _Études sur l'éloquence
+   attique_ (1874); M. Croiset, _Des idées morales dans l'Éloquence
+   politique de Démosthène_ (1874); A. Hug, _Demosthenes als politischer
+   Denker_ (1881); L. Brédit, _L'Éloquence politique en Grèce_ (2nd ed.,
+   1886); A. Bougot, _Rivalité d'Eschine et Démosthène_ (1891). For
+   fuller bibliographical information consult R. Nicolai, _Griechische
+   Literaturgeschichte_ (1881); W. Engelmann, _Scriptores Graeci_
+   (1881); G. Hüttner in C. Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, li. (1889).
+                                                           (R. C. J.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+  [1] See Jebb's _Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos_, vol. ii. p.
+    267 f.
+
+  [2] It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest;
+    but the question of the order of the First and Second has been much
+    discussed. See Grote (_History of Greece_, chap. 88, appendix), who
+    prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, _Die attische
+    Beredsamkeit_, iii. p. 319.
+
+  [3] The dates agree in the main with those given by A. D. Schäfer in
+    _Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (2nd ed., 1885-1887), and by F. Blass
+    in _Die attische Beredsamkeit_ (1887-1898), who regards thirty-three
+    (or possibly thirty-five) of the speeches as genuine.
+
+  [4] Or. 11 and 12 are probably both by Anaximenes of Lampsacus.
+
+  [5] According to Blass, the second and third epistles and the
+    _exordia_ are genuine.
+
+  [6] See also H. Usener in _Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft
+    der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen_, p. 188 (1892); J. H. Lipsius, "Zur
+    Textcritik des Demosthenes" in _Berichte ... der Königl. Sächsischen
+    Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_ (1893) with special reference to
+    the papyrus finds at the end of the 19th century; E. Bethe,
+    _Demosthenis scriptorum corpus_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+DEMOTIC (Gr. [Greek: dêmotikos], of or belonging to the people), a term,
+meaning popular, specially applied to that cursive script of the ancient
+Egyptian language used for business and literary purposes,--for the
+people. It is opposed to "hieratic" (Gr. [Greek: hieratikos], of or
+belonging to the priests), the script, an abridged form of the
+hieroglyphic, used in transcribing the religious texts. (See WRITING,
+and EGYPT: II., _ANCIENT_, D. _LANGUAGE AND WRITING._)
+
+
+
+
+DEMOTICA, or DIMOTICA, a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of
+Adrianople; on the Maritza valley branch of the Constantinople-Salonica
+railway, about 35 m. S. of Adrianople. Pop. (1905) about 10,000.
+Demotica is built at the foot of a conical hill on the left bank of the
+river Kizildeli, near its junction with the Maritza. It was formerly the
+seat of a Greek archbishop, and besides the ancient citadel and palace
+on the summit of the hill contains several Greek churches, mosques and
+public baths. In the middle ages, when it was named Didymotichos, it was
+one of the principal marts of Thrace; in modern times it has regained
+something of its commercial importance, and exports pottery, linen, silk
+and grain. These goods are sent to Dédéagatch for shipment. Demotica was
+the birthplace of the Turkish sultan Bayezid I. (1347); after the
+battle of Poltava, Charles XII. of Sweden resided here from February
+1713 to October 1714.
+
+
+
+
+DEMPSTER, THOMAS (1579-1625), Scottish scholar and historian, was born
+at Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, the son of Thomas Dempster of Muresk,
+Auchterless and Killesmont, sheriff of Banff and Buchan. According to
+his own account, he was the twenty-fourth of twenty-nine children, and
+was early remarkable for precocious talent. He obtained his early
+education in Aberdeenshire, and at ten entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge;
+after a short while he went to Paris, and, driven thence by the plague,
+to Louvain, whence by order of the pope he was transferred with several
+other Scottish students to the papal seminary at Rome. Being soon forced
+by ill health to leave, he went to the English college at Douai, where
+he remained three years and took his M.A. degree. While at Douai he
+wrote a scurrilous attack on Queen Elizabeth, which caused a riot among
+the English students. But, if his truculent character was thus early
+displayed, his abilities were no less conspicuous; and, though still in
+his teens, he became lecturer on the Humanities at Tournai, whence,
+after but a short stay, he returned to Paris, to take his degree of
+doctor of canon law, and become regent of the college of Navarre. He
+soon left Paris for Toulouse, which in turn he was forced to leave owing
+to the hostility of the city authorities, aroused by his violent
+assertion of university rights. He was now elected professor of
+eloquence at the university or academy of Nîmes, but not without a
+murderous attack upon him by one of the defeated candidates and his
+supporters, followed by a suit for libel, which, though he ultimately
+won his case, forced him to leave the town. A short engagement in Spain,
+as tutor to the son of Marshal de Saint Luc, was terminated by another
+quarrel; and Dempster now returned to Scotland with the intention of
+asserting a claim to his father's estates. Finding his relatives
+unsympathetic, and falling into heated controversy with the Presbyterian
+clergy, he made no long stay, but returned to Paris, where he remained
+for seven years, becoming professor in several colleges successively. At
+last, however, his temporary connexion with the collège de Beauvais was
+ended by a feat of arms which proved him as stout a fighter with his
+sword as with his pen; and, since his victory was won over officers of
+the king's guard, it again became expedient for him to change his place
+of residence. The dedication of his edition of Rosinus' _Antiquitatum
+Romanorum corpus absolutissimum_ to King James I. had won him an
+invitation to the English court; and in 1615 he went to London. His
+reception by the king was flattering enough; but his hopes of preferment
+were dashed by the opposition of the Anglican clergy to the promotion of
+a papist. He left for Rome, where, after a short imprisonment on
+suspicion of being a spy, he gained the favour of Pope Paul V., through
+whose influence with Cosimo II., grand duke of Tuscany, he was appointed
+to the professorship of the Pandects at Pisa. He had married while in
+London, but ere long had reason to suspect his wife's relations with a
+certain Englishman. Violent accusations followed, indignantly
+repudiated; a diplomatic correspondence ensued, and a demand was made,
+and supported by the grand duke, for an apology, which the professor
+refused to make, preferring rather to lose his chair. He now set out
+once more for Scotland, but was intercepted by the Florentine cardinal
+Luigi Capponi, who induced him to remain at Bologna as professor of
+Humanity. This was the most distinguished post in the most famous of
+continental universities, and Dempster was now at the height of his
+fame. Though his _Roman Antiquities_ and _Scotia illustrior_ had been
+placed on the Index pending correction, Pope Urban VIII. made him a
+knight and gave him a pension. He was not, however, to enjoy his honours
+long. His wife eloped with a student, and Dempster, pursuing the
+fugitives in the heat of summer, caught a fever, and died at Bologna on
+the 6th of September 1625.
+
+Dempster owed his great position in the history of scholarship to his
+extraordinary memory, and to the versatility which made him equally at
+home in philology, criticism, law, biography and history. His style is,
+however, often barbarous; and the obvious defects of his works are due
+to his restlessness and impetuosity, and to a patriotic and personal
+vanity which led him in Scottish questions into absurd exaggerations,
+and in matters affecting his own life into an incurable habit of
+romancing. The best known of his works is the _Historia ecclesiastica
+gentis Scotorum_ (Bologna, 1627). In this book he tries to prove that
+Bernard (Sapiens), Alcuin, Boniface and Joannes Scotus Erigena were all
+Scots, and even Boadicea becomes a Scottish author. This criticism is
+not applicable to his works on antiquarian subjects, and his edition of
+Benedetto Accolti's _De bello a Christianis contra barbaros_ (1623) has
+great merits.
+
+   A portion of his Latin verse is printed in the first volume (pp.
+   306-354) of _Delitiae poëtarum Scotorum_ (Amsterdam, 1637).
+
+
+
+
+DEMURRAGE (from "demur," Fr. _demeurer_, to delay, derived from Lat.
+_mora_), in the law of merchant shipping, the sum payable by the
+freighter to the shipowner for detention of the vessel in port beyond
+the number of days allowed for the purpose of loading or unloading (see
+AFFREIGHTMENT: UNDER _CHARTER-PARTIES_). The word is also used in
+railway law for the charge on detention of trucks; and in banking for
+the charge per ounce made by the Bank of England in exchanging coin or
+notes for bullion.
+
+
+
+
+DEMURRER (from Fr. _demeurer_, to delay, Lat. _morari_), in English law,
+an objection taken to the sufficiency, in point of law, of the pleading
+or written statement of the other side. In equity pleading a demurrer
+lay only against the bill, and not against the answer; at common law any
+part of the pleading could be demurred to. On the passing of the
+Judicature Act of 1875 the procedure with respect to demurrers in civil
+cases was amended, and, subsequently, by the Rules of the Supreme Court,
+Order XXV. demurrers were abolished and a more summary process for
+getting rid of pleadings which showed no reasonable cause of action or
+defence was adopted, called proceedings in lieu of demurrer. Demurrer in
+criminal cases still exists, but is now seldom resorted to. Demurrers
+are still in constant use in the United States. See ANSWER; PLEADING.
+
+
+
+
+DENAIN, a town of northern France in the department of Nord, 8 m. S.W.
+of Valenciennes by steam tramway. A mere village in the beginning of the
+19th century, it rapidly increased from 1850 onwards, and, according to
+the census of 1906, possessed 22,845 inhabitants, mainly engaged in the
+coal mines and iron-smelting works, to which it owes its development.
+There are also breweries, manufactories of machinery, sugar and glass. A
+school of commerce and industry is among the institutions. Denain has a
+port on the left bank of the Scheldt canal. Its vicinity was the scene
+of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by Marshal Villars over the
+allies commanded by Prince Eugène; and the battlefield is marked by a
+monolithic monument inscribed with the verses of Voltaire:--
+
+  "Regardez dans Denain l'audacieux Villars
+   Disputant le tonnerre à l'aigle des Césars."
+
+
+
+
+DENBIGH, WILLIAM FEILDING, 1ST EARL OF (d. 1643), son of Basil
+Feilding[1] of Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire, and of Elizabeth,
+daughter of Sir Walter Aston, was educated at Emmanuel College,
+Cambridge, and knighted in 1603. He married Susan, daughter of Sir
+George Villiers, sister of the future duke of Buckingham, and on the
+rise of the favourite received various offices and dignities. He was
+appointed _custos rotulorum_ of Warwickshire, and master of the great
+wardrobe in 1622, and created baron and viscount Feilding in 1620, and
+earl of Denbigh on the 14th of September 1622. He attended Prince
+Charles on the Spanish adventure, served as admiral in the unsuccessful
+expedition to Cadiz in 1625, and commanded the disastrous attempt upon
+Rochelle in 1628, becoming the same year a member of the council of war,
+and in 1633 a member of the council of Wales. In 1631 Lord Denbigh
+visited the East. On the outbreak of the Civil War he served under
+Prince Rupert and was present at Edgehill. On the 3rd of April 1643
+during Rupert's attack on Birmingham he was wounded and died from the
+effects on the 8th, being buried at Monks Kirby in Warwickshire. His
+courage, unselfishness and devotion to duty are much praised by
+Clarendon.
+
+   See E. Lodge, _Portraits_ (1850), iv. 113; J. Nichols, _Hist. of
+   Leicestershire_ (1807), iv. pt. 1, 273; Hist. MSS. _Comm Ser._ 4th
+   Rep. app. 254; _Cal. of State Papers, Dom.; Studies in Peerage and
+   Family History_, by J. H. Round (1901), 216.
+
+His eldest son, BASIL FEILDING, 2nd earl of Denbigh (c. 1608-1675), was
+educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was summoned to the House of
+Lords as Baron Feilding in March 1629. After seeing military service in
+the Netherlands he was sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to
+Venice, where he remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out
+Feilding, unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among
+the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and, having
+become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made commander-in-chief of the
+Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and the neighbouring counties, and
+lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire. During the year 1644 he was fairly
+active in the field, but in some quarters he was distrusted and he
+resigned his command after the passing of the self-denying ordinance in
+April 1645. At Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners
+appointed to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at
+Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge Denbigh declared
+privately that he regretted the position in which he found himself, and
+expressed his willingness to serve Charles I. He supported the army in
+its dispute with the parliament, but he would take no part in the trial
+of Charles I. Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a
+member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former associates
+grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded as a royalist. In
+1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz. Although four times married he
+left no issue when he died on the 28th of November 1675.
+
+His titles devolved on his nephew WILLIAM FEILDING (1640-1685), son and
+heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding of Lecaghe, Viscount
+Callan and earl of Desmond), and the earldom of Desmond has been held by
+his descendants to the present day in conjunction with the earldom of
+Denbigh.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The descent of the Feildings from the house of Habsburg, through
+    the counts of Laufenburg and Rheinfelden, long considered authentic,
+    and immortalized by Gibbon, has been proved to have been based on
+    forged documents. See J. H. Round, _Peerage and Family History_
+    (1901).
+
+
+
+
+DENBIGH (_Dinbych_), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin and Wrexham)
+contributory parliamentary borough, market town and county town of
+Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches of the London & North Western and
+the Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle,
+surrounding the hill with a double wall, was built, in Edward I.'s
+reign, by Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received
+its first charter. The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main
+gateway is a niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but
+more probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton Moor,
+Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the
+Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor. The chief
+buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating perhaps from the 13th
+century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a free grammar school (1527); an
+orphan girl school (funds left by Thomas Howel to the Drapers' Co., in
+Henry VII.'s reign); the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl
+of Leicester, enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church
+(begun by Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or "rows," such as
+those of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of St Marcella.
+The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and Elwy. The inhabitants of
+Denbigh are chiefly occupied in the timber trade, butter-making,
+poultry-farming, bootmaking, tanning and quarrying (lime, slate and
+paving-stones). The borough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the
+peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been
+known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper, _Baner_,
+being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at Bodelwyddan, &c., coal
+is worked.
+
+The old British tower and castle were called _Castell caled fryn yn
+Rhôs_, the "castle of the hard hill in Rhôs." _Din_ in _Dinbych_ means
+a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle. Historically, David
+(_Dafydd_), brother of the last Llewelyn, was here (_aet._ Edward I.)
+perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who built the castle (_aet._ Edward
+I.), given to the Mortimers and to Leicester (under Edward III. and
+Elizabeth, respectively).
+
+
+
+
+DENBIGHSHIRE (_Dinbych_), a county of N. Wales, bounded N. by the Irish
+Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint and Shropshire, S. by
+Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the
+N. coast, within the Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and
+Llandulas, is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a
+change in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is
+partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The surface
+of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified. In the N.W.
+are the bleak Hiraethog ("longing") hills, sloping W. to the Conwy and
+E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and Abergele bays, on the S. the
+Yspytty (Lat. _Hospitium_) and Llangwm range, between Denbigh and
+Merioneth. From this watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr
+and Alwen, tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (_Dyfrdwy_). Some of
+the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those of the
+Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon (_Rhiwabon_) hills and
+the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals; the Berwyn to Offa's Dyke
+(_Wâl Offa_) is wild and barren, except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and
+Ceiriog. One feeder of the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout
+fall), another rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry
+bare-hill), the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both
+lakes and streams.
+
+   _Geology._-The geology of the county is full of interest, as it
+   develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the
+   Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which
+   extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo
+   formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of
+   shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive
+   felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just within
+   the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y-coed and in
+   the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the limestone fringe
+   at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian covers the entire
+   mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but verging on its western
+   slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may be traced southward in a
+   continuous line from the mouth of the Conway as far as Llanddewi
+   Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are
+   abundantly fossiliferous. On its eastern slope a narrow broken band
+   of the Old Red, or what may be a conglomeratic basement bed of the
+   Carboniferous Limestone series, crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and
+   in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this the Carboniferous Limestone extends
+   from Llanymynach, its extreme southern point, to the Cyrnybrain
+   fault, and there forks into two divisions that terminate respectively
+   in the Great Orme's Head and in Talargoch, and are separated from
+   each other by the denuded shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale
+   of Clwyd the limestone underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the
+   eastern division it is itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of
+   Ruabon and Minera, and by a long reach of the Coal Measures which
+   near Wrexham are 4½ m. in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of
+   the red marly beds succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but
+   now regarded as belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between
+   this and the Dee the ground is occupied--as in the Vale of Clwyd--by
+   the New Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the
+   whole of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with
+   glacial drift. On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and
+   Plâs Heaton, the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone
+   districts, have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth,
+   hippopotamus and other extinct mammals.
+
+   Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone below,
+   lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable fireclays
+   and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures about
+   Wrexham.
+
+The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and black cattle
+are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England and sale in London.
+Oats and turnips, rather than wheat, barley and potatoes, occupy the
+tilled land. The county is fairly wooded. There are several important
+farmers' clubs (the Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the
+Cerrig y druidion, &c.). The London & North-Western railway (Holyhead
+line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together with the
+lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon), via Ruthin and Corwen,
+Wrexham with Connah's Quay (Great Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with
+Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great Western and Great Central railways) have
+opened up the county. Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the
+Holyhead road from London, well built and passing through fine scenery.
+At Nantglyn paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen)
+slabs and slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog.
+There is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn Rhiwabon
+yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit. Chirk, Ruabon and
+Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera is the principal lead mine.
+There is much brick and pottery clay. The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite
+factory. Llangollen and Llansantffraid (St Bridgit's) have woollen
+manufactures.
+
+The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a population in
+1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county is 426,084 acres.
+The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining centre and N. Wales military
+centre, with a fine church; Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held
+(here are a grammar school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt);
+Llangollen and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The
+Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of: Denbigh (pop.
+6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham (14,966). The county has
+two parliamentary divisions. The urban districts are: Abergele and
+Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and
+Llanrwst (2645). Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being
+held at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate commissions
+of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts. The ancient
+county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains seventy-five
+ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a parish.
+
+The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the lordships of
+Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog, which are roughly the
+Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway and Clwyd, and the lordships of
+Bromfield, Yale (_Iâl_, open land) and Chirkland, the old possessions of
+Gruffydd ap Madoc, _arglwydd_ (lord) of Dinas Brân. Cefn (Elwy Valley)
+limestone caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros,
+lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c.; Plâs Heaton cave, the glutton; Pont
+Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that of
+Rhosdigre); Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, "platycnemic (skeleton) men of
+Denbighshire" (like those of Perthi Chwareu). Clawdd Coch has traces of
+the Romans; so also Penygaer and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva
+(Chester) to Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Heriri (_Tomen
+y mur_). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and Pentrefoelas
+(near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis "Eliseg's pillar" tells of
+Brochmael and the Cairlegion (Chester) struggle against Æthelfrith's
+invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613, while Offa's dike goes back to the
+Mercian advance. Near and parallel to Offa's is the shorter and
+mysterious Watt's dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle
+comparatively untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has
+cloisters; Wrexham, the Brynffynnon "nunnery"; and at both are
+collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast rood lofts and
+screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait brasses and monuments;
+Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd),
+stained glass. Near Abergele, known for its sea baths, is the _ogof_ (or
+cave), traditionally the refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his
+capture by Bolingbroke in 1399.
+
+   See J. Williams, _Denbigh_ (1856), and T. F. Tout, _Welsh Shires_.
+
+
+
+
+DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle of the great
+westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here was the ancient city of
+Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the sixth of Upper Egypt, and
+the principal seat of the worship of Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess
+of love and joy. The old Egyptian name of Tentyra was written 'In·t
+(Ant), but the pronunciation of it is unknown: in later days it was
+'In·t-t-ntr·t, "ant of the goddess," pronounced Ni-tentôri, whence
+[Greek: Tentyra, Tentyris]. The temple of Hathor was built in the 1st
+century B.C., being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and
+finished by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great
+rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850 ft.,
+contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone gateways, in
+the north and the east sides, built by Domitian. Another smaller
+enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also of the Roman period.
+
+The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a colonnaded
+court in front of the present façade, and pylon towers at the entrance;
+but these were never built, probably for lack of funds. The building,
+which is of sandstone, measures about 300 ft. from front to back, and
+consists of two oblong rectangles; the foremost, placed transversely to
+the other, is the great hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and
+loftiest part of the temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising
+about one-third of the whole structure; the façade has six columns with
+heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great columns.
+The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall with six columns,
+and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary chambers. The sanctuary is
+surrounded by a corridor into which the chambers open: on the west side
+is an apartment forming a court and kiosk for the celebration of the
+feast of the New Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of
+the temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several
+chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out, the whole
+of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions in crowded
+characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the decoration is even
+carried into a remarkable series of hidden passages and chambers or
+crypts made in the solid walls for the reception of its most valuable
+treasures. The architectural style is dignified and pleasing in design
+and proportions. The interior of the building has been completely
+cleared: from the outside, however, its imposing effect is quite lost,
+owing to the mounds of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of
+the entrance is a "Birth House" for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and
+behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign of
+Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date back to a
+remote time: the work of some of the early builders is in fact referred
+to in the inscriptions on the present structure. Petrie's excavation of
+the cemetery behind the temple enclosures revealed burials dating from
+the fourth dynasty onwards, the most important being mastables of the
+period from the sixth to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited
+a peculiar degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture.
+
+The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a considerable
+literature before their late origin was established by Champollion in
+1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof, was removed in 1820 to
+the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra
+VI. occur amongst the sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they
+are purely conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu,
+the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears sometimes as
+the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill displayed by the Tentyrites
+in capturing the crocodile is referred to by Strabo and other Greek
+writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth satire, takes as his text a
+religious riot between the Tentyrites and the neighbouring Ombites, in
+the course of which an unlucky Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by
+the opposite party. The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south
+of Edfu, where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that
+opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was another Ombos,
+venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set.
+
+   See A. Mariette, _Dendérah_ (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880); W.
+   M. F. Petrie, _Denderah_ (1900); _Nagada_ and _Ballas_ (1896).
+                                                         (F. LL. G.)
+
+
+
+
+DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein), a genus of suctorian Infusoria,
+characterized by the repeatedly branched attached body; each of the
+lobes of the body gives off a few retractile tentacles. It is parasitic
+on the gills of the so-called freshwater shrimp _Gammarus pulex_.
+
+   For its conjugation see Sydney H. Hickson, in _Quarterly Journ. of
+   Microsc. Science_, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325.
+
+
+
+
+DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations in England,
+which have been popularly supposed to be due to the Danes or some other
+of the early northern invaders of the country. The common spelling "Dane
+hole" is adduced as evidence of this, and individual names, such as
+Vortigern's Caves at Margate, and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley,
+naturally follow the same theory. The word, however, is probably derived
+from the Anglo-Saxon _den_, a hole or valley. There are many underground
+excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent in
+the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found chiefly in
+those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks of the Thames. With
+one exception there are no recorded specimens farther east than those of
+the Grays Thurrock district, situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north,
+and one near Rochester on the south side of the river.
+
+The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably the
+same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter falling,
+on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated, obviously,
+by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but, although chalk could
+have been obtained close at hand within a few feet, or even inches, from
+the surface, a depth of from 45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic
+feature. It is believed that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but
+as these would be of a perishable nature there are no available data of
+any value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a domed
+chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls frequently
+contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule there is only one
+chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath each shaft. From this
+excessive height it has been inferred that the caves were not primarily
+intended for habitations or even hiding-places. In some cases the
+chamber is extended, the roof being supported by pillars of chalk left
+standing. A rare specimen of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend.
+In this case the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate
+aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries are found
+connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering labyrinth, a careful
+scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence that they are the work of
+a people of a much later period than that of the chambers, or, as they
+become in these cases, the halls of the galleries.
+
+Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of Kent and
+Essex, but the most important groups have been found at Grays Thurrock,
+in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey Wood and Bexley, and at Gravesend.
+Those at Bexley and Grays Thurrock are the most valuable still existing.
+
+It is generally found that the tool work on the roof or ceiling is
+rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position could be
+maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes near the roof show
+that, in all probability, they were made by bone or horn picks. And
+numerous bone picks have been discovered in Essex and Kent. These
+pick-holes are amongst the most valuable data for the study of
+dene-holes, and have assisted in fixing the date of their formation to
+pre-Roman times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been
+discovered in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing
+the date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations. Pliny
+mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, "where they branched
+out like the veins of mines." This has been used in support of the
+theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the extraction of chalk; but
+no known dene-hole branches out in this way. Chrétien de Troyes has a
+passage on underground caves in Britain which may have reference to
+dene-holes, and tradition of the 14th century treated the dene-holes of
+Grays as the fabled gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the 1st
+century.
+
+Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which have been
+adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and excellent examples of
+various pick-holes may be seen on different parts of the walls.
+
+Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to the
+smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was common
+not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the river as Barking
+Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these ready-made
+hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous to descend, were so
+utilized.
+
+There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been originally
+excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw-wells for the
+extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) storehouses for
+grain. For several reasons it is unlikely that they were used as
+habitations, although they may have been used occasionally as
+hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is equally improbable
+that they were used for the extraction of chalk. The chief reasons
+against this theory are that chalk could have been obtained outcropping
+close by, and that every trace of loose chalk has been removed from the
+vicinity of the holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not
+descend to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about
+14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still further.
+The last of the three possible uses for which these prehistoric
+excavations were designed is usually accepted as the most probable.
+Silos, or underground storehouses, are well known in the south of Europe
+and Morocco. It is supposed that the grain was stored in the ear and
+carefully protected from damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof
+of one of the chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been
+put forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One other
+theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were made in order
+to get flints for implements, but this is quite impossible, as a careful
+examination of a few examples will show.
+
+   Further reference may be made to _Essex Dene-holes_ by T. V. Holmes
+   and W. Cole; to _The Archaeological Journal_ (1882); the
+   _Transactions_ of the Essex Field Club; _Archaeologia Cantiana_, &c.;
+   _Dene-holes_ by F. W. Reader, in _Old Essex_, ed. A. C. Kelway
+   (1908).
+                                                           (A. J. P.)
+
+
+
+
+DENGUE (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring in warm
+climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever, accompanied by
+rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with severe headache and
+erythema. After a few days a crisis is reached and an interval of two or
+three days is followed by a slighter return of fever and pain and an
+eruption resembling measles, the most marked characteristic of the
+disease. The disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of
+extreme weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is
+known of the aetiology of "dengue." The virus is probably similar to
+that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated by an intermediary
+culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic, though at intervals it
+appears to be pandemic and in certain districts almost endemic. The area
+over which the disease ranges may be stated generally to be between 32°
+47' N. and 23° 23' S. Throughout this area "dengue" is constantly
+epidemic. The earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in
+1779-1780 in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have been
+those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and the southern
+states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending practically over the
+whole of the tropical portions of the East and reaching as far as China.
+In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak spread along the shores of the Aegean
+and over nearly the whole of Asia Minor. Perhaps "dengue" is most nearly
+endemic in equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has
+usually been identified with the Spanish _dengue_, meaning stiff or prim
+behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suitable to the
+curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the disease, similar to the
+name "dandy-fever" which was given to it by the negroes. According to
+the _New English Dictionary_ (quoting Dr Christie in _The Glasgow
+Medical Journal_, September 1881), both "dengue" and "dandy" are
+corruptions of the Swahili word _dinga_ or _denga_, meaning a sudden
+attack of cramp, the Swahili name for the disease being _ka-dinga pepo_.
+
+   See Sir Patrick Manson, _Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases of
+   Warm Climates_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+DENHAM, DIXON (1786-1828), English traveller in West Central Africa, was
+born in London on the 1st of January 1786. He was educated at Merchant
+Taylors' School, and was articled to a solicitor, but joined the army in
+1811. First in the 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the
+54th foot, he served in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and
+Belgium, and received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join
+Dr Oudney and Hugh Clapperton (q.v.), who had been sent by the British
+government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined the expedition at
+Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised escort not forthcoming, Denham,
+whose energy was boundless, started for England to complain of the
+"duplicity" of the pasha of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers
+after him with promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached
+Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and Murzuk
+was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition made its way across
+the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February 1823. Here Denham, against the
+wish of Oudney and Clapperton, accompanied a slave-raiding expedition
+into the Mandara highlands south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated,
+and Denham barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set
+out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained behind. He
+explored the western, south and south-eastern shores of Lake Chad, and
+the lower courses of the rivers Waube, Logone and Shari. In August 1824,
+Clapperton having returned and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the
+return journey to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted
+lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of
+liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra Leone,
+but after administering the colony for five weeks died of fever at
+Freetown on the 8th of May 1828.
+
+   See _Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central
+   Africa in the years 1822-1824_ (London, 1826), the greater part of
+   which is written by Denham; _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. chap.
+   xiii. (London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown.
+
+
+
+
+DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669), English poet, only son of Sir John Denham
+(1559-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was born in
+Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father became baron of the exchequer in
+England, and removed to London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631
+the future poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College,
+Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln's Inn, where he was, says John
+Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit. The reputation
+he had gained at Oxford of being the "dreamingest young fellow" gave way
+to a scandalous reputation for gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton,
+and seems to have lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he
+wrote his paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656
+as _The Destruction of Troy_, with an excellent verse essay on the art
+of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract against
+gambling, _The Anatomy of Play_ (printed 1651), designed to assure his
+father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into his fortune he
+squandered it at play. It was a surprise to everyone when in 1642 he
+suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, "broke out like the Irish rebellion,
+three score thousand strong, when no one was aware, nor in the least
+expected it," by publishing _The Sophy_, a tragedy in five acts, the
+subject of which was drawn from Sir Thomas Herbert's travels. At the
+beginning of the Civil War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was
+appointed governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and
+speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent as a
+prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king at Oxford.
+
+In 1642 appeared _Cooper's Hill_, a poem describing the Thames scenery
+round his home at Egham. The first edition was anonymous: subsequent
+editions show numerous alterations, and the poem did not assume its
+final form until 1655. This famous piece, which was Pope's model for his
+_Windsor Forest_, was not new in theme or manner, but the praise which
+it received was well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham
+expressed his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the
+taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor, but
+these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not of the nature
+of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote many squibs against the
+roundheads. One of the few serious pieces belonging to this period is
+the short poem "On the Earl of Strafford's Trial and Death."
+
+From this time Denham was much in Charles I.'s confidence. He was
+entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and from the king
+when he was in the custody of the parliament, a duty which he
+discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but in 1648 he was
+suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and thought it wiser to
+cross the Channel. He helped in the removal of the young duke of York to
+Holland, and for some time he served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris,
+being entrusted by her with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent
+to Poland in company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II.
+They succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled
+court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite without
+resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of Pembroke at
+Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham should restrict himself
+to some place of residence to be selected by himself at a distance of
+not less than 20 m. from London; subsequently he obtained from the
+Protector a licence to live at Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport
+to travel abroad with the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham's
+services were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His
+qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe to
+regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence and
+peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal "Panegyric upon Sir John
+Denham's Recovery from his Madness." He eventually secured the services
+of Christopher Wren as deputy-surveyor. In 1660 he was also made a
+knight of the Bath.
+
+In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret, daughter of
+Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de Gramont, a beautiful
+girl of eighteen. She soon became known as the mistress of the duke of
+York, and the scandal, according to common report, shattered the poet's
+reason. While Denham was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was
+said, by a cup of chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the
+crime, but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was that
+Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however, was found in the
+examination after Lady Denham's death. Denham survived her for two
+years, dying at his house near Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on
+the 23rd in Westminster Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote
+the bitter political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War
+entitled "Directions to a Painter," and "Fresh Directions," continuing
+Edmund Waller's "Instructions to a Painter." The printer of these poems,
+with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell, was sentenced to stand in
+the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley.
+
+   Denham's poems include, beside those already given, a verse
+   paraphrase of Cicero's _Cato major_, and a metrical version of the
+   Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly
+   praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called _Cooper's Hill_
+   "the exact standard of good writing," and Pope in his _Windsor
+   Forest_ called him "majestic Denham." His collected poems with a
+   dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions
+   followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers' (1810) and other
+   collections of the English poets. His political satires were printed
+   with some of Rochester's and Marvell's in _Bibliotheca curiosa_, vol.
+   i. (Edinburgh, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+DÉNIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante; on the
+Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Carcagente. Pop. (1900)
+12,431. Dénia occupies the seaward slopes of a hill surmounted by a
+ruined castle, and divided by a narrow valley on the south from the
+limestone ridge of Mongó (2500 ft.), which commands a magnificent view
+of the Balearic Islands and the Valencian coast. The older houses of
+Dénia are characterized by their flat Moorish roofs (_azoteas_) and
+view-turrets (_miradores_), while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are
+also visible near the harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of
+local commerce, many of the older quarters were modernized at the
+beginning of the 20th century. Nails, and woollen, linen and esparto
+grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a brisk export trade
+in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned to Great Britain or the
+United States. Baltic timber and British coal are largely imported. The
+harbour bay, which is well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater,
+contains only a small space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand
+on three sides. In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons;
+about half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying
+agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports.
+
+Dénia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae (Ampurias in
+Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early date; but its
+Greek name of _Hemeroskopeion_ was soon superseded by the Roman
+_Dianium_. In the 1st century B.C., Sertorius made it the naval
+headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and, as its name implies, it was
+already famous for its temple of Diana, built in imitation of that at
+Ephesus. The site of this temple can be traced at the foot of the castle
+hill. Dénia was captured by the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253
+belonged successively to the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia.
+According to an ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose
+at this period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased.
+After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its prosperity
+dwindled away, and only began to revive in the 19th century. During the
+War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), Dénia was thrice besieged; and
+in 1813 the citadel was held for five months by the French against the
+allied British and Spanish forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100
+men, and compelled to surrender, on honourable terms.
+
+
+
+
+DENIKER, JOSEPH (1852-    ) French naturalist and anthropologist, was
+born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia, on the 6th of March 1852.
+After receiving his education at the university and technical institute
+of St Petersburg, he adopted engineering as a profession, and in this
+capacity travelled extensively in the petroleum districts of the
+Caucasus, in Central Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in
+1876, he studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural
+science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural History
+Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological works mention may be
+made of _Recherches anatomiques et embryologiques sur les singes
+anthropoides_ (1886); _Étude sur les Kalmouks_ (1883); _Les Ghiliaks_
+(1883); and _Races et peuples de la terre_ (1900). He became one of the
+chief editors of the _Dictionnaire de géographie universelle_, and
+published many papers in the anthropological and zoological journals of
+France.
+
+
+
+
+DENILIQUIN, a municipal town of Townsend county, New South Wales,
+Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m. by rail N. of
+Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of the town is chiefly
+connected with the interests of the sheep and cattle farmers of the
+Riverina district, a plain country, in the main pastoral, but suited in
+some parts for cultivation. Deniliquin has a well-known public school.
+
+
+
+
+DENIM (an abbreviation of _serge de Nîmes_), the name originally given
+to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled cloth made in
+various colours, usually of cotton, and used for overalls, &c.
+
+
+
+
+DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA (1731-1813), Italian historian, was born at
+Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In
+1753 he was appointed to the chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was
+soon compelled by the influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In
+1756 he graduated as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a
+theological treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and
+rhetoric in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his _Delle
+revoluzioni d'Italia_, the work on which his reputation is mainly
+founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its successive
+volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied his foes and
+stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the Great's invitation,
+he went to Berlin, where he remained for many years, in the course of
+which he published his _Vie et règne de Frédéric II_ (Berlin, 1788) and
+_La Prusse littéraire sous Frédéric II_ (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791).
+His _Delle revoluzioni della Germania_ was published at Florence in
+1804, in which year he went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the
+invitation of Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1805 his _Tableau de la
+Haute Italie, et des Alpes qui l'entourent_. He died there on the 5th of
+December 1813.
+
+
+
+
+DENIS (DIONYSIUS), SAINT, first bishop of Paris, patron saint of France.
+According to Gregory of Tours (_Hist. Franc._ i. 30), he was sent into
+Gaul at the time of the emperor Decius. He suffered martyrdom at the
+village of Catulliacus, the modern St Denis. His tomb was situated by the
+side of the Roman road, where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l'Estrée,
+which existed until the 18th century. In the 5th century the clergy of
+the diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625 Dagobert,
+son of Lothair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at some distance from
+the basilica, the monastery where the greater number of the kings of
+France have been buried. The festival of St Denis is celebrated on the
+9th of October. With his name are already associated in the
+_Martyrologium Hieronymianum_ the priest Rusticus and the deacon
+Eleutherius. Other traditions--of no value--are connected with the name
+of St Denis. A false interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently
+dating from 724, represented St Denis as having received his mission from
+Pope Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian (81-96).
+Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the 9th century,
+identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the Areopagite
+(mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens (Eusebius, _Hist. Eccl._
+iii. 4. 10, iv. 23. 3), and naturally attributed to him the celebrated
+writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St Denis is generally represented
+carrying his head in his hands.
+
+   See _Acta Sanctorum_, Octobris, iv. 696-987; _Bibliotheca
+   hagiographica graeca_, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); _Bibliotheca
+   hagiographica latina_, No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, _Les
+   Origines de Saint-Denis_, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris,
+   1896); Cahier, _Caractéristiques des saints_, p. 761 (Paris, 1867).
+                                                             (H. DE.)
+
+
+
+
+DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1729-1800), Austrian poet, was
+born at Schärding on the Inn, on the 27th of September 1729. He was
+brought up by the Jesuits, entered their order, and in 1759 was
+appointed professor in the Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In
+1784, after the suppression of the college, he was made second custodian
+of the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian. He
+died on the 29th of September 1800. A warm admirer of Klopstock, he was
+one of the leading members of the group of so-called "bards"; and his
+original poetry, published under the title _Die Lieder Sineds des
+Barden_ (1772), shows all the extravagances of the "bardic" movement. He
+is best remembered as the translator of _Ossian_ (1768-1769; also
+published together with his own poems in 5 vols. as _Ossians und Sineds
+Lieder_, 1784). More important than either his original poetry or his
+translations were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the
+literature of North Germany; his _Sammlung kürzerer Gedichte aus den
+neuern Dichtern Deutschlands_, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this respect
+invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical compilations,
+_Grundriss der Bibliographie und Bücherkunde_ (1774), _Grundriss der
+Literaturgeschichte_ (1776), _Einleitung in die Bücherkunde_ (1777) and
+_Wiens Buchdruckergeschichte bis 1560_ (1782).
+
+   _Ossians und Sineds_ Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791; but a
+   selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol. 48
+   (1884) of Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_. His
+   _Literarischer Nachlass_ was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2
+   vols.). See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, _Michael Denis_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY (1805-1896), English churchman, brother of John
+Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of the House of Commons 1857-1872;
+Viscount Ossington), was born at Ossington, Notts, on the 11th of
+December 1805, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828
+he was elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor,
+during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon, he became
+rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became a prebendary of Sarum
+in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 1851 he was preferred to the valuable
+living of East Brent, Somerset, and in the same year was made archdeacon
+of Taunton. For many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme
+High Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding all
+"progressive" movements in education or theology as abomination, and
+vehemently repudiating the "higher criticism" from the days of _Essays
+and Reviews_ (1860) to those of _Lux Mundi_ (1890). In 1853 he resigned
+his position as examining chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing
+to his pronounced eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a
+neighbouring clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison
+was condemned by the archbishops' court at Bath (1856); but on appeal
+the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this judgment on a
+technical plea. The result was to make Denison a keen champion of the
+ritualistic school. He edited _The Church and State Review_ (1862-1865).
+Secular state education and the "conscience clause" were anathema to
+him. Until the end of his life he remained a protagonist in theological
+controversy and a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism;
+but the sharpest religious or political differences never broke his
+personal friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for
+which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest festivals. He
+died on the 21st of March 1896.
+
+
+
+
+DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR (1839- ), Canadian soldier and publicist, was
+born in Toronto on the 31st of August 1839. In 1861 he was called to the
+bar, and was from 1865-1867 a member of the city council. From the first
+he took a prominent part in the organization of the military forces of
+Canada, becoming a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He
+saw active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the
+rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct of the
+Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in 1869-70, he
+abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully contested Algoma in the
+Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained free from party ties. In 1877
+he was appointed police magistrate of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one
+of the founders of the "Canada First" party, which did much to shape the
+national aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter
+of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great Britain
+and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal Society of Canada, and
+was president of the section dealing with English history and
+literature. The best known of his military works is his _History of
+Modern Cavalry_ (London, 1877), which was awarded first prize by the
+Russian government in an open competition and has been translated into
+German, Russian and Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences
+under the title of _Soldiering in Canada_.
+
+
+
+
+DENISON, a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about 2½ m. from the
+S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 10,958;
+(1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes; (1910 census) 13,632. It is
+served by the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the
+Texas & Pacific, and the St Louis & San Francisco ('Frisco System)
+railways, and is connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line.
+Denison is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known
+as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier's academy (Roman Catholic). It is
+chiefly important as a railway centre, as a collecting and distributing
+point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs and poultry, and general farming
+products of the surrounding region, and as a wholesale and jobbing
+market for the upper Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and
+among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and
+foundry products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its
+factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47.0% more than in 1900.
+Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of the construction of
+the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway to this point in 1872, and was
+named in honour of George Denison (1822-1876), a director of the
+railway; it became a city in 1891, and in 1907 adopted the commission
+form of government.
+
+
+
+
+DENIZEN (derived through the Fr. from Lat. _de intus_, "from within,"
+i.e. as opposed to "foreign"), an alien who obtains by letters patent
+(_ex donatione regis_) certain of the privileges of a British subject.
+He cannot be a member of the privy council or of parliament, or hold any
+civil or military office of trust, or take a grant of land from the
+crown. The Naturalization Act 1870 provides that nothing therein
+contained shall affect the grant of any letters of denization by the
+sovereign.
+
+
+
+
+DENIZLI (anc. _Laodicea (q.v.) ad Lycum_), chief town of a sanjak of the
+Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft. Pop. about 17,000. It is
+beautifully situated at the foot of Baba Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a
+tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus), and is connected by a branch line
+with the station of Gonjeli on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the
+place of Laodicea when that town was deserted during the wars between
+the Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174. It had
+become a fine Moslem city in the 14th century, and was then called
+Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered products of its Greek
+inhabitants. The delightful gardens of Denizli have obtained for it the
+name of the "Damascus of Anatolia."
+
+
+
+
+DENMAN, THOMAS, 1ST BARON (1779-1854), English judge, was born in
+London, the son of a well-known physician, on the 23rd of July 1779. He
+was educated at Eton and St John's College, Cambridge, where he
+graduated in 1800. Soon after leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806
+he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and at once entered upon
+practice. His success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a
+position at the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord
+Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of the
+Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of the counsel
+for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords was very powerful, and
+some competent judges even considered it not inferior to Brougham's. It
+contained one or two daring passages, which made the king his bitter
+enemy, and retarded his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818
+he was returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the
+Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for Nottingham,
+for which place he continued to sit till his elevation to the bench in
+1832. His liberal principles had caused his exclusion from office till
+in 1822 he was appointed common serjeant by the corporation of London.
+In 1830 he was made attorney-general under Lord Grey's administration.
+Two years later he was made lord chief justice of the King's Bench, and
+in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most celebrated
+for his decision in the important privilege case of _Stockdale_ v.
+_Hansard_ (9 Ad. & El. I.; 11 Ad. & El. 253), but he was never ranked as
+a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned his chief justiceship and retired
+into private life. He died on the 26th of September 1854, his title
+continuing in the direct line.
+
+The HON. GEORGE DENMAN (1819-1896), his fourth son, was also a
+distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen's Bench from 1872 till
+his death in 1896.
+
+   See Memoir of _Thomas, first Lord Denman_, by Sir Joseph Arnould (2
+   vols., 1873); E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+DENMARK (_Danmark_), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying part of a
+peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic and North Seas, in
+the middle latitudes of the eastern coast. The kingdom lies between 54°
+33' and 57° 45' N. and between 8° 4' 54" and 12° 47' 25" E., exclusive
+of the island of Bornholm, which, as will be seen, is not to be included
+in the Danish archipelago. The peninsula is divided between Denmark and
+Germany (Schleswig-Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and the
+greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. _Jylland_). Its northern part is
+actually insular, divided from the mainland by the Limfjord or
+Liimfjord, which communicates with the North Sea to the west and the
+Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though broad and possessing
+lacustrine characteristics to the west, has only very narrow entrances.
+The connexion with the North Sea dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds
+Jutland to the north and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the
+Baltic by the Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric
+peninsula in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western
+Sweden.
+
+There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is uniformly low,
+the highest elevation in the whole country, the Himmelbjerg near Aarhus
+in eastern Jutland, being little more than 500 ft. above the sea.
+Denmark, however, is nowhere low in the sense in which Holland is; the
+country is pleasantly diversified, and rises a little at the coast even
+though it remains flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the
+south-eastern part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and
+meadows, and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the
+western and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to
+a wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending towards the
+sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain charm even about
+these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be said that Denmark is wanting
+in natural beauty of a quiet order. Lakes, though small, are numerous;
+the largest are the Arresö and the Esromsö in Zealand, and the chain of
+lakes in the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river
+in Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not exceeding 80
+m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech-woods, are extremely
+beautiful. The coasts are generally low and sandy; the whole western
+shore of Jutland is a succession of sand ridges and shallow lagoons,
+very dangerous to shipping. In many places the sea has encroached; even
+in the 19th century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last
+twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to secure the
+coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand dunes, from 500 yds. to
+7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of this coast for about 200 m.
+Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low, sandy point, stretches far into the
+northern sea, dividing the Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western
+side the coast is bolder and less inhospitable; there are several
+excellent havens, especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere,
+however, very high, except at one or two points in Jutland, and at the
+eastern extremity of Möen, where limestone cliffs occur.
+
+Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the geographical
+description of which is given under that heading. Out of the total area
+of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland, including the small islands
+adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and the insular part of the kingdom
+(including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m. The islands may be divided into two
+groups, consisting of the two principal islands Fünen and Zealand, and
+the lesser islands attendant on each. Fünen (Dan. _Fyen_), in form
+roughly an oval with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated
+from Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide in the north, but
+averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and known as
+the Little Belt. Fünen, geologically a part of southern Jutland, has
+similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of fertile meadows, the
+typical beech-forests clothing the low hills and the presence of
+numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial signs of likeness. Several
+islands, none of great extent, lie off the west coast of Fünen in the
+Little Belt; off the south, however, an archipelago is enclosed by the
+long narrow islands of Aerö (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.),
+including in a triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge,
+Avernakö, Dreiö, Turö and others. These are generally fertile and well
+cultivated. Aeröskjöbing and Rudkjöbing, on Aerö and Langeland
+respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is the great castle
+of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the 13th century. The chief towns
+of Fünen itself are all coastal. Odense is the principal town, lying
+close to a great inlet behind the peninsula of Hindsholm on the
+north-east, known as Odense Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for
+the steam-ferry to Korsör in Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks
+the southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a fjord of
+the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the crossing of the
+Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of the fortifications
+which were stormed by John of Ranzau in 1535; Middelfart is a seaside
+resort near the narrowest reach of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small
+port on the north coast. All these towns are served by railways
+radiating from Odense. The strait crossed by the Nyborg-Korsör ferry is
+the Great Belt which divides the Fünen from the Zealand group, and is
+continued south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight
+eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt, named from an
+island 15 m. in length, with several large villages, which lies somewhat
+apart from the main archipelago.
+
+Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. _Sjaelland_), measuring 82 m. N. to S. by 68
+E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line indented by fjords
+and projecting into long spits or promontories, may be considered as the
+nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it contains the capital, Copenhagen,
+and such important towns as Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsör, Naestved and
+Elsinore (Helsingör). Its topography is described in detail under
+ZEALAND. Its attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of
+itself, only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern
+coast of Möen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island formed
+three separate isles in 1100, and the village of Borre, now 2 m. inland,
+was the object of an attack by a fleet from Lübeck in 1510. On Falster
+is the port of Nykjöbing, and from Gjedser, the extreme southern point
+of Denmark, communication is maintained with Warnemünde in Germany (29
+m.). From Nykjöbing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to
+Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other towns
+are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the 14th century,
+Saxkjöbing and Rödby. The island of Bornholm lies 86 m. E. of the
+nearest point of the archipelago, and as it belongs geologically to
+Sweden (from which it is distant only 22 m.) must be considered to be
+physically an appendage rather than an internal part of the kingdom of
+Denmark.
+
+_Geology._--The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere formed by the
+so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish geologists call the Boulder
+Sand. The former, as is well known, owes its origin to the action of ice
+on the mountains of Norway in the Glacial period. It is unstratified;
+but by the action of water on it, stratified deposits have been formed,
+some of clay, containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very
+extensive ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost
+everywhere the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of
+Jutland, a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but
+really sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder
+formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period, which in
+many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs on the sea-coast.
+Much of the Danish chalk, including the well-known limestone of Faxe,
+belongs to the highest or "Danian" subdivision of the Cretaceous period.
+In the south-western parts a succession of strata, described as the
+Brown Coal or Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the
+boulder clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which
+occur in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations
+come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the
+southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost portion of
+the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay lies immediately on the
+primitive rock, except in the south-western corner of the island, where
+a series of strata appear belonging to the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic
+and Cretaceous formations, the true Coal formation, &c., being absent.
+Some parts of Denmark are supposed to have been finally raised out of
+the sea towards the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the
+country did not appear above the water till about the close of the
+Glacial period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a
+large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though
+slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction from
+Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island of Fyen, a
+little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea-beaches, marked by
+accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones, &c., have been noticed as much
+as 20 ft. above the present level. But the upheaval does not seem to
+affect all parts equally. Even in historic times it has vastly changed
+the aspect and configuration of the country.
+
+_Climate, Flora, Fauna._--The climate of Denmark does not differ
+materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude; but whilst
+the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so that most of the
+evergreens which adorn an English garden in the winter cannot be grown
+in the open in Denmark. During thirty years the annual mean temperature
+varied from 43.88° F. to 46.22° in different years and different
+localities, the mean average for the whole country being 45.14°. The
+islands have, upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland.
+The mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to March, are
+33.26°, 31.64°, 31.82°, and 33.98° respectively, or for the whole winter
+32.7°; that of the summer, June to August, 59.2°, but considerable
+irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an average on twenty days in each
+of the four winter months, but only on two days in either October or
+May. A fringe of ice generally lines the greater part of the Danish
+coasts on the eastern side for some time during the winter, and both the
+Sound and the Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In
+some winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of
+sledges passing between Copenhagen and Malmö. The annual rainfall varies
+between 21.58 in. and 27.87 in. in different years and different
+localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland; while the small
+island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual rainfall of only 15.78
+in. More than half the rainfall occurs from July to November, the
+wettest month being September, with an average of 2.95 in.; the driest
+month is April, with an average of 1.14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent
+in the summer. South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and
+from September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which is
+particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds prevail
+from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the north of Jutland,
+a cold and dry N.W. wind called _skai_ prevails in May and June, and is
+exceedingly destructive to vegetation; while along the west coast of the
+peninsula similar effects are produced by a salt mist, which carries its
+influence from 15 to 30 m. inland.
+
+The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might be anticipated
+in a country of such simple physical structure. The ordinary forms of
+the north of Europe grow freely in the mild air and protected soil of
+the islands and the eastern coast; while on the heaths and along the
+sandhills on the Atlantic side there flourish a number of distinctive
+species. The Danish forest is almost exclusively made up of beech, a
+tree which thrives better in Denmark than in any other country of
+Europe. The oak and ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were
+abundant in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost
+universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient origin,
+for in the first half of the 17th century the oak was still the
+characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark except under
+careful cultivation, which, however, is largely practised in Jutland
+(q.v.). But again, abundant traces of ancient extensive forests of fir
+and pine are found in the numerous peat bogs which supply a large
+proportion of the fuel locally used. In Bornholm, it should be
+mentioned, the flora is more like that of Sweden; not the beech, but the
+pine, birch and ash are the most abundant trees.
+
+The wild animals and birds of Denmark are those of the rest of central
+Europe. The larger quadrupeds are all extinct; even the red deer,
+formerly so abundant that in a single hunt in Jutland in 1593 no less
+than 1600 head of deer were killed, is now only to be met with in
+preserves. In the prehistoric "kitchen-middens" (_kjökkenmödding_) and
+elsewhere, however, vestiges are found which prove that the urochs, the
+wild boar, the beaver, the bear and the wolf all existed subsequently to
+the arrival of man. The usual domestic animals are abundantly found in
+Denmark, with the exception of the goat, which is uncommon. The sea
+fisheries are of importance. Oysters are found in some places, but have
+disappeared from many localities, where their abundance in ancient times
+is proved by their shell moulds on the coast. The Gudenaa is the only
+salmon river in Denmark.
+
+[Illustration: DENMARK]
+
+_Population._--The population of Denmark in 1901 was 2,449,540. It was
+929,001 in 1801, showing an increase during the century in the
+proportion of 1 to 2.63. In 1901 the average density of the population
+of Denmark was 165.2 to the square mile, but varied much in the
+different parts. Jutland showed an average of only 109 inhabitants per
+square mile, whilst on the islands, which had a total population of
+1,385,537, the average stood at 272.95, owing, on the one hand, to the
+fact that large tracts in the interior of Jutland are almost
+uninhabited, and on the other to the fact that the capital of the
+country, with its proportionately large population, is situated on the
+island of Zealand. The percentages of urban and rural population are
+respectively about 38 and 62. A notable movement of the population to
+the towns began about the middle of the 19th century, and increased
+until very near its end. It was stronger on the islands, where the rural
+population increased by 5.3% only in eleven years, whereas in Jutland
+the increase of the rural population between 1890 and 1901 amounted to
+12.0%. Here, however, peculiar circumstances contributed to the
+increase, as successful efforts have been made to render the land
+fruitful by artificial means. The Danes are a yellow-haired and
+blue-eyed Teutonic race of middle stature, bearing traces of their
+kinship with the northern Scandinavian peoples. Their habits of life
+resemble those of the North Germans even more than those of the Swedes.
+The independent tenure of the land by a vast number of small farmers,
+who are their own masters, gives an air of carelessness, almost of
+truculence, to the well-to-do Danish peasants. They are generally slow
+of speech and manner, and somewhat irresolute, but take an eager
+interest in current politics, and are generally fairly educated men of
+extreme democratic principles. The result of a fairly equal distribution
+of wealth is a marked tendency towards equality in social intercourse.
+The townspeople show a bias in favour of French habits and fashions. The
+separation from the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more
+than half German, intensified the national character; the Danes are
+intensely patriotic; and there is no portion of the Danish dominions
+except perhaps in the West Indian islands, where a Scandinavian language
+is not spoken. The preponderance of the female population over the male
+is approximately as 1052 to 1000. The male sex remains in excess until
+about the twentieth year, from which age the female sex preponderates in
+increasing ratio with advancing age. The percentage of illegitimacy is
+high as a whole, although in some of the rural districts it is very low.
+But in Copenhagen 20% of the births are illegitimate. Between the middle
+and the end of the 19th century the rate of mortality decreased most
+markedly for all ages. During the last decade of the century it ranged
+between 19.5 per thousand in 1891 and 15.1 in 1898 (17.4 in 1900).
+Emigration for some time in the 19th century at different periods, both
+in its early part and towards its close, seriously affected the
+population of Denmark. But in the last decade it greatly diminished.
+Thus in 1892 the number of emigrants to Transatlantic places rose to
+10,422 but in 1900 it was only 3570. The great bulk of them go to the
+United States; next in favour is Canada.
+
+_Communications._--The roads of Denmark form an extensive and
+well-maintained system. The railway system is also fairly complete, the
+state owning about three-fifths of the total mileage, which amounts to
+some 2000. Two lines enter Denmark from Schleswig across the frontier.
+The main Danish lines are as follows. From the frontier a line runs east
+by Fredericia, across the island of Fünen by Odense and Nyborg, to
+Korsör on Zealand, and thence by Roskilde to Copenhagen. The straits
+between Fredericia and Middelfart and between Nyborg and Korsör are
+crossed by powerful steam-ferries which are generally capable of
+conveying a limited number of railway wagons. This system is also in use
+on the line which runs south from Roskilde to the island of Falster,
+from the southernmost point of which, Gjedser, ferry-steamers taking
+railway cars serve Warnemünde in Germany. The main lines in Jutland run
+(a) along the eastern side north from Fredericia by Horsens, Aarhus,
+Randers, Aalborg and Hjörring, to Frederikshavn, and (b) along the
+western side from Esbjerg by Skjerne and Vemb, and thence across the
+peninsula by Viborg to Langaa on the eastern line. The lines are
+generally of standard gauge (4 ft. 8½ in.), but there is also a
+considerable mileage of light narrow-gauge railways. Besides the
+numerous steam-ferries which connect island and island, and Jutland with
+the islands, and the Gjedser-Warnemünde route, a favourite passenger
+line from Germany is that between Kiel and Korsör, while most of the
+German Baltic ports have direct connexion with Copenhagen. With Sweden
+communications are established by ferries across the Sound between
+Copenhagen and Malmö and Landskrona, and between Elsinore (Helsingör)
+and Helsingborg. The postal department maintains a telegraph and
+telephone service.
+
+_Industries._--The main source of wealth in Denmark is agriculture,
+which employs about two-fifths of the entire population. Most of the
+land is freehold and cultivated by the owner himself, and comparatively
+little land is let on lease except very large holdings and glebe farms.
+The independent small farmer (_bönder_) maintains a hereditary
+attachment to his ancestral holding. There is also a class of cottar
+freeholders (_junster_). Fully 74% of the total area of the country is
+agricultural land. Of this only about one-twelfth is meadow land. The
+land under grain crops is not far short of one-half the remainder, the
+principal crops being oats, followed by barley and rye in about equal
+quantities, with wheat about one-sixth that of barley and hardly
+one-tenth that of oats. Beet is extensively grown. During the last forty
+years of the 19th century dairy-farming was greatly developed in
+Denmark, and brought to a high degree of perfection by the application
+of scientific methods and the best machinery, as well as by the
+establishment of joint dairies. The Danish government has assisted this
+development by granting money for experiments and by a rigorous system
+of inspection for the prevention of adulteration. The co-operative
+system plays an important part in the industries of butter-making,
+poultry-farming and the rearing of swine.
+
+Rabbits, which are not found wild in Denmark, are bred for export. Woods
+cover fully 7% of the area, and their preservation is considered of so
+much importance that private owners are under strict control as regards
+cutting of timber. The woods consist mostly of beech, which is
+principally used for fuel, but pines were extensively planted during the
+19th century. Allusion has been made already to the efforts to plant the
+extensive heaths in Jutland (q.v.) with pine-trees.
+
+_Agriculture._--Rates and taxes on land are mostly levied according to a
+uniform system of assessment, the unit of which is called a _Tonde
+Hartkorn_. The Td. Htk., as it is usually abbreviated, has further
+subdivision, and is intended to correspond to the same value of land
+throughout the country. The Danish measure for land is a _Tonde Land_
+(Td. L.), which is equal to 1.363 statute acres. Of the best ploughing
+land a little over 6 Td. L., or about 8 acres, go to a Td. Htk., but of
+unprofitable land a Td. Htk. may represent 300 acres or more. On the
+islands and in the more fertile part of Jutland the average is about 10
+Td. L., or 13½ acres. Woodland, tithes, &c., are also assessed to Td.
+Htk. for fiscal purposes. In the island of Bornholm, the assessment is
+somewhat different, though the general state of agricultural holdings is
+the same as in other parts. The selling value of land has shown a
+decrease in modern times on account of the agricultural depression. A
+homestead with land assessed less than 1 Td. Htk. is legally called a
+_Huus_ or _Sted_, i.e. cottage, whilst a farm assessed at 1 Td. Htk. or
+more is called _Gaard_, i.e. farm. Farms of between 1 and 12 Td. Htk.
+are called _Bondergaarde_, or peasant farms, and are subject to the
+restriction that such a holding cannot lawfully be joined to or entirely
+merged into another. They may be subdivided, and portions may be added
+to another holding, but the homestead, with a certain amount of land,
+must be preserved as a separate holding for ever. The seats of the
+nobility and landed gentry are called _Herregaarde_. The peasants hold
+about 73% of all the land according to its value. As regards their size
+about 30% are assessed from 1 to 4 Td. Htk.; about 33% from 4 to 8 Td.
+Htk.; the remainder at about 8 Td. Htk. An annual sum is voted by
+parliament out of which loans are granted to cottagers who desire to
+purchase small freehold plots.
+
+The fishery along the coasts of Denmark is of some importance both on
+account of the supply of food obtained thereby for the population of the
+country, and on account of the export; but the good fishing grounds, not
+far from the Danish coast, particularly in the North Sea, are mostly
+worked by the fishing vessels of other nations, which are so numerous
+that the Danish government is obliged to keep gun-boats stationed there
+in order to prevent encroachments on territorial waters.
+
+_Other Industries._--The mineral products of Denmark are unimportant. It
+is one of the poorest countries of Europe in this particular. It is
+rich, however, in clays, while in the island of Bornholm there are
+quarries of freestone and marble. The factories of Denmark supply mainly
+local needs. The largest are those engaged in the construction of
+engines and iron ships. The manufacture of woollens and cotton, the
+domestic manufacture of linen in Zealand, sugar refineries, paper mills,
+breweries, and distilleries may also be mentioned. The most notable
+manufacture is that of porcelain. The nucleus of this industry was a
+factory started in 1772, by F. H. Müller, for the making of china out of
+Bornholm clay. In 1779 it passed into the hands of the state, and has
+remained there ever since, though there are also private factories.
+Originally the Copenhagen potters imitated the Dresden china made at
+Meissen, but they later produced graceful original designs. The
+creations of Thorvaldsen have been largely repeated and imitated in this
+ware. Trade-unionism flourishes in Denmark, and strikes are of frequent
+occurrence.
+
+_Commerce._--Formerly the commercial legislation of Denmark was to such
+a degree restrictive that imported manufactures had to be delivered to
+the customs, where they were sold by public auction, the proceeds of
+which the importer received from the custom-houses after a deduction was
+made for the duty. To this restriction, as regards foreign intercourse,
+was added a no less injurious system of inland duties impeding the
+commerce of the different provinces with each other. The want of roads
+also, and many other disadvantages, tended to keep down the development
+of both commerce and industry. During the 19th century, however, several
+commercial treaties were concluded between Denmark and the other powers
+of Europe, which made the Danish tariff more regular and liberal.
+
+The vexed question, of many centuries' standing, concerning the claim of
+Denmark to levy dues on vessels passing through the Sound (q.v.), was
+settled by the abolition of the dues in 1857. The commerce of Denmark is
+mainly based on home production and home consumption, but a certain
+quantity of goods is imported with a view to re-exportation, for which
+the free port and bonded warehouses at Copenhagen give facilities. In
+modern times the value of Danish commerce greatly increased, being
+doubled in the last twenty years of the 19th century, and exceeding a
+total of fifty millions sterling. The value of export is exceeded as a
+whole by that of import in the proportion, roughly, of 1 to 1.35. By far
+the most important articles of export may be classified as articles of
+food of animal origin, a group which covers the vast export trade in the
+dairy produce, especially butter, for which Denmark is famous. The value
+of the butter for export reaches nearly 40% of the total value of Danish
+exports. A small proportion of the whole is imported chiefly from Russia
+(also Siberia) and Sweden and re-exported as of foreign origin. The
+production of margarine is large, but not much is exported, margarine
+being largely consumed in Denmark instead of butter, which is exported.
+Next to butter the most important article of Danish export is bacon, and
+huge quantities of eggs are also exported. Exports of less value, but
+worthy of special notice, are vegetables and wool, bones and tallow,
+also dairy machinery, and finally cement, the production of which is a
+growing industry. The classes of articles of food of animal origin, and
+living animals, are the only ones of which the exportation exceeds the
+importation; with regard to all other goods, the reverse is the case. In
+the second of these classes the most important export is home-bred
+horned cattle. The trade in live sheep and swine, which was formerly
+important, has mostly been converted into a dead-meat trade. A
+proportionally large importation of timber is caused by the scarcity of
+native timber suitable for building purposes, the plantations of firs
+and pines being insufficient to produce the quantity required, and the
+quality of the wood being inferior beyond the age of about forty years.
+The large importation of coal, minerals and metals, and goods made from
+them is likewise caused by the natural poverty of the country in these
+respects.
+
+Denmark carries on its principal import trade with Germany, Great
+Britain and the United States of America, in this order, the proportions
+being about 30, 20 and 16% respectively of the total. Its principal
+export trade is with Great Britain, Germany and Sweden, the percentage
+of the whole being 60, 18 and 10. With Russia, Norway and France (in
+this order) general trade is less important, but still large. A
+considerable proportion of Denmark's large commercial fleet is engaged
+in the carrying trade between foreign, especially British, ports.
+
+Under a law of the 4th of May 1907 it was enacted that the metric system
+of weights and measures should come into official use in three years
+from that date, and into general use in five years.
+
+_Money and Banking._--The unit of the Danish monetary system, as of the
+Swedish and Norwegian, is the _krone_ (crown), equal to 1s. 1{1/3}d.,
+which is divided into 100 _öre_; consequently 7½ öre are equal to one
+penny. Since 1873 gold has been the standard, and gold pieces of 20 and
+10 kroner are coined, but not often met with, as the public prefers
+bank-notes. The principal bank is the National Bank at Copenhagen, which
+is the only one authorized to issue notes. These are of the value of 10,
+50, 100 and 500 kr. Next in importance are the Danske Landmands Bank,
+the Handels Bank and the Private Bank, all at Copenhagen. The provincial
+banks are very numerous; many of them are at the same time savings
+banks. Their rate of interest, with few exceptions, is 3½ to 4%. There
+exist, besides, in Denmark several mutual loan associations
+(_Kreditforeninger_), whose business is the granting of loans on
+mortgage. Registration of mortgages is compulsory in Denmark, and the
+system is extremely simple, a fact which has been of the greatest
+importance for the improvement of the country. There are comparatively
+large institutions for insurance of all kinds in Denmark. The largest
+office for life insurance is a state institution. By law of the 9th of
+April 1891 a system of old-age pensions was established for the benefit
+of persons over sixty years of age.
+
+_Government._--Denmark is a limited monarchy, according to the law of
+1849, revised in 1866. The king shares his power with the parliament
+(_Rigsdag_), which consists of two chambers, the _Landsthing_ and the
+_Folkething_, but the constitution contains no indication of any
+difference in their attributes. The Landsthing, or upper house, however,
+is evidently intended to form the conservative element in the
+constitutional machinery. While the 114 members of the Folkething (House
+of Commons) are elected for three years in the usual way by universal
+suffrage, 12 out of the 66 members of the Landsthing are life members
+nominated by the crown. The remaining 54 members of the Landsthing are
+returned for eight years according to a method of proportionate
+representation by a body of deputy electors. Of these deputies one-half
+are elected in the same way as members of the Folkething, without any
+property qualification for the voters; the other half of the deputy
+electors are chosen in the towns by those who during the last preceding
+year were assessed on a certain minimum of income, or paid at least a
+certain amount in rates and taxes. In the rural districts the deputy
+electors returned by election are supplemented by an equal number of
+those who have paid the highest amounts in taxes and county rates
+together. In this manner a representation is secured for fairly large
+minorities, and what is considered a fair share of influence on public
+affairs given to those who contribute the most to the needs of the
+state. The franchise is held by every male who has reached his thirtieth
+year, subject to independence of public charity and certain other
+circumstances. A candidate for either house of the Rigsdag must have
+passed the age of twenty-five. Members are paid ten kroner each day of
+the session and are allowed travelling expenses. The houses meet each
+year on the first Monday in October. The constitutional theory of the
+Folkething is that of one member for every 16,000 inhabitants. The
+Faeröe islands, which form an integral part of the kingdom of Denmark in
+the wider sense, are represented in the Danish parliament, but not the
+other dependencies of the Danish crown, namely Iceland, Greenland and
+the West Indian islands of St Thomas, St John and St Croix. The budget
+is considered by the Folkething at the beginning of each session. The
+revenue and expenditure average annually about £4,700,000. The principal
+items of revenue are customs and excise, land and house tax, stamps,
+railways, legal fees, the state lottery and death duties. A considerable
+reserve fund is maintained to meet emergencies. The public debt is about
+£13,500,000 and is divided into an internal debt, bearing interest
+generally at 3½%, and a foreign debt (the larger), with interest
+generally at 3%. The revenue and expenditure of the Faeröes are included
+in the budget for Denmark proper, but Iceland and the West Indies have
+their separate budgets. The Danish treasury receives nothing from these
+possessions; on the contrary, Iceland receives an annual grant, and the
+West Indian islands have been heavily subsidized by the Danish finances
+to assist the sugar industry. The administration of Greenland (q.v.)
+entails an annual loss which is posted on the budget of the ministry of
+finances. The state council (_Statsraad_) includes the presidency of the
+council and ministries of war, and marine, foreign affairs, the
+interior, justice, finance, public institution and ecclesiastical,
+agriculture and public works.
+
+_Local Government._--For administrative purposes the country is divided
+into eighteen counties (_Amter_, singular _Amt_), as follows. (1)
+Covering the islands of Zealand and lesser adjacent islands, Copenhagen,
+Frederiksborg, Holbaek, Sorö, Praestö. (2) Covering the islands of
+Laaland and Falster, Maribo. (3) Covering Fünen, Langeland and adjacent
+islets, Svendborg, Odense. (4) On the mainland, Hjörring, Aalborg,
+Thisted, Ringkjöbing, Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle, Ribe. (5)
+Bornholm. The principal civil officer in each of these is the _Amtmand_.
+Local affairs are managed by the _Amstraad_ and _Sogneraad_,
+corresponding to the English county council and parish council. These
+institutions date from 1841, but they have undergone several
+modifications since. The members of these councils are elected on a
+system similar to that applied to the elections for the Landsthing. The
+same is the case with the provincial town councils. That of Copenhagen
+is elected by those who are rated on an income of at least 400 kroner
+(£22). The burgomasters are appointed by the crown, except at
+Copenhagen, where they are elected by the town council, subject to royal
+approbation. The financial position of the municipalities in Denmark is
+generally good. The ordinary budget of Copenhagen amounts to about
+£1,100,000 a year.
+
+_Justice._--For the administration of justice Denmark is divided into
+_herreds_ or hundreds; as, however, they are mostly of small extent,
+several are generally served by one judge (_herredsfoged_); the
+townships are likewise separate jurisdictions, each with a _byfoged_.
+There are 126 such local judges, each of whom deals with all kinds of
+cases arising in his district, and is also at the head of the police.
+There are two intermediary Courts of Appeal (_Overret_), one in
+Copenhagen, another in Viborg; the Supreme Court of Appeal
+(_Höjesteret_) sits at Copenhagen. In the capital the different
+functions are more divided. There is also a Court of Commerce and
+Navigation, on which leading members of the trading community serve as
+assessors. In the country, Land Commissions similarly constituted deal
+with many questions affecting agricultural holdings. A peculiarity of
+the Danish system is that, with few exceptions, no civil cause can be
+brought before a court until an attempt has been made at effecting an
+amicable settlement. This is mostly done by so-called Committees of
+Conciliation, but in some cases by the court itself before commencing
+formal judicial proceedings. In this manner three-fifths of all the
+causes are settled, and many which remain unsettled are abandoned by the
+plaintiffs. Sanitary matters are under the control of a Board of Health.
+The whole country is divided into districts, in each of which a medical
+man is appointed with a salary, who is under the obligation to attend to
+poor sick and assist the authorities in medical matters, inquests, &c.
+The relief of the poor is well organized, mostly on the system of
+out-door relief. Many workhouses have been established for indigent
+persons capable of work. There are also many almshouses and similar
+institutions.
+
+_Army and Navy._--The active army consists of a life guard battalion and
+10 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, infantry, 5 cavalry
+regiments of 3 squadrons each, 12 field batteries (now re-armed with a
+Krupp Q.F. equipment), 3 battalions of fortress artillery and 6
+companies of engineers, with in addition various local troops and
+details. The peace strength of permanent troops, without the annual
+contingent of recruits, is about 13,500 officers and men, the annual
+contingent of men trained two or three years with the colours about
+22,500, and the annual contingent of special reservists (men trained for
+brief periods) about 17,000. Thus the number of men maintained under
+arms (without calling up the reserves) is as high as 75,000 during
+certain periods of the year and averages nearly 60,000. Reservists who
+have definitively left the colours are recalled for short refresher
+trainings, the number of men so trained in 1907 being about 80,000. The
+field army on a war footing, without depot troops, garrison troops and
+reservists, would be about 50,000 strong, but by constituting new cadres
+at the outbreak of war and calling up the reserves it could be more than
+doubled, and as a matter of fact nearly 120,000 men were with the
+colours in the manoeuvre season in 1907. The term of service is eight
+years in the active army and its reserves and eight years in the second
+line. The armament of the infantry is the Krag-jorgensen of .314 in.
+calibre, model 1889, that of the field artillery a 7.5 cm. Krupp Q.F.
+equipment, model 1902. The navy consists of 6 small battleships, 3 coast
+defence armour-clads, 5 protected cruisers, 5 gun-boats, and 24 torpedo
+craft.
+
+_Religion._--The national or state church of Denmark is officially
+styled "Evangelically Reformed," but is popularly described as Lutheran.
+The king must belong to it. There is complete religious toleration, but
+though most of the important Christian communities are represented their
+numbers are very small. The Mormon apostles for a considerable time made
+a special raid upon the Danish peasantry and a few hundreds profess this
+faith. There are seven dioceses, Fünen, Laaland and Falster, Aarhus,
+Aalborg, Viborg and Ribe, while the primate is the bishop of Zealand,
+and resides at Copenhagen, but his cathedral is at Roskilde. The bishops
+have no political function by reason of their office, although they may,
+and often do, take a prominent part in politics. The greater part of the
+pastorates comprise more than one parish. The benefices are almost
+without exception provided with good residences and glebes, and the
+tithes, &c., generally afford a comfortable income. The bishops have
+fixed salaries in lieu of tithes appropriated by the state.
+
+_Education and Arts._--The educational system of Denmark is maintained
+at a high standard. The instruction in primary schools is gratuitous.
+Every child is bound to attend the parish school at least from the
+seventh to the thirteenth year, unless the parents can prove that it
+receives suitable instruction in other ways. The schools are under the
+immediate control of school boards appointed by the parish councils, but
+of which the incumbent of the parish is _ex-officio_ member; superior
+control is exercised by the Amtmand, the rural dean, and the bishop,
+under the Minister for church and education. Secondary public schools
+are provided in towns, in which moderate school fees are paid. There are
+also public grammar-schools. Nearly all schools are day-schools. There
+are only two public schools, which, though on a much smaller scale,
+resemble the great English schools, namely, those of Sorö and
+Herlufsholm, both founded by private munificence. Private schools are
+generally under a varying measure of public control. The university is
+at Copenhagen (q.v.). Amongst numerous other institutions for the
+furtherance of science and training of various kinds may be mentioned
+the large polytechnic schools; the high school for agriculture and
+veterinary art; the royal library; the royal society of sciences; the
+museum of northern antiquities; the society of northern antiquaries, &c.
+The art museums of Denmark are not considerable, except the museum of
+Thorvaldsen, at Copenhagen, but much is done to provide first-rate
+training in the fine arts and their application to industry through the
+Royal Academy of Arts, and its schools. Finally, it may be mentioned
+that a sum proportionately large is available from public funds and
+regular parliamentary grants for furthering science and arts by
+temporary subventions to students, authors, artists and others of
+insufficient means, in order to enable them to carry out particular
+works, to profit by foreign travel, &c. The principal scientific
+societies and institutions are detailed under Copenhagen. During the
+earlier part of the 19th century not a few men could be mentioned who
+enjoyed an exceptional reputation in various departments of science, and
+Danish scientists continue to contribute their full share to the
+advancement of knowledge. The society of sciences, that of northern
+antiquaries, the natural history and the botanical societies, &c.,
+publish their transactions and proceedings, but the _Naturhistorisk
+Tidsskrift_, of which 14 volumes with 259 plates were published
+(1861-1884), and which was in the foremost rank in its department,
+ceased with the death in 1884 of the editor, the distinguished
+zoologist, I. C. Schiödte. Another extremely valuable publication of
+wide general interest, the _Meddelelser om Grönland_, is published by
+the commission for the exploration of Greenland. What may be called the
+modern "art" current, with its virtues and vices, is as strong in
+Denmark as in England. Danish sculpture will be always famous, if only
+through the name of Thorvaldsen. In architecture the prevailing fashion
+is a return to the style of the first half of the 17th century, called
+the Christian IV. style; but in this branch of art no marked excellence
+has been obtained.
+
+   AUTHORITIES.--J. P. Trap, _Statistisk Topographisk Beskrivelse af
+   Kongeriget Danmark_ (Copenhagen, 1859-1860, 3 vols., 2nd ed.,
+   1872-1879); V. Falbe-Hansen and W. Scharling, _Danmarks Statistik_
+   (Copenhagen, 1878-1891, 6 vols.). (Various writers) _Vort Folk i det
+   nittende Aarhundrede_ (Copenhagen, 1899 et seq.), illustrated; J.
+   Carlsen, H. Olrik and C. N. Starcke, _Le Danemark_ (Copenhagen,
+   1900), 700 pp.; illustrated, published in connexion with the Paris
+   Exhibition. _Statistisk Aarbog_ (1896, &c.). Annual publication, and
+   other publications of Statens Statistiske Bureau, Copenhagen;
+   _Annuaire météorologique_, Danish Meteorological Institution,
+   Copenhagen; E. Löffler, _Dänemarks Natur and Volk_ (Copenhagen,
+   1905); Margaret Thomas, _Denmark Past and Present_ (London, 1902).
+                                            (C. A. G.; O. J. R. H.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+_Ancient._--Our earliest knowledge of Denmark is derived from Pliny, who
+speaks of three islands named "Skandiai," a name which is also applied
+to Sweden. He says nothing about the inhabitants of these islands, but
+tells us more about the Jutish peninsula, or Cimbric Chersonese as he
+calls it. He places the Saxons on the neck, above them the Sigoulones,
+Sabaliggoi and Kobandoi, then the Chaloi, then above them the
+Phoundousioi, then the Charondes and finally the Kimbroi. He also
+mentions the three islands called Alokiai, at the northern end of the
+peninsula. This would point to the fact that the Limfjord was then open
+at both ends, and agree with Adam of Bremen (iv. 16), who also speaks of
+three islands called Wendila, Morse and Thud. The Cimbri and Charydes
+are mentioned in the _Monumentum Ancyranum_ as sending embassies to
+Augustus in A.D. 5. The Promontorium Cimbrorum is spoken of in Pliny,
+who says that the Sinus Codanus lies between it and Mons Saevo. The
+latter place is probably to be found in the high-lying land on the N.E.
+coast of Germany, and the Sinus Codanus must be the S.W. corner of the
+Baltic, and not the whole sea. Pomponius Mela says that the Cimbri and
+Teutones dwelt on the Sinus Codanus, the latter also in Scandinavia (or
+Sweden). The Romans believed that these Cimbri and Teutones were the
+same as those who invaded Gaul and Italy at the end of the 2nd century
+B.C. The Cimbri may probably be traced in the province of Aalborg,
+formerly known as Himmerland; the Teutones, with less certainty, may be
+placed in Thyth or Thyland, north of the Limfjord. No further reference
+to these districts is found till towards the close of the migration
+period, about the beginning of the 6th century, when the Heruli (q.v.),
+a nation dwelling in or near the basin of the Elbe, were overthrown by
+the Langobardi. According to Procopius (_Bellum Gothicum_, ii. 15), a
+part of them made their way across the "desert of the Slavs," through
+the lands of the Warni and the Danes to Thoule (i.e. Sweden). This is
+the first recorded use of the name "Danes." It occurs again in Gregory
+of Tours (_Historiae Francorum_, iii. 3) in connexion with an irruption
+of a Götish (loosely called Danish) fleet into the Netherlands (c. 520).
+From this time the use of the name is fairly common. The heroic poetry
+of the Anglo-Saxons may carry the name further back, though probably it
+is not very ancient, at all events on the mainland.
+
+According to late Danish tradition Denmark now consisted of Vitheslaeth
+(i.e. Zealand, Möen, Falster and Laaland), Jutland (with Fyen) and
+Skaane. Jutland was acquired by Dan, the eponymous ancestor of the
+Danes. He also won Skaane, including the modern provinces of Halland,
+Kristianstad, Malmöhus and Blekinge, and these remained part of Denmark
+until the middle of the 17th century. These three divisions always
+remained more or less distinct, and the Danish kings had to be
+recognized at Lund, Ringsted and Viborg, but Zealand was from time
+immemorial the centre of government, and Lejre was the royal seat and
+national sanctuary. According to tradition this dates from the time of
+Skiöldr, the eponymous ancestor of the Danish royal family of
+Skiöldungar. He was a son of Othin and husband of the goddess Gefjon,
+who created Zealand. Anglo-Saxon tradition also speaks of Scyld (i.e.
+Skiöldr), who was regarded as the ancestor of both the Danish and
+English royal families, and it represented him as coming as a child of
+unknown origin in a rudderless boat. There can be little doubt that from
+a remote antiquity Zealand had been a religious sanctuary, and very
+probably the god Nerthus was worshipped here by the Angli and other
+tribes as described in Tacitus (_Germania_, c. 40). The Lejre sanctuary
+was still in existence in the time of Thietmar of Merseburg (i. 9), at
+the beginning of the 11th century.
+
+In Scandinavian tradition the next great figure is Fróðe the peace-king,
+but it is not before the 5th century that we meet with the names of any
+kings which can be regarded as definitely historical. In _Beowulf_ we
+hear of a Danish king Healfdene, who had three sons, Heorogar, Hrothgar
+and Halga. The hero Beowulf comes to the court of Hrothgar from the land
+of the Götar, where Hygelac is king. This Hygelac is undoubtedly to be
+identified with the Chochilaicus, king of the Danes (really Götar) who,
+as mentioned above, made a raid against the Franks c. 520. Beowulf
+himself won fame in this campaign, and by the aid of this definite
+chronological datum we can place the reign of Healfdene in the last half
+of the 5th century, and that of Hrothgar's nephew Hrothwulf, son of
+Halga, about the middle of the 6th century. Hrothgar and Halga
+correspond to Saxo's Hroar and Helgi, while Hrothwulf is the famous
+Rolvo or Hrólfr Kraki of Danish and Norse saga. There is probably some
+historical truth in the story that Heoroweard or Hiörvarðr was
+responsible for the death of Hrólfr Kraki. Possibly a still earlier king
+of Denmark was Sigarr or Sigehere, who has won lasting fame from the
+story of his daughter Signy and her lover Hagbarðr.
+
+From the middle of the 6th to the beginning of the 8th century we know
+practically nothing of Danish history. There are numerous kings
+mentioned in Saxo, but it is impossible to identify them historically.
+We have mention at the beginning of the 8th century of a Danish king
+Ongendus (cf. O. E. Ongenþeow) who received a mission led by St
+Willibrord, and it was probably about this time that there flourished a
+family of whom tradition records a good deal. The founder of this line
+was Ivarr Viðfaðmi of Skaane, who became king of Sweden. His daughter
+Auðr married one Hroerekr and became the mother of Haraldr Hilditönn.
+The genealogy of Haraldr is given differently in Saxo, but there can be
+no doubt of his historical existence. In his time it is said that the
+land was divided into four kingdoms--Skaane, Zealand, Fyen and Jutland.
+After a reign of great splendour Haraldr met his death in the great
+battle of Bråvalla (Bravík in Östergötland), where he was opposed by his
+nephew Ring, king of Sweden.
+
+The battle probably took place about the year 750. Fifty years later the
+Danes begin to be mentioned with comparative frequency in continental
+annals. From 777-798 we have mention of a certain Sigifridus as king of
+the Danes, and then in 804 his name is replaced by that of one
+Godefridus, This Godefridus is the Godefridus-Guthredus of Saxo, and is
+to be identified also with Guðröðr the Yngling, king in Vestfold in
+Norway. He came into conflict with Charlemagne, and was preparing a
+great expedition against him when he was killed by one of his own
+followers (c. 810). He was succeeded by his brother Hemmingus, but the
+latter died in 812 and there was a disputed succession. The two
+claimants were "Sigefridus nepos Godefridi regis" and "Anulo nepos
+Herioldi quondam regis" (i.e. probably Haraldr Hilditönn). A great
+battle took place in which both claimants were slain, but the party of
+Anulo (O.N. Áli) were victorious and appointed as kings Anulo's brothers
+Herioldus and Reginfridus. They soon paid a visit to Vestfold, "the
+extreme district of their realm, whose peoples and chief men were
+refusing to be made subject to them," and on their return had trouble
+with the sons of Godefridus. The latter expelled them from their
+kingdom, and in 814 Reginfridus fell in a vain attempt to regain it.
+Herioldus now received the support of the emperor, and after several
+unsuccessful attempts a compromise was effected in 819 when the parties
+agreed to share the realm. In 820 Herioldus was baptized at Mainz and
+received from the emperor a grant of Riustringen in N.E. Friesland. In
+827 he was expelled from his kingdom, but St Anskar, who had been sent
+with Herioldus to preach Christianity, remained at his post. In 836 we
+find one Horic as king of the Danes; he was probably a son of
+Godefridus. During his reign there was trouble with the emperor as to
+the overlordship of Frisia. In the meantime Herioldus remained on
+friendly terms with Lothair and received a further grant of Walcheren
+and the neighbouring districts. In 850 Horic was attacked by his own
+nephews and compelled to share the kingdom with them, while in 852
+Herioldus was charged with treachery and slain by the Franks. In 854 a
+revolution took place in Denmark itself. Horic's nephew Godwin,
+returning from exile with a large following of Northmen, overthrew his
+uncle in a three days' battle in which all members of the royal house
+except one boy are said to have perished. This boy now became king as
+"Horicus junior." Of his reign we know practically nothing. The next
+kings mentioned are Sigafrid and Halfdane, who were sons of the great
+Viking leader Ragnarr Loðbrok. There is also mention of a third king
+named Godefridus. The exact chronology and relationship of these kings
+it is impossible to determine, but we know that Healfdene died in
+Scotland in 877, while Godefridus was treacherously slain by Henry of
+Saxony in 885. During these and the next few years there is mention of
+more than one king of the names Sigefridus and Godefridus: the most
+important event associated with their names is that two kings Sigefridus
+and Godefridus fell in the great battle on the Dyle in 891.
+
+We now have the names of several kings, Heiligo, Olaph (of Swedish
+origin), and his sons Chnob and Gurth. Then come a Danish ruler Sigeric,
+followed by Hardegon, son of Swein, coming from Norway. At some date
+after 916 we find mention of one "Hardecnuth Urm" ruling among the
+Danes. Adam of Bremen, from whom these details come, was himself
+uncertain whether "so many kings or rather tyrants of the Danes ruled
+together or succeeded one another at short intervals." Hardecnuth Urm is
+to be identified with the famous Gorm the old, who married Thyra
+Danmarkarbót: their son was Harold Bluetooth. (A. MW.)
+
+_Medieval and Modern._--Danish history first becomes authentic at the
+beginning of the 9th century. The Danes, the southernmost branch of the
+Scandinavian family, referred to by Alfred (c. 890) as occupying
+Jutland, the islands and Scania, were, in 777, strong enough to defy the
+Frank empire by harbouring its fugitives. Five years later we find a
+Danish king, Sigfrid, among the princes who assembled at Lippe in 782 to
+make their submission to Charles the Great. About the same time
+Willibrord, from his see at Utrecht, made an unsuccessful attempt to
+convert the "wild Danes." These three salient facts are practically the
+sum of our knowledge of early Danish history previous to the Viking
+period. That mysterious upheaval, most generally attributed to a love of
+adventure, stimulated by the pressure of over-population, began with the
+ravaging of Lindisfarne in 793, and virtually terminated with the
+establishment of Rollo in Normandy (911). There can be little doubt that
+the earlier of these expeditions were from Denmark, though the term
+Northmen was originally applied indiscriminately to all these terrible
+visitants from the unknown north. The rovers who first chastened and
+finally colonized southern England and Normandy were certainly Danes.
+
+
+Conversion of the Danes.
+
+The Viking raids were one of the determining causes of the establishment
+of the feudal monarchies of western Europe, but the untameable
+freebooters were themselves finally subdued by the Church. At first
+sight it seems curious that Christianity should have been so slow to
+reach Denmark. But we must bear in mind that one very important
+consequence of the Viking raids was to annihilate the geographical
+remoteness which had hitherto separated Denmark from the Christian
+world. Previously to 793 there lay between Jutland and England a sea
+which no keel had traversed within the memory of man. The few and
+peaceful traders who explored those northern waters were careful never
+to lose sight of the Saxon, Frisian and Frankish shores during their
+passage. Nor was communication with the west by land any easier. For
+generations the obstinately heathen Saxons had lain, a compact and
+impenetrable mass, between Scandinavia and the Frank empire, nor were
+the measures adopted by Charles the Great for the conversion of the
+Saxons to the true faith very much to the liking of their warlike Danish
+neighbours on the other side. But by the time that Charles had succeeded
+in "converting" the Saxons, the Viking raids were already at their
+height, and though generally triumphant, necessity occasionally taught
+the Northmen the value of concessions. Thus it was the desire to secure
+his Jutish kingdom which induced Harold Klak, in 826, to sail up the
+Rhine to Ingelheim, and there accept baptism, with his wife, his son
+Godfred and 400 of his suite, acknowledging the emperor as his overlord,
+and taking back with him to Denmark the missionary monk Ansgar. Ansgar
+preached in Denmark from 826 to 861, but it was not till after the
+subsidence of the Viking raids that Adaldag, archbishop of Hamburg,
+could open a new and successful mission, which resulted in the erection
+of the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ribe and Aarhus (c. 948), though the
+real conversion of Denmark must be dated from the baptism of King Harold
+Bluetooth (960).
+
+
+Danish expansion.
+
+Meanwhile the Danish monarchy was attempting to aggrandize itself at the
+expense of the Germans, the Wends who then occupied the Baltic littoral
+as far as the Vistula, and the other Scandinavian kingdoms. Harold
+Bluetooth (940-986) subdued German territory south of the Eider,
+extended the _Danevirke_, Denmark's great line of defensive
+fortifications, to the south of Schleswig and planted the military
+colony of Julin or Jomsborg, at the mouth of the Oder. Part of Norway
+was first seized after the united Danes and Swedes had defeated and
+slain King Olaf Trygvessön at the battle of Svolde (1000); and between
+1028 and 1035 Canute the Great added the whole kingdom to his own; but
+the union did not long survive him. Equally short-lived was the Danish
+dominion in England, which originated in a great Viking expedition of
+King Sweyn I.
+
+Consolidation of the kingdom under the Valdemars, 1157-1251.
+
+The period between the death of Canute the Great and the accession of
+Valdemar I. was a troublous time for Denmark. The kingdom was harassed
+almost incessantly, and more than once partitioned, by pretenders to the
+throne, who did not scruple to invoke the interference of the
+neighbouring monarchs, and even of the heathen Wends, who established
+themselves for a time on the southern islands. Yet, throughout this
+chaos, one thing made for future stability, and that was the growth and
+consolidation of a national church, which culminated in the erection of
+the archbishopric of Lund (c. 1104) and the consequent ecclesiastical
+independence of Denmark. The third archbishop of Lund was Absalon
+(1128-1201), Denmark's first great statesman, who so materially assisted
+Valdemar I. (1157-1182) and Canute VI. (1182-1202) to establish the
+dominion of Denmark over the Baltic, mainly at the expense of the Wends.
+The policy of Absalon was continued on a still vaster scale by Valdemar
+II. (1202-1241), at a time when the German kingdom was too weak and
+distracted to intervene to save its seaboard; but the treachery of a
+vassal and the loss of one great battle sufficed to plunge this
+unwieldy, unsubstantial empire in the dust. (See VALDEMAR I., II., and
+ABSALON.)
+
+Yet the age of the Valdemars was one of the most glorious in Danish
+history, and it is of political importance as marking a turning-point.
+Favourable circumstances had, from the first, given the Danes the lead
+in Scandinavia. They held the richest and therefore the most populous
+lands, and geographically they were nearer than their neighbours to
+western civilization. Under the Valdemars, however, the ancient
+patriarchal system was merging into a more complicated development, of
+separate estates. The monarchy, now dominant, and far wealthier than
+before, rested upon the support of the great nobles, many of whom held
+their lands by feudal tenure, and constituted the royal _Raad_, or
+council. The clergy, fortified by royal privileges, had also risen to
+influence; but celibacy and independence of the civil courts tended to
+make them more and more of a separate caste. Education was spreading.
+Numerous Danes, lay as well as clerical, regularly frequented the
+university of Paris. There were signs too of the rise of a vigorous
+middle class, due to the extraordinary development of the national
+resources (chiefly the herring fisheries, horse-breeding and
+cattle-rearing) and the foundation of gilds, the oldest of which, the
+_Edslag_ of Schleswig, dates from the early 12th century. The _bonder_,
+or yeomen, were prosperous and independent, with well-defined rights.
+Danish territory extended over 60,000 sq. kilometres, or nearly double
+its present area; the population was about 700,000; and 160,000 men and
+1400 ships were available for national defence.
+
+
+Period of disintegration.
+
+On the death of Valdemar II. a period of disintegration ensued.
+Valdemar's son, Eric Plovpenning, succeeded him as king; but his near
+kinsfolk also received huge appanages, and family discords led to civil
+wars. Throughout the 13th and part of the 14th century, the struggle
+raged between the Danish kings and the Schleswig dukes; and of six
+monarchs no fewer than three died violent deaths. Superadded to these
+troubles was a prolonged struggle for supremacy between the popes and
+the crown, and, still more serious, the beginning of a breach between
+the kings and nobles, which had important constitutional consequences.
+The prevalent disorder had led to general lawlessness, in consequence of
+which the royal authority had been widely extended; and a strong
+opposition gradually arose which protested against the abuses of this
+authority. In 1282 the nobles extorted from King Eric Glipping the first
+_Haandfaestning_, or charter, which recognized the _Danehof_, or
+national assembly, as a regular branch of the administration and gave
+guarantees against further usurpations. Christopher II. (1319-1331) was
+constrained to grant another charter considerably reducing the
+prerogative, increasing the privileges of the upper classes, and at the
+same time reducing the burden of taxation. But aristocratic licence
+proved as mischievous as royal incompetence; and on the death of
+Christopher II. the whole kingdom was on the verge of dissolution.
+Eastern Denmark was in the hands of one magnate; another magnate held
+Jutland and Fünen in pawn; the dukes of Schleswig were practically
+independent of the Danish crown; the Scandian provinces had (1332)
+surrendered themselves to Sweden.
+
+
+Valdemar IV., 1340-1375.
+
+It was reserved for another Valdemar (Valdemar IV., q.v.) to reunite and
+weld together the scattered members of his heritage. His long reign
+(1340-1375) resulted in the re-establishment of Denmark as the great
+Baltic power. It is also a very interesting period of her social and
+constitutional development. This great ruler, who had to fight, year
+after year, against foreign and domestic foes, could, nevertheless,
+always find time to promote the internal prosperity of his much
+afflicted country. For the dissolution of Denmark, during the long
+anarchy, had been internal as well as external. The whole social fabric
+had been convulsed and transformed. The monarchy had been undermined.
+The privileged orders had aggrandized themselves at the expense of the
+community. The yeoman class had sunk into semi-serfdom. In a word, the
+natural cohesion of the Danish nation had been loosened and there was no
+security for law and justice. To make an end of this universal
+lawlessness Valdemar IV. was obliged, in the first place, to
+re-establish the royal authority by providing the crown with a regular
+and certain income. This he did by recovering the alienated royal
+demesnes in every direction, and from henceforth the annual _landgilde_,
+or rent, paid by the royal tenants, became the monarch's principal
+source of revenue. Throughout his reign Valdemar laboured incessantly to
+acquire as much land as possible. Moreover, the old distinction between
+the king's private estate and crown property henceforth ceases; all such
+property was henceforth regarded as the hereditary possession of the
+Danish crown.
+
+The national army was also re-established on its ancient footing. Not
+only were the magnates sharply reminded that they held their lands on
+military tenure, but the towns were also made to contribute both men and
+ships, and peasant levies, especially archers, were recruited from every
+parish. Everywhere indeed Valdemar intervened personally. The smallest
+detail was not beneath his notice. Thus he invented nets for catching
+wolves and built innumerable water-mills, "for he would not let the
+waters run into the sea before they had been of use to the community."
+Under such a ruler law and order were speedily re-established. The
+popular tribunals regained their authority, and a supreme court of
+justice, _Det Kongelige Retterting_, presided over by Valdemar himself,
+not only punished the unruly and guarded the prerogatives of the crown,
+but also protected the weak and defenceless from the tyranny of the
+strong. Nor did Valdemar hesitate to meet his people in public and
+periodically render an account of his stewardship. He voluntarily
+resorted to the old practice of summoning national assemblies, the
+so-called _Danehof_. At the first of these assemblies held at Nyborg,
+Midsummer Day 1314, the bishops and councillors solemnly promised that
+the commonalty should enjoy all the ancient rights and privileges
+conceded to them by Valdemar II., and the wise provision that the
+_Danehof_ should meet annually considerably strengthened its authority.
+The keystone to the whole constitutional system was "King Valdemar's
+Charter" issued in May 1360 at the _Rigsmöde_, or parliament, held at
+Kalundborg in May 1360. This charter was practically an act of national
+pacification, the provisions of which king and people together undertook
+to enforce for the benefit of the commonweal.
+
+
+The Union of Kalmar, 1397.
+
+The work of Valdemar was completed and consolidated by his illustrious
+daughter Margaret (1375-1412), whose crowning achievement was the Union
+of Kalmar (1397), whereby she sought to combine the three northern
+kingdoms into a single state dominated by Denmark. In any case Denmark
+was bound to be the only gainer by the Union. Her population was double
+that of the two other kingdoms combined, and neither Margaret nor her
+successors observed the stipulations that each country should retain its
+own laws and customs and be ruled by natives only. In both Norway and
+Sweden, therefore, the Union was highly unpopular. The Norwegian
+aristocracy was too weak, however, seriously to endanger the Union at
+any time, but Sweden was, from the first, decidedly hostile to
+Margaret's whole policy. Nevertheless during her lifetime the system
+worked fairly well; but her pupil and successor, Eric of Pomerania, was
+unequal to the burden of empire and embroiled himself both with his
+neighbours and his subjects. The Hanseatic League, whose political
+ascendancy had been shaken by the Union, enraged by Eric's efforts to
+bring in the Dutch as commercial rivals, as well as by the establishment
+of the Sound tolls, materially assisted the Holsteiners in their
+twenty-five years' war with Denmark (1410-35), and Eric VII. himself was
+finally deposed (1439) in favour of his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria.
+
+
+Growth of the power of the nobles.
+
+The deposition of Eric marks another turning-point in Danish history. It
+was the act not of the people but of the _Rigsraad_ (Senate), which had
+inherited the authority of the ancient _Danehof_ and, after the death of
+Margaret, grew steadily in power at the expense of the crown. As the
+government grew more and more aristocratic, the position of the
+peasantry steadily deteriorated. It is under Christopher that we first
+hear, for instance, of the _Vornedskab_, or patriarchal control of the
+landlords over their tenants, a system which degenerated into rank
+slavery. In Jutland, too, after the repression, in 1441, of a peasant
+rising, something very like serfdom was introduced.
+
+
+Break-up of the Union.
+
+On the death of Christopher III. without heirs, in 1448, the Rigsraad
+elected his distant cousin, Count Christian of Oldenburg, king; but
+Sweden preferred Karl Knutsson (Charles "VIII."), while Norway finally
+combined with Denmark, at the conference of Halmstad, in a double
+election which practically terminated the Union, though an agreement was
+come to that the survivor of the two kings should reign over all three
+kingdoms. Norway, subsequently, threw in her lot definitively with
+Denmark. Dissensions resulting in interminable civil wars had, even
+before the Union, exhausted the resources of the poorest of the three
+northern realms; and her ruin was completed by the ravages of the Black
+Death, which wiped out two-thirds of her population. Unfortunately,
+too, for Norway's independence, the native gentry had gradually died
+out, and were succeeded by immigrant Danish fortune-hunters; native
+burgesses there were none, and the peasantry were mostly thralls; so
+that, excepting the clergy, there was no patriotic class to stand up for
+the national liberties.
+
+Far otherwise was it in the wealthier kingdom of Sweden. Here the clergy
+and part of the nobility were favourable to the Union; but the vast
+majority of the people hated it as a foreign usurpation. Matters were
+still further complicated by the continual interference of the Hanseatic
+League; and Christian I. (1448-1481) and Hans (1481-1513), whose chief
+merit it is to have founded the Danish fleet, were, during the greater
+part of their reigns, only nominally kings of Sweden. Hans also received
+in fief the territory of Dietmarsch from the emperor, but, in attempting
+to subdue the hardy Dietmarschers, suffered a crushing defeat in which
+the national banner called "Danebrog" fell into the enemy's hands
+(1500). Moreover, this defeat led to a successful rebellion in Sweden,
+and a long and ruinous war with Lübeck, terminated by the peace of
+Malmö, 1512. It was during this war that a strong Danish fleet dominated
+the Baltic for the first time since the age of the Valdemars.
+
+
+Christian II., 1513-1523.
+
+Frederick I., 1523-1533. The Reformation.
+
+The Count's War, 1533-36.
+
+On the succession of Hans's son, Christian II. (1513-1523), Margaret's
+splendid dream of a Scandinavian empire seemed, finally, about to be
+realized. The young king, a man of character and genius, had wide views
+and original ideas. Elected king of Denmark and Norway, he succeeded in
+subduing Sweden by force of arms; but he spoiled everything at the
+culmination of his triumph by the hideous crime and blunder known as the
+Stockholm massacre, which converted the politically divergent Swedish
+nation into the irreconcilable foe of the unional government (see
+CHRISTIAN II.). Christian's contempt of nationality in Sweden is the
+more remarkable as in Denmark proper he sided with the people against
+the aristocracy, to his own undoing in that age of privilege and
+prejudice. His intentions, as exhibited to his famous _Landelove_
+(National Code), were progressive and enlightened to an eminent degree;
+so much so, indeed, that they mystified the people as much as they
+alienated the patricians; but his actions were often of revolting
+brutality, and his whole career was vitiated by an incurable
+double-mindedness which provoked general distrust. Yet there is no doubt
+that Christian II. was a true patriot, whose ideal it was to weld the
+three northern kingdoms into a powerful state, independent of all
+foreign influences, especially of German influence as manifested in the
+commercial tyranny of the Hansa League. His utter failure was due,
+partly to the vices of an undisciplined temperament, and partly to the
+extraordinary difficulties of the most inscrutable period of European
+history, when the shrewdest heads were at fault and irreparable blunders
+belonged to the order of the day. That period was the period of the
+Reformation, which profoundly affected the politics of Scandinavia.
+Christian II. had always subordinated religion to politics, and was
+Papist or Lutheran according to circumstances. But, though he treated
+the Church more like a foe than a friend and was constantly at war with
+the Curia, he retained the Catholic form of church worship and never
+seems to have questioned the papal supremacy. On the flight of Christian
+II. and the election of his uncle, Frederick I. (1523-1533), the Church
+resumed her jurisdiction and everything was placed on the old footing.
+The newly elected and still insecure German king at first remained
+neutral; but in the autumn of 1525 the current of Lutheranism began to
+run so strongly in Denmark as to threaten to whirl away every opposing
+obstacle. This novel and disturbing phenomenon was mainly due to the
+zeal and eloquence of the ex-monk Hans Tausen and his associates, or
+disciples, Peder Plad and Sadolin; and, in the autumn of 1526, Tausen
+was appointed one of the royal chaplains. The three ensuing years were
+especially favourable for the Reformation, as during that time the king
+had unlooked-for opportunities for filling the vacant episcopal sees
+with men after his own heart, and at heart he was a Lutheran. The
+reformation movement in Denmark was further promoted by
+Schleswig-Holstein influence. Frederick's eldest son Duke Christian had,
+since 1527, resided at Haderslev, where he collected round him Lutheran
+teachers from Germany, and made his court the centre of the propaganda
+of the new doctrine. On the other hand, the Odense Recess of the 20th of
+August 1527, which put both confessions on a footing of equality,
+remained unrepealed; and so long as it remained in force, the spiritual
+jurisdiction of the bishops, and, consequently, their authority over the
+"free preachers" (whose ambition convulsed all the important towns of
+Denmark and aimed at forcibly expelling the Catholic priests from their
+churches) remained valid, to the great vexation of the reformers. The
+inevitable ecclesiastical crisis was still further postponed by the
+superior stress of two urgent political events--Christian II.'s invasion
+of Norway (1531) and the outbreak, in 1533, of "_Grevens fejde_," or
+"The Count's War" (1534-36), the count in question being Christopher of
+Oldenburg, great-nephew of King Christian I., whom Lübeck and her
+allies, on the death of Frederick I., raised up against Frederick's son
+Christian III. The Catholic party and the lower orders generally took
+the part of Count Christopher, who acted throughout as the nominee of
+the captive Christian II., while the Protestant party, aided by the
+Holstein dukes and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sided with Christian III.
+The war ended with the capture of Copenhagen by the forces of Christian
+III., on the 29th of July 1536, and the triumph of so devoted a Lutheran
+sealed the fate of the Roman Catholic Church in Denmark, though even now
+it was necessary for the victorious king to proceed against the bishops
+and their friends by a _coup d'état_, engineered by his German generals
+the Rantzaus. The Recess of 1536 enacted that the bishops should forfeit
+their temporal and spiritual authority, and that all their property
+should be transferred to the crown for the good of the commonwealth. In
+the following year a Church ordinance, based upon the canons of Luther,
+Melanchthon and Bugenhagen, was drawn up, submitted to Luther for his
+approval, and promulgated on the 2nd of September 1537. On the same day
+seven "superintendents," including Tausen and Sadolin, all of whom had
+worked zealously for the cause of the Reformation, were consecrated in
+place of the dethroned bishops. The position of the superintendents and
+of the reformed church generally was consolidated by the Articles of
+Ribe in 1542, and the constitution of the Danish church has practically
+continued the same to the present day. But Catholicism could not wholly
+or immediately be dislodged by the teaching of Luther. It had struck
+deep roots into the habits and feelings of the people, and traces of its
+survival were distinguishable a whole century after the triumph of the
+Reformation. Catholicism lingered longest in the cathedral chapters.
+Here were to be found men of ability proof against the eloquence of Hans
+Tausen or Peder Plad and quite capable of controverting their
+theories--men like Povl Helgesen, for instance, indisputably the
+greatest Danish theologian of his day, a scholar whose voice was drowned
+amidst the clash of conflicting creeds.
+
+
+Effects of the Reformation.
+
+European influence of Denmark, 1544-1626.
+
+Though the Reformation at first did comparatively little for
+education,[1] and the whole spiritual life of Denmark was poor and
+feeble in consequence for at least a generation afterwards, the change
+of religion was of undeniable, if temporary, benefit to the state from
+the political point of view. The enormous increase of the royal revenue
+consequent upon the confiscation of the property of the Church could not
+fail to increase the financial stability of the monarchy. In particular
+the suppression of the monasteries benefited the crown in two ways. The
+old church had, indeed, frequently rendered the state considerable
+financial aid, but such voluntary assistance was, from the nature of the
+case, casual and arbitrary. Now, however, the state derived a fixed and
+certain revenue from the confiscated lands; and the possession of
+immense landed property at the same time enabled the crown
+advantageously to conduct the administration. The gross revenue of the
+state is estimated to have risen threefold. Before the Reformation the
+annual revenue from land averaged 400,000 bushels of corn; after the
+confiscations of Church property it averaged 1,200,000 bushels. The
+possession of a full purse materially assisted the Danish government in
+its domestic administration, which was indeed epoch-making. It enabled
+Christian III. to pay off his German mercenaries immediately after the
+religious _coup d'état_ of 1536. It enabled him to prosecute
+shipbuilding with such energy that, by 1550, the royal fleet numbered at
+least thirty vessels, which were largely employed as a maritime police
+in the pirate-haunted Baltic and North Seas. It enabled him to create
+and remunerate adequately a capable official class, which proved its
+efficiency under the strictest supervision, and ultimately produced a
+whole series of great statesmen and admirals like Johan Friis, Peder
+Oxe, Herluf Trolle and Peder Skram. It is not too much to say that the
+increased revenue derived from the appropriation of Church property,
+intelligently applied, gave Denmark the hegemony of the North during the
+latter part of Christian III.'s reign, the whole reign of Frederick II.
+and the first twenty-five years of the reign of Christian IV., a period
+embracing, roughly speaking, eighty years (1544-1626). Within this
+period Denmark was indisputably the leading Scandinavian power. While
+Sweden, even after the advent of Gustavus Vasa, was still of but small
+account in Europe, Denmark easily held her own in Germany and elsewhere,
+even against Charles V., and was important enough, in 1553, to mediate a
+peace between the emperor and Saxony. Twice during this period Denmark
+and Sweden measured their strength in the open field, on the first
+occasion in the "Scandinavian Seven Years' War" (1562-70), on the second
+in the "Kalmar War" (1611-13), and on both occasions Denmark prevailed,
+though the temporary advantage she gained was more than neutralized by
+the intense feeling of hostility which the unnatural wars, between the
+two kindred peoples of Scandinavia, left behind them. Still, the fact
+remains that, for a time, Denmark was one of the great powers of Europe.
+Frederick II., in his later years (1571-1588), aspired to the dominion
+of all the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he died
+he was able to enforce the rule that all foreign ships should strike
+their topsails to Danish men-of-war as a token of his right to rule the
+northern seas. Favourable political circumstances also contributed to
+this general acknowledgment of Denmark's maritime greatness. The power
+of the Hansa had gone; the Dutch were enfeebled by their contest with
+Spain; England's sea-power was yet in the making; Spain, still the
+greatest of the maritime nations, was exhausting her resources in the
+vain effort to conquer the Dutch. Yet more even than to felicitous
+circumstances, Denmark owed her short-lived greatness to the great
+statesmen and administrators whom Frederick II. succeeded in gathering
+about him. Never before, since the age of Margaret, had Denmark been so
+well governed, never before had she possessed so many political
+celebrities nobly emulous for the common good.
+
+
+Denmark at the accession of Christian IV., 1588.
+
+Frederick II. was succeeded by his son Christian IV. (April 4, 1588),
+who attained his majority on the 17th of August 1596, at the age of
+nineteen. The realm which Christian IV. was to govern had undergone
+great changes within the last two generations. Towards the south the
+boundaries of the Danish state remained unchanged. Levensaa and the
+Eider still separated Denmark from the Empire. Schleswig was recognized
+as a Danish fief, in contradistinction to Holstein, which owed vassalage
+to the Empire. The "kingdom" stretched as far as Kolding and Skedborg,
+where the "duchy" began; and this duchy since its amalgamation with
+Holstein by means of a common _Landtag_, and especially since the union
+of the dual duchy with the kingdom on almost equal terms in 1533, was,
+in most respects, a semi-independent state, Denmark, moreover, like
+Europe in general, was, politically, on the threshold of a transitional
+period. During the whole course of the 16th century the monarchical
+form of government was in every large country, with the single exception
+of Poland, rising on the ruins of feudalism. The great powers of the
+late 16th and early 17th centuries were to be the strong, highly
+centralized, hereditary monarchies, like France, Spain and Sweden. There
+seemed to be no reason why Denmark also should not become a powerful
+state under the guidance of a powerful monarchy, especially as the
+sister state of Sweden was developing into a great power under
+apparently identical conditions. Yet, while Sweden was surely ripening
+into the dominating power of northern Europe, Denmark had as surely
+entered upon a period of uninterrupted and apparently incurable decline.
+What was the cause of this anomaly? Something of course must be allowed
+for the superior and altogether extraordinary genius of the great
+princes of the house of Vasa; yet the causes of the decline of Denmark
+lay far deeper than this. They may roughly be summed up under two heads:
+the inherent weakness of an elective monarchy, and the absence of that
+public spirit which is based on the intimate alliance of ruler and
+ruled. Whilst Gustavus Vasa had leaned upon the Swedish peasantry, in
+other words upon the bulk of the Swedish nation, which was and continued
+to be an integral part of the Swedish body-politic, Christian III. on
+his accession had crushed the middle and lower classes in Denmark and
+reduced them to political insignificance. Yet it was not the king who
+benefited by this blunder. The Danish monarchy since the days of
+Margaret had continued to be purely elective; and a purely elective
+monarchy at that stage of the political development of Europe was a
+mischievous anomaly. It signified in the first place that the crown was
+not the highest power in the state, but was subject to the aristocratic
+_Rigsraad_, or council of state. The _Rigsraad_ was the permanent owner
+of the realm and the crown-lands; the king was only their temporary
+administrator. If the king died before the election of his successor,
+the _Rigsraad_ stepped into the king's place. Moreover, an elective
+monarchy implied that, at every fresh succession, the king was liable to
+be bound by a new _Haandfaestning_, or charter. The election itself
+might, and did, become a mere formality; but the condition precedent of
+election, the acceptance of the charter, invariably limiting the royal
+authority, remained a reality. This period of aristocratic rule, which
+dates practically from the accession of Frederick I. (1523), and lasted
+for nearly a century and a half, is known in Danish history as
+_Adelsvaelde_, or rule of the nobles.
+
+Again, the king was the ruler of the realm, but over a very large
+portion of it he had but a slight control. The crown-lands and most of
+the towns were under his immediate jurisdiction, but by the side of the
+crown-lands lay the estates of the nobility, which already comprised
+about one-half of the superficial area of Denmark, and were in many
+respects independent of the central government both as regards taxation
+and administration. In a word, the monarchy had to share its dominion
+with the nobility; and the Danish nobility in the 16th century was one
+of the most exclusive and selfish aristocracies in Europe, and already
+far advanced in decadence. Hermetically sealing itself from any
+intrusion from below, it deteriorated by close and constant
+intermarriage; and it was already, both morally and intellectually,
+below the level of the rest of the nation. Yet this very aristocracy,
+whose claim to consideration was based not upon its own achievements but
+upon the length of its pedigrees, insisted upon an amplification of its
+privileges which endangered the economical and political interests of
+the state and the nation. The time was close at hand when a Danish
+magnate was to demonstrate that he preferred the utter ruin of his
+country to any abatement of his own personal dignity.
+
+All below the king and the nobility were generally classified together
+as "subjects." Of these lower orders the clergy stood first in the
+social scale. As a spiritual estate, indeed, it had ceased to exist at
+the Reformation, though still represented in the _Rigsdag_ or diet.
+Since then too it had become quite detached from the nobility, which
+ostentatiously despised the teaching profession. The clergy recruited
+themselves therefore from the class next below them, and looked more and
+more to the crown for help and protection as they drew apart from the
+gentry, who, moreover, as dispensers of patronage, lost no opportunity
+of appropriating church lands and cutting down tithes.
+
+The burgesses had not yet recovered from the disaster of "Grevens
+fejde"; but while the towns had become more dependent on the central
+power, they had at the same time been released from their former
+vexatious subjection to the local magnates, and could make their voices
+heard in the _Rigsdag_, where they were still, though inadequately,
+represented. Within the Estate of Burgesses itself, too, a levelling
+process had begun. The old municipal patriciate, which used to form the
+connecting link between the _bourgeoisie_ and the nobility, had
+disappeared, and a feeling of common civic fellowship had taken its
+place. All this tended to enlarge the political views of the burgesses,
+and was not without its influence on the future. Yet, after all, the
+prospects of the burgesses depended mainly on economic conditions; and
+in this respect there was a decided improvement, due to the increasing
+importance of money and commerce all over Europe, especially as the
+steady decline of the Hanse towns immediately benefited the trade of
+Denmark-Norway; Norway by this time being completely merged in the
+Danish state, and ruled from Copenhagen. There can, indeed, be no doubt
+that the Danish and Norwegian merchants at the end of the 16th century
+flourished exceedingly, despite the intrusion and competition of the
+Dutch and the dangers to neutral shipping arising from the frequent wars
+between England, Spain and the Netherlands.
+
+At the bottom of the social ladder lay the peasants, whose condition had
+decidedly deteriorated. Only in one respect had they benefited by the
+peculiar conditions of the 16th century: the rise in the price of corn
+without any corresponding rise in the land-tax must have largely increased
+their material prosperity. Yet the number of peasant-proprietors had
+diminished, while the obligations of the peasantry generally had
+increased; and, still worse, their obligations were vexatiously
+indefinite, varying from year to year and even from month to month. They
+weighed especially heavily on the so-called _Ugedasmaend_, who were forced
+to work two or three days a week in the demesne lands. This increase of
+villenage morally depressed the peasantry, and widened still further the
+breach between the yeomanry and the gentry. Politically its consequences
+were disastrous. While in Sweden the free and energetic peasant was a
+salutary power in the state, which he served with both mind and plough,
+the Danish peasant was sinking to the level of a bondman. While the
+Swedish peasants were well represented in the Swedish _Riksdag_, whose
+proceedings they sometimes dominated, the Danish peasantry had no
+political rights or privileges whatever.
+
+
+Christian IV., 1588-1648.
+
+First losses of territory.
+
+Such then, briefly, was the condition of things in Denmark when, in
+1588, Christian IV. ascended the throne. Where so much was necessarily
+uncertain and fluctuating, there was room for an almost infinite variety
+of development. Much depended on the character and personality of the
+young prince who had now taken into his hands the reins of government,
+and for half a century was to guide the destinies of the nation. In the
+beginning of his reign the hand of the young monarch, who was nothing if
+not energetic, made itself felt in every direction. The harbours of
+Copenhagen, Elsinore and other towns were enlarged; many decaying towns
+were abolished and many new ones built under more promising conditions,
+including Christiania, which was founded in August 1624, on the ruins of
+the ancient city of Oslo. Various attempts were also made to improve
+trade and industry by abolishing the still remaining privileges of the
+Hanseatic towns, by promoting a wholesale immigration of skilful and
+well-to-do Dutch traders and handicraftsmen into Denmark under most
+favourable conditions, by opening up the rich fisheries of the Arctic
+seas, and by establishing joint-stock chartered companies both in the
+East and the West Indies. Copenhagen especially benefited by Christian
+IV.'s commercial policy. He enlarged and embellished it, and provided it
+with new harbours and fortifications; in short, did his best to make it
+the worthy capital of a great empire. But it was in the foreign policy
+of the government that the royal influence was most perceptible. Unlike
+Sweden, Denmark had remained outside the great religious-political
+movements which were the outcome of the Catholic reaction; and the
+peculiarity of her position made her rather hostile than friendly to the
+other Protestant states. The possession of the Sound enabled her to
+close the Baltic against the Western powers; the possession of Norway
+carried along with it the control of the rich fisheries which were
+Danish monopolies, and therefore a source of irritation to England and
+Holland. Denmark, moreover, was above all things a Scandinavian power.
+While the territorial expansion of Sweden in the near future was a
+matter of necessity, Denmark had not only attained, but even exceeded,
+her natural limits. Aggrandizement southwards, at the expense of the
+German empire, was becoming every year more difficult; and in every
+other direction she had nothing more to gain. Nay, more, Denmark's
+possession of the Scanian provinces deprived Sweden of her proper
+geographical frontiers. Clearly it was Denmark's wisest policy to seek a
+close alliance with Sweden in their common interests, and after the
+conclusion of the "Kalmar War" the two countries did remain at peace for
+the next thirty-one years. But the antagonistic interests of the two
+countries in Germany during the Thirty Years' War precipitated a fourth
+contest between them (1643-45), in which Denmark would have been utterly
+ruined but for the heroism of King Christian IV. and his command of the
+sea during the crisis of the struggle. Even so, by the peace of
+Brömsebro (February 8, 1645) Denmark surrendered the islands of Oesel
+and Gotland and the provinces of Jemteland and Herjedal (in Norway)
+definitively, and Halland for thirty years. The freedom from the Sound
+tolls was by the same treaty also extended to Sweden's Baltic provinces.
+
+
+Frederick III., 1648-1670.
+
+Peace of Roskilde, 1658.
+
+Treaty of Copenhagen, 1660.
+
+The peace of Brömsebro was the first of the long series of treaties,
+extending down to our own days, which mark the progressive shrinkage of
+Danish territory into an irreducible minimum. Sweden's appropriation of
+Danish soil had begun, and at the same time Denmark's power of resisting
+the encroachments of Sweden was correspondingly reduced. The Danish
+national debt, too, had risen enormously, while the sources of future
+income and consequent recuperation had diminished or disappeared. The
+Sound tolls, for instance, in consequence of the treaties of Brömsebro
+and Kristianopel (by the latter treaty very considerable concessions
+were made to the Dutch) had sunk from 400,000 to 140,000 rix-dollars.
+The political influence of the crown, moreover, had inevitably been
+weakened, and the conduct of foreign affairs passed from the hands of
+the king into the hands of the _Rigsraad_. On the accession of Frederick
+III. (1648-1670) moreover, the already diminished royal prerogative was
+still further curtailed by the _Haandfaestning_, or charter, which he
+was compelled to sign. Fear and hatred of Sweden, and the never
+abandoned hope of recovering the lost provinces, animated king and
+people alike; but it was Denmark's crowning misfortune that she
+possessed at this difficult crisis no statesman of the first rank, no
+one even approximately comparable with such competitors as Charles X. of
+Sweden or the "Great Elector" Frederick William of Brandenburg. From the
+very beginning of his reign Frederick III. was resolved upon a rupture
+at the first convenient opportunity, while the nation was, if possible,
+even more bellicose than the king. The apparently insuperable
+difficulties of Sweden in Poland was the feather that turned the scale;
+on the 1st of June 1657, Frederick III. signed the manifesto justifying
+a war which was never formally declared and brought Denmark to the very
+verge of ruin. The extraordinary details of this dramatic struggle will
+be found elsewhere (see FREDERICK III., king of Denmark, and CHARLES X.,
+king of Sweden); suffice it to say that by the peace of Roskilde
+(February 26, 1658), Denmark consented to cede the three Scanian
+provinces, the island of Bornholm and the Norwegian provinces of Baahus
+and Trondhjem; to renounce all anti-Swedish alliances and to exempt all
+Swedish vessels, even when carrying foreign goods, from all tolls.
+These terrible losses were somewhat retrieved by the subsequent treaty
+of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660) concluded by the Swedish regency with
+Frederick III. after the failure of Charles X.'s second war against
+Denmark, a failure chiefly owing to the heroic defence of the Danish
+capital (1658-60). By this treaty Sweden gave back the province of
+Trondhjem and the isle of Bornholm and released Denmark from the most
+onerous of the obligations of the treaty of Roskilde. In fact the peace
+of Copenhagen came as a welcome break in an interminable series of
+disasters and humiliations. Anyhow, it confirmed the independence of the
+Danish state. On the other hand, if Denmark had emerged from the war
+with her honour and dignity unimpaired, she had at the same time tacitly
+surrendered the dominion of the North to her Scandinavian rival.
+
+
+Hereditary monarchy established, 1660.
+
+But the war just terminated had important political consequences, which
+were to culminate in one of the most curious and interesting revolutions
+of modern history. In the first place, it marks the termination of the
+_Adelsvaelde_, or rule of the nobility. By their cowardice, incapacity,
+egotism and treachery during the crisis of the struggle, the Danish
+aristocracy had justly forfeited the respect of every other class of the
+community, and emerged from the war hopelessly discredited. On the other
+hand, Copenhagen, proudly conscious of her intrinsic importance and of
+her inestimable services to the country, whom she had saved from
+annihilation by her constancy, now openly claimed to have a voice in
+public affairs. Still higher had risen the influence of the crown. The
+courage and resource displayed by Frederick III. in the extremity of the
+national danger had won for "the least expansive of monarchs" an
+extraordinary popularity.
+
+On the 10th of September 1660, the _Rigsdag_, which was to repair the
+ravages of the war and provide for the future, was opened with great
+ceremony in the _Riddersaal_ of the castle of Copenhagen. The first bill
+laid before the Estates by the government was to impose an excise tax on
+the principal articles of consumption, together with subsidiary taxes on
+cattle, poultry, &c., in return for which the abolition of all the old
+direct taxes was promised. The nobility at first claimed exemption from
+taxation altogether, while the clergy and burgesses insisted upon an
+absolute equality of taxation. There were sharp encounters between the
+presidents of the contending orders, but the position of the Lower
+Estates was considerably prejudiced by the dissensions of its various
+sections. Thus the privileges of the bishops and of Copenhagen
+profoundly irritated the lower clergy and the unprivileged towns, and
+made a cordial understanding impossible, till Hans Svane, bishop of
+Copenhagen, and Hans Nansen the burgomaster, who now openly came forward
+as the leader of the reform movement, proposed that the privileges which
+divided the non-noble Estates should be abolished. In accordance with
+this proposal, the two Lower Estates, on the 16th of September,
+subscribed a memorandum addressed to the _Rigsraad_, declaring their
+willingness to renounce their privileges, provided the nobility did the
+same; which was tantamount to a declaration that the whole of the clergy
+and burgesses had made common cause against the nobility. The opposition
+so formed took the name of the "Conjoined Estates." The presentation of
+the memorial provoked an outburst of indignation. But the nobility soon
+perceived the necessity of complete surrender. On the 30th of September
+the First Estate abandoned its former standpoint and renounced its
+privileges, with one unimportant reservation.
+
+The struggle now seemed to be ended, and the financial question having
+also been settled, the king, had he been so minded, might have dismissed
+the Estates. But the still more important question of reform was now
+raised. On the 17th of September the burgesses introduced a bill
+proposing a new constitution, which was to include local self-government
+in the towns, the abolition of serfdom, and the formation of a national
+army. It fell to the ground for want of adequate support; but another
+proposition, the fruit of secret discussion between the king and his
+confederates, which placed all fiefs under the control of the crown as
+regards taxation, and provided for selling and letting them to the
+highest bidder, was accepted by the Estate of burgesses. The
+significance of this ordinance lay in the fact that it shattered the
+privileged position of the nobility, by abolishing the exclusive right
+to the possession of fiefs. What happened next is not quite clear. Our
+sources fail us, and we are at the mercy of doubtful rumours and more or
+less unreliable anecdotes. We have a vision of intrigues, mysterious
+conferences, threats and bribery, dimly discernible through a shifting
+mirage of tradition.
+
+The first glint of light is a letter, dated the 23rd of September, from
+Frederick III. to Svane and Nansen, authorizing them to communicate the
+arrangements already made to reliable men, and act quickly, as "if the
+others gain time they may possibly gain more." The first step was to
+make sure of the city train-bands: of the garrison of Copenhagen the
+king had no doubt. The headquarters of the conspirators was the bishop's
+palace near _Vor Frue_ church, between which and the court messages were
+passing continually, and where the document to be adopted by the
+Conjoined Estates took its final shape. On the 8th of October the two
+burgomasters, Hans Nansen and Kristoffer Hansen, proposed that the realm
+of Denmark should be made over to the king as a hereditary kingdom,
+without prejudice to the privileges of the Estates; whereupon they
+proceeded to Brewer's Hall, and informed the Estate of burgesses there
+assembled of what had been done. A fiery oration from Nansen dissolved
+some feeble opposition; and simultaneously Bishop Svane carried the
+clergy along with him. The so-called "Instrument," now signed by the
+Lower Estates, offered the realm to the king and his house as a
+hereditary monarchy, by way of thank-offering mainly for his courageous
+deliverance of the kingdom during the war; and the _Rigsraad_ and the
+nobility were urged to notify the resolution to the king, and desire him
+to maintain each Estate in its due privileges, and to give a written
+counter-assurance that the revolution now to be effected was for the
+sole benefit of the state. Events now moved forward rapidly. On the 10th
+of October a deputation from the clergy and burgesses proceeded to the
+Council House where the _Rigsraad_ were deliberating, to demand an
+answer to their propositions. After a tumultuous scene, the aristocratic
+_Raad_ rejected the "Instrument" altogether, whereupon the deputies of
+the commons proceeded to the palace and were graciously received by the
+king, who promised them an answer next day. The same afternoon the
+guards in the streets and on the ramparts were doubled; on the following
+morning the gates of the city were closed, powder and bullets were
+distributed among the city train-bands, who were bidden to be in
+readiness when the alarm bell called them, and cavalry was massed on the
+environs of the city. The same afternoon the king sent a message to the
+_Rigsraad_ urging them to declare their views quickly, as he could no
+longer hold himself responsible for what might happen. After a feeble
+attempt at a compromise the _Raad_ gave way. On the 13th of October it
+signed a declaration to the effect that it associated itself still with
+the Lower Estates in the making over of the kingdom, as a hereditary
+monarchy, to his majesty and his heirs male and female. The same day the
+king received the official communication of this declaration and the
+congratulation of the burgomasters. Thus the ancient constitution was
+transformed; and Denmark became a monarchy hereditary in Frederick III.
+and his posterity.
+
+But although hereditary sovereignty had been introduced, the laws of the
+land had not been abolished. The monarch was specifically now a
+sovereign overlord, but he had not been absolved from his obligations
+towards his subjects. Hereditary sovereignty _per se_ was not held to
+signify unlimited dominion, still less absolutism. On the contrary, the
+magnificent gift of the Danish nation to Frederick III. was made under
+express conditions. The "Instrument" drawn up by the Lower Estates
+implied the retention of all their rights; and the king, in accepting
+the gift of a hereditary crown, did not repudiate the implied
+inviolability of the privileges of the donors. Unfortunately everything
+had been left so vague, that it was an easy matter for ultra-royalists
+like Svane and Nansen to ignore the privileges of the Estates, and even
+the Estates themselves.
+
+On the 14th of October a committee was summoned to the palace to
+organize the new government. The discussion turned mainly upon two
+points, (1) whether a new oath of homage should be taken to the king,
+and (2) what was to be done with the _Haandfaestning_ or royal charter.
+The first point was speedily decided in the affirmative, and, as to the
+second, it was ultimately decided that the king should be released from
+his oath and the charter returned to him; but a rider was added
+suggesting that he should, at the same time, promulgate a Recess
+providing for his own and his people's welfare. Thus Frederick III. was
+not left absolutely his own master; for the provision regarding a
+Recess, or new constitution, showed plainly enough that such a
+constitution was expected, and, once granted, would of course have
+limited the royal power.
+
+It now only remained to execute the resolutions of the committee. On the
+17th of October the charter, which the king had sworn to observe twelve
+years before, was solemnly handed back to him at the palace, Frederick
+III. thereupon promising to rule as a Christian king to the satisfaction
+of all the Estates of the realm. On the following day the king, seated
+on the topmost step of a lofty tribune surmounted by a baldaquin,
+erected in the midst of the principal square of Copenhagen, received the
+public homage of his subjects of all ranks, in the presence of an
+immense concourse, on which occasion he again promised to rule "as a
+Christian hereditary king and gracious master," and, "as soon as
+possible, to prepare and set up" such a constitution as should secure to
+his subjects a Christian and indulgent sway. The ceremony concluded with
+a grand banquet at the palace. After dinner the queen and the clergy
+withdrew; but the king remained. An incident now occurred which made a
+strong impression on all present. With a brimming beaker in his hand,
+Frederick III. went up to Hans Nansen, drank with him and drew him
+aside. They communed together in a low voice for some time, till the
+burgomaster, succumbing to the influence of his potations, fumbled his
+way to his carriage with the assistance of some of his civic colleagues.
+Whether Nansen, intoxicated by wine and the royal favour, consented on
+this occasion to sacrifice the privileges of his order and his city, it
+is impossible to say; but it is significant that, from henceforth, we
+hear no more of the Recess which the more liberal of the leaders of the
+lower orders had hoped for when they released Frederick III. from the
+obligations of the charter.
+
+
+Establishment of absolute rule.
+
+We can follow pretty plainly the stages of the progress from a limited
+to an absolute monarchy. By an act dated the 10th of January 1661,
+entitled "Instrument, or pragmatic sanction," of the king's hereditary
+right to the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, it was declared that all
+the prerogatives of majesty, and "all regalia as an absolute sovereign
+lord," had been made over to the king. Yet, even after the issue of the
+"Instrument," there was nothing, strictly speaking, to prevent Frederick
+III. from voluntarily conceding to his subjects some share in the
+administration. Unfortunately the king was bent upon still further
+emphasizing the plenitude of his power. At Copenhagen his advisers were
+busy framing drafts of a _Lex Regia Perpetua_; and the one which finally
+won the royal favour was the famous _Kongelov_, or "King's Law."
+
+This document was in every way unique. In the first place it is
+remarkable for its literary excellence. Compared with the barbarous
+macaronic jargon of the contemporary official language it shines forth
+as a masterpiece of pure, pithy and original Danish. Still more
+remarkable are the tone and tenor of this royal law. The _Kongelov_ has
+the highly dubious honour of being the one written law in the civilized
+world which fearlessly carries out absolutism to the last consequences.
+The monarchy is declared to owe its origin to the surrender of the
+supreme authority by the Estates to the king. The maintenance of the
+indivisibility of the realm and of the Christian faith according to the
+Augsburg Confession, and the observance of the _Kongelov_ itself, are
+now the sole obligations binding upon the king. The supreme spiritual
+authority also is now claimed; and it is expressly stated that it
+becomes none to crown him; the moment he ascends the throne, crown and
+sceptre belong to him of right. Moreover, par. 26 declares guilty of
+_lèse-majesté_ whomsoever shall in any way usurp or infringe the king's
+absolute authority. In the following reign the ultra-royalists went
+further still. In their eyes the king was not merely autocratic, but
+sacrosanct. Thus before the anointing of Christian V. on the 7th of June
+1671, a ceremony by way of symbolizing the new autocrat's humble
+submission to the Almighty, the officiating bishop of Zealand delivered
+an oration in which he declared that the king was God's immediate
+creation, His vicegerent on earth, and that it was the bounden duty of
+all good subjects to serve and honour the celestial majesty as
+represented by the king's terrestrial majesty. The _Kongelov_ is dated
+and subscribed the 14th of November 1665, but was kept a profound
+secret, only two initiated persons knowing of its existence until after
+the death of Frederick III., one of them being Kristoffer Gabel, the
+king's chief intermediary during the revolution, and the other the
+author and custodian of the _Kongelov_, Secretary Peder Schumacher,
+better known as Griffenfeldt. It is significant that both these
+confidential agents were plebeians.
+
+
+Effects of the revolution of 1660.
+
+The revolution of 1660 was certainly beneficial to Norway. With the
+disappearance of the _Rigsraad_, which, as representing the Danish
+crown, had hitherto exercised sovereignty over both kingdoms, Norway
+ceased to be a subject principality. The sovereign hereditary king stood
+in exactly the same relations to both kingdoms; and thus,
+constitutionally, Norway was placed on an equality with Denmark, united
+with but not subordinate to it. It is clear that the majority of the
+Norwegian people hoped that the revolution would give them an
+administration independent of the Danish government; but these
+expectations were not realised. Till the cessation of the Union in 1814,
+Copenhagen continued to be the headquarters of the Norwegian
+administration; both kingdoms had common departments of state; and the
+common chancery continued to be called the Danish chancery. On the other
+hand the condition of Norway was now greatly improved. In January 1661 a
+land commission was appointed to investigate the financial and
+economical conditions of the kingdoms; the fiefs were transformed into
+counties; the nobles were deprived of their immunity from taxation; and
+in July 1662 the Norwegian towns received special privileges, including
+the monopoly of the lucrative timber trade.
+
+
+Christian V., 1670-1699.
+
+The _Enevaelde_, or absolute monarchy, also distinctly benefited the
+whole Danish state by materially increasing its reserve of native
+talent. Its immediate consequence was to throw open every state
+appointment to the middle classes; and the middle classes of that
+period, with very few exceptions, monopolized the intellect and the
+energy of the nation. New blood of the best quality nourished and
+stimulated the whole body politic. Expansion and progress were the
+watchwords at home, and abroad it seemed as if Denmark were about to
+regain her former position as a great power. This was especially the
+case during the brief but brilliant administration of Chancellor
+Griffenfeldt. Then, if ever, Denmark had the chance of playing once more
+a leading part in international politics. But Griffenfeldt's
+difficulties, always serious, were increased by the instability of the
+European situation, depending as it did on the ambition of Louis XIV.
+Resolved to conquer the Netherlands, the French king proceeded, first of
+all, to isolate her by dissolving the Triple Alliance. (See SWEDEN and
+GRIFFENFELDT.) In April 1672 a treaty was concluded between France and
+Sweden, on condition that France should not include Denmark in her
+system of alliances without the consent of Sweden. This treaty showed
+that Sweden weighed more in the French balances than Denmark. In June
+1672 a French army invaded the Netherlands; whereupon the elector of
+Brandenburg contracted an alliance with the emperor Leopold, to which
+Denmark was invited to accede; almost simultaneously the States-General
+began to negotiate for a renewal of the recently expired Dano-Dutch
+alliance.
+
+
+Denmark in the Great Northern War.
+
+In these circumstances it was as difficult for Denmark to remain neutral
+as it was dangerous for her to make a choice. An alliance with France
+would subordinate her to Sweden; an alliance with the Netherlands would
+expose her to an attack from Sweden. The Franco-Swedish alliance left
+Griffenfeldt no choice but to accede to the opposite league, for he saw
+at once that the ruin of the Netherlands would disturb the balance of
+power in the north by giving an undue preponderance to England and
+Sweden. But Denmark's experience of Dutch promises in the past was not
+reassuring; so, while negotiating at the Hague for a renewal of the
+Dutch alliance, he at the same time felt his way at Stockholm towards a
+commercial treaty with Sweden. His Swedish mission proved abortive, but,
+as he had anticipated, it effectually accelerated the negotiations at
+the Hague, and frightened the Dutch into unwonted liberality. In May
+1673 a treaty of alliance was signed by the ambassador of the
+States-General at Copenhagen, whereby the Netherlands pledged themselves
+to pay Denmark large subsidies in return for the services of 10,000 men
+and twenty warships, which were to be held in readiness in case the
+United Provinces were attacked by another enemy besides France. Thus,
+very dexterously, Griffenfeldt had succeeded in gaining his subsidies
+without sacrificing his neutrality.
+
+His next move was to attempt to detach Sweden from France; but, Sweden
+showing not the slightest inclination for a _rapprochement_, Denmark was
+compelled to accede to the anti-French league, which she did by the
+treaty of Copenhagen, of January 1674, thereby engaging to place an army
+of 20,000 in the field when required; but here again Griffenfeldt
+safeguarded himself to some extent by stipulating that this provision
+was not to be operative till the allies were attacked by a fresh enemy.
+When, in December 1674, a Swedish army invaded Prussian Pomerania,
+Denmark was bound to intervene as a belligerent, but Griffenfeldt
+endeavoured to postpone this intervention as long as possible; and
+Sweden's anxiety to avoid hostilities with her southern neighbour
+materially assisted him to postpone the evil day. He only wanted to gain
+time, and he gained it. To the last he endeavoured to avoid a rupture
+with France even if he broke with Sweden; but he could not restrain for
+ever the foolish impetuosity of his own sovereign, Christian V., and his
+fall in the beginning of 1676 not only, as he had foreseen, involved
+Denmark in an unprofitable war, but, as his friend and disciple, Jens
+Juel, well observed, relegated her henceforth to the humiliating
+position of an international catspaw. Thus at the peace of Fontainebleau
+(September 2, 1679) Denmark, which had borne the brunt of the struggle
+in the Baltic, was compelled by the inexorable French king to make full
+restitution to Sweden, the treaty between the two northern powers being
+signed at Lund on the 26th of September. Freely had she spent her blood
+and her treasure, only to emerge from the five years' contest exhausted
+and empty-handed.
+
+By the peace of Fontainebleau Denmark had been sacrificed to the
+interests of France and Sweden; forty-one years later she was sacrificed
+to the interests of Hanover and Prussia by the peace of Copenhagen
+(1720), which ended the Northern War so far as the German powers were
+concerned. But it would not have terminated advantageously for them at
+all, had not the powerful and highly efficient Danish fleet effectually
+prevented the Swedish government from succouring its distressed German
+provinces, and finally swept the Swedish fleets out of the northern
+waters. Yet all the compensation Denmark received for her inestimable
+services during a whole decade was 600,000 rix-dollars! The bishoprics
+of Bremen and Verden, the province of Farther Pomerania and the isle of
+Rügen which her armies had actually conquered, and which had been
+guaranteed to her by a whole catena of treaties, went partly to the
+upstart electorate of Hanover and partly to the upstart kingdom of
+Prussia, both of which states had been of no political importance
+whatever at the beginning of the war of spoliation by which they were,
+ultimately, to profit so largely and so cheaply.
+
+
+Frederick IV., 1699-1730.
+
+The last ten years of the reign of Christian V.'s successor, Frederick
+IV. (1699-1730), were devoted to the nursing and development of the
+resources of the country, which had suffered only less severely than
+Sweden from the effects of the Great Northern War. The court, seriously
+pious, did much for education. A wise economy also contributed to reduce
+the national debt within manageable limits, and in the welfare of the
+peasantry Frederick IV. took a deep interest. In 1722 serfdom was
+abolished in the case of all peasants in the royal estates born after
+his accession.
+
+
+Christian VI., 1730-1746.
+
+The first act of Frederick's successor, Christian VI. (1730-1746), was
+to abolish the national militia, which had been an intolerable burden
+upon the peasantry; yet the more pressing agrarian difficulties were not
+thereby surmounted, as had been hoped. The price of corn continued to
+fall; the migration of the peasantry assumed alarming proportions; and
+at last, "to preserve the land" as well as to increase the defensive
+capacity of the country, the national militia was re-established by the
+decree of the 4th of February 1733, which at the same time bound to the
+soil all peasants between the age of nine and forty. Reactionary as the
+measure was it enabled the agricultural interest, on which the
+prosperity of Denmark mainly depended, to tide over one of the most
+dangerous crises in its history; but certainly the position of the
+Danish peasantry was never worse than during the reign of the religious
+and benevolent Christian VI.
+
+
+Frederick V., 1746-1766.
+
+Under the peaceful reign of Christian's son and successor, Frederick V.
+(1746-1766), still more was done for commerce, industry and agriculture.
+To promote Denmark's carrying trade, treaties were made with the Barbary
+States, Genoa and Naples; and the East Indian Trading Company flourished
+exceedingly. On the other hand the condition of the peasantry was even
+worse under Frederick V. than it had been under Christian VI., the
+_Stavnsbaand_, or regulation which bound all males to the soil, being
+made operative from the age of four. Yet signs of a coming amelioration
+were not wanting. The theory of the physiocrats now found powerful
+advocates in Denmark; and after 1755, when the press censorship was
+abolished so far as regarded political economy and agriculture, a
+thorough discussion of the whole agrarian question became possible. A
+commission appointed in 1757 worked zealously for the repeal of many
+agricultural abuses; and several great landed proprietors introduced
+hereditary leaseholds, and abolished the servile tenure.
+
+
+Christian VII., 1766-1808.
+
+Foreign affairs during the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian VI. were
+left in the capable hands of J. H. E. Bernstorff, who aimed at steering
+clear of all foreign complications and preserving inviolable the
+neutrality of Denmark. This he succeeded in doing, in spite of the Seven
+Years' War and of the difficulties attending the thorny Gottorp question
+in which Sweden and Russia were equally interested. The same policy was
+victoriously pursued by his nephew and pupil Andreas Bernstorff, an even
+greater man than the elder Bernstorff, who controlled the foreign policy
+of Denmark from 1773 to 1778, and again from 1784 till his death in
+1797. The period of the younger Bernstorff synchronizes with the greater
+part of the long reign of Christian VII. (1766-1808), one of the most
+eventful periods of modern Danish history. The king himself was indeed a
+semi-idiot, scarce responsible for his actions, yet his was the era of
+such striking personalities as the brilliant charlatan Struensee, the
+great philanthropist and reformer C. D. F. Reventlow, the
+ultra-conservative Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, whose mission it was to repair
+the damage done by Struensee, and that generation of alert and
+progressive spirits which surrounded the young crown prince Frederick,
+whose first act, on taking his seat in the council of state, at the age
+of sixteen, on the 4th of April 1784, was to dismiss Guldberg.
+
+A fresh and fruitful period of reform now began, lasting till nearly the
+end of the century, and interrupted only by the brief but costly war
+with Sweden in 1788. The emancipation of the peasantry was now the
+burning question of the day, and the whole matter was thoroughly
+ventilated. Bernstorff and the crown prince were the most zealous
+advocates of the peasantry in the council of state; but the honour of
+bringing the whole peasant question within the range of practical
+politics undoubtedly belongs to C. D. F. Reventlow (q.v.). Nor was the
+reforming principle limited to the abolition of serfdom. In 1788 the
+corn trade was declared free; the Jews received civil rights; and the
+negro slave trade was forbidden. In 1796 a special ordinance reformed
+the whole system of judicial procedure, making it cheaper and more
+expeditious; while the toll ordinance of the 1st of February 1797 still
+further extended the principle of free trade. Moreover, until two years
+after Bernstorff's death in 1797, the Danish press enjoyed a larger
+freedom of speech than the press of any other absolute monarchy in
+Europe, so much so that at last Denmark became suspected of favouring
+Jacobin views. But in September 1799 under strong pressure from the
+Russian emperor Paul, the Danish government forbade anonymity, and
+introduced a limited censorship.
+
+
+Denmark and Great Britain in the Napoleonic Wars.
+
+It was Denmark's obsequiousness to Russia which led to the first of her
+unfortunate collisions with Great Britain. In 1800 the Danish government
+was persuaded by the tsar to accede to the second Armed Neutrality
+League, which Russia had just concluded with Prussia and Sweden. Great
+Britain retaliated by laying an embargo on the vessels of the three
+neutral powers, and by sending a considerable fleet to the Baltic under
+the command of Parker and Nelson. Surprised and unprepared though they
+were, the Danes, nevertheless, on the 2nd of April 1801, offered a
+gallant resistance; but their fleet was destroyed, their capital
+bombarded, and, abandoned by Russia, they were compelled to submit to a
+disadvantageous peace.
+
+The same vain endeavour of Denmark to preserve her neutrality led to the
+second breach with England. After the peace of Tilsit there could be no
+further question of neutrality. Napoleon had determined that if Great
+Britain refused to accept Russia's mediation, Denmark, Sweden and
+Portugal were to be forced to close their harbours to her ships and
+declare war against her. It was the intention of the Danish government
+to preserve its neutrality to the last, although, on the whole, it
+preferred an alliance with Great Britain to a league with Napoleon, and
+was even prepared for a breach with the French emperor if he pressed her
+too hardly. The army had therefore been assembled in Holstein, and the
+crown prince regent was with it. But the British government did not
+consider Denmark strong enough to resist France, and Canning had private
+trustworthy information of the designs of Napoleon, upon which he was
+bound to act. He sent accordingly a fleet, with 30,000 men on board, to
+the Sound to compel Denmark, by way of security for her future conduct,
+to unite her fleet with the British fleet. Denmark was offered an
+alliance, the complete restitution of her fleet after the war, a
+guarantee of all her possessions, compensation for all expenses, and
+even territorial aggrandizement.
+
+
+Loss of Norway. Treaty of Kiel, 1814.
+
+Dictatorially presented as they were, these terms were liberal and even
+generous; and if a great statesman like Bernstorff had been at the head
+of affairs in Copenhagen, he would, no doubt, have accepted them, even
+if with a wry face. But the prince regent, if a good patriot, was a poor
+politician, and invincibly obstinate. When, therefore, in August 1807,
+Gambier arrived in the Sound, and the English plenipotentiary Francis
+James Jackson, not perhaps the most tactful person that could have been
+chosen, hastened to Kiel to place the British demands before the crown
+prince, Frederick not only refused to negotiate, but ordered the
+Copenhagen authorities to put the city in the best state of defence
+possible. Taking this to be tantamount to a declaration of war, on the
+16th of August the British army landed at Vedbäck; and shortly
+afterwards the Danish capital was invested. Anything like an adequate
+defence was hopeless; a bombardment began which lasted from the 2nd of
+September till the 5th of September, and ended with the capitulation of
+the city and the surrender of the fleet intact, the prince regent having
+neglected to give orders for its destruction. After this Denmark,
+unwisely, but not unnaturally, threw herself into the arms of Napoleon
+and continued to be his faithful ally till the end of the war. She was
+punished for her obstinacy by being deprived of Norway, which she was
+compelled to surrender to Sweden by the terms of the treaty of Kiel
+(1814), on the 14th of January, receiving by way of compensation a sum
+of money and Swedish Pomerania, with Rügen, which were subsequently
+transferred to Prussia in exchange for the duchy of Lauenburg and
+2,000,000 rix-dollars.
+
+On the establishment of the German Confederation in 1815, Frederick VI.
+acceded thereto as duke of Holstein, but refused to allow Schleswig to
+enter it, on the ground that Schleswig was an integral part of the
+Danish realm.
+
+
+Denmark after 1815.
+
+Constitutional agitation. Beginnings of the Schleswig-Holstein Question.
+
+Unionist Constitution of 1848, and war with Prussia.
+
+The position of Denmark from 1815 to 1830 was one of great difficulty
+and distress. The loss of Norway necessitated considerable reductions of
+expenditure, but the economies actually practised fell far short of the
+requirements of the diminished kingdom and its depleted exchequer; while
+the agricultural depression induced by the enormous fall in the price of
+corn all over Europe caused fresh demands upon the state, and added
+10,000,000 rix-dollars to the national debt before 1835. The last two
+years of the reign of Frederick VI. (1838-1839) were also remarkable for
+the revival of political life, provincial consultative assemblies being
+established for Jutland, the Islands, Schleswig and Holstein, by the
+ordinance of the 28th of May 1831. But these consultative assemblies
+were regarded as insufficient by the Danish Liberals, and during the
+last years of Frederick VI. and the whole reign of his successor,
+Christian VIII. (1839-1848), the agitation for a free constitution, both
+in Denmark and the duchies, continued to grow in strength, in spite of
+press prosecutions and other repressive measures. The rising national
+feeling in Germany also stimulated the separatist tendencies of the
+duchies; and "Schleswig-Holsteinism," as it now began to be called,
+evoked in Denmark the counter-movement known as _Eiderdansk-politik_,
+i.e. the policy of extending Denmark to the Eider and obliterating
+German Schleswig, in order to save Schleswig from being absorbed by
+Germany. This division of national sentiment within the monarchy,
+complicated by the approaching extinction of the Oldenburg line of the
+house of Denmark, by which, in the normal course under the Salic law,
+the succession to Holstein would have passed away from the Danish crown,
+opened up the whole complicated Schleswig-Holstein Question with all its
+momentous consequences. (See SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION.) Within the
+monarchy itself, during the following years, "Schleswig-Holsteinism" and
+"Eiderdanism" faced each other as rival, mutually exacerbating forces;
+and the efforts of succeeding governments to solve the insoluble problem
+broke down ever on the rock of nationalist passion and the interests of
+the German powers. The unionist constitution, devised by Christian
+VIII., and promulgated by his successor, Frederick VII. (1848-1863), on
+the 28th of January 1848, led to the armed intervention of Prussia, at
+the instance of the new German parliament at Frankfort; and, though with
+the help of Russian and British diplomacy, the Danes were ultimately
+successful, they had to submit, in 1851, to the government of Holstein
+by an international commission consisting of three members, Prussian,
+Austrian and Danish respectively.
+
+Denmark, meanwhile, had been engaged in providing herself with a
+parliament on modern lines. The constitutional rescript of the 28th of
+January 1848 had been withdrawn in favour of an electoral law for a
+national assembly, of whose 152 members 38 were to be nominated by the
+king and to form an Upper House (_Landsting_), while the remainder were
+to be elected by the people and to form a popular chamber (_Folketing_).
+The _Bondevenlige_, or philo-peasant party, which objected to the king's
+right of nomination and preferred a one-chamber system, now separated
+from the National Liberals on this point. But the National Liberals
+triumphed at the general election; fear of reactionary tendencies
+finally induced the Radicals to accede to the wishes of the majority;
+and on the 5th of June 1849 the new constitution received the royal
+sanction.
+
+
+Germany and the Danish duchies.
+
+Convention of 1852.
+
+At this stage Denmark's foreign relations prejudicially affected her
+domestic politics. The Liberal Eiderdansk party was for dividing Schleswig
+into three distinct administrative belts, according as the various
+nationalities predominated (language rescripts of 1851), but German
+sentiment was opposed to any such settlement and, still worse, the great
+continental powers looked askance on the new Danish constitution as far
+too democratic. The substance of the notes embodying the exchange of
+views, in 1851 and 1852, between the German great powers and Denmark, was
+promulgated, on the 28th of January 1852, in the new constitutional decree
+which, together with the documents on which it was founded, was known as
+the Conventions of 1851 and 1852. Under this arrangement each part of the
+monarchy was to have local autonomy, with a common constitution for common
+affairs. Holstein was now restored to Denmark, and Prussia and Austria
+consented to take part in the conference of London, by which the integrity
+of Denmark was upheld, and the succession to the whole monarchy
+settled on Prince Christian, youngest son of Duke William of
+Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, and husband of Louise of Hesse,
+the niece of King Christian VIII. The "legitimate" heir to the duchies,
+under the Salic law, Duke Christian of Sonderburg-Augustenburg, accepted
+the decision of the London conference in consideration of the purchase by
+the Danish government of his estates in Schleswig.
+
+
+Constitution of 1855.
+
+Constitution of 1863 and accession of Christian IX.
+
+Prusso-Danish War of 1864, and cession of the duchies.
+
+On the 2nd of October 1855 was promulgated the new common constitution,
+which for two years had been the occasion of a fierce contention between
+the Conservatives and the Radicals. It proved no more final than its
+predecessors. The representatives of the duchies in the new common
+_Rigsraad_ protested against it, as subversive of the Conventions of
+1851 and 1852; and their attitude had the support of the German powers.
+In 1857, Carl Christian Hall (q.v.) became prime minister. After putting
+off the German powers by seven years of astute diplomacy, he realized
+the impossibility of carrying out the idea of a common constitution and,
+on the 30th of March 1862, a royal proclamation was issued detaching
+Holstein as far as possible from the common monarchy. Later in the year
+he introduced into the _Rigsraad_ a common constitution for Denmark and
+Schleswig, which was carried through and confirmed by the council of
+state on the 13th of November 1863. It had not, however, received the
+royal assent when the death of Frederick VII. brought the "Protocol
+King" Christian IX. to the throne. Placed between the necessity of
+offending his new subjects or embroiling himself with the German powers,
+Christian chose the remoter evil and, on the 18th of November, the new
+constitution became law. This once more opened up the whole question in
+an acute form. Frederick, son of Christian of Augustenburg, refusing to
+be bound by his father's engagements, entered Holstein and, supported by
+the Estates and the German diet, proclaimed himself duke. The events
+that followed: the occupation of the duchies by Austria and Prussia, the
+war of 1864, gallantly fought by the Danes against overwhelming odds,
+and the astute diplomacy by which Bismarck succeeded in ultimately
+gaining for Prussia the seaboard so essential for her maritime power,
+are dealt with elsewhere (see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION). For Denmark
+the question was settled when, by the peace of Vienna (October 30,
+1864), the duchies were irretrievably lost to her. At the peace of
+Prague, which terminated the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Napoleon III.
+procured the insertion in the treaty of paragraph v., by which the
+northern districts of Schleswig were to be reunited to Denmark when the
+majority of the population by a free vote should so desire; but when
+Prussia at last thought fit to negotiate with Denmark on the subject,
+she laid down conditions which the Danish government could not accept.
+Finally, in 1878, by a separate agreement between Austria and Prussia,
+paragraph v. was rescinded.
+
+
+Constitutional struggles in Denmark since 1866.
+
+The salient feature of Danish politics during subsequent years was the
+struggle between the two _Tings_, the _Folketing_ or Lower House, and
+the _Landsting_, or Upper House of the _Rigsdag_. This contest began in
+1872, when a combination of all the Radical parties, known as the
+"United Left," passed a vote of want of confidence against the
+government and rejected the budget. Nevertheless, the ministry,
+supported by the _Landsting_, refused to resign; and the crisis became
+acute when, in 1875, J. B. Estrup became prime minister. Perceiving that
+the coming struggle would be essentially a financial one, he retained
+the ministry of finance in his own hands; and, strong in the support of
+the king, the _Landsting_, and a considerable minority in the country
+itself, he devoted himself to the double task of establishing the
+political parity of the _Landsting_ with the _Folketing_ and
+strengthening the national armaments, so that, in the event of a war
+between the European great powers, Denmark might be able to defend her
+neutrality.
+
+The Left was willing to vote 30,000,000 crowns for extraordinary
+military expenses, exclusive of the fortifications of Copenhagen, on
+condition that the amount should be raised by a property and income tax;
+and, as the elections of 1875 had given them a majority of three-fourths
+in the popular chamber, they spoke with no uncertain voice. But the
+Upper House steadily supported Estrup, who was disinclined to accept any
+such compromise. As an agreement between the two houses on the budget
+proved impossible, a provisional financial decree was issued on the 12th
+of April 1877, which the Left stigmatized as a breach of the
+constitution. But the difficulties of the ministry were somewhat
+relieved by a split in the Radical party, still further accentuated by
+the elections of 1879, which enabled Estrup to carry through the army
+and navy defence bill and the new military penal code by leaning
+alternately upon one or the other of the divided Radical groups.
+
+After the elections of 1881, which brought about the reamalgamation of
+the various Radical sections, the opposition presented a united front to
+the government, so that, from 1882 onwards, legislation was almost at a
+standstill. The elections of 1884 showed clearly that the nation was
+also now on the side of the Radicals, 83 out of the 102 members of the
+_Folketing_ belonging to the opposition. Still Estrup remained at his
+post. He had underestimated the force of public opinion, but he was
+conscientiously convinced that a Conservative ministry was necessary to
+Denmark at this crisis. When therefore the _Rigsdag_ rejected the
+budget, he advised the king to issue another provisional financial
+decree. Henceforth, so long as the _Folketing_ refused to vote supplies,
+the ministry regularly adopted these makeshifts. In 1886 the Left,
+having no constitutional means of dismissing the Estrup ministry,
+resorted for the first time to negotiations; but it was not till the 1st
+of April 1894 that the majority of the _Folketing_ could arrive at an
+agreement with the government and the _Landsting_ as to a budget which
+should be retrospective and sanction the employment of the funds so
+irregularly obtained for military expenditure. The whole question of the
+provisional financial decrees was ultimately regularized by a special
+resolution of the _Rigsdag_; and the retirement of the Estrup ministry
+in August 1894 was the immediate result of the compromise.
+
+In spite of the composition of 1894, the animosity between _Folketing_
+and _Landsting_ continues to characterize Danish politics, and the
+situation has been complicated by the division of both Right and Left
+into widely divergent groups. The elections of 1895 resulted in an
+undeniable victory of the extreme Radicals; and the budget of 1895-1896
+was passed only at the last moment by a compromise. The session of
+1896-1897 was remarkable for a _rapprochement_ between the ministry and
+the "Left Reform Party," caused by the secessions of the "Young Right,"
+which led to an unprecedented event in Danish politics--the voting of
+the budget by the Radical _Folketing_ and its rejection by the
+Conservative _Landsting_ in May 1897; whereupon the ministry resigned in
+favour of the moderate Conservative Hörring cabinet, which induced the
+Upper House to pass the budget. The elections of 1898 were a fresh
+defeat for the Conservatives, and in the autumn session of the same
+year, the _Folketing_, by a crushing majority of 85 to 12, rejected the
+military budget. The ministry was saved by a mere accident--the
+expulsion of Danish agitators from North Schleswig by the German
+government, which evoked a passion of patriotic protest throughout
+Denmark, and united all parties, the war minister declaring in the
+_Folketing_, during the debate on the military budget (January 1899),
+that the armaments of Denmark were so far advanced that any great power
+must think twice before venturing to attack her. The chief event of the
+year 1899 was the great strike of 40,000 artisans, which cost Denmark
+50,000,000 crowns, and brought about a reconstruction of the cabinet in
+order to bring in, as minister of the interior, Ludwig Ernest Bramsen,
+the great specialist in industrial matters, who succeeded (September
+2-4) in bringing about an understanding between workmen and employers.
+The session 1900-1901 was remarkable for the further disintegration of
+the Conservative party still in office (the Sehested cabinet superseded
+the Hörring cabinet on the 27th of April 1900) and the almost total
+paralysis of parliament, caused by the interminable debates on the
+question of taxation reform. The crisis came in 1901. Deprived of nearly
+all its supporters in the _Folketing_, the Conservative ministry
+resigned, and King Christian was obliged to assent to the formation of a
+"cabinet of the Left" under Professor Deuntzer. Various reforms were
+carried, but the proposal to sell the Danish islands in the West Indies
+to the United States fell through. During these years the relations
+between Denmark and the German empire improved, and in the country
+itself the cause of social democracy made great progress. In January
+1906 King Christian ended his long reign, and was succeeded by his son
+Frederick VIII. At the elections of 1906 the government lost its small
+absolute majority, but remained in power with support from the Moderates
+and Conservatives. It was severely shaken, however, when Herr A.
+Alberti, who had been minister of justice since 1901, and was admitted
+to be the strongest member of the cabinet, was openly accused of
+nepotism and abuse of the power of his position. These charges gathered
+weight until the minister was forced to resign in July 1908, and in
+September he was arrested on a charge of forgery in his capacity as
+director of the Zealand Peasants' Savings Bank. The ministry, of which
+Herr Jens Christian Christensen was head, was compelled to resign in
+October. The effect of these revelations was profound not only
+politically, but also economically; the important export trade in Danish
+butter, especially, was adversely affected, as Herr Alberti had been
+interested in numerous dairy companies.
+
+   BIBLIOGRAPHY.--I. GENERAL HISTORY. _Danmarks Riges Historie_
+   (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); R. Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_ (Cambridge,
+   1905); H. Weitemeyer, _Denmark_ (London, 1901); Adolf Ditley
+   Jörgensen, _Historiske Afhandlinger_ (Copenhagen, 1898); _ib.
+   Fortaellinger af Nordens Historie_ (Copenhagen, 1892). II. EARLY AND
+   MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Saxo, _Gesta Danorum_ (Strassburg, 1886);
+   _Repertorium diplomaticum regni Danici mediaevalis_ (Copenhagen,
+   1894); Ludvig Holberg, _Konge og Danehof_ (Copenhagen, 1895); Poul
+   Frederik Barford, _Danmarks Historie 1319-1536_ (Copenhagen, 1885);
+   _ib. 1536-1670_ (Copenhagen, 1891). III. 16TH TO 19TH CENTURY. Philip
+   P. Munch, _Kobstadstyrelsen i Danmark_ (Copenhagen, 1900); Peter
+   Edvard Holm, _Danmark Norges indre Historie, 1660-1720_ (Copenhagen,
+   1885-1886); _ib. Danmark Norges Historie, 1720-1814_ (Copenhagen,
+   1891-1894); Sören Bloch Thrige, _Danmarks Historie i vort
+   Aarhundrede_ (Copenhagen, 1888); Marcus Rubin, _Frederick VI.'s Tid
+   fra Kielerfreden_ (Copenhagen, 1895); Christian Frederick von Holten,
+   _Erinnerungen; Der deutsch-dänische Krieg_ (Stuttgart, 1900); Niels
+   Peter Jensen, _Den anden slesvigske Krig_ (Copenhagen, 1900); S. N.
+   Mouritsen, _Vor Forfatnings Historie_ (Copenhagen, 1894); Carl
+   Frederik Vilhelm Mathildus Rosenberg, _Danmark i Aaret 1848_
+   (Copenhagen, 1891). See also the special bibliographies appended to
+   the biographies of the Danish kings and statesmen.      (R. N. B.)
+
+
+LITERATURE
+
+The present language of Denmark is derived directly from the same source
+as that of Sweden, and the parent of both is the old Scandinavian (see
+SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES). In Iceland this tongue, with some
+modifications, has remained in use, and until about 1100 it was the
+literary language of the whole of Scandinavia. The influence of Low
+German first, and High German afterwards, has had the effect of drawing
+modern Danish constantly farther from this early type. The difference
+began to show itself in the 12th century. R. K. Rask, and after him N.
+M. Petersen, have distinguished four periods in the development of the
+language, The first, which has been called Oldest Danish, dating from
+about 1100 and 1250, shows a slightly changed character, mainly
+depending on the system of inflections. In the second period, that of
+Old Danish, bringing us down to 1400, the change of the system of vowels
+begins to be settled, and masculine and feminine are mingled in a common
+gender. An indefinite article has been formed, and in the conjugation of
+the verb a great simplicity sets in. In the third period, 1400-1530, the
+influence of German upon the language is supreme, and culminates in the
+Reformation. The fourth period, from 1530 to about 1680, completes the
+work of development, and leaves the language as we at present find it.
+
+The earliest work known to have been written in Denmark was a Latin
+biography of Knud the Saint, written by an English monk Ælnoth, who was
+attached to the church of St Alban in Odense where King Knud was
+murdered. Denmark produced several Latin writers of merit. Anders
+Sunesen (d. 1228) wrote a long poem in hexameters, _Hexaëmeron_,
+describing the creation. Under the auspices of Archbishop Absalon the
+monks of Sorö began to compile the annals of Denmark, and at the end of
+the 12th century Svend Aagesen, a cleric of Lund, compiled from
+Icelandic sources and oral tradition his _Compendiosa historia regum
+Daniae_. The great Saxo Grammaticus (q.v.) wrote his _Historia Danica_
+under the same patronage.
+
+It was not till the 16th century that literature began to be generally
+practised in the vernacular in Denmark. The oldest laws which are still
+preserved date from the beginning of the 13th century, and many
+different collections are in existence.[2] A single work detains us in
+the 13th century, a treatise on medicine[3] by Henrik Harpestreng, who
+died in 1244. The first royal edict written in Danish is dated 1386; and
+the Act of Union at Kalmar, written in 1397, is the most important piece
+of the vernacular of the 14th century. Between 1300 and 1500, however,
+it is supposed that the _Kjaempeviser_, or Danish ballads, a large
+collection of about 500 epical and lyrical poems, were originally
+composed, and these form the most precious legacy of the Denmark of the
+middle ages, whether judged historically or poetically. We know nothing
+of the authors of these poems, which treat of the heroic adventures of
+the great warriors and lovely ladies of the chivalric age in strains of
+artless but often exquisite beauty. Some of the subjects are borrowed in
+altered form from the old mythology, while a few derive from Christian
+legend, and many deal with national history. The language in which we
+receive these ballads, however, is as late as the 16th or even the 17th
+century, but it is believed that they have become gradually modernized
+in the course of oral tradition. The first attempt to collect the
+ballads was made in 1591 by Anders Sörensen Vedel (1542-1616), who
+published 100 of them. Peder Syv printed 100 more in 1695. In 1812-1814
+an elaborate collection in five volumes appeared at Christiania, edited
+by W. H. F. Abrahamson, R. Nyerup and K. M. Rahbek. Finally, Svend
+Grundtvig produced an exhaustive edition, _Danmarks gamle Folkeviser_
+(Copenhagen, 1853-1883, 5 vols.), which was supplemented (1891) by A.
+Olrik.
+
+In 1490, the first printing press was set up at Copenhagen, by Gottfried
+of Gemen, who had brought it from Westphalia; and five years later the
+first Danish book was printed. This was the famous _Rimkrönike_[4]; a
+history of Denmark in rhymed Danish verse, attributed by its first
+editor to Niels (d. 1481); a monk of the monastery of Sorö. It extends
+to the death of Christian I., in 1481, which may be supposed to be
+approximately the date of the poem. In 1479 the university of Copenhagen
+had been founded. In 1506 the same Gottfried of Gemen published a famous
+collection of proverbs, attributed to Peder Laale. Mikkel, priest of St
+Alban's Church in Odense, wrote three sacred poems, _The Rose-Garland of
+Maiden Mary_, _The Creation_ and _Human Life_, which came out together
+in 1514, shortly before his death. The popular _Lucidarius_ also
+appeared in the vulgar tongue.
+
+These few productions appeared along with innumerable works in Latin,
+and dimly heralded a Danish literature. It was the Reformation that
+first awoke the living spirit in the popular tongue. Christiern Pedersen
+(q.v.; 1480-1554) was the first man of letters produced in Denmark. He
+edited and published, at Paris in 1514, the Latin text of the old
+chronicler, Saxo Grammaticus; he worked up in their present form the
+beautiful half-mythical stories of _Karl Magnus_ (Charlemagne) and
+_Holger Danske_ (Ogier the Dane). He further translated the Psalms of
+David and the New Testament, printed in 1529, and finally--in
+conjunction with Bishop Peder Palladius--the Bible, which appeared in
+1550. Hans Tausen, the bishop of Ribe (1494-1561), continued Pedersen's
+work, but with far less literary talent. He may, however, be considered
+as the greatest orator and teacher of the Reformation movement. He wrote
+a number of popular hymns, partly original, partly translations;
+translated the Pentateuch from the Hebrew; and published (1536) a
+collection of sermons embodying the reformed doctrine and destined for
+the use of clergy and laity.
+
+The Catholic party produced one controversialist of striking ability,
+Povel Helgesen[5] (b. c. 1480), also known as Paulus Eliae. He had at
+first been inclined to the party of reform, but when Luther broke
+definitely with the papal authority he became a bitter opponent. His
+most important polemical work is an answer (1528) to twelve questions on
+the religious question propounded by Gustavus I. of Sweden. He is also
+supposed to be the author of the _Skiby Chronicle_,[6] in which he does
+not confine himself to the duties of a mere annalist, but records his
+personal opinion of people and events. Vedel, by the edition of the
+_Kjaempeviser_ which is mentioned above, gave an immense stimulus to the
+progress of literature. He published an excellent translation of Saxo
+Grammaticus in 1575. The first edition of a Danish _Reineke Fuchs_, by
+Herman Weigere, appeared at Lübeck in 1555, and the first authorized
+Psalter in 1559. Arild Huitfeld wrote _Chronicle of the Kingdom of
+Denmark_, printed in ten volumes, between 1595 and 1604.
+
+There are few traces of dramatic effort in Denmark before the
+Reformation; and many of the plays of that period may be referred to the
+class of school comedies. Hans Sthen, a lyrical poet, wrote a morality
+entitled _Kortvending_ ("Change of Fortune"), which is really a
+collection of monologues to be delivered by students. The anonymous
+_Ludus de Sancto Kanuto_[7] (c. 1530) which in spite of its title, is
+written in Danish, is the earliest Danish national drama. The burlesque
+drama assigned to Christian Hansen, _The Faithless Wife_, is the only
+one of its kind that has survived. But the best of these old dramatic
+authors was a priest of Viborg, Justesen Ranch (1539-1607), who wrote
+_Kong Salomons Hylding_ ("The Crowning of King Solomon") (1585),
+_Samsons Faengsel_ ("The Imprisonment of Samson"), which includes
+lyrical passages which have given it claims to be considered the first
+Danish opera, and a farce, _Karrig Niding_ ("The Miserly Miscreant").
+Beside these works Ranch wrote a famous moralizing poem, entitled "A new
+song, of the nature and song of certain birds, in which many vices are
+punished, and many virtues praised." Peder Clausen[8] (1545-1614), a
+Norwegian by birth and education, wrote a _Description of Norway_, as
+well as an admirable translation of Snorri Sturlason's _Heimskringla_,
+published ten years after Clausen's death. The father of Danish poetry,
+Anders Kristensen Arrebo (1587-1637), was bishop of Trondhjem, but was
+deprived of his see for immorality. He was a poet of considerable
+genius, which is most brilliantly shown in an imitation of Du Bartas's
+_Divine Semaine_, the _Hexaëmeron_, a poem on the creation, in six
+books, which did not appear till 1661. He also made a translation of the
+Psalms.
+
+He was followed by Anders Bording (1619-1677), a cheerful occasional
+versifier, and by Thöger Reenberg (1656-1742), a poet of somewhat higher
+gifts, who lived on into a later age. Among prose writers should be
+mentioned the grammarian Peder Syv,[9] (1631-1702); Bishop Erik
+Pontoppidan (1616-1678), whose _Grammatica Danica_, published in 1668,
+is the first systematic analysis of the language; Birgitta Thott
+(1610-1662), a lady who translated Seneca (1658); and Leonora Christina
+Ulfeld, daughter of Christian IV., who has left a touching account of
+her long imprisonment in her _Jammersminde_. Ole Worm (1588-1654), a
+learned pedagogue and antiquarian, preserved in his _Danicorum
+monumentorum libri sex_ (Copenhagen, 1643) the descriptions of many
+antiquities which have since perished or been lost.
+
+In two spiritual poets the advancement of the literature of Denmark took
+a further step. Thomas Kingo[10] (1634-1703) was the first who wrote
+Danish with perfect ease and grace. He was a Scot by descent, and
+retained the vital energy of his ancestors as a birthright. In 1677 he
+became bishop in Fünen, where he died in 1703. His _Winter Psalter_
+(1689), and the so-called _Kingo's Psalter_ (1699), contained brilliant
+examples of lyrical writing, and an employment of language at once
+original and national. Kingo had a charming fancy, a clear sense of form
+and great rapidity and variety of utterance. Some of his very best hymns
+are in the little volume he published in 1681, and hence the old period
+of semi-articulate Danish may be said to close with this eventful
+decade, which also witnessed the birth of Holberg. The other great
+hymn-writer was Hans Adolf Brorson (1694-1764), who published in 1740 a
+great psalm-book at the king's command, in which he added his own to the
+best of Kingo's. Both these men held high posts in the church, one being
+bishop of Fünen and the other of Ribe; but Brorson was much inferior to
+Kingo in genius. With these names the introductory period of Danish
+literature ends. The language was now formed, and was being employed for
+almost all the uses of science and philosophy.
+
+Ludvig Holberg (q.v.; 1684-1754) may be called the founder of modern
+Danish literature. His various works still retain their freshness and
+vital attraction. As an historian his style was terse and brilliant, his
+spirit philosophical, and his data singularly accurate. He united two
+unusual gifts, being at the same time the most cultured man of his day,
+and also in the highest degree a practical person, who clearly perceived
+what would most rapidly educate and interest the uncultivated. In his
+thirty-three dramas, sparkling comedies in prose, more or less in
+imitation of Molière, he has left his most important positive legacy to
+literature. Nor in any series of comedies in existence is decency so
+rarely sacrificed to a desire for popularity or a false sense of wit.
+
+Holberg founded no school of immediate imitators, but his stimulating
+influence was rapid and general. The university of Copenhagen, which had
+been destroyed by fire in 1728, was reopened in 1742, and under the
+auspices of the historian Hans Gram (1685-1748), who founded the Danish
+Royal Academy of Sciences, it inspired an active intellectual life. Gram
+laid the foundation of critical history in Denmark. He brought to bear
+on the subject a full knowledge of documents and sources. His best work
+lies in his annotated editions of the older chroniclers. In 1744 Jakob
+Langebek (1710-1775) founded the Society for the Improvement of the
+Danish Language, which opened the field of philology. He began the great
+collection of _Scriptores rerum Danicarum medii aevi_ (9 vols.,
+Copenhagen, 1772-1878). In jurisprudence Andreas Höier (1690-1739)
+represented the new impulse, and in zoology Erik Pontoppidan (q.v.), the
+younger. This last name represents a lifelong activity in many branches
+of literature. From Holberg's college of Sorö, two learned professors,
+Jens Schelderup Sneedorff (1724-1764) and Jens Kraft (1720-1765),
+disseminated the seeds of a wider culture. All these men were aided by
+the generous and enlightened patronage of Frederick V. A little later
+on, the German poet Klopstock settled in Copenhagen, bringing with him
+the prestige of his great reputation, and he had a strong influence in
+Germanizing Denmark. He founded, however, the Society for the Fine Arts,
+and had it richly endowed. The first prize offered was won by Christian
+Braumann Tullin (1728-1765) for his beautiful poem of _May-day_. Tullin,
+a Norwegian by birth, represents the first accession of a study of
+external nature in Danish poetry; he was an ardent disciple of the
+English poet Thomson. Christian Falster (1690-1752) wrote satires of
+some merit, but most of his work is in Latin. The _New Heroic Poems_ of
+Jörgen Sorterup are notable as imitations of the old folk-literature.
+Ambrosius Stub[11] (1705-1758) was a lyrist of great sweetness, born
+before his due time, whose poems, not published till 1771, belong to a
+later age than their author.
+
+_The Lyrical Revival._--Between 1742 and 1749, that is to say, at the
+very climax of the personal activity of Holberg, several poets were
+born, who were destined to enrich the language with its first group of
+lyrical blossoms. Of these the two eldest, Wessel and Ewald, were men of
+extraordinary genius, and destined to fascinate the attention of
+posterity, not only by the brilliance of their productions, but by the
+suffering and brevity of their lives. Johannes Ewald (q.v.; 1743-1781)
+was not only the greatest Danish lyrist of the 18th century, but he had
+few rivals in the whole of Europe. As a dramatist, pure and simple, his
+bird-like instinct of song carried him too often into a sphere too
+exalted for the stage; but he has written nothing that is not stamped
+with the exquisite quality of distinction. Johan Herman Wessel[12]
+(1742-1785) excited even greater hopes in his contemporaries, but left
+less that is immortal behind him. After the death of Holberg, the
+affectation of Gallicism had reappeared in Denmark; and the tragedies of
+Voltaire, with their stilted rhetoric, were the most popular dramas of
+the day. Johan Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), a young writer who did better
+things later on, gave the finishing touch to the exotic absurdity by
+bringing out a wretched piece called _Zarina_, which was hailed by the
+press as the first original Danish tragedy, although Ewald's exquisite
+_Rolf Krage_, which truly merited that title, had appeared two years
+before. Wessel, who up to that time had only been known as the president
+of a club of wits, immediately wrote _Love without Stockings_ (1772), in
+which a plot of the most abject triviality is worked out in strict
+accordance with the rules of French tragedy, and in most pompous and
+pathetic Alexandrines. The effect of this piece was magical; the Royal
+Theatre ejected its cuckoo-brood of French plays, and even the Italian
+opera. It was now essential that every performance should be national,
+and in the Danish language. To supply the place of the opera, native
+musicians, and especially J. P. E. Hartmann, set the dramas of Ewald and
+others, and thus the Danish school of music originated. Johan Nordahl
+Brun's best work is to be found in his patriotic songs and his hymns. He
+became bishop of Bergen in 1803.
+
+Of the other poets of the revival the most important were born in
+Norway. Nordahl Brun, Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Claus Fasting
+(1746-1791), who edited a brilliant aesthetic journal, _The Critical
+Observer_, Christian H. Pram[13] (1756-1821), author of _Staerkodder_, a
+romantic epic, based on Scandinavian legend, and Edvard Storm
+(1749-1794), were associates and mainly fellow-students at Copenhagen,
+where they introduced a style peculiar to themselves, and distinct from
+that of the true Danes. Their lyrics celebrated the mountains and rivers
+of the magnificent country they had left; and, while introducing images
+and scenery unfamiliar to the inhabitants of monotonous Denmark, they
+enriched the language with new words and phrases. This group of writers
+is now claimed by the Norwegians as the founders of a Norwegian
+literature; but their true place is certainly among the Danes, to whom
+they primarily appealed. They added nothing to the development of the
+drama, except in the person of N. K. Bredal (1733-1778), who became
+director of the Royal Danish Theatre, and the writer of some mediocre
+plays.
+
+To the same period belong a few prose writers of eminence. Werner
+Abrahamson (1744-1812) was the first aesthetic critic Denmark produced.
+Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was eminent in many branches of science,
+but especially as a medical writer. Ove Mailing (1746-1829) was an
+untiring collector of historical data, which he annotated in a lively
+style. Two historians of more definite claim on our attention are Peter
+Frederik Suhm (1728-1798), whose _History of Denmark_ (11 vols.,
+Copenhagen, 1782-1812) contains a mass of original material, and Ove
+Guldberg (1731-1808). In theology Christian Bastholm (1740-1819) and
+Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), bishop of Zealand, a Norwegian by
+birth, demand a reference. But the only really great prose-writer of the
+period was the Norwegian, Niels Treschow (1751-1833), whose
+philosophical works are composed in an admirably lucid style, and are
+distinguished for their depth and originality.
+
+The poetical revival sank in the next generation to a more mechanical
+level. The number of writers of some talent was very great, but genius
+was wanting. Two intimate friends, Jonas Rein (1760-1821) and Jens
+Zetlitz (1761-1821), attempted, with indifferent success, to continue
+the tradition of the Norwegian group. Thomas Thaarup (1749-1821) was a
+fluent and eloquent writer of occasional poems, and of homely dramatic
+idylls. The early death of Ole Samsöe (1759-1796) prevented the
+development of a dramatic talent that gave rare promise. But while
+poetry languished, prose, for the first time, began to flourish in
+Denmark. Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was a pleasing novelist, a
+dramatist of some merit, a pathetic elegist, and a witty song-writer; he
+was also a man full of the literary instinct, and through a long life he
+never ceased to busy himself with editing the works of the older poets,
+and spreading among the people a knowledge of Danish literature through
+his magazine, _Minerva_, edited in conjunction with C. H. Pram. Peter
+Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841) was a political and aesthetic critic of
+note. He was exiled from Denmark in company with another sympathizer
+with the principles of the French Revolution, Malte Conrad Brunn
+(1775-1826), who settled in Paris, and attained a world-wide reputation
+as a geographer. O. C. Olufsen (1764-1827) was a writer on geography,
+zoology and political economy. Rasmus Nyerup (1759-1829) expended an
+immense energy in the compilation of admirable works on the history of
+language and literature. From 1778 to his death he exercised a great
+power in the statistical and critical departments of letters. The best
+historian of this period, however, was Engelstoft (1774-1850), and the
+most brilliant theologian Bishop Mynster (1775-1854). In the annals of
+modern science Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) is a name universally
+honoured. He explained his inventions and described his discoveries in
+language so lucid and so characteristic that he claims an honoured place
+in the literature of the country of whose culture, in other branches, he
+is one of the most distinguished ornaments.
+
+On the threshold of the romantic movement occurs the name of Jens
+Baggesen (q.v.; 1764-1826), a man of great genius, whose work was
+entirely independent of the influences around him. Jens Baggesen is the
+greatest comic poet that Denmark has produced; and as a satirist and
+witty lyrist he has no rival among the Danes. In his hands the
+difficulties of the language disappear; he performs with the utmost ease
+extraordinary _tours de force_ of style. His astonishing talents were
+wasted on trifling themes and in a fruitless resistance to the modern
+spirit in literature.
+
+_Romanticism._--With the beginning of the 19th century the new light in
+philosophy and poetry, which radiated from Germany through all parts of
+Europe, found its way into Denmark also. In scarcely any country was the
+result so rapid or so brilliant. There arose in Denmark a school of
+poets who created for themselves a reputation in all parts of Europe,
+and would have done honour to any nation or any age. The splendid
+cultivation of metrical art threw other branches into the shade; and the
+epoch of which we are about to speak is eminent above all for mastery
+over verse. The swallow who heralded the summer was a German by birth,
+Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt[14] (1769-1826), who came over to
+Copenhagen from Pomerania, and prepared the way for the new movement.
+Since Ewald no one had written Danish lyrical verse so exquisitely as
+Schack von Staffeldt, and the depth and scientific precision of his
+thought won him a title which he has preserved, of being the first
+philosophic poet of Denmark. The writings of this man are the deepest
+and most serious which Denmark had produced, and at his best he yields
+to no one in choice and skilful use of expression. This sweet song of
+Schack von Staffeldt's, however, was early silenced by the louder choir
+that one by one broke into music around him. It was Adam Gottlob
+Öhlenschläger (q.v.; 1779-1850), the greatest poet of Denmark, who was
+to bring about the new romantic movement. In 1802 he happened to meet
+the young Norwegian Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), who had just returned
+from a scientific tour in Germany, full of the doctrines of Schelling.
+Under the immediate direction of Steffens, Öhlenschläger began an
+entirely new poetic style, and destroyed all his earlier verses. A new
+epoch in the language began, and the rapidity and matchless facility of
+the new poetry was the wonder of Steffens himself. The old Scandinavian
+mythology lived in the hands of Öhlenschläger exactly as the classical
+Greek religion was born again in Keats. He aroused in his people the
+slumbering sense of their Scandinavian nationality.
+
+The retirement of Öhlenschläger comparatively early in life, left the
+way open for the development of his younger contemporaries, among whom
+several had genius little inferior to his own. Steen Steensen Blicher
+(1782-1848) was a Jutlander, and preserved all through life the
+characteristics of his sterile and sombre fatherland. After a struggling
+youth of great poverty, he published, in 1807-1809, a translation of
+Ossian; in 1814 a volume of lyrical poems; and in 1817 he attracted
+considerable attention by his descriptive poem of _The Tour in Jutland_.
+His real genius, however, did not lie in the direction of verse; and his
+first signal success was with a story, _A Village Sexton's Diary_, in
+1824, which was rapidly followed by other tales, descriptive of village
+life in Jutland, for the next twelve years. These were collected in five
+volumes (1833-1836). His masterpiece is a collection of short stories,
+called _The Spinning Room_. He also produced many national lyrics of
+great beauty. But it was Blicher's use of _patois_ which delighted his
+countrymen with a sense of freshness and strength. They felt as though
+they heard Danish for the first time spoken in its fulness. The poet
+Aarestrup (in 1848) declared that Blicher had raised the Danish language
+to the dignity of Icelandic. Blicher is a stern realist, in many points
+akin to Crabbe, and takes a singular position among the romantic
+idealists of the period, being like them, however, in the love of
+precise and choice language, and hatred of the mere commonplaces of
+imaginative writing.[15]
+
+Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (q.v.; 1783-1872), like
+Öhlenschläger, learned the principles of the German romanticism from the
+lips of Steffens. He adopted the idea of introducing the Old
+Scandinavian element into art, and even into life, still more earnestly
+than the older poet. Bernhard Severin Ingemann (q.v.; 1789-1862)
+contributed to Danish literature historical romances in the style of Sir
+Walter Scott. Johannes Carsten Hauch (q.v.; 1790-1872) first
+distinguished himself as a disciple of Öhlenschläger, and fought under
+him in the strife against the old school and Baggesen. But the master
+misunderstood the disciple; and the harsh repulse of Öhlenschläger
+silenced Hauch for many years. He possessed, however, a strong and
+fluent genius, which eventually made itself heard in a multitude of
+volumes, poems, dramas and novels. All that Hauch wrote is marked by
+great qualities, and by distinction; he had a native bias towards the
+mystical, which, however, he learned to keep in abeyance.
+
+Johan Ludvig Heiberg (q.v.; 1791-1860) was a critic who ruled the world
+of Danish taste for many years. His mother, the Baroness
+Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd (q.v.; 1773-1856), wrote a large number of
+anonymous novels. Her knowledge of life, her sparkling wit and her
+almost faultless style, make these short stories masterpieces of their
+kind.
+
+Christian Hviid Bredahl (1784-1860) produced six volumes of _Dramatic
+Scenes_[16] (1819-1833) which, in spite of their many brilliant
+qualities, were little appreciated at the time. Bredahl gave up
+literature in despair to become a peasant farmer, and died in poverty.
+
+Ludvig Adolf Bödtcher (1793-1874) wrote a single volume of lyrical
+poems, which he gradually enlarged in succeeding editions. He was a
+consummate artist in verse, and his impressions are given with the most
+delicate exactitude of phrase, and in a very fine strain of imagination.
+He was a quietist and an epicurean, and the closest parallel to Horner
+in the literature of the North. Most of Bödtcher's poems deal with
+Italian life, which he learned to know thoroughly during a long
+residence in Rome. He was secretary to Thorwaldsen for a considerable
+time.
+
+Christian Winther (q.v.; 1796-1876) made the island of Zealand his
+loving study, and that province of Denmark belongs to him no less
+thoroughly than the Cumberland lakes belong to Wordsworth. Between the
+latter poet and Winther there was much resemblance. He was, without
+compeer, the greatest pastoral lyrist of Denmark. His exquisite strains,
+in which pure imagination is blended with most accurate and realistic
+descriptions of scenery and rural life, have an extraordinary charm not
+easily described.
+
+The youngest of the great poets born during the last twenty years of the
+18th century was Henrik Hertz (q.v.; 1797-1870). As a satirist and comic
+poet he followed Baggesen, and in all branches of the poetic art stood a
+little aside out of the main current of romanticism. He introduced into
+the Danish literature of his time inestimable elements of lucidity and
+purity. In his best pieces Hertz is the most modern and most
+cosmopolitan of the Danish writers of his time.
+
+It is noticeable that all the great poets of the romantic period lived
+to an advanced age. Their prolonged literary activity--for some of them,
+like Grundtvig, were busy to the last--had a slightly damping influence
+on their younger contemporaries, but certain names in the next
+generation have special prominence. Hans Christian Andersen (q.v.;
+1805-1875) was the greatest of modern fabulists. In 1835 there appeared
+the first collection of his _Fairy Tales_, and won him a world-wide
+reputation. Almost every year from this time forward until near his
+death he published about Christmas time one or two of these unique
+stories, so delicate in their humour and pathos, and so masterly in
+their simplicity. Carl Christian Bagger (1807-1846) published volumes in
+1834 and 1836 which gave promise of a great future,--a promise broken by
+his early death. Frederik Paludan-Müller (q.v.; 1809-1876) developed, as
+a poet, a magnificent career, which contrasted in its abundance with his
+solitary and silent life as a man. His mythological or pastoral dramas,
+his great satiric epos of _Adam Homo_ (1841-1848), his comedies, his
+lyrics, and above all his noble philosophic tragedy of _Kalanus_, prove
+the immense breadth of his compass, and the inexhaustible riches of his
+imagination. C. L. Emil Aarestrup (1800-1856) published in 1838 a volume
+of vivid erotic poetry, but its quality was only appreciated after his
+death. Edvard Lembcke (1815-1897) made himself famous as the admirable
+translator of Shakespeare, but the incidents of 1864 produced from him
+some volumes of direct and manly patriotic verse.
+
+The poets completely ruled the literature of Denmark during this period.
+There were, however, eminent men in other departments of letters, and
+especially in philology. Rasmus Christian Rask (1787-1832) was one of
+the most original and gifted linguists of his age. His grammars of Old
+Frisian, Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon were unapproached in his own time,
+and are still admirable. Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862), a disciple
+of Rask, was the author of an admirable _History of Denmark in the
+Heathen_ _Antiquity_, and the translator of many of the sagas. Martin
+Frederik Arendt (1773-1823), the botanist and archaeologist, did much
+for the study of old Scandinavian records. Christian Molbech (1783-1857)
+was a laborious lexicographer, author of the first good Danish
+dictionary, published in 1833. In Joachim Frederik Schouw (1789-1852),
+Denmark produced a very eminent botanist, author of an exhaustive
+_Geography of Plants_. In later years he threw himself with zeal into
+politics. His botanical researches were carried on by Frederik Liebmann
+(1813-1856). The most famous zoologist contemporary with these men was
+Salomon Dreier (1813-1842).
+
+The romanticists found their philosopher in a most remarkable man, Sören
+Aaby Kierkegaard (1813-1855), one of the most subtle thinkers of
+Scandinavia, and the author of some brilliant philosophical and
+polemical works. A learned philosophical writer, not to be compared,
+however, for genius or originality to Kierkegaard, was Frederik
+Christian Sibbern (1785-1872). He wrote a dissertation _On Poetry and
+Art_ (3 vols., 1853-1869) and _The Contents of a MS. from the Year 2135_
+(3 vols., 1858-1872).
+
+Among novelists who were not also poets was Andreas Nikolai de
+Saint-Aubain (1798-1865), who, under the pseudonym of Carl Bernhard,
+wrote a series of charming romances. Mention must also be made of two
+dramatists, Peter Thun Feorsom (1777-1817), who produced an excellent
+translation of Shakespeare (1807-1816), and Thomas Overskou (1798-1873),
+author of a long series of successful comedies, and of a history of the
+Danish theatre (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1854-1864).
+
+Other writers whose names connect the age of romanticism with a later
+period were Meyer Aron Goldschmidt (1819-1887), author of novels and
+tales; Herman Frederik Ewald (1821-1908), who wrote a long series of
+historical novels; Jens Christian Hostrup (1818-1892), a writer of
+exquisite comedies; and the miscellaneous writer Erik Bögh (1822-1899).
+In zoology, J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813-1898); in philology, J. N. Madvig
+(1804-1886) and his disciple V. Thomsen (b. 1842); in antiquarianism, C.
+J. Thomsen (1788-1865) and J. J. Asmussen Worsaae (1821-1885); and in
+philosophy, Rasmus Nielsen (1809-1884) and Hans Bröchner (1820-1875),
+deserve mention.
+
+The development of imaginative literature in Denmark became very closely
+defined during the latter half of the 19th century. The romantic
+movement culminated in several poets of great eminence, whose deaths
+prepared the way for a new school. In 1874 Bödtcher passed away, in 1875
+Hans Christian Andersen, in the last week of 1876 Winther, and the
+greatest of all, Frederik Paludan-Müller. The field was therefore left
+open to the successors of those idealists, and in 1877 the reaction
+began to be felt. The eminent critic, Dr Georg Brandes (q.v.), had long
+foreseen the decline of pure romanticism, and had advocated a more
+objective and more exact treatment of literary phenomena. Accordingly,
+as soon as all the great planets had disappeared, a new constellation
+was perceived to have risen, and all the stars in it had been lighted by
+the enthusiasm of Brandes. The new writers were what he called
+Naturalists, and their sympathies were with the latest forms of exotic,
+but particularly of French literature. Among these fresh forces three
+immediately took place as leaders--Jacobsen, Drachmann and Schandorph.
+In J. P. Jacobsen (q.v.; 1847-1885) Denmark was now taught to welcome
+the greatest artist in prose which she has ever possessed; his romance
+of _Marie Grubbe_ led off the new school with a production of unexampled
+beauty. But Jacobsen died young, and the work was really carried out by
+his two companions. Holger Drachmann (q.v.; 1846-1908) began life as a
+marine painter; and a first little volume of poems, which he published
+in 1872, attracted slight attention. In 1877 he came forward again with
+one volume of verse, another of fiction, a third of travel; in each he
+displayed great vigour and freshness of touch, and he rose at one leap
+to the highest position among men of promise. Drachmann retained his
+place, without rival, as the leading imaginative writer in Denmark. For
+many years he made the aspects of life at sea his particular theme, and
+he contrived to rouse the patriotic enthusiasm of the Danish public as
+it had never been roused before. His various and unceasing
+productiveness, his freshness and vigour, and the inexhaustible
+richness of his lyric versatility, early brought Drachmann to the front
+and kept him there. Meanwhile prose imaginative literature was ably
+supported by Sophus Schandorph (1836-1901), who had been entirely out of
+sympathy with the idealists, and had taken no step while that school was
+in the ascendant. In 1876, in his fortieth year, he was encouraged by
+the change in taste to publish a volume of realistic stories, _Country
+Life_, and in 1878 a novel, _Without a Centre_. He has some relation
+with Guy de Maupassant as a close analyst of modern types of character,
+but he has more humour. He has been compared with such Dutch painters of
+low life as Teniers. His talent reached its height in the novel called
+_Little Folk_ (1880), a most admirable study of lower middle-class life
+in Copenhagen. He was for a while, without doubt, the leading living
+novelist, and he went on producing works of great force, in which,
+however, a certain monotony is apparent. The three leaders had meanwhile
+been joined by certain younger men who took a prominent position. Among
+these Karl Gjellerup and Erik Skram were the earliest. Gjellerup (b.
+1857), whose first works of importance date from 1878, was long
+uncertain as to the direction of his powers; he was poet, novelist,
+moralist and biologist in one; at length he settled down into line with
+the new realistic school, and produced in 1882 a satirical novel of
+manners which had a great success, _The Disciple of the Teutons_. Erik
+Skram (b. 1847) had in 1879 written a solitary novel, _Gertrude
+Coldbjörnsen_, which created a sensation, and was hailed by Brandes as
+exactly representing the "naturalism" which he desired to see
+encouraged; but Skram has written little else of importance. Other
+writers of reputation in the naturalistic school were Edvard Brandes (b.
+1847), and Herman Bang (b. 1858). Peter Nansen (b. 1861) has come into
+wide notoriety as the author, in particularly beautiful Danish, of a
+series of stories of a pronouncedly sexual type, among which _Maria_
+(1894) has been the most successful. Meanwhile, several of the elder
+generation, unaffected by the movement of realism, continued to please
+the public. Three lyrical poets, H. V. Kaalund (1818-1885), Carl Ploug
+(1813-1894) and Christian Richardt (1831-1892), of very great talent,
+were not yet silent, and among the veteran novelists were still active
+H. F. Ewald and Thomas Lange (1829-1887). Ewald's son Carl (1856-1908)
+achieved a great name as a novelist, but did his most characteristic
+work in a series of books for children, in which he used the fairy tale,
+in the manner of Hans Andersen, as a vehicle for satire and a theory of
+morals. During the whole of this period the most popular writer of
+Denmark was J. C. C. Brosböll (1816-1900), who wrote, under the
+pseudonym Carit Etlar, a vast number of tales. Another popular novelist
+was Vilhelm Bergsöe (b. 1835), author of _In the Sabine Mountains_
+(1871), and other romances. Sophus Bauditz (b. 1850) persevered in
+composing novels which attain a wide general popularity. Mention must be
+made also of the dramatist Christian Molbech (1821-1888).
+
+Between 1885 and 1892 there was a transitional period in Danish
+literature. Up to that time all the leaders had been united in accepting
+the naturalistic formula, which was combined with an individualist and a
+radical tendency. In 1885, however, Drachmann, already the recognized
+first poet of the country, threw off his allegiance to Brandes,
+denounced the exotic tradition, declared himself a Conservative, and
+took up a national and patriotic attitude. He was joined a little later
+by Gjellerup, while Schandorph remained stanchly by the side of Brandes.
+The camp was thus divided. New writers began to make their appearance,
+and, while some of these were stanch to Brandes, others were inclined to
+hold rather with Drachmann. Of the authors who came forward during this
+period of transition, the strongest novelist proved to be Hendrik
+Pontoppidan (b. 1857). In some of his books he reminds the reader of
+Turgeniev. Pontoppidan published in 1898 the first volume of a great
+novel entitled _Lykke-Per_, the biography of a typical Jutlander named
+Per Sidenius, a work to be completed in eight volumes. From 1893 to 1909
+no great features of a fresh kind revealed themselves. The Danish
+public, grown tired of realism, and satiated with pathological
+phenomena, returned to a fresh study of their own national
+characteristics. The cultivation of verse, which was greatly
+discouraged in the eighties, returned. Drachmann was supported by
+excellent younger poets of his school. J. J. Jörgensen (b. 1866), a
+Catholic decadent, was very prolific. Otto C. Fönss (b. 1853) published
+seven little volumes of graceful lyrical poems in praise of gardens and
+of farm-life. Andreas Dolleris (b. 1850), of Vejle, showed himself an
+occasional poet of merit. Alfred Ipsen (b. 1852) must also be mentioned
+as a poet and critic. Valdemar Rördam, whose _The Danish Tongue_ was the
+lyrical success of 1901, may also be named. Some attempts were made to
+transplant the theories of the symbolists to Denmark, but without signal
+success. On the other hand, something of a revival of naturalism is to
+be observed in the powerful studies of low life admirably written by
+Karl Larsen (b. 1860).
+
+The drama has long flourished in Denmark. The principal theatres are
+liberally open to fresh dramatic talent of every kind, and the great
+fondness of the Danes for this form of entertainment gives unusual scope
+for experiments in halls or private theatres; nothing is too eccentric
+to hope to obtain somewhere a fair hearing. Drachmann produced with very
+great success several romantic dramas founded on the national legends.
+Most of the novelists and poets already mentioned also essayed the
+stage, and to those names should be added these of Einar Christiansen
+(b. 1861), Ernst von der Recke (b. 1848), Oskar Benzon (b. 1856) and
+Gustav Wied (b. 1858).
+
+In theology no names were as eminent as in the preceding generation, in
+which such writers as H. N. Clausen (1793-1877), and still more Hans
+Lassen Martensen (1808-1884), lifted the prestige of Danish divinity to
+a high point. But in history the Danes have been very active. Karl
+Ferdinand Allen (1811-1871) began a comprehensive history of the
+Scandinavian kingdoms (5 vols., 1864-1872). Jens Peter Trap (1810-1885)
+concluded his great statistical account of Denmark in 1879. The 16th
+century was made the subject of the investigations of Troels Lund
+(q.v.). About 1880 several of the younger historians formed the plan of
+combining to investigate and publish the sources of Danish history; in
+this the indefatigable Johannes Steenstrup (b. 1844) was prominent. The
+domestic history of the country began, about 1885, to occupy the
+attention of Edvard Holm (b. 1833), O. Nielsen and the veteran P.
+Frederik Barfod (1811-1896). The naval histories of G. Lütken attracted
+much notice. Besides the names already mentioned, A. D. Jörgensen
+(1840-1897), J. Fredericia (b. 1849), Christian Erslev (b. 1852) and
+Vilhelm Mollerup have all distinguished themselves in the excellent
+school of Danish historians. In 1896 an elaborate composite history of
+Denmark was undertaken by some leading historians (pub. 1897-1905). In
+philosophy nothing has recently been published of the highest value.
+Martensen's _Jakob Böhme_ (1881) belongs to an earlier period. H.
+Höffding (b. 1843) has been the most prominent contributor to
+psychology. His _Problems of Philosophy_ and his _Philosophy of
+Religion_ were translated into English in 1906. Alfred Lehmann (b. 1858)
+has, since 1896, attracted a great deal of attention by his sceptical
+investigation of psychical phenomena. F. Rönning has written on the
+history of thought in Denmark. In the criticism of art, Julius Lange
+(1838-1896), and later Karl Madsen, have done excellent service. In
+literary criticism Dr Georg Brandes is notable for the long period
+during which he remained predominant. His was a steady and stimulating
+presence, ever pointing to the best in art and thought, and his
+influence on his age was greater than that of any other Dane.
+
+   AUTHORITIES.--R. Nyerup, _Den danske Digtekunsts Historie_
+   (1800-1808), and _Almindeligt Literaturlexikon_ (1818-1820); N. M.
+   Petersen, _Literaturhistorie_ (2nd ed., 1867-1871, 5 vols.);
+   Overskou, _Den danske Skueplads_ (1854-1866, 5 vols.), with a
+   continuation (2 vols., 1873-1876) by E Collin; Chr. Bruun,
+   _Bibliotheca Danica_ (3 vols., 1872-1896); Bricka, _Dansk biografisk
+   Lexikon_ (1887-1901); J. Paludan, _Danmarks Literatur i
+   Middelalderen_ (Copenhagen, 1896); P. Hansen, _Illustreret Dansk
+   Literaturhistorie_ (3 vols., 1901-1902); F. W. Horn, _History of the
+   Scandinavian North from the most ancient times to the present_
+   (English translation by Rasmus B. Anderson (Chicago, 1884), with
+   bibliographical appendix by Thorwald Solberg); Ph. Schweitzer,
+   _Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur_ (3 pts., Leipzig,
+   1886-1889), forming vol. viii. of the _Geschichte der
+   Weltlitteratur_. See also Brandes, _Kritiker og Portraiter_ (1870);
+   Brandes, _Danske Ditgere_ (1877); Marie Herzfeld, _Die Skandinavische
+   Litteratur und ihre Tendenzen_ (Berlin and Leipzig, 1898); Hjalmar
+   Hjorth Boyesen, _Essays on Scandinavian Literature_ (London, 1895);
+   Edmund Gosse, _Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe_ (new
+   ed., London, 1883); Vilhelm Andersen, _Litteraturbilleder_
+   (Copenhagen, 1903); A. P. J. Schener, _Kortfattet Indledning til
+   Romantikkus Periode i Danmarks Litteratur_ (Copenhagen, 1894).
+                                                            (E. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It is true the university was established on the 9th of September
+    1537, but its influence was of very gradual growth and small at
+    first.
+
+  [2] Collected as _Samling af gamle danske Love_ (5 vols., Copenhagen,
+    1821-1827).
+
+  [3] _Henrik Harpestraengs Laegebog_ (ed. C. Molbech, Copenhagen, 1826).
+
+  [4] Ed. C. Molbech (Copenhagen, 1825).
+
+  [5] See _Povel Eliesens danske Skrifter_ (Copenhagen, 1855, &c.),
+    edited by C. E. Secher.
+
+  [6] See _Monumenta historiae Danicae_ (ed. H. Rördam, vol. i., 1873).
+
+  [7] Ed. Sophus Birket Smith (Copenhagen, 1868), who also edited the
+    comedies ascribed to Chr. Hansen as _De tre aeldste danske Skuespil_
+    (1874), and the works of Ranch (1876).
+
+  [8] His works were edited by Gustav Storm (Christiania, 1877-1879).
+
+  [9] See Fr. W. Horn, _Peder Syv_ (Copenhagen, 1878).
+
+  [10] See A. C. L. Heiberg, _Thomas Kingo_ (Odense, 1852).
+
+  [11] His collected works were edited by Fr. Barford (Copenhagen, 5th
+    ed., 1879).
+
+  [12] Wessel's _Digte_ (3rd ed., 1895) are edited by J. Levin, with a
+    biographical introduction.
+
+  [13] A biography by his friend, K. L. Rahbek, is prefixed to a
+    selection of his poetry (6 vols., 1824-1829).
+
+  [14] See F. L. Liebenberg, _Schack Staffeldts samlede Digte_ (2 vols.,
+    Copenhagen, 1843), and _Samlinger til Schack Staffeldts Levnet_ (4
+    vols., 1846-1851).
+
+  [15] Blicher's _Tales_ were edited by P. Hansen (3 vols., Copenhagen,
+    1871), and his _Poems_ in 1870.
+
+  [16] Edited (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1855, Copenhagen) by F. L. Liebenberg.
+
+
+
+
+DENNERY, or D'ENNERY, ADOLPHE (1811-1899), French dramatist and
+novelist, whose real surname was PHILIPPE, was born in Paris on the 17th
+of June 1811. He obtained his first success in collaboration with
+Charles Desnoyer in _Émile, ou le fils d'un pair de France_ (1831), a
+drama which was the first of a series of some two hundred pieces written
+alone or in collaboration with other dramatists. Among the best of them
+may be mentioned _Gaspard Hauser_ (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; _Les
+Bohémiens de Paris_ (1842) with Eugène Grangé; with Mallian,
+_Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple_ (1845), in which Madame Dorval
+obtained a great success; _La Case d'Oncle Tom_ (1853); _Les Deux
+Orphelines_ (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugène Cormon. He wrote
+the libretto for Gounod's _Tribut de Zamora_ (1881); with Louis Gallet
+and Édouard Blan he composed the book of Massenet's _Cid_ (1885); and,
+again in collaboration with Eugène Cormon, the books of Auber's operas,
+_Le Premier Jour de bonheur_ (1868) and _Rêve d'amour_ (1869). He
+prepared for the stage Balzac's posthumous comedy _Mercadet ou le
+faiseur_, presented at the Gymnase theatre in 1851. Reversing the usual
+order of procedure, Dennery adapted some of his plays to the form of
+novels. He died in Paris in 1899.
+
+
+
+
+DENNEWITZ, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Brandenburg, near Jüterbog, 40 m. S.W. from Berlin. It is memorable as
+the scene of a decisive battle on the 6th of September 1813, in which
+Marshal Ney, with an army of 58,000 French, Saxons and Poles, was
+defeated with great loss by 50,000 Prussians under Generals Bülow
+(afterwards Count Bülow of Dennewitz) and Tauentzien. The site of the
+battle is marked by an iron obelisk.
+
+
+
+
+DENNIS, JOHN (1657-1734), English critic and dramatist, the son of a
+saddler, was born in London in 1657. He was educated at Harrow School
+and Caius College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1679. In
+the next year he was fined and dismissed from his college for having
+wounded a fellow-student with a sword. He was, however, received at
+Trinity Hall, where he took his M.A. degree in 1683. After travelling in
+France and Italy, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with
+Dryden, Wycherley and others; and being made temporarily independent by
+inheriting a small fortune, he devoted himself to literature. The duke
+of Marlborough procured him a place as one of the queen's waiters in the
+customs with a salary of £120 a year. This he afterwards disposed of for
+a small sum, retaining, at the suggestion of Lord Halifax, a yearly
+charge upon it for a long term of years. Neither the poems nor the plays
+of Dennis are of any account, although one of his tragedies, a violent
+attack on the French in harmony with popular prejudice, entitled
+_Liberty Asserted_, was produced with great success at Lincoln's Inn
+Fields in 1704. His sense of his own importance approached mania, and he
+is said to have desired the duke of Marlborough to have a special clause
+inserted in the treaty of Utrecht to secure him from French vengeance.
+Marlborough pointed out that although he had been a still greater enemy
+of the French nation, he had no fear for his own security. This tale and
+others of a similar nature may well be exaggerations prompted by his
+enemies, but the infirmities of character and temper indicated in them
+were real. Dennis is best remembered as a critic, and Isaac D'Israeli,
+who took a by no means favourable view of Dennis, said that some of his
+criticisms attain classical rank. The earlier ones, which have nothing
+of the rancour that afterwards gained him the nickname of "Furius," are
+the best. They are _Remarks ..._ (1696), on Blackmore's epic of Prince
+Arthur; _Letters upon Several Occasions written by and between Mr
+Dryden, Mr Wycherley, Mr Moyle, Mr Congreve and Mr Dennis, published by
+Mr Dennis_ (1696): two pamphlets in reply to Jeremy Collier's _Short
+View; The Advancement and Reformation of_ _Modern Poetry_ (1701),
+perhaps his most important work; _The Grounds of Criticism in Poetry_
+(1704), in which he argued that the ancients owed their superiority over
+the moderns in poetry to their religious attitude; an _Essay upon
+Publick Spirit ..._ (1711), in which he inveighs against luxury, and
+servile imitation of foreign fashions and customs; and _Essay on the
+Genius and Writings of Shakespeare in three Letters_ (1712).
+
+Dennis had been offended by a humorous quotation made from his works by
+Addison, and published in 1713 _Remarks upon Cato_. Much of this
+criticism was acute and sensible, and it is quoted at considerable
+length by Johnson in his _Life of Addison_, but there is no doubt that
+Dennis was actuated by personal jealousy of Addison's success. Pope
+replied in _The Narrative of Dr Robert Norris, concerning the strange
+and deplorable frenzy of John Dennis ..._ (1713). This pamphlet was full
+of personal abuse, exposing Dennis's foibles, but offering no defence of
+_Cato_. Addison repudiated any connivance in this attack, and indirectly
+notified Dennis that when he did answer his objections, it would be
+without personalities. Pope had already assailed Dennis in 1711 in the
+_Essay on Criticism_, as Appius. Dennis retorted by _Reflections,
+Critical and Satirical ..._, a scurrilous production in which he taunted
+Pope with his deformity, saying among other things that he was "as
+stupid and as venomous as a hunch-backed toad." He also wrote in 1717
+_Remarks upon Mr Pope's Translation of Homer ..._ and _A True Character
+of Mr Pope_. He accordingly figures in the _Dunciad_, and in a scathing
+note in the edition of 1729 (bk. i. 1. 106) Pope quotes his more
+outrageous attacks, and adds an insulting epigram attributed to Richard
+Savage, but now generally ascribed to Pope. More pamphlets followed, but
+Dennis's day was over. He outlived his annuity from the customs, and his
+last years were spent in great poverty. Bishop Atterbury sent him money,
+and he received a small sum annually from Sir Robert Walpole. A benefit
+performance was organized at the Haymarket (December 18, 1733) on his
+behalf. Pope wrote for the occasion an ill-natured prologue which Cibber
+recited. Dennis died within three weeks of this performance, on the 6th
+of January 1734.
+
+   His other works include several plays, for one of which, _Appius and
+   Virginia_ (1709), he invented a new kind of thunder. He wrote a
+   curious _Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner_ (1706),
+   maintaining that opera was the outgrowth of effeminate manners, and
+   should, as such, be suppressed. His _Works_ were published in 1702,
+   _Select Works ..._ (2 vols.) in 1718, and _Miscellaneous Tracts_, the
+   first volume only of which appeared, in 1727. For accounts of Dennis
+   see Cibber's _Lives of the Poets_, vol. iv.; Isaac D'Israeli's essays
+   on Pope and Addison in the _Quarrels of Authors_, and "On the
+   Influence of a Bad Temper in Criticism" in _Calamities of Authors_;
+   and numerous references in Pope's _Works_.
+
+
+
+
+DENOMINATION (Lat. _denominare_, to give a specific name to), the giving
+of a specific name to anything, hence the name or designation of a
+person or thing, and more particularly of a class of persons or things;
+thus, in arithmetic, it is applied to a unit in a system of weights and
+measures, currency or numbers. The most general use of "denomination" is
+for a body of persons holding specific opinions and having a common
+name, especially with reference to the religious opinions of such a
+body. More particularly the word is used of the various "sects" into
+which members of a common religious faith may be divided. The term
+"denominationalism" is thus given to the principle of emphasizing the
+distinctions, rather than the common ground, in the faith held by
+different bodies professing one sort of religious belief. This use is
+particularly applied to that system of religious education which lays
+stress on the principle that children belonging to a particular
+religious sect should be publicly taught in the tenets of their belief
+by members belonging to it and under the general control of the
+ministers of the denomination.
+
+
+
+
+DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT, BARON DE (1747-1825), French artist and
+archaeologist, was born at Chalon-sur-Saône on the 4th of January 1747.
+He was sent to Paris to study law, but he showed a decided preference
+for art and literature, and soon gave up his profession. In his
+twenty-third year he produced a comedy, _Le Bon Père_, which obtained a
+_succès d'estime_, as he had already won a position in society by his
+agreeable manners and exceptional conversational powers. He became a
+favourite of Louis XV., who entrusted him with the collection and
+arrangement of a cabinet of medals and antique gems for Madame de
+Pompadour, and subsequently appointed him attaché to the French embassy
+at St Petersburg. On the accession of Louis XVI. Denon was transferred
+to Sweden; but he returned, after a brief interval, to Paris with the
+ambassador M. de Vergennes, who had been appointed foreign minister. In
+1775 Denon was sent on a special mission to Switzerland, and took the
+opportunity of visiting Voltaire at Ferney. He made a portrait of the
+philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to Paris.
+His next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where he spent seven
+years, first as secretary to the embassy and afterwards as _chargé
+d'affaires_. He devoted this period to a careful study of the monuments
+of ancient art, collecting many specimens and making drawings of others.
+He also perfected himself in etching and mezzotinto engraving. The death
+of his patron, M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, and the rest
+of his life was given mainly to artistic pursuits. On his return to
+Paris he was admitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After a brief
+interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice. He also visited
+Florence and Bologna, and afterwards went to Switzerland. While there he
+heard that his property had been confiscated, and his name placed on the
+list of the proscribed, and with characteristic courage he resolved at
+once to return to Paris. His situation was critical, but he was spared,
+thanks to the friendship of the painter David, who obtained for him a
+commission to furnish designs for republican costumes. When the
+Revolution was over, Denon was one of the band of eminent men who
+frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais. Here he met Bonaparte, to
+whose fortunes he wisely attached himself. At Bonaparte's invitation he
+joined the expedition to Egypt, and thus found the opportunity of
+gathering the materials for his most important literary and artistic
+work. He accompanied General Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made numerous
+sketches of the monuments of ancient art, sometimes under the very fire
+of the enemy. The results were published in his _Voyage dans la basse et
+la haute Égypte_ (2 vols, fol., with 141 plates, Paris, 1802), a work
+which crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist and as an artist.
+In 1804 he was appointed by Napoleon to the important office of
+director-general of museums, which he filled until the restoration in
+1815, when he had to retire. He was a devoted friend of Napoleon, whom
+he accompanied in his expeditions to Austria, Spain and Poland, taking
+sketches with his wonted fearlessness on the various battlefields, and
+advising the conqueror in his choice of spoils of art from the various
+cities pillaged. After his retirement he began an illustrated history of
+ancient and modern art, in which he had the co-operation of several
+skilful engravers. He died at Paris on the 27th of April 1825, leaving
+the work unfinished. It was published posthumously, with an explanatory
+text by Amaury Duval, under the title _Monuments des arts du dessin chez
+les peuples tant anciens que modernes, recueillis par Vivant Denon_ (4
+vols, fol., Paris, 1829). Denon was the author of a novel, _Point de
+lendemain_ (1777), of which further editions were printed in 1812, 1876
+and 1879.
+
+   See J. Renouvier, _Histoire de l'art pendant la Révolution_; A. de la
+   Fizelière, _L'OEuvre originale de Vivant-Denon_ (2 vols., Paris,
+   1872-1873); Roger Portallis, _Les Dessinateurs d'illustrations au
+   XVIII^e siècle_; D. H. Beraldi, _Les Graveurs d'illustrations au
+   XVIII^e siècle_.
+
+
+
+
+DENOTATION (from Lat. _denotare_, to mark out, specify), in logic, a
+technical term used strictly as the correlative of Connotation, to
+describe one of the two functions of a concrete term. The concrete term
+"connotes" attributes and "denotes" all the individuals which, as
+possessing these attributes, constitute the genus or species described
+by the term. Thus "cricketer" denotes the individuals who play cricket,
+and connotes the qualities or characteristics by which these individuals
+are marked. In this sense, in which it was first used by J. S. Mill,
+Denotation is equivalent to Extension, and Connotation to Intension. It
+is clear that when the given term is qualified by a limiting adjective
+the Denotation or Extension diminishes, while the Connotation or
+Intension increases; e.g. a generic term like "flower" has a larger
+Extension, and a smaller Intension than "rose": "rose" than
+"moss-rose." In more general language Denotation is used loosely for
+that which is meant or indicated by a word, phrase, sentence or even an
+action. Thus a proper name or even an abstract term is said to have
+Denotation. (See CONNOTATION.)
+
+
+
+
+DENS, PETER (1690-1775), Belgian Roman Catholic theologian, was born at
+Boom near Antwerp. Most of his life was spent in the archiepiscopal
+college of Malines, where he was for twelve years reader in theology and
+for forty president. His great work was the _Theologia moralis et
+dogmatica_, a compendium in catechetical form of Roman Catholic doctrine
+and ethics which has been much used as a students' text-book. Dens died
+on the 15th of February 1775.
+
+
+
+
+DENSITY (Lat. _densus_, thick), in physics, the mass or quantity of
+matter contained in unit volume of any substance: this is the _absolute
+density_; the term _relative density_ or _specific gravity_ denotes the
+ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a substance to the mass of the
+same volume of some standard substance. Since the weights used in
+conjunction with a balance are really standard masses, the word "weight"
+may be substituted for the word "mass" in the preceding definitions; and
+we may symbolically express the relations thus:--If M be the weight of
+substance occupying a volume V, then the absolute density [Delta] = M/V;
+and if m, m_1 be the weights of the substance and of the standard
+substance which occupy the same volume, the relative density or specific
+gravity S = m/m_1; or more generally if m_1 be the weight of a
+volume v of the substance, and m_1 the weight of a volume v_1 of the
+standard, then S = mv_{1}/m_{1}v. In the numerical expression of
+absolute densities it is necessary to specify the units of mass and
+volume employed; while in the case of relative densities, it is only
+necessary to specify the standard substance, since the result is a mere
+number. Absolute densities are generally stated in the C.G.S. system,
+i.e. as grammes per cubic centimetre. In commerce, however, other
+expressions are met with, as, for example, "pounds per cubic foot" (used
+for woods, metals, &c.), "pounds per gallon," &c. The standard
+substances employed to determine relative densities are: water for
+liquids and solids, and hydrogen or atmospheric air for gases; oxygen
+(as 16) is sometimes used in this last case. Other standards of
+reference may be used in special connexions; for example, the Earth is
+the usual unit for expressing the relative density of the other members
+of the solar system. Reference should be made to the article GRAVITATION
+for an account of the methods employed to determine the "mean density of
+the earth."
+
+In expressing the absolute or relative density of any substance, it is
+necessary to specify the conditions for which the relation holds: in the
+case of gases, the temperature and pressure of the experimental gas (and
+of the standard, in the case of relative density); and in the case of
+solids and liquids, the temperature. The reason for this is readily
+seen; if a mass M of any gas occupies a volume V at a temperature T (on
+the absolute scale) and a pressure P, then its absolute density under
+these conditions is [Delta] = M/V; if now the temperature and pressure
+be changed to T_1 and P_1, the volume V_1 under these conditions is
+VPT/P_{1}T_1, and the absolute density is MP_{1}T/VPT_1. It is customary
+to reduce gases to the so-called "normal temperature and pressure,"
+abbreviated to N.T.P., which is 0°C. and 760 mm.
+
+The relative densities of gases are usually expressed in terms of the
+standard gas under the same conditions. The density gives very important
+information as to the molecular weight, since by the law of Avogadro it
+is seen that the relative density is the ratio of the molecular weights
+of the experimental and standard gases. In the case of liquids and
+solids, comparison with water at 4°C, the temperature of the maximum
+density of water; at 0°C, the zero of the Centigrade scale and the
+freezing-point of water; at 15° and 18°, ordinary room-temperatures; and
+at 25°, the temperature at which a thermostat may be conveniently
+maintained, are common in laboratory practice. The temperature of the
+experimental substance may or may not be the temperature of the
+standard. In such cases a bracketed fraction is appended to the specific
+gravity, of which the numerator and denominator are respectively the
+temperatures of the substance and of the standard; thus 1.093 (0°/4°)
+means that the ratio of the weight of a definite volume of a substance
+at 0° to the weight of the same volume of water 4° is 1.093. It may be
+noted that if comparison be made with water at 4°, the relative density
+is the same as the absolute density, since the unit of mass in the
+C.G.S. system is the weight of a cubic centimetre of water at this
+temperature. In British units, especially in connexion with the
+statement of relative densities of alcoholic liquors for Inland Revenue
+purposes, comparison is made with water at 62°F. (16.6°C); a reason for
+this is that the gallon of water is defined by statute as weighing 10
+lb. at 62°F., and hence the densities so expressed admit of the ready
+conversion of volumes to weights. Thus if d be the relative density,
+then 10d represents the weight of a gallon in lb.. The brewer has gone
+a step further in simplifying his expressions by multiplying the density
+by 1000, and speaking of the difference between the density so expressed
+and 1000 as "degrees of gravity" (see BEER).
+
+
+PRACTICAL DETERMINATION OF DENSITIES
+
+   The methods for determining densities may be divided into two groups
+   according as hydrostatic principles are employed or not. In the group
+   where the principles of hydrostatics are not employed the method
+   consists in determining the weight and volume of a certain quantity
+   of the substance, or the weights of equal volumes of the substance
+   and of the standard. In the case of solids we may determine the
+   volume in some cases by direct measurement--this gives at the best a
+   very rough and ready value; a better method is to immerse the body in
+   a fluid (in which it must sink and be insoluble) contained in a
+   graduated glass, and to deduce its volume from the height to which
+   the liquid rises. The weight may be directly determined by the
+   balance. The ratio "weight to volume" is the absolute density. The
+   separate determination of the volume and mass of such substances as
+   gunpowder, cotton-wool, soluble substances, &c., supplies the only
+   means of determining their densities. The stereometer of Say, which
+   was greatly improved by Regnault and further modified by Kopp,
+   permits an accurate determination of the volume of a given mass of
+   any such substance. In its simplest form the instrument consists of a
+   glass tube PC (fig. 1), of uniform bore, terminating in a cup PE, the
+   mouth of which can be rendered air-tight by the plate of glass E. The
+   substance whose volume is to be determined is placed in the cup PE,
+   and the tube PC is immersed in the vessel of mercury D, until the
+   mercury reaches the mark P. The plate E is then placed on the cup,
+   and the tube PC raised until the surface of the mercury in the tube
+   stands at M, that in the vessel D being at C, and the height MC is
+   measured. Let k denote this height, and let PM be denoted by l. Let u
+   represent the volume of air in the cup before the body was inserted,
+   v the volume of the body, a the area of the horizontal section of the
+   tube PC, and h the height of the mercurial barometer. Then, by
+   Boyle's law (u - v + al)(h - k) = (u - v)h, and therefore
+   v = u - al(h - k)/k.
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Say's Stereometer.]
+
+   The volume u may be determined by repeating the experiment when only
+   air is in the cup. In this case v = 0, and the equation becomes (u +
+   al¹)(h - k¹) = uh, whence u = al¹(h - k¹)/k¹. Substituting this value
+   in the expression for v, the volume of the body inserted in the cup
+   becomes known. The chief errors to which the stereometer is liable
+   are (1) variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure during the
+   experiment, and (2) the presence of moisture which disturbs Boyle's
+   law.
+
+   The method of weighing equal volumes is particularly applicable to
+   the determination of the relative densities of liquids. It consists
+   in weighing a glass vessel (1) empty, (2) filled with the liquid, (3)
+   filled with the standard substance. Calling the weight of the empty
+   vessel w, when filled with the liquid W, and when filled with the
+   standard substance W_1, it is obvious that W - w, and W_1 - w,
+   are the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and standard, and
+   hence the relative density is (W - w)/(W_1 - w).
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+   Many forms of vessels have been devised. The commoner type of
+   "specific gravity bottle" consists of a thin glass bottle (fig. 2) of
+   a capacity varying from 10 to 100 cc., fitted with an accurately
+   ground stopper, which is vertically perforated by a fine hole. The
+   bottle is carefully cleansed by washing with soda, hydrochloric acid
+   and distilled water, and then dried by heating in an air bath or by
+   blowing in warm air. It is allowed to cool and then weighed. The
+   bottle is then filled with distilled water, and brought to a definite
+   temperature by immersion in a thermostat, and the stopper inserted.
+   It is removed from the thermostat, and carefully wiped. After
+   cooling it is weighed. The bottle is again cleaned and dried, and the
+   operations repeated with the liquid under examination instead of
+   water. Numerous modifications of this bottle are in use. For volatile
+   liquids, a flask provided with a long neck which carries a graduation
+   and is fitted with a well-ground stopper is recommended. The bringing
+   of the liquid to the mark is effected by removing the excess by means
+   of a capillary. In many forms a thermometer forms part of the
+   apparatus.
+
+   Another type of vessel, named the Sprengel tube or pycnometer (Gr.
+   [Greek: pyknos], dense), is shown in fig. 3. It consists of a
+   cylindrical tube of a capacity ranging from 10 to 50 cc., provided at
+   the upper end with a thick-walled capillary bent as shown on the left
+   of the figure. From the bottom there leads another fine tube, bent
+   upwards, and then at right angles so as to be at the same level as
+   the capillary branch. This tube bears a graduation. A loop of
+   platinum wire passed under these tubes serves to suspend the vessel
+   from the balance arm. The manner of cleansing, &c., is the same as in
+   the ordinary form. The vessel is filled by placing the capillary in a
+   vessel containing the liquid and gently aspirating. Care must be
+   taken that no air bubbles are enclosed. The liquid is adjusted to the
+   mark by withdrawing any excess from the capillary end by a strip of
+   bibulous paper or by a capillary tube. Many variations of this
+   apparatus are in use; in one of the commonest there are two
+   cylindrical chambers, joined at the bottom, and each provided at the
+   top with fine tubes bent at right angles; sometimes the inlet and
+   outlet tubes are provided with caps.
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+   The specific gravity bottle may be used to determine the relative
+   density of a solid which is available in small fragments, and is
+   insoluble in the standard liquid. The method involves three
+   operations:--(1) weighing the solid in air (W), (2) weighing the
+   specific gravity bottle full of liquid (W_1), (3) weighing the bottle
+   containing the solid and filled up with liquid (W_2). It is readily
+   seen that W + W_1 - W_2 is the weight of the liquid displaced by the
+   solid, and therefore is the weight of an equal volume of liquid;
+   hence the relative density is W/(W + W_1 - W_2).
+
+   The determination of the absolute densities of gases can only be
+   effected with any high degree of accuracy by a development of this
+   method. As originated by Regnault, it consisted in filling a large
+   glass globe with the gas by alternately exhausting with an air-pump
+   and admitting the pure and dry gas. The flask was then brought to 0°
+   by immersion in melting ice, the pressure of the gas taken, and the
+   stop-cock closed. The flask is removed from the ice, allowed to
+   attain the temperature of the room, and then weighed. The flask is
+   now partially exhausted, transferred to the cooling bath, and after
+   standing the pressure of the residual gas is taken by a manometer.
+   The flask is again brought to room-temperature, and re-weighed. The
+   difference in the weights corresponds to the volume of gas at a
+   pressure equal to the difference of the recorded pressures. The
+   volume of the flask is determined by weighing empty and filled with
+   water. This method has been refined by many experimenters, among whom
+   we may notice Morley and Lord Rayleigh. Morley determined the
+   densities of hydrogen and oxygen in the course of his classical
+   investigation of the composition of water. The method differed from
+   Regnault's inasmuch as the flask was exhausted to an almost complete
+   vacuum, a performance rendered possible by the high efficiency of the
+   modern air-pump. The actual experiment necessitates the most
+   elaborate precautions, for which reference must be made to Morley's
+   original papers in the _Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge_
+   (1895), or to M. Travers, _The Study of Gases_. Lord Rayleigh has
+   made many investigations of the absolute densities of gases, one of
+   which, namely on atmospheric and artificial nitrogen, undertaken in
+   conjunction with Sir William Ramsay, culminated in the discovery of
+   argon (q.v.). He pointed out in 1888 (_Proc. Roy. Soc._ 43, p. 361)
+   an important correction which had been overlooked by previous
+   experimenters with Regnault's method, viz. the change in volume of
+   the experimental globe due to shrinkage under diminished pressure;
+   this may be experimentally determined and amounts to between 0.04 and
+   0.16% of the volume of the globe.
+
+   Related to the determination of the density of a gas is the
+   determination of the density of a vapour, i.e. matter which at
+   ordinary temperatures exists as a solid or liquid. This subject owes
+   its importance in modern chemistry to the fact that the vapour
+   density, when hydrogen is taken as the standard, gives perfectly
+   definite information as to the molecular condition of the compound,
+   since twice the vapour density equals the molecular weight of the
+   compound. Many methods have been devised. In historical order we may
+   briefly enumerate the following:--in 1811, Gay-Lussac volatilized a
+   weighed quantity of liquid, which must be readily volatile, by
+   letting it rise up a short tube containing mercury and standing
+   inverted in a vessel holding the same metal. This method was
+   developed by Hofmann in 1868, who replaced the short tube of
+   Gay-Lussac by an ordinary barometer tube, thus effecting the
+   volatilization in a Torricellian vacuum. In 1826 Dumas devised a
+   method suitable for substances of high boiling-point; this consisted
+   in its essential point in vaporizing the substance in a flask made
+   of suitable material, sealing it when full of vapour, and weighing.
+   This method is very tedious in detail. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and
+   L. Troost made it available for specially high temperatures by
+   employing porcelain vessels, sealing them with the oxyhydrogen
+   blow-pipe, and maintaining a constant temperature by a vapour bath of
+   mercury (350°), sulphur (440°), cadmium (860°) and zinc (1040°). In
+   1878 Victor Meyer devised his air-expulsion method.
+
+   Before discussing the methods now used in detail, a summary of the
+   conclusions reached by Victor Meyer in his classical investigations
+   in this field as to the applicability of the different methods will
+   be given:
+
+   (1) For substances which do not boil higher than 260° and have
+   vapours stable for 30° above the boiling-point and which do not react
+   on mercury, use Victor Meyer's "mercury expulsion method."
+
+   (2) For substances boiling between 260° and 420°, and which do not
+   react on metals, use Meyer's "Wood's alloy expulsion method."
+
+   (3) For substances boiling at higher temperatures, or for any
+   substance which reacts on mercury, Meyer's "air expulsion method"
+   must be used. It is to be noted, however, that this method is
+   applicable to substances of any boiling-point (see below).
+
+   (4) For substances which can be vaporized only under diminished
+   pressure, several methods may be used. (a) Hofmann's is the best if
+   the substance volatilizes at below 310°, and does not react on
+   mercury; otherwise (b) Demuth and Meyer's, Eykman's, Schall's, or
+   other methods may be used.
+
+   1. _Meyer's "Mercury Expulsion" Method._--A small quantity of the
+   substance is weighed into a tube, of the form shown in fig. 4, which
+   has a capacity of about 35 cc., provided with a capillary tube at the
+   top, and a bent tube about 6 mm. in diameter at the bottom. The
+   vessel is completely filled with mercury, the capillary sealed, and
+   the vessel weighed. The vessel is then lowered into a jacket
+   containing vapour at a known temperature which is sufficient to
+   volatilize the substance. Mercury is expelled, and when this
+   expulsion ceases, the vessel is removed, allowed to cool, and
+   weighed. It is necessary to determine the pressure exerted on the
+   vapour by the mercury in the narrow limb; this is effected by opening
+   the capillary and inclining the tube until the mercury just reaches
+   the top of the narrow tube; the difference between the height of the
+   mercury in the wide tube and the top of the narrow tube represents
+   the pressure due to the mercury column, and this must be added to the
+   barometric pressure in order to deduce the total pressure on the
+   vapour.
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+   The result is calculated by means of the formula:
+
+                             W(1 + [alpha]t) × 7,980,000
+D = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
+    (p + p_1 - s)[m{1 + [beta](t - t_0)} - m_1{1 + [gamma](t - t_0)}](1 + [gamma]t)
+
+   in which W = weight of substance taken; t = temperature of vapour
+   bath; [alpha] = 0.00366 = temperature coefficient of gases; p =
+   barometric pressure; p_1 = height of mercury column in vessel; s =
+   vapour tension of mercury at t°; m = weight of mercury contained in
+   the vessel; m_1 = weight of mercury left in vessel after heating;
+   [beta] = coefficient of expansion of glass = .0000303; [gamma] =
+   coefficient of expansion of mercury = 0.00018 (0.00019 above 240°)
+   (see _Ber._ 1877, 10, p. 2068; 1886, 19, p. 1862).
+
+   2. _Meyer's Wood's Alloy Expulsion Method._--This method is a
+   modification of the one just described. The alloy used is composed of
+   15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium; it melts
+   at 70°, and can be experimented with as readily as mercury. The
+   cylindrical vessel is replaced by a globular one, and the pressure on
+   the vapour due to the column of alloy in the side tube is readily
+   reduced to millimetres of mercury since the specific gravity of the
+   alloy at the temperature of boiling sulphur, 444° (at which the
+   apparatus is most frequently used), is two-thirds of that of mercury
+   (see _Ber._ 1876, 9, p. 1220).
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+   3. _Meyer's Air Expulsion Method._--The simplicity, moderate
+   accuracy, and adaptability of this method to every class of substance
+   which can be vaporized entitles it to rank as one of the most potent
+   methods in analytical chemistry; its invention is indissolubly
+   connected with the name of Victor Meyer, being termed "Meyer's
+   method" to the exclusion of his other original methods. It consists
+   in determining the air expelled from a vessel by the vapour of a
+   given quantity of the substance. The apparatus is shown in fig. 5. A
+   long tube (a) terminates at the bottom in a cylindrical chamber of
+   about 100-150 cc. capacity. The top is fitted with a rubber stopper,
+   or in some forms with a stop-cock, while a little way down there is a
+   bent delivery tube (b). To use the apparatus, the long tube is placed
+   in a vapour bath (c) of the requisite temperature, and after the air
+   within the tube is in equilibrium, the delivery tube is placed
+   beneath the surface of the water in a pneumatic trough, the rubber
+   stopper pushed home, and observation made as to whether any more air
+   is being expelled. If this be not so, a graduated tube (d) is filled
+   with water, and inverted over the delivery tube. The rubber stopper
+   is removed and the experimental substance introduced, and the stopper
+   quickly replaced to the same extent as before. Bubbles are quickly
+   disengaged and collect in the graduated tube. Solids may be directly
+   admitted to the tube from a weighing bottle, while liquids are
+   conveniently introduced by means of small stoppered bottles, or, in
+   the case of exceptionally volatile liquids, by means of a bulb blown
+   on a piece of thin capillary tube, the tube being sealed during the
+   weighing operation, and the capillary broken just before transference
+   to the apparatus. To prevent the bottom of the apparatus being
+   knocked out by the impact of the substance, a layer of sand, asbestos
+   or sometimes mercury is placed in the tube. To complete the
+   experiment, the graduated tube containing the expelled air is brought
+   to a constant and determinate temperature and pressure, and this
+   volume is the volume which the given weight of the substance would
+   occupy if it were a gas under the same temperature and pressure. The
+   vapour density is calculated by the following formula:
+
+       W(1 + [alpha]t) x 587,780
+   D = -------------------------,
+               (p - s)V
+
+   in which W = weight of substance taken, V = volume of air expelled,
+   [alpha] = 1/273 = .003665, t and p = temperature and pressure at
+   which expelled air is measured, and s = vapour pressure of water at
+   t°.
+
+   By varying the material of the bulb, this apparatus is rendered
+   available for exceptionally high temperatures. Vapour baths of iron
+   are used in connexion with boiling anthracene (335°), anthraquinone
+   (368°), sulphur (444°), phosphoruspentasulphide (518°); molten lead
+   may also be used. For higher temperatures the bulb of the vapour
+   density tube is made of porcelain or platinum, and is heated in a gas
+   furnace.
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+   (4a) _Hofmann's Method._--Both the _modus operandi_ and apparatus
+   employed in this method particularly recommend its use for substances
+   which do not react on mercury and which boil in a vacuum at below
+   310°. The apparatus (fig. 6) consists of a barometer tube, containing
+   mercury and standing in a bath of the same metal, surrounded by a
+   vapour jacket. The vapour is circulated through the jacket, and the
+   height of the mercury read by a cathetometer or otherwise. The
+   substance is weighed into a small stoppered bottle, which is then
+   placed beneath the mouth of the barometer tube. It ascends the tube,
+   the substance is rapidly volatilized, and the mercury column is
+   depressed; this depression is read off. It is necessary to know the
+   volume of the tube above the second level; this may most efficiently
+   be determined by calibrating the tube prior to its use. Sir T. E.
+   Thorpe employed a barometer tube 96 cm. long, and determined the
+   volume from the closed end for a distance of about 35 mm. by weighing
+   in mercury; below this mark it was calibrated in the ordinary way so
+   that a scale reading gave the volume at once. The calculation is
+   effected by the following formulae:--
+
+       760w(1 + 0.003665t)
+   D = -------------------;
+        0.0012934 × V × B
+
+              h          /      h_1             h_2       \
+   B = -------------- - ( -------------- - ------------ + s),
+       1 + 0.00018t_1    \1 + 0.00018t_2   1 + 0.00018t   /
+
+   in which w = weight of substance taken; t = temperature of vapour
+   jacket; V = volume of vapour at t; h = height of barometer reduced to
+   0°; t_1 = temperature of air; h_1 = height of mercury column below
+   vapour jacket; t_2 = temperature of mercury column not heated by
+   vapour; h_2 = height of mercury column within vapour jacket; s =
+   vapour tension of mercury at t°. The vapour tension of mercury need
+   not be taken into account when water is used in the jacket.
+
+   (4b) _Demuth and Meyer's Method._--The principle of this method is as
+   follows:--In the ordinary air expulsion method, the vapour always
+   mixes to some extent with the air in the tube, and this involves a
+   reduction of the pressure of the vapour. It is obvious that this
+   reduction may be increased by accelerating the diffusion of the
+   vapour. This may be accomplished by using a vessel with a somewhat
+   wide bottom, and inserting the substance so that it may be
+   volatilized very rapidly, as, for example, in tubes of Wood's alloy,
+   and by filling the tube with hydrogen. (For further details see
+   _Ber._ 23, p. 311.)
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+   We may here notice a modification of Meyer's process in which the
+   increase of pressure due to the volatilization of the substance, and
+   not the volume of the expelled air, is measured. This method has been
+   developed by J. S. Lumsden (_Journ. Chem. Soc._ 1903, 83, p. 342),
+   whose apparatus is shown diagrammatically in fig. 7. The vaporizing
+   bulb A has fused about it a jacket B, provided with a condenser c.
+   Two side tubes are fused on to the neck of A: the lower one leads to
+   a mercury manometer M, and to the air by means of a cock C; the upper
+   tube is provided with a rubber stopper through which a glass rod
+   passes--this rod serves to support the tube containing the substance
+   to be experimented upon, and so avoids the objection to the practice
+   of withdrawing the stopper of the tube, dropping the substance in,
+   and reinserting the stopper. To use the apparatus, a liquid of
+   suitable boiling-point is placed in the jacket and brought to the
+   boiling-point. All parts of the apparatus are open to the air, and
+   the mercury in the manometer is adjusted so as to come to a fixed
+   mark a. The substance is now placed on the support already mentioned,
+   and the apparatus closed to the air by inserting the cork at D and
+   turning the cock C. By turning or withdrawing the support the
+   substance enters the bulb; and during its vaporization the free limb
+   of the manometer is raised so as to maintain the mercury at a. When
+   the volatilization is quite complete, the level is accurately
+   adjusted, and the difference of the levels of the mercury gives the
+   pressure exerted by the vapour. To calculate the result it is
+   necessary to know the capacity of the apparatus to the mark a, and
+   the temperature of the jacket.
+
+   _Methods depending on the Principles of Hydrostatics._--Hydrostatical
+   principles can be applied to density determinations in four typical
+   ways: (1) depending upon the fact that the heights of liquid columns
+   supported by the same pressure vary inversely as the densities of the
+   liquids; (2) depending upon the fact that a body which sinks in a
+   liquid loses a weight equal to the weight of liquid which it
+   displaces; (3) depending on the fact that a body remains suspended,
+   neither floating nor sinking, in a liquid of exactly the same
+   density; (4) depending on the fact that a floating body is immersed
+   to such an extent that the weight of the fluid displaced equals the
+   weight of the body.
+
+   1. The method of balancing columns is of limited use. Two forms are
+   recognized. In one, applicable only to liquids which do not mix, the
+   two liquids are poured into the limbs of a U tube. The heights of the
+   columns above the surface of junction of the liquids are inversely
+   proportional to the densities of the liquids. In the second form,
+   named after Robert Hare (1781-1858), professor of chemistry at the
+   university of Pennsylvania, the liquids are drawn or aspirated up
+   vertical tubes which have their lower ends placed in reservoirs
+   containing the different liquids, and their upper ends connected to a
+   common tube which is in communication with an aspirator for
+   decreasing the pressure within the vertical tubes. The heights to
+   which the liquids rise, measured in each case by the distance between
+   the surfaces in the reservoirs and in the tubes, are inversely
+   proportional to the densities.
+
+   2. The method of "hydrostatic weighing" is one of the most important.
+   The principle may be thus stated: the solid is weighed in air, and
+   then in water. If W be the weight in air, and W_1 the weight in
+   water, then W_1 is always less than W, the difference W - W_1
+   representing the weight of the water displaced, i.e. the weight of a
+   volume of water equal to that of the solid. Hence W/(W - W_1) is the
+   relative density or specific gravity of the body. The principle is
+   readily adapted to the determination of the relative densities of two
+   liquids, for it is obvious that if W be the weight of a solid body in
+   air, W_1 and W_2 its weights when immersed in the liquids, then W - W_1
+   and W - W_2 are the weights of equal volumes of the liquids, and
+   therefore the relative density is the quotient (W - W_1)/(W - W_2).
+   The determination in the case of solids lighter than water is
+   effected by the introduction of a sinker, i.e. a body which when
+   affixed to the light solid causes it to sink. If W be the weight of
+   the experimental solid in air, w the weight of the sinker in water,
+   and W_1 the weight of the solid plus sinker in water, then the
+   relative density is given by W/(W + w - W_1). In practice the solid
+   or plummet is suspended from the balance arm by a fibre--silk,
+   platinum, &c.--and carefully weighed. A small stool is then placed
+   over the balance pan, and on this is placed a beaker of distilled
+   water so that the solid is totally immersed. Some balances are
+   provided with a "specific gravity pan," i.e. a pan with short
+   suspending arms, provided with a hook at the bottom to which the
+   fibre may be attached; when this is so, the stool is unnecessary. Any
+   air bubbles are removed from the surface of the body by brushing with
+   a camel-hair brush; if the solid be of a porous nature it is
+   desirable to boil it for some time in water, thus expelling the air
+   from its interstices. The weighing is conducted in the usual way by
+   vibrations, except when the weight be small; it is then advisable to
+   bring the pointer to zero, an operation rendered necessary by the
+   damping due to the adhesion of water to the fibre. The temperature
+   and pressure of the air and water must also be taken.
+
+   There are several corrections of the formula [Delta] = W/(W - W_1)
+   necessary to the accurate expression of the density. Here we can only
+   summarize the points of the investigation. It may be assumed that the
+   weighing is made with brass weights in air at t° and p mm. pressure.
+   To determine the true weight _in vacuo_ at 0°, account must be taken
+   of the different buoyancies, or losses of true weight, due to the
+   different volumes of the solids and weights. Similarly in the case of
+   the weighing in water, account must be taken of the buoyancy of the
+   weights, and also, if absolute densities be required, of the density
+   of water at the temperature of the experiment. In a form of great
+   accuracy the absolute density [Delta](0°/4°) is given by
+
+   [Delta](0°/4°) = ([rho][alpha]W - [delta]W_1)/(W - W_1),
+
+   in which W is the weight of the body in air at t° and p mm. pressure,
+   W_1 the weight in water, atmospheric conditions remaining very nearly
+   the same; [rho] is the density of the water in which the body is
+   weighed, [alpha] is (1 + [alpha]t°) in which a is the coefficient of
+   cubical expansion of the body, and [delta] is the density of the air at
+   t°, p mm. Less accurate formulae are [Delta] = [rho] W/(W - W_1), the
+   factor involving the density of the air, and the coefficient of the
+   expansion of the solid being disregarded, and [Delta] = W/(W - W_1), in
+   which the density of water is taken as unity. Reference may be made to
+   J. Wade and R. W. Merriman, _Journ. Chem. Soc._ 1909, 95, p. 2174.
+
+   The determination of the density of a liquid by weighing a plummet in
+   air, and in the standard and experimental liquids, has been put into
+   a very convenient laboratory form by means of the apparatus known as
+   a Westphal balance (fig. 8). It consists of a steelyard mounted on a
+   fulcrum; one arm carries at its extremity a heavy bob and pointer,
+   the latter moving along a scale affixed to the stand and serving to
+   indicate when the beam is in its standard position. The other arm is
+   graduated in ten divisions and carries riders--bent pieces of wire of
+   determined weights--and at its extremity a hook from which the glass
+   plummet is suspended. To complete the apparatus there is a glass jar
+   which serves to hold the liquid experimented with. The apparatus is
+   so designed that when the plummet is suspended in air, the index of
+   the beam is at the zero of the scale; if this be not so, then it is
+   adjusted by a levelling screw. The plummet is now placed in distilled
+   water at 15°, and the beam brought to equilibrium by means of a
+   rider, which we shall call 1, hung on a hook; other riders are
+   provided, {1/10}th and {1/100}th respectively of 1. To determine the
+   density of any liquid it is only necessary to suspend the plummet in
+   the liquid, and to bring the beam to its normal position by means of
+   the riders; the relative density is read off directly from the
+   riders.
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+   3. Methods depending on the free suspension of the solid in a liquid
+   of the same density have been especially studied by Retgers and
+   Gossner in view of their applicability to density determinations of
+   crystals. Two typical forms are in use; in one a liquid is prepared
+   in which the crystal freely swims, the density of the liquid being
+   ascertained by the pycnometer or other methods; in the other a liquid
+   of variable density, the so-called "diffusion column," is prepared,
+   and observation is made of the level at which the particle comes to
+   rest. The first type is in commonest use; since both necessitate the
+   use of dense liquids, a summary of the media of most value, with
+   their essential properties, will be given.
+
+   _Acetylene tetrabromide_, C_{2}H_{2}Br_4, which is very
+   conveniently prepared by passing acetylene into cooled bromine, has a
+   density of 3.001 at 6° C. It is highly convenient, since it is
+   colourless, odourless, very stable and easily mobile. It may be
+   diluted with benzene or toluene.
+
+   _Methylene iodide_, CH_{2}I_2, has a density of 3.33, and may be
+   diluted with benzene. Introduced by Brauns in 1886, it was
+   recommended by Retgers. Its advantages rest on its high density and
+   mobility; its main disadvantages are its liability to decomposition,
+   the originally colourless liquid becoming dark owing to the
+   separation of iodine, and its high coefficient of expansion. Its
+   density may be raised to 3.65 by dissolving iodoform and iodine in
+   it.
+
+   _Thoulet's solution_, an aqueous solution of potassium and mercuric
+   iodides (potassium iodo-mercurate), introduced by Thoulet and
+   subsequently investigated by V. Goldschmidt, has a density of 3.196
+   at 22.9°. It is almost colourless and has a small coefficient of
+   expansion; its hygroscopic properties, its viscous character, and its
+   action on the skin, however, militate against its use. A. Duboin
+   (_Compt. rend._, 1905, p. 141) has investigated the solutions of
+   mercuric iodide in other alkaline iodides; sodium iodo-mercurate
+   solution has a density of 3.46 at 26°, and gives with an excess of
+   water a dense precipitate of mercuric iodide, which dissolves without
+   decomposition in alcohol; lithium iodo-mercurate solution has a
+   density of 3.28 at 25.6°; and ammonium iodo-mercurate solution a
+   density of 2.98 at 26°.
+
+   _Rohrbach's solution_, an aqueous solution of barium and mercuric
+   iodides, introduced by Carl Rohrbach, has a density of 3.588.
+
+   _Klein's solution_, an aqueous solution of cadmium borotungstate,
+   2Cd(OH)_{2}·B_{2}O_{3}·9WO_{3}·16H_{2}O, introduced by D. Klein, has
+   a density up to 3.28. The salt melts in its water of crystallization
+   at 75°, and the liquid thus obtained goes up to a density of 3.6.
+
+   _Silver-thallium nitrate_, TIAg(NO_3)_2, introduced by Retgers,
+   melts at 75° to form a clear liquid of density 4.8; it may be diluted
+   with water.
+
+   The method of using these liquids is in all cases the same; a
+   particle is dropped in; if it floats a diluent is added and the
+   mixture well stirred. This is continued until the particle freely
+   swims, and then the density of the mixture is determined by the
+   ordinary methods (see MINERALOGY).
+
+   In the "diffusion column" method, a liquid column uniformly varying
+   in density from about 3.3 to 1 is prepared by pouring a little
+   methylene iodide into a long test tube and adding five times as much
+   benzene. The tube is tightly corked to prevent evaporation, and
+   allowed to stand for some hours. The density of the column at any
+   level is determined by means of the areometrical beads proposed by
+   Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), professor of astronomy at Glasgow
+   University. These are hollow glass beads of variable density; they
+   may be prepared by melting off pieces of very thin capillary tubing,
+   and determining the density in each case by the method just
+   previously described. To use the column, the experimental fragment is
+   introduced, when it takes up a definite position. By successive
+   trials two beads, of known density, say d_1, d_2, are obtained, one
+   of which floats above, and the other below, the test crystal; the
+   distances separating the beads from the crystal are determined by
+   means of a scale placed behind the tube. If the bead of density d_1
+   be at the distance l_1 above the crystal, and that of d_2 at l_2
+   below, it is obvious that if the density of the column varies
+   uniformly, then the density of the test crystal is (d_{1}l_2 +
+   d_{2}l_1)/(l_1 + l_2).
+
+   Acting on a principle quite different from any previously discussed
+   is the capillary hydrometer or staktometer of Brewster, which is
+   based upon the difference in the surface tension and density of pure
+   water, and of mixtures of alcohol and water in varying proportions.
+
+   If a drop of water be allowed to form at the extremity of a fine
+   tube, it will go on increasing until its weight overcomes the surface
+   tension by which it clings to the tube, and then it will fall. Hence
+   any impurity which diminishes the surface tension of the water will
+   diminish the size of the drop (unless the density is proportionately
+   diminished). According to Quincke, the surface tension of pure water
+   in contact with air at 20° C. is 81 dynes per linear centimetre,
+   while that of alcohol is only 25.5 dynes; and a small percentage of
+   alcohol produces much more than a proportional decrease in the
+   surface tension when added to pure water. The capillary hydrometer
+   consists simply of a small pipette with a bulb in the middle of the
+   stem, the pipette terminating in a very fine capillary point. The
+   instrument being filled with distilled water, the number of drops
+   required to empty the bulb and portions of the stem between two marks
+   m and n (fig. 9) on the latter is carefully counted, and the
+   experiments repeated at different temperatures. The pipette having
+   been carefully dried, the process is repeated with pure alcohol or
+   with proof spirits, and the strength of any admixture of water and
+   spirits is determined from the corresponding number of drops, but the
+   formula generally given is not based upon sound data. Sir David
+   Brewster found with one of these instruments that the number of drops
+   of pure water was 734, while of proof spirit, sp. gr. 920, the number
+   was 2117.
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 9. Brewster's Staktometer]
+
+   REFERENCES.--Density and density determinations are discussed in all
+   works on practical physics; reference may be made to B. Stewart and
+   W. W. Haldane Gee, _Practical Physics_, vol. i. (1901); Kohlrausch,
+   _Practical Physics_; Ostwald, _Physico-Chemical Measurements_. The
+   density of gases is treated in M. W. Travers, _The Experimental Study
+   of Gases_ (1901); and vapour density determinations in Lassar-Cohn's
+   _Arbeitsmethoden für organisch-chemische Laboratorien_ (1901), and
+   _Manual of Organic Chemistry_ (1896), and in H. Biltz, _Practical
+   Methods for determining Molecular Weights_ (1899).         (C. E.*)
+
+
+
+
+DENTATUS, MANIUS CURIUS, Roman general, conqueror of the Samnites and
+Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was born of humble parents, and was possibly of
+Sabine origin. He is said to have been called Dentatus because he was
+born with his teeth already grown (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 15). Except
+that he was tribune of the people, nothing certain is known of him until
+his first consulship in 290 B.C. when, in conjunction with his colleague
+P. Cornelius Rufinus, he gained a decisive victory over the Samnites,
+which put an end to a war that had lasted fifty years. He also reduced
+the revolted Sabines to submission; a large portion of their territory
+was distributed among the Roman citizens, and the most important towns
+received the citizenship without the right of voting for magistrates
+(_civitas sine suffragio_). With the proceeds of the spoils of the war
+Dentatus cut an artificial channel to carry off the waters of Lake
+Velinus, so as to drain the valley of Reate. In 275, after Pyrrhus had
+returned from Sicily to Italy, Dentatus (again consul) took the field
+against him. The decisive engagement took place near Beneventum in the
+Campi Arusini, and resulted in the total defeat of Pyrrhus. Dentatus
+celebrated a magnificent triumph, in which for the first time a number
+of captured elephants were exhibited. Dentatus was consul for the third
+time in 274, when he finally crushed the Lucanians and Samnites, and
+censor in 272. In the latter capacity he began to build an aqueduct to
+carry the waters of the Anio into the city, but died (270) before its
+completion. Dentatus was looked upon as a model of old Roman simplicity
+and frugality. According to the well-known anecdote, when the Samnites
+sent ambassadors with costly presents to induce him to exercise his
+influence on their behalf in the senate, they found him sitting on the
+hearth and preparing his simple meal of roasted turnips. He refused
+their gifts, saying that earthen dishes were good enough for him, adding
+that he preferred ruling those who possessed gold to possessing it
+himself. It is also said that he died so poor that the state was obliged
+to provide dowries for his daughters. But these and similar anecdotes
+must be received with caution, and it should be remembered that what was
+a competence in his day would have been considered poverty by the Romans
+of later times.
+
+   Livy, epitome, 11-14; Polybius ii. 19; Eutropius ii. 9, 14; Florus i.
+   18; Val. Max. iv. 3, 5, vi. 3, 4; Cicero, _De senectute_, 16; Juvenal
+   xi. 78; Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 25.
+
+
+
+
+DENTIL (from Lat. _dens_, a tooth), in architecture, a small
+tooth-shaped block used as a repeating ornament in the bed-mould of a
+cornice. Vitruvius (iv. 2) states that the dentil represents the end of
+a rafter (_asser_); and since it occurs in its most pronounced form in
+the Ionic temples of Asia Minor, the Lycian tombs and the porticoes and
+tombs of Persia, where it represents distinctly the reproduction in
+stone of timber construction, there is but little doubt as to its
+origin. The earliest example is that found on the tomb of Darius, c. 500
+B.C., cut in the rock in which the portico of his palace is reproduced.
+Its first employment in Athens is in the cornice of the caryatid portico
+or tribune of the Erechtheum (480 B.C.). When subsequently introduced
+into the bed-mould of the cornice of the choragic monument of Lysicrates
+it is much smaller in its dimensions. In the later temples of Ionia, as
+in the temple of Priene, the larger scale of the dentil is still
+retained. As a general rule the projection of the dentil is equal to its
+width, and the intervals between to half the width. In some cases the
+projecting band has never had the sinkings cut into it to divide up the
+dentils, as in the Pantheon at Rome, and it is then called a
+dentil-band. The dentil was the chief decorative feature employed in the
+bed-mould by the Romans and the Italian Revivalists. In the porch of the
+church of St John Studius at Constantinople, the dentil and the interval
+between are equal in width, and the interval is splayed back from top to
+bottom; this is the form it takes in what is known as the "Venetian
+dentil," which was copied from the Byzantine dentil in Santa Sophia,
+Constantinople. There, however, it no longer formed part of a bed-mould:
+its use at Santa Sophia was to decorate the projecting moulding
+enclosing the encrusted marbles, and the dentils were cut alternately on
+both sides of the moulding. The Venetian dentil was also introduced as a
+label round arches and as a string course.
+
+
+
+
+DENTISTRY
+
+
+Historical sketch.
+
+(from Lat. _dens_, a tooth), a special department of medical
+science, embracing the structure, function and therapeutics of the mouth
+and its contained organs, specifically the teeth, together with their
+surgical and prosthetic treatment. (For the anatomy of the teeth see
+TEETH.) As a distinct vocation it is first alluded to by Herodotus (500
+B.C.). There are evidences that at an earlier date the Egyptians and
+Hindus attempted to replace lost teeth by attaching wood or ivory
+substitutes to adjacent sound teeth by means of threads or wires, but
+the gold fillings reputed to have been found in the teeth of Egyptian
+mummies have upon investigation been shown to be superficial
+applications of gold leaf for ornamental purposes. The impetus given to
+medical study in the Grecian schools by the followers of Aesculapius and
+especially Hippocrates (500 to 400 B.C.) developed among the
+practitioners of medicine and surgery considerable knowledge of
+dentistry. Galen (A.D. 131) taught that the teeth were true bones
+existing before birth, and to him is credited the belief that the upper
+canine teeth receive branches from the nerve which supplies the eye, and
+hence should be called "eye-teeth." Abulcasis (10th cent. A.D.)
+describes the operation by which artificial crowns are attached to
+adjacent sound teeth. Vesalius (1514), Ambroise Paré, J. J. Scaliger, T.
+Kerckring, M. Malpighi, and lesser anatomists of the same period
+contributed dissertations which threw some small amount of light upon
+the structure and functions of the teeth. The operation of transplanting
+teeth is usually attributed to John Hunter (1728-1793), who practised it
+extensively, and gave to it additional prominence by transplanting a
+human tooth to the comb of a cock, but the operation was alluded to by
+Ambroise Paré (1509-1590), and there is evidence to show that it was
+practised even earlier. A. von Leeuwenhoek in 1678 described with much
+accuracy the tubular structure of the dentine, thus making the most
+important contribution to the subject which had appeared up to that
+time. Until the latter part of the 18th century extraction was
+practically the only operation for the cure of toothache.
+
+The early contributions of France exerted a controlling influence upon
+the development of dental practice. Urbain Hémard, surgeon to the
+cardinal Georges of Armagnac, whom Dr Blake (1801) calls an ingenious
+surgeon and a great man, published in 1582 his _Researches upon the
+Anatomy of the Teeth, their Nature and Properties_. Of Hémard, M.
+Fauchard says: "This surgeon had read Greek and Latin authors, whose
+writings he has judiciously incorporated in his own works." In 1728
+Fauchard, who has been called the father of modern dentistry, published
+his celebrated work, entitled _Le Chirurgien Dentiste ou traité des
+dents_. The preface contains the following statement as to the existing
+status of dental art and science in France, which might have been
+applied with equal truth to any other European country:--" The most
+celebrated surgeons having abandoned this branch of surgery, or having
+but little cultivated it, their negligence gave rise to a class of
+persons who, without theoretic knowledge or experience, and without
+being qualified, practised it at hazard, having neither principles nor
+system. It was only since the year 1700 that the intelligent in Paris
+opened their eyes to these abuses, when it was provided that those who
+intended practising dental surgery should submit to an examination by
+men learned in all the branches of medical science, who should decide
+upon their merits." After the publication of Fauchard's work the
+practice of dentistry became more specialized and distinctly separated
+from medical practice, the best exponents of the art being trained as
+apprentices by practitioners of ability, who had acquired their training
+in the same way from their predecessors. Fauchard suggested porcelain as
+an improvement upon bone and ivory for the manufacture of artificial
+teeth, a suggestion which he obtained from R. A. F. de Réaumur, the
+French savant and physicist, who was a contributor to the royal
+porcelain manufactory at Sévres. Later, Duchateau, an apothecary of St
+Germain, made porcelain teeth, and communicated his discovery to the
+Academy of Surgery in 1776, but kept the process secret. Du Bois Chémant
+carried the art to England, and the process was finally made public by
+M. Du Bois Foucou. M. Fonzi improved the art to such an extent that the
+Athenaeum of Arts in Paris awarded him a medal and crown (March 14,
+1808).
+
+In Great Britain the 19th century brought the dawning of dental science.
+The work of Dr Blake in 1801 on the anatomy of the teeth was distinctly
+in advance of anything previously written on the subject. Joseph Fox was
+one of the first members of the medical profession to devote himself
+exclusively to dentistry, and his work is a repository of the best
+practice of his time. The processes described, though comparatively
+crude, involve principles in use at the present time. Thomas Bell, the
+successor of Fox as lecturer on the structure and disease of the teeth
+at Guy's Hospital, published his well-known work in 1829. About this
+period numerous publications on dentistry made their appearance, notably
+those of Koecker, Johnson and Waite, followed somewhat later by the
+admirable work of Alexander Nasmyth (1839). By this time Cuvier, Serres,
+Rousseau, Bertin, Herissant and others in France had added to the
+knowledge of human and comparative dental anatomy, while M. G. Retzius,
+of Sweden, and E. H. Weber, J. C. Rosenmüller, Schreger, J. E. von
+Purkinje, B. Fraenkel and J. Müller in Germany were carrying forward the
+same lines of research. The sympathetic nervous relationships of the
+teeth with other parts of the body, and the interaction of diseases of
+the teeth with general pathological conditions, were clearly
+established. Thus a scientific foundation was laid, and dentistry came
+to be practised as a specialty of medicine. Certain minor operations,
+however, such as the extraction of teeth and the stopping of caries in
+an imperfect way, were still practised by barbers, and the empirical
+practice of dentistry, especially of those operations which were almost
+wholly mechanical, had developed a considerable body of dental artisans
+who, though without medical education in many cases, possessed a high
+degree of manipulative skill. Thus there came to be two classes of
+practitioners, the first regarding dentistry as a specialty of medicine,
+the latter as a distinct and separate calling.
+
+In America representatives of both classes of dentists began to arrive
+from England and France about the time of the Revolution. Among these
+were John Wooffendale (1766), a student of Robert Berdmore of Liverpool,
+surgeon-dentist to George III.; James Gardette (1778), a French
+physician and surgeon; and Joseph Lemaire (1781), a French dentist who
+went out with the army of Count Rochambeau. During the winter of
+1781-1782, while the Continental army was in winter quarters at
+Providence, Rhode Island, Lemaire found time and opportunity to practise
+his calling, and also to instruct one or two persons, notably Josiah
+Flagg, probably the first American dentist. Dental practice was thus
+established upon American soil, where it has produced such fertile
+results.
+
+
+Course of training.
+
+Until well into the 19th century apprenticeship afforded the only means
+of acquiring a knowledge of dentistry. The profits derived from the
+apprenticeship system fostered secrecy and quackery among many of the
+early practitioners; but the more liberal minded and better educated of
+the craft developed an increasing opposition to these narrow methods. In
+1837 a local association of dentists was formed in New York, and in 1840
+a national association, The American Society of Dental Surgeons, the
+object of which was "to advance the science by free communication and
+interchange of sentiments." The first dental periodical in the world,
+_The American Journal of Dental Science_, was issued in June 1839, and
+in November 1840 was established the Baltimore College of Dental
+Surgery, the first college in the world for the systematic education of
+dentists. Thus the year 1839-1840 marks the birth of the three factors
+essential to professional growth in dentistry. All this, combined with
+the refusal of the medical schools to furnish the desired facilities for
+dental instruction, placed dentistry for the time being upon a footing
+entirely separate from general medicine. Since then the curriculum of
+study preparatory to dental practice has been systematically increased
+both as to its content and length, until in all fundamental principles
+it is practically equal to that required for the training of medical
+specialists, and in addition includes the technical subjects peculiar to
+dentistry. In England, and to some extent upon the continent, the old
+apprenticeship system is retained as an adjunct to the college course,
+but it is rapidly dying out, as it has already done in America. Owing to
+the regulation by law of the educational requirements, the increase of
+institutions devoted to the professional training of dentists has been
+rapid in all civilized countries, and during the past twenty years
+especially so in the United States. Great Britain possesses upwards of
+twelve institutions for dental instruction, France two, Germany and
+Switzerland six, all being based upon the conception that dentistry is a
+department of general medicine. In the United States there were in 1878
+twelve dental schools, with about 700 students; in 1907 there were
+fifty-seven schools, with 6919 students. Of these fifty-seven schools,
+thirty-seven are departments of universities or of medical institutions,
+and there is a growing tendency to regard dentistry from its educational
+aspect as a special department of the general medical and surgical
+practice.
+
+
+Research.
+
+Recent studies have shown that besides being an important part of the
+digestive system, the mouth sustains intimate relationship with the
+general nervous system, and is important as the portal of entrance for
+the majority of the bacteria that cause specific diseases. This fact has
+rendered more intimate the relations between dentistry and the general
+practice of medicine, and has given a powerful impetus to scientific
+studies in dentistry. Through the researches of Sir J. Tomes, Mummery,
+Hopewell Smith, Williams and others in England, O. Hertwig, Weil and
+Röse in Germany, Andrews, Sudduth and Black in America, the minute
+anatomy and embryology of the dental tissues have been worked out with
+great fulness and precision. In particular, it has been demonstrated
+that certain general systemic diseases have a distinct oral expression.
+Through their extensive nervous connexions with the largest of the
+cranial nerves and with the sympathetic nervous system, the teeth
+frequently cause irritation resulting in profound reflex nervous
+phenomena, which are curable only by removal of the local tooth
+disorder. Gout, lithaemia, scurvy, rickets, lead and mercurial
+poisoning, and certain forms of chronic nephritis, produce dental and
+oral lesions which are either pathognomonic or strongly indicative of
+their several constitutional causes, and are thus of great importance in
+diagnosis. The most important dental research of modern times is that
+which was carried out by Professor W. D. Miller of Berlin (1884) upon
+the cause of caries of the teeth, a disease said to affect the human
+race more extensively than any other. Miller demonstrated that, as
+previous observers had suspected, caries is of bacterial origin, and
+that acids play an important rôle in the process. The disease is brought
+about by a group of bacteria which develop in the mouth, growing
+naturally upon the débris of starchy or carbohydrate food, producing
+fermentation of the mass, with lactic acid as the end product. The
+lactic acid dissolves the mineral constituent of the tooth structure,
+calcium phosphate, leaving the organic matrix of the tooth exposed.
+Another class of germs, the peptonising and putrefactive bacteria, then
+convert the organic matter into liquid or gaseous end products. The
+accuracy of the conclusions obtained from his analytic research was
+synthetically proved, after the manner of Koch, by producing the disease
+artificially. Caries of the teeth has been shown to bear highly
+important relation to more remote or systemic diseases. Exposure and
+death of the dental pulp furnishes an avenue of entrance for
+disease-producing bacteria, by which invasion of the deeper tissues may
+readily take place, causing necrosis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis,
+phlegmon and other destructive inflammations, certain of which,
+affecting the various sinuses of the head, have been found to cause
+meningitis, chronic empyema, metastatic abscesses in remote parts of the
+body, paralysis, epilepsy and insanity.
+
+
+Filling or stopping.
+
+_Operative Dentistry._--The art of dentistry is usually divided
+arbitrarily into _operative dentistry_, the purpose of which is to
+preserve as far as possible the teeth and associated tissues, and
+_prosthetic dentistry_, the purpose of which is to supply the loss of
+teeth by artificial substitutes. The filling of carious cavities was
+probably first performed with lead, suggested apparently by an operation
+recorded by Celsus (100 B.C.), who recommended that frail or decayed
+teeth be stuffed with lead previous to extraction, in order that they
+might not break under the forceps. The use of lead as a filling was
+sufficiently prevalent in France during the 17th century to bring into
+use the word _plombage_, which is still occasionally applied in that
+country to the operation of filling. Gold as a filling material came
+into general use about the beginning of the 19th century.[1] The earlier
+preparations of gold were so impure as to be virtually without cohesion,
+so that they were of use only in cavities which had sound walls for its
+retention. In the form of rolls or tape it was forced into the
+previously cleaned and prepared cavity, condensed with instruments under
+heavy hand pressure, smoothed with files, and finally burnished. Tin
+foil was also used to a limited extent and by the same method.
+Improvements in the refining of gold for dental use brought the product
+to a fair degree of purity, and, about 1855, led to the invention by Dr
+Robert Arthur of Baltimore of a method by which it could be welded
+firmly within the cavity. The cohesive properties of the foil were
+developed by passing it through an alcohol flame, which dispelled its
+surface contaminations. The gold was then welded piece by piece into a
+homogeneous mass by plugging instruments with serrated points. In this
+process of cold-welding, the mallet, hitherto in only limited use, was
+found more efficient than hand pressure, and was rapidly developed. The
+primitive mallet of wood, ivory, lead or steel, was supplanted by a
+mallet in which a hammer was released automatically by a spring
+condensed by pressure of the operator's hand. Then followed mallets
+operated by pneumatic pressure, by the dental engine, and finally by the
+electro-magnet, as utilized in 1867 by Bonwill. These devices greatly
+facilitated the operation, and made possible a partial or entire
+restoration of the tooth-crown in conformity with anatomical lines.
+
+The dental engine in its several forms is the outgrowth of the simple
+drill worked by the hand of the operator. It is used in removing decayed
+structure and for shaping the cavity for inserting the filling. From
+time to time its usefulness has been extended, so that it is now used
+for finishing fillings and polishing them, for polishing the teeth,
+removing deposits from them and changing their shapes. Its latest
+development, the _dento-surgical engine_, is of heavier construction and
+is adapted to operations upon all of the bones, a recent addition to its
+equipment being the spiral osteotome of Cryer, by which, with a minimum
+shock to the patient, fenestrae of any size or shape in the brain-case
+may be made, from a simple trepanning operation to the more extensive
+openings required in intra-cranial operations. The rotary power may be
+supplied by the foot of the operator, or by hydraulic or electric
+motors. The rubber dam invented by S. C. Barnum of New York (1864)
+provided a means for protecting the field of operations from the oral
+fluids, and extended the scope of operations even to the entire
+restoration of tooth-crowns with cohesive gold foil. Its value has been
+found to be even greater than was at first anticipated. In all
+operations involving the exposed dental pulp or the pulp-chamber and
+root-canals, it is the only efficient method of mechanically protecting
+the field of operation from invasion by disease-producing bacteria.
+
+The difficulty and annoyance attending the insertion of gold, its high
+thermal conductivity, and its objectionable colour have led to an
+increasing use of amalgam, guttapercha, and cements of zinc oxide mixed
+with zinc chloride or phosphoric acid. Recently much attention has been
+devoted to restorations with porcelain. A piece of platinum foil of .001
+inch thickness is burnished and pressed into the cavity, so that a
+matrix is produced exactly fitting the cavity. Into this matrix is
+placed a mixture of powdered porcelain and water or alcohol, of the
+colour to match the tooth. The mass is carefully dried and then fused
+until homogeneous. Shrinkage is counteracted by additions of porcelain
+powder, which are repeatedly fused until the whole exactly fills the
+matrix. After cooling, the matrix is stripped away and the porcelain is
+cemented into the cavity. When the cement has hardened, the surface of
+the porcelain is ground and polished to proper contour. If successfully
+made, porcelain fillings are scarcely noticeable. Their durability
+remains to be tested.
+
+
+Dental therapeutics.
+
+Until recent times the exposure of the dental pulp inevitably led to its
+death and disintegration, and, by invasion of bacteria via the pulp
+canal, set up an inflammatory process which eventually caused the loss
+of the entire tooth. A rational system of therapeutics, in conjunction
+with proper antiseptic measures, has made possible both the conservative
+treatment of the dental pulp when exposed, and the successful treatment
+of pulp-canals when the pulp has been devitalized either by design or
+disease. The conservation of the exposed pulp is affected by the
+operation of capping. In capping a pulp, irritation is allayed by
+antiseptic and sedative treatment, and a metallic cap, lined with a
+non-irritant sedative paste, is applied under aseptic conditions
+immediately over the point of pulp exposure. A filling of cement is
+superimposed, and this, after it has hardened, is covered with a
+metallic or other suitable filling. The utility of arsenious acid for
+devitalizing the dental pulp was discovered by J. R. Spooner of
+Montreal, and first published in 1836 by his brother Shearjashub in his
+_Guide to Sound Teeth_. The painful action of arsenic upon the pulp was
+avoided by the addition of various sedative drugs,--morphia, atropia,
+iodoform, &c.,--and its use soon became universal. Of late years it is
+being gradually supplanted by immediate surgical extirpation under the
+benumbing effect of cocaine salts. By the use of cocaine also the pain
+incident to excavating and shaping of cavities in tooth structure may
+be controlled, especially when the cocaine is driven into the dentine by
+means of an electric current. To fill the pulp-chamber and canals of
+teeth after loss of the pulp, all organic remains of pulp tissue should
+be removed by sterilization, and then, in order to prevent the entrance
+of bacteria, and consequent infection, the canals should be perfectly
+filled. Upon the exclusion of infection depends the future integrity and
+comfort of the tooth. Numberless methods have been invented for the
+operation. Pulpless teeth are thus preserved through long periods of
+usefulness, and even those remains of teeth in which the crowns have
+been lost are rendered comfortable and useful as supports for artificial
+crowns, and as abutments for assemblages of crowns, known as
+bridge-work.
+
+The discoloration of the pulpless tooth through putrefactive changes in
+its organic matter were first overcome by bleaching it with chlorine.
+Small quantities of calcium hypochlorite are packed into the
+pulp-chamber and moistened with dilute acetic acid; the decomposition of
+the calcium salt liberates chlorine _in situ_, which restores the tooth
+to normal colour in a short time. The cavity is afterwards washed out,
+carefully dried, lined with a light-coloured cement and filled. More
+efficient bleaching agents of recent introduction are hydrogen dioxide
+in a 25% solution or a saturated solution of sodium peroxide; they are
+less irritating and much more convenient in application. Unlike
+chlorine, these do not form soluble metallic salts which may
+subsequently discolour the tooth. Hydrogen dioxide may be carried into
+the tooth structure by the electric current. In which case a current of
+not less than forty volts controlled by a suitable graduated resistance
+is applied with the patient in circuit, the anode being a
+platinum-pointed electrode in contact with the dioxide solution in the
+tooth cavity, and the cathode a sponge or plate electrode in contact
+with the hand or arm of the patient. The current is gradually turned on
+until two or three milliamperes are indicated by a suitable ammeter. The
+operation requires usually twenty to thirty minutes.
+
+Malposed teeth are not only unsightly but prone to disease, and may be
+the cause of disease in other teeth, or of the associated tissues. The
+impairment of function which their abnormal position causes has been
+found to be the primary cause of disturbances of the general bodily
+health; for example, enlarged tonsils, chronic pharyngitis and nasal
+catarrh, indigestion and malnutrition. By the use of springs, screws,
+vulcanized caoutchouc bands, elastic ligatures, &c., as the case may
+require, practically all forms of dental irregularity may be corrected,
+even such protrusions and retrusions of the front teeth as cause great
+disfigurement of the facial contour.
+
+
+Extraction.
+
+The extraction of teeth, an operation which until quite recent times was
+one of the crudest procedures in minor surgery, has been reduced to
+exactitude by improved instruments, designed with reference to the
+anatomical relations of the teeth and their alveoli, and therefore
+adapted to the several classes of teeth. The operation has been rendered
+painless by the use of anaesthetics. The anaesthetic generally employed
+is nitrous oxide, or laughing-gas, the use of which was discovered in
+1844 by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Conn., U.S.A. Chloroform
+and ether, as well as other general anaesthetics, have been employed in
+extensive operations because of their more prolonged effect; but
+chloroform, especially, is dangerous, owing to its effect upon the
+heart, which in many instances has suddenly failed during the operation.
+Ether, while less manageable than nitrous oxide, has been found to be
+practically devoid of danger. The local injection of solutions of
+cocaine and allied anaesthetics into the gum-tissue is extensively
+practised; but is attended with danger, from the toxic effects of an
+overdose upon the heart, and the local poisonous effect upon the
+tissues, which lead in numerous cases to necrosis and extensive
+sloughing.
+
+
+Artificial teeth.
+
+_Dental Prosthesis._--The fastening of natural teeth or carved
+substitutes to adjoining sound teeth by means of thread or wire preceded
+their attachment to base-plates of carved wood, bone or ivory, which
+latter method was practised until the introduction of swaged metallic
+plates. Where the crown only of a tooth or those of several teeth were
+lost, the restoration was effected by engrafting upon the prepared root
+a suitable crown by means of a wooden or metallic pivot. When possible,
+the new crown was that of a corresponding sound tooth taken from the
+mouth of another individual; otherwise an artificial crown carved from
+bone or ivory, or sometimes from the tooth of an ox, was used. To
+replace entire dentures a base-plate of carved hippopotamus ivory was
+constructed, upon which were mounted the crowns of natural teeth, or
+later those of porcelain. The manufacture of a denture of this character
+was tedious and uncertain, and required much skill. The denture was kept
+in place by spiral springs attached to the buccal sides of the appliance
+above and below, which caused pressure upon both jaws, necessitating a
+constant effort upon the part of the unfortunate wearer to keep it in
+place. Metallic swaged plates were introduced in the latter part of the
+18th century. An impression of the gums was taken in wax, from which a
+cast was made in plaster of Paris. With this as a model, a metallic die
+of brass or zinc was prepared, upon which the plate of gold or silver
+was formed, and then swaged into contact with the die by means of a
+female die or counter-die of lead. The process is essentially the same
+to-day, with the addition of numerous improvements in detail, which have
+brought it to a high degree of perfection. The discovery, by Gardette of
+Philadelphia in 1800, of the utility of atmospheric pressure in keeping
+artificial dentures in place led to the abandonment of spiral springs. A
+later device for enhancing the stability is the vacuum chamber, a
+central depression in the upper surface of the plate, which, when
+exhausted of air by the wearer, materially increases the adhesion. The
+metallic base-plate is used also for supporting one or more artificial
+teeth, being kept in place by metallic clasps fitting to, and partially
+surrounding, adjacent sound natural teeth, the plate merely covering the
+edentulous portion of the alveolar ridge. It may also be kept in place
+by atmospheric adhesion, in which case the palatal vault is included,
+and the vacuum chamber is utilized in the palatal portion to increase
+the adhesion.
+
+In the construction usually practised, porcelain teeth are attached to a
+gold base-plate by means of stay-pieces of gold, perforated to receive
+the platinum pins baked in the body of the tooth. The stay-pieces or
+backings are then soldered to the pins and to the plate by means of
+high-fusing gold solder. The teeth used may be single or in sections,
+and may be with or without an extension designed in form and colour to
+imitate the gum of the alveolar border. Even when skillfully executed,
+the process is imperfect in that the jointing of the teeth to each
+other, and their adaptation to the base-plate, leaves crevices and
+recesses, in which food débris and oral secretions accumulate. To
+obviate these defects the enamelled platinum denture was devised.
+Porcelain teeth are first attached to a swaged base-plate of pure
+platinum by a stay-piece of the same metal soldered with pure gold,
+after which the interstices between the teeth are filled, and the entire
+surface of the plate, excepting that in contact with the palate and
+alveolar border, is covered with a porcelain paste called the body,
+which is modelled to the normal contour of the gums, and baked in a
+muffle furnace until vitrified. It is then enamelled with a vitreous
+enamel coloured in imitation of the colour of the natural gum, which is
+applied and fired as before, the result being the most artistic and
+hygienic denture known. This is commonly known as the continuous gum
+method. Originating in France in the early part of the 19th century, and
+variously improved by several experimenters, it was brought to its
+present perfection by Dr John Allen of New York about 1846-1847.
+Dentures supported upon cast bases of metallic alloys and of aluminium
+have been employed as substitutes for the more expensive dentures of
+gold and platinum, but have had only a limited use, and are less
+satisfactory.
+
+Metallic bases were used exclusively as supports for artificial dentures
+until in 1855-1856 Charles Goodyear, jun., patented in England a process
+for constructing a denture upon vulcanized caoutchouc as a base. Several
+modifications followed, each the subject of patented improvements.
+Though the cheapness and simplicity of the vulcanite base has led to its
+abuse in incompetent hands, it has on the whole been productive of much
+benefit. It has been used with great success as a means of attaching
+porcelain teeth to metallic bases of gold, silver and aluminium. It is
+extensively used also in correcting irregular positions of the teeth,
+and for making interdental splints in the treatment of fractures of the
+jaws. For the mechanical correction of palatal defects causing
+imperfection of deglutition and speech, which comes distinctly within
+the province of the prosthetic dentist, the vulcanite base produces the
+best-known apparatus. Two classes of palatal mechanism are
+recognized--the obturator, a palatal plate, the function of which is to
+close perforations or clefts in the hard palate, and the artificial
+velum, a movable attachment to the obturator or palatal plate, which
+closes the opening in the divided natural velum and, moving with it,
+enables the wearer to close off the nasopharynx from the oral cavity in
+the production of the guttural sounds. Vulcanite is also used for
+extensive restorations of the jaws after surgical operations or loss by
+disease, and in the majority of instances wholly corrects the deformity.
+
+
+Modern methods.
+
+For a time vulcanite almost supplanted gold and silver as a base for
+artificial denture, and developed a generation of practitioners
+deficient in that high degree of skill necessary to the construction of
+dentures upon metallic bases. The recent development of crown-and-bridge
+work has brought about a renaissance, so that a thorough training is
+more than ever necessary to successful practice in mechanical dentistry.
+The simplest crown is of porcelain, and is engrafted upon a sound
+natural tooth-root by means of a metallic pin of gold or platinum,
+extending into the previously enlarged root-canal and cemented in place.
+In another type of crown the point between the root-end and the abutting
+crown-surface is encircled with a metallic collar or band, which gives
+additional security to the attachment and protects the joints from
+fluids or bacteria. Crowns of this character are constructed with a
+porcelain facing attached by a stay-piece or backing of gold to a plate
+and collar, which has been previously fitted to the root-end like a
+ferrule, and soldered to a pin which projects through the ferrule into
+the root-canal. The contour of the lingual surface of the crown is made
+of gold, which is shaped to conform to the anatomical lines of the
+tooth. The shell-crown consists of a reproduction of the crown entirely
+of gold plate, filled with cement, and driven over the root-end, which
+it closely encircles. The two latter kinds of crowns may be used as
+abutments for the support of intervening crowns in constructing
+bridge-work. When artificial crowns are supported not by natural
+tooth-roots but by soldering them to abutments, they are termed dummies.
+The number of dummies which may be supported upon a given number of
+roots depends upon the position and character of the abutments, the
+character of the alveolar tissues, the age, sex and health of the
+patient, the character of the occlusion or bite, and the force exerted
+in mastication. In some cases a root will not properly support more than
+one additional crown; in others an entire bridge denture has been
+successfully supported upon four well-placed roots. Two general classes
+of bridge-work are recognized, namely, the fixed and the removable.
+Removable bridge-work, though more difficult to construct, is
+preferable, as it can be more thoroughly and easily cleansed. When
+properly made and applied to judiciously selected cases, the bridge
+denture is the most artistic and functionally perfect restoration of
+prosthetic dentistry.
+
+The entire development of modern dentistry dates from the 19th century,
+and mainly from its latter half. Beginning with a few practitioners and
+no organized professional basis, educational system or literature, its
+practitioners are to be found in all civilized communities, those in
+Great Britain numbering about 5000; in the United States, 27,000;
+France, 1600, of whom 376 are graduates; German Empire, qualified
+practitioners (_Zahnärzte_), 1400; practitioners without official
+qualification, 4100. Its educational institutions are numerous and well
+equipped. It possesses a large periodical and standard literature in all
+languages. Its practice is regulated by legislative enactment in all
+countries the same as is medical practice. The business of manufacturing
+and selling dentists' supplies represents an enormous industry, in
+which millions of capital are invested.
+
+   AUTHORITIES.--W. F. Litch, _American System of Dentistry_; Julius
+   Scheff, jun., _Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde_; Charles J. Essig,
+   _American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry_; Tomes, _Dental Anatomy_
+   and _Dental Surgery_; W. D. Miller, _Microörganisms of the Human
+   Mouth_; Hopewell Smith, _Dental Microscopy_; H. H. Burchard, _Dental
+   Pathology, Therapeutics and Pharmacology_; F. J. S. Gorgas, _Dental
+   Medicine_; E. H. Angle, _Treatment of Malocclusion of the Teeth and
+   Fractures of the Maxillae_; G. Evans, _A Practical Treatise on
+   Artificial Crown-and-Bridge Work and Porcelain Dental Art_; C. N.
+   Johnson, _Principles and Practice of Filling Teeth, American
+   Text-Book of Operative Dentistry_ (3rd ed., 1905); Edward C. Kirk,
+   _Principles and Practice of Operative Dentistry_ (2nd ed., 1905); J.
+   S. Marshall, _American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry_ (edited by
+   C. R. Turner; 3rd ed., 1907).                            (E. C. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The filling of teeth with gold foil is recorded in the oldest
+    known book on dentistry, _Artzney Buchlein_, published anonymously
+    in 1530, in which the operation is quoted from Mesue (A.D. 857),
+    physician to the caliph Haroun al-Raschid.
+
+
+
+
+DENTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, 4½ m. N.E. from Stockport, on the London &
+North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 14,934. In the township are
+reservoirs for the water supply of Manchester, with a capacity of
+1,860,000,000 gallons. The manufacture of felt hats is the leading
+industry. Coal is extensively mined in the district.
+
+
+
+
+DENVER, the capital of Colorado, U.S.A., the county-seat of Denver
+county, and the largest city between Kansas City, Missouri, and the
+Pacific coast, sometimes called the "Queen City of the Plains." Pop.
+(1870) 4759; (1880) 35,629; (1890) 106,713; (1900), 133,859, of whom
+25,301 were foreign-born and 3923 were negroes; (1910 census) 213,381.
+Of the 25,301 foreign-born in 1900, 5114 were Germans; 3485, Irish;
+3376, Swedes; 3344, English; 2623, English-Canadian; 1338, Russians; and
+1033, Scots. Denver is an important railway centre, being served by nine
+railways, of which the chief are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé; the
+Chicago, Burlington & Quincy; the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific; the
+Denver & Rio Grande; the Union Pacific; and the Denver, North-Western &
+Pacific.
+
+Denver lies on the South Platte river, at an altitude exactly 1 m. above
+the sea, about 15 m. from the E. base of the Rocky mountains, which
+stretch along the W. horizon from N. to S. in an unbroken chain of some
+175 m. Excursions may be made in all directions into the mountains,
+affording beautiful scenery and interesting views of the mining camps.
+Various peaks are readily accessible from Denver: Long's Peak (14,271
+ft.), Gray's Peak (14,341 ft.), Torrey Peak (14,336 ft.), Mt. Evans
+(14,330 ft.), Pike's Peak (14,108 ft.), and many others of only slightly
+less altitudes. The streets are excellent, broad and regular. The parks
+are a fine feature of the city; by its charter a fixed percentage of all
+expenditures for public improvements must be used to purchase park land.
+Architectural variety and solidity are favoured in the buildings of the
+city by a wealth of beautiful building stones of varied colours
+(limestones, sandstones, lavas, granites and marbles), in addition to
+which bricks and Roman tiles are employed. The State Capitol, built of
+native granite and marble (1887-1895, cost $2,500,000), is an imposing
+building. Noteworthy also are the Denver county court house; the
+handsome East Denver high school; the Federal building, containing the
+United States custom house and post office; the United States mint; the
+large Auditorium, in which the Democratic National convention met in
+1908; a Carnegie library (1908) and the Mining Exchange; and there are
+various excellent business blocks, theatres, clubs and churches. Denver
+has an art museum and a zoological museum. The libraries of the city
+contain an aggregate of some 300,000 volumes. Denver is the seat of the
+Jesuit college of the Sacred Heart (1888; in the suburbs); and the
+university of Denver (Methodist, 1889), a co-educational institution,
+succeeding the Colorado Seminary (founded in 1864 by John Evans), and
+consisting of a college of liberal arts, a graduate school, Chamberlin
+astronomical observatory and a preparatory school--these have buildings
+in University Park--and (near the centre of the city) the Denver and
+Gross College of Medicine, the Denver law school, a college of music in
+the building of the old Colorado Seminary, and a Saturday college (with
+classes specially for professional men).
+
+The prosperity of the city depends on that of the rich mining country
+about it, on a very extensive wholesale trade, for which its situation
+and railway facilities admirably fit it, and on its large manufacturing
+and farming interests. The value of manufactures produced in 1900 was
+$41,368,698 (increase 1890-1900, 41.5%). The value of the factory
+product for 1905, however, was 3.3% less than that for 1900, though it
+represented 36.6% of the product of the state as a whole. The principal
+industry is the smelting and refining of lead, and the smelting works
+are among the most interesting sights of the city. The value of the ore
+reduced annually is about $10,000,000. Denver has also large foundries
+and machine shops, flour and grist mills, and slaughtering and
+meat-packing establishments. Denver is the central live-stock market of
+the Rocky Mountain states. The beet sugar, fruit and other agricultural
+products of the surrounding and tributary section were valued in 1906 at
+about $20,000,000. The assessed valuation of property in the city in
+1905 was $115,338,920 (about the true value), and the bonded debt
+$1,079,595.
+
+At Denver the South Platte is joined by Cherry Creek, and here in
+October 1858 were established on opposite sides of the creek two
+bitterly rival settlements, St Charles and Auraria; the former was
+renamed almost immediately Denver, after General J. W. Denver
+(1818-1892), ex-governor of Kansas (which then included Colorado), and
+Auraria was absorbed. Denver had already been incorporated by a
+provisional local (extra legal) "legislature," and the Kansas
+legislature gave a charter to a rival company which the Denver people
+bought out. A city government was organized in December 1859; and
+continued under a reincorporation effected by the first territorial
+legislature of 1861. This body adjourned from Colorado City, nominally
+the capital, to Denver, and in 1862 Golden was made the seat of
+government. In 1868 Denver became the capital, but feeling in the
+southern counties was then so strong against Denver that provision was
+made for a popular vote on the situation of the capital five years after
+Colorado should become a state. This popular vote confirmed Denver in
+1881. Until 1870, when it secured a branch railway from the Union
+Pacific line at Cheyenne (Wyoming), the city was on one side of the
+transcontinental travel-routes. The first road was quickly followed by
+the Kansas Pacific from Kansas City (1870, now also part of the Union
+Pacific), the Denver & Rio Grande (1871), the Burlington system (1882),
+the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé (1887), and other roads which have made
+Denver's fortune. In April 1859 appeared the first number of _The Rocky
+Mountain News_. The same year a postal express to Leavenworth, Kansas
+(10 days, letters 25 cents an ounce) was established; and telegraph
+connexion with Boston and New York ($9 for 10 words) in 1863. A private
+mint was established in 1860. In the 'seventies all the facilities of a
+modern city--gas, street-cars, water-works, telephones--were introduced.
+Much the same might be said of a score of cities in the new West, but
+none is a more striking example than Denver of marvellous growth. The
+city throve on the freighting trade of the mines. In 1864 a tremendous
+flood almost ruined it, and another flood in 1878, and a famous strike
+in Denver and Leadville in 1879-1880 were further, but only momentary,
+checks to its prosperity. As in every western city, particularly those
+in mining regions whose sites attained speculative values, Denver had
+grave problems with "squatters" or "land-jumpers" in her early years;
+and there was the usual gambling and outlawry, sometimes extra-legally
+repressed by vigilantes. Settled social conditions, however, soon
+established themselves. In 1880 there was a memorable election riot
+under the guise of an anti-Chinese demonstration. In the decade
+1870-1880 the population increased 648.7%. The 'eighties were notable
+for great real estate activity, and the population of the city increased
+199.5% from 1880 to 1890. In 1882-1884 three successive annual exhibits
+of a National Mining and Industrial Exposition were held. After 1890
+growth was slower but continuous. In 1902 a city-and-county of Denver
+was created with extensive powers of framing its own charter, and in
+1904 a charter was adopted. The constitution of the state was framed by
+a convention that sat at Denver from December 1875 to March 1876;
+various territorial conventions met here; and here W. J. Bryan was
+nominated in 1908 for the presidency.
+
+
+
+
+DEODAND (Lat. _Deo dandum_, that which is to be given to God), in
+English law, was a personal chattel (any animal or thing) which, on
+account of its having caused the death of a human being, was forfeited
+to the king for pious uses. Blackstone, while tracing in the custom an
+expiatory design, alludes to analogous Jewish and Greek laws,[1] which
+required that what occasions a man's death should be destroyed. In such
+usages the notion of the punishment of an animal or thing, or of its
+being morally affected from having caused the death of a man, seems to
+be implied. The forfeiture of the offending instrument in no way depends
+on the guilt of the owner. This imputation of guilt to inanimate objects
+or to the lower animals is not inconsistent with what we know of the
+ideas of uncivilized races. In English law, deodands came to be regarded
+as mere forfeitures to the king, and the rules on which they depended
+were not easily explained by any key in the possession of the old
+commentators. The law distinguished, for instance, between a thing in
+motion and a thing standing still. If a horse or other animal in motion
+killed a person, whether infant or adult, or if a cart ran over him, it
+was forfeited as a deodand. On the other hand, if death were caused by
+falling from a cart or a horse at rest, the law made the chattel a
+deodand if the person killed were an adult, but not if he were below the
+years of discretion. Blackstone accounts for the greater severity
+against things in motion by saying that in such cases the owner is more
+usually at fault, an explanation which is doubtful in point of fact, and
+would certainly not account for other instances of the same tendency.
+Thus, where a man's death is caused by a thing not in motion, that part
+only which is the immediate cause is forfeited, as "if a man be climbing
+up the wheel of a cart, and is killed by falling from it, the wheel
+alone is a deodand"; whereas, if the cart were in motion, not only the
+wheel but all that moves along with it (as the cart and the loading) are
+forfeited. A similar distinction is to be found in Britton. Where a man
+is killed by a vessel at rest the cargo is not deodand; where the vessel
+is under sail, hull and cargo are both deodand. For the distinction
+between the death of a child and the death of an adult Blackstone
+accounts by suggesting that the child "was presumed incapable of actual
+sin, and therefore needed no deodand to purchase propitiatory masses;
+but every adult who died in actual sin stood in need of such atonement,
+according to the humane superstition of the founders of the English
+law." Sir Matthew Hale's explanation was that the child could not take
+care of himself, whereon Blackstone asks why the owner should save his
+forfeiture on account of the imbecility of the child, which ought to
+have been an additional reason for caution. The finding of a jury was
+necessary to constitute a deodand, and the investigation of the value of
+the instrument by which death was caused occupied an important place
+among the provisions of early English criminal law. It became a
+necessary part of an indictment to state the nature and value of the
+weapon employed--as, that the stroke was given by a certain penknife, of
+the value of sixpence--so that the king might have his deodand.
+Accidents on the high seas did not cause forfeiture, being beyond the
+domain of the common law; but it would appear that in the case of ships
+in fresh water the law held good. The king might grant his right to
+deodands to another. In later times these forfeitures became extremely
+unpopular; and juries, with the connivance of judges, found deodands of
+trifling value, so as to defeat the inequitable claim. At last, by an
+act of 1846 they were abolished, the date noticeably coinciding with the
+introduction of railways and modern steam-engines.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Compare also the rule of the Twelve Tables, by which an animal
+    which had inflicted mischief might be surrendered in lieu of
+    compensation.
+
+
+
+
+DEOGARH, the name of several towns of British India. (1) A town in the
+Santal Parganas district of Bengal. Pop. (1901) 8838. It is famous for a
+group of twenty-two temples dedicated to Siva, the resort of numerous
+pilgrims. It is connected with the East Indian railway by a steam
+tramway, 5 m. in length. (2) The headquarters of the Bamra feudatory
+state in Bengal; 58 m. by road from the Bamra Road station on the
+Bengal-Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901) 5702. The town, which is well laid
+out, with parks and gardens, and pleasantly situated in a hollow among
+hills, rapidly increased in population under the enlightened
+administration of the raja, Sir Sudhal Rao, K.C.I.E. (b. 1860). It has a
+state-supported high school affiliated to Calcutta University, with a
+chemical and physical laboratory. (3) The chief town of the Deogarh
+estate in the state of Udaipur, Rajputana, about 68 m. N.N.E. of the
+city of Udaipur. It is walled, and contains a fine palace. Pop. (1901)
+5384. The holder of the estate is styled _rawat_, and is one of the
+first-class nobles of Mewar. (4) Deogarh Fort, the ancient Devagiri or
+Deogiri (see DAULATABAD).
+
+
+
+
+DÉOLS, a suburb of the French town of Châteauroux, in the department of
+Indre. Pop. (1906) 2337. Déols lies to the north of Châteauroux, from
+which it is separated by the Indre. It preserves a fine Romanesque tower
+and other remains of the church of a famous Benedictine abbey, the most
+important in Berry, founded in 917 by Ebbes the Noble, lord of Déols. A
+gateway flanked by towers survives from the old ramparts of the town.
+The parish church of St Stephen (15th and 16th centuries) has a
+Romanesque façade and a crypt containing the ancient Christian tomb of
+St Ludre and his father St Leocade, who according to tradition were
+lords of the town in the 4th century. There are also interesting old
+paintings of the 10th century representing the ancient abbey. The
+pilgrimage to the tomb of St Ludre gave importance to Déols, which under
+the name of _Vicus Dolensis_ was in existence in the Roman period. In
+468 the Visigoths defeated the Gauls there, the victory carrying with it
+the supremacy over the district of Berry. In the middle ages the head of
+the family of Déols enjoyed the title of prince and held sway over
+nearly all Lower Berry, of which the town itself was the capital. In the
+10th century Raoul of Déols gave his castle to the monks of the abbey
+and transferred his residence to Châteauroux. For centuries this change
+did not affect the prosperity of the place, which was maintained by the
+prestige of its abbey. But the burning of the abbey church by the
+Protestants during the religious wars and in 1622 the suppression of the
+abbey by the agency of Henry II., prince of Condé and of Déols, owing to
+the corruption of the monks, led to its decadence.
+
+
+
+
+DEPARTMENT (Fr. _département_, from _départir_, to separate into parts),
+a division. The word is used of the branches of the administration in a
+state or municipality; in Great Britain it is applied to the subordinate
+divisions only of the great offices and boards of state, such as the
+bankruptcy department of the Board of Trade, but in the United States
+these subordinate divisions are known as "bureaus," while "department"
+is used of the eight chief branches of the executive.
+
+A particular use of the word is that for a territorial division of
+France, corresponding loosely to an English county. Previous to the
+French Revolution, the local unit in France was the province, but this
+division was too closely bound up with the administrative mismanagement
+of the old régime. Accordingly, at the suggestion of Mirabeau, France
+was redivided on entirely new lines, the thirty-four provinces being
+broken up into eighty-three departments (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). The
+idea was to render them as nearly as possible equal to a certain average
+of size and population, though this was not always adhered to. They
+derived their names principally from rivers, mountains or other
+prominent geographical features. Under Napoleon the number was increased
+to one hundred and thirty, but in 1815 it was reduced to eighty-six. In
+1860 three new departments were created out of the newly annexed
+territory of Savoy and Nice. In 1871 three departments (Bas-Rhin,
+Haut-Rhin and Moselle) were lost after the German war. Of the remains of
+the Haut-Rhin was formed the territory of Belfort, and the fragments of
+the Moselle were incorporated in the department of Meurthe, which was
+renamed Meurthe-et-Moselle, making the number at present eighty-seven.
+For a complete list of the departments see FRANCE. Each department is
+presided over by an officer called a prefect, appointed by the
+government, and assisted by a prefectorial council (_conseil de
+préfecture_). The departments are subdivided into arrondissements, each
+in charge of a sub-prefect. Arrondissements are again subdivided into
+cantons, and these into communes, somewhat equivalent to the English
+parish (see FRANCE: _LOCAL GOVERNMENT_).
+
+
+
+
+DE PERE, a city of Brown county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both sides of the
+Fox river, 6 m. above its mouth, and 109 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890)
+3625; (1900) 4038, of whom 1025 were foreign-born; (1905, state census)
+4523. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western and Chicago, Milwaukee
+& St Paul railways, by interurban electric lines and by lake and river
+steamboat lines, it being the head of lake navigation on the Fox river.
+Two bridges here span the Fox, which is from {1/3}m. to ½m. in
+width. It is a shipping and transfer point and has paper mills, machine
+shops, flour mills, sash, door and blind factories, a launch and
+pleasure-boat factory, and knitting works, cheese factories and dairies,
+brick yards and grain elevators. There is an excellent water-power. De
+Pere is the seat of St Norbert's college (Roman Catholic, 1902) and has
+a public library. North of the city is located the state reformatory. On
+the coming of the first European, Jean Nicolet, who visited the place in
+1634-1635, De Pere was the site of a polyglot Indian settlement of
+several thousand attracted by the fishing at the first rapids of the Fox
+river. Here in 1670 Father Claude Allouez established the mission of St
+Francis Xavier, the second in what is now Wisconsin. From the name
+_Rapides des Peres_, which the French applied to the place, was derived
+the name De Pere. Here Nicolas Perrot, the first French commandant in
+the North-West, established his headquarters, and Father Jacques
+Marquette wrote the journal of his journey to the Mississippi. A few
+miles south of the city lived for many years Eleazer Williams (c.
+1787-1857), the alleged "lost dauphin" Louis XVII. of France and an
+authority on Indians, especially Iroquois. De Pere was incorporated as a
+village in 1857, and was chartered as a city in 1883.
+
+
+
+
+DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL (1834-    ), American lawyer and politician, was
+born in Peekskill, New York, on the 23rd of April 1834, of a Huguenot
+family (originally Du Puis or De Puy). He graduated at Yale in 1856,
+entered politics as a Whig--his father had been a Democrat--was admitted
+to the bar in 1858, was a member of the New York Assembly in 1861-1862,
+and was secretary of state of New York state in 1864-1865. He refused a
+nomination to be United States minister to Japan, and through his
+friendship with Cornelius and William H. Vanderbilt in 1866 became
+attorney for the New York & Harlem railway, in 1869 was appointed
+attorney of the newly consolidated New York Central & Hudson river
+railway, of which he soon became a director, and in 1875 was made
+general counsel for the entire Vanderbilt system of railways. He became
+second vice-president of the New York Central & Hudson river in 1869 and
+was its president in 1885-1898, and in 1898 was made chairman of the
+board of directors of the Vanderbilt system. In 1872 he joined the
+Liberal-Republican movement, and was nominated and defeated for the
+office of lieutenant-governor of New York. In 1888 in the National
+Republican convention he was a candidate for the presidential
+nomination, but withdrew his name in favour of Benjamin Harrison, whose
+offer to him in 1889 of the portfolio of state he refused. In 1899 he
+was elected United States senator from New York state, and in 1904 was
+re-elected for the term ending in 1911. His great personal popularity,
+augmented by his ability as an orator, suffered considerably after 1905,
+the inquiry into life insurance company methods by a committee of the
+state legislature resulting in acute criticism of his actions as a
+director of the Equitable Life Assurance Society and as counsel to Henry
+B. Hyde and his son. Among his best-known orations are that delivered at
+the unveiling of the Bartholdi statue of Liberty enlightening the World
+(1886), an address at the Washington Centennial in New York (1889), and
+the Columbian oration at the dedication ceremonies of the Chicago
+World's Fair (1892).
+
+
+
+
+DEPILATORY (from Lat. _depilare_, to pull out the _pilus_ or hair), any
+substance, preparation or process which will remove superfluous hair.
+For this purpose caustic alkalis, alkaline earths and also orpiment
+(trisulphide of arsenic) are used, the last being somewhat dangerous. No
+application is permanent in its effect, as the hair always grows again.
+The only permanent method, which is, however, painful, slow in operation
+and likely to leave small scars, is by the use of an electric current
+for the destruction of the follicles by electrolysis.
+
+
+
+
+DEPORTATION, or TRANSPORTATION, a system of punishment for crime, of
+which the essential factor is the removal of the criminal to a penal
+settlement outside his own country. It is to be distinguished from mere
+expulsion (q.v.) from a country, though the term "deportation" is now
+used in that sense in English law under the Aliens Act 1905 (see ALIEN).
+Strictly, the deportation or transportation system has ceased to exist
+in England, though the removal or exclusion of undesirable persons from
+British territory, under various Orders in Council, is possible in
+places subject to the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, and in the case of
+criminals under the Extradition Acts.
+
+
+American plantations.
+
+_Earlier British Transportation System._--At a time when the British
+statute-book bristled with capital felonies, when the pick-pocket or
+sheep-stealer was hanged out of hand, when Sir Samuel Romilly, to whose
+strenuous exertions the amelioration of the penal code is in a great
+measure due, declared that the laws of England were written in blood,
+another and less sanguinary penalty came into great favour. The
+deportation of criminals beyond the seas grew naturally out of the laws
+which prescribed banishment for certain offences. The Vagrancy Act of
+Elizabeth's reign contained in it the germ of transportation, by
+empowering justices in quarter sessions to banish offenders and order
+them to be conveyed into such parts beyond the seas as should be
+assigned by the privy council. Full effect was given to this statute in
+the next reign, as is proved by a letter of James I. dated 1619, in
+which the king directs "a hundred dissolute persons" to be sent to
+Virginia. Another act of similar tenor was passed in the reign of
+Charles II., in which the term "transportation" appears to have been
+first used. A further and more systematic development of the system of
+transportation took place in 1617, when an act was passed by which
+offenders who had escaped the death penalty were handed over to
+contractors, who engaged to transport them to the American colonies.
+These contractors were vested with a property in the labour of the
+convicts for a certain term, generally from seven to fourteen years, and
+this right they frequently sold. Labour in those early days was scarce
+in the new settlements; and before the general adoption of negro slavery
+there was a keen competition for felon hands. An organized system of
+kidnapping prevailed along the British coasts; young lads were seized
+and sold into what was practically white slavery in the American
+plantations. These malpractices were checked, but the legitimate traffic
+in convict labour continued, until it was ended peremptorily by the
+revolt of the American colonies and the achievement of their
+independence in 1776.[1]
+
+The British legislature, making a virtue of necessity, discovered that
+transportation to the colonies was bound to be attended by various
+inconveniences, particularly by depriving the kingdom of many subjects
+whose labour might be useful to the community; and an act was
+accordingly passed which provides that convicts sentenced to
+transportation might be employed at hard labour at home. At the same
+time the consideration of some scheme for their disposal was entrusted
+to three eminent public men--Sir William Blackstone, Mr Eden (afterwards
+Lord Auckland) and John Howard. The result of their labours was an act
+for the establishment of penitentiary houses, dated 1778. This act is of
+peculiar importance. It contains the first public enunciation of a
+general principle of prison treatment, and shows that even at that early
+date the system since nearly universally adopted was fully understood.
+The object in view was thus stated. It was hoped "by sobriety,
+cleanliness and medical assistance, by a regular series of labour, by
+solitary confinement during the intervals of work and by due religious
+instruction to preserve and amend the health of the unhappy offenders,
+to inure them to habits of industry, to guard them from pernicious
+company, to accustom them to serious reflection and to teach them both
+the principles and practice of every Christian and moral duty." The
+experience of succeeding years has added little to these the true
+principles of penal discipline; they form the basis of every species of
+prison system carried out since the passing of an act of 1779.
+
+
+Australian penal settlements.
+
+No immediate action was taken by the committee appointed. Its members
+were not in accord as to the choice of site. One was for Islington,
+another for Limehouse; Howard only stipulated for some healthy place
+well supplied with water and conveniently situated for supervision. He
+was strongly of opinion that the penitentiary should be built by convict
+labour. Howard withdrew from the commission, and new members were
+appointed, who were on the eve of beginning the first penitentiary when
+the discoveries of Captain Cook in the South Seas turned the attention
+of the government towards these new lands. The vast territories of
+Australasia promised an unlimited field for convict colonization, and
+for the moment the scheme for penitentiary houses fell to the ground.
+Public opinion generally preferred the idea of establishing penal
+settlements at a distance from home. "There was general confidence,"
+says Merivale in his work on colonization, "in the favourite theory that
+the best mode of punishing offenders was that which removed them from
+the scene of offence and temptation, cut them off by a great gulf of
+space from all their former connexions, and gave them the opportunity of
+redeeming past crimes by becoming useful members of society." These
+views so far prevailed that an expedition consisting of nine transports
+and two men-of-war, the "first fleet" of Australian annals, sailed in
+March 1787 for New South Wales. This first fleet reached Botany Bay in
+January 1788, but passed on and landed at Port Jackson, where it entered
+and occupied Sydney harbour. From that time forward convicts were sent
+in constantly increasing numbers from England to the Antipodes. Yet the
+early settlement at Sydney had not greatly prospered. The infant colony
+had had a bitter struggle for existence. It had been hoped that the
+community would raise its own produce and speedily become
+self-supporting. But the soil was unfruitful; the convicts knew nothing
+of farming. All lived upon rations sent out from home; and when convoys
+with relief lingered by the way famine stared all in the face. The
+colony was long a penal settlement and nothing more, peopled only by two
+classes, convicts and their masters; criminal bondsmen on the one hand
+who had forfeited their independence and were bound to labour without
+wages for the state, on the other officials to guard and exact the due
+performance of tasks. A few free families were encouraged to emigrate,
+but they were lost in the mass they were intended to leaven, swamped and
+outnumbered by the convicts, shiploads of whom continued to pour in year
+after year. When the influx increased, difficulties as to their
+employment arose. Free settlers were too few to give work to more than a
+small proportion. Moreover, a new policy was in the ascendant, initiated
+by Governor Macquarie, who considered the convicts and their
+rehabilitation his chief care, and steadily discouraged the immigration
+of any but those who "came out for their country's good." The great bulk
+of the convict labour thus remained in government hands.
+
+This period marked the first phase in the history of transportation. The
+penal colony, having triumphed over early dangers and difficulties, was
+crowded with convicts in a state of semi-freedom, maintained at the
+public expense and utilized in the development of the latent resources
+of the country. The methods employed by Governor Macquarie were not,
+perhaps, invariably the best; the time was hardly ripe as yet for the
+erection of palatial buildings in Sydney, while the congregation of the
+workmen in large bodies tended greatly to their demoralization. But some
+of the works undertaken and carried out were of incalculable service to
+the young colony; and its early advance in wealth and prosperity was
+greatly due to the magnificent roads, bridges and other facilities of
+inter-communication for which it was indebted to Governor Macquarie. As
+time passed the criminal sewage flowing from the Old World to the New
+greatly increased in volume under milder and more humane laws. Many now
+escaped the gallows, and much of the overcrowding of the gaols at home
+was caused by the gangs of convicts awaiting transhipment to the
+Antipodes. They were packed off, however, with all convenient despatch,
+and the numbers on government hands in the colonies multiplied
+exceedingly, causing increasing embarrassment as to their disposal.
+Moreover, the expense of the Australian convict establishments was
+enormous.
+
+
+Assignment system.
+
+Some change in system was inevitable, and the plan of "assignment" was
+introduced; in other words, that of freely lending the convicts to any
+who would relieve the authorities of the burdensome charge. By this time
+free settlers were arriving in greater number, invited by a different
+and more liberal policy than that of Governor Macquarie. Inducements
+were especially offered to persons possessed of capital to assist in the
+development of the country. Assignment developed rapidly; soon eager
+competition arose for the convict hands that had been at first so
+reluctantly taken. Great facilities existed for utilizing them on the
+wide areas of grazing land and on the new stations in the interior. A
+pastoral life, without temptations and contaminating influences, was
+well suited for convicts. As the colony grew richer and more populous,
+other than agricultural employers became assignees, and numerous
+enterprises were set on foot. The trades and callings which minister to
+the needs of all civilized communities were more and more largely
+pursued. There was plenty of work for skilled convicts in the towns, and
+the services of the more intelligent were highly prized. It was a great
+boon to secure gratis the assistance of men specially trained as clerks,
+book-keepers or handicraftsmen. Hence all manner of intrigues and
+manoeuvres were afoot on the arrival of drafts and there was a
+scramble for the best hands. Here at once was a palpable flaw in the
+system of assignment. The lot of the convict was altogether unequal.
+Some, the dull, unlettered and unskilled, were drafted up country to
+heavy manual labour at which they remained, while clever expert rogues
+found pleasant, congenial and often profitable employment in the towns.
+The contrast was very marked from the first, but it became the more
+apparent when in due course it was seen that some were still engaged in
+irksome toil, while others who had come out by the same ship had already
+attained to affluence and ease. For the latter transportation was no
+punishment, but often the reverse. It meant too often transfer to a new
+world under conditions more favourable to success, removed from the
+keener competition of the old. By adroit management, too, convicts often
+obtained the command of funds, the product of nefarious transactions at
+home, which wives or near relatives or unconvicted accomplices presently
+brought out to them. It was easy for the free new-comers to secure the
+assignment of their convict friends; and the latter, although still
+nominally servants and in the background, at once assumed the real
+control. Another system productive of much evil was the employment of
+convict clerks in positions of trust in various government offices;
+convicts did much of the legal work of the colony; a convict was clerk
+to the attorney general; others were schoolmasters and were entrusted
+with the education of youth.
+
+
+Evils of convict system.
+
+Under a system so anomalous and uncertain the main object of
+transportation as a method of penal discipline and repression was in
+danger of being quite overlooked. Yet the state could not entirely
+abdicate its functions, although it surrendered to a great extent the
+care of criminals to private persons. It had established a code of
+penalties for the coercion of the ill-conducted, while it kept the worst
+perforce in its own hands. The master was always at liberty to appeal to
+the strong arm of the law. A message carried to a neighbouring
+magistrate, often by the culprit himself, brought down the prompt
+retribution of the lash. Convicts might be flogged for petty offences,
+for idleness, drunkenness, turbulence, absconding and so forth. At the
+out-stations some show of decorum and regularity was observed, although
+the work done was generally scanty and the convicts were secretly given
+to all manner of evil courses. The town convicts were worse, because
+they were far less controlled. They were nominally under the
+surveillance and supervision of the police, which amounted to nothing
+at all. They came and went, and amused themselves after working hours,
+so that Sydney and all the large towns were hotbeds of vice and
+immorality. The masters as a rule made no attempt to watch over their
+charges; many of them were absolutely unfitted to do so, being
+themselves of low character, "emancipists" frequently, old convicts
+conditionally pardoned or who had finished their terms. No effort was
+made to prevent the assignment of convicts to improper persons; every
+applicant got what he wanted, even though his own character would not
+bear inspection. All whom the masters could not manage--the incorrigible
+upon whom the lash and bread and water had been tried in vain--were
+returned to government charge. These, in short, comprised the whole of
+the refuse of colonial convictdom. Every man who could not agree with
+his master, or who was to undergo a penalty greater than flogging or
+less than capital punishment, came back to government and was disposed
+of in one of three ways, (1) the road parties, (2) the chain gang, or
+(3) the penal settlements. (1) In the first case, the convicts might be
+kept in the vicinity of the towns or marched about the country according
+to the work in hand; the labour was severe, but, owing to inefficient
+supervision, never intolerable; the diet was ample and there was no
+great restraint upon independence within certain wide limits. To the
+slackness of control over the road parties was directly traceable the
+frequent escape of desperadoes, who, defying recapture, recruited the
+gangs of bushrangers which were a constant terror to the whole country.
+In (2) the chain or iron gangs, as they were sometimes styled,
+discipline was far more rigorous. It was maintained by the constant
+presence of a military guard, and when most efficiently organized the
+gang was governed by a military officer who was also a magistrate. The
+work was really hard, the custody close--in hulk, stockaded barrack or
+caravan; the first was at Sydney, the second in the interior, the last
+when the undertaking required constant change of place. All were locked
+up from sunset to sunrise; all wore heavy leg irons; and all were liable
+to immediate flagellation. The convict "scourger" was one of the regular
+officials attached to every chain gang. (3) The third and ultimate
+receptacle was the penal settlement, to which no offenders were
+transferred till all other methods of treatment had failed. These were
+terrible cesspools of iniquity, so bad that it seemed, to use the words
+of one who knew them well, that "the heart of a man who went to them was
+taken from him and he was given that of a beast." The horrors
+accumulated at Norfolk Island, Moreton Bay, Port Arthur and Tasman's
+Peninsula are almost beyond description. The convicts herded together in
+them were soon utterly degraded and brutalized; no wonder that reckless
+despair took possession of them, that death on the gallows for murder
+purposely committed, or the slow terror from starvation following escape
+into surrounding wilds was often welcomed as a relief.
+
+The stage which transportation was now reaching and the actual condition
+of affairs in the Australian colonies about this period do not appear to
+have been much understood in England. Earnest and thoughtful men might
+busy themselves with prison discipline at home, and the legislature
+might watch with peculiar interest the results obtained from the special
+treatment of a limited number of selected offenders in Millbank
+penitentiary. But for the great mass of criminality deported to a
+distant shore no very active concern was shown. The country for a long
+time seemed satisfied with transportation. Portions of the system might
+be open to criticism. Thus the Commons committee of 1832 freely
+condemned the hulks at Woolwich and other arsenals in which a large
+number of convicts were kept while waiting embarkation. It was reported
+that the indiscriminate association of prisoners in them produced more
+vice, profaneness and demoralization than in the ordinary prisons. After
+dark the wildest orgies went on unchecked--dancing, fighting, gambling,
+singing and so forth; it was easy to get drink and tobacco and to see
+friends from outside. The labour hours were short and the tasks light;
+"altogether the situation of the convict in the hulks," says the report,
+"cannot be considered penal; it is a state of restriction, but hardly of
+punishment."
+
+
+Australian objections.
+
+But no objection was raised to transportation. It was considered by this
+same committee "a most valuable expedient in the system of secondary
+punishment." They only thought it necessary to suggest that exile should
+be preceded by a period of severe probationary punishment in England, a
+proposal which was reiterated later on and actually adopted. It was in
+the country most closely affected that dissatisfaction first began to
+find voice. Already in 1832 the most reputable sections of Australian
+society were beginning to murmur grievously. Transportation had fostered
+the growth of a strong party--that representing convict views--and these
+were advocated boldly in unprincipled prints. This party, constantly
+recruited from the emancipists and ticket-of-leave holders, gradually
+grew very numerous, and threatened soon to swamp the honest and
+untainted parts of the community. As years passed the prevalence of
+crime, and the universally low tone of morality due to the convict
+element, became more and more in the ascendant. At length in 1835 Judge
+Burton made a loud protest, and in a charge to the grand jury of Sydney
+plainly intimated that transportation must cease. While it existed, he
+said, the colonies could never rise to their proper position; they could
+not claim free institutions. This bold but forcible language commanded
+attention. It was speedily echoed in England, and particularly by
+Archbishop Whately, who argued that transportation failed in all the
+leading requisites of any system of secondary punishment. Transportation
+exercised no salutary terror in offenders; it was no longer exile to an
+unknown inhospitable region, but to one flowing with milk and honey,
+whither innumerable friends and associates had gone already. The most
+glowing descriptions came back of the wealth which any clever fellow
+might easily amass; stories were told and names mentioned of those who
+had made ample fortunes in Australia in a few years. As a matter of fact
+the convicts, or at least large numbers of them, had prospered
+exceedingly. Some had incomes of twenty, thirty, even forty thousand
+pounds a year. The deteriorating effects of the system were plainly
+manifest on the surface from the condition of the colony,--the
+profligacy of the towns, the scant reprobation of crimes and those who
+had committed them. Down below, in the openly sanctioned slavery called
+assignment, in the demoralizing chain gangs and in the inexpressibly
+horrible penal settlements, were more abundant and more awful proofs of
+the general wickedness and corruption. Moreover these appalling results
+were accompanied by colossal expenditure. The cost of the colonial
+convict establishments, with the passages out, amounted annually to
+upwards of £300,000; another £100,000 was expended on the military
+garrisons; and various items brought the whole outlay to about half a
+million per annum. It may be argued that this was not a heavy price to
+pay for peopling a continent and laying the foundations of a vast
+Australasian empire. But that empire could never have expanded to its
+present dimensions if it had depended on convict immigration alone.
+There was a point, too, at which all development, all progress, would
+have come to a full stop had it not been relieved of its stigma as a
+penal colony.
+
+
+Reform movement.
+
+That point was reached between 1835 and 1840, when a powerful party came
+into existence in New South Wales, pledged to bring about the
+abandonment of transportation. A strongly hostile feeling was also
+gaining ground in England. In 1837 a new committee of the House of
+Commons had made a patient and searching investigation into the merits
+and demerits of the system and freely condemned it. The government had
+no choice but to give way; it could not ignore the protests of the
+colonists, backed up by such an authoritative expression of opinion. In
+1840 orders were issued to suspend the deportation of criminals to New
+South Wales. But what was to become of the convicts? It was impossible
+to keep them at home. The hulks which might have served had also failed;
+the faultiness of their internal management had been fully proved. The
+committee had recommended the erection of more penitentiaries. But the
+costly experiment of Millbank had been barren of results. The model
+prison at Pentonville, in process of construction under the pressure of
+a movement towards prison reform, could offer but limited
+accommodation. A proposal was put forward to construct convict barracks
+in the vicinity of the great arsenals; but this, which contained really
+the germ of the present British penal system, was premature. The
+government in this dilemma steered a middle course and resolved to
+adhere to transportation, but under a greatly modified and it was hoped
+much improved form. The colony of Van Diemen's Land, younger and less
+self-reliant than its neighbour, had also endured convict immigration
+but had made no protest. It was resolved to direct the whole stream of
+deportation upon Van Diemen's Land, which was thus constituted one vast
+colonial prison. The main principle of the new system was one of
+probation; hence its name. All convicts were to pass through various
+stages and degrees of punishment according to their conduct and
+character. Some general depot was needed where the necessary observation
+could be made, and it was found at Millbank penitentiary. Thence boys
+were sent to the prison for juveniles at Parkhurst; the most promising
+subjects among the adults were selected to undergo the experimental
+discipline of solitude and separation at Pentonville; less hopeful cases
+went to the hulks; and all adults alike passed on to the Antipodes.
+Fresh stages awaited the convict on his arrival at Van Diemen's Land.
+The first was limited to "lifers" and colonial convicts sentenced a
+second time. It consisted in detention at one of the penal stations,
+either Norfolk Island or Tasman's Peninsula, where the disgraceful
+conditions already described continued unchanged to the very last. The
+second stage received the largest number, who were subjected in it to
+gang labour, working under restraint in various parts of the colony.
+These probation stations, as they were called, were intended to
+inculcate habits of industry and subordination; they were provided with
+supervisors and religious instructors; and had they not been tainted by
+the vicious virus brought to them by others arriving from the penal
+stations, they might have answered their purpose for a time. But they
+became as bad as the worst of the penal settlements and contributed
+greatly to the breakdown of the whole system. The third stage and the
+first step towards freedom was the concession of a pass which permitted
+the convict to be at large under certain conditions to seek work for
+himself; the fourth was a ticket-of-leave, the possession of which
+allowed him to come and go much as he pleased; the fifth and last was
+absolute pardon, with the prospects of rehabilitation.
+
+
+Gradual abandonment.
+
+This scheme seemed admirable on paper; yet it failed completely when put
+into practice. Colonial resources were quite unable to bear the
+pressure. Within two or three years Van Diemen's Land was inundated with
+convicts. Sixteen thousand were sent out in four years; the average
+annual number in the colony was about 30,000, and this when there were
+only 37,000 free settlers. Half the whole number of convicts remained in
+government hands and were kept in the probation gangs, engaged upon
+public works of great utility; but the other half, pass-holders and
+ticket-of-leave men in a state of semi-freedom, could get little or no
+employment. The supply greatly exceeded the demand; there were no hirers
+of labour. Had the colony been as large and as prosperous as its
+neighbour it could scarcely have absorbed the glut of workmen; but it
+was really on the verge of bankruptcy--its finances were embarrassed,
+its trades and industries at a standstill. But not only were the
+convicts idle; they were utterly depraved. It was soon found that the
+system which kept large bodies always together had a most pernicious
+effect upon their moral condition. "The congregation of criminals in
+large batches without adequate supervision meant simply wholesale,
+widespread pollution," as was said at the time. These ever-present and
+constantly increasing evils forced the government to reconsider its
+position; and in 1846 transportation to Van Diemen's Land was
+temporarily suspended for a couple of years, during which it was hoped
+some relief might be afforded. The formation of a new convict colony in
+North Australia had been contemplated; but the project, warmly espoused
+by Mr Gladstone, then under-secretary of state for the colonies, was
+presently abandoned; and it now became clear that no resumption of
+transportation was possible. The measures taken to substitute other
+methods of secondary punishment are set forth in the article Prison
+(q.v.).
+
+
+French practice.
+
+_France._--France adopted deportation for criminals as far back as 1763,
+when a penal colony was founded in French Guiana and failed
+disastrously. An expedition was sent there, composed of the most evil
+elements of the Paris population and numbering 14,000, all of whom died.
+The attempt was repeated in 1766 and with the same miserable result.
+Other failures are recorded, the worst being the scheme of the
+philanthropist Baron Milius, who in 1823 planned to form a community on
+the banks of the Mana (French Guiana) by the marriage of exiled convicts
+and degraded women, which resulted in the most ghastly horrors. The
+principle of deportation was then formally condemned by publicists and
+government until suddenly in 1854 it was reintroduced into the French
+penal code with many high-sounding phrases. Splendid results were to be
+achieved in the creation of rich colonies afar, and the regeneration of
+the criminal by new openings in a new land. The only outlet available at
+the moment beyond the sea was French Guiana, and it was again to be
+utilized despite its pestilential climate. Thousands were exiled, more
+than half to find certain death; none of the penal settlements
+prospered. No return was made by agricultural development, farms and
+plantations proved a dead loss under the unfavourable conditions of
+labour enforced in a malarious climate and unkindly soil, and it was
+acknowledged by French officials that the attempt to establish a penal
+colony on the equator was utterly futile. Deportation to Guiana was not
+abandoned, but instead of native-born French exiles, convicts of subject
+races, Arabs, Anamites and Asiatic blacks, were sent exclusively, with
+no better success as regards colonization.
+
+In 1864, however, it was possible to divert the stream elsewhere. New
+Caledonia in the Australian Pacific was annexed to France in 1853. Ten
+years later it became a new settlement for convict emigrants. A first
+shipload was disembarked in 1864 at Noumea, and the foundations of the
+city laid. Prison buildings were the first erected and were planted upon
+the island of Nou, a small breakwater to the Bay of Noumea. Outwardly
+all went well under the fostering care of the authorities. The
+population steadily increased; an average total of 600 in 1867 rose in
+the following year to 1554. In 1874 the convict population exceeded
+5000; in 1880 it had risen to 8000; the total reached 9608 at the end of
+December 1883. But from that time forward the numbers transported
+annually fell, for it was found that this South Pacific island, with its
+fertile soil and fairly temperate climate, by no means intimidated the
+dangerous classes; and the French administration therefore resumed
+deportation of French-born whites to Guiana, which was known as
+notoriously unhealthy and was likely to act as a more positive
+deterrent. The authorities divided their exiles between the two outlets,
+choosing New Caledonia for the convicts who gave some promise of
+regeneration, and sending criminals with the worst antecedents and
+presumably incorrigible to the settlements on the equator. This was in
+effect to hand over a fertile colony entirely to criminals. Free
+immigration to New Caledonia was checked, and the colony became almost
+exclusively penal. The natural growth of a prosperous colonial community
+made no advance, and convict labour did little to stimulate it, the
+public works, essential for development, and construction of roads were
+neglected; there was no extensive clearance of lands, no steady
+development of agriculture. From 1898 simple deportation practically
+ceased, but the islands were full of convicts already sent, and they
+still received the product of the latest invention in the criminal code
+known as "relegation," a punishment directed against the recidivist or
+incorrigible criminal whom no penal retribution had hitherto touched and
+whom the French law felt justified in banishing for ever to the "back of
+beyond." A certain period of time spent in a hard labour prison preceded
+relegation, but the convicts on arrival were generally unfitted to
+assist in colonization. They were for the most part decadent, morally
+and physically; their labour was of no substantial value to colonists
+or themselves, and there was small hope of profitable result when they
+gained conditional liberation, with a concession of colonial land and a
+possibility of rehabilitation by their own efforts abroad, for by their
+sentence they were forbidden to hope for return to France. The
+punishment of relegation was not long in favour, the number of sentences
+to it fell year after year, and it has now been practically abandoned.
+
+_Other Countries._--Penal exile has been practised by some other
+countries as a method of secondary punishment. Russia since 1823 has
+directed a stream of offenders, mainly political, upon Siberia, and at
+one time the yearly average sent was 18,000. The Siberian exile system,
+the horrors of which cannot be exaggerated, belongs only in part to
+penitentiary science, but it was very distinctly punitive and aimed at
+regeneration of the individual and the development of the soil by new
+settlements. Although the journey was made mostly on foot and not by sea
+transport, the principle of deportation (or more exactly of removal) was
+the essence of the system. The later practice, however, has been exactly
+similar to transportation as originated by England and afterwards
+followed by France. The penal colonization of the island of Sakhalin
+reproduced the preceding methods, and the Russian convicts were conveyed
+by ships through the Suez Canal to the Far East. Sakhalin was hopefully
+intended as an outlet for released convicts and their rehabilitation by
+their own efforts, precisely in the manner tried in Australia and New
+Caledonia. The result repeated previous experiences. There was land to
+reclaim, forests to cut down, marshes to drain, everything but a
+temperate climate and a good will of the felon labourers to create a
+prosperous colony. But the convicts would not work; a few sought to win
+the right to occupy a concession of soil, but the bulk were pure
+vagabonds, wandering to and fro in search of food. The agricultural
+enterprise was a complete failure. The wrong sites for cultivation were
+chosen, the labourers were unskilled and they handled very indifferent
+tools. Want amounting to constant starvation was a constant rule; the
+rations were insufficient and unwholesome, very little meat eked out
+with salt fish and with entire absence of vegetables. The general tone
+of morals was inconceivably low, and a universal passion for alcohol and
+card-playing prevailed. According to one authority the life of the
+convicts at Sakhalin was a frightful nightmare, "a mixture of debauchery
+and innocence mixed with real sufferings and almost inconceivable
+privations, corrupt in every one of its phases." The prisons hopelessly
+ruined all who entered them, all classes were indiscriminately herded
+together. It is now generally allowed that deportation, as practised,
+had utterly failed, the chief reasons being the unmanageable numbers
+sent and the absence of outlets for their employment, even at great
+cost.
+
+The prisons on Sakhalin have been described as hotbeds of vice; the only
+classification of prisoners is one based on the length of sentence. Some
+imperfect attempt is made to separate those waiting trial from the
+recidivist or hardened offender, but too often the association is
+indiscriminate. Prison discipline is generally slack and ineffective,
+the staff of warders, from ill-judged economy, too weak to supervise or
+control. The officers themselves are of inferior stamp, drunken,
+untrustworthy, overbearing, much given to "trafficking" with the
+prisoners, accepting bribes to assist escape, quick to misuse and
+oppress their charges. Crime of the worst description is common.
+
+Italy has practised deportation in planting various agricultural
+colonies upon the islands to be found on her coast. They were meant to
+imitate the intermediate prisons of the Irish system, where prisoners
+might work out their redemption, when provisionally released. Two were
+established on the islands of Pianoso and Gorgona, and there were
+settlements made on Monte Christo and Capraia. They were used also to
+give effect to the system of enforced residence or _domicilio coatto_.
+
+Portugal also has tried deportation to the African colony of Angola on a
+small scale with some success, and combined it with free emigration. The
+settlers have been represented as well disposed towards the convicts,
+gladly obtaining their services or helping them in the matter of
+security. The convict element is orderly, and, although their treatment
+is "_peu repressive et relativement debonnaire_," few commit offences.
+
+The Andaman Islands have been utilized by the Indian government since
+the mutiny (1857) for the deportation of heinous criminals (see ANDAMAN
+ISLANDS).
+
+   AUTHORITIES.--Captain A. Phillip, R.N., _The Voyage of Governor
+   Phillip to New South Wales_ (1790); David Collins, _Account of the
+   English Colony of New South Wales_ (1798); Archbishop Whately,
+   _Remarks on Transportation_ (1834); Herman Merivale, _Colonization
+   and Colonies_ (1841); d'Haussonville, _Établissements pénitentiaires
+   en France et aux colonies_ (1875); George Griffith, _In a Prison
+   Land_; Cuche, _Science et legislation pénitentiaire_ (1905); Hawes,
+   _The Uttermost East_ (1906).                              (A. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See J. C. Ballagh, _White Servitude in Virginia_ (Baltimore, 1895.)
+
+
+
+
+DEPOSIT (Lat. _depositum_, from _deponere_, to lay down, to put in the
+care of), anything laid down or separated; as in geology, any mass of
+material accumulated by a natural agency (see BED), and in chemistry, a
+precipitate or matter settling from a solution or suspension. In
+banking, a deposit may mean, generally, a sum of money lodged in a bank
+without regard to the conditions under which it is held, but more
+specially money lodged with a bank on "deposit account" and acknowledged
+by the banker by a "deposit receipt" given to the depositor. It is then
+not drawn upon by cheque, usually bears interest at a rate varying from
+time to time, and can only be withdrawn after fixed notice. Deposit is
+also used in the sense of earnest or security for the performance of a
+contract. In the law of mortgage the deposit of title-deeds is usual as
+a security for the repayment of money advanced. Such a deposit operates
+as an equitable mortgage. In the law of contract, deposit or simple
+bailment is delivery or bailment of goods in trust to be kept without
+recompense, and redelivered on demand (see BAILMENT).
+
+
+
+
+DEPOT (from the Fr. _dépôt_, Lat. _depositum_, laid down; the French
+accent marks are usually dispensed with in English), a place where
+things may be stored or deposited, such as a furniture or forage depot,
+the accumulation of military stores, especially in the theatre of
+operations. In America the word is used of a railway station, whether
+for passengers or goods; in Great Britain on railways the word, when in
+use, is applied to goods stations. A particular military application is
+to a depot, situated as a rule in the centre of the recruiting district
+of the regiment or other unit, where recruits are received and undergo
+the necessary preliminary training before joining the active troops.
+Such depots are maintained in peace time by all armies which have to
+supply distant or oversea garrisons; in an army raised by compulsory
+service and quartered in its own country, the regiments are usually
+stationed in their own districts, and on their taking the field for war
+leave behind a small nucleus for the formation and training of drafts to
+be sent out later. These nucleus troops are generally called depot
+troops.
+
+
+
+
+DEPRETIS, AGOSTINO (1813-1887), Italian statesman, was born at Mezzana
+Corte, in the province of Stradella on the 31st of January 1813. From
+early manhood a disciple of Mazzini and affiliated to the _Giovane
+Italia_, he took an active part in the Mazzinian conspiracies and was
+nearly captured by the Austrians while smuggling arms into Milan.
+Elected deputy in 1848, he joined the Left and founded the journal _Il
+Diritto_, but held no official position until appointed governor of
+Brescia in 1859. In 1860 he went to Sicily on a mission to reconcile the
+policy of Cavour (who desired the immediate incorporation of the island
+in the kingdom of Italy) with that of Garibaldi, who wished to postpone
+the Sicilian _plébiscite_ until after the liberation of Naples and Rome.
+Though appointed pro-dictator of Sicily by Garibaldi, he failed in his
+attempt. Accepting the portfolio of public works in the Rattazzi cabinet
+in 1862, he served as intermediary in arranging with Garibaldi the
+expedition which ended disastrously at Aspromonte. Four years later, on
+the outbreak of war against Austria, he entered the Ricasoli cabinet as
+minister of marine, and, by maintaining Admiral Persano in command of
+the fleet, contributed to the defeat of Lissa. His apologists contend,
+however, that, as an inexperienced civilian, he could not have made
+sudden changes in naval arrangements without disorganizing the fleet,
+and that in view of the impending hostilities he was obliged to accept
+the dispositions of his predecessors. Upon the death of Rattazzi in
+1873, Depretis became leader of the Left, prepared the advent of his
+party to power, and was called upon to form the first cabinet of the
+Left in 1876. Overthrown by Cairoli in March 1878 on the grist-tax
+question, he succeeded, in the following December, in defeating Cairoli,
+became again premier, but on the 3rd of July 1879 was once more
+overturned by Cairoli. In November 1879 he, however, entered the Cairoli
+cabinet as minister of the interior, and in May 1881 succeeded to the
+premiership, retaining that office until his death on the 29th of July
+1887. During the long interval he recomposed his cabinet four times,
+first throwing out Zanardelli and Baccarini in order to please the
+Right, and subsequently bestowing portfolios upon Ricotti, Robilant and
+other Conservatives, so as to complete the political process known as
+"trasformismo." A few weeks before his death he repented of his
+transformist policy, and again included Crispi and Zanardelli in his
+cabinet. During his long term of office he abolished the grist tax,
+extended the suffrage, completed the railway system, aided Mancini in
+forming the Triple Alliance, and initiated colonial policy by the
+occupation of Massawa; but, at the same time, he vastly increased
+indirect taxation, corrupted and destroyed the fibre of parliamentary
+parties, and, by extravagance in public works, impaired the stability of
+Italian finance.
+
+
+
+
+DEPTFORD, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England,
+bounded N. by Bermondsey, E. by the river Thames and Greenwich, S. by
+Lewisham and W. by Camberwell. Pop. (1901) 110,398. The name is
+connected with a ford over the Ravensbourne, a stream entering the
+Thames through Deptford Creek. The borough comprises only the parish of
+Deptford St Paul, that of Deptford St Nicholas being included in the
+borough of Greenwich. Deptford is a district of poor streets, inhabited
+by a large industrial population, employed in engineering and other
+riverside works. On the river front, extending into the borough of
+Greenwich, are the royal victualling yard and the site of the old
+Deptford dockyard. The first supplies the navy with provisions,
+medicines, furniture, &c., manufactured or stored in the large
+warehouses here. The dockyard ceased to be used in 1869, and was filled
+up and converted into a foreign cattle market by the City Corporation.
+Of public buildings the most noteworthy are St Paul's church (1730), of
+classic design; the municipal buildings; and the hospital for master
+mariners, maintained by the corporation of the Trinity House, which was
+founded at Deptford, the old hall being pulled down in 1787. Other
+institutions are the Goldsmiths' Polytechnic Institute, New Cross; and
+the South-eastern fever hospital. A mansion known as Sayes Court, taken
+down in 1729, was the residence of the duke of Sussex in the reign of
+Elizabeth; it was occupied in the following century by John Evelyn,
+author of _Sylva_, and by Peter the Great during his residence in
+England in 1698. The site of its gardens is occupied by Deptford Park of
+11 acres. Another open space is Telegraph Hill (9½ acres). The
+parliamentary borough of Deptford returns one member. The borough
+council consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 36 councillors. Area,
+1562.7 acres.
+
+
+
+
+DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of _deputare_, to cut off,
+allot; _putare_ having the original sense of to trim, prune), one
+appointed to act or govern instead of another; one who exercises an
+office in another man's right, a substitute; in representative
+government a member of an elected chamber. In general, the powers and
+duties of a deputy are those of his principal (see also REPRESENTATION),
+but the extent to which he may exercise them is dependent upon the power
+delegated to him. He may be authorized to exercise the whole of his
+principal's office, in which case he is a general deputy, or to act only
+in some particular matter or service, when he is termed a special
+deputy. In the United Kingdom various officials are specifically
+empowered by statute to appoint deputies to act for them under certain
+circumstances. Thus a clerk of the peace, in case of illness, incapacity
+or absence, may appoint a fit person to act as his deputy. While judges
+of the supreme court cannot act by deputy, county court judges and
+recorders can, in cases of illness or unavoidable absence, appoint
+deputies. So can registrars of county courts and returning officers at
+elections.
+
+
+
+
+DE QUINCEY, THOMAS (1785-1859), English author, was born at Greenheys,
+Manchester, on the 15th of August 1785. He was the fifth child in a
+family of eight (four sons and four daughters). His father, descended
+from a Norman family, was a merchant, who left his wife and six children
+a clear income of £1600 a year. Thomas was from infancy a shy, sensitive
+child, with a constitutional tendency to dreaming by night and by day;
+and, under the influence of an elder brother, a lad "whose genius for
+mischief amounted to inspiration," who died in his sixteenth year, he
+spent much of his boyhood in imaginary worlds of their own creating. The
+amusements and occupations of the whole family, indeed, seem to have
+been mainly intellectual; and in De Quincey's case, emphatically, "the
+child was father to the man." "My life has been," he affirms in the
+_Confessions_, "on the whole the life of a philosopher; from my birth I
+was made an intellectual creature, and intellectual in the highest sense
+my pursuits and pleasures have been." From boyhood he was more or less
+in contact with a polished circle; his education, easy to one of such
+native aptitude, was sedulously attended to. When he was in his twelfth
+year the family removed to Bath, where he was sent to the grammar
+school, at which he remained for about two years; and for a year more he
+attended another public school at Winkfield, Wiltshire. At thirteen he
+wrote Greek with ease; at fifteen he not only composed Greek verses in
+lyric measures, but could converse in Greek fluently and without
+embarrassment; one of his masters said of him, "that boy could harangue
+an Athenian mob better than you or I could address an English one."
+Towards the close of his fifteenth year he visited Ireland, with a
+companion of his own age, Lord Westport, the son of Lord Altamont, an
+Irish peer, and spent there in residence and travel some months of the
+summer and autumn of the year 1800,--being a spectator at Dublin of "the
+final ratification of the bill which united Ireland to Great Britain."
+On his return to England, his mother having now settled at St John's
+Priory, a residence near Chester, De Quincey was sent to the Manchester
+grammar school, mainly in the hope of securing one of the school
+exhibitions to help his expenses at Oxford.
+
+Discontented with the mode in which his guardians conducted his
+education, and with some view apparently of forcing them to send him
+earlier to college, he left this school after less than a year's
+residence--ran away, in short, to his mother's house. There his mother's
+brother, Colonel Thomas Penson, made an arrangement for him to have a
+weekly allowance, on which he might reside at some country place in
+Wales, and pursue his studies, presumably till he could go to college.
+From Wales, however, after brief trial, "suffering grievously from want
+of books," he went off as he had done from school, and hid himself from
+guardians and friends in the world of London. And now, as he says,
+commenced "that episode, or impassioned parenthesis of my life, which is
+comprehended in _The Confessions of an English Opium Eater_." This
+London episode extended over a year or more; his money soon vanished,
+and he was in the utmost poverty; he obtained shelter for the night in
+Greek Street, Soho, from a moneylender's agent, and spent his days
+wandering in the streets and parks; finally the lad was reconciled to
+his guardians, and in 1803 was sent to Worcester College, Oxford, being
+by this time about nineteen. It was in the course of his second year at
+Oxford that he first tasted opium,--having taken it to allay neuralgic
+pains. De Quincey's mother had settled at Weston Lea, near Bath, and on
+one of his visits to Bath, De Quincey made the acquaintance of
+Coleridge; he took Mrs Coleridge to Grasmere, where he became personally
+acquainted with Wordsworth.
+
+After finishing his career of five years at college in 1808 he kept
+terms at the Middle Temple; but in 1809 visited the Wordsworths at
+Grasmere, and in the autumn returned to Dove Cottage, which he had taken
+on a lease. His choice was of course influenced partly by neighbourhood
+to Wordsworth, whom he early appreciated;--having been, he says, the
+only man in all Europe who quoted Wordsworth so early as 1802. His
+friendship with Wordsworth decreased within a few years, and when in
+1834 De Quincey published in _Tait's Magazine_ his reminiscences of the
+Grasmere circle, the indiscreet references to the Wordsworths contained
+in the article led to a complete cessation of intercourse. Here also he
+enjoyed the society and friendship of Coleridge, Southey and especially
+of Professor Wilson, as in London he had of Charles Lamb and his circle.
+He continued his classical and other studies, especially exploring the
+at that time almost unknown region of German literature, and indicating
+its riches to English readers. Here also, in 1816, he married Margaret
+Simpson, the "dear M----" of whom a charming glimpse is accorded to the
+reader of the _Confessions_; his family came to be five sons and three
+daughters.
+
+For about a year and a half he edited the _Westmoreland Gazette_. He
+left Grasmere for London in the early part of 1820. The Lambs received
+him with great kindness and introduced him to the proprietors of the
+_London Magazine_. It was in this journal in 1821 that the _Confessions_
+appeared. De Quincey also contributed to _Blackwood_, to _Knight's
+Quarterly Magazine_, and later to _Tait's Magazine_. His connexion with
+_Blackwood_ took him to Edinburgh in 1828, and he lived there for twelve
+years, contributing from time to time to the _Edinburgh Literary
+Gazette_. His wife died in 1837, and the family eventually settled at
+Lasswade, but from this time De Quincey spent his time in lodgings in
+various places, staying at one place until the accumulation of papers
+filled the rooms, when he left them in charge of the landlady and
+wandered elsewhere. After his wife's death he gave way for the fourth
+time in his life to the opium habit, but in 1844 he reduced his daily
+quantity by a tremendous effort to six grains, and never again yielded.
+He died in Edinburgh on the 8th of December 1859, and is buried in the
+West Churchyard.
+
+During nearly fifty years De Quincey lived mainly by his pen. His
+patrimony seems never to have been entirely exhausted, and his habits
+and tastes were simple and inexpensive; but he was reckless in the use
+of money, and had debts and pecuniary difficulties of all sorts. There
+was, indeed, his associates affirm, an element of romance even in his
+impecuniosity, as there was in everything about him; and the diplomatic
+and other devices by which he contrived to keep clear of clamant
+creditors, while scrupulously fulfilling many obligations, often
+disarmed animosity, and converted annoyance into amusement. The famous
+_Confessions of an English Opium Eater_ was published in a small volume
+in 1822, and attracted a very remarkable degree of attention, not simply
+by its personal disclosures, but by the extraordinary power of its
+dream-painting. No other literary man of his time, it has been remarked,
+achieved so high and universal a reputation from such merely fugitive
+efforts. The only works published separately (not in periodicals) were a
+novel, _Klosterheim_ (1832), and _The Logic of Political Economy_
+(1844). After his works were brought together, De Quincey's reputation
+was not merely maintained, but extended. For range of thought and topic,
+within the limits of pure literature, no like amount of material of such
+equality of merit proceeded from any eminent writer of the day. However
+profuse and discursive, De Quincey is always polished, and generally
+exact--a scholar, a wit, a man of the world and a philosopher, as well
+as a genius. He looked upon letters as a noble and responsible calling;
+in his essay on Oliver Goldsmith he claims for literature the rank not
+only of a fine art, but of the highest and most potent of fine arts; and
+as such he himself regarded and practised it. He drew a broad
+distinction between "the literature of _knowledge_ and the literature of
+_power_," asserting that the function of the first is to _teach_, the
+function of the second to _move_,--maintaining that the meanest of
+authors who moves has pre-eminence over all who merely teach, that the
+literature of knowledge must perish by supersession, while the
+literature of power is "triumphant for ever as long as the language
+exists in which it speaks." It is to this class of motive literature
+that De Quincey's own works essentially belong; it is by virtue of that
+vital element of power that they have emerged from the rapid oblivion of
+periodicalism, and live in the minds of later generations. But their
+power is weakened by their volume.
+
+De Quincey fully defined his own position and claim to distinction in
+the preface to his collected works. These he divides into three
+classes:--"_first_, that class which proposes primarily to amuse the
+reader," such as the _Narratives, Autobiographic Sketches_, &c.;
+"_second_, papers which address themselves purely to the understanding
+as an insulated faculty, or do so primarily," such as the essays on
+Essenism, the Caesars, Cicero, &c.; and finally, as a _third_ class,
+"and, in virtue of their aim, as a far higher class of compositions," he
+ranks those "modes of impassioned prose ranging under no precedents that
+I am aware of in any literature," such as the _Confessions_ and
+_Suspiria de Profundis_. The high claim here asserted has been
+questioned; and short and isolated examples of eloquent apostrophe, and
+highly wrought imaginative description, have been cited from Rousseau
+and other masters of style; but De Quincey's power of sustaining a
+fascinating and elevated strain of "impassioned prose" is allowed to be
+entirely his own. Nor, in regard to his writings as a whole, will a
+minor general claim which he makes be disallowed, namely, that he "does
+not write without a thoughtful consideration of his subject," and also
+with novelty and freshness of view. "Generally," he says, "I claim (not
+arrogantly, but with firmness) the merit of rectification applied to
+absolute errors, or to injurious limitations of the truth." Another
+obvious quality of all his genius is its overflowing fulness of allusion
+and illustration, recalling his own description of a great philosopher
+or scholar--"Not one who depends simply on an infinite memory, but also
+on an infinite and electrical power of combination, bringing together
+from the four winds, like the angel of the resurrection, what else were
+dust from dead men's bones into the unity of breathing life." It is
+useless to complain of his having lavished and diffused his talents and
+acquirements over so vast a variety of often comparatively trivial and
+passing topics. The world must accept gifts from men of genius as they
+offer them; circumstance and the hour often rule their form. Those
+influences, no less than the idiosyncrasy of the man, determined De
+Quincey to the illumination of such matter for speculation as seemed to
+lie before him; he was not careful to search out recondite or occult
+themes, though these he did not neglect,--a student, a scholar and a
+recluse, he was yet at the same time a man of the world, keenly
+interested in the movements of men and in the page of history that
+unrolled itself before him day by day. To the discussion of things new,
+as readily as of things old, aided by a capacious, retentive and ready
+memory, which dispensed with reference to printed pages, he brought also
+the exquisite keenness and subtlety of his highly analytic and
+imaginative intellect, the illustrative stores of his vast and varied
+erudition, and that large infusion of common sense which preserved him
+from becoming at any time a mere _doctrinaire_, or visionary. If he did
+not throw himself into any of the great popular controversies or
+agitations of the day, it was not from any want of sympathy with the
+struggles of humanity or the progress of the race, but rather because
+his vocation was to apply to such incidents of his own time, as to like
+incidents of all history, great philosophical principles and tests of
+truth and power. In politics, in the party sense of that term, he would
+probably have been classed as a Liberal Conservative or Conservative
+Liberal--at one period of his life perhaps the former, and at a later
+the latter. Originally, as we have seen, his surroundings were
+aristocratic, in his middle life his associates, notably Wordsworth,
+Southey and Wilson, were all Tories; but he seems never to have held the
+extreme and narrow views of that circle. Though a flavour of high
+breeding runs through his writings, he has no vulgar sneers at the
+vulgar. As he advanced in years his views became more and more decidedly
+liberal, but he was always as far removed from Radicalism as from
+Toryism, and may be described as a philosophical politician, capable of
+classification under no definite party name or colour. Of political
+economy he had been an early and earnest student, and projected, if he
+did not so far proceed with, an elaborate and systematic treatise on the
+science, of which all that appears, however, are his fragmentary
+_Dialogues_ on the system of Ricardo, published in the _London Magazine_
+in 1824, and _The Logic of Political Economy_ (1844). But political and
+economic problems largely exercised his thoughts, and his historical
+sketches show that he is constantly alive to their interpenetrating
+influence. The same may be said of his biographies, notably of his
+remarkable sketch of Dr Parr. Neither politics nor economics, however,
+exercised an absorbing influence on his mind,--they were simply
+provinces in the vast domain of universal speculation through which he
+ranged "with unconfined wings." How wide and varied was the region he
+traversed a glance at the titles of the papers which make up his
+collected--or more properly, selected--works (for there was much matter
+of evanescent interest not reprinted) sufficiently shows. Some things in
+his own line he has done perfectly; he has written many pages of
+magnificently mixed argument, irony, humour and eloquence, which, for
+sustained brilliancy, richness, subtle force and purity of style and
+effect, have simply no parallels; and he is without peer the prince of
+dreamers. The use of opium no doubt stimulated this remarkable faculty
+of reproducing in skilfully selected phrase the grotesque and shifting
+forms of that "cloudland, gorgeous land," which opens to the
+sleep-closed eye.
+
+To the appreciation of De Quincey the reader must bring an imaginative
+faculty somewhat akin to his own--a certain general culture, and large
+knowledge of books, and men and things. Otherwise much of that slight
+and delicate allusion that gives point and colour and charm to his
+writings will be missed; and on this account the full enjoyment and
+comprehension of De Quincey must always remain a luxury of the literary
+and intellectual. But his skill in narration, his rare pathos, his wide
+sympathies, the pomp of his dream-descriptions, the exquisite
+playfulness of his lighter dissertations, and his abounding though
+delicate and subtle humour, commend him to a larger class. Though far
+from being a professed humorist--a character he would have shrunk
+from--there is no more expert worker in a sort of half-veiled and
+elaborate humour and irony than De Quincey; but he employs those
+resources for the most part secondarily. Only in one instance has he
+given himself up to them unreservedly and of set purpose, namely, in the
+famous "Essay on Murder considered as one of the Fine Arts," published
+in _Blackwood_,--an effort which, admired and admirable though it be, is
+also, it must be allowed, somewhat strained. His style, full and
+flexible, pure and polished, is peculiarly his own; yet it is not the
+style of a mannerist,--its charm is, so to speak, latent; the form never
+obtrudes; the secret is only discoverable by analysis and study. It
+consists simply in the reader's assurance of the writer's complete
+mastery over all the infinite applicability and resources of the English
+language. Hence involutions and parentheses, "cycle on epicycle," evolve
+themselves into a stately clearness and harmony; and sentences and
+paragraphs, loaded with suggestion, roll on smoothly and musically,
+without either fatiguing or cloying--rather, indeed, to the surprise as
+well as delight of the reader; for De Quincey is always ready to indulge
+in feats of style, witching the world with that sort of noble
+horsemanship which is as graceful as it is daring.
+
+It has been complained that, in spite of the apparently full confidences
+of the _Confessions_ and _Autobiographic Sketches_, readers are left in
+comparative ignorance, biographically speaking, of the man De Quincey.
+Two passages in his _Confessions_ afford sufficient clues to this
+mystery. In one he describes himself "as framed for love and all gentle
+affections," and in another confesses to the "besetting infirmity" of
+being "too much of an eudaemonist." "I hanker," he says, "too much after
+a state of happiness, both for myself and others; I cannot face misery,
+whether my own or not, with an eye of sufficient firmness, and am little
+capable of surmounting present pain for the sake of any recessionary
+benefit." His sensitive disposition dictated the ignoring in his
+writings of traits merely personal to himself, as well as his
+ever-recurrent resort to opium as a doorway of escape from present ill;
+and prompted those habits of seclusion, and that apparently capricious
+abstraction of himself from the society not only of his friends, but of
+his own family, in which he from time to time persisted. He confessed to
+occasional accesses of an almost irresistible impulse to flee to the
+labyrinthine shelter of some great city like London or Paris,--there to
+dwell solitary amid a multitude, buried by day in the cloister-like
+recesses of mighty libraries, and stealing away by night to some obscure
+lodging. Long indulgence in seclusion, and in habits of study the most
+lawless possible in respect of regular hours or any considerations of
+health or comfort,--the habit of working as pleased himself without
+regard to the divisions of night or day, of times of sleeping or waking,
+even of the slow procession of the seasons, had latterly so disinclined
+him to the restraints, however slight, of ordinary social intercourse,
+that he very seldom submitted to them. On such rare occasions, however,
+as he did appear, perhaps at some simple meal with a favoured friend, or
+in later years in his own small but refined domestic circle, he was the
+most charming of guests, hosts or companions. A short and fragile, but
+well-proportioned frame; a shapely and compact head; a face beaming with
+intellectual light, with rare, almost feminine beauty of feature and
+complexion; a fascinating courtesy of manner; and a fulness, swiftness
+and elegance of silvery speech,--such was the irresistible "mortal
+mixture of earth's mould" that men named De Quincey. He possessed in a
+high degree what James Russell Lowell called "the grace of perfect
+breeding, everywhere persuasive, and nowhere emphatic"; and his whole
+aspect and manner exercised an undefinable attraction over every one,
+gentle or simple, who came within its influence; for shy as he was, he
+was never rudely shy, making good his boast that he had always made it
+his "pride to converse familiarly _more socratico_ with all human
+beings--man, woman and child"--looking on himself as a catholic creature
+standing in an equal relation to high and low, to educated and
+uneducated. He would converse with a peasant lad or a servant girl in
+phrase as choice, and sentences as sweetly turned, as if his
+interlocutor were his equal both in position and intelligence; yet
+without a suspicion of pedantry, and with such complete adaptation of
+style and topic that his talk charmed the humblest as it did the highest
+that listened to it. His conversation was not a monologue; if he had the
+larger share, it was simply because his hearers were only too glad that
+it should be so; he would listen with something like deference to very
+ordinary talk, as if the mere fact of the speaker being one of the same
+company entitled him to all consideration and respect. The natural bent
+of his mind and disposition, and his lifelong devotion to letters, to
+say nothing of his opium eating, rendered him, it must be allowed,
+regardless of ordinary obligations in life--domestic and pecuniary--to a
+degree that would have been culpable in any less singularly constituted
+mind. It was impossible to deal with or judge De Quincey by ordinary
+standards--not even his publishers did so. Much no doubt was forgiven
+him, but all that needed forgiveness is covered by the kindly veil of
+time, while his merits as a master in English literature are still
+gratefully acknowledged.[1]
+
+   [BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In 1853 De Quincey began to prepare an edition of his
+   works, _Selections Grave and Gay_. _Writings Published and
+   Unpublished_ (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1853-1860), followed by a second
+   edition (1863-1871) with notes by James Hogg and two additional
+   volumes; a further supplementary volume appeared in 1878. The first
+   comprehensive edition, however, was printed in America (Boston, 20
+   vols., 1850-1855); and the "Riverside" edition (Boston and New York,
+   12 vols., 1877) is still fuller. The standard English edition is _The
+   Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey_ (14 vols., Edinburgh,
+   1889-1890), edited by David Masson, who also wrote his biography
+   (1881) for the "English Men of Letters" series. The _Uncollected
+   Writings of Thomas De Quincey_ (London, 2 vols., 1890) contains a
+   preface and annotations by James Hogg; _The Posthumous Writings of
+   Thomas De Quincey_ (2 vols., 1891-1893) were edited by A. H. Japp
+   ("H. A. Page"), who wrote the standard biography, _Thomas De Quincey:
+   his Life and Writings_ (London, 2 vols., 2nd ed., 1879), and _De
+   Quincey Memorials_ (2 vols., 1891). See also Arvède Barine,
+   _Neurosés_ (Paris, 1898); Sir L. Stephen, _Hours in a Library_; H. S.
+   Salt, _De Quincey_ (1904); and _De Quincey and his Friends_ (1895), a
+   collection edited by James Hogg, which includes essays by Dr Hill
+   Burton and Shadworth Hodgson.]                           (J. R. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The above account has been corrected and amplified in some
+    statements of fact for this edition. Its original author, John
+    Ritchie Findlay (1824-1898), proprietor of _The Scotsman_ newspaper,
+    and the donor of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in
+    Edinburgh, had been intimate with De Quincey, and in 1886 published
+    his _Personal Recollections_ of him.
+
+
+
+
+DERA GHAZI KHAN, a town and district of British India, in the Punjab. In
+1901 the town had a population of 21,700. There are several handsome
+mosques in the native quarter. It commands the direct approaches to the
+Baluch highlands by Sakki Sarwar and Fort Monro. For many years past
+both the town and cantonment have been threatened by the erosion of the
+river Indus. The town was founded at the close of the 15th century and
+named after Ghazi Khan, son of Haji Khan, a Baluch chieftain, who after
+holding the country for the Langah sultans of Multan had made himself
+independent. Together with the two other _deras_ (settlements), Dera
+Ismail Khan and Dera Fateh Khan, it gave its name to the territorial
+area locally and historically known as Derajat, which after many
+vicissitudes came into the possession of the British after the Sikh War,
+in 1849, and was divided into the two districts of Dera Ghazi Khan and
+Dera Ismail Khan.
+
+The DISTRICT OF DERA GHAZI KHAN contains an area of 5306 sq. m. The
+district is a long narrow strip of country, 198 m. in length, sloping
+gradually from the hills which form its western boundary to the river
+Indus on the east. Below the hills the country is high and arid,
+generally level, but sometimes rolling in sandy undulations, and much
+intersected by hill torrents, 201 in number. With the exceptions of two,
+these streams dry up after the rains, and their influence is only felt
+for a few miles below the hills. The eastern portion of the district is
+at a level sufficiently low to benefit by the floods of the Indus. A
+barren tract intervenes between these zones, and is beyond the reach of
+the hill streams on the one hand and of the Indus on the other. Although
+liable to great extremes of temperature, and to a very scanty rainfall,
+the district is not unhealthy. The population in 1901 was 471,149, the
+great majority being Baluch Mahommedans. The principal exports are wheat
+and indigo. The only manufactures are for domestic use. There is no
+railway in the district, and only 29 m. of metalled road. The Indus,
+which is nowhere bridged within the district, is navigable by native
+boats. The geographical boundary between the Pathan and Baluch races in
+the hills nearly corresponds with the northern limit of the district.
+The frontier tribes on the Dera Ghazi Khan border include the Kasranis,
+Bozdars, Khosas, Lagharis, Khetvans, Gurchanis, Mazaris, Mariris and
+Bugtis. The chief of these are described under their separate names.
+
+
+
+
+DERA ISMAIL KHAN, a town and district in the Derajat division of the
+North-West Frontier Province of India. The town is situated near the
+right bank of the Indus, which is here crossed by a bridge of boats
+during half the year. In 1901 it had a population of 31,737. It takes
+its name from Ismail Khan, a Baluch chief who settled here towards the
+end of the 15th century, and whose descendants ruled for 300 years. The
+old town was swept away by a flood in 1823, and the present town stands
+4 m. back from the permanent channel of the river. The native quarters
+are well laid out, with a large bazaar for Afghan traders. It is the
+residence of many Mahommedan gentry. The cantonment accommodates about a
+brigade of troops. There is considerable through trade with Afghanistan
+by the Gomal Pass, and there are local manufactures of cotton cloth
+scarves and inlaid wood-work.
+
+The DISTRICT OF DERA ISMAIL KHAN contains an area of 3403 sq. m. It was
+formerly divided into two almost equal portions by the Indus, which
+intersected it from north to south. To the west of the Indus the
+characteristics of the country resemble those of Dera Ghazi Khan. To the
+east of the present bed of the river there is a wide tract known as the
+_Kachi_, exposed to river action. Beyond this, the country rises
+abruptly, and a barren, almost desert plain stretches eastwards,
+sparsely cultivated, and inhabited only by nomadic tribes of herdsmen.
+In 1901 the trans-Indus tract was allotted to the newly formed
+North-West Frontier Province, the cis-Indus tract remaining in the
+Punjab jurisdiction. The cis-Indus portions of the Dera Ismail Khan and
+Bannu districts now comprise the new Punjab district of Mianiwali. In
+1901 the population was 252,379, chiefly Pathan and Baluch Mahommedans.
+Wheat and wool are exported.
+
+The Indus is navigable by native boats throughout its course of 120 m.
+within the district, which is the borderland of Pathan and Baluch
+tribes, the Pathan element predominating. The chief frontier tribes are
+the Sheranis and Ustaranas.
+
+
+
+
+DERBENT, or DERBEND, a town of Russia, Caucasia, in the province of
+Daghestan, on the western shore of the Caspian, 153 m. by rail N.W. of
+Baku, in 42° 4' N. and 48° 15' E. Pop. (1873) 15,739; (1897) 14,821. It
+occupies a narrow strip of land beside the sea, from which it climbs up
+the steep heights inland to the citadel of Naryn-kaleh, and is on all
+sides except towards the east surrounded by walls built of porous
+limestone. Its general aspect is Oriental, owing to the flat roofs of
+its two-storeyed houses and its numerous mosques. The environs are
+occupied by vineyards, gardens and orchards, in which madder, saffron
+and tobacco, as well as figs, peaches, pears and other fruits, are
+cultivated. Earthenware, weapons and silk and cotton fabrics are the
+principal products of the manufacturing industry. To the north of the
+town is the monument of the _Kirk-lar_, or "forty heroes," who fell
+defending Daghestan against the Arabs in 728; and to the south lies the
+seaward extremity of the Caucasian wall (50 m. long), otherwise known as
+Alexander's wall, blocking the narrow pass of the Iron Gate or Caspian
+Gates (_Portae Albanae_ or _Portae Caspiae_). This, when entire, had a
+height of 29 ft. and a thickness of about 10 ft., and with its iron
+gates and numerous watch-towers formed a valuable defence of the Persian
+frontier. Derbent is usually identified with Albana, the capital of the
+ancient Albania. The modern name, a Persian word meaning "iron gates,"
+came into use in the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century,
+when the city was refounded by Kavadh of the Sassanian dynasty of
+Persia. The walls and the citadel are believed to belong to the time of
+Kavadh's son, Khosrau (Chosroes) Anosharvan. In 728 the Arabs entered
+into possession, and established a principality in the city, which they
+called Bab-el-Abwab ("the principal gate"), Bab-el-Khadid ("the iron
+gate"), and Seraill-el-Dagab ("the golden throne"). The celebrated
+caliph, Harun-al-Rashid, lived in Derbent at different times, and
+brought it into great repute as a seat of the arts and commerce. In 1220
+it was captured by the Mongols, and in the course of the succeeding
+centuries it frequently changed masters. In 1722 Peter the Great of
+Russia wrested the town from the Persians, but in 1736 the supremacy of
+Nadir Shah was again recognized. In 1796 Derbent was besieged by the
+Russians, and in 1813 incorporated with the Russian empire.
+
+
+
+
+DERBY, EARLS OF. The 1st earl of Derby was probably Robert de Ferrers
+(d. 1139), who is said by John of Hexham to have been made an earl by
+King Stephen after the battle of the Standard in 1138. Robert and his
+descendants retained the earldom until 1266, when Robert (c. 1240-c.
+1279), probably the 6th earl, having taken a prominent part in the
+baronial rising against Henry III., was deprived of his lands and
+practically of his title. These earlier earls of Derby were also known
+as Earls Ferrers, or de Ferrers, from their surname; as earls of Tutbury
+from their residence; and as earls of Nottingham because this county was
+a lordship under their rule. The large estates which were taken from
+Earl Robert in 1266 were given by Henry III. in the same year to his
+son, Edmund, earl of Lancaster; and Edmund's son, Thomas, earl of
+Lancaster, called himself Earl Ferrers. In 1337 Edmund's grandson, Henry
+(c. 1299-1361), afterwards duke of Lancaster, was created earl of Derby,
+and this title was taken by Edward III.'s son, John of Gaunt, who had
+married Henry's daughter, Blanche. John of Gaunt's son and successor was
+Henry, earl of Derby, who became king as Henry IV. in 1399.
+
+In October 1485 Thomas, Lord Stanley, was created earl of Derby, and the
+title has since been retained by the Stanleys, who, however, have little
+or no connexion with the county of Derby. Thomas also inherited the
+sovereign lordship of the Isle of Man, which had been granted by the
+crown in 1406 to his great-grandfather, Sir John Stanley; and this
+sovereignty remained in possession of the earls of Derby till 1736, when
+it passed to the duke of Atholl.
+
+The earl of Derby is one of the three "catskin earls," the others being
+the earls of Shrewsbury and Huntingdon. The term "catskin" is possibly a
+corruption of _quatre-skin_, derived from the fact that in ancient
+times the robes of an earl (as depicted in some early representations)
+were decorated with four rows of ermine, as in the robes of a modern
+duke, instead of the three rows to which they were restricted in later
+centuries. The three "catskin" earldoms are the only earldoms now in
+existence which date from creations prior to the 17th century.
+                                                          (A. W. H.*)
+
+THOMAS STANLEY, 1st earl of Derby (c. 1435-1504), was the son of Thomas
+Stanley, who was created Baron Stanley in 1456 and died in 1459. His
+grandfather, Sir John Stanley (d. 1414), had founded the fortunes of his
+family by marrying Isabel Lathom, the heiress of a great estate in the
+hundred of West Derby in Lancashire; he was lieutenant of Ireland in
+1389-1391, and again in 1399-1401, and in 1405 received a grant of the
+lordship of Man from Henry IV. The future earl of Derby was a squire to
+Henry VI. in 1454, but not long afterwards married Eleanor, daughter of
+the Yorkist leader, Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury. At the battle of
+Blore Heath in August 1459 Stanley, though close at hand with a large
+force, did not join the royal army, whilst his brother William fought
+openly for York. In 1461 Stanley was made chief justice of Cheshire by
+Edward IV., but ten years later he sided with his brother-in-law Warwick
+in the Lancastrian restoration. Nevertheless, after Warwick's fall,
+Edward made Stanley steward of his household. Stanley served with the
+king in the French expedition of 1475, and with Richard of Gloucester in
+Scotland in 1482. About the latter date he married, as his second wife,
+Margaret Beaufort, mother of the exiled Henry Tudor. Stanley was one of
+the executors of Edward IV., and was at first loyal to the young king
+Edward V. But he acquiesced in Richard's usurpation, and retaining his
+office as steward avoided any entanglement through his wife's share in
+Buckingham's rebellion. He was made constable of England in succession
+to Buckingham, and granted possession of his wife's estates with a
+charge to keep her in some secret place at home. Richard could not well
+afford to quarrel with so powerful a noble, but early in 1485 Stanley
+asked leave to retire to his estates in Lancashire. In the summer
+Richard, suspicious of his continued absence, required him to send his
+eldest son, Lord Strange, to court as a hostage. After Henry of Richmond
+had landed, Stanley made excuses for not joining the king; for his son's
+sake he was obliged to temporize, even when his brother William had been
+publicly proclaimed a traitor. Both the Stanleys took the field; but
+whilst William was in treaty with Richmond, Thomas professedly supported
+Richard. On the morning of Bosworth (August 22), Richard summoned
+Stanley to join him, and when he received an evasive reply ordered
+Strange to be executed. In the battle it was William Stanley who turned
+the scale in Henry's favour, but Thomas, who had taken no part in the
+fighting, was the first to salute the new king. Henry VII. confirmed
+Stanley in all his offices, and on the 27th of October created him earl
+of Derby. As husband of the king's mother Derby held a great position,
+which was not affected by the treason of his brother William in February
+1495. In the following July the earl entertained the king and queen with
+much state at Knowsley. Derby died on the 29th of July 1504. Strange had
+escaped execution in 1485, through neglect to obey Richard's orders; but
+he died before his father in 1497, and his son Thomas succeeded as
+second earl. An old poem called _The Song of the Lady Bessy_, which was
+written by a retainer of the Stanleys, gives a romantic story of how
+Derby was enlisted by Elizabeth of York in the cause of his wife's son.
+
+   For fuller narratives see J. Gairdner's _Richard III._ and J. H.
+   Ramsay's _Lancaster and York_; also Seacome's _Memoirs of the House
+   of Stanley_ (1741).                                      (C. L. K.)
+
+EDWARD STANLEY, 3rd earl of Derby (1508-1572), was a son of Thomas
+Stanley, 2nd earl and grandson of the 1st earl, and succeeded to the
+earldom on his father's death in May 1521. During his minority Cardinal
+Wolsey was his guardian, and as soon as he came of age he began to take
+part in public life, being often in the company of Henry VIII. He helped
+to quell the rising in the north of England known as the Pilgrimage of
+Grace in 1536; but remaining true to the Roman Catholic faith he
+disliked and opposed the religious changes made under Edward VI. During
+Mary's reign the earl was more at ease, but under Elizabeth his younger
+sons, Sir Thomas (d. 1576) and Sir Edward Stanley (d. 1609), were
+concerned in a plot to free Mary, queen of Scots, and he himself was
+suspected of disloyalty. However, he kept his numerous dignities until
+his death at Lathom House, near Ormskirk, on the 24th of October 1572.
+
+Derby's first wife was Katherine, daughter of Thomas Howard, duke of
+Norfolk, by whom he had, with other issue, a son Henry, the 4th earl (c.
+1531-1593), who was a member of the council of the North, and like his
+father was lord-lieutenant of Lancashire. Henry was one of the
+commissioners who tried Mary, queen of Scots, and was employed by
+Elizabeth on other high undertakings both at home and abroad. He died on
+the 25th of September 1593. His wife Margaret (d. 1596), daughter of
+Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, was descended through the
+Brandons from King Henry VII. Two of his sons, Ferdinando (c.
+1559-1594), and William (c. 1561-1642), became in turn the 5th and 6th
+earls of Derby. Ferdinando, the 5th earl (d. 1594), wrote verses, and is
+eulogized by the poet Spenser under the name of Amyntas.    (A. W. H.*)
+
+JAMES STANLEY, 7th earl of Derby (1607-1651), sometimes styled the Great
+Earl of Derby, eldest son of William, 6th earl, and Elizabeth de Vere,
+daughter of Edward, 17th earl of Oxford, was born at Knowsley on the
+31st of January 1607. During his father's life he was known as Lord
+Strange. After travelling abroad he was chosen member of parliament for
+Liverpool in 1625, was created knight of the Bath on the occasion of
+Charles's coronation in 1626, and was joined with his father the same
+year as lieutenant of Lancashire and Cheshire and chamberlain of
+Chester, and in the administration of the Isle of Man, being appointed
+subsequently lord-lieutenant of North Wales. On the 7th of March 1628 he
+was called up to the House of Lords as Baron Strange. He took no part in
+the political disputes between king and parliament and preferred country
+pursuits and the care of his estates to court or public life.
+Nevertheless when the Civil War broke out in 1642, Lord Strange devoted
+himself to the king's cause. His plan of securing Lancashire at the
+beginning and raising troops there, which promised success, was however
+discouraged by Charles, who was said to be jealous of his power and
+royal lineage and who commanded his presence at Nottingham. His
+subsequent attempts to recover the county were unsuccessful. He was
+unable to get possession of Manchester, was defeated at Chowbent and
+Lowton Moor, and in 1643 after gaining Preston failed to take Bolton and
+Lancaster castles. Finally, after successfully beating off Sir William
+Brereton's attack on Warrington, he was defeated at Whalley and withdrew
+to York, Warrington in consequence surrendering to the enemy's forces.
+In June he left for the Isle of Man to attend to affairs there, and in
+the summer of 1644 he took part in Prince Rupert's successful campaign
+in the north, when Lathom House, where Lady Derby had heroically
+resisted the attacks of the besiegers, was relieved, and Bolton Castle
+taken. He followed Rupert to Marston Moor, and after the complete defeat
+of Charles's cause in the north withdrew to the Isle of Man, where he
+held out for the king and offered an asylum to royalist fugitives. His
+administration of the island imitated that of Strafford in Ireland. It
+was strong rather than just. He maintained order, encouraged trade,
+remedied some abuses, and defended the people from the exactions of the
+church; but he crushed opposition by imprisoning his antagonists, and
+aroused a prolonged agitation by abolishing the tenant-right and
+introducing leaseholds. In July 1649 he refused scornfully terms offered
+to him by Ireton. By the death of his father on the 29th of September
+1642 he had succeeded to the earldom, and on the 12th of January 1650 he
+obtained the Garter. He was chosen by Charles II. to command the troops
+of Lancashire and Cheshire, and on the 15th of August 1651 he landed at
+Wyre Water in Lancashire in support of Charles's invasion, and met the
+king on the 17th. Proceeding to Warrington he failed to obtain the
+support of the Presbyterians through his refusal to take the Covenant,
+and on the 25th was totally defeated at Wigan, being severely wounded
+and escaping with difficulty. He joined Charles at Worcester; after the
+battle on the 3rd of September he accompanied him to Boscobel, and while
+on his way north alone was captured near Nantwich and given quarter. He
+was tried by court-martial at Chester on the 29th of September, and on
+the ground that he was a traitor and not a prisoner of war under the act
+of parliament passed in the preceding month, which declared those who
+corresponded with Charles guilty of treason, his quarter was disallowed
+and he was condemned to death. When his appeal for pardon to parliament
+was rejected, though supported by Cromwell, he endeavoured to escape;
+but was recaptured and executed at Bolton on the 15th of October 1651.
+He was buried in Ormskirk church. Lord Derby was a man of deep religious
+feeling and of great nobility of character, who though unsuccessful in
+the field served the king's cause with single-minded purpose and without
+expectation of reward. His political usefulness was handicapped in the
+later stages of the struggle by his dislike of the Scots, whom he
+regarded as guilty of the king's death and as unfit instruments of the
+restoration. According to Clarendon he was "a man of great honour and
+clear courage," and his defects the result of too little knowledge of
+the world. Lord Derby left in MS. "A Discourse concerning the Government
+of the Isle of Man" (printed in the _Stanley Papers_ and in F. Peck's
+_Desiderata Curiosa_, vol. ii.) and several volumes of historical
+collections, observations, devotions (_Stanley Papers_) and a
+commonplace book. He married on the 26th of June 1626 Charlotte de la
+Tremoille (1599-1664), daughter of Claude, duc de Thouars, and
+grand-daughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange, by whom besides
+four daughters he had five sons, of whom the eldest, Charles
+(1628-1672), succeeded him as 8th earl.
+
+Charles's two sons, William, the 9th earl (c. 1655-1702), and James, the
+10th earl (1664-1736), both died without sons, and consequently, when
+James died in February 1736, his titles and estates passed to Sir Edward
+Stanley (1689-1776), a descendant of the 1st earl. From him the later
+earls were descended, the 12th earl (d. 1834) being his grandson.
+
+   BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ with authorities and
+   article in same work on Charlotte Stanley, countess of Derby; the
+   _Stanley Papers_, with the too laudatory memoir by F. R. Haines
+   (Chetham Soc. publications, vols. 62, 66, 67, 70); _Memoires_, by De
+   Lloyd (1668), 572; _State Trials_, v. 293-324; _Notes & Queries_,
+   viii. Ser. iii. 246; Seacombe's _House of Stanley_; Clarendon's
+   _Hist. of the Rebellion_; Gardiner's _Hist. of the Civil War and
+   Protectorate_; _The Land of Home Rule_, by Spencer Walpole (1893);
+   _Hist. of the Isle of Man_, by A. W. Moore (1900); Manx Soc.
+   publications, vols. 3, 25, 27.                           (P. C. Y.)
+
+EDWARD GEOFFREY SMITH STANLEY, 14th earl of Derby (1799-1869), the
+"Rupert of Debate," born at Knowsley in Lancashire on the 29th of March
+1799, grandson of the 12th earl and eldest son of Lord Stanley,
+subsequently (1834) 13th earl of Derby (1775-1851). He was educated at
+Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a
+classical scholar, though he took no degree. In 1819 he obtained the
+Chancellor's prize for Latin verse, the subject being "Syracuse." He
+gave early promise of his future eminence as an orator, and in his youth
+he used to practise elocution under the instruction of Lady Derby, his
+grandfather's second wife, the actress, Elizabeth Farren. In 1820 he was
+returned for Stockbridge in Hampshire, one of the nomination boroughs
+whose electoral rights were swept away by the Reform Bill of 1832,
+Stanley being a warm advocate of their destruction.
+
+His maiden speech was delivered early in the session of 1824 in the
+debate on a private bill for lighting Manchester with gas. On the 6th of
+May 1824 he delivered a vehement and eloquent speech against Joseph
+Hume's motion for a reduction of the Irish Church establishment,
+maintaining in its most conservative form the doctrine that church
+property is as sacred as private property. From this time his
+appearances became frequent; and he soon asserted his place as one of
+the most powerful speakers in the House. Specially noticeable almost
+from the first was the skill he displayed in reply. Macaulay, in an
+essay published in 1834, remarked that he seemed to possess intuitively
+the faculty which in most men is developed only by long and laborious
+practice. In the autumn of 1824 Stanley went on an extended tour through
+Canada and the United States in company with Mr Labouchere, afterwards
+Lord Taunton, and Mr Evelyn Denison, afterwards Lord Ossington. In May
+of the following year he married the second daughter of Edward
+Bootle-Wilbraham, created Baron Skelmersdale in 1828, by whom he had a
+family of two sons and one daughter who survived.
+
+At the general election of 1826 Stanley renounced his connection with
+Stockbridge, and became the representative of the borough of Preston,
+where the Derby influence was paramount. The change of seats had this
+advantage, that it left him free to speak against the system of rotten
+boroughs, which he did with great force during the Reform Bill debates,
+without laying himself open to the charge of personal inconsistency as
+the representative of a place where, according to Gay, cobblers used to
+"feast three years upon one vote." In 1827 he and several other
+distinguished Whigs made a coalition with Canning on the defection of
+the more unyielding Tories, and he commenced his official life as
+under-secretary for the colonies, but the coalition was broken up by
+Canning's death in August. Lord Goderich succeeded to the premiership,
+but he never was really in power, and he resigned his place after the
+lapse of a few months. During the succeeding administration of the duke
+of Wellington (1828-1830), Stanley and those with whom he acted were in
+opposition. His robust and assertive Liberalism about this period seemed
+curious afterwards to a younger generation who knew him only as the very
+embodiment of Conservatism.
+
+By the advent of Lord Grey to power in November 1830, Stanley obtained
+his first opportunity of showing his capacity for a responsible office.
+He was appointed to the chief secretaryship of Ireland, a position in
+which he found ample scope for both administrative and debating skill.
+On accepting office he had to vacate his seat for Preston and seek
+re-election; and he had the mortification of being defeated by the
+Radical "orator" Hunt. The contest was a peculiarly keen one, and turned
+upon the question of the ballot, which Stanley refused to support. He
+re-entered the House as one of the members for Windsor, Sir Hussey
+Vivian having resigned in his favour. In 1832 he again changed his seat,
+being returned for North Lancashire.
+
+Stanley was one of the most ardent supporters of Lord Grey's Reform
+Bill. Of this no other proof is needed than his frequent parliamentary
+utterances, which were fully in sympathy with the popular cry "The bill,
+the whole bill, and nothing but the bill." Reference may be made
+especially to the speech he delivered on the 4th of March 1831 on the
+adjourned debate on the second reading of the bill, which was marked by
+all the higher qualities of his oratory. Apart from his connexion with
+the general policy of the government, Stanley had more than enough to
+have employed all his energies in the management of his own department.
+The secretary of Ireland has seldom an easy task; Stanley found it one
+of peculiar difficulty. The country was in a very unsettled state. The
+just concession that had been somewhat tardily yielded a short time
+before in Catholic emancipation had excited the people to make all sorts
+of demands, reasonable and unreasonable. Undaunted by the fierce
+denunciations of O'Connell, who styled him Scorpion Stanley, he
+discharged with determination the ungrateful task of carrying a coercion
+bill through the House. It was generally felt that O'Connell, powerful
+though he was, had fairly met his match in Stanley, who, with invective
+scarcely inferior to his own, evaded no challenge, ignored no argument,
+and left no taunt unanswered. The title "Rupert of Debate" is peculiarly
+applicable to him in connexion with the fearless if also often reckless
+method of attack he showed in his parliamentary war with O'Connell. It
+was first applied to him, however, thirteen years later by Sir Edward
+Bulwer Lytton in _The New Timon_:--
+
+  "One after one the lords of time advance;
+   Here Stanley meets--here Stanley scorns the glance!
+   The brilliant chief, irregularly great,
+   Frank, haughty, rash,--the Rupert of debate."
+
+The best answer, however, which he made to the attacks of the great
+agitator was not the retorts of debate, effective though these were, but
+the beneficial legislation he was instrumental in passing. He
+introduced and carried the first national education act for Ireland, one
+result of which was the remarkable and to many almost incredible
+phenomenon of a board composed of Catholics, Episcopalians and
+Presbyterians harmoniously administering an efficient education scheme.
+He was also chiefly responsible for the Irish Church Temporalities Act,
+though the bill was not introduced into parliament until after he had
+quitted the Irish secretaryship for another office. By this measure two
+archbishoprics and eight bishoprics were abolished, and a remedy was
+provided for various abuses connected with the revenues of the church.
+As originally introduced, the bill contained a clause authorizing the
+appropriation of surplus revenues to non-ecclesiastical purposes. This
+had, however, been strongly opposed from the first by Stanley and
+several other members of the cabinet, and it was withdrawn by the
+government before the measure reached the Lords.
+
+In 1833, just before the introduction of the Irish Church Temporalities
+Bill, Stanley had been promoted to be secretary for the colonies with a
+seat in the cabinet. In this position it fell to his lot to carry the
+emancipation of the slaves to a successful practical issue. The speech
+which he delivered on introducing the bill for freeing the slaves in the
+West Indies, on the 14th of May 1833, was one of the finest specimens of
+his eloquence.
+
+The Irish Church question determined more than one turning-point in his
+political career. The most important occasion on which it did so was in
+1834, when the proposal of the government to appropriate the surplus
+revenues of the church to educational purposes led to his secession from
+the cabinet, and, as it proved, his complete and final separation from
+the Whig party. In the former of these steps he had as his companions
+Sir James Graham, the earl of Ripon and the duke of Richmond. Soon after
+it occurred, O'Connell, amid the laughter of the House, described the
+secession in a couplet from Canning's _Loves of the Triangles_:--
+
+  "Still down thy steep, romantic Ashbourne, glides
+   The Derby dilly carrying six insides."
+
+Stanley was not content with marking his disapproval by the simple act
+of withdrawing from the cabinet. He spoke against the bill to which he
+objected with a vehemence that showed the strength of his feeling in the
+matter, and against its authors with a bitterness that he himself is
+understood to have afterwards admitted to have been unseemly towards
+those who had so recently been his colleagues. The course followed by
+the government was "marked with all that timidity, that want of
+dexterity, which led to the failure of the unpractised shoplifter." His
+late colleagues were compared to "thimble-riggers at a country fair,"
+and their plan was "petty larceny, for it had not the redeeming
+qualities of bold and open robbery."
+
+In the end of 1834, Lord Stanley, as he was now styled by courtesy, his
+father having succeeded to the earldom in October, was invited by Sir
+Robert Peel to join the short-lived Conservative ministry which he
+formed after the resignation of Lord Melbourne. Though he declined the
+offer for reasons stated in a letter published in the Peel memoirs, he
+acted from that date with the Conservative party, and on its next
+accession to power, in 1841, he accepted the office of colonial
+secretary, which he had held under Lord Grey. His position and his
+temperament alike, however, made him a thoroughly independent supporter
+of any party to which he attached himself. When, therefore, the injury
+to health arising from the late hours in the Commons led him in 1844 to
+seek elevation to the Upper House in the right of his father's barony,
+Sir Robert Peel, in acceding to his request, had the satisfaction of at
+once freeing himself from the possible effects of his "candid
+friendship" in the House, and at the same time greatly strengthening the
+debating power on the Conservative side in the other. If the premier in
+taking this step had any presentiment of an approaching difference on a
+vital question, it was not long in being realized. When Sir Robert Peel
+accepted the policy of free trade in 1846, the breach between him and
+Lord Stanley was, as might have been anticipated from the antecedents of
+the latter, instant and irreparable. Lord Stanley at once asserted
+himself as the uncompromising opponent of that policy, and he became the
+recognized leader of the Protectionist party, having Lord George
+Bentinck and Disraeli for his lieutenants in the Commons. They did all
+that could be done in a case in which the logic of events was against
+them, though Protection was never to become more than their watchword.
+
+It is one of the peculiarities of English politics, however, that a
+party may come into power because it is the only available one at the
+time, though it may have no chance of carrying the very principle to
+which it owes its organized existence. Such was the case when Lord
+Derby, who had succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father in
+June 1851, was called upon to form his first administration in February
+1852. He was in a minority, but the circumstances were such that no
+other than a minority government was possible, and he resolved to take
+the only available means of strengthening his position by dissolving
+parliament and appealing to the country at the earliest opportunity. The
+appeal was made in autumn, but its result did not materially alter the
+position of parties. Parliament met in November, and by the middle of
+the following month the ministry had resigned in consequence of their
+defeat on Disraeli's budget. For the six following years, during Lord
+Aberdeen's "ministry of all the talents" and Lord Palmerston's
+premiership, Lord Derby remained at the head of the opposition, whose
+policy gradually became more generally Conservative and less
+distinctively Protectionist as the hopelessness of reversing the
+measures adopted in 1846 made itself apparent. In 1855 he was asked to
+form an administration after the resignation of Lord Aberdeen, but
+failing to obtain sufficient support, he declined the task. It was in
+somewhat more hopeful circumstances that, after the defeat of Lord
+Palmerston on the Conspiracy Bill in February 1858, he assumed for the
+second time the reins of government. Though he still could not count
+upon a working majority, there was a possibility of carrying on affairs
+without sustaining defeat, which was realized for a full session, owing
+chiefly to the dexterous management of Mr Disraeli in the Commons. The
+one rock ahead was the question of reform, on which the wishes of the
+country were being emphatically expressed, but it was not so pressing as
+to require to be immediately dealt with. During the session of 1858 the
+government contrived to pass two measures of very considerable
+importance, one a bill to remove Jewish disabilities, and the other a
+bill to transfer the government of India from the East India Company to
+the crown. Next year the question of parliamentary reform had to be
+faced, and, recognizing the necessity, the government introduced a bill
+at the opening of the session, which, in spite of, or rather in
+consequence of, its "fancy franchises," was rejected by the House, and,
+on a dissolution, rejected also by the country. A vote of no confidence
+having been passed in the new parliament on the 10th of June, Lord Derby
+at once resigned.
+
+After resuming the leadership of the Opposition Lord Derby devoted much
+of the leisure the position afforded him to the classical studies that
+had always been congenial to him. It was his reputation for scholarship
+as well as his social position that had led in 1852 to his appointment
+to the chancellorship of the university of Oxford, in succession to the
+duke of Wellington; and perhaps a desire to justify the possession of
+the honour on the former ground had something to do with his essays in
+the field of authorship. His first venture was a poetical version of the
+ninth ode of the third book of Horace, which appeared in Lord
+Ravensworth's collection of translations of the _Odes_. In 1862 he
+printed and circulated in influential quarters a volume entitled
+_Translations of Poems Ancient and Modern_, with a very modest
+dedicatory letter to Lord Stanhope, and the words "Not published" on the
+title-page. It contained, besides versions of Latin, Italian, French and
+German poems, a translation of the first book of the _Iliad_. The
+reception of this volume was such as to encourage him to proceed with
+the task he had chosen as his _magnum opus_, the translation of the
+whole of the _Iliad_, which accordingly appeared in 1864.
+
+During the seven years that elapsed between Lord Derby's second and
+third administrations an industrial crisis occurred in his native
+county, which brought out very conspicuously his public spirit and his
+philanthropy. The destitution in Lancashire caused by the stoppage of
+the cotton-supply in consequence of the American Civil War, was so great
+as to threaten to overtax the benevolence of the country. That it did
+not do so was probably due to Lord Derby more than to any other single
+man. From the first he was the very life and soul of the movement for
+relief. His personal subscription, munificent though it was, represented
+the least part of his service. His noble speech at the meeting in
+Manchester in December 1862, where the movement was initiated, and his
+advice at the subsequent meetings of the committee, which he attended
+very regularly, were of the very highest value in stimulating and
+directing public sympathy. His relations with Lancashire had always been
+of the most cordial description, notwithstanding his early rejection by
+Preston; but it is not surprising that after the cotton famine period
+the cordiality passed into a warmer and deeper feeling, and that the
+name of Lord Derby was long cherished in most grateful remembrance by
+the factory operatives.
+
+On the rejection of Earl Russell's Reform Bill in 1866, Lord Derby was
+for the third time entrusted with the formation of a cabinet. Like those
+he had previously formed it was destined to be short-lived, but it lived
+long enough to settle on a permanent basis the question that had proved
+fatal to its predecessor. The "education" of the party that had so long
+opposed all reform to the point of granting household suffrage was the
+work of another; but Lord Derby fully concurred in, if he was not the
+first to suggest, the statesmanlike policy by which the question was
+disposed of in such a way as to take it once for all out of the region
+of controversy and agitation. The passing of the Reform Bill was the
+main business of the session 1867. The chief debates were, of course, in
+the Commons, and Lord Derby's failing powers prevented him from taking
+any large share in those which took place in the Lords. His description
+of the measure as a "leap in the dark" was eagerly caught up, because it
+exactly represented the common opinion at the time,--the most
+experienced statesmen, while they admitted the granting of household
+suffrage to be a political necessity, being utterly unable to foresee
+what its effect might be on the constitution and government of the
+country.
+
+Finding himself unable, from declining health, to encounter the fatigues
+of another session, Lord Derby resigned office early in 1868. The step
+he had taken was announced in both Houses on the evening of the 25th of
+February, and warm tributes of admiration and esteem were paid by the
+leaders of the two great parties. He yielded the entire leadership of
+the party as well as the premiership to Disraeli. His subsequent
+appearances in public were few and unimportant. It was noted as a
+consistent close to his political life that his last speech in the House
+of Lords should have been a denunciation of Gladstone's Irish Church
+Bill marked by much of his early fire and vehemence. A few months later,
+on the 23rd of October 1869, he died at Knowsley.
+
+Sir Archibald Alison, writing of him when he was in the zenith of his
+powers, styles him "by the admission of all parties the most perfect
+orator of his day." Even higher was the opinion of Lord Aberdeen, who is
+reported by _The Times_ to have said that no one of the giants he had
+listened to in his youth, Pitt, Fox, Burke or Sheridan, "as a speaker,
+is to be compared with our own Lord Derby, when Lord Derby is at his
+best."                                                      (W. B. S.)
+
+EDWARD HENRY STANLEY, 15th earl of Derby (1826-1893), eldest son of the
+14th earl, was educated at Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge, where
+he took a high degree and became a member of the society known as the
+Apostles. In March 1848 he unsuccessfully contested the borough of
+Lancaster, and then made a long tour in the West Indies, Canada and the
+United States. During his absence he was elected member for King's Lynn,
+which he represented till October 1869, when he succeeded to the
+peerage. He took his place, as a matter of course, among the
+Conservatives, and delivered his maiden speech in May 1850 on the sugar
+duties. Just before, he had made a very brief tour in Jamaica and South
+America. In 1852 he went to India, and while travelling in that country
+he was appointed under-secretary for foreign affairs in his father's
+first administration. From the outset of his career he was known to be a
+most Liberal Conservative, and in 1855 Lord Palmerston offered him the
+post of colonial secretary. He was much tempted by the proposal, and
+hurried down to Knowsley to consult his father, who called out when he
+entered the room, "Hallo, Stanley! what brings you here?--Has Dizzy cut
+his throat, or are you going to be married?" When the object of his
+sudden appearance had been explained, the Conservative chief received
+the courteous suggestion of the prime minister with anything but favour,
+and the offer was declined. In his father's second administration Lord
+Stanley held, at first, the office of secretary for the colonies, but
+became president of the Board of Control on the resignation of Lord
+Ellenborough. He had the charge of the India Bill of 1858 in the House
+of Commons, became the first secretary of state for India, and left
+behind him in the India Office an excellent reputation as a man of
+business. After the revolution in Greece and the disappearance of King
+Otho, the people most earnestly desired to have Queen Victoria's second
+son, Prince Alfred, for their king. He declined the honour, and they
+then took up the idea that the next best thing they could do would be to
+elect some great and wealthy English noble, not concealing the hope that
+although they might have to offer him a Civil List he would decline to
+receive it. Lord Stanley was the prime favourite as an occupant of this
+bed of thorns, and it has been said that he was actually offered the
+crown. That, however, is not true; the offer was never formally made.
+After the fall of the Russell government in 1866 he became foreign
+secretary in his father's third administration. He compared his conduct
+in that great post to that of a man floating down a river and fending
+off from his vessel, as well as he could, the various obstacles it
+encountered. He thought that that should be the normal attitude of an
+English foreign minister, and probably under the circumstances of the
+years 1866-1868 it was the right one. He arranged the collective
+guarantee of the neutrality of Luxemburg in 1867, negotiated a
+convention about the "Alabama," which, however, was not ratified, and
+most wisely refused to take any part in the Cretan troubles. In 1874 he
+again became foreign secretary in Disraeli's government. He acquiesced
+in the purchase of the Suez Canal shares, a measure then considered
+dangerous by many people, but ultimately most successful; he accepted
+the Andrassy Note, but declined to accede to the Berlin Memorandum. His
+part in the later phases of the Russo-Turkish struggle has never been
+fully explained, for with equal wisdom and generosity he declined to
+gratify public curiosity at the cost of some of his colleagues. A later
+generation will know better than his contemporaries what were the
+precise developments of policy which obliged him to resign. He kept
+himself ready to explain in the House of Lords the course he had taken
+if those whom he had left challenged him to do so, but from that course
+they consistently refrained. Already in October 1879 it was clear enough
+that he had thrown in his lot with the Liberal party, but it was not
+till March 1880 that he publicly announced this change of allegiance. He
+did not at first take office in the second Gladstone government, but
+became secretary for the colonies in December 1882, holding this
+position till the fall of that government in the summer of 1885. In 1886
+the old Liberal party was run on the rocks and went to pieces. Lord
+Derby became a Liberal Unionist, and took an active part in the general
+management of that party, leading it in the House of Lords till 1891,
+when Lord Hartington became duke of Devonshire. In 1892 he presided over
+the Labour Commission, but his health never recovered an attack of
+influenza which he had in 1891, and he died at Knowsley on the 21st of
+April 1893.
+
+During a great part of Lord Derby's life he was deflected from his
+natural course by the accident of his position as the son of the leading
+Conservative statesman of the day. From first to last he was at heart a
+moderate Liberal. After making allowance, however, for this deflecting
+agency, it must be admitted that in the highest quality of the
+statesman, "aptness to be right," he was surpassed by none of his
+contemporaries, or--if by anybody--by Sir George Cornewall Lewis alone.
+He would have been more at home in a state of things which did not
+demand from its leading statesman great popular power; he had none of
+those "isms" and "prisms of fancy" which stood in such good stead some
+of his rivals. He had another defect besides the want of popular power.
+He was so anxious to arrive at right conclusions that he sometimes
+turned and turned and turned a subject over till the time for action had
+passed. One of his best lieutenants said of him in a moment of
+impatience: "Lord Derby is like the God of Hegel: 'Er setzt sich, er
+verneint sich, er verneint seine Negation.'" His knowledge, acquired
+both from books and by the ear, was immense, and he took every
+opportunity of increasing it. He retained his old university habit of
+taking long walks with a congenial companion, even in London, and
+although he cared but little for what is commonly known as society--the
+society of crowded rooms and fragments of sentences--he very much liked
+conversation. During the many years in which he was a member of "The
+Club" he was one of its most assiduous frequenters, and his loss was
+acknowledged by a formal resolution. His talk was generally grave, but
+every now and then was lit up by dry humour. The late Lord Arthur
+Russell once said to him, after he had been buying some property in
+southern England: "So you still believe in land, Lord Derby." "Hang it,"
+he replied, "a fellow must believe in something!" He did an immense deal
+of work outside politics. He was lord rector of the University of
+Glasgow from 1868 to 1871, and later held the same office in that of
+Edinburgh. From 1875 to 1893 he was president of the Royal Literary
+Fund, and attended most closely to his duties then. He succeeded Lord
+Granville as chancellor of the University of London in 1891, and
+remained in that position till his death. He lived much in Lancashire,
+managed his enormous estates with great skill, and did a great amount of
+work as a local magnate. He married in 1870 Maria Catharine, daughter of
+the 5th earl de la Warr, and widow of the 2nd marquess of Salisbury.
+
+The earl left no children and he was succeeded as 16th earl by his
+brother Frederick Arthur Stanley (1841-1908), who had been made a peer
+as Baron Stanley of Preston in 1886. He was secretary of state for war
+and for the colonies and president of the board of trade; and was
+governor-general of Canada from 1888 to 1893. He died on the 14th of
+June 1908, when his eldest son, Edward George Villiers Stanley, became
+earl of Derby. As Lord Stanley the latter had been member of parliament
+for the West Houghton division of Lancashire from 1892 to 1906; he was
+financial secretary to the War Office from 1900 to 1903, and
+postmaster-general from 1903 to 1905.
+
+   The best account of the 15th Lord Derby is that which was prefixed by
+   W. E. H. Lecky, who knew him very intimately, to the edition of his
+   speeches outside parliament, published in 1894.          (M. G. D.)
+
+
+
+
+DERBY, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., coextensive with
+the township of Derby, about 10 m. W. of New Haven, at the junction of
+the Housatonic and Naugatuck rivers. Pop. (1900) 7930 (2635
+foreign-born); (1910) 8991. It is served by the New York, New Haven &
+Hartford railway, and by interurban electric railways. In Derby there
+are an opera house, owned by the city, and a public library. Across the
+Housatonic is the borough of Shelton (pop. 1910, 4807), which is closely
+related, socially and industrially, to Derby, the two having a joint
+board of trade. Adjoining Derby on the N. along the Naugatuck is
+Ansonia. Derby, Ansonia and Shelton form one of the most important
+manufacturing communities in the state; although their total population
+in 1900 (23,448) was only 2.9% of the state's population, the product of
+their manufactories was 7.4% of the total manufactured product of
+Connecticut. Among the manufactures of Derby are pianos and organs,
+woollen goods, pins, keys, dress stays, combs, typewriters, corsets,
+hosiery, guns and ammunition, and foundry and machine-shop products.
+Derby was settled in 1642 as an Indian trading post under the name
+Paugasset, and received its present name in 1675. The date of
+organization of the township is unknown. Ansonia was formed from a part
+of Derby in 1889. In 1893 the borough of Birmingham, on the opposite
+side of the Naugatuck, was annexed to Derby, and Derby was chartered as
+a city. In the 18th century Derby was the centre of a thriving commerce
+with the West Indies. Derby is the birthplace of David Humphreys
+(1752-1818), a soldier, diplomatist and writer, General Washington's
+aide and military secretary from 1780 until the end of the War of
+Independence, the first minister of the United States to Portugal
+(1790-1797) and minister to Spain in 1797-1802, and one of the "Hartford
+Wits."
+
+   See Samuel Orcutt and Ambrose Beardsley, _History of the Old Town of
+   Derby_ (Springfield, 1880); and the _Town Records of Derby from 1655
+   to 1710_ (Derby, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+DERBY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and the county
+town of Derbyshire, England, 128¾ m. N.N.W. of London by the Midland
+railway; it is also served by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891)
+94,146; (1901) 114,848. Occupying a position almost in the centre of
+England, the town is situated chiefly on the western bank of the river
+Derwent, on an undulating site encircled with gentle eminences, from
+which flow the Markeaton and other brooks. In the second half of the
+19th century the prosperity of the town was enhanced by the
+establishment of the head offices and principal workshops of the Midland
+Railway Company. Derby possesses several handsome public buildings,
+including the town hall, a spacious range of buildings erected for the
+postal and inland revenue offices, the county hall, corn exchange and
+market hall. Among churches may be mentioned St Peter's a fine building
+principally of Perpendicular date but with earlier portions; St
+Alkmund's with its lofty spire, Decorated in style; St Andrew's, in the
+same style, by Sir G. G. Scott; and All Saints', which contains a
+beautiful choir-screen, good stained glass and monuments by L. F.
+Roubiliac, Sir Francis Chantrey and others. The body of this church is
+in classic style (1725), but the tower was built 1509-1527, and is one
+of the finest in the midland counties, built in three tiers, and crowned
+with battlements and pinnacles, which give it a total height of 210 ft.
+The Roman Catholic church of St Mary is one of the best examples of the
+work of A. W. Pugin. The Derby grammar school, one of the most ancient
+in England, was placed in 1160 under the administration of the chapter
+of Darley Abbey, which lay a little north of Derby. It occupies St
+Helen's House, once the town residence of the Strutt family, and has
+been enlarged in modern times, accommodating about 160 boys. The Derby
+municipal technical college is administered by the corporation. Other
+institutions include schools of science and art, public library, museum
+and art gallery, the Devonshire almshouses, a remodelled foundation
+inaugurated by Elizabeth, countess of Shrewsbury, in the 16th century,
+and the town and county infirmary. The free library and museum
+buildings, together with a recreation ground, were gifts to the town
+from M. T. Bass, M.P. (d. 1884), while an arboretum of seventeen acres
+was presented to the town by Joseph Strutt in 1840.
+
+Derby has been long celebrated for its porcelain, which rivalled that of
+Saxony and France. This manufacture was introduced about 1750, and
+although for a time partially abandoned, it has been revived. There are
+also spar works where the fluor-spar, or Blue John, is wrought into a
+variety of useful and ornamental articles. The manufacture of silk,
+hosiery, lace and cotton formerly employed a large portion of the
+population, and there are still numerous silk mills and elastic web
+works. Silk "throwing" or spinning was introduced into England in 1717
+by John Lombe, who found out the secrets of the craft when visiting
+Piedmont, and set up machinery in Derby. Other industries include the
+manufacture of paint, shot, white and red lead and varnish; and there
+are sawmills and tanneries. The manufacture of hosiery profited greatly
+by the inventions of Jedediah Strutt about 1750. In the northern suburb
+of Littlechester, there are chemical and steam boiler works. The Midland
+railway works employ a large number of hands. Derby is a suffragan
+bishopric in the diocese of Southwell. The parliamentary borough returns
+two members. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and
+forty-two councillors. Area, 3449 acres.
+
+Littlechester, as its name indicates, was the site of a Roman fort or
+village; the site is in great part built over and the remains
+practically effaced. Derby was known in the time of the heptarchy as
+Northworthig, and did not receive the name of Deoraby or Derby until
+after it was given up to the Danes by the treaty of Wedmore and had
+become one of their five boroughs, probably ruled in the ordinary way by
+an earl with twelve "lawmen" under him. Being won back among the
+sweeping conquests of Æthelflæd, lady of the Mercians, in 917, it
+prospered during the 10th century, and by the reign of Edward the
+Confessor there were 243 burgesses in Derby. However, by 1086 this
+number had decreased to 100, while 103 "manses" which used to be
+assessed were waste. In spite of this the amount rendered by the town to
+the lord had increased from £24 to £30. The first extant charter granted
+to Derby is dated 1206 and is a grant of all those privileges which the
+burgesses of Nottingham had in the time of Henry I. and Henry II., which
+included freedom from toll, a gild merchant, power to elect a provost at
+their will, and the privilege of holding the town at the ancient farm
+with an increase of £10 yearly. The charter also provides that no one
+shall dye cloth within ten leagues of Derby except in the borough. A
+second charter, granted by Henry III. in 1229, limits the power of
+electing a provost by requiring that he shall be removed if he be
+displeasing to the king. Henry III. also granted the burgesses two other
+charters, one in 1225 confirming their privileges and granting that the
+_comitatus_ of Derby should in future be held on Thursdays in the
+borough, the other in 1260 granting that no Jew should be allowed to
+live in the town. In 1337 Edward III. on the petition of the burgesses
+granted that they might have two bailiffs instead of one. Derby was
+incorporated by James I. in 1611 under the name of the bailiffs and
+burgesses of Derby, but Charles I. in 1637 appointed a mayor, nine
+aldermen, fourteen brethren and fourteen capital burgesses. In 1680 the
+burgesses were obliged to resign their charters, and received a new one,
+which did not, however, alter the government of the town. Derby has been
+represented in parliament by two members since 1295. In the rebellion of
+1745 the young Pretender marched with his army as far south as Derby,
+where the council was held which decided that he should return to
+Scotland instead of going on to London.
+
+   Among early works on Derby are W. Hutton, _History of Derby_ (London,
+   1791); R. Simpson, _History and Antiquities of Derby_ (Derby, 1826).
+
+
+
+
+DERBYSHIRE, a north midland county of England, bounded N. and N.E. by
+Yorkshire, E. by Nottinghamshire, S.E. and S. by Leicestershire, S. and
+S.W. by Staffordshire, and W. and N.W. by Cheshire. The area is 1029.5
+sq. m. The physical aspect is much diversified. The extreme south of the
+county is lacking in picturesqueness, being for the most part level,
+with occasional slight undulations. The Peak District of the north, on
+the other hand, though inferior in grandeur to the mountainous Lake
+District, presents some of the finest hill scenery in England, deriving
+a special beauty from the richly wooded glens and valleys, such as those
+of Castleton, Glossop, Dovedale and Millersdale. The character of the
+landscape ranges from the wild moorland of the Cheshire borders or the
+grey rocks of the Peak, to the park lands and woods of the Chatsworth
+district. Some of the woods are noted for their fine oaks, those at
+Kedleston, 3 m. from Derby, ranking among the largest and oldest in the
+kingdom. From the northern hills the streams of the county radiate.
+Those of the north-west belong to the Mersey, and those of the
+north-east to the Don, but all the others to the Trent, which, like the
+Don, falls into the Humber. The principal river is the Trent, which,
+rising in the Staffordshire moorlands, intersects the southern part of
+Derbyshire, and forms part of its boundary with Leicestershire. After
+the Trent the most important river is the Derwent, one of its
+tributaries, which, taking its rise in the lofty ridges of the High
+Peak, flows southward through a beautiful valley, receiving a number of
+minor streams in its course, including the Wye, which, rising near
+Buxton, traverses the fine Millersdale and Monsal Dale. The other
+principal rivers are the following: The Dane rises at the junction of
+the three counties, Staffordshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire. The Goyt has
+its source a little farther north, at the base of the same hill, and,
+taking a N.N.E. direction, divides Derbyshire from Cheshire, and falls
+into the Mersey. The Dove rises on the southern slope, and flows as the
+boundary stream between Derbyshire and Staffordshire for nearly its
+entire course. It receives several feeders, and falls into the Trent
+near Repton. The Erewash is the boundary stream between Nottinghamshire
+and Derbyshire. The Rother rises about Baslow, and flows into Yorkshire,
+with a northerly course, joining the Don. Besides the attractions of its
+scenery Derbyshire possesses, in Buxton, Matlock and Bakewell, three
+health resorts in much favour on account of their medicinal springs.
+
+The whole northward extension of the county is occupied by the plateau
+of the Peak and other plateau-like summits, the highest of which are of
+almost exactly similar elevation. Thus in the extreme north Bleaklow
+Hill reaches 2060 ft., while southward from this point along the axis of
+main elevation are found Shelf Moss (2046 ft.), and Kinder Scout and
+other summits of the Peak itself, ranging up to 2088 ft. This
+plateau-mass is demarcated on the north and west by the vales of the
+Etherow and Goyt, by the valley of the Derwent on the east, and in part
+by that of its tributary the Noe on the south. The flanks of the plateau
+are deeply scored by abrupt ravines, often known as "cloughs" (an
+Anglo-Saxon word, _cloh_) watered by streams which sometimes descend
+over precipitous ledges in picturesque falls, such as the Kinder
+Downfall, formed by the brook of that name which rises on Kinder Scout.
+The most picturesque cloughs are found on the south, descending to
+Edale, and on the west. Edale is the upper part of the Noe valley, and
+the narrow gorge at its head is exceedingly beautiful, as is the more
+gentle scenery of the Vale of Hope, the lower part of the valley. In a
+branch vale is situated Castleton (q.v.), with the ruined Peak Castle,
+or Castle of the Peak, and the Peak Cavern, Blue John Mine and other
+caves. The upper Derwent valley, or Derwent Dale, is narrow and well
+wooded. In it, near the village of Derwent Chapel, is Derwent Hall, a
+fine old mansion formerly a seat of the Newdigate family. On Derwent
+Edge, above the village, are various peculiar rock formations, known by
+such names as the Salt-cellar. Ashopton, another village lower down the
+dale, is a favourite centre, and here the main valley is joined by Ashop
+Dale, a bold defile in its upper part, penetrating the heart of the
+Peak.
+
+The well-known high road crossing the plateau from east to west, between
+the lower Derwent valley, Bakewell, Buxton and Macclesfield, shows the
+various types of scenery characteristic of the limestone hill-country of
+Derbyshire south of the Peak itself. The lower Derwent valley, about
+Chatsworth, Rowsley, Darley and Matlock, is open, fertile and well
+wooded. The road leads up the tributary valley of the Wye, which after
+Bakewell quickly narrows, and in successive portions is known as Monsal
+Dale, Millersdale (which the main road does not touch), Chee Dale and
+Wye Dale. On the flanks of these beautiful dales bold cliffs and
+bastions of limestone stand out among rich woods. Near the mouth of the
+valley, about Stanton, the fantastic effects of weathering on the
+limestone are especially well seen, as in Rowtor Rocks and Robin Hood's
+Stride, and in the same locality are a remarkable number of tumuli and
+other early remains, and the Hermitage, a cave containing sacred
+carvings. From Buxton the road ascends over the high moors, here open
+and grassy in contrast to the heather of the Peak, and shortly after
+crossing the county boundary, reaches the head of the pass well known by
+the name of an inn, the Cat and Fiddle, at its highest point, 1690 ft.
+
+South of Buxton the elevations along the main axis decrease, thus Axe
+Edge reaches 1600 ft., and this height is nowhere exceeded as the hills
+sink to the plain valley of the Trent. The dales and ravines which
+ramify among the limestone heights are characteristic and beautiful, and
+the valley of the Dove (q.v.) or Dovedale, on the border with
+Staffordshire, is as famous as any of the northern dales. Swallow-holes
+or waterworn caverns are common in many parts of the limestone region.
+The hills east of the Derwent are nowhere so high as those to the
+west--Margley Hill reaches 1793 ft., Howden Edge 1787 ft. and Derwent
+Moors 1505 ft. The plateau type is maintained. The valley of the Derwent
+provides the most attractive scenery in the southern part of the
+county, from Matlock southward by Heage, Belper and Duffield to Derby.
+
+   _Geology._--Five well-contrasted types of scenery in Derbyshire are
+   clearly traceable to as many varieties of rock; the bleak dry uplands
+   of the north and east, with deep-cut ravines and swift clear streams,
+   are due to the great mass of Mountain Limestone; round the limestone
+   boundary are the valleys with soft outlines in the Pendleside Shales;
+   these are succeeded by the rugged moorlands, covered with heather and
+   peat, which are due to the Millstone Grit series; eastward lies the
+   Derbyshire Coalfield with its gently moulded grass-covered hills;
+   southward is the more level tract of red Triassic rocks. The
+   principal structural feature is the broad anticline, its axis running
+   north and south, which has brought up the Carboniferous Limestone;
+   this uplifted region is the southern extremity of the Pennine Range.
+   The Carboniferous or "Mountain" Limestone is the oldest formation in
+   the county; its thickness is not known, but it is certainly over 2000
+   ft.; it is well exposed in the numerous narrow gorges cut by the
+   Derwent and its tributaries and by the Dove on the Staffordshire
+   border. Ashwood Dale, Chee Dale, Millersdale, Monsal Dale and the
+   valley at Matlock are all flanked by abrupt sides of this rock. It is
+   usually a pale, thick-bedded rock, sometimes blue and occasionally,
+   as at Ashford, black. In some places, e.g. Thorpe Cloud, it is highly
+   fossiliferous, but it is usually somewhat barren except for abundant
+   crinoids and smaller organisms. It is polished in large slabs at
+   Ashford, where crinoidal, black and "rosewood" marbles are produced.
+   Volcanic rocks, locally called "Toadstone," are represented in the
+   limestones by intrusive sills and flows of dolerite and by necks of
+   agglomerate, notably near Tideswell, Millersdale and Matlock. Beds
+   and nodules of chert are abundant in the upper parts of the
+   limestone; at Bakewell it is quarried for use in the Potteries. At
+   some points the limestone has been dolomitized; near Bonsall it has
+   been converted into a granular silicified rock. A series of black
+   shales with nodular limestones, the Pendleside series, rests upon the
+   Mountain Limestone on the east, south and north-west; much of the
+   upper course of the Derwent has been cut through these soft beds. Mam
+   Tor, or the Shivering Mountain, is made of these shales. Next in
+   upward sequence is a thick mass of sandstones, grits and shales--the
+   Millstone Grit series. On the west side these extend from Blacklow
+   Hill to Axe Edge; on the east, from Derwent Edge to near Derby;
+   outlying masses form the rough moorland on Kinder Scout and the
+   picturesque tors near Stanton-by-Youlgreave. A small patch of
+   Millstone Grit and Limestone occurs in the south of the county about
+   Melbourne and Ticknall. The Coal Measures repose upon the Millstone
+   Grit; the largest area of these rocks lies on the east, where they
+   are conterminous with the coalfields of Yorkshire and Nottingham. A
+   small tract, part of the Leicestershire coalfield, lies in the
+   south-east corner, and in the north-west corner a portion of the
+   Lancashire coalfield appears about New Mills and Whaley Bridge. They
+   yield valuable coals, clays, marls and ganister. East of Bolsover,
+   the Coal Measures are covered unconformably by the Permian breccias
+   and magnesian limestone. Flanking the hills between Ashbourne and
+   Quarndon are red beds of Bunter marl, sandstone and conglomerate;
+   they also appear at Morley, east of the Derwent, and again round the
+   small southern coalfield. Most of the southern part of the county is
+   occupied by Keuper marls and sandstones, the latter yield good
+   building stone; and at Chellaston the gypsum beds in the former are
+   excavated on a large scale. Much of the Triassic area is covered
+   superficially by glacial drift and alluvium of the Trent. Local
+   boulders as well as northern erratics are found in the valley of the
+   Derwent. The bones of Pleistocene mammals, the rhinoceros, mammoth,
+   bison, hyaena, &c., have been found at numerous places, often in
+   caves and fissures in the limestones, e.g. at Castleton, Wirksworth
+   and Creswell. At Doveholes the Pleiocene _Mastodon_ has been
+   reported. Galena and other lead ores are abundant in veins in the
+   limestone, but they are now only worked on a large scale at Mill
+   Close, near Winster; calamine, zinc, blende, barytes, calcite and
+   fluor-spar are common. A peculiar variety of the last named, called
+   "Blue John," is found only near Castleton; at the same place occurs
+   the remarkable elastic bitumen, "elaterite." Limestone is quarried at
+   Buxton, Millersdale and Matlock for lime, fluxing and chemical
+   purposes. Good sandstone is obtained from the Millstone Grit at
+   Stancliffe, Tansley and Whatstandwell. Calcareous tufa or travertine
+   occurs in the valley of Matlock and elsewhere, and in some places is
+   still being deposited by springs. Large pits containing deposits of
+   white sand, clay and pebbles are found in the limestone at Longcliff,
+   Newhaven and Carsington.
+
+_Climate._--From the elevation which it attains in its northern division
+the county is colder and is rainier than other midland counties. Even in
+summer cold and thick fogs are often seen hanging over the rivers, and
+clinging to the lower parts of the hills, and hoar-frosts are by no
+means unknown even in June and July. The winters in the uplands are
+generally severe, and the rainfall heavy. At Buxton, at an elevation of
+about 1000 ft., the mean temperature in January is 34.9° F., and in July
+57.5°, the mean annual being 45.4°. These conditions contrast with those
+at Derby, in the southern lowland, where the figures are respectively
+37.5°, 61.2° and 48.8°, while intermediate conditions are found at
+Belper, 9 m. higher up the Derwent valley, where the figures are 36.3°,
+59.9° and 47.3°. The contrasts shown by the mean annual rainfall are
+similarly marked. Thus at Woodhead, lying high in the extreme north, it
+is 52.03 in., at Buxton 49.33 in., at Matlock, in the middle part of the
+Derwent valley, 35.2 in., and at Derby 24.35 in.
+
+_Agriculture._--A little over seven-tenths of the total area of the
+county is under cultivation. Among the higher altitudes of north
+Derbyshire, where the soil is poor and the climate harsh, grain is
+unable to flourish, while even in the more sheltered parts of this
+region the harvest is usually belated. In such districts sheep farming
+is chiefly practised, and there is a considerable area of heath pasture.
+Farther south, heavy crops of wheat, turnips and other cereals and green
+crops are not uncommon, while barley is cultivated about Repton and
+Gresley, and also in the east of the county, in order to supply the
+Burton breweries. A large part of the Trent valley is under permanent
+pasture, being devoted to cattle-feeding and dairy-farming. This
+industry has prospered greatly, and the area of permanent pasture
+encroaches continually upon that of arable land. Derbyshire cheeses are
+exported or sent to London in considerable quantities; and cheese fairs
+are held in various parts of the county, as at Ashbourne and Derby. A
+feature of the upland districts is the total absence of hedges, and the
+substitution of limestone walls, put together without any mortar or
+cement.
+
+_Other Industries._--The manufactures of Derbyshire are both numerous
+and important, embracing silks, cotton hosiery, iron, woollen
+manufactures, lace, elastic web and brewing. For many of these this
+county has long been famous, especially for that of silk, which is
+carried on to a large extent in Derby, as well as in Belper and
+Duffield. Derby is also celebrated for its china, and silk-throwing is
+the principal industry of the town. Elastic web weaving by power looms
+is carried on to a great extent, and the manufacture of lace and net
+curtains, gimp trimmings, braids and cords. In the county town and
+neighbourhood are several important chemical and colour works; and in
+various parts of the county, as at Belper, Cromford, Matlock, Tutbury,
+are cotton-spinning mills, as well as hosiery and tape manufactories.
+The principal works of the Midland Railway Company are at Derby. The
+principal mineral is coal. Ironstone is not extensively wrought, but, on
+account of the abundant supply of coal, large quantities are imported
+for smelting purposes. There are smelting furnaces in several districts,
+as at Alfreton, Chesterfield, Derby, Ilkeston. Besides lead, gypsum and
+zinc are raised, to a small extent; and for the quarrying of limestone
+Derbyshire is one of the principal English counties. The east and the
+extreme south-west parts are the principal industrial districts.
+
+_Communications._--The chief railway serving the county is the Midland,
+the south, east and north being served by its main line and branches. In
+the north-east and north the Great Central system touches the county; in
+the west the North Staffordshire and a branch of the London &
+North-Western; while a branch of the Great Northern serves Derby and
+other places in the south. The Trent & Mersey canal crosses the southern
+part of the county, and there is a branch canal (the Derby) connecting
+Derby with this and with the Erewash canal, which runs north from the
+Trent up the Erewash valley. From it there is a little-used branch (the
+Cromford canal) to Matlock.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+658,885 acres, with a population in 1891 of 528,033, and 1901 of
+620,322. The area of the administrative county is 652,272 acres. The
+county contains six hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Chesterfield
+(pop. 27,185), Derby, a county borough and the county town (114,848),
+Glossop (21,526), Ilkeston (25,384). The other urban districts are
+Alfreton (17,505), Alvaston and Boulton (1279), Ashbourne (4039),
+Bakewell (2850), Baslow and Bubnell (797), Belper (10,934), Bolsover
+(6844) Bonsall (1360), Brampton and Walton (2698), Buxton (10,181), Clay
+Cross (8358), Dronfield (3809), Fairfield (2969), Heage (2889), Heanor
+(16,249), Long Eaton (13,045), Matlock (5979), Matlock Bath and Scarthin
+Nick (1810), Newbold and Dunston (5986), New Mills (7773), North Darley
+(2756), Ripley (10,111), South Darley (788), Swadlincote (18,014),
+Whittington (9416), Wirksworth (3807). Among other towns may be
+mentioned Ashover (2426), Barlborough (2056), Chapel-en-le-Frith (4626),
+Clowne (3896), Crich (3063), Killamarsh (3644), Staveley (11,420),
+Whitwell (3380). The county is in the Midland circuit, and assizes are
+held at Derby. It has one court of quarter sessions and is divided into
+fifteen petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Derby, Chesterfield
+and Glossop have separate commissions of the peace, and that of Derby
+has also a separate court of quarter sessions. The total number of civil
+parishes is 314. The county is mainly in the diocese of Southwell, with
+small portions in the dioceses of Peterborough and Lichfield, and
+contains 255 ecclesiastical parishes or districts. The parliamentary
+divisions of the county are High Peak, North-Eastern, Chesterfield, Mid,
+Ilkeston, Southern and Western, each returning one member, while the
+parliamentary borough of Derby returns two members.
+
+_History._--The earliest English settlements in the district which is
+now Derbyshire were those of the West Angles, who in the course of their
+northern conquests in the 6th century pushed their way up the valleys of
+the Derwent and the Dove, where they became known as the Pecsaetan.
+Later the district formed the northern division of Mercia, and in 848
+the Mercian witenagemot assembled at Repton. In the 9th century the
+district suffered frequently from the ravages of the Danes, who in 874
+wintered at Repton and destroyed its famous monastery, the burial-place
+of the kings of Mercia. Derby under Guthrum was one of the five Danish
+burghs, but in 917 was recovered by Æthelflæd. In 924 Edward the Elder
+fortified Bakewell, and in 942 Edmund regained Derby, which had fallen
+under the Danish yoke. Barrows of the Saxon period are numerous in
+Wirksworth hundred and the Bakewell district, among the most remarkable
+being White-low near Winster and Bower's-low near Tissington. There are
+Saxon cemeteries at Stapenhill and Foremark Hall.
+
+Derbyshire probably originated as a shire in the time of Æthelstan, but
+for long it maintained a very close connexion with Nottinghamshire, and
+the Domesday Survey gives a list of local customs affecting the two
+counties alike. The two shire-courts sat together for the Domesday
+Inquest, and the counties were united under one sheriff until the time
+of Elizabeth. The villages of Appleby, Oakthorpe, Donisthorpe,
+Stretton-en-le-Field, Willesley, Chilcote and Measham were reckoned as
+part of Derbyshire in 1086, although separated from it by the
+Leicestershire parishes of Over and Nether Seat.
+
+The early divisions of the county were known as wapentakes, five being
+mentioned in Domesday, while 13th-century documents mention seven
+wapentakes, corresponding with the six present hundreds, except that
+Repton and Gresley were then reckoned as separate divisions. In the 14th
+century the divisions were more frequently described as hundreds, and
+Wirksworth alone retained the designation wapentake until modern times.
+Ecclesiastically the county constituted an archdeaconry in the diocese
+of Lichfield, comprising the six deaneries of Derby, Ashbourne, High
+Peak, Castillar, Chesterfield and Repington. In 1884 it was transferred
+to the newly formed diocese of Southwell. The assizes for
+Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire were held at Nottingham until the reign
+of Henry III., when they were held alternately at Nottingham and Derby
+until 1569, after which the Derbyshire assizes were held at Derby. The
+court of the Honour of Peverel, held at Basford in Nottinghamshire,
+which formerly exercised jurisdiction in the hundreds of Scarsdale, the
+Peak and Wirksworth, was abolished in 1849. The miners of Derbyshire
+formed an independent community under the jurisdiction of a steward and
+barmasters, who held two Barmote courts (q.v.) every year. The forests
+of Peak and Duffield had their separate courts and officers, the justice
+seat of the former being in an extra-parochial part at equal distances
+from Castleton, Tideswell and Bowden, while the pleas of Duffield Forest
+were held at Tutbury. Both were disafforested in the 17th century.
+
+The greatest landholder in Derbyshire at the time of the Domesday Survey
+was Henry de Ferrers, who owned almost the whole of the modern hundred
+of Appletree. The Ferrers estates were forfeited by Robert, earl of
+Derby, in the reign of Henry III. Another great Domesday landholder was
+William Peverel, the historic founder of Peak Castle, whose vast
+possessions were known as the Honour of Peverel. In 1155 the younger
+Peverel was disinherited for poisoning the earl of Chester, and his
+estates forfeited to the crown. Few Englishmen retained estates of any
+importance after the Conquest, but one, Elfin, an under-tenant of Henry
+de Ferrers, not only held a considerable property but was the ancestor
+of the Derbyshire family of Brailsford. The families of Shirley and
+Gresley can also boast an unbroken descent from Domesday tenants.
+
+During the rebellion of Prince Henry against Henry II. the castles of
+Tutbury and Duffield were held against the king, and in the civil wars
+of John's reign Bolsover and Peak Castles were garrisoned by the
+rebellious barons. In the Barons' War of the reign of Henry III. the
+earl of Derby was active in stirring up feeling in the county against
+the king, and in 1266 assembled a considerable force, which was defeated
+by the king's party at Chesterfield. At the time of the Wars of the
+Roses discontent was rife in Derbyshire, and riots broke out in 1443,
+but the county did not lend active support to either party. On the
+outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th century, the county at first
+inclined to support the king, who received an enthusiastic reception
+when he visited Derby in 1642, but by the close of 1643 Sir John Gell of
+Hopton had secured almost the whole county for the parliament. Derby,
+however, was always royalist in sympathy, and did not finally surrender
+till 1646; in 1659 it rebelled against Richard Cromwell, and in 1745
+entertained the young Pretender.
+
+Derbyshire has always been mainly a mining and manufacturing county,
+though the rich land in the south formerly produced large quantities of
+corn. The lead mines were worked by the Romans, and the Domesday Survey
+mentions lead mines at Wirksworth, Matlock, Bakewell, Ashford and Crich.
+Iron has also been produced in Derbyshire from an early date, and coal
+mines were worked at Norton and Alfreton in the beginning of the 14th
+century. The woollen industry flourished in the county before the reign
+of John, when an exclusive privilege of dyeing cloth was conceded to the
+burgesses of Derby. Thomas Fuller writing in 1662 mentions lead, malt
+and ale as the chief products of the county, and the Buxton waters were
+already famous in his day. The 18th century saw the rise of numerous
+manufactures. In 1718 Sir Thomas and John Lombe set up an improved
+silk-throwing machine at Derby, and in 1758 Jedediah Strutt introduced a
+machine for making ribbed stockings, which became famous as the "Derby
+rib." In 1771 Sir Richard Arkwright set up one of his first cotton mills
+in Cromford, and in 1787 there were twenty-two cotton mills in the
+county. The Derby porcelain or china manufactory was started about 1750.
+
+From 1295 until the Reform Act of 1832 the county and town of Derby each
+returned two members to parliament. From this latter date the county
+returned four members in two divisions until the act of 1868, under
+which it returned six members for three divisions.
+
+_Antiquities._--Monastic remains are scanty, but there are interesting
+portions of a priory incorporated with the school buildings at Repton.
+The village church of Beauchief Abbey, near Dronfield, is a remnant of
+an abbey founded c. 1175 by Robert Fitzranulf. It has a stately
+transitional Norman tower, and three fine Norman arches. Dale Abbey,
+near Derby, was founded early in the 13th century for the
+Premonstratensian order. The ruins are scanty, but the east window is
+preserved, and the present church incorporates remains of the ancient
+rest-house for pilgrims. The church has a peculiar music gallery,
+entered from without. The abbey church contained famous stained glass,
+and some of this is preserved in the neighbouring church at Morley.
+Derbyshire is rich in ecclesiastical architecture as a whole. The
+churches are generally of various styles. The chancel of the church at
+Repton is assigned to the second half of the 10th century, though
+subsequently altered, and the crypt beneath is supposed to be earlier
+still; its roof is supported by four round pillars, and it is
+approached by two stairways. Other remains of pre-Conquest date are the
+chancel arches in the churches of Marston Montgomery and of Sawley; and
+the curiously carved font in Wilne church is attributed to the same
+period. Examples of Norman work are frequent in doorways, as in the
+churches of Allestree and Willington near Repton, while a fine tympanum
+is preserved in the modern church of Findern. There is a triple-recessed
+doorway, with arcade above, in the west end of Bakewell church, and
+there is another fine west doorway in Melbourne church, a building
+principally of the late Norman period, with central and small western
+towers. In restoring this church curious mural paintings were
+discovered. At Steetley, near Worksop, is a small Norman chapel, with
+apse, restored from a ruinous condition; Youlgrave church, a building of
+much general interest, has Norman nave pillars and a fine font of the
+same period, and Normanton church has a peculiar Norman corbel table.
+The Early English style is on the whole less well exemplified in the
+county, but Ashbourne church, with its central tower and lofty spire,
+contains beautiful details of this period, notably the lancet windows in
+the Cockayne chapel.
+
+The parish churches of Dronfield, Hathersage (with some notable stained
+glass), Sandiacre and Tideswell exemplify the Decorated period; the last
+is a particularly stately and beautiful building, with a lofty and
+ornate western tower and some good early brasses. The churches of
+Dethic, Wirksworth and Chesterfield are typical of the Perpendicular
+period; that of Wirksworth contains noteworthy memorial chapels,
+monuments and brasses, and that of Chesterfield is celebrated for its
+crooked spire.
+
+The remains of castles are few; the ancient Bolsover Castle is replaced
+by a castellated mansion of the 17th century; of the Norman Peak Castle
+near Castleton little is left; of Codnor Castle in the Erewash valley
+there are picturesque ruins of the 13th century. Among ancient mansions
+Derbyshire possesses one of the most famous in England in Haddon Hall,
+of the 15th century. Wingfield manor house is a ruin dating from the
+same century. Hardwick Hall is a very perfect example of Elizabethan
+building; ruins of the old Tudor hall stand near by. Other Elizabethan
+examples are Barlborough and Tissington Halls.
+
+The village of Tissington is noted for the maintenance of an old custom,
+that of "well-dressing." On the Thursday before Easter a special church
+service is celebrated, and the wells are beautifully ornamented with
+flowers, prayers being offered at each. The ceremony has been revived
+also in several other Derbyshire villages.
+
+   See Davies, _New Historical and Descriptive View of Derbyshire_
+   (Belper, 1811); D. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_, vol. v. (London, 1817);
+   Maunder, _Derbyshire Miners' Glossary_ (Bakewell, 1824); R. Simpson,
+   _Collection of Fragments illustrative of the History of Derbyshire_
+   (1826); S. Glover, _History and Gazetteer of the County of Derby_,
+   ed. T. Noble, part 1 of vols. i. and ii. (Derby, 1831-1833); T.
+   Bateman, _Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire_ (London, 1848);
+   L. Jewitt, _Ballads and Songs of Derbyshire_ (London, 1867); J. C.
+   Cox, _Notes on the Churches of Derbyshire_ (Chester, 1875), and
+   _Three Centuries of Derbyshire Annals_ (2 vols., London, 1890); R. N.
+   Worth, _Derby_, in "Popular County Histories" (London, 1886); J. P.
+   Yeatman, _Feudal History of the County of Derby_ (3 vols., London,
+   1886-1895); _Victoria County History, Derbyshire_. See also _Notts
+   and Derbyshire Notes and Queries_.
+
+
+
+
+DEREHAM (properly EAST DEREHAM), a market town in the Mid parliamentary
+division of Norfolk, England, 122 m. N.N.E. from London by the Great
+Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5545. The church of St
+Nicholas is a cruciform Perpendicular structure with a beautiful central
+tower, and some portions of earlier date. It contains a monument to
+William Cowper, who came to live here in 1796, and the Congregational
+chapel stands on the site of the house where the poet spent his last
+days. Dereham is an important agricultural centre with works for the
+manufacture of agricultural implements, iron foundries and a malting
+industry.
+
+
+
+
+DERELICT (from Lat. _derelinquere_, to forsake), in law, property thrown
+away or abandoned by the owner in such a manner as to indicate that he
+intends to make no further claim to it. The word is used more
+particularly with respect to property abandoned at sea (see WRECK), but
+it is also applied in other senses; for example, land gained from the
+sea by receding of the water is termed _dereliction_. Land gained
+gradually and slowly by dereliction belongs to the owner of the
+adjoining land, but in the case of sudden or considerable dereliction
+the land belongs to the Crown. This technical use of the term
+"dereliction" is to be distinguished from the more general modern sense,
+dereliction or abandonment of duty, which implies a culpable failure or
+neglect in moral or legal obligation.
+
+
+
+
+DERENBOURG, JOSEPH (1811-1895), Franco-German orientalist. He was a
+considerable force in the educational revival of Jewish education in
+France. He made great contributions to the knowledge of Saadia, and
+planned a complete edition of Saadia's works in Arabic and French. A
+large part of this work appeared during his lifetime. He also wrote an
+_Essai sur l'histoire et la géographie de la Palestine_ (Paris, 1867).
+This was an original contribution to the history of the Jews and Judaism
+in the time of Christ, and has been much used by later writers on the
+subject (e.g. by Schürer). He also published in collaboration with his
+son Hartwig, _Opuscules et traités d'Abou-'l-Walîd_ (with translation,
+1880); _Deux Versions hébraïques du livre de Kalilâh et Dimnah_ (1881),
+and a Latin translation of the same story under the title _Joannis de
+Capua directorium vitae humanae_ (1889); _Commentaire de Maimonide sur
+la Mischnah Seder Tohorot_ (Berlin, 1886-1891); and a second edition of
+S. de Sacy's _Séances de Hariri_. He died on the 29th of July 1895, at
+Ems.
+
+His son, HARTWIG DERENBOURG (1844-1908), was born in Paris on the 17th
+of June 1844. He was educated at Göttingen and Leipzig. Subsequently he
+studied Arabic at the École des Langues Orientales. In 1879 he was
+appointed professor of Arabic, and in 1886 professor of Mahommedan
+Religion, at the École des Hautes Études in Paris. He collaborated with
+his father in the great edition of Saadia and the edition of
+Abu-'l-Walîd, and also produced a number of important editions of other
+Arabic writers. Among these are _Le Dîwân de Nâbiqa Dhoby[=a]n[=i]_; _Le
+Livre de Sîbawaihi_ (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1889); _Chrestomathie
+élémentaire de l'arabe littéral_ (in collaboration with Spiro, 1885; 2nd
+ed., 1892); _Ousâma ibn Mounkidh, un émir syrien_ (1889); _Ousâma ibn
+Mounkidh, préface du livre du bâton_ (with trans., 1887); _Al-Fákhrî_
+(1895); _Oumâra du Gémen_ (1897), a catalogue of Arabic MSS. in the
+Escorial (vol. i., 1884).
+
+
+
+
+DERG, LOUGH, a lake of Ireland, on the boundary of the counties Galway,
+Clare and Tipperary. It is an expansion of the Shannon, being the lowest
+lake on that river, and is 23 m. long and generally from 1 to 3 m.
+broad. It lies where the Shannon leaves the central plain of Ireland and
+flows between the hills which border the plain. While the northerly
+shores of the lake, therefore, are flat, the southern are steep and
+picturesque, being backed by the Slieve Aughty, Slieve Bernagh and Arra
+Mountains. Ruined churches and fortresses are numerous on the eastern
+shore, and on Iniscaltra Island are a round tower and remains of five
+churches.
+
+Another LOUGH DERG, near Pettigo in Donegal, though small, is famous as
+the traditional scene of St Patrick's purgatory. In the middle ages its
+pilgrimages had a European reputation, and they are still observed
+annually by many of the Irish from June 1 to August 15. The hospice,
+chapels, &c., are on Station Island, and there is a ruined monastery on
+Saints' Island.
+
+
+
+
+DERHAM, WILLIAM (1657-1735), English divine, was born at Stoulton, near
+Worcester, on the 26th of November 1657. He was educated at Blockley, in
+his native county, and at Trinity College, Oxford. In 1682 he became
+vicar of Wargrave, in Berkshire; and in 1689 he was preferred to the
+living of Upminster, in Essex. In 1696 he published his _Artificial
+Clockmaker_, which went through several editions. The best known of his
+subsequent works are _Physico-Theology_, published in 1713;
+_Astro-Theology_, 1714; and _Christo-Theology_, 1730. The first two of
+these books were teleological arguments for the being and attributes of
+God, and were used by Paley nearly a century later. In 1702 Derham was
+elected fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1716 was made a canon of
+Windsor. He was Boyle lecturer in 1711-1712. His last work, entitled A
+_Defence of the Church's Right in Leasehold Estates_, appeared in 1731.
+He died on the 5th of April 1735. Besides the works published in his own
+name, Derham, who was keenly interested in natural history, contributed
+a variety of papers to the _Transactions of the Royal Society, revised
+the Miscellanea Curiosa_, edited the correspondence of John Ray and
+Eleazar Albin's _Natural History_, and published some of the MSS. of
+Robert Hooke, the natural philosopher.
+
+
+
+
+D'ERLON, JEAN BAPTISTE DROUET, COUNT (1765-1844), marshal of France, was
+born at Reims on the 29th of July 1765. He entered the army as a private
+soldier in 1782, was discharged after five years' service, re-entered it
+in 1792, and rose rapidly to the rank of an officer. From 1794 to 1796
+he was aide-de-camp to General Lefebvre. He did good service in the
+campaigns of the revolutionary wars and in 1799 attained the rank of
+general of brigade. In the campaign of that year he was engaged in the
+Swiss operations under Masséna. In 1800 he fought under Moreau at
+Hohenlinden. As a general of division he took part in Napoleon's
+campaigns of 1805 and 1806, and rendered excellent service at Jena. He
+was next engaged under Lefebvre in the siege of Danzig and negotiated
+the terms of surrender; after this he rejoined the field army and fought
+at Friedland (1807), receiving a severe wound. After this battle he was
+made grand officer of the Legion of Honour, was created Count d'Erlon
+and received a pension. For the next six years d'Erlon was almost
+continuously engaged as commander of an army corps in the Peninsular
+War, in which he added greatly to his reputation as a capable general.
+At the pass of Maya in the Pyrenees he inflicted a defeat upon Lord
+Hill's troops, and in the subsequent battles of the 1814 campaign he
+distinguished himself further. After the first Restoration he was named
+commander of the 16th military division, but he was soon arrested for
+conspiring with the Orléans party, to which he was secretly devoted. He
+escaped, however, and gave in his adhesion to Napoleon, who had returned
+from Elba. The emperor made him a peer of France, and gave him command
+of the I. army corps, which formed part of the Army of the North. In the
+Waterloo campaign d'Erlon's corps formed part of Ney's command on the
+16th of June, but, in consequence of an extraordinary series of
+misunderstandings, took part neither at Ligny nor at Quatre Bras (see
+WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). He was not, however, held to account by Napoleon,
+and as the latter's practice in such matters was severe to the verge of
+injustice, it may be presumed that the failure was not due to d'Erlon.
+
+He was in command of the right wing of the French army throughout the
+great battle of the 18th of June, and fought in the closing operations
+around Paris. At the second Restoration d'Erlon fled into Germany, only
+returning to France after the amnesty of 1825. He was not restored to
+the service until the accession of Louis Philippe, in whose interests he
+had engaged in several plots and intrigues. As commander of the 12th
+military division (Nantes), he suppressed the legitimist agitation in
+his district and caused the arrest of the duchess of Berry (1832). His
+last active service was in Algeria, of which country he was made
+governor-general in 1834 at the age of seventy. He returned to France
+after two years, and was made marshal of France shortly before his death
+at Paris on the 25th of January 1844.
+
+
+
+
+DERMOT MAC MURROUGH (d. 1171), Irish king of Leinster, succeeded his
+father in the principality of the Hui Cinsellaigh (1115) and eventually
+in the kingship of Leinster. The early events of his life are obscure;
+but about 1152 we find him engaged in a feud with O Ruairc, the lord of
+Breifne (Leitrim and Cavan). Dermot abducted the wife of O Ruairc more
+with the object of injuring his rival than from any love of the lady.
+The injured husband called to his aid Roderic, the high king (aird-righ)
+of Connaught; and in 1166 Dermot fled before this powerful coalition to
+invoke the aid of England. Obtaining from Henry II. a licence to enlist
+allies among the Welsh marchers, Dermot secured the aid of the Clares
+and Geraldines. To Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and head of the
+house of Clare, Dermot gave his daughter Eva in marriage; and on his
+death was succeeded by the earl in Leinster. The historical importance
+of Dermot lies in the fact that he was the means of introducing the
+English into Ireland. Through his aid the towns of Waterford, Wexford
+and Dublin had already become English colonies before the arrival of
+Henry II. in the island.
+
+   See _The Song of Dermot and the Earl, an old French Poem_ (by M.
+   Regan?), ed. with trans. by G. H. Orpen, 1892; Kate Norgate, _England
+   under the Angevin Kings_, vol. ii.                    (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+DERNA (anc. _Darnis-Zarine_), a town on the north coast of Africa and
+capital of the eastern half of the Ottoman province of Bengazi or Barca.
+Situated below the eastern butt of Jebel Akhdar on a small but rich
+deltaic plain, watered by fine perennial springs, it has a growing
+population and trade, the latter being mainly in fruits grown in its
+extensive palm gardens, and in hides and wool brought down by the nomads
+from the interior. If the port were better there would be more rapid
+expansion. The bay is open from N.W. round to S.E. and often
+inaccessible in winter and spring, and the steamers of the _Nav. Gen.
+Italiana_ sometimes have to pass without calling. The population has
+recovered from the great plague epidemic of 1821 and reached its former
+figure of about 7000. A proportion of it is of Moorish stock, of
+Andalusian origin, which emigrated in 1493; the descendants preserve a
+fine facial type. The sheikhs of the local Bedouin tribes have houses in
+the place, and a Turkish garrison of about 250 men is stationed in
+barracks. There is a lighthouse W. of the bay. A British consular agent
+is resident and the Italians maintain a vice-consul. The names Darnis
+and Zarine are philologically identical and probably refer to the same
+place. No traces are left of the ancient town except some rock tombs.
+Darnis continued to be of some importance in early Moslem times as a
+station on the Alexandria-Kairawan road, and has served on more than one
+occasion as a base for Egyptian attacks on Cyrenaica and Tripolitana. In
+1805 the government of the United States, having a quarrel with the dey
+of Tripoli on account of piracies committed on American shipping, landed
+a force to co-operate in the attack on Derna then being made by Sidi
+Ahmet, an elder brother of the dey. This force, commanded by William
+Eaton (q.v.), built a fort, whose ruins and rusty guns are still to be
+seen, and began to improve the harbour; but its work quickly came to an
+end with the conclusion of peace. After 1835 Derna passed under direct
+Ottoman control, and subsequently served as the point whence the sultan
+exerted a precarious but increasing control over eastern Cyrenaica and
+Marmarica. It is now in communication by wireless telegraphy with Rhodes
+and western Cyrenaica. It is the only town, or even large village,
+between Bengazi and Alexandria (600 m.)                     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+DÉROULÈDE, PAUL (1846-    ), French author and politician, was born in
+Paris on the 2nd of September 1846. He made his first appearance as a
+poet in the pages of the _Revue nationale_, under the pseudonym of Jean
+Rebel, and in 1869 produced at the Théâtre Français a one-act drama in
+verse entitled _Juan Strenner_. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War
+he enlisted as a private, was wounded and taken prisoner at Sedan, and
+sent to Breslau, but effected his escape. He then served under Chanzy
+and Bourbaki, took part in the latter's disastrous retreat to
+Switzerland, and fought against the Commune in Paris. After attaining
+the rank of lieutenant, he was forced by an accident to retire from the
+army. He published in 1872 a number of patriotic poems (_Chants du
+soldat_), which enjoyed unbounded popularity. This was followed in 1875
+by another collection, _Nouveaux Chants du soldat_. In 1877 he produced
+a drama in verse called _L'Hetman_, which derived a passing success from
+the patriotic fervour of its sentiments. For the exhibition of 1878 he
+wrote a hymn, _Vive la France_, which was set to music by Gounod. In
+1880 his drama in verse, _La Moäbite_, which had been accepted by the
+Théâtre Français, was forbidden by the censor on religious grounds. In
+1882 M. Déroulède founded the _Ligue des patriotes_, with the object of
+furthering France's "revanche" against Germany. He was one of the first
+advocates of a Franco-Russian alliance, and as early as 1883 undertook a
+journey to Russia for the furtherance of that object. On the rise of
+General Boulanger, M. Déroulède attempted to use the _Ligue des
+patriotes_, hitherto a non-political organization, to assist his cause,
+but was deserted by a great part of the league and forced to resign his
+presidency. Nevertheless he used the section that remained faithful to
+him with such effect that the government found it necessary in 1889 to
+decree its suppression. In the same year he was elected to the chamber
+as member for Angoulême. He was expelled from the chamber in 1890 for
+his disorderly interruptions during debate. He did not stand at the
+elections of 1893, but was re-elected in 1898, and distinguished himself
+by his violence as a nationalist and anti-Dreyfusard. After the funeral
+of President Faure, on the 23rd of February 1899, he endeavoured to
+persuade General Roget to lead his troops upon the Élysée. For this he
+was arrested, but on being tried for treason was acquitted (May 31). On
+the 12th of August he was again arrested and accused, together with
+André Buffet, Jules Guérin and others, of conspiracy against the
+republic. After a long trial before the high court, he was sentenced, on
+the 4th of January 1900, to ten years' banishment from France, and
+retired to San Sebastian. In 1901, he was again brought prominently
+before the public by a quarrel with his Royalist allies, which resulted
+in an abortive attempt to arrange a duel with M. Buffet in Switzerland.
+In November 1905, however, the law of amnesty enabled him to return to
+France.
+
+Besides the works already mentioned, he published _Le Sergent_, in the
+_Théâtre de campagne_ (1880); _De l'éducation nationale_ (1882);
+_Monsieur le Uhlan et les trois couleurs_ (1884); _Le Premier grenadier
+de France; La Tour d'Auvergne_ (1886); _Le Livre de la ligue des
+patriotes_ (1887); _Refrains militaires_ (1888); _Histoire d'amour_
+(1890); a pamphlet entitled _Désarmement?_ (1891); _Chants du paysan_
+(1894); _Poésies Militaires_ (1896) and _Messire du Guesclin, drame en
+vers_ (1895); _La mort de Hoche. Cinq actes en prose_ (1897); _La Plus
+belle fille du monde, conte dialogué en vers libres_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+DERRICK, a sort of crane (q.v.); the name is derived from that of a
+famous early 17th-century Tyburn hangman, and was originally applied as
+a synonym.
+
+
+
+
+DERRING-DO, valour, chivalrous conduct, or "desperate courage," as it is
+defined by Sir Walter Scott. The word in its present accepted
+substantival form is a misconstruction of the verbal substantive
+_dorryng_ or _durring_, daring, and _do_ or _don_, the present
+infinitive of "do," the phrase _dorryng do_ thus meaning "daring to do."
+It is used by Chaucer in _Troylus_, and by Lydgate in the _Chronicles of
+Troy_. Spenser in the _Shepherd's Calendar_ first adapted _derring-do_
+as a substantive meaning "manhood and chevalrie," and this use was
+revived by Scott, through whom it came into vogue with writers of
+romance.
+
+
+
+
+DE RUYTER, MICHAEL ADRIANZOON (1607-1676), Dutch naval officer, was born
+at Flushing on the 24th of March 1607. He began his seafaring life at
+the age of eleven as a cabin boy, and in 1636 was entrusted by the
+merchants of Flushing with the command of a cruiser against the French
+pirates. In 1640 he entered the service of the States, and, being
+appointed rear-admiral of a fleet fitted out to assist Portugal against
+Spain, specially distinguished himself at Cape St Vincent, on the 3rd of
+November 1641. In the following year he left the service of the States,
+and, until the outbreak of war with England in 1652, held command of a
+merchant vessel. In 1653 a squadron of seventy vessels was despatched
+against the English, under the command of Admiral Tromp. Ruyter, who
+accompanied the admiral in this expedition, seconded him with great
+skill and bravery in the three battles which were fought with the
+English. He was afterwards stationed in the Mediterranean, where he
+captured several Turkish vessels. In 1659 he received a commission to
+join the king of Denmark in his war with the Swedes. As a reward of his
+services, the king of Denmark ennobled him and gave him a pension. In
+1661 he grounded a vessel belonging to Tunis, released forty Christian
+slaves, made a treaty with the Tunisians, and reduced the Algerine
+corsairs to submission. From his achievements on the west coast of
+Africa he was recalled in 1665 to take command of a large fleet which
+had been organized against England, and in May of the following year,
+after a long contest off the North Foreland, he compelled the English to
+take refuge in the Thames. On the 7th of June 1672 he fought a drawn
+battle with the combined fleets of England and France, in Southwold or
+Sole Bay, and after the fight he convoyed safely home a fleet of
+merchantmen. His valour was displayed to equal advantage in several
+engagements with the French and English in the following year. In 1676
+he was despatched to the assistance of Spain against France in the
+Mediterranean, and, receiving a mortal wound in the battle on the 21st
+of April off Messina, died on the 29th at Syracuse. A patent by the king
+of Spain, investing him with the dignity of duke, did not reach the
+fleet till after his death. His body was carried to Amsterdam, where a
+magnificent monument to his memory was erected by command of the
+states-general.
+
+   See _Life_ of De Ruyter by Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687), and by Klopp
+   (2nd ed., Hanover, 1858).
+
+
+
+
+DERVISH, a Persian word, meaning "seeking doors," i.e. "beggar," and
+thus equivalent to the Arabic _faq[=i]r_ (fakir). Generally in Islam it
+indicates a member of a religious fraternity, whether mendicant or not;
+but in Turkey and Persia it indicates more exactly a wandering, begging
+religious, called, in Arabic-speaking countries, more specifically a
+_faqir_. With important differences, the dervish fraternities may be
+compared to the regular religious orders of Roman Christendom, while the
+Ulema (q.v.) are, also with important differences, like the secular
+clergy. The origin and history of the mystical life in Islam, which led
+to the growth of the order of dervishes, are treated under
+[S.][=U]FI'ISM It remains to treat here more particularly of (1) the
+dervish fraternities, and (2) the [S.][=u]f[=i] hierarchy.
+
+1. _The Dervish Fraternities._--In the earlier times, the relation
+between devotees was that of master and pupil. Those inclined to the
+spiritual life gathered round a revered sheikh (_murshid_, "guide,"
+_ustadh_, _pir_, "teacher"), lived with him, shared his religious
+practices and were instructed by him. In time of war against the
+unbelievers, they might accompany him to the threatened frontier, and
+fight under his eye. Thus _mur[=a]bit_, "one who pickets his horse on a
+hostile frontier," has become the marabout (q.v.) or dervish of French
+Algeria; and _ribat_, "a frontier fort," has come to mean a monastery.
+The relation, also, might be for a time only. The pupil might at any
+time return to the world, when his religious education and training were
+complete. On the death of the master the memory of his life and sayings
+might go down from generation to generation, and men might boast
+themselves as pupils of his pupils. Continuous corporations to
+perpetuate his name were slow in forming. Ghazali himself, though he
+founded, taught and ruled a [S.][=u]f[=i] cloister (_kh[=a]nq[=a]h_) at
+Tus, left no order behind him. But 'Ad[=i] al-Hakk[=a]r[=i], who founded
+a cloister at Mosul and died about 1163, was long reverenced by the
+'Adawite Fraternity, and in 1166 died 'Abd al-Q[=a]dir al-Jil[=a]n[=i],
+from whom the Q[=a]dirite order descends, one of the greatest and most
+influential to this day. The troublous times of the break up of the
+Seljuk rule may have been a cause in this, as, with St Benedict, the
+crumbling Roman empire. Many existing fraternities, it is true, trace
+their origin to saints of the third, second and even first Moslem
+centuries, but that is legend purely. Similar is the tendency to claim
+all the early pious Moslems as good [S.][=u]f[=i]s; collections of
+[S.][=u]f[=i] biography begin with the ten to whom Mahomet promised
+Paradise. So, too, the ultimate origin of fraternities is assigned to
+either Ali or Abu Bekr, and in Egypt all are under the rule of a direct
+descendant of the latter.
+
+To give a complete list of these fraternities is quite impossible.
+Commonly, thirty-two are reckoned, but many have vanished or have been
+suppressed, and there are sub-orders innumerable. Each has a "rule"
+dating back to its founder, and a ritual which the members perform when
+they meet together in their convent (_kh[=a]nq[=a]h_, _z[=a]wiya_,
+_takya_). This may consist simply in the repetition of sacred phrases,
+or it may be an elaborate performance, such as the whirlings of the
+dancing dervishes, the Mevlevites, an order founded by Jel[=a]l
+ud-D[=i]n ar-R[=u]m[=i], the author of the great Persian mystical poem,
+the _Mesnevi_, and always ruled by one of his descendants. Jel[=a]l
+ud-D[=i]n was an advanced pantheist, and so are the Mevlevites, but that
+seems only to earn them the dislike of the Ulema, and not to affect
+their standing in Islam. They are the most broad-minded and tolerant of
+all. There are also the performances of the Rif[=a]'ites or "howling
+dervishes." In ecstasy they cut themselves with knives; eat live coals
+and glass, handle red-hot iron and devour serpents. They profess
+miraculous healing powers, and the head of the Sa'dites, a sub-order,
+used, in Cairo, to ride over the bodies of his dervishes without hurting
+them, the so-called D[=o]seh (_dausa_). These different abilities are
+strictly regulated. Thus, one sub-order may eat glass and another may
+eat only serpents. Another division is made by their attitude to the law
+of Islam. When a dervish is in a state of ecstasy (_majdh[=u]b_), he is
+supposed to be unconscious of the actions of his body. Reputed saints,
+therefore, can do practically anything, as their souls will be supposed
+to be out of their bodies and in the heavenly regions. They may not only
+commit the vilest of actions, but neglect in general the ceremonial and
+ritual law. This goes so far that in Persia and Turkey dervish orders
+are classified as _b[=a]-shar'_, "with law," and _b[=i]-shar'_, "without
+law." The latter are really antinomians, and the best example of them is
+the Bakhtashite order, widely spread and influential in Turkey and
+Albania and connected by legend with the origin of the Janissaries. The
+Qalandarite order is known to all from the "Calenders" of the _Thousand
+and One Nights_. They separated from the Bakhtashites and are under
+obligation of perpetual travelling. The Senussi (Senussia) were the last
+order to appear, and are distinguished from the others by a severely
+puritanic and reforming attitude and strict orthodoxy, without any
+admixture of mystical slackness in faith or conduct. Each order is
+distinguished by a peculiar garb. Candidates for admission have to pass
+through a noviciate, more or less lengthy. First comes the _'ahd_, or
+initial covenant, in which the neophyte or _mur[=i]d_, "seeker," repents
+of his past sins and takes the sheikh of the order he enters as his
+guide (_murshid_) for the future. He then enters upon a course of
+instruction and discipline, called a "path" (_tar[=i]qa_), on which he
+advances through diverse "stations" (_maq[=a]m[=a]t_) or "passes"
+(_'aqab[=a]t_) of the spiritual life. There is a striking resemblance
+here to the gnostic system, with its seven Archon-guarded gates. On
+another side, it is plain that the sheikh, along with ordinary
+instruction of the novice, also hypnotizes him and causes him to see a
+series of visions, marking his penetration of the divine mystery. The
+part that hypnosis and autohypnosis, conscious and unconscious, has
+played here cannot easily be overestimated. The Mevlevites seem to have
+the most severe noviciate. Their aspirant has to labour as a lay
+servitor of the lowest rank for 1001 days--called the _k[=a]rr[=a]
+kolak_, or "jackal"--before he can be received. For one day's failure he
+must begin again from the beginning.
+
+But besides these full members there is an enormous number of lay
+adherents, like the tertiaries of the Franciscans. Thus, nearly every
+religious man of the Turkish Moslem world is a lay member of one order
+or another, under the duty of saying certain prayers daily. Certain
+trades, too, affect certain orders. Most of the Egyptian Q[=a]dirites,
+for example, are fishermen and, on festival days, carry as banners nets
+of various colours. On this side, the orders bear a striking resemblance
+to lodges of Freemasons and other friendly societies, and points of
+direct contact have even been alleged between the more pantheistic and
+antinomian orders, such as the Bakhtashite, and European Freemasonry. On
+another side, just as the _dhikrs_ of the early ascetic mystics suggest
+comparison with the class-meetings of the early Methodists, so these
+orders are the nearest approach in Islam to the different churches of
+Protestant Christendom. They are the only ecclesiastical organization
+that Islam has ever known, but it is a multiform organization,
+unclassified internally or externally. They differ thus from the Roman
+monastic orders, in that they are independent and self-developing, each
+going its own way in faith and practice, limited only by the universal
+conscience (_ijm[=a]'_, "agreement": see MAHOMMEDAN LAW) of Islam.
+Strange doctrines and moral defects may develop, but freedom is saved,
+and the whole people of Islam can be reached and affected.
+
+2. _Saints and the [S.][=u]f[=i] Hierarchy._--That an elaborate doctrine
+of wonder-working saints should have grown up in Islam may, at first
+sight, appear an extreme paradox. It can, however, be conditioned and
+explained. First, Mahomet left undoubted loop-holes for a minor
+inspiration, legitimate and illegitimate. Secondly, the [S.][=u]f[=i]s,
+under various foreign influences, developed these to the fullest.
+Thirdly, just as the Christian church has absorbed much of the mythology
+of the supposed exterminated heathen religions into its cult of local
+saints, so Islam, to an even higher degree, has been overlaid and almost
+buried by the superstitions of the peoples to which it has gone. Their
+religious and legal customs have completely overcome the direct commands
+of the Koran, the traditions from Mahomet and even the "Agreement" of
+the rest of the Moslem world (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). The first step in
+this, it is true, was taken by Mahomet himself when he accepted the
+Meccan pilgrimage and the Black Stone. The worship of saints, therefore,
+has appeared everywhere in Islam, with an absolute belief in their
+miracles and in the value of their intercession, living or dead.
+
+Further, there appeared very early in Islam a belief that there was
+always in existence some individual in direct intercourse with God and
+having the right and duty of teaching and ruling all mankind. This
+individual might be visible or invisible; his right to rule continued.
+This is the basis of the Ism[=a]'[=i]lite and Sh[=i]'ite positions (see
+MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION and MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS). The [S.][=u]f[=i]s
+applied this idea of divine right to the doctrine of saints, and
+developed it into the [S.][=u]f[=i] hierarchy. This is a single, great,
+invisible organization, forming a saintly board of administration, by
+which the invisible government of the world is supposed to be carried
+on. Its head is called the _Qu[t.]b_ (Axis); he is presumably the
+greatest saint of the time, is chosen by God for the office and given
+greater miraculous powers and rights of intercession than any other
+saint enjoys. He wanders through the world, often invisible and always
+unknown, performing the duties of his office. Under him there is an
+elaborate organization of _wal[=i]s_, of different ranks and powers,
+according to their sanctity and faith. The term _wal[=i]_ is applied to
+a saint because of Kor. x. 63, "Ho! the _wal[=i]s_ of God; there is no
+fear upon them, nor do they grieve," where _wal[=i]_ means "one who is
+near," friend or favourite.
+
+In the fraternities, then, all are dervishes, cloistered or lay; those
+whose faith is so great that God has given them miraculous powers--and
+there are many--are _wal[=i]s_; begging friars are _fakirs_. All forms
+of life--solitary, monastic, secular, celibate, married, wandering,
+stationary, ascetic, free--are open. Their theology is some form of
+S[=u]fi'ism.
+
+   AUTHORITIES.--The bibliography of this subject is very large, and the
+   following only a selection:--(1) _On Dervishes._ In Egypt, Lane's
+   _Modern Egyptians_, chaps. x., xx., xxiv., xxv.; in Turkey, D'Ohsson,
+   _Tableau général de l'emp. othoman_, ii. (Paris, 1790); _Turkey in
+   Europe_ by "Odysseus" (London, 1900); in Persia, E. G. Browne, _A
+   Year among the Persians_ (1893), in Morocco, T. H. Weir, _Sheikhs of
+   Morocco_ (Edinburgh, 1904); B. Meakin, _The Moors_ (London, 1902),
+   chap. xix.; in Central Asia, all Vambéry's books of travel and
+   history. In general, Hughes, _Dict. of Islam_, s.v. "Faqir"; Depont
+   and Cappolani, _Les Confréries religieuses musulmanes_ (Alger, 1897);
+   J. P. Brown, _The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism_ (London,
+   1868). (2) _On Saints._ I. Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_, ii.
+   277 ff., and "De l'ascétisme aux premiers temps de l'Islam" in _Revue
+   de l'histoire des religions_, vol. xxxvii. pp. 134 ff.; Lane, _Modern
+   Egyptians_, chap. x.; _Arabian Nights_, chap. iii. note 63; Vollers
+   in _Zeitsch. d. morgenländ. Gesellsch._ xliii. 115 ff.   (D. B. MA.)
+
+
+
+
+DERWENT (Celtic _Dwr-gent_, clear water), the name of several English
+rivers. (1) The Yorkshire Derwent collects the greater part of the
+drainage of the North Yorkshire moors, rising in their eastern part. A
+southern head-stream, however, rises in the Yorkshire Wolds near Filey,
+little more than a mile from the North Sea, from which it is separated
+by a morainic deposit, and thus flows in an inland direction. The early
+course of the Derwent lies through a flat open valley between the North
+Yorkshire moors and the Yorkshire Wolds, the upper part of which is
+known as the Carrs, when the river follows an artificial drainage cut.
+It receives numerous tributaries from the moors, then breaches the low
+hills below Malton in a narrow picturesque valley, and debouches upon
+the central plain of Yorkshire. Its direction, hitherto westerly and
+south-westerly from the Carrs, now becomes southerly, and it flows
+roughly parallel to the Ouse, which it joins near Barmby-on-the-Marsh,
+in the level district between Selby and the head of the Humber estuary,
+after a course, excluding minor sinuosities, of about 70 m. As a
+tributary of the Ouse it is included in the Humber basin. It is tidal up
+to Sutton-upon-Derwent, 15 m. from the junction with the Ouse, and is
+locked up to Malton, but the navigation is little used. A canal leads
+east from the tidal water to the small market town of Pocklington.
+
+(2) The Derbyshire Derwent rises in Bleaklow Hill north of the Peak and
+traverses a narrow dale, which, with those of such tributary streams as
+the Noe, watering Hope Valley, and the Wye, is famous for its beauty
+(see DERBYSHIRE). The Derwent flows south past Chatsworth, Matlock and
+Belper and then, passing Derby, debouches upon a low plain, and turns
+south-eastward, with an extremely sinuous course, to join the Trent near
+Sawley. Its length is about 60 m. It falls in all some 1700 ft. (from
+Matlock 200 ft.), and no part is navigable, save certain reaches at
+Matlock and elsewhere for pleasure boats.
+
+(3) The Cumberland Derwent rises below Great End in the Lake District,
+draining Sprinkling and Sty Head tarns, and flows through Borrowdale,
+receiving a considerable tributary from Lang Strath. It then drains the
+lakes of Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite, after which its course,
+hitherto N. and N.N.W., turns W. and W. by S. past Cockermouth to the
+Irish Sea at Workington. The length is about 34 m., and the fall about
+2000 ft. (from Derwentwater 244 ft.); the waters are usually beautifully
+clear, and the river is not navigable. At a former period this stream
+must have formed one large lake covering the whole area which includes
+Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite; between which a flat alluvial plain is
+formed of the deposits of the river Greta, which now joins the Derwent
+from the east immediately below Derwentwater, and the Newlands Beck,
+which enters Bassenthwaite. In time of high flood this plain is said to
+have been submerged, and the two lakes thus reunited.
+
+(4) A river Derwent rises in the Pennines near the borders of
+Northumberland and Durham, and, forming a large part of the boundary
+between these counties, takes a north-easterly course of 30 m. to the
+Tyne, which it joins 3 m. above Newcastle.
+
+
+
+
+DERWENTWATER, EARL OF, an English title borne by the family of
+Radclyffe, or Radcliffe, from 1688 to 1716 when the 3rd earl was
+attainted and beheaded, and claimed by his descendants, adherents of the
+exiled house of Stewart, from that date until the death of the last male
+heir in 1814. Sir Francis Radclyffe, 3rd baronet (1625-1697), was the
+lineal descendant of Sir Nicholas Radclyffe, who acquired the extensive
+Derwentwater estates in 1417 through his marriage with the heiress of
+John de Derwentwater, and of Sir Francis Radclyffe, who was made a
+baronet in 1619. In 1688 Sir Francis was created Viscount Radclyffe and
+earl of Derwentwater by James II., and dying in 1697 was succeeded as
+2nd earl by his eldest son Edward (1655-1705), who had married Lady Mary
+Tudor (d. 1726), a natural daughter of Charles II. The 2nd earl died in
+1705, and was succeeded by his eldest son James (1689-1716), who was
+born in London on the 28th of June 1689, and was brought up at the court
+of the Stewarts in France as companion to Prince James Edward, the old
+Pretender. In 1710 he came to reside on his English estates, and in July
+1712 was married to Anna Maria (d. 1723), daughter of Sir John Webb,
+baronet, of Odstock, Wiltshire. Joining without any hesitation in the
+Stewart rising of 1715, Derwentwater escaped arrest owing to the
+devotion of his tenantry, and in October, with about seventy followers,
+he joined Thomas Forster at Green-rig. Like Forster the earl was lacking
+in military experience, and when the rebels capitulated at Preston he
+was conveyed to London and impeached. Pleading guilty at his trial he
+was attainted and condemned to death. Great efforts were made to obtain
+a mitigation of the sentence, but the government was obdurate, and
+Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 24th of February 1716,
+declaring on the scaffold his devotion to the Roman Catholic religion
+and to King James III. The earl was very popular among his tenantry and
+in the neighbourhood of his residence, Dilston Hall. His gallant bearing
+and his sad fate have been celebrated in song and story, and the _aurora
+borealis_, which shone with exceptional brightness on the night of his
+execution, is known locally as "Lord Derwentwater's lights." He left an
+only son John, who, in spite of his father's attainder, assumed the
+title of earl of Derwentwater, and who died unmarried in 1731; and a
+daughter Alice Mary (d. 1760), who married in 1732 Robert James, 8th
+Baron Petre (1713-1742).
+
+On the death of John Radclyffe in 1731 his uncle Charles (1693-1746),
+the only surviving son of the 2nd earl, took the title of earl of
+Derwentwater. Charles Radclyffe had shared the fate of his brother, the
+3rd earl, at Preston in November 1715, and had been condemned to death
+for high treason; but, more fortunate than James, he had succeeded in
+escaping from prison, and had joined the Stewarts on the Continent. In
+1724 he married Charlotte Maria (d. 1755), in her own right countess of
+Newburgh, and after spending some time in Rome, he was captured by an
+English ship in November 1745 whilst proceeding to join Charles Edward,
+the young Pretender, in Scotland. Condemned to death under his former
+sentence he was beheaded on the 8th of December 1746. His eldest son,
+James Bartholomew (1725-1786), who had shared his father's imprisonment,
+then claimed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and on his mother's
+death in 1755 became 3rd earl of Newburgh. His only son and successor,
+Anthony James (1757-1814), died without issue in 1814, when the title
+became extinct _de facto_ as well as _de jure_. Many of the forfeited
+estates in Northumberland and Cumberland had been settled upon Greenwich
+Hospital, and in 1749 a sum of £30,000 had been raised upon them for the
+benefit of the earl of Newburgh. The present representative of the
+Radclyffe family is Lord Petre, and in 1874 the bodies of the first
+three earls of Derwentwater were reburied in the family vault of the
+Petres at Thorndon, Essex.
+
+In 1865 a woman appeared in Northumberland who claimed to be a
+grand-daughter of the 4th earl and, as there were no male heirs, to be
+countess of Derwentwater and owner of the estates. She said the 4th earl
+had not died in 1731 but had married and settled in Germany. Her story
+aroused some interest, and it was necessary to eject her by force from
+Dilston Hall.
+
+   See R. Patten, _History of the Late Rebellion_ (London, 1717); W. S.
+   Gibson, _Dilston Hall, or Memoirs of James Radcliffe, earl of
+   Derwentwater_ (London, 1848-1850); G. E. C(okayne), _Complete
+   Peerage_ (Exeter, 1887-1898); and _Dictionary of National Biography_,
+   vol. xlvii. (London, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+DERWENTWATER, a lake of Cumberland, England, in the northern part of the
+celebrated Lake District (q.v. for the physical relations of the lake
+with the district at large). It is of irregular figure, approaching to
+an oval, about 3 m. in length and from ½ m. to 1¼ m. in breadth. The
+greatest depth is 70 ft. The lake is seen at one view, within an
+amphitheatre of mountains of varied outline, overlooked by others of
+greater height. Several of the lesser elevations near the lake are
+especially famous as view-points, such as Castle Head, Walla Crag,
+Ladder Brow and Cat Bells. The shores are well wooded, and the lake is
+studded with several islands, of which Lord's Island, Derwent Isle and
+St Herbert's are the principal. Lord's Island was the residence of the
+earls of Derwentwater. St Herbert's Isle receives its name from having
+been the abode of a holy man of that name mentioned by Bede as
+contemporary with St Cuthbert of Farne Island in the 7th century.
+Derwent Isle, about six acres in extent, contains a handsome residence
+surrounded by lawns, gardens and timber of large growth. The famous
+Falls of Lodore, at the upper end of the lake, consist of a series of
+cascades in the small Watendlath Beck, which rushes over an enormous
+pile of protruding crags from a height of nearly 200 ft. The "Floating
+Island" appears at intervals on the upper portion of the lake near the
+mouth of the beck. This singular phenomenon is supposed to owe its
+appearance to an accumulation of gas, formed by the decay of vegetable
+matter, detaching and raising to the surface the matted weeds which
+cover the floor of the lake at this point. The river Derwent (q.v.)
+enters the lake from the south and leaves it on the north, draining it
+through Bassenthwaite lake, to the Irish Sea. To the north-east of the
+lake lies the town of Keswick.
+
+
+
+
+DES ADRETS, FRANÇOIS DE BEAUMONT, BARON (c. 1512-1587), French
+Protestant leader, was born in 1512 or 1513 at the château of La Frette
+(Isère). During the reign of Henry II. of France he served with
+distinction in the royal army and became colonel of the "legions" of
+Dauphiné, Provence and Languedoc. In 1562, however, he joined the
+Huguenots, not from religious conviction but probably from motives of
+ambition and personal dislike of the house of Guise. His campaign
+against the Catholics in 1562 was eminently successful. In June of that
+year Des Adrets was master of the greater part of Dauphiné. But his
+brilliant military qualities were marred by his revolting atrocities.
+The reprisals he exacted from the Catholics after their massacres of the
+Huguenots at Orange have left a dark stain upon his name. The garrisons
+that resisted him were butchered with every circumstance of brutality,
+and at Montbrison, in Forez, he forced eighteen prisoners to precipitate
+themselves from the top of the keep. Having alienated the affections of
+the Huguenots by his pride and violence, he entered into communication
+with the Catholics, and declared himself openly in favour of
+conciliation. On the 10th of January 1563 he was arrested on suspicion
+by some Huguenot officers and confined in the citadel of Nîmes. He was
+liberated at the edict of Amboise in the following March, and,
+distrusted alike by Huguenots and Catholics, retired to the château of
+La Frette, where he died, a Catholic, on the 2nd of February 1587.
+
+   AUTHORITIES.--J. Roman, _Documents inédits sur le baron des Adrets_
+   (1878); and memoirs and histories of the time. See also Guy Allard,
+   _Vie de François de Beaumont_ (1675); l'abbé J. C. Martin, _Histoire
+   politique et militaire de François de Beaumont_ (1803); Eugène and
+   Émile Haag, _La France protestante_ (2nd ed., 1877 seq.).
+
+
+
+
+DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS CHARLES ANTOINE (1768-1800), French general,
+was born of a noble though impoverished family. He received a military
+education at the school founded by Marshal d'Effiat, and entered the
+French royal army. During the first six years of his service the young
+officer devoted himself assiduously to duty and the study of his
+profession, and at the outbreak of the Revolution threw himself
+whole-heartedly into the cause of liberty. In spite of the pressure put
+upon him by his relatives, he refused to "emigrate," and in 1792 is
+found serving on Broglie's staff. The disgrace of this general nearly
+cost young Desaix his life, but he escaped the guillotine, and by his
+conspicuous services soon drew upon himself the favour of the Republican
+government. Like many other members of the old ruling classes who had
+accepted the new order of things, the instinct of command, joined to
+native ability, brought Desaix rapidly to high posts. By 1794 he had
+attained the rank of general of division. In the campaign of 1795 he
+commanded Jourdan's right wing, and in Moreau's invasion of Bavaria in
+the following year he held an equally important command. In the retreat
+which ensued when the archduke Charles won the battles of Amberg and
+Würzburg (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS) Desaix commanded Moreau's
+rearguard, and later the fortress of Kehl, with the highest distinction,
+and his name became a household word, like those of Bonaparte, Jourdan,
+Hoche, Marceau and Kléber. Next year his initial successes were
+interrupted by the Preliminaries of Leoben, and he procured for himself
+a mission into Italy in order to meet General Bonaparte, who spared no
+pains to captivate the brilliant young general from the almost rival
+camps of Germany. Provisionally appointed commander of the "Army of
+England," Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary
+force intended for Egypt. It was his division which bore the brunt of
+the Mameluke attack at the battle of the Pyramids, and he crowned his
+reputation by his victories over Murad Bey in Upper Egypt. Amongst the
+fellaheen he acquired the significant appellation of the "Just Sultan."
+When his chief handed over the command to Kléber and prepared to return
+to France, Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany the
+future emperor. But, from various causes, it was many months before he
+could join the new Consul. The campaign of 1800 was well on its way to
+the climax when Desaix at last reported himself for duty in Italy. He
+was immediately assigned to the command of a corps of two infantry
+divisions. Three days later (June 14), detached, with Boudet's division,
+at Rivalta, he heard the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the
+initiative he marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonaparte's
+staff officer, who had come to recall him, half way on the route. He
+arrived with Boudet's division at the moment when the Austrians were
+victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, "There is yet time to win
+another battle!" he led his three regiments straight against the enemy's
+centre. At the moment of victory Desaix was killed by a musket ball.
+Napoleon paid a just tribute to the memory of one of the most brilliant
+soldiers of that brilliant time by erecting the monuments of Desaix on
+the Place Dauphinè and the Place des Victoires in Paris.
+
+   See F. Martha-Beker, Comte de Mons, _Le Général L. C. A. Desaix_
+   (Paris, 1852).
+
+
+
+
+DÉSAUGIERS, MARC ANTOINE MADELEINE (1772-1827), French dramatist and
+song-writer, son of Marc Antoine Désaugiers, a musical composer, was
+born at Fréjus (Var) on the 17th of November 1772. He studied at the
+Mazarin college in Paris, where he had for one of his teachers the
+critic Julien Louis Geoffroy. He entered the seminary Saint Lazare with
+a view to the priesthood, but soon gave up his intention. In his
+nineteenth year he produced in collaboration with his father a light
+opera (1791) adapted from the _Médecin malgré lui_ of Molière.
+
+During the Revolution he emigrated to St Domingo, and during the negro
+revolt he was made prisoner, barely escaping with his life. He took
+refuge in the United States, where he supported himself by teaching the
+piano. In 1797 he returned to his native country, and in a very few
+years he became famous as a writer of comedies, operas and vaudevilles,
+which were produced in rapid succession at the Théâtre des Variétés and
+the Vaudeville. He also wrote convivial and satirical songs, which,
+though different in character, can only worthily be compared with those
+of Béranger. He was at one time president of the _Caveau_, a convivial
+society whose members were then chiefly drawn from literary circles. He
+had the honour of introducing Béranger as a member. In 1815 Désaugiers
+succeeded Pierre Yves Barré as manager of the Vaudeville, which
+prospered under his management until, in 1820, the opposition of the
+Gymnase proved too strong for him, and he resigned. He died in Paris on
+the 9th of August 1827.
+
+Among his pieces maybe mentioned _Le Valet d'emprunt_ (1807); _Monsieur
+Vautour_ (1811); and _Le Règne d'un terme et le terme d'un règne_, aimed
+at Napoleon.
+
+   An edition of Désaugiers' _Chansons et Poésies diverses_ appeared in
+   1827. A new selection with a notice by Alfred de Bougy appeared in
+   1858. See also Sainte-Beuve's _Portraits contemporains_, vol. v.
+
+
+
+
+DESAULT, PIERRE JOSEPH (1744-1795), French anatomist and surgeon, was
+born at Magny-Vernois (Haute Saône) on the 6th of February 1744. He was
+destined for the church, but his own inclination was towards the study
+of medicine; and, after learning something from the barber-surgeon of
+his native village, he was settled as an apprentice in the military
+hospital of Belfort, where he acquired some knowledge of anatomy and
+military surgery. Going to Paris when about twenty years of age, he
+opened a school of anatomy in the winter of 1766, the success of which
+excited the jealousy of the established teachers and professors, who
+endeavoured to make him give up his lectures. In 1776 he was admitted a
+member of the corporation of surgeons; and in 1782 he was appointed
+surgeon-major to the hospital _De la Charité_. Within a few years he was
+recognized as one of the leading surgeons of France. The clinical school
+of surgery which he instituted at the Hôtel Dieu attracted great numbers
+of students, not only from every part of France but also from other
+countries; and he frequently had an audience of about 600. He introduced
+many improvements into the practice of surgery, as well as into the
+construction of various surgical instruments. In 1791 he established a
+_Journal de chirurgerie_, edited by his pupils, which was a record of
+the most interesting cases that had occurred in his clinical school,
+with the remarks which he had made upon them in the course of his
+lectures. But in the midst of his labours he became obnoxious to some of
+the revolutionists, and he was, on some frivolous charge, denounced to
+the popular sections. After being twice examined, he was seized on the
+28th of May 1793, while delivering a lecture, carried away from his
+theatre, and committed to prison in the Luxembourg. In three days,
+however, he was liberated, and permitted to resume his functions. He
+died in Paris on the 1st of June 1795, the story that his death was
+caused by poison being disproved by the autopsy carried out by his
+pupil, M. F. X. Bichat. A pension was settled on his widow by the
+republic. Together with François Chopart (1743-1795) he published a
+_Traité des maladies chirurgicales_ (1779), and Bichat published a
+digest of his surgical doctrines in _OEuvres chirurgicales de Desault_
+(1798-1799).
+
+
+
+
+DES BARREAUX, JACQUES VALLÉE, SIEUR (1602-1673), French poet, was born
+in Paris in 1602. His great-uncle, Geoffroy-Vallée, had been hanged in
+1574 for the authorship of a book called _Le Fléau de la foy_. His
+nephew appears to have inherited his scepticism, which on one occasion
+nearly cost him his life. The peasants of Touraine attributed to the
+presence of the unbeliever an untimely frost that damaged the vines, and
+proposed to stone him. His authorship of the sonnet on "Pénitence," by
+which he is generally known, has been disputed. He had the further
+distinction of being the first of the lovers of Marion Delorme. He died
+at Chalon-sur-Saône on the 9th of May 1673.
+
+   See _Poésies de Des Barreaux_ (1904), edited by F. Lachèvre.
+
+
+
+
+DESBOROUGH, JOHN (1608-1680), English soldier and politician, son of
+James Desborough of Eltisley, Cambridgeshire, and of Elizabeth Hatley of
+Over, in the same county, was baptized on the 13th of November 1608. He
+was educated for the law. On the 23rd of June 1636 he married Eltisley
+Jane, daughter of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon, and sister of the
+future Protector. He took an active part in the Civil War when it broke
+out, and showed considerable military ability. In 1645 he was present as
+major in the engagement at Langport on the 10th of July, at Hambleton
+Hill on the 4th of August, and on the 10th of September he commanded the
+horse at the storming of Bristol. Later he took part in the operations
+round Oxford. In 1648 as colonel he commanded the forces at Great
+Yarmouth. He avoided all participation in the trial of the king in June
+1649, being employed in the settlement of the west of England. He fought
+at Worcester as major-general and nearly captured Charles II. near
+Salisbury. After the establishment of the Commonwealth he was chosen, on
+the 17th of January 1652, a member of the committee for legal reforms.
+In 1653 he became a member of the Protectorate council of state, and a
+commissioner of the treasury, and was appointed one of the four generals
+at sea and a commissioner for the army and navy. In 1654 he was made
+constable of St Briavel's Castle in Gloucestershire. Next year he was
+appointed major-general over the west. He had been nominated a member of
+Barebones' parliament in 1653, and he was returned to the parliament of
+1654 for Cambridgeshire, and to that of 1656 for Somersetshire. In July
+1657 he became a member of the privy council, and in 1658 he accepted a
+seat in Cromwell's House of Lords. In spite of his near relationship to
+the Protector's family, he was one of the most violent opponents of the
+assumption by Cromwell of the royal title, and after the Protector's
+death, instead of supporting the interests and government of his nephew
+Richard Cromwell, he was, with Fleetwood, the chief instigator and
+organizer of the hostility of the army towards his administration, and
+forced him by threats and menaces to dissolve his parliament in April
+1659. He was chosen a member of the council of state by the restored
+Rump, and made colonel and governor of Plymouth, but presenting with
+other officers a seditious petition from the army council, on the 5th of
+October, was about a week later dismissed. After the expulsion of the
+Rump by Fleetwood on the 13th of October he was chosen by the officers
+a member of the new administration and commissary-general of the horse.
+The new military government, however, rested on no solid foundation, and
+its leaders quickly found themselves without any influence. Desborough
+himself became an object of ridicule, his regiment even revolted against
+him, and on the return of the Rump he was ordered to quit London. At the
+restoration he was excluded from the act of indemnity but not included
+in the clause of pains and penalties extending to life and goods, being
+therefore only incapacitated from public employment. Soon afterwards he
+was arrested on suspicion of conspiring to kill the king and queen, but
+was quickly liberated. Subsequently he escaped to Holland, where he
+engaged in republican intrigues. Accordingly he was ordered home, in
+April 1666, on pain of incurring the charge of treason, and obeying was
+imprisoned in the Tower till February 1667, when he was examined before
+the council and set free. Desborough died in 1680. By his first wife,
+Cromwell's sister, he had one daughter and seven sons; he married a
+second wife in April 1658 whose name is unrecorded. Desborough was a
+good soldier and nothing more; and his only conception of government was
+by force and by the army. His rough person and manners are the constant
+theme of ridicule in the royalist ballads, and he is caricatured in
+Butler's _Hudibras_ and in the _Parable of the Lion and Fox_.
+
+
+
+
+DESCARTES, RENÉ (1596-1650), French philosopher, was born at La Haye, in
+Touraine, midway between Tours and Poitiers, on the 31st of March 1596,
+and died at Stockholm on the 11th of February 1650. The house where he
+was born is still shown, and a _métairie_ about 3 m. off retains the
+name of Les Cartes. His family on both sides was of Poitevin descent.
+Joachim Descartes, his father, having purchased a commission as
+counsellor in the parlement of Rennes, introduced the family into that
+demi-noblesse of the robe which, between the bourgeoisie and the high
+nobility, maintained a lofty rank in French society. He had three
+children, a son who afterwards succeeded to his father in the parlement,
+a daughter who married a M. du Crevis, and René, after whose birth the
+mother died.
+
+
+Early years.
+
+Descartes, known as Du Perron, from a small estate destined for his
+inheritance, soon showed an inquisitive mind. From 1604 to 1612 he
+studied at the school of La Flêche, which Henry IV. had lately founded
+and endowed for the Jesuits. He enjoyed exceptional privileges; his
+feeble health excused him from the morning duties, and thus early he
+acquired the habit of reflection in bed, which clung to him throughout
+life. Even then he had begun to distrust the authority of tradition and
+his teachers. Two years before he left school he was selected as one of
+the twenty-four who went forth to receive the heart of Henry IV. as it
+was borne to its resting-place at La Flêche. At the age of sixteen he
+went home to his father, who was now settled at Rennes, and had married
+again. During the winter of 1612 he completed his preparations for the
+world by lessons in horsemanship and fencing; and then started as his
+own master to taste the pleasures of Parisian life. Fortunately he went
+to no perilous lengths; the worst we hear of is a passion for gaming.
+Here, too, he made the acquaintance of Claude Mydorge, one of the
+foremost mathematicians of France, and renewed an early intimacy with
+Marin Mersenne (q.v.), now Father Mersenne, of the order of Minim
+friars. The withdrawal of Mersenne in 1614 to a post in the provinces
+was the signal for Descartes to abandon social life and shut himself up
+for nearly two years in a secluded house of the faubourg St Germain.
+Accident betrayed the secret of his retirement; he was compelled to
+leave his mathematical investigations, and to take part in
+entertainments, where the only thing that chimed in with his theorizing
+reveries was the music. French politics were at that time characterized
+by violence and intrigue to such an extent that Paris was no fit place
+for a student, and there was little honourable prospect for a soldier.
+Accordingly, in May 1617, Descartes set out for the Netherlands and took
+service in the army of Prince Maurice of Orange. At Breda he enlisted as
+a volunteer, and the first and only pay which he accepted he kept as a
+curiosity through life. There was a lull in the war, and the
+Netherlands was distracted by the quarrels of Gomarists and Arminians.
+During the leisure thus arising, Descartes one day had his attention
+drawn to a placard in the Dutch tongue; as the language, of which he
+never became perfectly master, was then strange to him, he asked a
+bystander to interpret it into either French or Latin. The stranger,
+Isaac Beeckman, principal of the college of Dort, offered to do so into
+Latin, if the inquirer would bring him a solution of the problem,--for
+the advertisement was one of those challenges which the mathematicians
+of the age were accustomed to throw down to all comers, daring them to
+discover a geometrical mystery known as they fancied to themselves
+alone. Descartes promised and fulfilled; and a friendship grew up
+between him and Beeckman--broken only by the dishonesty of the latter,
+who in later years took credit for the novelty contained in a small
+essay on music (_Compendium Musicae_) which Descartes wrote at this
+period and entrusted to Beeckman.[1]
+
+After spending two years in Holland as a soldier in a period of peace,
+Descartes, in July 1619, attracted by the news of the impending struggle
+between the house of Austria and the Protestant princes, consequent upon
+the election of the palatine of the Rhine to the kingdom of Bohemia, set
+out for upper Germany, and volunteered into the Bavarian service. The
+winter of 1619, spent in quarters at Neuburg on the Danube, was the
+critical period in his life. Here, in his warm room (_dans un poêle_),
+he indulged those meditations which afterwards led to the _Discourse of
+Method_. It was here that, on the eve of St Martin's day, he "was filled
+with enthusiasm, and discovered the foundations of a marvellous
+science." He retired to rest with anxious thoughts of his future career,
+which haunted him through the night in three dreams that left a deep
+impression on his mind. The date of his philosophical conversion is thus
+fixed to a day. But as yet he had only glimpses of a logical method
+which should invigorate the syllogism by the co-operation of ancient
+geometry and modern algebra. For during the year that elapsed before he
+left Swabia (and whilst he sojourned at Neuburg and Ulm), and amidst his
+geometrical studies, he would fain have gathered some knowledge of the
+mystical wisdom attributed to the Rosicrucians; but the Invisibles, as
+they called themselves, kept their secret. He was present at the battle
+of Weisser Berg (near Prague), where the hopes of the elector palatine
+were blasted (November 8, 1620), passed the winter with the army in
+southern Bohemia, and next year served in Hungary under Karl Bonaventura
+de Longueval, Graf von Buquoy or Boucquoi (1571-1621). On the death of
+this general Descartes quitted the imperial service, and in July 1621
+began a peaceful tour through Moravia, the borders of Poland, Pomerania,
+Brandenburg, Holstein and Friesland, from which he reappeared in
+February 1622 in Belgium, and betook himself directly to his father's
+home at Rennes in Brittany.
+
+At Rennes Descartes found little to interest him; and, after he had
+visited the maternal estate of which his father now put him in
+possession, he went to Paris, where he found the Rosicrucians the topic
+of the hour, and heard himself credited with partnership in their
+secrets. A short visit to Brittany enabled him, with his father's
+consent, to arrange for the sale of his property in Poitou. The proceeds
+were invested in such a way at Paris as to bring him in a yearly income
+of between 6000 and 7000 francs (equal now to more than £500). Towards
+the end of the year Descartes was on his way to Italy. The natural
+phenomena of Switzerland, and the political complications in the
+Valtellina, where the Catholic inhabitants had thrown off the yoke of
+the Grisons and called in the Papal and Spanish troops to their
+assistance, delayed him some time; but he reached Venice in time to see
+the ceremony of the doge's wedlock with the Adriatic. After paying his
+vows at Loretto, he came to Rome, which was then on the eve of a year of
+jubilee--an occasion which Descartes seized to observe the variety of
+men and manners which the city then embraced within its walls. In the
+spring of 1625 he returned home by Mont Cenis, observing the
+avalanches,[2] instead of, as his relatives hoped, securing a post in
+the French army in Piedmont.
+
+For an instant Descartes seems to have concurred in the plan of
+purchasing a post at Châtellerault, but he gave up the idea, and settled
+in Paris (June 1625), in the quarter where he had sought seclusion
+before. By this time he had ceased to devote himself to pure
+mathematics, and in company with his friends Mersenne and Mydorge was
+deeply interested in the theory of the refraction of light, and in the
+practical work of grinding glasses of the best shape suitable for
+optical instruments. But all the while he was engaged with reflections
+on the nature of man, of the soul and of God, and for a while he
+remained invisible even to his most familiar friends. But their
+importunity made a hermitage in Paris impossible; a graceless friend
+even surprised the philosopher in bed at eleven in the morning
+meditating and taking notes. In disgust, Descartes started for the west
+to take part in the siege of La Rochelle, and entered the city with the
+troops (October 1628). A meeting at which he was present after his
+return to Paris decided his vocation. He had expressed an opinion that
+the true art of memory was not to be gained by technical devices, but by
+a philosophical apprehension of things; and the cardinal de Berulle, the
+founder of the Congregation of the Oratory, was so struck by the tone of
+the remarks as to impress upon the speaker the duty of spending his life
+in the examination of truth. Descartes accepted the philosophic mission,
+and in the spring of 1629 he settled in Holland. His financial affairs
+he had entrusted to the care of the abbé Picot, and as his literary and
+scientific representative he adopted Mersenne.
+
+Till 1649 Descartes lived in Holland. Thrice only did he revisit
+France--in 1644, 1647 and 1648. The first of these occasions was in
+order to settle family affairs after the death of his father in 1640.
+The second brief visit, in 1647, partly on literary, partly on family
+business, was signalized by the award of a pension of 3000 francs,
+obtained from the royal bounty by Cardinal Mazarin. The last visit in
+1648 was less fortunate. A royal order summoned him to France for new
+honours--an additional pension and a permanent post--for his fame had by
+this time gone abroad, and it was the age when princes sought to attract
+genius and learning to their courts. But when Descartes arrived, he
+found Paris rent asunder by the civil war of the Fronde. He paid the
+costs of his royal parchment, and left without a word of reproach. The
+only other occasions on which he was out of the Netherlands were in
+1630, when he made a flying visit to England to observe for himself some
+alleged magnetic phenomena, and in 1634, when he took an excursion to
+Denmark.
+
+During his residence in Holland he lived at thirteen different places,
+and changed his abode twenty-four times. In the choice of these spots
+two motives seem to have influenced him--the neighbourhood of a
+university or college, and the amenities of the situation. Among these
+towns were Franeker in Friesland, Harderwyk, Deventer, Utrecht, Leiden,
+Amersfoort, Amsterdam, Leeuwarden in Friesland. His favourite residences
+were Endegeest, Egmond op den Hoef and Egmond the Abbey (west of
+Zaandam).
+
+The time thus spent seems to have been on the whole happy, even allowing
+for warm discussions with the mathematicians and metaphysicians of
+France, and for harassing controversies in the Netherlands. Friendly
+agents--chiefly Catholic priests--were the intermediaries who forwarded
+his correspondence from Dort, Haarlem, Amsterdam and Leiden to his
+proper address, which he kept completely secret; and Father Mersenne
+sent him objections and questions. His health, which in his youth had
+been bad, improved. "I sleep here ten hours every night," he writes from
+Amsterdam, "and no care ever shortens my slumber." "I take my walk every
+day through the confusion of a great multitude with as much freedom and
+quiet as you could find in your rural avenues."[3] At his first coming
+to Franeker he arranged to get a cook acquainted with French cookery;
+but, to prevent misunderstanding, it may be added that his diet was
+mainly vegetarian, and that he rarely drank wine. New friends gathered
+round him who took a keen interest in his researches. Once only do we
+find him taking an interest in the affairs of his neighbours,--to ask
+pardon from the government for a homicide.[4] He continued the
+profession of his religion. Sometimes from curiosity he went to the
+ministrations of anabaptists,[5] to hear the preaching of peasants and
+artisans. He carried few books to Holland with him, but a Bible and the
+_Summa_ of Thomas Aquinas were amongst them.[6] One of the
+recommendations of Egmond the Abbey was the free exercise there allowed
+to the Catholic religion. At Franeker his house was a small château,
+"separated by a moat from the rest of the town, where the mass could be
+said in safety."[7] And one motive in favour of accepting an invitation
+to England lay in the alleged leanings of Charles I. to the older
+church.
+
+The best account of Descartes's mental history during his life in
+Holland is contained in his letters, which extend over the whole period,
+and are particularly frequent in the latter half. The majority of them
+are addressed to Mersenne, and deal with problems of physics, musical
+theory (in which he took a special interest), and mathematics. Several
+letters between 1643 and 1649 are addressed to the princess Elizabeth,
+the eldest daughter of the ejected elector palatine, who lived at The
+Hague, where her mother maintained the semblance of a royal court. The
+princess was obliged to quit Holland, but kept up a philosophical
+correspondence with Descartes. It is to her that the _Principles of
+Philosophy_ were dedicated; and in her alone, according to Descartes,
+were united those generally separated talents for metaphysics and for
+mathematics which are so characteristically co-operative in the
+Cartesian system. Two Dutch friends, Constantijn Huygens (von
+Zuylichem), father of the more celebrated Huygens, and Hoogheland,
+figure amongst the correspondents, not to mention various savants,
+professors and churchmen (particularly Jesuits).
+
+His residence in the Netherlands fell in the most prosperous and
+brilliant days of the Dutch state, under the stadtholdership of
+Frederick Henry (1625-1647). Abroad its navigators monopolized the
+commerce of the world, and explored unknown seas; at home the Dutch
+school of painting reached its acme in Rembrandt (1607-1669); and the
+philological reputation of the country was sustained by Grotius, Vossius
+and the elder Heinsius. And yet, though Rembrandt's "Nightwatch" is
+dated the very year after the publication of the _Meditations_, not a
+word in Descartes breathes of any work of art or historical learning.
+The contempt of aesthetics and erudition is characteristic of the most
+typical members of what is known as the Cartesian school, especially
+Malebranche. Descartes was not in any strict sense a reader. His wisdom
+grew mainly out of his own reflections and experiments. The story of his
+disgust when he found that Queen Christina devoted some time every day
+to the study of Greek under the tuition of Vossius is at least true in
+substance.[8] It gives no evidence of science, he remarks, to possess a
+tolerable knowledge of the Roman tongue, such as once was possessed by
+the populace of Rome.[9] In all his travels he studied only the
+phenomena of nature and human life. He was a spectator rather than an
+actor on the stage of the world. He entered the army, merely because the
+position gave a vantage-ground from which to make his observations. In
+the political interests which these contests involved he took no part;
+his favourite disciple, the princess Elizabeth, was the daughter of the
+banished king, against whom he had served in Bohemia; and Queen
+Christina, his second royal follower, was the daughter of Gustavus
+Adolphus.
+
+Thus Descartes is a type of that spirit of science to which erudition
+and all the heritage of the past seem but elegant trifling. The science
+of Descartes was physics in all its branches, but especially as applied
+to physiology. Science, he says, may be compared to a tree; metaphysics
+is the root, physics is the trunk, and the three chief branches are
+mechanics, medicine and morals,--the three applications of our
+knowledge to the outward world, to the human body, and to the conduct of
+life.[10]
+
+Such then was the work that Descartes had in view in Holland. His
+residence was generally divided into two parts--one his workshop for
+science, the other his reception-room for society. "Here are my books,"
+he is reported to have told a visitor, as he pointed to the animals he
+had dissected. He worked hard at his book on refraction, and dissected
+the heads of animals in order to explain imagination and memory, which
+he considered physical processes.[11] But he was not a laborious
+student. "I can say with truth," he writes to the princess
+Elizabeth,[12] "that the principle which I have always observed in my
+studies, and which I believe has helped me most to gain what knowledge I
+have, has been never to spend beyond a very few hours daily in thoughts
+which occupy the imagination, and a very few hours yearly in those which
+occupy the understanding, and to give all the rest of my time to the
+relaxation of the senses and the repose of the mind." But his
+expectations from the study of anatomy and physiology went a long way.
+"The conservation of health," he writes in 1646, "has always been the
+principal end of my studies."[13] In 1629 he asks Mersenne to take care
+of himself "till I find out if there is any means of getting a medical
+theory based on infallible demonstrations, which is what I am now
+inquiring."[14] Astronomical inquiries in connexion with optics,
+meteorological phenomena, and, in a word, the whole field of natural
+laws, excited his desire to explain them. His own observation, and the
+reports of Mersenne, furnished his data. Of Bacon's demand for
+observation and collection of facts he is an imitator; and he wishes (in
+a letter of 1632) that "some one would undertake to give a history of
+celestial phenomena after the method of Bacon, and describe the sky
+exactly as it appears at present, without introducing a single
+hypothesis."[15]
+
+He had several writings in hand during the early years of his residence
+in Holland, but the main work of this period was a physical doctrine of
+the universe which he termed _The World_. Shortly after his arrival he
+writes to Mersenne that it will probably be finished in 1633, but
+meanwhile asks him not to disclose the secret to his Parisian friends.
+Already anxieties appear as to the theological verdict upon two of his
+fundamental views--the infinitude of the universe, and the earth's
+rotation round the sun.[16] But towards the end of year 1633 we find him
+writing as follows:--"I had intended sending you my _World_ as a New
+Year's gift, and a fortnight ago I was still minded to send you a
+fragment of the work, if the whole of it could not be transcribed in
+time. But I have just been at Leyden and Amsterdam to ask after
+Galileo's cosmical system as I imagined I had heard of its being printed
+last year in Italy. I was told that it had been printed, but that every
+copy had been at the same time burnt at Rome, and that Galileo had been
+himself condemned to some penalty."[17] He has also seen a copy of
+Galileo's condemnation at Liége (September 20, 1633), with the words
+"although he professes that the [Copernican] theory was only adopted by
+him as a hypothesis." His friend Beeckman lent him a copy of Galileo's
+work, which he glanced through in his usual manner with other men's
+books; he found it good, and "failing more in the points where it
+follows received opinions than where it diverges from them."[18] The
+consequence of these reports of the hostility of the church led him to
+abandon all thoughts of publishing. _The World_ was consigned to his
+desk; and although doctrines in all essential respects the same
+constitute the physical portion of his _Principia_, it was not till
+after the death of Descartes that fragments of the work, including _Le
+Monde_, or a treatise on light, and the physiological tracts _L'Homme_
+and _La Formation du foetus_, were given to the world by his admirer
+Claude Clerselier (1614-1684) in 1664. Descartes was not disposed to be
+a martyr; he had a sincere respect for the church, and had no wish to
+begin an open conflict with established doctrines.
+
+In 1636 Descartes had resolved to publish some specimens of the fruits
+of his method, and some general observations on its nature which, under
+an appearance of simplicity, might sow the good seed of more adequate
+ideas on the world and man. "I should be glad," he says, when talking of
+a publisher,[19] "if the whole book were printed in good type, on good
+paper, and I should like to have at least 200 copies for distribution.
+The book will contain four essays, all in French, with the general title
+of 'Project of a Universal science, capable of raising our nature to its
+highest perfection; also Dioptrics, Meteors and Geometry, wherein the
+most curious matters which the author could select as a proof of the
+universal science which he proposes are explained in such a way that
+even the unlearned may understand them.'" The work appeared anonymously
+at Leiden (published by Jean Maire) in 1637, under the modest title of
+_Essais philosophiques_; and the project of a universal science becomes
+the _Discours de la méthode pour bien conduire sa raison et chercher la
+vérité dans les sciences_. In 1644 it appeared in a Latin version,
+revised by Descartes, as _Specimina philosophica_. A work so widely
+circulated by the author naturally attracted attention, but in France it
+was principally the mathematicians who took it up, and their criticisms
+were more pungent than complimentary. Fermat, Roberval and Desargues
+took exception in their various ways to the methods employed in the
+geometry, and to the demonstrations of the laws of refraction given in
+the Dioptrics and Meteors. The dispute on the latter point between
+Fermat and Descartes was continued, even after the philosopher's death,
+as late as 1662. In the youthful Dutch universities the effect of the
+essays was greater.
+
+
+Spread of Cartesianism.
+
+The first public teacher of Cartesian views was Henri Renery, a Belgian,
+who at Deventer and afterwards at Utrecht had introduced the new
+philosophy which he had learned from personal intercourse with
+Descartes. Renery only survived five years at Utrecht, and it was
+reserved for Heinrich Regius (van Roy)--who in 1638 had been appointed
+to the new chair of botany and theoretical medicine at Utrecht, and who
+visited Descartes at Egmond in order more thoroughly to learn his
+views--to throw down the gauntlet to the adherents of the old methods.
+With more eloquence than judgment, he propounded theses bringing into
+relief the points in which the new doctrines clashed with the old. The
+attack was opened by Gisbert Voët, foremost among the orthodox
+theological professors and clergy of Utrecht. In 1639 he published a
+series of arguments against atheism, in which the Cartesian views were
+not obscurely indicated as perilous for the faith, though no name was
+mentioned. Next year he persuaded the magistracy to issue an order
+forbidding Regius to travel beyond the received doctrine. The
+magisterial views seem to have prevailed in the professoriate, which
+formally in March 1642 expressed its disapprobation of the new
+philosophy as well as of its expositors. As yet Descartes was not
+directly attacked. Voët now issued, under the name of Martin Schoock,
+one of his pupils, a pamphlet with the title of _Methodus novae
+philosophiae Renati Descartes_, in which atheism and infidelity were
+openly declared to be the effect of the new teaching. Descartes replied
+to Voët directly in a letter, published at Amsterdam in 1643. He was
+summoned before the magistrates of Utrecht to defend himself against
+charges of irreligion and slander. What might have happened we cannot
+tell; but Descartes threw himself on the protection of the French
+ambassador and the prince of Orange, and the city magistrates, from whom
+he vainly demanded satisfaction in a dignified letter,[20] were snubbed
+by their superiors. About the same time (April 1645) Schoock was
+summoned before the university of Groningen, of which he was a member,
+and forthwith disavowed the more abusive passages in his book. So did
+the effects of the _odium theologicum_, for the meanwhile at least, die
+away.
+
+
+Discourse of Method, and Meditations.
+
+In the _Discourse of Method_ Descartes had sketched the main points in
+his new views, with a mental autobiography which might explain their
+origin, and with some suggestions as to their applications. His second
+great work,. _Meditations on the First Philosophy_, which had been begun
+soon after his settlement in the Netherlands, expounded in more detail
+the foundations of his system, laying especial emphasis on the priority
+of mind to body, and on the absolute and ultimate dependence of mind as
+well as body on the existence of God. In 1640 a copy of the work in
+manuscript was despatched to Paris, and Mersenne was requested to lay it
+before as many thinkers and scholars as he deemed desirable, with a view
+to getting their views upon its argument and doctrine. Descartes soon
+had a formidable list of objections to reply to. Accordingly, when the
+work was published at Paris in August 1641, under the title of
+_Meditationes de prima philosophia ubi de Dei existentia et animae
+immortalitate_ (though it was in fact not the _immortality_ but the
+_immateriality_ of the mind, or, as the second edition described it,
+_animae humanae a corpore distinctio_, which was maintained), the title
+went on to describe the larger part of the book as containing various
+objections of learned men, with the replies of the author. These
+objections in the first edition are arranged under six heads: the first
+came from Caterus, a theologian of Louvain; the second and sixth are
+anonymous criticisms from various hands; whilst the third, fourth and
+fifth belong respectively to Hobbes, Arnauld and Gassendi. In the second
+edition appeared the seventh--objections from Père Bourdin, a Jesuit
+teacher of mathematics in Paris; and subsequently another set of
+objections, known as those of _Hyperaspistes_, was included in the
+collection of Descartes's letters. The anonymous objections are very
+much the statement of common-sense against philosophy; those of Caterus
+criticize the Cartesian argument from the traditional theology of the
+church; those of Arnauld are an appreciative inquiry into the bearings
+and consequences of the meditations for religion and morality; while
+those of Hobbes (q.v.) and Gassendi--both somewhat senior to Descartes
+and with a dogmatic system of their own already formed--are a keen
+assault upon the spiritualism of the Cartesian position from a generally
+"sensational" standpoint. The criticisms of the last two are the
+criticisms of a hostile school of thought; those of Arnauld are the
+difficulties of a possible disciple.
+
+
+The Principia.
+
+In 1644 the third great work of Descartes, the _Principia philosophiae_,
+appeared at Amsterdam. Passing briefly over the conclusions arrived at
+in the _Meditations_, it deals in its second, third and fourth parts
+with the general principles of physical science, especially the laws of
+motion, with the theory of vortices, and with the phenomena of heat,
+light, gravity, magnetism, electricity, &c., upon the earth. This work
+exhibits some curious marks of caution. Undoubtedly, says Descartes, the
+world was in the beginning created in all its perfection. "But yet as it
+is best, if we wish to understand the nature of plants or of men, to
+consider how they may by degrees proceed from seeds, rather than how
+they were created by God in the beginning of the world, so, if we can
+excogitate some extremely simple and comprehensible principles, out of
+which, as if they were seeds, we can prove that stars, and earth and all
+this visible scene could have originated, although we know full well
+that they never did originate in such a way, we shall in that way
+expound their nature far better than if we merely described them as they
+exist at present."[21] The Copernican theory is rejected in name, but
+retained in substance. The earth, or other planet, does not actually
+move round the sun; yet it is carried round the sun in the subtle matter
+of the great vortex, where it lies in equilibrium,--carried like the
+passenger in a boat, who may cross the sea and yet not rise from his
+berth.
+
+In 1647 the difficulties that had arisen at Utrecht were repeated on a
+smaller scale at Leiden. There the Cartesian innovations had found a
+patron in Adrian Heerebord, and were openly discussed in theses and
+lectures. The theological professors took the alarm at passages in the
+_Meditations_; an attempt to prove the existence of God savoured, as
+they thought, of atheism and heresy. When Descartes complained to the
+authorities of this unfair treatment,[22] the only reply was an order by
+which all mention of the name of Cartesianism, whether favourable or
+adverse, was forbidden in the university. This was scarcely what
+Descartes wanted, and again he had to apply to the prince of Orange,
+whereupon the theologians were asked to behave with civility, and the
+name of Descartes was no longer proscribed. But other annoyances were
+not wanting from unfaithful disciples and unsympathetic critics. The
+_Instantiae_ of Gassendi appeared at Amsterdam in 1644 as a reply to the
+reply which Descartes had published of his previous objections; and the
+publication by Heinrich Regius of his work on physical philosophy
+(_Fundamenta physices_, 1646) gave the world to understand that he had
+ceased to be a thorough adherent of the philosophy which he had so
+enthusiastically adopted.
+
+It was about 1648 that Descartes lost his friends Mersenne and Mydorge
+by death. The place of Mersenne as his Parisian representative was in
+the main taken by Claude Clerselier (the French translator of the
+Objections and Responses), whom he had become acquainted with in Paris.
+Through Clerselier he came to know Pierre Chanut, who in 1645 was sent
+as French ambassador to the court of Sweden. Queen Christina was not yet
+twenty, and took a lively if a somewhat whimsical interest in literary
+and philosophical culture. Through Chanut, with whom she was on terms of
+familiarity, she came to hear of Descartes, and a correspondence which
+the latter nominally carried on with the ambassador was in reality
+intended for the eyes of the queen. The correspondence took an ethical
+tone. It began with a long letter on love in all its aspects (February
+1647),[23] a topic suggested by Chanut, who had been discussing it with
+the queen; and this was soon followed by another to Christina herself on
+the chief good. An essay on the passions of the mind (_Passions de
+l'âme_), which had been written originally for the princess Elizabeth,
+in development of some ethical views suggested by the _De vita beata_ of
+Seneca, was enclosed at the same time for Chanut. It was a draft of the
+work published in 1650 under the same title. Philosophy, particularly
+that of Descartes, was becoming a fashionable _divertissement_ for the
+queen and her courtiers, and it was felt that the presence of the sage
+himself was necessary to complete the good work of education. An
+invitation to the Swedish court was urged upon Descartes, and after much
+hesitation accepted; a vessel of the royal navy was ordered to wait upon
+him, and in September 1649 he left Egmond for the north.
+
+
+Death.
+
+The position on which he entered at Stockholm was unsuited for a man who
+wished to be his own master. The young queen wanted Descartes to draw up
+a code for a proposed academy of the sciences, and to give her an hour
+of philosophic instruction every morning at five. She had already
+determined to create him a noble, and begun to look out an estate in the
+lately annexed possessions of Sweden on the Pomeranian coast. But these
+things were not to be. His friend Chanut fell dangerously ill; and
+Descartes, who devoted himself to attend in the sick-room, was obliged
+to issue from it every morning in the chill northern air of January, and
+spend an hour in the palace library. The ambassador recovered, but
+Descartes fell a victim to the same disease, inflammation of the lungs.
+The last time he saw the queen was on the 1st of February 1650, when he
+handed to her the statutes he had drawn up for the proposed academy. On
+the 11th of February he died. The queen wished to bury him at the feet
+of the Swedish kings, and to raise a costly mausoleum in his honour; but
+these plans were overruled, and a plain monument in the Catholic
+cemetery was all that marked the place of his rest. Sixteen years after
+his death the French treasurer d'Alibert made arrangements for the
+conveyance of the ashes to his native land; and in 1667 they were
+interred in the church of Ste Geneviève du Mont, the modern Pantheon. In
+1819, after being temporarily deposited in a stone sarcophagus in the
+court of the Louvre during the Revolutionary epoch, they were
+transferred to St Germain-des-Près, where they now repose between
+Montfaucon and Mabillon. A monument was raised to his memory at
+Stockholm by Gustavus III.; and a modern statue has been erected to him
+at Tours, with an inscription on the pedestal: "Je pense, donc je suis."
+
+Descartes never married, and had little of the amorous in his
+temperament. He has alluded to a childish fancy for a young girl with a
+slight obliquity of vision; but he only mentions it _à propos_ of the
+consequent weakness which led him to associate such a defect with
+beauty.[24] In person he was small, with large head, projecting brow,
+prominent nose, and eyes wide apart, with black hair coming down almost
+to his eyebrows. His voice was feeble. He usually dressed in black, with
+unobtrusive propriety.
+
+_Philosophy._--The end of all study, says Descartes, in one of his
+earliest writings, ought to be to guide the mind to form true and sound
+judgments on every thing that may be presented to it.[25] The sciences
+in their totality are but the intelligence of man; and all the details
+of knowledge have no value save as they strengthen the understanding.
+The mind is not for the sake of knowledge, but knowledge for the sake of
+the mind. This is the reassertion of a principle which the middle ages
+had lost sight of--that knowledge, if it is to have any value, must be
+intelligence, and not erudition.
+
+
+Mathematics.
+
+But how is intelligence, as opposed to erudition, possible? The answer
+to that question is the method of Descartes. That idea of a method grew
+up with his study of geometry and arithmetic,--the only branches of
+knowledge which he would allow to be "made sciences." But they did not
+satisfy his demand for intelligence. "I found in them," he says,
+"different propositions on numbers of which, after a calculation, I
+perceived the truth; as for the figures, I had, so to speak, many truths
+put before my eyes, and many others concluded from them by analogy; but
+it did not seem to me that they told my mind with sufficient clearness
+why the things were as I was shown, and by what means their discovery
+was attained."[26] The mathematics of which he thus speaks included the
+geometry of the ancients, as it had been handed down to the modern
+world, and arithmetic with the developments it had received in the
+direction of algebra. The ancient geometry, as we know it, is a
+wonderful monument of ingenuity--a series of _tours de force_, in which
+each problem to all appearance stands alone, and, if solved, is solved
+by methods and principles peculiar to itself. Here and there particular
+curves, for example, had been obliged to yield the secret of their
+tangent; but the ancient geometers apparently had no consciousness of
+the general bearings of the methods which they so successfully applied.
+Each problem was something unique; the elements of transition from one
+to another were wanting; and the next step which mathematics had to make
+was to find some method of reducing, for instance, all curves to a
+common notation. When that was found, the solution of one problem would
+immediately entail the solution of all others which belonged to the same
+series as itself.
+
+The arithmetical half of mathematics, which had been gradually growing
+into algebra, and had decidedly established itself as such in the _Ad
+logisticen speciosam notae priores_ of François Vieta (1540-1603),
+supplied to some extent the means of generalizing geometry. And the
+algebraists or arithmeticians of the 16th century, such as Luca Pacioli
+(Lucas de Borgo), Geronimo or Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), and Niccola
+Tartaglia (1506-1559), had used geometrical constructions to throw light
+on the solution of particular equations. But progress was made
+difficult, in consequence of the clumsy and irregular nomenclature
+employed. With Descartes the use of exponents as now employed for
+denoting the powers of a quantity becomes systematic; and without some
+such step by which the homogeneity of successive powers is at once
+recognized, the binomial theorem could scarcely have been detected. The
+restriction of the early letters of the alphabet to known, and of the
+late letters to unknown, quantities is also his work. In this and other
+details he crowns and completes, in a form henceforth to be dominant for
+the language of algebra, the work of numerous obscure predecessors, such
+as Étienne de la Roche, Michael Stifel or Stiefel (1487-1567), and
+others.
+
+Having thus perfected the instrument, his next step was to apply it in
+such a way as to bring uniformity of method into the isolated and
+independent operations of geometry. "I had no intention,"[27] he says in
+the _Method_, "of attempting to master all the particular sciences
+commonly called mathematics; but as I observed that, with all
+differences in their objects, they agreed in considering merely the
+various relations or proportions subsisting among these objects, I
+thought it best for my purpose to consider these relations in the most
+general form possible, without referring them to any objects in
+particular except such as would most facilitate the knowledge of them.
+Perceiving further, that in order to understand these relations I should
+sometimes have to consider them one by one, and sometimes only to bear
+them in mind or embrace them in the aggregate, I thought that, in order
+the better to consider them individually, I should view them as
+subsisting between straight lines, than which I could find no objects
+more simple, or capable of being more distinctly represented to my
+imagination and senses; and on the other hand that, in order to retain
+them in the memory or embrace an aggregate of many, I should express
+them by certain characters, the briefest possible." Such is the basis of
+the algebraical or modern analytical geometry. The problem of the curves
+is solved by their reduction to a problem of straight lines; and the
+locus of any point is determined by its distance from two given straight
+lines--the axes of co-ordinates. Thus Descartes gave to modern geometry
+that abstract and general character in which consists its superiority to
+the geometry of the ancients. In another question connected with this,
+the problem of drawing tangents to any curve, Descartes was drawn into a
+controversy with Pierre (de) Fermat (1601-1663), Gilles Persone de
+Roberval (1602-1675), and Girard Desargues (1593-1661). Fermat and
+Descartes agreed in regarding the tangent to a curve as a secant of that
+curve with the two points of intersection coinciding, while Roberval
+regarded it as the direction of the composite movement by which the
+curve can be described. Both these methods, differing from that now
+employed, are interesting as preliminary steps towards the method of
+fluxions and the differential calculus. In pure algebra Descartes
+expounded and illustrated the general methods of solving equations up to
+those of the fourth degree (and believed that his method could go
+beyond), stated the law which connects the positive and negative roots
+of an equation with the changes of sign in the consecutive terms, and
+introduced the method of indeterminate coefficients for the solution of
+equations.[28] These innovations have been attributed on inadequate
+evidence to other algebraists, e.g. William Oughtred (1575-1660) and
+Thomas Harriot (1560-1621).
+
+The _Geometry_ of Descartes, unlike the other parts of his essays, is
+not easy reading. It dashes at once into the middle of the subjects with
+the examination of a problem which had baffled the ancients, and seems
+as if it were tossed at the heads of the French geometers as a
+challenge. An edition of it appeared subsequently, with notes by his
+friend Florimond de Beaune (1601-1652), calculated to smooth the
+difficulties of the work. All along mathematics was regarded by
+Descartes rather as the envelope than the foundation of his method; and
+the "universal mathematical science" which he sought after was only the
+prelude of a universal science of all-embracing character.[29]
+
+
+Descartes' method.
+
+The method of Descartes rests upon the proposition that all the objects
+of our knowledge fall into series, of which the members are more or less
+known by means of one another. In every such series or group there is a
+dominant element, simple and irresoluble, the standard on which the rest
+of the series depends, and hence, so far as that group or series is
+concerned, absolute. The other members of the group are relative and
+dependent, and only to be understood as in various degrees subordinate
+to the primitive conception. The characteristic by which we recognize
+the fundamental element in a series is its intuitive or self-evident
+character; it is given by "the evident conception of a healthy and
+attentive mind so clear and distinct that no doubt is left."[30] Having
+discovered this prime or absolute member of the group, we proceed to
+consider the degrees in which the other members enter into relation with
+it. Here deduction comes into play to show the dependence of one term
+upon the others; and, in the case of a long chain of intervening links,
+the problem for intelligence is so to enunciate every element, and so
+to repeat the connexion that we may finally grasp all the links of the
+chain in one. In this way we, as it were, bring the causal or primal
+term and its remotest dependent immediately together, and raise a
+derivative knowledge into one which is primary and intuitive. Such are
+the four points of Cartesian method:--(1) Truth requires a clear and
+distinct conception of its object, excluding all doubt; (2) the objects
+of knowledge naturally fall into series or groups; (3) in these groups
+investigation must begin with a simple and indecomposable element, and
+pass from it to the more complex and relative elements; (4) an
+exhaustive and immediate grasp of the relations and interconnexion of
+these elements is necessary for knowledge in the fullest sense of that
+word.[31]
+
+"There is no question," he says in anticipation of Locke and Kant, "more
+important to solve than that of knowing what human knowledge is and how
+far it extends." "This is a question which ought to be asked at least
+once in their lives by all who seriously wish to gain wisdom. The
+inquirer will find that the first thing to know is intellect, because on
+it depends the knowledge of all other things. Examining next what
+immediately follows the knowledge of pure intellect, he will pass in
+review all the other means of knowledge, and will find that they are two
+(or three), the imagination and the senses (and the memory). He will
+therefore devote all his care to examine and distinguish these three
+means of knowledge; and seeing that truth and error can, properly
+speaking, be only in the intellect, and that the two other modes of
+knowledge are only occasions, he will carefully avoid whatever can lead
+him astray."[32] This separation of intellect from sense, imagination
+and memory is the cardinal precept of the Cartesian logic; it marks off
+clear and distinct (i.e. adequate and vivid) from obscure, fragmentary
+and incoherent conceptions.
+
+
+Fundamental principles of philosophy.
+
+The _Discourse of Method_ and the _Meditations_ apply what the _Rules
+for the Direction of the Mind_ had regarded in particular instances to
+our conceptions of the world as a whole. They propose, that is, to find
+a simple and indecomposable point, or absolute element, which gives to
+the world and thought their order and systematization. The grandeur of
+this attempt is perhaps unequalled in the annals of philosophy. The
+three main steps in the argument are the veracity of our thought when
+that thought is true to itself, the inevitable uprising of thought from
+its fragmentary aspects in our habitual consciousness to the infinite
+and perfect existence which God is, and the ultimate reduction of the
+material universe to extension and local movement. There are the central
+dogmas of logic, metaphysics and physics, from which start the
+subsequent inquiries of Locke, Leibnitz and Newton. They are also the
+direct antitheses to the scepticism of Montaigne and Pascal, to the
+materialism of Gassendi and Hobbes, and to the superstitious
+anthropomorphism which defaced the reawakening sciences of nature.
+Descartes laid down the lines on which modern philosophy and science
+were to build. But himself no trained metaphysician, and unsusceptible
+to the lessons of history, he gives but fragments of a system which are
+held together, not by their intrinsic consistency, but by the vigour of
+his personal conviction transcending the weaknesses and collisions of
+his several arguments. "All my opinions," he says, "are so conjoined,
+and depend so closely upon one another, that it would be impossible to
+appropriate one without knowing them all."[33] Yet every disciple of
+Cartesianism seems to disprove the dictum by his example.
+
+
+Cogito ergo sum.
+
+The very moment when we begin to think, says Descartes, when we cease to
+be merely receptive, when we draw back and fix our attention on any
+point whatever of our belief,--that moment doubt begins. If we even stop
+for an instant to ask ourselves how a word ought to be spelled, the
+deeper we ponder that one word by itself the more hopeless grows the
+hesitation. The doubts thus awakened must not be stifled, but pressed
+systematically on to the point, if such a point there be, where doubt
+confutes itself. The doubt as to the details is natural; it is no less
+natural to have recourse to authority to silence the doubt. The remedy
+proposed by Descartes is (while not neglecting our duties to others,
+ourselves and God) to let doubt range unchecked through the whole fabric
+of our customary convictions. One by one they refuse to render any
+reasonable account of themselves; each seems a mere chance, and the
+whole tends to elude us like a mirage which some malignant power creates
+for our illusion. Attacked in detail, they vanish one after another into
+as many teasing spectra of uncertainty. We are seeking from them what
+they cannot give. But when we have done our worst in unsettling them, we
+come to an ultimate point in the fact that it is _we_ who are doubting,
+_we_ who are thinking. We may doubt that we have hands or feet, that we
+sleep or wake, and that there is a world of material things around us;
+but we cannot doubt that we are doubting. We are certain that we are
+thinking, and in so far as we are thinking we are. _Je pense, donc je
+suis._ In other words, the criterion of truth is a clear and distinct
+conception, excluding all possibility of doubt.
+
+The fundamental point thus established is the veracity of consciousness
+when it does not go beyond itself, or does not postulate something which
+is external to itself. At this point Gassendi arrested Descartes and
+addressed his objections to him as pure intelligence,--_O mens!_ But
+even this _mens_, or mind, is but a point--we have found no guarantee as
+yet for its continuous existence. The analysis must be carried deeper,
+if we are to gain any further conclusions.
+
+
+Nature of God.
+
+Amongst the elements of our thought there are some which we can make and
+unmake at our pleasure; there are others which come and go without our
+wish; there is also a third class which is of the very essence of our
+thinking, and which dominates our conceptions. We find that all our
+ideas of limits, sorrows and weaknesses presuppose an infinite, perfect
+and ever-blessed something beyond them and including them,--that all our
+ideas, in all their series, converge to one central idea, in which they
+find their explanation. The formal fact of thinking is what constitutes
+our being; but this thought leads us back, when we consider its concrete
+contents, to the necessary pre-supposition on which our ideas depend,
+the permanent cause on which they and we as conscious beings depend. We
+have therefore the idea of an infinite, perfect and all-powerful
+being--an idea which cannot be the creation of ourselves, and must be
+given by some being who really possesses all that we in idea attribute
+to him. Such a being he identifies with God. But the ordinary idea of
+God can scarcely be identified with such a conception. "The majority of
+men," he says himself, "do not think of God as an infinite and
+incomprehensible being, and as the sole author from whom all things
+depend; they go no further than the letters of his name."[34] "The
+vulgar almost imagine him as a finite thing." The God of Descartes is
+not merely the creator of the material universe; he is also the father
+of all truth in the intellectual world. "The metaphysical truths," he
+says, "styled eternal have been established by God, and, like the rest
+of his creatures, depend entirely upon him. To say that these truths are
+independent of him is to speak of God as a Jupiter or a Saturn,--to
+subject him to Styx and the Fates."[35] The laws of thought, the truths
+of number, are the decrees of God. The expression is anthropomorphic, no
+less than the dogma of material creation; but it is an attempt to affirm
+the unity of the intellectual and the material world. Descartes
+establishes a philosophic monotheism,--by which the medieval polytheism
+of substantial forms, essences and eternal truths fades away before God,
+who is the ruler of the intellectual world no less than of the kingdom
+of nature and of grace.
+
+To attach a clear and definite meaning to the Cartesian doctrine of God,
+to show how much of it comes from the Christian theology and how much
+from the logic of idealism, how far the conception of a personal being
+as creator and preserver mingles with the pantheistic conception of an
+infinite and perfect something which is all in all, would be to go
+beyond Descartes and to ask for a solution of difficulties of which he
+was scarcely aware. It seems impossible to deny that the tendency of
+his principles and his arguments is mainly in the line of a metaphysical
+absolute, as the necessary completion and foundation of all being and
+knowledge. Through the truthfulness of that God as the author of all
+truth he derives a guarantee for our perceptions in so far as these are
+clear and distinct. And it is in guaranteeing the veracity of our clear
+and distinct conceptions that the value of his deduction of God seems in
+his own estimate to rest. All conceptions which do not possess these two
+attributes--of being vivid in themselves and discriminated from all
+others--cannot be true. But the larger part of our conceptions are in
+such a predicament. We think of things not in the abstract elements of
+the things themselves, but in connexion with, and in language which
+presupposes, other things. Our idea of body, e.g., involves colour and
+weight, and yet when we try to think carefully, and without assuming
+anything, we find that we cannot attach any distinct idea to these terms
+when applied to body. In truth therefore these attributes do not belong
+to body at all; and if we go on in the same way testing the received
+qualities of matter, we shall find that in the last resort we understand
+nothing by it but extension, with the secondary and derivative
+characters of divisibility and mobility.
+
+But it would again be useless to ask how extension as the characteristic
+attribute of matter is related to mind which thinks, and how God is to
+be regarded in reference to extension. The force of the universe is
+swept up and gathered in God, who communicates motion to the parts of
+extension, and sustains that motion from moment to moment; and in the
+same way the force of mind has really been concentrated in God. Every
+moment one expects to find Descartes saying with Hobbes that man's
+thought has created God, or with Spinoza and Malebranche that it is God
+who really thinks in the apparent thought of man. After all, the
+metaphysical theology of Descartes, however essential in his own eyes,
+serves chiefly as the ground for constructing his theory of man and of
+the universe. His fundamental hypothesis relegates to God all forces in
+their ultimate origin. Hence the world is left open for the free play of
+mechanics and geometry. The disturbing conditions of will, life and
+organic forces are eliminated from the problem; he starts with the clear
+and distinct idea of extension, figured and moved, and thence by
+mathematical laws he gives a hypothetical explanation of all things.
+Such explanation of physical phenomena is the main problem of Descartes,
+and it goes on encroaching upon territories once supposed proper to the
+mind. Descartes began with the certainty that we are thinking beings;
+that region remains untouched; but up to its very borders the mechanical
+explanation of nature reigns unchecked.
+
+
+Physical theory.
+
+The physical theory, in its earlier form in _The World_, and later in
+the _Principles of Philosophy_ (which the present account follows),
+rests upon the metaphysical conclusions of the _Meditations_. It
+proposes to set forth the genesis of the existing universe from
+principles which can be plainly understood, and according to the
+acknowledged laws of the transmission of movement. The idea of force is
+one of those obscure conceptions which originate in an obscure region,
+in the sense of muscular power. The true physical conception is motion,
+the ultimate ground of which is to be sought in God's infinite power.
+Accordingly the quantity of movement in the universe, like its mover,
+can neither increase nor diminish. The only circumstance which physics
+has to consider is the transference of movement from one particle to
+another, and the change of its direction. Man himself cannot increase
+the sum of motion; he can only alter its direction. The whole conception
+of force may disappear from a theory of the universe; and we can adopt a
+geometrical definition of motion as the shifting of one body from the
+neighbourhood of those bodies which immediately touch it, and which are
+assumed to be at rest, to the neighbourhood of other bodies. Motion, in
+short, is strictly locomotion, and nothing else.
+
+Descartes has laid down three laws of nature, and seven secondary laws
+regarding impact. The latter are to a large extent incorrect. The first
+law affirms that every body, so far as it is altogether unaffected by
+extraneous causes, always perseveres in the same state of motion or of
+rest; and the second law that simple or elementary motion is always in a
+straight line.[36] These doctrines of inertia, and of the composite
+character of curvilinear motion, were scarcely apprehended even by
+Kepler or Galileo; but they follow naturally from the geometrical
+analysis of Descartes.
+
+
+Theory of vortices.
+
+Extended body has no limits to its extent, though the power of God has
+divided it in lines discriminating its parts in endless ways. The
+infinite universe is infinitely full of matter. Empty space, as
+distinguished from material extension, is a fictitious abstraction.
+There is no such thing really as a vacuum, any more than there are atoms
+or ultimate indivisible particles. In both these doctrines of _à priori_
+science Descartes has not been subverted, but, if anything, corroborated
+by the results of experimental physics; for the so-called atoms of
+chemical theory already presuppose, from the Cartesian point of view,
+certain aggregations of the primitive particles of matter. Descartes
+regards matter as uniform in character throughout the universe; he
+anticipates, as it were, from his own transcendental ground, the
+revelations of spectrum analysis as applied to the sun and stars. We
+have then to think of a full universe of matter (and matter = extension)
+divided and figured with endless variety, and set (and kept) in motion
+by God; and any sort of division, figure and motion will serve the
+purposes of our supposition as well as another. "Scarcely any
+supposition,"[37] he says, "can be made from which the same result,
+though possibly with greater difficulty, might not be deduced by the
+same laws of nature; for since, in virtue of these laws, matter
+successively assumes all the forms of which it is capable, if we
+consider these forms in order, we shall at one point or other reach the
+existing form of the world, so that no error need here be feared from a
+false supposition." As the movement of one particle in a closely-packed
+universe is only possible if all other parts move simultaneously, so
+that the last in the series steps into the place of the first; and as
+the figure and division of the particles varies in each point in the
+universe, there will inevitably at the same instant result throughout
+the universe an innumerable host of more or less circular movements, and
+of vortices or whirlpools of material particles varying in size and
+velocity. Taking for convenience a limited portion of the universe, we
+observe that in consequence of the circular movement, the particles of
+matter have their corners pared off by rubbing against each other; and
+two species of matter thus arise,--one consisting of small globules
+which continue their circular motion with a (centrifugal) tendency to
+fly off from the centre as they swing round the axis of rotation, while
+the other, consisting of the fine dust--the filings and parings of the
+original particles--gradually becoming finer and finer, and losing its
+velocity, tends (centripetally) to accumulate in the centre of the
+vortex, which has been gradually left free by the receding particles of
+globular matter. This finer matter which collects in the centre of each
+vortex is the _first_ matter of Descartes--it constitutes the sun or
+star. The spherical particles are the _second_ matter of Descartes, and
+their tendency to propel one another from the centre in straight lines
+towards the circumference of each vortex is what gives rise to the
+phenomenon of light radiating from the central star. This second matter
+is atmosphere or firmament, which envelops and revolves around the
+central accumulation of first matter.
+
+A third form of matter is produced from the original particles. As the
+small filings produced by friction seek to pass through the interstices
+between the rapidly revolving spherical particles in the vortex, they
+are detained and become twisted and channelled in their passage, and
+when they reach the edge of the inner ocean of solar dust they settle
+upon it as the froth and foam produced by the agitation of water gathers
+upon its surface. These form what we term spots in the sun. In some
+cases they come and go, or dissolve into an aether round the sun; but in
+other cases they gradually increase until they form a dense crust round
+the central nucleus. In course of time the star, with its expansive
+force diminished, suffers encroachments from the neighbouring vortices,
+and at length they catch it up. If the velocity of the decaying star be
+greater than that of any part of the vortex which has swept it up, it
+will ere long pass out of the range of that vortex, and continue its
+movement from one to another. Such a star is a comet. But in other cases
+the encrusted star settles in that portion of the revolving vortex which
+has a velocity equivalent to its own, and so continues to revolve in the
+vortex, wrapped in its own firmament. Such a reduced and impoverished
+star is a planet; and the several planets of our solar system are the
+several vortices which from time to time have been swept up by the
+central sun-vortex. The same considerations serve to explain the moon
+and other satellites. They too were once vortices, swallowed up by some
+other, which at a later day fell a victim to the sweep of our sun.
+
+Such in mere outline is the celebrated theory of _vortices_, which for
+about twenty years after its promulgation reigned supreme in science,
+and for much longer time opposed a tenacious resistance to rival
+doctrines. It is one of the grandest hypotheses which ever have been
+formed to account by mechanical processes for the movements of the
+universe. While chemistry rests in the acceptance of ultimate
+heterogeneous elements, the vortex-theory assumed uniform matter through
+the universe, and reduced cosmical physics to the same principles as
+regulate terrestrial phenomena. It ended the old Aristotelian
+distinction between the sphere beneath the moon and the starry spaces
+beyond. It banished the spirits and genii, to which even Kepler had
+assigned the guardianship of the planetary movements; and, if it
+supposes the globular particles of the envelope to be the active force
+in carrying the earth round the sun, we may remember that Newton himself
+assumed an aether for somewhat similar purposes. The great argument on
+which the Cartesians founded their opposition to the Newtonian doctrine
+was that attraction was an occult quality, not wholly intelligible by
+the aid of mere mechanics. The Newtonian theory is an analysis of the
+elementary movements which in their combination determine the planetary
+orbits, and gives the formula of the proportions according to which they
+act. But the Cartesian theory, like the later speculations of Kant and
+Laplace, proposes to give a hypothetical explanation of the
+circumstances and motions which in the normal course of things led to
+the state of things required by the law of attraction. In the judgment
+of D'Alembert the Cartesian theory was the best that the observations of
+the age admitted; and "its explanation of gravity was one of the most
+ingenious hypotheses which philosophy ever imagined." That the
+explanation fails in detail is undoubted: it does not account for the
+ellipticity of the planets; it would place the sun, not in one focus,
+but in the centre of the ellipse; and it would make gravity directed
+towards the centre only under the equator. But these defects need not
+blind us to the fact that this hypothesis made the mathematical progress
+of Hooke, Borelli and Newton much more easy and certain. Descartes
+professedly assumed a simplicity in the phenomena which they did not
+present. But such a hypothetical simplicity is the necessary step for
+solving the more complex problems of nature. The danger lies not in
+forming such hypotheses, but in regarding them as final, or as more than
+an attempt to throw light upon our observation of the phenomena. In
+doing what he did, Descartes actually exemplified that reduction of the
+processes of nature to mere transposition of the particles of matter,
+which in different ways was a leading idea in the minds of Bacon, Hobbes
+and Gassendi. The defects of Descartes lie rather in his apparently
+imperfect apprehension of the principle of movements uniformly
+accelerated which his contemporary Galileo had illustrated and insisted
+upon, and in the indistinctness which attaches to his views of the
+transmission of motion in cases of impact. It should be added that the
+modern theory of vortex-atoms (Lord Kelvin's) to explain the
+constitution of matter has but slight analogy with Cartesian doctrine,
+and finds a parallel, if anywhere, in a modification of that doctrine by
+Malebranche.
+
+
+Optical theories.
+
+Besides the last two parts of the _Principles of Philosophy_, the
+physical writings of Descartes include the _Dioptrics_ and _Meteors_, as
+well as passages in the letters. His optical investigations are perhaps
+the subject in which he most contributed to the progress of science;
+and the lucidity of exposition which marks his _Dioptrics_ stands
+conspicuous even amid the generally luminous style of his works. Its
+object is a practical one, to determine by scientific considerations the
+shape of lens best adapted to improve the capabilities of the telescope,
+which had been invented not long before. The conclusions at which he
+arrives have not been so useful as he imagined, in consequence of the
+mechanical difficulties. But the investigation by which he reaches them
+has the merit of first prominently publishing and establishing the law
+of the refraction of light. Attempts have been made, principally founded
+on some remarks of Huygens, to show that Descartes had learned the
+principles of refraction from the manuscript of a treatise by Willebrord
+Snell, but the facts are uncertain; and, so far as Descartes founds his
+optics on any one, it is probably on the researches of Kepler. In any
+case the discovery is to some extent his own, for his proof of the law
+is founded upon the theory that light is the propagation of the aether
+in straight lines from the sun or luminous body to the eye (see LIGHT).
+Thus he approximates to the wave theory of light, though he supposed
+that the transmission of light was instantaneous. The chief of his other
+contributions to optics was the explanation of the rainbow--an
+explanation far from complete, since the unequal refrangibility of the
+rays of light was yet undiscovered--but a decided advance upon his
+predecessors, notably on the _De radiis visus et lucis_ (1611) of
+Marc-Antonio de Dominis, archbishop of Spalato.
+
+If Descartes had contented himself with thus explaining the phenomena of
+gravity, heat, magnetism, light and similar forces by means of the
+molecular movements of his vortices, even such a theory would have
+excited admiration. But he did not stop short in the region of what is
+usually termed physics. Chemistry and biology are alike swallowed up in
+the one science of physics, and reduced to a problem of mechanism. This
+theory, he believed, would afford an explanation of every phenomenon
+whatever, and in nearly every department of knowledge he has given
+specimens of its power. But the most remarkable and daring application
+of the theory was to account for the phenomena of organic life,
+especially in animals and man. "If we possessed a thorough knowledge,"
+he says,[38] "of all the parts of the seed of any species of animal
+(e.g. man), we could from that alone, by reasons entirely mathematical
+and certain, deduce the whole figure and conformation of each of its
+members, and, conversely, if we knew several peculiarities of this
+conformation, we could from these deduce the nature of its seed." The
+organism in this way is regarded as a machine, constructed from the
+particles of the seed, which in virtue of the laws of motion have
+arranged themselves (always under the governing power of God) in the
+particular animal shape in which we see them. The doctrine of the
+circulation of the blood, which Descartes adopted from Harvey, supplied
+additional arguments in favour of his mechanical theory, and he probably
+did much to popularize the discovery. A fire without light, compared to
+the heat which gathers in a haystack when the hay has been stored before
+it was properly dry--heat, in short, as an agitation of the
+particles--is the motive cause of the contraction and dilatations of the
+heart. Those finer particles of the blood which become extremely
+rarefied during this process pass off in two directions--one portion,
+and the least important in the theory, to the organs of generation, the
+other portion to the cavities of the brain. There not merely do they
+serve to nourish the organ, they also give rise to a fine ethereal flame
+or wind through the action of the brain upon them, and thus form the
+so-called "animal" spirits. From the brain these spirits are conveyed
+through the body by means of the nerves, regarded by Descartes as
+tubular vessels, resembling the pipes conveying the water of a spring to
+act upon the mechanical appliances in an artificial fountain. The nerves
+conduct the animal spirits to act upon the muscles, and in their turn
+convey the impressions of the organs to the brain.
+
+
+Automatism.
+
+Man and the animals as thus described are compared to automata, and
+termed machines. The vegetative and sensitive souls which the
+Aristotelians had introduced to break the leap between inanimate matter
+and man are ruthlessly swept away; only one soul, the rational, remains,
+and that is restricted to man. One hypothesis supplants the various
+principles of life; the rule of absolute mechanism is as complete in the
+animal as in the cosmos. Reason and thought, the essential quality of
+the soul, do not belong to the brutes; there is an impassable gulf fixed
+between man and the lower animals. The only sure sign of reason is the
+power of language--i.e. of giving expression to general ideas; and
+language in that sense is not found save in man. The cries of animals
+are but the working of the curiously-contrived machine, in which, when
+one portion is touched in a certain way, the wheels and springs
+concealed in the interior perform their work, and, it may be, a note
+supposed to express joy or pain is evolved; but there is no
+consciousness or feeling. "The animals act naturally and by springs,
+like a watch."[39] "The greatest of all the prejudices we have retained
+from our infancy is that of believing that the beasts think."[40] If the
+beasts can properly be said to see at all, "they see as we do when our
+mind is distracted and keenly applied elsewhere; the images of outward
+objects paint themselves on the retina, and possibly even the
+impressions made in the optic nerves determine our limbs to different
+movements, but we feel nothing of it all, and move as if we were
+automata."[41] The sentience of the animal to the lash of his tyrant is
+not other than the sensitivity of the plant to the influences of light
+and heat. It is not much comfort to learn further from Descartes that
+"he denies life to no animal, but makes it consist in the mere heat of
+the heart. Nor does he deny them feeling in so far as it depends on the
+bodily organs."[42]
+
+Descartes, with an unusual fondness for the letter of Scripture, quotes
+oftener than once in support of this monstrous doctrine. the dictum,
+"the blood is the life"; and he remarks, with some sarcasm possibly,
+that it is a comfortable theory for the eaters of animal flesh. And the
+doctrine found acceptance among some whom it enabled to get rid of the
+difficulties raised by Montaigne and those who allowed more difference
+between animal and animal than between the higher animals and man. It
+also encouraged vivisection--a practice common with Descartes
+himself.[43] The recluses of Port Royal seized it eagerly, discussed
+automatism, dissected living animals in order to show to a morbid
+curiosity the circulation of the blood, were careless of the cries of
+tortured dogs, and finally embalmed the doctrine in a syllogism of their
+logic,--No matter thinks; every soul of beast is matter: therefore no
+soul of beast thinks.
+
+
+Relation of mind and body.
+
+But whilst all the organic processes in man go on mechanically, and
+though by reflex action he may repel attack unconsciously, still the
+first affirmation of the system was that man was essentially a thinking
+being; and, while we retain this original dictum, it must not be
+supposed that the mind is a mere spectator, or like the boatman in the
+boat. Of course a unity of nature is impossible between mind and body so
+described. And yet there is a unity of composition, a unity so close
+that the compound is "really one and in a sense indivisible." You cannot
+in the actual man cut soul and body asunder; they interpenetrate in
+every member. But there is one point in the human frame--a point midway
+in the brain, single and free, which may in a special sense be called
+the seat of the mind. This is the so-called conarion, or pineal gland,
+where in a minimized point the mind on one hand and the vital spirits on
+the other meet and communicate. In that gland the mystery of creation is
+concentrated; thought meets extension and directs it; extension moves
+towards thought and is perceived. Two clear and distinct ideas, it
+seems, produce an absolute mystery. Mind, driven from the field of
+extension, erects its last fortress in the pineal gland. In such a state
+of despair and destitution there is no hope for spiritualism, save in
+God; and Clauberg, Geulincx and Malebranche all take refuge under the
+shadow of his wings to escape the tyranny of extended matter.
+
+
+Psychology.
+
+In the psychology of Descartes there are two fundamental modes of
+thought,--perception and volition. "It seems to me," he says, "that in
+receiving such and such an idea the mind is passive, and that it is
+active only in volition; that its ideas are put in it partly by the
+objects which touch the senses, partly by the impressions in the brain,
+and partly also by the dispositions which have preceded in the mind
+itself and by the movements of its will."[44] The will, therefore, as
+being more originative, has more to do with true or false judgments than
+the understanding. Unfortunately, Descartes is too lordly a philosopher
+to explain distinctly what either understanding or will may mean. But we
+gather that in two directions our reason is bound up with bodily
+conditions, which make or mar it, according as the will, or central
+energy of thought, is true to itself or not. In the range of perception,
+intellect is subjected to the material conditions of sense, memory and
+imagination; and in infancy, when the will has allowed itself to assent
+precipitately to the conjunctions presented to it by these material
+processes, thought has become filled with obscure ideas. In the moral
+sphere the passions or emotions (which Descartes reduces to the six
+primitive forms of admiration, love, hatred, desire, joy and sadness)
+are the perceptions or sentiments of the mind, caused and maintained by
+some movement of the vital spirits, but specially referring to the mind
+only. The presentation of some object of dread, for example, to the eye
+has or may have a double effect. On one hand the animal spirits
+"reflected"[45] from the image formed on the pineal gland proceed
+through the nervous tubes to make the muscles turn the back and lift the
+feet, so as to escape the cause of the terror. Such is the reflex and
+mechanical movement independent of the mind. But, on the other hand, the
+vital spirits cause a movement in the gland by which the mind perceives
+the affection of the organs, learns that something is to be loved or
+hated, admired or shunned. Such perceptions dispose the mind to pursue
+what nature dictates as useful. But the estimate of goods and evils
+which they give is indistinct and unsatisfactory. The office of reason
+is to give a true and distinct appreciation of the values of goods and
+evils; or firm and determinate judgments touching the knowledge of good
+and evil are our proper arms against the influence of the passions.[46]
+We are free, therefore, through knowledge: _ex magna luce in intellectu
+sequitur magna propensio in voluntate_, and _omnis peccans est
+ignorans_. "If we clearly see that what we are doing is wrong, it would
+be impossible for us to sin, so long as we saw it in that light."[47]
+Thus the highest liberty, as distinguished from mere indifference,
+proceeds from clear and distinct knowledge, and such knowledge can only
+be attained by firmness and resolution, i.e. by the continued exercise
+of the will. Thus in the perfection of man, as in the nature of God,
+will and intellect must be united. For thought, will is as necessary as
+understanding. And innate ideas therefore are mere capacities or
+tendencies,--possibilities which apart from the will to think may be
+regarded as nothing at all.
+
+_The Cartesian School._--The philosophy of Descartes fought its first
+battles and gained its first triumphs in the country of his adoption. In
+his lifetime his views had been taught in Utrecht and Leiden. In the
+universities of the Netherlands and of lower Germany, as yet free from
+the conservatism of the old-established seats of learning, the new
+system gained an easy victory over Aristotelianism, and, as it was
+adapted for lectures and examinations, soon became almost as scholastic
+as the doctrines it had supplanted. At Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen,
+Franeker, Breda, Nimeguen, Harderwyk, Duisburg and Herborn, and at the
+Catholic university of Louvain, Cartesianism was warmly expounded and
+defended in seats of learning, of which many are now left desolate, and
+by adherents whose writings have for the most part long lost interest
+for any but the antiquary.
+
+
+Holland.
+
+The Cartesianism of Holland was a child of the universities, and its
+literature is mainly composed of commentaries upon the original texts,
+of theses discussed in the schools, and of systematic expositions of
+Cartesian philosophy for the benefit of the student. Three names stand
+out in this Cartesian professoriate,--Wittich, Clauberg and Geulincx.
+Christoph Wittich (1625-1687), professor at Duisburg and Leiden, is a
+representative of the moderate followers who professed to reconcile the
+doctrines of their school with the faith of Christendom and to refute
+the theology of Spinoza. Johann Clauberg (q.v.) commented clause by
+clause upon the _Meditations_ of Descartes; but he specially claims
+notice for his work _De corporis et animae in homine conjunctione_,
+where he maintains that the bodily movements are merely procatarctic
+causes (i.e. antecedents, but not strictly causes) of the mental action,
+and sacrifices the independence of man to the omnipotence of God. The
+same tendency is still more pronounced in Arnold Geulincx (q.v.). With
+him the reciprocal action of mind and body is altogether denied; they
+resemble two clocks, so made by the artificer as to strike the same hour
+together. The mind can act only upon itself; beyond that limit, the
+power of God must intervene to make any seeming interaction possible
+between body and soul. Such are the half-hearted attempts at consistency
+in Cartesian thought, which eventually culminate in the pantheism of
+Spinoza (see CARTESIANISM).
+
+Descartes occasionally had not scrupled to interpret the Scriptures
+according to his own tenets, while still maintaining, when their letter
+contradicted him, that the Bible was not meant to teach the sciences.
+Similar tendencies are found amongst his followers. Whilst Protestant
+opponents put him in the list of atheists like Vanini, and the Catholics
+held him as dangerous as Luther or Calvin, there were zealous adherents
+who ventured to prove the theory of vortices in harmony with the book of
+Genesis. It was this rationalistic treatment of the sacred writings
+which helped to confound the Cartesians with the allegorical school of
+John Cocceius, as their liberal doctrines in theology justified the
+vulgar identification of them with the heresies of Socinian and
+Arminian. The chief names in this advanced theology connected with
+Cartesian doctrines are Ludwig Meyer, the friend and editor of Spinoza,
+author of a work termed _Philosophia scripturae interpres_ (1666);
+Balthasar Bekker, whose _World Bewitched_ helped to discredit the
+superstitious fancies about the devil; and Spinoza, whose _Tractatus
+theologico-politicus_ is in some respects the classical type of rational
+criticism up to the present day. Against this work and the _Ethics_ of
+Spinoza the orthodox Cartesians (who were in the majority), no less than
+sceptical hangers-on like Bayle, raised an all but universal howl of
+reprobation, scarcely broken for about a century.
+
+
+France.
+
+In France Cartesianism won society and literature before it penetrated
+into the universities. Clerselier (the friend of Descartes and his
+literary executor), his son-in-law Rohault (who achieved that
+relationship through his Cartesianism), and others, opened their houses
+for readings to which the intellectual world of Paris--its learned
+professors not more than the courtiers and the fair sex,--flocked to
+hear the new doctrines explained, and possibly discuss their value.
+Grand seigneurs, like the prince of Condé, the duc de Nevers and the
+marquis de Vardes, were glad to vary the monotony of their feudal
+castles by listening to the eloquent rehearsals of Malebranche or Regis.
+And the salons of Mme de Sévigné, of her daughter Mme de Grignan, and of
+the duchesse de Maine for a while gave the questions of philosophy a
+place among the topics of polite society, and furnished to Molière the
+occasion of his _Femmes savantes_. The Château of the duc de Luynes, the
+translator of the _Meditations_, was the home of a Cartesian club, that
+discussed the questions of automatism and of the composition of the sun
+from filings and parings, and rivalled Port Royal in its vivisections.
+The cardinal de Retz in his leisurely age at Commercy found amusement in
+presiding at disputations between the more moderate Cartesians and Don
+Robert Desgabets, who interpreted Descartes in an original way of his
+own. Though rejected by the Jesuits, who found peripatetic formulae a
+faithful weapon against the enemies of the church, Cartesianism was
+warmly adopted by the Oratory, which saw in Descartes something of St
+Augustine, by Port Royal, which discovered a connexion between the new
+system and Jansenism, and by some amongst the Benedictines and the order
+of Ste Geneviève.
+
+The popularity which Cartesianism thus gained in the social and literary
+circles of the capital was largely increased by the labours of
+Pierre-Sylvain Regis (1632-1707). On his visit to Toulouse in 1665, with
+a mission from the Cartesian chiefs, his lectures excited boundless
+interest; ladies threw themselves with zeal and ability into the study
+of philosophy; and Regis himself was made the guest of the civic
+corporation. In 1671 scarcely less enthusiasm was roused in Montpellier;
+and in 1680 he opened a course of lectures at Paris, with such
+acceptance that hearers had to take their seats in advance. Regis, by
+removing the paradoxes and adjusting the metaphysics to the popular
+powers of apprehension, made Cartesianism popular, and reduced it to a
+regular system.
+
+But a check was at hand. Descartes, in his correspondence with the
+Jesuits, had shown an almost cringing eagerness to have their powerful
+organization on his side. Especially he had written to Père Mesland, one
+of the order, to show how the Catholic doctrine of the eucharist might
+be made compatible with his theories of matter. But his undue haste to
+arrange matters with the church only served to compromise him more
+deeply. Unwise admirers and malicious opponents exaggerated the
+theological bearings of his system in this detail; and the efforts of
+the Jesuits succeeded in getting the works of Descartes, in November
+1663, placed upon the index of prohibited books,--_donec corrigantur_.
+Thereupon the power of church and state enforced by positive enactments
+the passive resistance of old institutions to the novel theories. In
+1667, the oration at the interment was forbidden by royal order. In
+1669, when the chair of philosophy at the Collège Royal fell vacant, one
+of the four selected candidates had to sustain a thesis against "the
+pretended new philosophy of Descartes." In 1671 the archbishop of Paris,
+by the king's order, summoned the heads of the university to his
+presence, and enjoined them to take stricter measures against
+philosophical novelties dangerous to the faith. In 1673 a decree of the
+parlement against Cartesian and other unlicensed theories was on the
+point of being issued, and was only checked in time by the appearance of
+a burlesque mandamus against the intruder Reason, composed by Boileau
+and some of his brother-poets. Yet in 1675 the university of Angers was
+empowered to repress all Cartesian teaching within its domain, and
+actually appointed a commission charged to look for such heresies in the
+theses and the students' note-books of the college of Anjou belonging to
+the Oratory. In 1677 the university of Caen adopted not less stringent
+measures against Cartesianism. And so great was the influence of the
+Jesuits, that the congregation of St Maur, the canons of Ste Geneviève,
+and the Oratory laid their official ban on the obnoxious doctrines. From
+the real or fancied _rapprochements_ between Cartesianism and Jansenism,
+it became for a while impolitic, if not dangerous, to avow too loudly a
+preference for Cartesian theories. Regis was constrained to hold back
+for ten years his _System of Philosophy_; and when it did appear, in
+1690, the name of Descartes was absent from the title-page. There were
+other obstacles besides the mild persecutions of the church. Pascal and
+other members of Port Royal openly expressed their doubts about the
+place allowed to God in the system; the adherents of Gassendi met it by
+resuscitating atoms; and the Aristotelians maintained their substantial
+forms as of old; the Jesuits argued against the arguments for the being
+of God, and against the theory of innate ideas; whilst Pierre Daniel
+Huet (1630-1721), bishop of Avranches, once a Cartesian himself, made a
+vigorous onslaught on the contempt in which his former comrades held
+literature and history, and enlarged on the vanity of all human
+aspirations after rational truth.
+
+The greatest and most original of the French Cartesians was Malebranche
+(q.v.). His _Recherche de la vérité_, in 1674, was the baptism of the
+system into a theistic religion which borrowed its imagery from
+Augustine; it brought into prominence the metaphysical base which Louis
+Delaforge, Jacques Rohault and Regis had neither cared for nor
+understood. But this doctrine was a criticism and a divergence, no less
+than a consequence, from the principles in Descartes; and it brought
+upon Malebranche the opposition, not merely of the Cartesian
+physicists, but also of Arnauld, Fénelon and Bossuet, who found, or
+hoped to find, in the _Meditations_, as properly understood, an ally for
+theology. Popular enthusiasm, however, was with Malebranche, as twenty
+years before it had been with Descartes; he was the fashion of the day;
+and his disciples rapidly increased both in France and abroad.
+
+In 1705 Cartesianism was still subject to prohibitions from the
+authorities; but in a project of new statutes, drawn up for the faculty
+of arts at Paris in 1720, the _Method_ and _Meditations_ of Descartes
+were placed beside the _Organon_ and the _Metaphysics_ of Aristotle as
+text-books for philosophical study. And before 1725, readings, both
+public and private, were given from Cartesian texts in some of the
+Parisian colleges. But when this happened, Cartesianism was no longer
+either interesting or dangerous; its theories, taught as ascertained and
+verified truths, were as worthless as the systematic verbiage which
+preceded them. Already antiquated, it could not resist the wit and
+raillery with which Voltaire, in his _Lettres sur les Anglais_ (1728),
+brought against it the principles and results of Locke and Newton. The
+old Cartesians, Jean Jacques Dortous de Mairan (1678-1771) and
+especially Fontenelle, with his _Théorie des tourbillons_ (1752),
+struggled in vain to refute Newton by styling attraction an occult
+quality. Fortunately the Cartesian method had already done its service,
+even where the theories were rejected. The Port Royalists, Pierre Nicole
+(1625-1695) and Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694), had applied it to grammar
+and logic; Jean Domat or Daumat (1625-1696) and Henri François
+Daugesseau (1668-1751) to jurisprudence; Fontenelle, Charles Perrault
+(1628-1703) and Jean Terrasson (1670-1750) to literary criticism, and a
+worthier estimate of modern literature. Though it never ceased to
+influence individual thinkers, it had handed on to Condillac its
+popularity with the masses. A Latin abridgment of philosophy, dated
+1784, tells us that the innate ideas of Descartes are founded on no
+arguments, and are now universally abandoned. The ghost of innate ideas
+seems to be all that it had left.
+
+
+Germany.
+
+In Germany a few Cartesian lecturers taught at Leipzig and Halle, but
+the system took no root, any more than in Switzerland, where it had a
+brief reign at Geneva after 1669. In Italy the effects were more
+permanent. What is termed the iatro-mechanical school of medicine, with
+G. A. Borelli (1608-1679) as its most notable name, entered in a way on
+the mechanical study of anatomy suggested by Descartes, but was probably
+much more dependent upon the positive researches of Galileo. At Naples
+there grew up a Cartesian school, of which the best known members are
+Michel Angelo Fardella (1650-1708) and Cardinal Gerdil (1718-1802), both
+of whom, however, attached themselves to the characteristic views of
+Malebranche.
+
+
+England.
+
+In England Cartesianism took but slight hold. Henry More, who had given
+it a modified sympathy in the lifetime of the author, became its
+opponent in later years; and Cudworth differed from it in most essential
+points. Antony Legrand, from Douai, attempted to introduce it into
+Oxford, but failed. He is the author of several works, amongst others a
+system of Cartesian philosophy, where a chapter on "Angels" revives the
+methods of the schoolmen. His chief opponent was Samuel Parker
+(1640-1688), bishop of Oxford, who, in his attack on the irreligious
+novelties of the Cartesian, treats Descartes as a fellow-criminal in
+infidelity with Hobbes and Gassendi. Rohault's version of the Cartesian
+physics was translated into English; and Malebranche found an ardent
+follower in John Norris (1667-1711). Of Cartesianism towards the close
+of the 17th century the only remnants were an overgrown theory of
+vortices, which received its death-blow from Newton, and a dubious
+phraseology anent innate ideas, which found a witty executioner in
+Locke.
+
+For an account of the metaphysical doctrines of Descartes, in their
+connexions with Malebranche and Spinoza, see CARTESIANISM.
+
+   BIBLIOGRAPHY.--I. _Editions and Translations._--The collected works
+   of Descartes were published in Latin in 8 vols. at Amsterdam
+   (1670-1683), in 7 vols. at Frankfort (1697) and in 9 vols. by Elzevir
+   (1713); in French in 13 vols. (Paris, 1724-1729), republished by
+   Victor Cousin (Paris, 1824-1826) in 11 vols., and again under the
+   authority of the minister of public instruction by C. Adam and P.
+   Tannery (1897 foll.). These include his so-called posthumous works.
+   _The Rules for the Direction of the Mind_, _The Search for Truth by
+   the Light of Nature_, and other unimportant fragments, published (in
+   Latin) in 1701. In 1859-1860 Foucher de Careil published in two parts
+   some unedited writings of Descartes from copies taken by Leibnitz
+   from the original papers. Six editions of the _Opera philosophica_
+   appeared at Amsterdam between 1650 and 1678; a two-volume edition at
+   Leipzig in 1843; there are also French editions, _OEuvres
+   philosophiques_, by A. Garnier, 3 vols. (1834-1835), and L.
+   Aimé-Martin (1838) and _OEuvres morales et philosophiques_ by
+   Aimé-Martin with an introduction on life and works by Amedée Prévost
+   (Paris, 1855); _OEuvres choisies_ (1850) by Jules Simon. A complete
+   French edition of the collected works was begun in the Romance
+   Library (1907 foll.). German translations by J. H. von Kirchmann
+   under the title _Philosophische Werke_ (with biography, &c., Berlin,
+   1868; 2nd ed., 1882-1891), by Kuno Fischer, _Die Hauptschriften zur
+   Grundlegung seiner Philosophie_ (1863), with introduction by Ludwig
+   Fischer (1892). There are also numerous editions and translations of
+   separate works, especially the _Method_, in French, German, Italian,
+   Spanish and Hungarian. There are English translations by J. Veitch,
+   _Method, Meditations and Selections from the Principles_ (1850-1853;
+   11th ed., 1897; New York, 1899); by H. A. P. Torrey (New York, 1892).
+
+   II. _Biographical._--A. Baillet, _La Vie de M. Des Cartes_ (Paris,
+   1691; Eng. trans., 1692), exhaustive but uncritical; notices in the
+   editions of Garnier and Aimé-Martin; A. Hoffmann, _René Descartes_
+   (1905); Elizabeth S. Haldane, _Descartes, his Life and Times_ (1905),
+   containing full bibliography; A. Barbier, _René Descartes, sa
+   famille, son lieu de naissance_, &c. (1901); Richard Lowndes, _René
+   Descartes, his Life and Meditations_ (London, 1878); J. P. Mahaffy,
+   _Descartes_ (1902), with an appendix on Descartes's mathematical work
+   by Frederick Purser; Victor de Swarte, _Descartes directeur
+   spirituel_ (Paris, 1904), correspondence with the Princess Palatine;
+   C. J. Jeannel, _Descartes et la princesse palatine_ (Paris, 1869);
+   _Lettres de M. Descartes_, ed. Claude Clerselier (1657). A useful
+   sketch of recent biographies is to be found in _The Edinburgh Review_
+   (July 1906).
+
+   III. _Philosophy._--Beside the histories of philosophy, the article
+   CARTESIANISM, and the above works, consult J. B. Bordas-Demoulini _Le
+   Cartésianisme_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1874); J. P. Damiron, _Histoire de la
+   philosophie du XVII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1846); C. B. Renouvier, _Manuel
+   de philosophie moderne_ (Paris, 1842); V. Cousin, _Fragments
+   philosophiques_, vol. ii. (3rd ed., Paris, 1838), _Fragments de
+   philosophie cartésienne_ (Paris, 1845), and in the _Journal des
+   savants_ (1860-1861); F. Bouillier, _Hist. de la philosophie
+   cartésienne_ (Paris, 1854), 2 vols., and _Hist. et critique de la
+   révolution cartésienne_ (Paris, 1842); J. Millet, _Descartes, sa vie,
+   ses travaux, ses découvertes avant 1637_ (Paris, 1867), and _Hist. de
+   Descartes depuis 1637_ (Paris, 1870); L. Liard, _Descartes_ (Paris,
+   1882); A. Fouillée, _Descartes_ (Paris, 1893); _Revue de métaphysique
+   et de morale_ (July, 1896, Descartes number); Norman Smith, _Studies
+   in the Cartesian Philosophy_ (1902); R. Keussen, _Bewusstsein und
+   Erkenntnis bei Descartes_ (1906); A. Kayserling, _Die Idee der
+   Kausalität in den Lehren der Occasionalisten_ (1896); J. Iverach,
+   _Descartes, Spinoza and the New Philosophy_ (1904); R. Joerges, _Die
+   Lehre von den Empfindungen bei Descartes_ (1901); Kuno Fischer,
+   _Hist. of Mod. Phil. Descartes and his School_ (Eng. trans., 1887);
+   B. Christiansen, _Das Urteil bei Descartes_ (1902); E. Boutroux,
+   "Descartes and Cartesianism" in _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iv.
+   (1906), chap. 27, with a very full bibliography, pp. 950-953; P.
+   Natorp, _Descartes' Erkenntnisstheorie_ (Marburg, 1882); L. A.
+   Prévost-Paradol, _Les Moralistes français_ (Paris, 1865); C.
+   Schaarschmidt, _Descartes und Spinoza_ (Bonn, 1850); R. Adamson, _The
+   Development of Modern Philosophy_ (Edinburgh, 1903); J. Müller, _Der
+   Begriff der sittlichen Unvollkommenheit bei Descartes und Spinoza_
+   (1890); J. H. von Kirchmann, _R. Descartes' Prinzipien der Philos._
+   (1863); G. Touchard, _La Morale de Descartes_ (1898); Lucien
+   Lévy-Bruhl, _Hist. of Mod. Philos. in France_ (Eng. trans., 1899),
+   pp. 1-76.
+
+   IV. _Science and Mathematics._--F. Cajori, _History of Mathematics_
+   (London, 1894); M. Cantor, _Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der
+   Mathematik_ (Leipzig, 1894-1901); Sir Michael Foster, _Hist. of
+   Physiol. during the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries_
+   (1901); Duboux, _La Physique de Descartes_ (Lausanne, 1881); G. H.
+   Zeuthen, _Geschichte der Mathematik im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert_
+   (1903); Chasles, _Aperçu historique sur l'origine et le développement
+   des méthodes en géométrie_ (3rd ed., 1889). (W. W.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It was only published after the author's death; and of it, besides
+    the French version, there exists an English translation "by a Person
+    of Quality."
+
+  [2] _OEuvres_, v. 255.
+
+  [3] Ib. vi. 199.
+
+  [4]: _OEuvres_, viii. 59.
+
+  [5] Ib. viii. 173.
+
+  [6] Ib. viii. 181.
+
+  [7] Ib. vi. 123.
+
+  [8] Ib. x. 375.
+
+  [9] Ib. ix. 6.
+
+  [10] Ib. iii. 24.
+
+  [11] Ib. vi. 234.
+
+  [12] Ib. ix. 131.
+
+  [13] Ib. ix. 341.
+
+  [14] Ib. vi. 89.
+
+  [15] Ib. vi. 210.
+
+  [16] Ib. vi. 73.
+
+  [17] Ib. vi. 239.
+
+  [18] Ib. vi. 248.
+
+  [19] _OEuvres_, vi. 276.
+
+  [20] Ib. ix. 250.
+
+  [21] _Princip._ L. iii. S. 45.
+
+  [22] _OEuvres_, x. 26.
+
+  [23] _OEuvres_, x. 3.
+
+  [24] Ib. x. 53.
+
+  [25] _Regulae_, _OEuvres_, xi. 202.
+
+  [26] _OEuvres_, xi. 219.
+
+  [27] _Disc. de méthode_, part ii.
+
+  [28] _Géométrie_, book iii.
+
+  [29] _OEuvres_, xi. 224.
+
+  [30] Ib. xi. 212.
+
+  [31] _Disc. de méthode_, part. ii.
+
+  [32] _OEuvres_, xi. 243.
+
+  [33] Ib. vii. 381.
+
+  [34] _OEuvres_, vi. 132.
+
+  [35] Ib. vi. 109.
+
+  [36] _Princip._ part ii. 37.
+
+  [37] Ib. part iii. 47.
+
+  [38] _OEuvres_, iv. 494.
+
+  [39] Ib. ix. 426.
+
+  [40] Ib. x. 204.
+
+  [41] Ib. vi. 339.
+
+  [42] Ib. x. 208.
+
+  [43] Ib. iv. 452 and 454.
+
+  [44] _OEuvres_, ix. 166.
+
+  [45] _Passions de l'âme_, 36.
+
+  [46] Ib. 48.
+
+  [47] _OEuvres_, ix. 170.
+
+
+
+
+DESCHAMPS, ÉMILE (1791-1871), French poet and man of letters, was born
+at Bourges on the 20th of February 1791. The son of a civil servant, he
+adopted his father's career, but as early as 1812 he distinguished
+himself by an ode, _La Paix conquise_, which won the praise of Napoleon.
+In 1818 he collaborated with Henri de Latouche in two verse comedies,
+_Selmours de Florian_ and _Le Tour de faveur_. He and his brother were
+among the most enthusiastic disciples of the _cénacle_ gathered round
+Victor Hugo, and in July 1823 Émile founded with his master the _Muse
+française_, which during the year of its existence was the special
+organ of the romantic party. His _Études françaises et étrangères_
+(1828) were preceded by a preface which may be regarded as one of the
+manifestos of the romanticists. The versions of Shakespeare's _Romeo and
+Juliet_ (1839) and of _Macbeth_ (1844), important as they were in the
+history of the romantic movement, were never staged. He was the author
+of several libretti, among which may be mentioned the _Roméo et
+Juliette_ of Berlioz. The list of his more important works is completed
+by his two volumes of stories, _Contes physiologiques_ (1854) and
+_Réalités fantastiques_ (1854). He died at Versailles in April 1871. His
+_OEuvres complètes_ were published in 1872-1874 (6 vols.).
+
+His brother, Antoine François Marie, known as ANTONY DESCHAMPS, was born
+in Paris on the 12th of March 1800 and died at Passy on the 29th of
+October 1869. Like his brother, he was an ardent romanticist, but his
+production was limited by a nervous disorder, which has left its mark on
+his melancholy work. He translated the _Divina Commedia_ in 1829, and
+his poems, _Dernières Paroles_ and _Résignation_, were republished with
+his brother's in 1841.
+
+
+
+
+DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE, called MOREL (1346?-1406?), French poet, was born
+at Vertus in Champagne about 1346. He studied at Reims, where he is said
+to have received some lessons in the art of versification from Guillaume
+de Machaut, who is stated to have been his uncle. From Reims he
+proceeded about 1360 to the university of Orleans to study law and the
+seven liberal arts. He entered the king's service as royal messenger
+about 1367, and was sent on missions to Bohemia, Hungary and Moravia. In
+1372 he was made _huissier d'armes_ to Charles V. He received many other
+important offices, was _bailli_ of Valois, and afterwards of Senlis,
+squire to the Dauphin, and governor of Fismes. In 1380 his patron,
+Charles V., died, and in the same year the English burnt down his house
+at Vertus. In his childhood he had been an eye-witness of the English
+invasion of 1358; he had been present at the siege of Reims and seen the
+march on Chartres; he had witnessed the signing of the treaty of
+Bretigny; he was now himself a victim of the English fury. His violent
+hatred of the English found vent in numerous appeals to carry the war
+into England, and in the famous prophecy[1] that England would be
+destroyed so thoroughly that no one should be able to point to her
+ruins. His own misfortunes and the miseries of France embittered his
+temper. He complained continually of poverty, railed against women and
+lamented the woes of his country. His last years were spent on his
+_Miroir de mariage_, a satire of 13,000 lines against women, which
+contains some real comedy. The mother-in-law of French farce has her
+prototype in the _Miroir_.
+
+The historical and patriotic poems of Deschamps are of much greater
+value. He does not, like Froissart, cast a glamour over the miserable
+wars of the time but gives a faithful picture of the anarchy of France,
+and inveighs ceaselessly against the heavy taxes, the vices of the
+clergy and especially against those who enrich themselves at the expense
+of the people. The terrible ballad with the refrain "_Sà, de l'argent;
+sà, de l'argent_" is typical of his work. Deschamps excelled in the use
+of the ballade and the chant royal. In each of these forms he was the
+greatest master of his time. In ballade form he expressed his regret for
+the death of Du Guesclin, who seems to have been the only man except his
+patron, Charles V., for whom he ever felt any admiration. One of his
+ballades (No. 285) was sent with a copy of his works to Geoffrey
+Chaucer, whom he addresses with the words:--
+
+  "Tu es d'amours mondains dieux en Albie
+   Et de la Rose en la terre Angélique."
+
+Deschamps was the author of an _Art poétique_, with the title of _L'Art
+de dictier et de fere chancons, balades, virelais et rondeaulx_. Besides
+giving rules for the composition of the kinds of verse mentioned in the
+title he enunciates some curious theories on poetry. He divides music
+into music proper and poetry. Music proper he calls artificial on the
+ground that everyone could by dint of study become a musician; poetry he
+calls natural because he says it is not an art that can be acquired but
+a gift. He lays immense stress on the harmony of verse, because, as was
+the fashion of his day, he practically took it for granted that all
+poetry was to be sung.
+
+The work of Deschamps marks an important stage in the history of French
+poetry. With him and his contemporaries the long, formless narrations of
+the _trouvères_ give place to complicated and exacting kinds of verse.
+He was perhaps by nature a moralist and satirist rather than a poet, and
+the force and truth of his historical pictures gives him a unique place
+in 14th-century poetry. M. Raynaud fixes the date of his death in 1406,
+or at latest, 1407. Two years earlier he had been relieved of his charge
+as _bailli_ of Senlis, his plain-spoken satires having made him many
+enemies at court.
+
+   His _OEuvres complètes_ were edited (10 vols., 1878-1901) for the
+   _Société des anciens textes français_ by Queux de Saint-Hilaire and
+   Gaston Raynaud. A supplementary volume consists of an Introduction by
+   G. Raynaud. See also Dr E. Hoeppner, _Eustache Deschamps_
+   (Strassburg, 1904).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "_De la prophécie Merlin sur la destruction d'Angleterre qui doit
+    brief advenir_" (_OEuvres_, No. 211).
+
+
+
+
+DESCHANEL, PAUL EUGÈNE LOUIS (1856-    ), French statesman, son of Émile
+Deschanel (1819-1904), professor at the Collège de France and senator,
+was born at Brussels, where his father was living in exile (1851-1859),
+owing to his opposition to Napoleon III. Paul Deschanel studied law, and
+began his career as secretary to Deshayes de Marcère (1876), and to
+Jules Simon (1876-1877). In October 1885 he was elected deputy for Eure
+and Loire. From the first he took an important place in the chamber, as
+one of the most notable orators of the Progressist Republican group. In
+January 1896 he was elected vice-president of the chamber, and
+henceforth devoted himself to the struggle against the Left, not only in
+parliament, but also in public meetings throughout France. His addresses
+at Marseilles on the 26th of October 1896, at Carmaux on the 27th of
+December 1896, and at Roubaix on the 10th of April 1897, were triumphs
+of clear and eloquent exposition of the political and social aims of the
+Progressist party. In June 1898 he was elected president of the chamber,
+and was re-elected in 1901, but rejected in 1902. Nevertheless he came
+forward brilliantly in 1904 and 1905 as a supporter of the law on the
+separation of church and state. He was elected a member of the French
+Academy in 1899, his most notable works being _Orateurs et hommes
+d'état_ (1888), _Figures de femmes_ (1889), _La Décentralization_
+(1895), _La Question sociale_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+DES CLOIZEAUX, ALFRED LOUIS OLIVIER LEGRAND (1817-1897), French
+mineralogist, was born at Beauvais, in the department of Oise, on the
+17th of October 1817. He became professor of mineralogy at the École
+Normale Supérieure and afterwards at the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle in
+Paris. He studied the geysers of Iceland, and wrote also on the
+classification of some of the eruptive rocks; but his main work
+consisted in the systematic examination of the crystals of numerous
+minerals, in researches on their optical properties and on the subject
+of polarization. He wrote specially on the means of determining the
+different felspars. He was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological
+Society of London in 1886. He died in May 1897. His best-known books are
+_Leçons de cristallographie_ (1861); _Manuel de minéralogie_ (2 vols.,
+Paris, 1862, 1874 and 1893).
+
+
+
+
+DESCLOIZITE, a rare mineral species consisting of basic lead and zinc
+vanadate, (Pb, Zn)_2(OH)V0_4, crystallizing in the orthorhombic
+system and isomorphous with olivenite. It was discovered by A. Damour in
+1854, and named by him in honour of the French mineralogist Des
+Cloizeaux. It occurs as small prismatic or pyramidal crystals, usually
+forming drusy crusts and stalactitic aggregates; also as fibrous
+encrusting masses with a mammillary surface. The colour is deep
+cherry-red to brown or black, and the crystals are transparent or
+translucent with a greasy lustre; the streak is orange-yellow to brown;
+specific gravity 5.9 to 6.2; hardness 3½. A variety known as
+cuprodescloizite is dull green in colour; it contains a considerable
+amount of copper replacing zinc and some arsenic replacing vanadium.
+Descloizite occurs in veins of lead ores in association with
+pyromorphite, vanadinite, wulfenite, &c. Localities are the Sierra de
+Cordoba in Argentina, Lake Valley in Sierra county, New Mexico, Arizona,
+Phoenixville in Pennsylvania, and Kappel (Eisen-Kappel) near Klagenfurt
+in Carinthia.
+
+Other names which have been applied to this species are vanadite,
+tritochorite and ramirite; the uncertain vanadates eusynchite, araeoxene
+and dechenite are possibly identical with it.
+
+
+
+
+DESCRIPTIVE POETRY, the name given to a class of literature, which may
+be defined as belonging mainly to the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries in
+Europe. From the earliest times, all poetry which was not subjectively
+lyrical was apt to indulge in ornament which might be named descriptive.
+But the critics of the 17th century formed a distinction between the
+representations of the ancients and those of the moderns. We find
+Boileau emphasizing the statement that, while Virgil _paints_, Tasso
+_describes_. This may be a useful indication for us in defining not what
+should, but what in practice has been called "descriptive poetry." It is
+poetry in which it is not imaginative passion which prevails, but a
+didactic purpose, or even something of the instinct of a sublimated
+auctioneer. In other words, the landscape, or architecture, or still
+life, or whatever may be the object of the poet's attention, is not used
+as an accessory, but is itself the centre of interest. It is, in this
+sense, not correct to call poetry in which description is only the
+occasional ornament of a poem, and not its central subject, descriptive
+poetry. The landscape or still life must fill the canvas, or, if human
+interest is introduced, that must be treated as an accessory. Thus, in
+the _Hero and Leander_ of Marlowe and in the _Alastor_ of Shelley,
+description of a very brilliant kind is largely introduced, yet these
+are not examples of what is technically called "descriptive poetry,"
+because it is not the strait between Sestos and Abydos, and it is not
+the flora of a tropical glen, which concentrates the attention of the
+one poet or of the other, but it is an example of physical passion in
+the one case and of intellectual passion in the other, which is
+diagnosed and dilated on. On the other hand Thomson's _Seasons_, in
+which landscape takes the central place, and Drayton's _Polyolbion_,
+where everything is sacrificed to a topographical progress through
+Britain, are strictly descriptive.
+
+It will be obvious from this definition that the danger ahead of all
+purely descriptive poetry is that it will lack intensity, that it will
+be frigid, if not dead. Description for description's sake, especially
+in studied verse, is rarely a vitalized form of literature. It is
+threatened, from its very conception, with languor and coldness; it must
+exercise an extreme art or be condemned to immediate sterility. Boileau,
+with his customary intelligence, was the first to see this, and he
+thought that the danger might be avoided by care in technical execution.
+His advice to the poets of his time was:--
+
+  "Soyez riches et pompeux dans vos descriptions;
+   C'est-là qu'il faut des vers étaler l'élégance,"
+
+and:--
+
+  "De figure sans nombre égayez votre ouvrage;
+   Que toute y fasse aux yeux une riante image,"
+
+and in verses of brilliant humour he mocked the writer who, too full of
+his subject, and describing for description's sake, will never quit his
+theme until he has exhausted it:--
+
+  "Fuyez de ces auteurs l'abondance stérile
+   Et ne vous chargez point d'un détail inutile."
+
+This is excellent advice, but Boileau's humorous sallies do not quite
+meet the question whether such purely descriptive poetry as he
+criticizes is legitimate at all.
+
+In England had appeared the famous translation (1592-1611), by Josuah
+Sylvester, of the _Divine Weeks and Works_ of Du Bartas, containing such
+lines as those which the juvenile Dryden admired so much:--
+
+  "But when winter's keener breath began
+   To crystallize the Baltic ocëan,
+   To glaze the lakes, and bridle up the floods,
+   And perriwig with wool the bald-pate woods."
+
+There was also the curious physiological epic of Phineas Fletcher, _The
+Purple Island_ (1633). But on the whole it was not until French
+influences had made themselves felt on English poetry, that
+description, as Boileau conceived it, was cultivated as a distinct art.
+The _Cooper's Hill_ (1642) of Sir John Denham may be contrasted with the
+less ambitious _Penshurst_ of Ben Jonson, and the one represents the new
+no less completely than the other does the old generation. If, however,
+we examine _Cooper's Hill_ carefully, we perceive that its aim is after
+all rather philosophical than topographical. The Thames is described
+indeed, but not very minutely, and the poet is mainly absorbed in moral
+reflections. Marvell's long poem on the beauties of Nunappleton comes
+nearer to the type. But it is hardly until we reach the 18th century
+that we arrive, in English literature, at what is properly known as
+descriptive poetry. This was the age in which poets, often of no mean
+capacity, began to take such definite themes as a small country estate
+(Pomfret's _Choice_, 1700), the cultivation of the grape (Gay's _Wine_,
+1708), a landscape (Pope's _Windsor Forest_, 1713), a military
+manoeuvre (Addison's _Campaign_, 1704), the industry of an
+apple-orchard (Philip's _Cyder_, 1708) or a piece of topography
+(Tickell's _Kensington Gardens_, 1722), as the sole subject of a lengthy
+poem, generally written in heroic or blank verse. These _tours de force_
+were supported by minute efforts in miniature-painting, by touch applied
+to touch, and were often monuments of industry, but they were apt to
+lack personal interest, and to suffer from a general and deplorable
+frigidity. They were infected with the faults which accompany an
+artificial style; they were monotonous, rhetorical and symmetrical,
+while the uniformity of treatment which was inevitable to their plan
+rendered them hopelessly tedious, if they were prolonged to any great
+extent.
+
+This species of writing had been cultivated to a considerable degree
+through the preceding century, in Italy and (as the remarks of Boileau
+testify) in France, but it was in England that it reached its highest
+importance. The classic of descriptive poetry, in fact, the specimen
+which the literature of the world presents which must be considered as
+the most important and the most successful, is _The Seasons_ (1726-1730)
+of James Thomson (q.v.). In Thomson, for the first time, a poet of
+considerable eminence appeared, to whom external nature was all
+sufficient, and who succeeded in conducting a long poem to its close by
+a single appeal to landscape, and to the emotions which it directly
+evokes. Coleridge, somewhat severely, described _The Seasons_ as the
+work of a good rather than of a great poet, and it is an indisputable
+fact that, at its very best, descriptive poetry fails to awaken the
+highest powers of the imagination. A great part of Thomson's poem is
+nothing more nor less than a skilfully varied catalogue of natural
+phenomena. The famous description of twilight in "the fading
+many-coloured woods" of autumn may be taken as an example of the highest
+art to which purely descriptive poetry has ever attained. It is obvious,
+even here, that the effect of these rich and sonorous lines, in spite of
+the splendid effort of the artist, is monotonous, and leads us up to no
+final crisis of passion or rapture. Yet Thomson succeeds, as few other
+poets of his class have succeeded, in producing nobly-massed effects and
+comprehensive beauties such as were utterly unknown to his predecessors.
+He was widely imitated in England, especially by Armstrong, by Akenside,
+by Shenstone (in _The Schoolmistress_, 1742), by the anonymous author of
+_Albania_, 1737, and by Goldsmith (in _The Deserted Village_, 1770). No
+better example of the more pedestrian class of descriptive poetry could
+be found than the last-mentioned poem, with its minute and Dutch-like
+painting:--
+
+  "How often have I paused on every charm:
+   The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm;
+   The never-failing brook, the busy mill,
+   The decent church that topped the neighbouring hill:
+   The hawthorn-bush, with seats beneath the shade.
+   For talking age and whispering lovers made."
+
+On the continent of Europe the example of Thomson was almost immediately
+fruitful. Four several translations of _The Seasons_ into French
+contended for the suffrages of the public, and J. F. de Saint-Lambert
+(1716-1803) imitated Thomson in _Les Saisons_ (1769), a poem which
+enjoyed popularity for half a century, and of which Voltaire said that
+it was the only one of its generation which would reach posterity.
+Nevertheless, as Madame du Deffand told Walpole, Saint-Lambert is
+"_froid, fade et faux,_" and the same may be said of J. A. Roucher
+(1745-1794), who wrote _Les Mois_ in 1779, a descriptive poem famous in
+its day. The Abbé Jacques Delille (1738-1813), perhaps the most
+ambitious descriptive poet who has ever lived, was treated as a Virgil
+by his contemporaries; he published _Les Géorgiques_ in 1769, _Les
+Jardins_ in 1782, and _L'Homme des champs_ in 1803, but he went furthest
+in his brilliant, though artificial, _Trois règnes de la nature_ (1809),
+which French critics have called the masterpiece of this whole school of
+descriptive poetry. Delille, however, like Thomson before him, was
+unable to avoid monotony and want of coherency. Picture follows picture,
+and no progress is made. The satire of Marie Joseph Chénier, in his
+famous and witty _Discours sur les poèmes descriptifs_, brought the
+vogue of this species of poetry to an end.
+
+In England, again, Wordsworth, who treated the genius of Thomson with
+unmerited severity, revived descriptive poetry in a form which owed more
+than Wordsworth realized to the model of _The Seasons_. In _The
+Excursion_ and _The Prelude_, as well as in many of his minor pieces,
+Wordsworth's philosophical and moral intentions cannot prevent us from
+perceiving the large part which pure description takes; and the same may
+be said of much of the early blank verse of S. T. Coleridge. Since their
+day, however, purely descriptive poetry has gone more and more
+completely out of fashion, and its place has been taken by the richer
+and directer effects of such prose as that of Ruskin in English, or of
+Fromentin and Pierre Loti in French. It is almost impossible in
+descriptive verse to obtain those vivid and impassioned appeals to the
+imagination which are of the very essence of genuine poetry, and it is
+unlikely that descriptive poetry, as such, will again take a prominent
+place in living literature.                                   (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+DESERT, a term somewhat loosely employed to describe those parts of the
+land surface of the earth which do not produce sufficient vegetation to
+support a human population. Few areas of large extent in any part of the
+world are absolutely devoid of vegetation, and the transition from
+typical desert conditions is often very gradual and ill-defined.
+("Desert" comes from Lat. _deserere_, to abandon; distinguish "desert,"
+merit, and "dessert," fruit eaten after dinner, from _de_ and _servier_,
+to serve.)
+
+Deserts are conveniently divided into two classes according to the
+causes which give rise to the desert conditions. In "cold deserts" the
+want of vegetation is wholly due to the prevailing low temperature,
+while in "hot deserts" the surface is unproductive because, on account
+of high temperature and deficient rainfall, evaporation is largely in
+excess of precipitation. Cold deserts accordingly occur in high
+latitudes (see TUNDRA and POLAR REGIONS). Hot desert conditions are
+primarily found along the tropical belts of high atmospheric pressure in
+which the conditions of warmth and dryness are most fully realized, and
+on their equatorial sides, but the zonal arrangement is considerably
+modified in some regions by the monsoonal influence of elevated land.
+Thus we have in the northern hemisphere the Sahara desert, the deserts
+of Arabia, Iran, Turan, Takla Makan and Gobi, and the desert regions of
+the Great Basin in North America; and in the southern hemisphere the
+Kalahari desert in Africa, the desert of Australia, and the desert of
+Atacama in South America. Where the line of elevated land runs east and
+west, as in Asia, the desert belt tends to be displaced into higher
+latitudes, and where the line runs north and south, as in Africa,
+America and Australia, the desert zone is cut through on the windward
+side of the elevation and the arid conditions intensified on the lee
+side. Desert conditions also arise from local causes, as in the case of
+the Indian desert situated in a region inaccessible to either of the two
+main branches of the south-west monsoon.
+
+Although rivers rising in more favoured regions may traverse deserts on
+their way to the sea, as in the case of the Nile and the Colorado, the
+fundamental physical condition of an arid area is that it contributes
+nothing to the waters of the ocean. The rainfall chiefly occurs in
+violent cloud-bursts, and the soluble matter in the soil is carried down
+by intermittent streams to salt lakes around which deposits are formed
+as evaporation takes place. The land forms of a desert are exceedingly
+characteristic. Surface erosion is chiefly due to rapid changes of
+temperature through a wide range, and to the action of wind transferring
+sand and dust, often in the form of "dunes" resembling the waves of the
+sea. Dry valleys, narrow and of great depth, with precipitous sides, and
+ending in "cirques," are probably formed by the intense action of the
+occasional cloud-bursts.
+
+When water can be obtained and distributed over an arid region by
+irrigation, the surface as a rule becomes extremely productive. Natural
+springs give rise to oases at intervals and make the crossing of large
+deserts possible. Where a river crosses a desert at a level near that of
+the general surface, irrigation can be carried on with extremely
+profitable results, as has been done in the valley of the Nile and in
+parts of the Great Basin of North America; in cases, however, where the
+river has cut deeply and flows far below the general surface, irrigation
+is too expensive. Much has been done in parts of Australia by means of
+artesian wells.
+
+   For a general account of deserts see Professor Johannes Walther, _Das
+   Gesetz der Wüstenbildung_ (Berlin, 1900), in which many references to
+   other original authorities will be found.                 (H. N. D.)
+
+
+
+
+DESERTION, the act of forsaking or abandoning; more particularly, the
+wilful abandonment of an employment or of duty, in violation of a legal
+or moral obligation.
+
+The offence of naval or military desertion is constituted when a man
+absents himself with the intention either of not returning or of
+escaping some important service, such as embarkation for foreign
+service, or service in aid of the civil power. In the United Kingdom
+desertion has always been recognized by the civil law, and until 1827 (7
+& 8 Geo. IV. c. 28) was a felony punishable by death. It was
+subsequently dealt with by the various Mutiny Acts, which were replaced
+by the Army Act 1881, renewed annually by the Army (Annual) Act. By § 12
+of the act every person subject to military law who deserts or attempts
+to desert, or who persuades or procures any person to desert, shall, on
+conviction by court martial, if he committed the offence when on active
+service or under orders for active service, be liable to suffer death,
+or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. When the offence is
+committed under any other circumstances, the punishment for the first
+offence is imprisonment, and for the second or any subsequent offence
+penal servitude or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. § 44
+contains a scale of punishments, and §§ 175-184 an enumeration of
+persons subject to military law. By § 153 any person who persuades a
+soldier to desert or aids or assists him or conceals him is liable, on
+conviction, to be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, for not more
+than six months. § 154 makes provision for the apprehension of
+deserters. § 161 lays down that where a soldier has served continuously
+in an exemplary manner for not less than three years in any corps of
+regular forces he is not to be tried or punished for desertion which has
+occurred before the commencement of the three years. Desertion from the
+regular forces can only be tried by a military court, but in the case of
+the militia and reserve forces desertion can be tried by a civil court.
+The Army Act of 1881 made a welcome distinction between actual
+desertion, as defined at the commencement of this article, and the
+quitting one regiment in order to enlist in another. This offence is now
+separately dealt with as fraudulent enlistment; formerly, it was termed
+"desertion and fraudulent enlistment," and the statistics of desertion
+proper were consequently and erroneously magnified. The gross total of
+desertions in the British Army in an average year (1903-1904) was nearly
+4000, or 1.4% of the average strength of the army, but owing to men
+rejoining from desertion, fraudulent enlistment, &c., the net loss was
+no more than 1286, i.e. less than .5%. The army of the United States
+suffers very severely from desertion, and very few deserters rejoin or
+are recaptured (see _Journal of the Roy. United Service Inst._, December
+1905, p. 1469). In the year 1900-1901, 3110 men deserted (4.3% of
+average strength); in 1901-1902, 4667 (or 5.9%); in 1904-1905, 6553 (or
+6.8%); and in 1905-1906, 6258 out of less than 60,000 men, or 7.4%.
+
+In all armies desertion while on active service is punishable by death;
+on the continent of Europe, owing to the system of compulsory service,
+desertion is infrequent, and takes place usually when the deserter
+wishes to leave his country altogether. It was formerly the practice in
+the English army to punish a man convicted of desertion by tattooing on
+him the letter "D" to prevent his re-enlistment, but this has been long
+abandoned in deference to public opinion, which erroneously adopted the
+idea that the "marking" was effected by red-hot irons or in some other
+manner involving torture. The Navy Discipline Act 1866, and the Naval
+Deserters Act 1847, contain similar provisions to the Army Act of 1881
+for dealing with desertions from the navy. In the United States navy the
+term "straggling" is applied to absence without leave, where the
+probability is that the person does not intend to desert. The United
+States government offers a monetary reward of between $20 and $30 for
+the arrest and delivery of deserters from the army and navy.
+
+In the British merchant service the offence of desertion is defined as
+the abandonment of duty by quitting the ship before the termination of
+the engagement, without justification, and with the intention of not
+returning.
+
+Desertion is also the term applied to the act by which a man abandons
+his wife and children, or either of them. Desertion of a wife is a
+matrimonial offence; under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, a decree of
+judicial separation may be obtained in England by either husband or wife
+on the ground of desertion, without cause, for two years and upwards
+(see also DIVORCE).
+
+For the desertion of children see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; INFANT.
+                                                             (T. A. I.)
+
+
+
+
+DES ESSARTS, EMMANUEL ADOLPHE (1839- ), French poet and man of letters,
+was born at Paris on the 5th of February 1839. His father, Alfred
+Stanislas Langlois des Essarts (d. 1893), was a poet and novelist of
+considerable reputation. The son was educated at the École Normale
+Supérieure, and became a teacher of rhetoric and finally professor of
+literature at Dijon and at Clermont. His works are: _Poésies
+parisiennes_ (1862), a volume of light verse on trifling subjects; _Les
+Élévations_ (1864), philosophical poems; _Origines de la poésie lyrique
+en France au XVI^e siècle_ (1873); _Du génie de Chateaubriand_ (1876);
+_Poèmes de la Révolution_ (1879); _Pallas Athéné_ (1887); _Portraits de
+maîtres_ (1888), &c.
+
+
+
+
+DESFONTAINES, RENÉ LOUICHE (1750-1833), French botanist, was born at
+Tremblay (Île-et-Vilaine) on the 14th of February 1750. After graduating
+in medicine at Paris, he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences
+in 1783. In the same year he set out for North Africa, on a scientific
+exploring expedition, and on his return two years afterwards brought
+with him a large collection of plants, animals, &c., comprising, it is
+said, 1600 species of plants, of which about 300 were described for the
+first time. In 1786 he was nominated to the post of professor at the
+Jardin des Plantes, vacated in his favour by his friend, L. G.
+Lemonnier. His great work, _Flora Atlantica sive historia plantarum quae
+in Atlante, agro Tunetano el Algeriensi crescunt_, was published in 2
+vols. 4to in 1798, and he produced in 1804 a _Tableau de l'école
+botanique du muséum d'histoire naturelle de Paris_, of which a third
+edition appeared in 1831, under the new title _Catalogus plantarum horti
+regii Parisiensis_. He was also the author of many memoirs on vegetable
+anatomy and physiology, descriptions of new genera and species, &c., one
+of the most important being a "Memoir on the Organization of the
+Monocotyledons." He died at Paris on the 16th of November 1833. His
+Barbary collection was bequeathed to the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle,
+and his general collection passed into the hands of the English
+botanist, Philip Barker Webb.
+
+
+
+
+DESFORGES, PIERRE JEAN BAPTISTE CHOUDARD (1746-1806), French dramatist
+and man of letters, natural son of Dr Antoine Petit, was born in Paris
+on the 15th of September 1746. He was educated at the Collège Mazarin
+and the Collège de Beauvais, and at his father's desire began the study
+of medicine. Dr Petit's death left him dependent on his own resources,
+and after appearing on the stage of the Comédie Italienne in Paris he
+joined a troupe of wandering actors, whom he served in the capacity of
+playwright. He married an actress, and the two spent three years in St
+Petersburg, where they were well received. In 1782 he produced at the
+Comédie Italienne an adaptation of Fielding's novel with the title _Tom
+Jones à Londres_. His first great success was achieved with _L'Épreuve
+villageoise_ (1785) to the music of Grétry. _La Femme jalouse_, a
+five-act comedy in verse (1785), _Joconde_ (1790) for the music of Louis
+Jaden, _Les Époux divorcés_ (1799), a comedy, and other pieces followed.
+Desforges was one of the first to avail himself of the new facilities
+afforded under the Revolution for divorce and re-marriage. The curious
+record of his own early indiscretions in _Le Poète, ou mémoires d'un
+homme de lettres écrits par lui-même_ (4 vols., 1798) is said to have
+been undertaken at the request of Madame Desforges. He died in Paris on
+the 13th of August 1806.
+
+
+
+
+DESGARCINS, MAGDELEINE MARIE [LOUISE] (1769-1797), French actress, was
+born at Mont Dauphin (Hautes Alpes). In her short career she became one
+of the greatest of French tragédiennes, the associate of Talma, with
+whom she nearly always played. Her début at the Comédie Française
+occurred on the 24th of May 1788, in _Bajazet_, with such success that
+she was at once made _sociétaire_. She was one of the actresses who left
+the Comédie Française in 1791 for the house in the rue Richelieu, soon
+to become the Théâtre de la République, and there her triumphs were no
+less--in _King Lear_, _Othello_, La Harpe's _Mélanie et Virginie_, &c.
+Her health, however, failed, and she died insane, in Paris, on the 27th
+of October 1797.
+
+
+
+
+DESHAYES, GÉRARD PAUL (1795-1875), French geologist and conchologist,
+was born at Nancy on the 13th of May 1797, his father at that time being
+professor of experimental physics in the École Centrale of the
+department of la Meurthe. He studied medicine at Strassburg, and
+afterwards took the degree of _bachelier ès lettres_ in Paris in 1821;
+but he abandoned the medical profession in order to devote himself to
+natural history. For some time he gave private lessons on geology, and
+subsequently became professor of natural history in the Muséum
+d'Histoire Naturelle. He was distinguished for his researches on the
+fossil mollusca of the Paris Basin and of other Tertiary areas. His
+studies on the relations of the fossil to the recent species led him as
+early as 1829 to conclusions somewhat similar to those arrived at by
+Lyell, to whom Deshayes rendered much assistance in connexion with the
+classification of the Tertiary system into Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene.
+He was one of the founders of the Société Géologique de France. In 1839
+he began the publication of his _Traité élémentaire de conchyliologie_,
+the last part of which was not issued until 1858. In the same year
+(1839) he went to Algeria for the French Government, and spent three
+years in explorations in that country. His principal work, which
+resulted from the collections he made, _Mollusques de l'Algérie_, was
+issued (incomplete) in 1848. In 1870 the Wollaston medal of the
+Geological Society of London was awarded to him. He died at Boran on the
+9th of June 1875. His publications included _Description des coquilles
+fossiles des environs de Paris_ (2 vols. and atlas, 1824-1837);
+_Description des animaux sans vertèbres découverts dans le bassin de
+Paris_ (3 vols. and atlas, 1856-1866); _Catalogue des mollusques de
+l'île la Réunion_ (1863).
+
+
+
+
+DESHOULIÈRES, ANTOINETTE DU LIGIER DE LA GARDE (1638-1694), French poet,
+was born in Paris on the 1st of January 1638. She was the daughter of
+Melchior du Ligier, sieur de la Garde, _maître d'hôtel_ to the queens
+Marie de' Medici and Anne of Austria. She received a careful and very
+complete education, acquiring a knowledge of Latin, Spanish and Italian,
+and studying prosody under the direction of the poet Jean Hesnault. At
+the age of thirteen she married Guillaume de Boisguerin, seigneur
+Deshoulières, who followed the prince of Condé as lieutenant-colonel of
+one of his regiments to Flanders about a year after the marriage. Madame
+Deshoulières returned for a time to the house of her parents, where she
+gave herself to writing poetry and studying the philosophy of Gassendi.
+She rejoined her husband at Rocroi, near Brussels, where, being
+distinguished for her personal beauty, she became the object of
+embarrassing attentions on the part of the prince of Condé. Having made
+herself obnoxious to the government by her urgent demand for the
+arrears of her husband's pay, she was imprisoned in the château of
+Wilworden. After a few months she was freed by her husband, who attacked
+the château at the head of a small band of soldiers. An amnesty having
+been proclaimed, they returned to France, where Madame Deshoulières soon
+became a conspicuous personage at the court of Louis XIV. and in
+literary society. She won the friendship and admiration of the most
+eminent literary men of the age--some of her more zealous flatterers
+even going so far as to style her the tenth muse and the French
+Calliope. Her poems were very numerous, and included specimens of nearly
+all the minor forms, odes, eclogues, idylls, elegies, chansons, ballads,
+madrigals, &c. Of these the idylls alone, and only some of them, have
+stood the test of time, the others being entirely forgotten. She wrote
+several dramatic works, the best of which do not rise to mediocrity. Her
+friendship for Corneille made her take sides for the _Phèdre_ of Pradon
+against that of Racine. Voltaire pronounced her the best of women French
+poets; and her reputation with her contemporaries is indicated by her
+election as a member of the Academy of the Ricovrati of Padua and of the
+Academy of Arles. In 1688 a pension of 2000 livres was bestowed upon her
+by the king, and she was thus relieved from the poverty in which she had
+long lived. She died in Paris on the 17th February 1694. Complete
+editions of her works were published at Paris in 1695, 1747, &c. These
+include a few poems by her daughter, Antoine Thérèse Deshoulières
+(1656-1718), who inherited her talent.
+
+
+
+
+DESICCATION (from the Lat. _desiccare_, to dry up), the operation of
+drying or removing water from a substance. It is of particular
+importance in practical chemistry. If a substance admits of being heated
+to say 100°, the drying may be effected by means of an air-bath, which
+is simply an oven heated by gas or by steam. Otherwise a _desiccator_
+must be employed; this is essentially a closed vessel in which a
+hygroscopic substance is placed together with the substance to be dried.
+The process may be accelerated by exhausting the desiccator; this
+so-called vacuum desiccation is especially suitable for the
+concentration of aqueous solutions of readily decomposable substances.
+Of the hygroscopic substances in common use, phosphoric anhydride,
+concentrated sulphuric acid, and dry potassium hydrate are almost equal
+in power; sodium hydrate and calcium chloride are not much behind.
+
+Two common types of desiccator are in use. In one the absorbent is
+placed at the bottom, and the substance to be dried above. Hempel
+pointed out that the efficiency would be increased by inverting this
+arrangement, since water vapour is lighter than air and consequently
+rises. Liquids are dried either by means of the desiccator, or, as is
+more usual, by shaking with a substance which removes the water. Fused
+calcium chloride is the commonest absorbent; but it must not be used
+with alcohols and several other compounds, since it forms compounds with
+these substances. Quicklime, barium oxide, and dehydrated copper
+sulphate are especially applicable to alcohol and ether; the last traces
+of water may be removed by adding metallic sodium and distilling. Gases
+are dried by leading them through towers or tubes containing an
+appropriate drying material. The experiments of H. B. Baker on the
+influence of moisture on chemical combination have shown the difficulty
+of removing the last traces of water.
+
+In chemical technology, apparatus on the principle of the laboratory
+air-bath are mainly used. Crystals and precipitates, deprived of as much
+water as possible by centrifugal machines or filter-presses, are
+transported by means of a belt, screw, or other form of conveyer, on to
+trays staged in brick chambers heated directly by flue gases or steam
+pipes; the latter are easily controlled, and if the steam be superheated
+a temperature of 300° and over may be maintained. In some cases the
+material traverses the chamber from the coolest to the hottest part on a
+conveyer or in wagons. Rotating cylinders are also used; the material to
+be dried being placed inside, and the cylinder heated by a steam jacket
+or otherwise.
+
+
+
+
+DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO (1428-1464), Italian sculptor, was born at
+Settignano, a village on the southern slope of the hill of Fiesole,
+still surrounded by the quarries of sandstone of which the hill is
+formed, and inhabited by a race of "stone-cutters." Desiderio was for a
+short time a pupil of Donatello, whom, according to Vasari, he assisted
+in the work on the pedestal of David, and he seems to have worked also
+with Mino da Fiesole, with the delicate and refined style of whose works
+those of Desiderio seem to have a closer affinity than with the perhaps
+more masculine tone of Donatello. Vasari particularly extols the
+sculptor's treatment of the figures of women and children. It does not
+appear that Desiderio ever worked elsewhere than at Florence; and it is
+there that those who are interested in the Italian sculpture of the
+Renaissance must seek his few surviving decorative and monumental works,
+though a number of his delicately carved marble busts of women and
+children are to be found in the museums and private collections of
+Germany and France. The most prominent of his works are the tomb of the
+secretary of state, Marsuppini, in Santa Croce, and the great marble
+tabernacle of the Annunciation in San Lorenzo, both of which belong to
+the latter period of Desiderio's activity; and the cherubs' heads which
+form the exterior frieze of the Pazzi Chapel. Vasari mentions a marble
+bust by Desiderio of Marietta degli Strozzi, which for many years was
+held to be identical with a very beautiful bust bought in 1878 from the
+Strozzi family for the Berlin Museum. This bust is now, however,
+generally acknowledged to be the work of Francesco Laurana; whilst
+Desiderio's bust of Marietta has been recognized in another marble
+portrait acquired by the Berlin Museum in 1842. The Berlin Museum also
+owns a coloured plaster bust of an Urbino lady by Desiderio, the model
+for which is in the possession of the earl of Wemyss. Other important
+busts by the master are in the Bargello, Florence, the Louvre in Paris,
+the collections of M. Figdor and M. Benda in Vienna, and of M. Dreyfus
+in Paris. Like most of Donatello's pupils, Desiderio worked chiefly in
+marble, and not a single work in bronze has been traced to his hand.
+
+   See Wilhelm Bode, _Die italienische Plastik_ (Berlin, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+DESIDERIUS, the last king of the Lombards, is chiefly known through his
+connexion with Charlemagne. He was duke of Tuscany and became king of
+the Lombards after the death of Aistulf in 756. Seeking, like his
+predecessors, to extend the Lombard power in Italy, he came into
+collision with the papacy, and about 772 the new pope, Adrian I.,
+implored the aid of Charlemagne against him. Other causes of quarrel
+already existed between the Frankish and the Lombard kings. In 770
+Charlemagne had married a daughter of Desiderius; but he soon put this
+lady away, and sent her back to her father. Moreover, Gerberga, the
+widow of Charlemagne's brother Carloman, had sought the protection of
+the Lombard king after her husband's death in 771; and in return for the
+slight cast upon his daughter, Desiderius had recognized Gerberga's sons
+as the lawful Frankish kings, and had attacked Adrian for refusing to
+crown them. Such was the position when Charlemagne led his troops across
+the Alps in 773, took the Lombard capital, Ticinum, the modern Pavia, in
+June 774, and added the kingdom of Lombardy to his own dominions.
+Desiderius was carried to France, where he died, and his son, Adalgis,
+spent his life in futile attempts to recover his father's kingdom. The
+name of Desiderius appears in the romances of the Carolingian period.
+
+   See S. Abel, _Untergang des Langobardenreichs_ (Göttingen, 1859); and
+   _Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen_ (Leipzig,
+   1865); L. M. Hartmann, _Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter_ (Gotha,
+   1903); and Paulus Diaconus, _Historia Langobardorum_, edited by L.
+   Bethmann and G. Waitz (Hanover, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+DESIGN (Fr. _dessin_, drawing; Lat. _designare_, to mark out), in the
+arts, a drawing, more especially when made as a guide for the execution
+of work; that side of drawing which deals with arrangement rather than
+representation; and generally, by analogy, a deliberate planning,
+scheming or purpose. Modern use has tended to associate design with the
+word "original" in the sense of new or abnormal. The end of design,
+however, is properly utility, fitness and delight. If a discovery, it
+should be a discovery of what seems inevitable, an inspiration arising
+out of the conditions, and parallel to invention in the sciences. The
+faculty of design has best flourished when an almost spontaneous
+development was taking place in the arts, and while certain classes of
+arts, more or less noble, were generally demanded and the demand
+copiously satisfied, as in the production of Greek vases, Byzantine
+mosaics, Gothic cathedrals, and Renaissance paintings. Thus where a
+"school of design" arises there is much general likeness in the products
+but also a general progress. The common experience--"tradition"--is a
+part of each artist's stock in trade; and all are carried along in a
+stream of continuous exploration. Some of the arts, writing, for
+instance, have been little touched by conscious originality in design,
+all has been progress, or, at least, change, in response to conditions.
+Under such a system, in a time of progress, the proper limitations react
+as intensity; when limitations are removed the designer has less and
+less upon which to react, and unconditioned liberty gives him nothing at
+all to lean on. Design is response to needs, conditions and aspirations.
+The Greeks so well understood this that they appear to have consciously
+restrained themselves to the development of selected types, not only in
+architecture and literature, but in domestic arts, like pottery. Design
+with them was less the new than the true.
+
+For the production of a school of design it is necessary that there
+should be a considerable body of artists working together, and a large
+demand from a sympathetic public. A process of continuous development is
+thus brought into being which sustains the individual effort. It is
+necessary for the designer to know familiarly the processes, the
+materials and the skilful use of the tools involved in the productions
+of a given art, and properly only one who practises a craft can design
+for it. It is necessary to enter into the traditions of the art, that
+is, to know past achievements. It is necessary, further, to be in
+relation with nature, the great reservoir of ideas, for it is from it
+that fresh thought will flow into all forms of art. These conditions
+being granted, the best and most useful meaning we can give to the word
+design is exploration, experiment, consideration of possibilities.
+Putting too high a value on originality other than this is to restrict
+natural growth from vital roots, in which true originality consists. To
+take design in architecture as an example, we have rested too much on
+definite precedent (a different thing from living tradition) and, on the
+other hand, hoped too much from newness. Exploration of the
+possibilities in arches, vaults, domes and the like, as a chemist or a
+mathematician explores, is little accepted as a method in architecture
+at this time, although in antiquity it was by such means that the great
+master-works were produced: the Pantheon, Santa Sophia, Durham and
+Amiens cathedrals. The same is true of all forms of design. Of course
+the genius and inspiration of the individual artist is not here ignored,
+but assumed. What we are concerned with is a mode of thought which shall
+make it most fruitful.                                      (W. R. L.)
+
+
+
+
+DESIRE, in popular usage, a term for a wishing or longing for something
+which one has not got. For its technical use see PSYCHOLOGY. The word is
+derived through the French from Lat. _desiderare_, to long or wish for,
+to miss. The substantive _desiderium_ has the special meaning of desire
+for something one has once possessed but lost, hence regret or grief.
+The usual explanation of the word is to connect it with _sidus_, star,
+as in _considerare_, to examine the stars with attention, hence, to look
+closely at. If this is so, the history of the transition in meaning is
+unknown. J. B. Greenough (_Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_, i.
+96) has suggested that the word is a military slang term. According to
+this theory _desiderare_ meant originally to miss a soldier from the
+ranks at roll-call, the root being that seen in _sedere_, to sit,
+_sedes_, seat, place, &c.
+
+
+
+
+DESK (from Lat. _discus_, quoit, in med. sense of "table," cf. "dish"
+and Ger. _Tisch_, table, from same source), any kind of flat or sloping
+table for writing or reading. Its earliest shape was probably that with
+which we are familiar in pictures of the monastic _scriptorium_--rather
+high and narrow with a sloping slab. The primitive desk had little
+accommodation for writing materials, and no storage room for papers;
+drawers, cupboards and pigeon-holes were the evolution of periods when
+writing grew common, and when letters and other documents requiring
+preservation became numerous. It was long the custom to secure papers
+in chests or cabinets, whereas the modern desk serves the double purpose
+of a writing-table and a storehouse for documents. The first development
+from the early stall-like desk consisted of the addition of a drawer;
+then the table came to be supported upon legs or columns, which, as in
+the many beautiful examples constructed by Boulle and his school, were
+often of elaborate grace. Eventually the legs were replaced by a series
+of superimposed drawers forming pedestals--hence the familiar pedestal
+writing-table.
+
+For a long period there were two distinct contemporary forms of
+desk--the table and the bureau or escritoire. The latter shape attained
+a popularity so great that, especially in England and America, it was
+found even in houses in which there was little occasion for writing. The
+English-speaking people of the 18th century were amazingly fond of
+pieces of furniture which served a double or triple purpose. The
+bureau--the word is the French generic appellation for a desk--derives
+its name from the material with which it was originally covered (Fr.
+_bure_, woollen cloth). It consists of an upright carcass sloping inward
+at the top, and provided with long drawers below. The upper part is
+fitted with small drawers and pigeon-holes, and often with secret
+places, and the writing space is formed by a hinged slab supported on
+runners; when not in use this slab closes up the sloping top. During the
+18th century innumerable thousands of these bureaux were made on both
+sides of the Atlantic--indeed, if we except tables and chairs, no piece
+of old furniture is more common. In the first part of that period they
+were usually of oak, but when mahogany was introduced into Europe it
+speedily ousted the heavier-looking wood. Its deep rich colour and the
+high polish of which it was capable added appreciably to its ornamental
+appearance. While the pigeon-holes and small drawers were used for
+papers, the long drawers were often employed for purposes other than
+literary. In time the bureau-secretaire became a bureau-bookcase, the
+glazed shelves, which were often a separate erection, resting upon the
+top of the bureau. The cabinetmakers of the second half of the 18th
+century, the period of the greatest _floraison_ of this combination,
+competed with each other in devising elegant frets for the glass fronts.
+Solid and satisfying to the eye, if somewhat severe in form, the
+mahogany bureau was usually an exceedingly presentable piece of
+furniture. Occasionally it had a _bombé_ front which mitigated its
+severity; this was especially the case in the Dutch varieties, which
+were in a measure free adaptations of the French Louis Quinze _commode_.
+These Dutch bureaux, and the English ones made in imitation of them,
+were usually elaborately inlaid with floral designs in coloured woods;
+but whereas the Batavian marquetry was often rough and crude, the
+English work was usually of considerable excellence. Side by side with
+this form of writing apparatus was one variety or another of the
+writing-table proper. In so far as it is possible to generalize upon
+such a detail it would appear that the bureau was the desk of the yeoman
+and what we now call the lower middle class, and that the slighter and
+more table-like forms were preferred by those higher in the social
+scale. This probably means no more than that while the one class
+preserved the old English affection for the solid and heavy furniture
+which would last for generations, those who were more free to follow the
+fashions and fancies of their time were, as the pecuniarily easy classes
+always have been, ready to abandon the old for the new.
+
+Just about the time when the flat table with its drawers in a single
+row, or in nests serving as pedestals, was finally assuming its familiar
+modern shape, an invention was introduced which was destined eventually,
+so far as numbers and convenience go, to supersede all other forms of
+desk. This was the cylinder-top writing-table. Nothing is known of the
+originator of this device, but it is certain that if not French himself
+he worked in France. The historians of French furniture agree in fixing
+its introduction about the year 1750, and we know that a desk worked on
+this principle was in the possession of the French crown in the year
+1760. Even in its early days the cylinder took more than one form. It
+sometimes consisted of a solid piece of curved wood, and sometimes of a
+tambour frame--that is to say, of a series of narrow jointed strips of
+wood mounted on canvas; the revolving shutters of a shop-front are an
+adaptation of the idea. For a long period, however, the cylinder was
+most often solid, and remained so until the latter part of the 19th
+century, when the "American roll-top desk" began to be made in large
+numbers. This is indeed the old French form with a tambour cylinder, and
+it is now the desk that is most frequently met with all over the world
+for commercial purposes. Its popularity is due to its large
+accommodation, and to the facility with which the closing of the
+cylinder conceals all papers, and automatically locks every drawer. To
+France we owe not only the invention of this ubiquitous form, but the
+construction of many of the finest and most historic desks that have
+survived--the characteristic marquetry writing-tables of the Boulle
+period, and the gilded splendours of that of Louis Quinze have never
+been surpassed in the history of furniture. Indeed, the "Bureau du roi"
+which was made for Louis XV. is the most famous and magnificent piece of
+furniture that, so far as we know, was ever constructed. This desk,
+which is now one of the treasures of the Louvre, was the work of several
+artist-artificers, chief among whom were Oeben and Riesener--Oeben, it
+may be added here as a matter of artistic interest, became the
+grandfather of Eugene Delacroix. The bureau is signed "Riesener fa. 1769
+à l'Arsenal de Paris," but it has been established that, however great
+may have been the share of its construction which fell to him, the
+conception was that of Oeben. The work was ordered in 1760; it would
+thus appear that nine years were consumed in perfecting it, which is not
+surprising when we learn from the detailed account of its construction
+that the work began with making a perfect miniature model followed by
+one of full size. The "bureau du roi" is a large cylinder desk
+elaborately inlaid in marquetry of woods, and decorated with a wonderful
+and ornate series of mounts consisting of mouldings, plaques, vases and
+statuettes of gilt bronze cast and chased. These bronzes are the work of
+Duplessis, Winant and Hervieux. The desk, which shows plainly the
+transition between the Louis Quinze and Louis Seize styles, is as
+remarkable for the boldness of its conception as for the magnificent
+finish of its details. Its lines are large, flowing and harmonious, and
+although it is no longer exactly as it left the hands of its makers
+(Oeben died before it was finished) the alterations that have been made
+have hardly interfered with the general effect. For the head of the king
+for whom it was made that of Minerva in a helmet was substituted under
+his successor. The ciphers of Louis XV. have been removed and replaced
+by Sèvres plaques, and even the key which bore the king's initial
+crowned with laurels and palm leaves, with his portrait on the one side,
+and the fleur de lys on the other, has been interfered with by an
+austere republicanism. Yet no tampering with details can spoil the
+monumental nobility of this great conception.               (J. P.-B.)
+
+
+
+
+DESLONGCHAMPS, JACQUES AMAND EUDES- (1794-1867), French naturalist and
+palaeontologist, was born at Caen in Normandy on the 17th of January
+1794. His parents, though poor, contrived to give him a good education,
+and he studied medicine in his native town to such good effect that in
+1812 he was appointed assistant-surgeon in the navy, and in 1815 surgeon
+assistant major to the military hospital of Caen. Soon afterwards he
+proceeded to Paris to qualify for the degree of doctor of surgery, and
+there the researches and teachings of Cuvier attracted his attention to
+subjects of natural history and palaeontology. In 1822 he was elected
+surgeon to the board of relief at Caen, and while he never ceased to
+devote his energies to the duties of this post, he sought relaxation in
+geological studies. Soon he discovered remains of _Teleosaurus_ in one
+of the Caen quarries, and he became an ardent palaeontologist. He was
+one of the founders of the museum of natural history at Caen, and acted
+as honorary curator; he was likewise one of the founders of the
+_Sociétié linnéenne de Normandie_ (1823), to the transactions of which
+society he communicated papers on _Teleosaurus_, _Poekilopleuron_
+(_Megalosaurus_), on Jurassic mollusca and brachiopoda. In 1825 he
+became professor of zoology to the faculty of sciences, and in 1847,
+dean. He died on the 17th of January 1867.
+
+His son EUGÈNE EUDES-DESLONGCHAMPS (1830-1889), French palaeontologist,
+was born in 1830. He succeeded his father about the year 1856 as
+professor of zoology at the faculty of sciences at Caen, and in 1861 he
+became also professor of geology and dean. After the death of his father
+in 1867, he devoted himself to the completion of a memoir on the
+Teleosaurs: the joint labours being embodied in his _Prodrome des
+Téléosauriens du Calvados_. To the Société Linnéenne de Normandie he
+contributed memoirs on Jurassic brachiopods, on the geology of the
+department of La Manche (1856), of Calvados (1856-1863), on the _Terrain
+callovien_ (1859), on _Nouvelle-Calédonie_ (1864), and _Études sur les
+étages jurassiques inférieurs de la Normandie_ (1864). His work _Le Jura
+normand_ was issued in 1877-1878 (incomplete). He died at Château
+Matthieu, Calvados, on the 21st of December 1889.
+
+
+
+
+DESMAISEAUX, PIERRE (1673-1745); French writer, was born at Saillat,
+probably in 1673. His father, a minister of the reformed church, had to
+leave France on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and took refuge
+in Geneva, where Pierre was educated. Bayle gave him an introduction to
+the 3rd Lord Shaftesbury, with whom, in 1699, he came to England, where
+he engaged in literary work. He remained in close touch with the
+religious refugees in England and Holland, and constantly in
+correspondence with the leading continental savants and writers, who
+were in the habit of employing him to conduct such business as they
+might have in England. In 1720 he was elected a fellow of the Royal
+Society. Among his works are _Vie de St Evremond_ (1711), _Vie de
+Boileau-Despréaux_ (1712), _Vie de Bayle_ (1730). He also took an active
+part in preparing the _Bibliothèque raisonnée des ouvrages de l'Europe_
+(1728-1753), and the _Bibliothèque britannique_ (1733-1747), and edited
+a selection of St Evremond's writings (1706). Part of Desmaiseaux's
+correspondence is preserved in the British Museum, and other letters are
+in the royal library at Copenhagen. He died on the 11th of July 1745.
+
+
+
+
+DESMAREST, NICOLAS (1725-1815), French geologist, was born at Soulaines,
+in the department of Aube, on the 16th of September 1725. Of humble
+parentage, he was educated at the college of the Oratorians of Troyes
+and Paris. Taking full advantage of the instruction he received, he was
+able to support himself by teaching, and to continue his studies
+independently. Buffon's _Theory of the Earth_ interested him, and in
+1753 he successfully competed for a prize by writing an essay on the
+ancient connexion between England and France. This attracted much
+attention, and ultimately led to his being employed in studying and
+reporting on manufactures in different countries, and in 1788 to his
+appointment as inspector-general of the manufactures of France. He
+utilized his journeys, travelling on foot, so as to add to his knowledge
+of the earth's structure. In 1763 he made observations in Auvergne,
+recognizing that the prismatic basalts were old lava streams, comparing
+them with the columns of the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, and referring
+them to the operations of extinct volcanoes. It was not, however, until
+1774 that he published an essay on the subject, accompanied by a
+geological map, having meanwhile on several occasions revisited the
+district. He then pointed out the succession of volcanic outbursts and
+the changes the rocks had undergone through weathering and erosion. As
+remarked by Sir A. Geikie, the doctrine of the origin of valleys by the
+erosive action of the streams which flow through them was first clearly
+taught by Desmarest. An enlarged and improved edition of his map of the
+volcanic region of Auvergne was published after his death, in 1823, by
+his son ANSELME GAËTAN DESMAREST (1784-1838), who was distinguished as a
+zoologist, and author of memoirs on recent and fossil crustacea. He died
+in Paris on the 20th of September 1815.
+
+   See _The Founders of Geology_, by Sir A. Geikie (1897), pp. 48-78.
+                                                           (H. B. Wo.)
+
+
+
+
+DESMARETS (or DESMARETZ), JEAN, SIEUR DE SAINT-SORLIN (1595-1676),
+French dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris in 1595.
+When he was about thirty he was introduced to Richelieu, and became one
+of the band of writers who carried out the cardinal's literary ideas.
+Desmarets's own inclination was to novel-writing, and the success of his
+romance _Ariane_ in 1631 led to his formal admission to the circle that
+met at the house of Valentine Conrart and later developed into the
+Académie Française. Desmarets was its first chancellor. It was at
+Richelieu's request that he began to write for the theatre. In this kind
+he produced a comedy long regarded as a masterpiece, _Les Visionnaires_
+(1637); a prose-tragedy, _Érigone_ (1638); and _Scipion_ (1639), a
+tragedy in verse. His success led to official preferment, and he was
+made _conseiller du roi_, _contrôleur-général de l'extraordinaire des
+guerres_, and secretary-general of the fleet of the Levant. His long
+epic _Clovis_ (1657) is noteworthy because Desmarets rejected the
+traditional pagan background, and maintained that Christian imagery
+should supplant it. With this standpoint he contributed several works in
+defence of the moderns in the famous quarrel between the Ancients and
+Moderns. In his later years Desmarets devoted himself chiefly to
+producing a quantity of religious poems, of which the best-known is
+perhaps his verse translation of the _Office de la Vierge_ (1645). He
+was a violent opponent of the Jansenists, against whom he wrote a
+_Réponse à l'insolente apologie de Port-Royal ..._ (1666). He died in
+Paris on the 28th of October 1676.
+
+   See also H. Rigault, _Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des
+   modernes_ (1856), pp. 80-103.
+
+
+
+
+DESMARETS, NICOLAS, SIEUR DE MAILLEBOIS (1648-1721), French statesman,
+was born in Paris on the 10th of September 1648. His mother was the
+sister of J. B. Colbert, who took him into his offices as a clerk. He
+became counsellor to the parlement in 1672, master of requests in 1674
+and intendant of finances in 1678. In these last functions he had to
+treat with the financiers for the coinage of new silver pieces of four
+sous. After Colbert's death he was involved in the legal proceedings
+taken against those financiers who had manufactured coins of bad alloy.
+The prosecution, conducted by the members of the family of Le Tellier,
+rivals of the Colberts, presented no proof against Desmarets.
+Nevertheless he was stripped of his offices and exiled to his estates by
+the king, on the 23rd of December 1683. In March 1686 he was authorized
+to return to Paris, and again entered into relations with the
+controllers-general of finance, to whom he furnished for more than ten
+years remarkable memoirs on the economic situation in France. As early
+as 1687 he showed the necessity for radical reforms in the system of
+taxation, insisting on the ruin of the people and the excessive expenses
+of the king. By these memoirs he established his claim to a place among
+the great economists of the time, Vauban, Boisguilbert and the comte de
+Boulainvilliers. When in September 1699 Chamillart was named
+controller-general of finances, he took Desmarets for counsellor; and
+when he created the two offices of directors of finances, he gave one to
+Desmarets (October 22, 1703). Henceforth Desmarets was veritable
+minister of finance. Louis XIV. had long conversations with him. Madame
+de Maintenon protected him. The economists Vauban and Boisguilbert
+exchanged long conversations with him. When Chamillart found his double
+functions too heavy, and retaining the ministry of war resigned that of
+finance in 1708, Desmarets succeeded him. The situation was exceedingly
+grave. The ordinary revenues of the year 1708 amounted to 81,977,007
+livres, of which 57,833,233 livres had already been spent by
+anticipation, and the expenses to meet were 200,251,447 livres. In 1709
+a famine reduced still more the returns from taxes. Yet Desmarets's
+reputation renewed the credit of the state, and financiers consented to
+advance money they had refused to the king. The emission of paper money,
+and a reform in the collection of taxes, enabled him to tide over the
+years 1709 and 1710. Then Desmarets decided upon an "extreme and violent
+remedy," to use his own expression,--an income tax. His "tenth" was
+based on Vauban's plan; but the privileged classes managed to avoid it,
+and it proved no better than other expedients. Nevertheless Louis XIV.
+managed to meet the most urgent expenses, and the deficit of 1715, about
+350,000,000 livres, was much less than it would have been had it not
+been for Desmarets's reforms. The honourable peace which Louis was
+enabled to conclude at Utrecht with his enemies was certainly due to the
+resources which Desmarets procured for him.
+
+After the death of Louis XIV. Desmarets was dismissed by the regent
+along with all the other ministers. He withdrew to his estates. To
+justify his ministry he addressed to the regent a _Compte rendu_, which
+showed clearly the difficulties he had to meet. His enemies even, like
+Saint Simon, had to recognize his honesty and his talent. He was
+certainly, after Colbert, the greatest finance minister of Louis XIV.
+
+   See Forbonnais, _Recherches et considérations sur les finances de la
+   France_ (2 vols., Basel, 1758); Montyon, _Particularités et
+   observations sur les ministres des finances de la France_ (Paris,
+   1812); De Boislisle, _Correspondance des contrôleurs-généraux des
+   finances_ (3 vols., Paris, 1873-1897); and the same author's
+   "Desmarets et l'affaire des pièces de quatre sols" in the appendix to
+   the seventh volume of his edition of the _Mémoires de Saint-Simon_.
+                                                              (E. Es.)
+
+
+
+
+DES MOINES, the capital and the largest city of Iowa, U.S.A., and the
+county-seat of Polk county, in the south central part of the state, at
+the confluence of the Raccoon with the Des Moines river. Pop. (1890)
+50,093; (1900) 62,139, of whom 7946 were foreign-born, including 1907
+from Sweden and 1432 from Germany; (1910 census) 86,368. Des Moines is
+served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western,
+the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
+Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Wabash, the Minneapolis & St Louis,
+and the Des Moines, Iowa Falls & Northern railways; also by several
+interurban electric lines. The chief building in Des Moines is the State
+Capitol, erected at a cost of about $3,000,000; other important
+buildings are the public library (containing, in 1908, 40,415 volumes),
+the court house, the post office, the Iowa State Historical building, a
+large auditorium and two hospitals. As a manufacturing centre the city
+has considerable importance. Among the leading products are those of the
+furnaces, foundries and machine shops, flour and grist mills, planing
+mills, creameries, bridge and iron works, publishing houses and a
+packing house; and brick, tile, pottery, patent medicines, furniture,
+caskets, tombstones, carriages, farm machinery, Portland cement, glue,
+gloves and hosiery. The value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$15,084,958, an increase of 79.7% in five years. The city is in one of
+the most productive coal regions of the state, has a large jobbing
+trade, and is an important centre for the insurance business. The Iowa
+state fair is held here annually. In 1908 this city had a park system of
+750 acres. Des Moines is the seat of Des Moines College, a Baptist
+institution, co-educational, founded in 1865 (enrolment, 1907-1908,
+214); of Drake University (co-educational; founded in 1881 by the
+Disciples of Christ; now non-sectarian), with colleges of liberal arts,
+law, medicine, dental surgery and of the Bible, a conservatory of music,
+and a normal school, in which are departments of oratory and commercial
+training, and having in 1907-1908 1764 students, of whom 520 were in the
+summer school only; of the Highland Park College, founded in 1890; of
+Grand View College (Danish Lutheran), founded in 1895; and of the
+Capital City commercial college (founded 1884). A new city charter,
+embodying what has become known as the "Des Moines Plan" of municipal
+government, was adopted in 1907. It centralizes power in a council of
+five (mayor and four councilmen), nominated at a non-partisan primary
+and voted for on a non-partisan ticket by the electors of the entire
+city, ward divisions having been abolished. Elections are biennial.
+Other city officers are chosen by the council, and city employees are
+selected by a civil service commission of three members, appointed by
+the council. The mayor is superintendent of the department of public
+affairs, and each of the other administrative departments (accounts and
+finances, public safety, streets and public improvements, and parks and
+public property) is under the charge of one of the councilmen. After
+petition signed by a number of voters not less than 25% of the number
+voting at the preceding municipal election, any member of the council
+may be removed by popular vote, to which all public franchises must be
+submitted, and by which the council may be compelled to pass any law or
+ordinance.
+
+A fort called Fort Des Moines was established on the site of the city in
+1843 to protect the rights of the Sacs and Foxes. In 1843 the site was
+opened to settlement by the whites; in 1851 Des Moines was incorporated
+as a town; in 1857 it was first chartered as a city, and, for the
+purpose of a more central location, the seat of government was removed
+hither from Iowa City. A fort was re-established here by act of Congress
+in 1900 and named Fort Des Moines. It is occupied by a full regiment of
+cavalry. The name of the city was taken from that of the river, which in
+turn is supposed to represent a corruption by the French of the original
+Indian name, _Moingona_,--the French at first using the abbreviation
+"moin," and calling the river "_la rivière des moins_" and then, the
+name having become associated with the Trappist monks, changing it into
+"_la rivière des moines_."
+
+
+
+
+DESMOND, GERALD FITZGERALD, 15TH EARL OF (d. 1583), Irish leader, was
+son of James, 14th earl, by his second wife More O'Carroll. His father
+had agreed in January 1541, as one of the terms of his submission to
+Henry VIII., to send young Gerald to be educated in England. At the
+accession of Edward VI. proposals to this effect were renewed; Gerald
+was to be the companion of the young king. Unfortunately for the
+subsequent peace of Munster these projects were not carried out. The
+Desmond estates were held by a doubtful title, and claims on them were
+made by the Butlers, the hereditary enemies of the Geraldines, the 9th
+earl of Ormonde having married Lady Joan Fitzgerald, daughter and
+heiress-general of the 11th earl of Desmond. On Ormonde's death she
+proposed to marry Gerald Fitzgerald, and eventually did so, after the
+death of her second husband, Sir Francis Bryan. The effect of this
+marriage was a temporary cessation of open hostility between the
+Desmonds and her son, Thomas Butler, 10th earl of Ormonde.
+
+Gerald succeeded to the earldom in 1558; he was knighted by the lord
+deputy Sussex, and did homage at Waterford. He soon established close
+relations with his namesake Gerald Fitzgerald, 11th earl of Kildare
+(1525-1585), and with Shane O'Neill. In spite of an award made by Sussex
+in August 1560 regulating the matters in dispute between Ormonde and the
+Fitzgeralds, the Geraldine outlaws were still plundering their
+neighbours. Desmond neglected a summons to appear at Elizabeth's court
+for some time on the plea that he was at war with his uncle Maurice.
+When he did appear in London in May 1562 his insolent conduct before the
+privy council resulted in a short imprisonment in the Tower. He was
+detained in England until 1564, and soon after his return his wife's
+death set him free from such restraint as was provided by her Butler
+connexion. He now raided Thomond, and in Waterford he sought to enforce
+his feudal rights on Sir Maurice Fitzgerald of Decies, who invoked the
+help of Ormonde. The two nobles thereupon resorted to open war, fighting
+a battle at Affane on the Blackwater, where Desmond was defeated and
+taken prisoner. Ormonde and Desmond were bound over in London to keep
+the peace, being allowed to return early in 1566 to Ireland, where a
+royal commission was appointed to settle the matters in dispute between
+them. Desmond and his brother Sir John of Desmond were sent over to
+England, where they surrendered their lands to the queen after a short
+experience of the Tower. In the meanwhile Desmond's cousin, James
+Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, caused himself to be acclaimed captain of
+Desmond in defiance of Sidney, and in the evident expectation of
+usurping the earldom. He sought to give the movement an ultra-Catholic
+character, with the idea of gaining foreign assistance, and allied
+himself with John Burke, son of the earl of Clanricarde, with Connor
+O'Brien, earl of Thomond, and even secured Ormonde's brother, Sir Edmund
+Butler, whom Sidney had offended. Piers and Edward Butler also joined
+the rebellion, but the appearance of Sidney and Ormonde in the
+south-west was rapidly followed by the submission of the Butlers. Most
+of the Geraldines were subjugated by Humphrey Gilbert, but Fitzmaurice
+remained in arms, and in 1571 Sir John Perrot undertook to reduce him.
+Perrot hunted him down, and at last on the 23rd of February 1573 he made
+formal submission at Kilmallock, lying prostrate on the floor of the
+church by way of proving his sincerity.
+
+Against the advice of the queen's Irish counsellors Desmond was allowed
+to return to Ireland in 1573, the earl promising not to exercise
+palatinate jurisdiction in Kerry until his rights to it were proved. He
+was detained for six months in Dublin, but in November slipped through
+the hands of the government, and within a very short time had reduced
+to a state of anarchy the province which Perrot thought to have pacified
+by his severities. Edward Fitzgerald, brother of the earl of Kildare,
+and lieutenant of the queen's pensioners in London, was sent to
+remonstrate with Desmond, but accomplished nothing. Desmond asserted
+that none but Brehon law should be observed between Geraldines; and
+Fitzmaurice seized Captain George Bourchier, one of Elizabeth's officers
+in the west. Essex met the earl near Waterford in July, and Bourchier
+was surrendered, but Desmond refused the other demands made in the
+queen's name. A document offering £500 for his head, and £1000 to any
+one who would take him alive, was drawn up but was vetoed by two members
+of the council. On the 18th of July 1574 the Geraldine chiefs signed the
+"Combination" promising to support the earl unconditionally; shortly
+afterwards Ormonde and the lord deputy, Sir William Fitzwilliam, marched
+on Munster, and put Desmond's garrison at Derrinlaur Castle to the
+sword. Desmond submitted at Cork on the 2nd of September, handing over
+his estates to trustees. Sir Henry Sidney visited Munster in 1575, and
+affairs seemed to promise an early restoration of order. But Fitzmaurice
+had fled to Brittany in company with other leading Geraldines, John
+Fitzgerald, seneschal of Imokilly, who had held Ballymartyr against
+Sidney in 1567, and Edmund Fitzgibbon, the son of the White Knight who
+had been attainted in 1571. He intrigued at the French and Spanish
+courts for a foreign invasion of Ireland, and at Rome met the adventurer
+Stucley, with whom he projected an expedition which was to make a nephew
+of Gregory XIII. king of Ireland. In 1579 he landed in Smerwick Bay,
+where he was joined later by some Spanish soldiers at the Fort del Ore.
+His ships were captured on the 29th of July and he himself was slain in
+a skirmish while on his way to Tipperary. Nicholas Sanders, the papal
+legate who had accompanied Fitzmaurice, worked on Desmond's weakness,
+and sought to draw him into open rebellion. Desmond had perhaps been
+restrained before by jealousy of Fitzmaurice; his indecisions ceased
+when on the 1st of November Sir William Pelham proclaimed him a traitor.
+The sack of Youghal and Kinsale by the Geraldines was speedily followed
+by the successes of Ormonde and Pelham acting in concert with Admiral
+Winter. In June 1581 Desmond had to take to the woods, but he maintained
+a considerable following for some time, which, however, in June 1583,
+when Ormonde set a price on his head, was reduced to four persons. Five
+months later, on the 11th of November, he was seized and murdered by a
+small party of soldiers. His brother Sir John of Desmond had been caught
+and killed in December 1581, and the seneschal of Imokilly had
+surrendered on the 14th of June 1583. After his submission the seneschal
+acted loyally, but his lands excited envy; he was arrested in 1587, and
+died in Dublin Castle two days later.
+
+By his second marriage with Eleanor Butler, the 15th earl left two sons,
+the elder of whom, James, 16th earl (1570-1601), spent most of his life
+in prison. After an unsuccessful attempt in 1600-1601 to recover his
+inheritance he returned to England, where he died, the title becoming
+extinct.
+
+   See G. E. C(okayne,) _Complete Peerage_; R. Bagwell, _Ireland under
+   the Tudors_ (1885-1890); _Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters_ (ed.
+   J. O'Donovan, 1851); and the article FITZGERALD.
+
+
+
+
+DESMOND (_Des-Mumha_), an ancient territorial division of Ireland,
+covering the eastern part of the modern Co. Kerry and the western part
+of Co. Cork. Its creation as a kingdom is placed in the year 248, when
+Oliol Olum, king of Munster, divided his territory between his two sons,
+giving Desmond to Eoghan, and Thomond or North Munster to Cormac. In
+1329 Maurice Fitzthomas or Fitzgerald (d. 1356), lord of Decies and
+Desmond, was created 1st earl of Desmond by Edward III.; like other
+earls created about that time he ruled his territory as a palatinate,
+and his family acquired enormous powers and a large measure of
+independence. Meanwhile native kings continued to reign in a restricted
+territory until 1596. In 1583 came the attainder of Gerald Fitzgerald,
+15th earl of Desmond (q.v.), and in 1586 an act of parliament declared
+the forfeiture of the Desmond estates to the crown. In 1571 a commission
+provided for the formation of Desmond into a county, and it was
+regarded as such for a few years, but by the beginning of the 17th
+century it was joined to Co. Kerry.
+
+In 1619 the title of earl of Desmond was conferred on Richard Preston,
+Lord Dingwall, at whose death in 1628 it again became extinct. It was
+then bestowed on George Feilding, second son of William, earl of
+Denbigh, who had held the reversion of the earldom from 1622. His son
+William Feilding succeeded as earl of Denbigh in 1675, and thenceforward
+the title of Desmond was held in conjunction with that honour.
+
+
+
+
+DESMOSCOLECIDA, a group of minute marine worm-like creatures. The body
+tapers towards each end and is marked by a number of well-defined
+ridges. These ridges resemble on a small scale those which surround the
+body of a _Porocephalus_ (Linguatulida), and like them have no segmental
+significance. Their number varies in the different species. The head
+bears four setae, and some of the ridges bear a pair either dorsally or
+ventrally. The setae are movable. Two pigment spots between the fourth
+and fifth ridges are regarded as eyes. The Desmoscolecida move by
+looping their bodies like geometrid caterpillars or leeches, as well as
+by creeping on their setae. The mouth is terminal, and leads into a
+muscular oesophagus which opens into a straight intestine terminating in
+an anus, which is said to be dorsal in position. The sexes are distinct.
+The testis is single, and its duct opens into the intestine and is
+provided with two chitinous spicules. The ovary is also single, opening
+independently and anterior to the anus. The nervous system is as yet
+unknown.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+   From _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. ii., "Worms," &c., by
+   permission of Macmillian & Co. Ltd.
+
+   Female _Desmoscolex elongatus_ Panceri, ventral view. a, Ovary. (From
+   Panceri.)]
+
+There are several species. _D. minutus_ Clap. has been met with in the
+English Channel. Others are _D. nematoides_ Greef, _D. adelphus_ Greef,
+_D. chaetogaster_ Greef, _D. elongatus_ Panceri, _D. lanuginosa_
+Panceri. _Trichoderma oxycaudatum_ Greef is 0.3 mm. long, and is also a
+"ringed creature with long hair-like bristles." The male has two
+spicules, and there is some doubt as to whether it should be placed with
+the Desmoscolecida or with the Nematoda. With regard to the systematic
+position of the group, it certainly comes nearest--especially in the
+structure of its reproductive organs--to the Nematoda. We still,
+however, are very ignorant of the internal anatomy of these forms, and
+until we know more it is impossible to arrive at a very definite
+conclusion as to their position in the animal kingdom.
+
+   See Panceri, _Atti Acc. Napoli._ vii. (1878); Greef, _Arch. Naturg._
+   35 (i.) (1869), p. 112.                                  (A. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+DESMOULINS, LUCIE SIMPLICE CAMILLE BENOIST (1760-1794), French
+journalist and politician, who played an important part in the French
+Revolution, was born at Guise, in Picardy, on the 2nd of March 1760. His
+father was lieutenant-general of the _bailliage_ of Guise, and through
+the efforts of a friend obtained a _bourse_ for his son, who at the age
+of fourteen left home for Paris, and entered the college of Louis le
+Grand. In this school, in which Robespierre was also a bursar and a
+distinguished student, Camille Desmoulins laid the solid foundation of
+his learning. Destined by his father for the law, at the completion of
+his legal studies he was admitted an advocate of the parlement of Paris
+in 1785. His professional success was not great; his manner was violent,
+his appearance unattractive, and his speech impaired by a painful
+stammer. He indulged, however, his love for literature, was closely
+observant of public affairs, and thus gradually prepared himself for
+the main duties of his life--those of a political _littérateur_.
+
+In March 1789 Desmoulins began his political career. Having been
+nominated deputy from the _bailliage_ of Guise, he appeared at Laon as
+one of the commissioners for the election of deputies to the
+States-General summoned by royal edict of January 24th. Camille heralded
+its meeting by his _Ode to the States-General_. It is, moreover, highly
+probable that he was the author of a radical pamphlet entitled _La
+Philosophie au peuple français_, published in 1788, the text of which is
+not known. His hopes of professional success were now scattered, and he
+was living in Paris in extreme poverty. He, however, shared to the full
+the excitement which attended the meeting of the States-General. As
+appears from his letters to his father, he watched with exultation the
+procession of deputies at Versailles, and with violent indignation the
+events of the latter part of June which followed the closing of the
+Salle des Menus to the deputies who had named themselves the National
+Assembly. It is further evident that Desmoulins was already
+sympathizing, not only with the enthusiasm, but also with the fury and
+cruelty, of the Parisian crowds.
+
+The sudden dismissal of Necker by Louis XVI. was the event which brought
+Desmoulins to fame. On the 12th of July 1789 Camille, leaping upon a
+table outside one of the cafés in the garden of the Palais Royal,
+announced to the crowd the dismissal of their favourite. Losing, in his
+violent excitement, his stammer, he inflamed the passions of the mob by
+his burning words and his call "To arms!" "This dismissal," he said, "is
+the tocsin of the St Bartholomew of the patriots." Drawing, at last, two
+pistols from under his coat, he declared that he would not fall alive
+into the hands of the police who were watching his movements. He
+descended amid the embraces of the crowd, and his cry "To arms!"
+resounded on all sides. This scene was the beginning of the actual
+events of the Revolution. Following Desmoulins the crowd surged through
+Paris, procuring arms by force; and on the 13th it was partly organized
+as the Parisian militia which was afterwards to be the National Guard.
+On the 14th the Bastille was taken.
+
+Desmoulins may be said to have begun on the following day that public
+literary career which lasted till his death. In May and June 1789 he had
+written _La France libre_, which, to his chagrin, his publisher refused
+to print. The taking of the Bastille, however, and the events by which
+it was preceded, were a sign that the times had changed; and on the 18th
+of July Desmoulins's work was issued. Considerably in advance of public
+opinion, it already pronounced in favour of a republic. By its erudite,
+brilliant and courageous examination of the rights of king, of nobles,
+of clergy and of people, it attained a wide and sudden popularity; it
+secured for the author the friendship and protection of Mirabeau, and
+the studied abuse of numerous royalist pamphleteers. Shortly afterwards,
+with his vanity and love of popularity inflamed, he pandered to the
+passions of the lower orders by the publication of his _Discours de la
+lanterne aux Parisiens_ which, with an almost fiendish reference to the
+excesses of the mob, he headed by a quotation from St John, _Qui male
+agit odit lucem_. Camille was dubbed "Procureur-général de la lanterne."
+
+In November 1789 Desmoulins began his career as a journalist by the
+issue of the first number of a weekly publication, _Les Révolutions de
+France et de Brabant_. The title of the publication changed after the
+73rd number. It ceased to appear at the end of July 1791.[1]
+
+Success attended the _Révolutions_ from its first to its last number,
+Camille was everywhere famous, and his poverty was relieved. These
+numbers are valuable as an exhibition not so much of events as of the
+feelings of the Parisian people; they are adorned, moreover, by the
+erudition, the wit and the genius of the author, but they are
+disfigured, not only by the most biting personalities and the defence
+and even advocacy of the excesses of the mob, but by the entire absence
+of the forgiveness and pity for which the writer was afterwards so
+eloquently to plead.
+
+Desmoulins was powerfully swayed by the influence of more vigorous
+minds; and for some time before the death of Mirabeau, in April 1791, he
+had begun to be led by Danton, with whom he remained associated during
+the rest of his life. In July 1791 Camille appeared before the
+municipality of Paris as head of a deputation of petitioners for the
+deposition of the king. In that month, however, such a request was
+dangerous; there was excitement in the city over the presentation of the
+petition, and the private attacks to which Desmoulins had often been
+subject were now followed by a warrant for the arrest of himself and
+Danton. Danton left Paris for a little; Desmoulins, however, remained
+there, appearing occasionally at the Jacobin club. Upon the failure of
+this attempt of his opponents, Desmoulins published a pamphlet, _Jean
+Pierre Brissot démasqué_, which abounded in the most violent
+personalities. This pamphlet, which had its origin in a petty squabble,
+was followed in 1793 by a _Fragment de l'histoire secrète de la
+Révolution_, in which the party of the Gironde, and specially Brissot,
+were most mercilessly attacked. Desmoulins took an active part on the
+10th of August and became secretary to Danton, when the latter became
+minister of justice. On the 8th of September he was elected one of the
+deputies for Paris to the National Convention, where, however, he was
+not successful as an orator. He was of the party of the "Mountain," and
+voted for the abolition of royalty and the death of the king. With
+Robespierre he was now more than ever associated, and the _Histoire des
+Brissotins_, the fragment above alluded to, was inspired by the
+arch-revolutionist. The success of the _brochure_, so terrible as to
+send the leaders of the Gironde to the guillotine, alarmed Danton and
+the author. Yet the role of Desmoulins during the Convention was of but
+secondary importance.
+
+In December 1793 was issued the first number of the _Vieux Cordelier_,
+which was at first directed against the Hébertists and approved of by
+Robespierre, but which soon formulated Danton's idea of a committee of
+clemency. Then Robespierre turned against Desmoulins and took advantage
+of the popular indignation roused against the Hébertists to send them to
+death. The time had come, however, when Saint Just and he were to turn
+their attention not only to _les enragés_, but to _les indulgents_--the
+powerful faction of the Dantonists. On the 7th of January 1794
+Robespierre, who on a former occasion had defended Camille when in
+danger at the hands of the National Convention, in addressing the
+Jacobin club counselled not the expulsion of Desmoulins, but the burning
+of certain numbers of the _Vieux Cordelier_. Camille sharply replied
+that he would answer with Rousseau,--"burning is not answering," and a
+bitter quarrel thereupon ensued. By the end of March not only were
+Hébert and the leaders of the extreme party guillotined, but their
+opponents, Danton, Desmoulins and the best of the moderates, were
+arrested. On the 31st the warrant of arrest was signed and executed, and
+on the 3rd, 4th and 5th of April the trial took place before the
+Revolutionary Tribunal. It was a scene of terror not only to the accused
+but to judges and to jury. The retorts of the prisoners were notable.
+Camille on being asked his age, replied, "I am thirty-three, the age of
+the _sans-culotte_ Jesus, a critical age for every patriot." This was
+false; he was thirty-four.[2] The accused were prevented from defending
+themselves; a decree of the Convention denied them the right of speech.
+Armed with this and the false report of a spy, who charged the wife of
+Desmoulins with conspiring for the escape of her husband and the ruin of
+the republic, Fouquier-Tinville by threats and entreaties obtained from
+the jury a sentence of death. It was passed in absence of the accused,
+and their execution was appointed for the same day.
+
+Since his arrest the courage of Camille had miserably failed. He had
+exhibited in the numbers of the _Vieux Cordelier_ almost a disregard of
+the death which he must have known hovered over him. He had with
+consummate ability exposed the terrors of the Revolution, and had
+adorned his pages with illustrations from Tacitus, the force of which
+the commonest reader could feel. In his last number, the seventh, which
+his publisher refused to print, he had dared to attack even Robespierre,
+but at his trial it was found that he was devoid of physical courage. He
+had to be torn from his seat ere he was removed to prison, and as he sat
+next to Danton in the tumbrel which conveyed them to the guillotine, the
+calmness of the great leader failed to impress him. In his violence,
+bound as he was, he tore his clothes into shreds, and his bare shoulders
+and breast were exposed to the gaze of the surging crowd. Of the fifteen
+guillotined together, including among them Marie Jean Hérault de
+Séchelles, François Joseph Westermann and Pierre Philippeaux, Desmoulins
+died third; Danton, the greatest, died last.
+
+On the 29th of December 1790 Camille had married Lucile Duplessis, and
+among the witnesses of the ceremony are observed the names of Brissot,
+Pétion and Robespierre. The only child of the marriage, Horace Camille,
+was born on the 6th of July 1792. Two days afterwards Desmoulins brought
+it into notice by appearing with it before the municipality of Paris to
+demand "the formal statement of the civil estate of his son." The boy
+was afterwards pensioned by the French government, and died in Haiti in
+1825. Lucile, Desmoulins's accomplished and affectionate wife, was, a
+few days after her husband, and on a false charge, condemned to the
+guillotine. She astonished all onlookers by the calmness with which she
+braved death (April 13, 1794).
+
+   See J. Claretie, _OEuvres de Camille Desmoulins avec une étude
+   biographique ..._ &c. (Paris, 1874), and _Camille Desmoulins, Lucile
+   Desmoulins, étude sur les Dantonistes_ (Paris, 1875; Eng. trans.,
+   London, 1876); F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la
+   Convention_ (Paris, 1905, 2nd ed.): G. Lenôtre, "La Maison de Camille
+   Desmoulins" (_Le Temps_, March 25, 1899).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In April 1792 Desmoulins founded with Stanislas Fréron a new
+    journal, _La Tribune des patriotes_, but only four numbers appeared.
+
+  [2] This is borne out by the register of his birth and baptism, and
+    by words in his last letter to his wife,--"I die at thirty-four."
+    The dates (1762-1794) given in so many biographies of Desmoulins are
+    certainly inaccurate.
+
+
+
+
+DESNOYERS, JULES PIERRE FRANÇOIS STANISLAS (1800-1887), French geologist
+and archaeologist, was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou, in the department of
+Eure-et-Loir, on the 8th of October 1800. Becoming interested in geology
+at an early age, he was one of the founders of the Société Géologique de
+France in 1830. In 1834 he was appointed librarian of the Museum of
+Natural History in Paris. His contributions to geological science
+comprise memoirs on the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata of the
+Paris Basin and of Northern France, and other papers relating to the
+antiquity of man, and to the question of his co-existence with extinct
+mammalia. His separate books were _Sur la Craie et sur les terrains
+tertiaires du Cotentin_ (1825), _Recherches géologiques et historiques
+sur les cavernes_ (1845). He died in 1887.
+
+
+
+
+DESOR, PIERRE JEAN ÉDOUARD (1811-1882), Swiss geologist, was born at
+Friedrichsdorf, near Frankfort-on-Main, on the 13th of February 1811.
+Associated in early years with Agassiz he studied palaeontology and
+glacial phenomena, and in company with J. D. Forbes ascended the
+Jungfrau in 1841. Desor afterwards became professor of geology in the
+academy at Neuchâtel, continued his studies on the structure of
+glaciers, but gave special attention to the study of Jurassic
+Echinoderms. He also investigated the old lake-habitations of
+Switzerland, and made important observations on the physical features of
+the Sahara. Having inherited considerable property he retired to Combe
+Varin in Val Travers. He died at Nizza on the 23rd of February 1882. His
+chief publications were: _Synopsis des Échinides fossiles_ (1858), _Aus
+Sahara_ (1865), _Der Gebirgsbau der Alpen_ (1865), _Die Pfahlbauten des
+Neuenburger Sees_ (1866), _Échinologie helvétique_ (2 vols., 1868-1873,
+with P. de Loriol).
+
+
+
+
+DE SOTO, a city of Jefferson county, Missouri, U.S.A., on Joachim Creek,
+42 m. S.S.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 3960; (1900) 5611 (332 being
+foreign-born and 364 negroes); (1910) 4721. It is served by the St.
+Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railway, which has extensive repair
+shops here. About 2½ m. from De Soto is the Bochert mineral spring. In
+De Soto are Mount St Clement's College (Roman Catholic, 1900), a
+theological seminary of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer under
+the charge of the Redemptorist Fathers, and a Young Men's Christian
+Association building. De Soto is in a good agricultural and
+fruit-growing region, which produces Indian corn, apples, plums, pears
+and small fruit. Lead and zinc are mined in the vicinity and shipped
+from the city in considerable quantities; and among the city's
+manufactures are shoes, flour and agricultural implements. The
+municipality owns the water-works, the water supply of which is
+furnished by artesian wells. De Soto was laid out in 1855 and was
+incorporated in 1869.
+
+
+
+
+DESPARD, EDWARD MARCUS (1751-1803), Irish conspirator, was born in
+Queen's Co., Ireland, in 1751. In 1766 he entered the British navy, was
+promoted lieutenant in 1772, and stationed at Jamaica, where he soon
+proved himself to have considerable engineering talent. He served in the
+West Indies with credit, being promoted captain after the San Juan
+expedition (1779), then made governor of the Mosquito Shore and the Bay
+of Honduras, and in 1782 commander of a successful expedition against
+the Spanish possessions on the Black river. In 1784 he took over the
+administration of Yucatan. Upon frivolous charges he was suspended by
+Lord Grenville, and recalled to England. From 1790 to 1792 these charges
+were held over him, and when dismissed no compensation was forthcoming.
+His complaints caused him to be arrested in 1798; and with a short
+interval he remained in gaol until 1800. By that time Despard was
+desperate, and engaged in a plot to seize the Tower of London and Bank
+of England and assassinate George III. The whole idea was patently
+preposterous, but Despard was arrested, tried before a special
+commission, found guilty of high treason, and, with six of his
+fellow-conspirators, sentenced in 1803 to be hanged, drawn and
+quartered. These were the last men to be so sentenced in England.
+Despard was executed on the 21st of February 1803.
+
+His eldest brother, JOHN DESPARD (1745-1829), had a long and
+distinguished career in the British army; gazetted an ensign in 1760, he
+was promoted through the various intermediate grades and became general
+in 1814. His most active service was in the American War of
+Independence, during which he was twice made prisoner.
+
+
+
+
+DESPENSER, HUGH LE (d. 1265), chief justiciar of England, first plays an
+important part in 1258, when he was prominent on the baronial side in
+the Mad Parliament of Oxford. In 1260 the barons chose him to succeed
+Hugh Bigod as justiciar, and in 1263 the king was further compelled to
+put the Tower of London in his hands. On the outbreak of civil war he
+joined the party of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and led the
+Londoners when they sacked the manor-house of Isleworth, belonging to
+Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans. Having fought at Lewes
+(1264) he was made governor of six castles after the battle, and was
+then appointed one of the four arbitrators to mediate between Simon de
+Montfort and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester. He was summoned to
+Simon de Montfort's parliament in 1264, and acted as justiciar
+throughout the earl's dictatorship. Despenser was killed at Evesham in
+August 1265.
+
+   See C. Bémont, _Simon de Montfort_ (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in
+   _Owens College Historical Essays_, pp. 76 ff. (Manchester, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+DESPENSER, HUGH LE (1262-1326), English courtier, was a son of the
+English justiciar who died at Evesham. He fought for Edward I. in Wales,
+France and Scotland, and in 1295 was summoned to parliament as a baron.
+Ten years later he was sent by the king to Pope Clement V. to secure
+Edward's release from the oaths he had taken to observe the charters in
+1297. Almost alone Hugh spoke out for Edward II.'s favourite, Piers
+Gaveston, in 1308; but after Gaveston's death in 1312 he himself became
+the king's chief adviser, holding power and influence until Edward's
+defeat at Bannockburn in 1314. Then, hated by the barons, and especially
+by Earl Thomas of Lancaster, as a deserter from their party, he was
+driven from the council, but was quickly restored to favour and loaded
+with lands and honours, being made earl of Winchester in 1322. Before
+this time Hugh's son, the younger Hugh le Despenser, had become
+associated with his father, and having been appointed the king's
+chamberlain was enjoying a still larger share of the royal favour. About
+1306 this baron had married Eleanor (d. 1337), one of the sisters and
+heiresses of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, who was slain at
+Bannockburn; and after a division of the immense Clare lands had been
+made in 1317 violent quarrels broke out between the Despensers and the
+husbands of the other heiresses, Roger of Amory and Hugh of Audley.
+Interwoven with this dispute was another between the younger Despenser
+and the Mowbrays, who were supported by Humphrey Bohun, earl of
+Hereford, about some lands in Glamorganshire. Fighting having begun in
+Wales and on the Welsh borders, the English barons showed themselves
+decidedly hostile to the Despensers, and in 1321 Edward II. was obliged
+to consent to their banishment. While the elder Hugh left England the
+younger one remained; soon the king persuaded the clergy to annul the
+sentence against them, and father and son were again at court. They
+fought against the rebellious barons at Boroughbridge, and after
+Lancaster's death in 1322 they were practically responsible for the
+government of the country, which they attempted to rule in a moderate
+and constitutional fashion. But their next enemy, Queen Isabella, was
+more formidable, or more fortunate, than Lancaster. Returning to England
+after a sojourn in France in 1326 the queen directed her arms against
+her husband's favourites. The elder Despenser was seized at Bristol,
+where he was hanged on the 27th of October 1326, and the younger was
+taken with the king at Llantrisant and hanged at Hereford on the 24th of
+November following. The attainder against the Despensers was reversed in
+1398. The intense hatred with which the barons regarded the Despensers
+was due to the enormous wealth which had passed into their hands, and to
+the arrogance and rapacity of the younger Hugh.
+
+The younger Despenser left two sons, Hugh (1308-1349), and Edward, who
+was killed at Vannes in 1342.
+
+The latter's son EDWARD LE DESPENSER (d. 1375) fought at the battle of
+Poitiers, and then in Italy for Pope Urban V.; he was a patron of
+Froissart, who calls him _le grand sire Despensier_. His son, THOMAS LE
+DESPENSER (1373-1400), the husband of Constance (d. 1416), daughter of
+Edmund of Langley, duke of York, supported Richard II. against Thomas of
+Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, and the other lords appellant in 1397,
+when he himself was created earl of Gloucester, but he deserted the king
+in 1399. Then, degraded from his earldom for participating in
+Gloucester's death, Despenser joined the conspiracy against Henry IV.,
+but he was seized and was executed by a mob at Bristol in January 1400.
+
+The elder Edward le Despenser left another son, HENRY (c. 1341-1406),
+who became bishop of Norwich in 1370. In early life Henry had been a
+soldier, and when the peasants revolted in 1381 he took readily to the
+field, defeated the insurgents at North Walsham, and suppressed the
+rising in Norfolk with some severity. More famous, however, was the
+militant bishop's enterprise on behalf of Pope Urban VI., who in 1382
+employed him to lead a crusade in Flanders against the supporters of the
+anti-pope Clement VII. He was very successful in capturing towns until
+he came before Ypres, where he was checked, his humiliation being
+completed when his army was defeated by the French and decimated by a
+pestilence. Having returned to England the bishop was impeached in
+parliament and was deprived of his lands; Richard II., however, stood by
+him, and he soon regained an influential place in the royal council, and
+was employed to defend his country on the seas. Almost alone among his
+peers Henry remained true to Richard in 1399; he was then imprisoned,
+but was quickly released and reconciled with the new king, Henry IV. He
+died on the 23rd of August 1406. Despenser was an active enemy of the
+Lollards, whose leader, John Wycliffe, had fiercely denounced his
+crusade in Flanders.
+
+The barony of Despenser, called out of abeyance in 1604, was held by the
+Fanes, earls of Westmorland, from 1626 to 1762; by the notorious Sir
+Francis Dashwood from 1763 to 1781; and by the Stapletons from 1788 to
+1891. In 1891 it was inherited, through his mother, by the 7th Viscount
+Falmouth.
+
+
+
+
+DES PÉRIERS, BONAVENTURE (c. 1500-1544), French author, was born of a
+noble family at Arnay-le-duc in Burgundy at the end of the 15th century.
+The circumstances of his education are uncertain, but he became a good
+classical scholar, and was attached to various noble houses in the
+capacity of tutor. In 1533 or 1534 Des Périers visited Lyons, then the
+most enlightened town of France, and a refuge for many liberal scholars
+who might elsewhere have had to suffer for their opinions. He gave some
+assistance to Robert Olivetan and Lefèvre d'Étaples in the preparation
+of the vernacular version of the Old Testament, and to Étienne Dolet in
+the _Commentarii linguae latinae_. In 1536 he put himself under the
+protection of Marguerite d'Angoulême, queen of Navarre, who made him her
+_valet-de-chambre_. He acted as the queen's secretary, and transcribed
+the _Heptaméron_ for her. It is probable that his duties extended beyond
+those of a mere copyist, and some writers have gone so far as to say
+that the _Heptaméron_ was his work. The free discussions permitted at
+Marguerite's court encouraged a licence of thought as displeasing to the
+Calvinists as to the Catholics. This free inquiry became scepticism in
+Bonaventure's _Cymbalum Mundi ..._ (1537), and the queen of Navarre
+thought it prudent to disavow the author, though she continued to help
+him privately until 1541. The book consisted of four dialogues in
+imitation of Lucian. Its allegorical form did not conceal its real
+meaning, and, when it was printed by Morin, probably early in 1538, the
+Sorbonne secured the suppression of the edition before it was offered
+for sale. The dedication provides a key to the author's intention:
+_Thomas du Clevier (or Clenier) à son ami Pierre Tryocan_ was recognized
+by 19th-century editors to be an anagram for _Thomas l'Incrédule à son
+ami Pierre Croyant_. The book was reprinted in Paris in the same year.
+It made many bitter enemies for the author. Henri Estienne called it
+_détestable_, and Étienne Pasquier said it deserved to be thrown into
+the fire with its author if he were still living. Des Périers prudently
+left Paris, and after some wanderings settled at Lyons, where he lived
+in poverty, until in 1544 he put an end to his existence by falling on
+his sword. In 1544 his collected works were printed at Lyons. The
+volume, _Recueil des oeuvres de feu Bonaventure des Périers_, included
+his poems, which are of small merit, the _Traité des quatre vertus
+cardinales après Sénèque_, and a translation of the _Lysis_ of Plato. In
+1558 appeared at Lyons the collection of stories and fables entitled the
+_Nouvelles récréations et joyeux devis_. It is on this work that the
+claim put forward for Des Périers as one of the early masters of French
+prose rests. Some of the tales are attributed to the editors, Nicholas
+Denisot and Jacques Pelletier, but their share is certainly limited to
+the later ones. The book leaves something to be desired on the score of
+morality, but the stories never lack point and are models of simple,
+direct narration in the vigorous and picturesque French of the 16th
+century.
+
+   His _OEuvres françaises_ were published by Louis Lacour (Paris, 2
+   vols., 1856). See also the preface to the _Cymbalum Mundi ..._ (ed.
+   F. Franck, 1874); A. Cheneviere, _Bonaventure Despériers, sa vie, ses
+   poésies_ (1885); and P. Toldo, _Contributo allo studio della novella
+   francese del XV. e XVI. secolo_ (Rome, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+DESPORTES, PHILIPPE (1546-1606), French poet, was born at Chartres in
+1546. As secretary to the bishop of Le Puy he visited Italy, where he
+gained a knowledge of Italian poetry afterwards turned to good account.
+On his return to France he attached himself to the duke of Anjou, and
+followed him to Warsaw on his election as king of Poland. Nine months in
+Poland satisfied the civilized Desportes, but in 1574 his patron became
+king of France as Henry III. He showered favours on the poet, who
+received, in reward for the skill with which he wrote occasional poems
+at the royal request, the abbey of Tiron and four other valuable
+benefices. A good example of the light and dainty verse in which
+Desportes excelled is furnished by the well-known _villanelle_ with the
+refrain "Qui premier s'en repentira," which was on the lips of Henry,
+duke of Guise, just before his tragic death. Desportes was above all an
+imitator. He imitated Petrarch, Ariosto, Sannazaro, and still more
+closely the minor Italian poets, and in 1604 a number of his plagiarisms
+were exposed in the _Rencontres des Muses de France et d'ltalie_. As a
+sonneteer he showed much grace and sweetness, and English poets borrowed
+freely from him. In his old age Desportes acknowledged his
+ecclesiastical preferment by a translation of the Psalms remembered
+chiefly for the brutal _mot_ of Malherbe: "Votre potage vaut mieux que
+vos psaumes." Desportes died on the 5th of October 1606. He had
+published in 1573 an edition of his works including _Diane_, _Les Amours
+d'Hippolyte_, _Élégies_, _Bergeries_, _OEuvres chrétiennes_, &c.
+
+An edition of his _OEuvres_, by Alfred Michiels, appeared in 1858.
+
+
+
+
+DESPOT (Gr. [Greek: despotês], lord or master; the origin of the first
+part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with [Greek:
+posis], husband, Lat. _potens_, powerful), in Greek usage the master of
+a household, hence the ruler of slaves. It was also used by the Greeks
+of their gods, as was the feminine form [Greek: despoina]. It was,
+however, principally applied by the Greeks to the absolute monarchs of
+the eastern empires with which they came in contact; and it is in this
+sense that the word, like its equivalent "tyrant," is in current usage
+for an absolute sovereign whose rule is not restricted by any
+constitution. In the Roman empire of the East "despot" was early used as
+a title of honour or address of the emperor, and was given by Alexius I.
+(1081-1118) to the sons, brothers and sons-in-law of the emperor
+(Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ed. Bury, vol. vi. 80). It does not seem
+that the title was confined to the heir-apparent by Alexius II. (see
+Selden, _Titles of Honour_, part ii. chap. i. s. vi.). Later still it
+was adopted by the vassal princes of the empire. This gave rise to the
+name "despotats" as applied to these tributary states, which survived
+the break-up of the empire in the independent "despotats" of Epirus,
+Cyprus, Trebizond, &c. Under Ottoman rule the title was preserved by the
+despots of Servia and of the Morea, &c. The early use of the term as a
+title of address for ecclesiastical dignitaries survives in its use in
+the Greek Church as the formal mode of addressing a bishop.
+
+
+
+
+DES PRÉS, JOSQUIN (c. 1445-1521), also called DEPRÉS or DESPREZ, and by
+a latinized form of his name, JODOCUS PRATENSIS or A PRATO, French
+musical composer, was born, probably in Condé in the Hennegau, about
+1445. He was a pupil of Ockenheim, and himself one of the most learned
+musicians of his time. In spite of his great fame, the accounts of his
+life are vague and the dates contradictory. Fétis contributed greatly
+towards elucidating the doubtful points in his _Biographie universelle_.
+In his early youth Josquin seems to have been a member of the choir of
+the collegiate church at St Quentin; when his voice changed he went
+(about 1455) to Ockenheim to take lessons in counterpoint; afterwards he
+again lived at his birthplace for some years, till Pope Sixtus IV.
+invited him to Rome to teach his art to the musicians of Italy, where
+musical knowledge at that time was at a low ebb. In Rome Des Prés lived
+till the death of his protector (1484), and it was there that many of
+his works were written. His reputation grew rapidly, and he was
+considered by his contemporaries to be the greatest master of his age.
+Luther, who was a good judge, is credited with the saying that "other
+musicians do with notes what they can, Josquin what he likes." The
+composer's journey to Rome marks in a manner the transference of the art
+from its Gallo-Belgian birthplace to Italy, which for the next two
+centuries remained the centre of the musical world. To Des Prés and his
+pupils Arcadelt, Mouton and others, much that is characteristic in
+modern music owes its rise, particularly in their influence upon Italian
+developments under Palestrina. After leaving Rome Des Prés went for a
+time to Ferrara, where the duke Hercules I. offered him a home; but
+before long he accepted an invitation of King Louis XII. of France to
+become the chief singer of the royal chapel. According to another
+account, he was for a time at least in the service of the emperor
+Maximilian I. The date of his death has by some writers been placed as
+early as 1501. But this is sufficiently disproved by the fact of one of
+his finest compositions, _A Dirge (Déploration) for Five Voices_, being
+written to commemorate the death of his master Ockenheim, which took
+place after 1512. The real date of Josquin's decease has since been
+settled as the 27th of August 1521. He was at that time a canon of the
+cathedral of Condé (see Victor Delzant's _Sépultures de Flandre_, No.
+118).
+
+   The most complete list of his compositions--consisting of masses,
+   motets, psalms and other pieces of sacred music--will be found in
+   Fétis. The largest collection of his MS. works, containing no less
+   than twenty masses, is in the possession of the papal chapel in Rome.
+   In his lifetime Des Prés was honoured as an eminent composer, and the
+   musicians of the 16th century are loud in his praise. During the 17th
+   and 18th centuries his value was ignored, nor does his work appear in
+   the collections of Martini and Paolucci. Burney was the first to
+   recover him from oblivion, and Forkel continued the task of
+   rehabilitation. Ambros furnishes the most exhaustive account of his
+   achievements. An admirable account of Josquin's art, from the rare
+   point of view of a modern critic who knows how to allow for modern
+   difficulties, will be found in the article "Josquin," in Grove's
+   _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, new ed. vol. ii. The _Répertoire
+   des chanteurs de St Gervais_ contains an excellent modern edition of
+   Josquin's _Miserere_.
+
+
+
+
+DESPRÈS, SUZANNE (1875-    ), French actress, was born at Verdun, and
+trained at the Paris Conservatoire, where in 1897 she obtained the first
+prize for comedy, and the second for tragedy. She then became associated
+with, and subsequently married, Aurelien Lugné-Poë (b. 1870), the
+actor-manager, who had founded a new school of modern drama,
+_L'OEuvre_, and she had a brilliant success in several plays produced
+by him. In succeeding years she played at the Gymnase and at the Porte
+Saint-Martin, and in 1902 made her début at the Comédie Française,
+appearing in _Phèdre_ and other important parts.
+
+
+
+
+DESRUES, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS (1744-1777), French poisoner, was born at
+Chartres in 1744, of humble parents. He went to Paris to seek his
+fortune, and started in business as a grocer. He was known as a man of
+great piety and devotion, and his business was reputed to be a
+flourishing one, but when, in 1773, he gave up his shop, his finances,
+owing to personal extravagance, were in a deplorable condition.
+Nevertheless he entered into negotiations with a Madame de la Mothe for
+the purchase from her of a country estate, and, when the time came for
+the payment of the purchase money, invited her to stay with him in Paris
+pending the transfer. While she was still his guest, he poisoned first
+her and then her son, a youth of sixteen. Then, having forged a receipt
+for the purchase money, he endeavoured to obtain possession of the
+property. But by this time the disappearance of Madame de la Mothe and
+her son had aroused suspicion. Desrues was arrested, the bodies of his
+victims were discovered, and the crime was brought home to him. He was
+tried, found guilty and condemned to be torn asunder alive and burned.
+The sentence was carried out (1777), Desrues repeating hypocritical
+protestations of his innocence to the last. The whole affair created a
+great sensation at the time, and as late as 1828 a dramatic version of
+it was performed in Paris.
+
+
+
+
+DESSAIX, JOSEPH MARIE, COUNT (1764-1834), French general, was born at
+Thonon in Savoy on the 24th of September 1764. He studied medicine, took
+his degree at Turin, and then went to Paris, where in 1789 he joined the
+National Guard. In 1791 he tried without success to raise an _émeute_ in
+Savoy, in 1792 he organized the "Legion of the Allobroges," and in the
+following years he served at the siege of Toulon, in the Army of the
+Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Army of Italy. He was captured at Rivoli,
+but was soon exchanged. In the spring of 1798 Dessaix was elected a
+member of the Council of Five Hundred. He was one of the few in that
+body who opposed the _coup d'état_ of the 18th Brumaire (November 9,
+1799). In 1803 he was promoted general of brigade, and soon afterwards
+commander of the Legion of Honour. He distinguished himself greatly at
+the battle of Wagram (1809), and was about this time promoted general of
+division and named grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1810
+was made a count. He took part in the expedition to Russia, and was
+twice wounded. For several months he was commandant of Berlin, and
+afterwards delivered the department of Mont Blanc from the Austrians.
+After the first restoration Dessaix held a command under the Bourbons.
+He nevertheless joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days, and in 1816 he was
+imprisoned for five months. The rest of his life was spent in
+retirement. He died on the 26th of October 1834.
+
+   See _Le Général Dessaix, sa vie politique et militaire_, by his
+   nephew Joseph Dessaix (Paris, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+DESSAU, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Anhalt, on the left
+bank of the Mulde, 2 m. from its confluence with the Elbe, 67 m. S.W.
+from Berlin and at the junction of lines to Cöthen and Zerbst. Pop.
+(1905) 55,134. Apart from the old quarter lying on the Mulde, the town
+is well built, is surrounded by pleasant gardens and contains many
+handsome streets and spacious squares. Among the latter is the Grosse
+Markt with a statue of Prince Leopold I. of Anhalt-Dessau, "the old
+Dessauer." Of the six churches, the Schlosskirche, adorned with
+paintings by Lucas Cranach, in one of which ("The Last Supper") are
+portraits of several reformers, is the most interesting. The ducal
+palace, standing in extensive grounds, contains a collection of
+historical curiosities and a gallery of pictures, which includes works
+by Cimabue, Lippi, Rubens, Titian and Van Dyck. Among other buildings
+are the town hall (built 1899-1900), the palace of the hereditary
+prince, the theatre, the administration offices, the law courts, the
+Amalienstift, with a picture gallery, several high-grade schools, a
+library of 30,000 volumes and an excellently appointed hospital. There
+are monuments to the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn (born here in 1729),
+to the poet Wilhelm Müller, father of Professor Max Müller, also a
+native of the place, to the emperor William I., and an obelisk
+commemorating the war of 1870-71. The industries of Dessau include the
+production of sugar, which is the chief manufacture, woollen, linen and
+cotton goods, carpets, hats, leather, tobacco and musical instruments.
+There is also a considerable trade in corn and garden produce. In the
+environs are the ducal villas of Georgium and Luisium, the gardens of
+which, as well as those of the neighbouring town of Wörlitz, are much
+admired.
+
+Dessau was probably founded by Albert the Bear; it had attained civic
+rights as early as 1213. It first began to grow into importance at the
+close of the 17th century, in consequence of the religious emancipation
+of the Jews in 1686, and of the Lutherans in 1697.
+
+   See Würdig, _Chronik der Stadt Dessau_ (Dessau, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+DESSEWFFY, AUREL, COUNT (1808-1842), Hungarian journalist and
+politician, eldest son of Count József Dessewffy and Eleonora Sztaray,
+was born at Nagy-Mihály, county Zemplén, Hungary. Carefully educated at
+his father's house, he was accustomed to the best society of his day.
+While still a child he could declaim most of the _Iliad_ in Greek
+without a book, and read and quoted Tacitus with enthusiasm. Under the
+noble influence of Ferencz Kazinczy he became acquainted with the chief
+masterpieces of European literature in their original tongues. He was
+particularly fond of the English, and one of his early idols was Jeremy
+Bentham. He regularly accompanied his father to the diets of which he
+was a member, followed the course of the debates, of which he kept a
+journal, and made the acquaintance of the great Széchenyi, who
+encouraged his aspirations. On leaving college, he entered the royal
+aulic chancellery, and in 1832 was appointed secretary of the royal
+stadtholder at Buda. The same year he turned his attention to politics
+and was regarded as one of the most promising young orators of the day,
+especially during the sessions of the diet of 1832-1836, when he had the
+courage to oppose Kossuth. At the Pressburg diet in 1840 Dessewffy was
+already the leading orator of the more enlightened and progressive
+Conservatives, but incurred great unpopularity for not going far enough,
+with the result that he was twice defeated at the polls. But his
+reputation in court circles was increasing; he was appointed a member of
+the committee for the reform of the criminal law in 1840; and, the same
+year with a letter of recommendation from Metternich in his pocket,
+visited England and France, Holland and Belgium, made the acquaintance
+of Thiers and Heine in Paris, and returned home with an immense and
+precious store of practical information. He at once proceeded to put
+fresh life into the despondent and irresolute Conservative party, and
+the Magyar aristocracy, by gallantly combating in the _Világ_ the
+opinions of Kossuth's paper, the _Pesti Hírlap_. But the multiplicity of
+his labours was too much for his feeble physique, and he died on the 9th
+of February 1842, at the very time when his talents seemed most
+indispensable.
+
+   See _Aus den Papieren des Grafen Aurel Dessewffy_ (Pest, 1843);
+   _Memorial Wreath to Count Aurel Dessewffy_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1857);
+   _Collected Works of Count Dessewffy, with a Biography_ (Hung.),
+   (Budapest, 1887).                                        (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+DESSOIR, LUDWIG (1810-1874), German actor, whose name was originally
+Leopold Dessauer, was born on the 15th of December 1810 at Posen, the
+son of a Jewish tradesman. He made his first appearance on the stage
+there in 1824 in a small part. After some experience at the theatre in
+Posen and on tour, he was engaged at Leipzig from 1834 to 1836. Then he
+was attached to the municipal theatre of Breslau, and in 1837 appeared
+at Prague, Brünn, Vienna and Budapest, where he accepted an engagement
+which lasted until 1839. He succeeded Karl Devrient at Karlsruhe, and
+went in 1847 to Berlin, where he acted Othello and Hamlet with such
+extraordinary success that he received a permanent engagement at the
+Hof-theater. From 1849 to 1872, when he retired on a pension, he played
+110 parts, frequently on tour, and in 1853 acting in London. He died on
+the 30th of December 1874 in Berlin. Dessoir was twice married; his
+first wife, Theresa, a popular actress (1810-1866), was separated from
+him a year after marriage; his second wife went mad on the death of her
+child. By his first wife Dessoir had one son, the actor Ferdinand
+Dessoir (1836-1892). In spite of certain physical disabilities Ludwig
+Dessoir's genius raised him to the first rank of actors, especially as
+interpreter of Shakespeare's characters. G. H. Lewes placed Dessoir's
+Othello above that of Kean, and the _Athenaeum_ preferred him in this
+part to Brooks or Macready.
+
+
+
+
+DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE (1680-1754), French dramatist, whose real name was
+Néricault, was born at Tours in April 1680. When he was nineteen years
+of age he became secretary to M. de Puysieux, the French ambassador in
+Switzerland. In 1716 he was attached to the French embassy in London,
+where he remained for six years under the abbé Dubois. He contracted
+with a Lancashire lady, Dorothea Johnston, a marriage which was not
+avowed for some years. He drew a picture later of his own domestic
+circumstances in _Le Philosophe marié_ (1726). On his return to France
+(1723) he was elected to the Academy, and in 1727 he acquired
+considerable estates, the possession of which conferred the privileges
+of nobility. He spent his later years at his château of Fortoiseau near
+Melun, dying on the 4th of July 1754. His early comedies were: _Le
+Curieux Impertinent_ (1710), _L'Ingrat_ (1712), _L'Irrésolu_ (1713) and
+_Le Médisant_ (1715). The best of these is _L'Irrêsolu_, in which
+Dorante, after hesitating throughout the play between Julie and
+Célimène, marries Julie, but concludes the play with the reflection:--
+
+   "J'aurais mieux fait, je crois, d'épouser Célimène."
+
+After eleven years of diplomatic service Destouches returned to the
+stage with the _Philosophe marié_ (1727), followed in 1732 by his
+masterpiece _Le Glorieux_, a picture of the struggle then beginning
+between the old nobility and the wealthy _parvenus_ who found their
+opportunity in the poverty of France. Destouches wished to revive the
+comedy of character as understood by Molière, but he thought it
+desirable that the moral should be directly expressed. This moralizing
+tendency spoilt his later comedies. Among them may be mentioned: _Le
+Tambour nocturne_ (1736), _La Force du naturel_ (1750) and _Le
+Dissipateur_ (1736).
+
+   His works were issued in collected form in 1755, 1757, 1811 and, in a
+   limited edition (6 vols.), 1822.
+
+
+
+
+DESTRUCTORS. The name destructors is applied by English municipal
+engineers to furnaces, or combinations of furnaces, commonly called
+"garbage furnaces" in the United States, constructed for the purpose of
+disposing by burning of town refuse, which is a heterogeneous mass of
+material, including, besides general household and ash-bin refuse, small
+quantities of garden refuse, trade refuse, market refuse and often
+street sweepings. The mere disposal of this material is not, however, by
+any means the only consideration in dealing with it upon the destructor
+system. For many years past scientific experts, municipal engineers and
+public authorities have been directing careful attention to the
+utilization of refuse as fuel for steam production, and such progress in
+this direction has been made that in many towns its calorific value is
+now being utilized daily for motive-power purposes. On the other hand,
+that proper degree of caution which is obtained only by actual
+experience must be exercised in the application of refuse fuel to
+steam-raising. When its value as a low-class fuel was first recognized,
+the idea was disseminated that the refuse of a given population was of
+itself sufficient to develop the necessary steam-power for supplying
+that population with the electric light. The economical importance of a
+combined destructor and electric undertaking of this character naturally
+presented a somewhat fascinating stimulus to public authorities, and
+possibly had much to do with the development both of the adoption of the
+principle of dealing with refuse by fire, and of lighting towns by
+electricity. However true this phase of the question may be as the
+statement of a theoretical scientific fact, experience so far does not
+show it to be a basis upon which engineers may venture to calculate,
+although, as will be seen later, under certain circumstances of
+equalized load, which must be considered upon their merits in each case,
+a well-designed destructor plant can be made to perform valuable
+commercial service to an electric or other power-using undertaking.
+Further, when a system, thermal or otherwise, for the storage of energy
+can be introduced and applied in a trustworthy and economical manner,
+the degree of advantage to be derived from the utilization of the waste
+heat from destructors will be materially enhanced.
+
+
+Composition and quantity of refuse.
+
+The composition of house refuse, which must obviously affect its
+calorific value, varies considerably in different localities, according
+to the condition, habits and pursuits of the people. Towns situated in
+coal-producing districts invariably yield a refuse richer in unconsumed
+carbon than those remote therefrom. It is also often found that the
+refuse from different parts of the same town varies considerably--that
+from the poorest quarters frequently proving of greater calorific value
+than that from those parts occupied by the rich and middle classes. This
+has been attributed to the more extravagant habits of the working
+classes in neglecting to sift the ashes from their fires before
+disposing of them in the ash-bin. In Bermondsey, for example, the refuse
+has been found to possess an unusually high calorific value, and this
+experience is confirmed in other parts of the metropolis. Average refuse
+consists of breeze (cinder and ashes), coal and coke, fine dust,
+vegetable and animal matters, straw, shavings, cardboard, bottles, tins,
+iron, bones, broken crockery and other matters in very variable
+proportions according to the character of the district from which it is
+collected. In London the quantity of house refuse amounts approximately
+to 1¼ million tons per annum, which is equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5
+cwt. per head per annum, or to from 200 to 250 tons per 1000 of the
+population per annum. Statistics, however, vary widely in different
+districts. In the vicinity of the metropolis the amount varies from 2.5
+cwt. per head per annum at Leyton to 3.5 cwt. at Hornsey, and to as much
+as 7 cwt. at Ealing. In the north of England the total house refuse
+collected, exclusive of street sweepings, amounts on the average to 8
+cwt. per head per annum. Speaking generally, throughout the country an
+amount of from 5 cwt. to 10 cwt. per head per annum should be allowed
+for. A cubic yard of ordinary house refuse weighs from 12¼ to 15 cwt.
+Shop refuse is lighter, frequently containing a large proportion of
+paper, straw and other light wastes. It sometimes weighs as little as 7¼
+cwt. per cubic yard. A load, by which refuse is often estimated, varies
+in weight from 15 cwt. to 1½ tons.
+
+
+Refuse disposal.
+
+The question how a town's refuse shall be disposed of must be considered
+both from a commercial and a sanitary point of view. Various methods
+have been practised. Sometimes the household ashes, &c., are mixed with
+pail excreta, or with sludge from a sewage farm, or with lime, and
+disposed of for agricultural purposes, and sometimes they are conveyed
+in carts or by canal to outlying and country districts, where they are
+shot on waste ground or used to fill up hollows and raise the level of
+marshland. Such plans are economical when suitable outlets are
+available. To take the refuse out to sea in hopper barges and sink it in
+deep water is usually expensive and frequently unsatisfactory. At
+Bermondsey, for instance, the cost of barging is about 2s. 9d. a ton,
+while the material may be destroyed by fire at a cost of from 10d. to
+1s. a ton, exclusive of interest and sinking fund on the cost of the
+works. In other cases, as at Chelsea and various dust contractors'
+yards, the refuse is sorted and its ingredients are sold; the fine dust
+may be utilized in connexion with manure manufactories, the pots and
+pans employed in forming the foundations of roads, and the cinders and
+vegetable refuse burnt to generate steam. In the Arnold system, carried
+out in Philadelphia and other American towns, the refuse is sterilized
+by steam under pressure, the grease and fertilizing substances being
+extracted at the same time; while in other systems, such as those of
+Weil and Porno, and of Defosse, distillation in closed vessels is
+practised. But the destructor system, in which the refuse is burned to
+an innocuous clinker in specially constructed furnaces, is that which
+must finally be resorted to, especially in districts which have become
+well built up and thickly populated.
+
+
+Types of destructors.
+
+Various types of furnaces and apparatus have from time to time been
+designed, and the subject has been one of much experiment and many
+failures. The principal towns in England which took the lead in the
+adoption of the refuse destructor system were Manchester, Birmingham,
+Leeds, Heckmondwike, Warrington, Blackburn, Bradford, Bury, Bolton,
+Hull, Nottingham, Salford, Ealing and London. Ordinary furnaces, built
+mostly by dust contractors, began to come into use in London and in the
+north of England in the second half of the 19th century, but they were
+not scientifically adapted to the purpose, and necessitated the
+admixture of coal or other fuel with the refuse to ensure its cremation.
+The Manchester corporation erected a furnace of this description about
+the year 1873, and Messrs Mead & Co. made an unsatisfactory attempt in
+1870 to burn house refuse in closed furnaces at Paddington. In 1876
+Alfred Fryer erected his destructor at Manchester, and several other
+towns adopted this furnace shortly afterwards. Other furnaces were from
+time to time brought before the public, among which may be mentioned
+those of Pearce and Lupton, Pickard, Healey, Thwaite, Young, Wilkinson,
+Burton, Hardie, Jacobs and Odgen. In addition to these the "Beehive" and
+the "Nelson" destructors became well known. The former was introduced by
+Stafford and Pearson of Burnley, and one was erected in 1884 in the
+parish yard at Richmond, Surrey, but the results being unsatisfactory,
+it was closed during the following year. The "Nelson" furnace, patented
+in 1885 by Messrs Richmond and Birtwistle, was erected at
+Nelson-in-Marsden, Lancashire, but being very costly in working was
+abandoned. The principal types of destructors now in use are those of
+Fryer, Whiley, Horsfall, Warner, Meldrum, Beaman and Deas, Heenan and
+Froude, and the "Sterling" destructor erected by Messrs Hughes and
+Stirling.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Fryer's Destructor.]
+
+
+   Fryer's.
+
+   The general arrangement of the destructor patented[1] by Alfred Fryer
+   in 1876 is illustrated in fig. 1. An installation upon this principle
+   consists of a number of furnaces or cells, usually arranged in pairs
+   back to back, and enclosed in a rectangular block of brickwork having
+   a flat top, upon which the house refuse is tipped from the carts.
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Horsfall's Improved Destructor.]
+
+   A large main flue, which also forms the dust chamber, is placed
+   underneath the furnace hearths. The Fryer furnace ordinarily burns
+   from 4 to 6 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. It will be observed
+   that the outlets for the products of combustion are placed at the
+   back near the refuse feed opening, an arrangement which is imperfect
+   in design, inasmuch as while a charge of refuse is burning upon the
+   furnace bars the charge which is to follow lies on the dead hearth
+   near the outlet flue. Here it undergoes drying and partial
+   decomposition, giving off offensive empyreumatic vapours which pass
+   into the flue without being exposed to sufficient heat to render them
+   entirely inoffensive. The serious nuisances thus produced in some
+   instances led to the introduction of a second furnace, or "cremator,"
+   patented by C. Jones of Ealing in 1885, which was placed in the main
+   flue leading to the chimney-shaft, for the purpose of resolving the
+   organic matters present in the vapour, but the greatly increased cost
+   of burning due to this device led to its abandonment in many cases.
+   This type of cell was largely used during the early period of the
+   history of destructors, but has to a considerable extent given place
+   to furnaces of more modern design.
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 3. - Meldrum's Destructor at Darwen]
+
+
+   Whiley's.
+
+   A furnace[2] patented in 1891 by Mr Henry Whiley, superintendent of
+   the scavenging department of the Manchester corporation, is automatic
+   in its action and was designed primarily with a view to saving
+   labour--the cells being fed, stoked and clinkered automatically.
+   There is no drying hearth, and the refuse carts tip direct into a
+   shoot or hopper at the back which conducts the material directly on
+   to movable eccentric grate bars. These automatically traverse the
+   material forward into the furnace, and finally push it against a
+   flap-door which opens and allows it to fall out. This apparatus is
+   adapted for dealing with screened rather than unscreened refuse,
+   since it suffers from the objection that the motion of the bars tends
+   to allow fine particles to drop through unburnt. Some difficulty has
+   been experienced from the refuse sticking in the hopper, and
+   exception may also be taken to the continual flapping of the door
+   when the clinker passes out, as cold air is thereby admitted into the
+   furnace. As in the Fryer cell, the outlet for the products of
+   combustion into the main flue is close to the point where the crude
+   refuse is fed into the furnace, and the escape of unburnt vapours is
+   thus facilitated. Forced draught is applied by means of a Roots
+   blower. The Manchester corporation has 28 cells of this type in use,
+   and the approximate amount of refuse burnt per cell per 24 hours is
+   from 6 to 8 tons at a cost per ton for labour of 3.47 pence.
+
+
+   Horsfall's.
+
+   Horsfall's destructor[3] (fig. 2) is a high-temperature furnace of
+   modern type which has been adopted largely in Great Britain and on
+   the continent of Europe. In it some of the general features of the
+   Fryer cell are retained, but the details differ considerably from
+   those of the furnaces already described. Important points in the
+   design are the arrangement of the flues and flue outlets for the
+   products of combustion, and the introduction of a blast duct through
+   which air is forced into a closed ash-pit. The feeding-hole is
+   situated at the back of and above the furnace, while the flue opening
+   for the emission of the gaseous products is placed at the front of
+   the furnace over the dead plate; thus the gases distilled from the
+   raw refuse are caused to pass on their way to the main flue over the
+   hottest part of the furnace and through the flue opening in the
+   red-hot reverberatory arch. The steam jet, which plays an important
+   part in the Horsfall furnace, forces air into the closed ash-pit at a
+   pressure of about ¾ to 1 in. of water, and in this way a temperature
+   varying from 1500° to 2000° F., as tested by a thermo-electric
+   pyrometer, is maintained in the main flue. In a battery of cells the
+   gases from each are delivered into one main flue, so that a uniform
+   temperature is maintained therein sufficiently high to prevent
+   noxious vapours from reaching the chimney. The cells being charged
+   and clinkered in rotation, when the fire in one is green, in the
+   others it is at its hottest, and the products of combustion do not
+   reach the boiler surfaces until after they have been mixed in the
+   main flue. The cast iron boxes which are provided at the sides of the
+   furnaces, and through which the blast air is conveyed on its way to
+   the grate, prevent the adhesion of clinker to the side walls of the
+   cells, and very materially preserve the brickwork, which otherwise
+   becomes damaged by the tools used to remove the clinker. The wide
+   clinkering doors are suspended by counterbalance weights and open
+   vertically. The rate of working of these cells varies from 8 tons per
+   cell per 24 hours at Oldham to 10 tons per cell at Bradford, where
+   the furnaces are of a later type. The cost of labour in stoking and
+   clinkering is about 6d. per ton of the refuse treated at Bradford,
+   and 9d. per ton at Oldham, where the rate of wages is higher.
+   Well-constructed and properly-worked plants of this type should give
+   rise to no nuisance, and may be located in populous neighbourhoods
+   without danger to the public health or comfort. Installations were
+   put down at Fulham (1901), Hammerton Street, Bradford (1900), West
+   Hartlepool (1904), and other places, and the surplus power generated
+   is employed in the production of electric energy.
+
+
+   Warner's.
+
+   Warner's destructor,[4] known as the "Perfectus," is, in general
+   arrangement, similar to Fryer's, but differs in being provided with
+   special charging hoppers, dampers in flues, dust-catching
+   arrangements, rocking grate bars and other improvements. The refuse
+   is tipped into feeding-hoppers, consisting of rectangular cast iron
+   boxes over which plates are placed to prevent the escape of smoke and
+   fumes. At the lower portion of the feeding-hopper is a flap-door
+   working on an axis and controlled by an iron lever from the tipping
+   platform. When refuse is to be fed into the furnace the lever is
+   thrown over, the contents of the hopper drop on to the sloping
+   firebrick hearth beneath, and the door is at once closed again. The
+   door should be kept open as short a time as possible in order to
+   prevent the admission of cold air into the furnace at the back end,
+   since this leads to the lowering of the temperature of the cells and
+   main flue, and also to paper and other light refuse being carried
+   into the flues and chimney. The flues of each furnace are provided
+   with dampers, which are closed during the process of clinkering in
+   order to keep up the heat. The cells are each 5 ft. wide and 11 ft.
+   deep, the rearmost portion consisting of a firebrick drying hearth,
+   and the front of rocking grate bars upon which the combustion takes
+   place. The crown of each cell is formed of a reverberatory firebrick
+   arch having openings for the emission of the products of combustion.
+   The flap dampers which are fitted to these openings are operated by
+   horizontal spindles passing through the brickwork to the front of the
+   cell, where they are provided with levers or handles; thus each cell
+   can be worked independently of the others. With the view of
+   increasing the steam-raising capabilities of the furnace, forced
+   draught is sometimes applied and a tubular boiler is placed close to
+   the cells. The amount of refuse consumed varies from 5 tons to 8 tons
+   per cell per 24 hours. At Hornsey, where 12 cells of this type are in
+   use, the cost of labour for burning the refuse is 9½d. per ton.
+
+
+   Meldrum's
+
+   The Meldurm "Simplex" destructor (fig. 3), a type of furnace which
+   yields good steam-raising results, is in successful operation at
+   Rochdale, Hereford, Darwen, Nelson, Plumstead and Woolwich, at each
+   of which towns the production of steam is an important consideration.
+   Cells have also been laid down at Burton, Hunstanton, Blackburn and
+   Shipley, and more recently at Burnley, Cleckheaton, Lancaster,
+   Nelson, Sheerness and Weymouth. In general arrangement the destructor
+   differs considerably from those previously described. The grates are
+   placed side by side without separation except by dead plates, but, in
+   order to localize the forced draught, the ash-pit is divided into
+   parts corresponding with the different grate areas. Each ash-pit is
+   closed air-tight by a cast iron plate, and is provided with an
+   air-tight door for removing the fine ash. Two patent Meldrum
+   steam-jet blowers are provided for each furnace, supplying any
+   required pressure of blast up to 6 in. water column, though that
+   usually employed does not exceed 1½ in. The furnaces are designed for
+   hand-feeding from the front, but hopper-feeding can be applied if
+   desirable. The products of combustion either pass away from the back
+   of each fire-grate into a common flue leading to boilers and the
+   chimney-shaft, or are conveyed sideways over the various grates and a
+   common fire-bridge to the boilers or chimney. The heat in the gases,
+   after passing the boilers, is still further utilized to heat the air
+   supplied to the furnaces, the gases being passed through an air
+   heater or continuous regenerator consisting of a number of cast iron
+   pipes from which the air is delivered through the Meldrum "blowers"
+   at a temperature of about 300° F. That a high percentage (15 to
+   18%) of CO_2 is obtained in the furnaces proves a small excess of
+   free oxygen, and no doubt explains the high fuel efficiency obtained
+   by this type of destructor. High-pressure boilers of ample capacity
+   are provided for the accumulation during periods of light load of a
+   reserve of steam, the storage being obtained by utilizing the
+   difference between the highest and lowest water-levels and the
+   difference between the maximum and working steam-pressure. Patent
+   locking fire-bars, to prevent lifting when clinkering, are used in
+   the furnace and have a good life. At Rochdale the Meldrum furnaces
+   consume from 53 lb. to 66 lb. of refuse per square foot of grate
+   area per hour, as compared with 22.4 lb. per square foot in a
+   low-temperature destructor burning 6 tons per cell per 24 hours with
+   a grate area of 25 sq. ft. The evaporative efficiency of the Rochdale
+   furnaces varies from 1.39 lb. to 1.87 lb. of water (actual) per 1
+   lb. of refuse burned, and an average steam-pressure of about 114
+   lb. per square inch is maintained. The cost of labour and
+   supervision amounts to 10d. per ton of refuse dealt with. A
+   Lancashire boiler (22 ft. by 6 ft. 6 in.) at the Sewage Outfall
+   Works, Hereford, evaporates with refuse fuel 2980 lb. of water per
+   hour, equal to 149 indicated horse-power. About 54 lb. of refuse are
+   burnt per square foot of grate area per hour with an evaporation of
+   1.82 lb. of water per pound of refuse.
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton.]
+
+
+   Beaman and Deas.
+
+   The Beaman and Deas destructor[5] (fig. 4) has attracted much
+   attention from public authorities, and successful installations are
+   in operation at Warrington, Dewsbury, Leyton, Canterbury, Llandudno,
+   Colne, Streatham, Rotherhithe, Wimbledon, Bolton and elsewhere. Its
+   essential features include a level-fire grate with ordinary type
+   bars, a high-temperature combustion chamber at the back of the cells,
+   a closed ash-pit with forced draught, provision for the admission of
+   a secondary air-supply at the fire-bridge, and a firebrick hearth
+   sloping at an angle of about 52°. From the refuse storage platform
+   the material is fed into a hopper mouth about 18 in. square, and
+   slides down the firebrick hearth, supported by T-irons, to the grate
+   bars, over which it is raked and spread with the assistance of long
+   rods manipulated through clinkering doors placed at the sides of the
+   cells. A secondary door in the rear of the cell facilitates the
+   operation. The fire-bars, spaced only 3/32 in. apart, are of the
+   ordinary stationary type. Vertically, under the fire-bridge, is an
+   air-conduit, from the top of which lead air blast pipes 12 in. in
+   diameter discharging into a hermetically closed ash-pit under the
+   grate area. The air is supplied from fans (Schiele's patent) at a
+   pressure of from 1½ to 2 in. of water, and is controlled by means of
+   baffle valves worked by handles on either side of the furnace,
+   conveniently placed for the attendant. The forced draught tends to
+   keep the bars cool and lessen wear and tear. The fumes from the
+   charge drying on the hearth pass through the fire and over the
+   red-hot fire-bridge, which is perforated longitudinally with
+   air-passages connected with a small flue leading from a grated
+   opening on the face of the brickwork outside; in this way an
+   auxiliary supply of heated oxygen is fed into the combustion chamber.
+   This chamber, in which a temperature approaching 2000° F. is
+   attained, is fitted with large iron doors, sliding with balance
+   weights, which allow the introduction of infected articles, bad meat,
+   &c., and also give access for the periodical removal of fine ash from
+   the flues. The high temperatures attained are utilized by installing
+   one boiler, preferably of the Babcock & Wilcox water-tube type, for
+   each pair of cells, so that the gases, on their way from the
+   combustion chamber to the main flue, pass three times between the
+   boiler tubes. A secondary furnace is provided under the boiler for
+   raising steam by coal, if required, when the cells are out of use.
+   The grate area of each cell is 25 sq. ft., and the consumption varies
+   from 16 up to 20 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. In a 24-hours'
+   test made by the superintendent of the cleansing department, Leeds,
+   at the Warrington installation, the quantity of water evaporated per
+   pound of refuse was 1.14 lb., the average temperature in the
+   combustion chamber 2000° F. by copper-wire test, and the average air
+   pressure with forced draught 2½ in. (water-gauge). At Leyton, which
+   has a population of over 100,000, an 8-cell plant of this type is
+   successfully dealing with house refuse and filter press cakes of
+   sewage sludge from the sewage disposal works adjoining, and even with
+   material of this low calorific value the total steam-power produced
+   is considerable. Each cell burns about 16 tons of the mixture in 24
+   hours and develops about 35 indicated horse-power continuously, at an
+   average steam-pressure in the boilers of 105 lb. The cost of labour
+   at Leyton for burning the mixed refuse is about 1s. 7d. per ton; at
+   Llandudno, where four cells were laid down in connexion with the
+   electric-light station in 1898, it is 1s. 3¼d., and at Warrington
+   9½d. per ton of refuse consumed. Combustion is complete, and the
+   destructor may be installed in populous districts without nuisance to
+   the inhabitants. Further patents (Wilkie's improvements) have been
+   obtained by Meldrum Brothers (Manchester) in connexion with this
+   destructor.
+
+
+   Heenan.
+
+   The Heenan furnaces are in operation at Farnworth, Gloucester,
+   Barrow-in-Furness, Northampton, Mansfield, Wakefield, Blackburn,
+   Levenshulme, Kings Norton, Worthing, Birmingham and other places, and
+   are now dealing with over 1200 tons of refuse per day. The general
+   arrangement of this destructor somewhat resembles that of the Meldrum
+   type. The cells intercommunicate, and the mechanical mixture of the
+   gases arising from the furnace grates of the various cells is sought
+   by the introduction of a special design of reverberatory arch
+   overlying the grates. The standard arrangement of this destructor
+   embodies all modern arrangements for high-temperature refuse
+   destruction and steam-power generation.
+
+
+   Sterling.
+
+   Destructors of the "Sterling" type, combined with electric-power
+   generating stations, are installed at Hackney (1901), Bermondsey
+   (1902) and Frederiksberg (1903)--the first-named plant being probably
+   the most powerful combined destructor and electricity station yet
+   erected. In these modern stations the recognized requirements of an
+   up-to-date refuse-destruction plant have been well considered and
+   good calorific results are also obtained.
+
+   In addition to the above-described destructors, other forms have been
+   introduced from time to time, but adopted to a less degree; amongst
+   these may be mentioned Baker's destructor, Willshear's, Hanson's
+   Utilizer, Mason's Gasifier, the Bennett-Phythian, Cracknell's
+   (Melbourne, Victoria), Coltman's (Loughborough), Willoughby's, and
+   Healey's improved destructors. On the continent of Europe systems for
+   the treatment of refuse have also been devised. Among these may be
+   mentioned those of M. Defosse and M. Helouis. The former has
+   endeavoured to burn the refuse in large quantities by using a forced
+   draught and only washing the smoke.[6] Helouis has extended the
+   operation by using the heat from the combustion of the refuse for
+   drying and distilling the material which is brought gradually on to
+   the grate.
+
+
+   Destructor accessories.
+
+   Boulnois and Brodie's improved charging tank is a labour-saving
+   apparatus consisting of a wrought iron truck, 5 ft. wide by 3 ft.
+   deep, and of sufficient length to hold not less than 12 hours supply
+   for the two cells which it serves. The truck, which moves along a
+   pair of rails across the top of the destructor, may be worked by one
+   man. It is divided into compartments holding a charge of refuse in
+   each, and is provided with a pair of doors in the bottom, opening
+   downwards, which are supported by a series of small wheels running on
+   a central rail. A special feeding opening in the reverberatory arch
+   of the cell of the width of the truck, situated over the drying
+   hearth, is formed by a firebrick arch fitted into a frame capable of
+   being moved backwards and forwards by means of a lever. The charging
+   truck, when empty, is brought under the tipping platform, and the
+   carts tip directly into it. When one of the cells has to be fed, the
+   truck is moved along, so that one of the divisions is immediately
+   over the feeding opening, and the wheel holding up the bottom doors
+   rests upon the central rail, which is continued over the movable
+   covering arch. Then the movable arch is rolled back, the doors are
+   released, and the contents are discharged into the cell, so that no
+   handling of the refuse is required from tipping to feeding. This
+   apparatus is in operation at Liverpool, Shoreditch, Cambridge and
+   elsewhere.
+
+   Various forms of patent movable fire-bars have been employed in
+   destructor furnaces. Among these may be mentioned Settle's,[7]
+   Vicar's,[8] Riddle's rocking bars,[9] Horsfall's self-feeding
+   apparatus,[10] and Healey's movable bars;[11] but complicated movable
+   arrangements are not to be recommended, and experience greatly
+   favours the use of a simple stationary type of fire-bar.
+
+   [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Leyton Destructor. Block Plan, showing
+   general arrangement of the Works.]
+
+   A dust-catching apparatus has been designed and erected at Edinburgh,
+   by the Horsfall Furnace Syndicate, in order to overcome difficulties
+   in regard to the escape of flue dust, &c., from the destructor
+   chimney. Externally, it appears a large circular block of brickwork,
+   18 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. 7 in. high, connected with the main
+   flue, and situated between the destructor cells and the boiler.
+   Internally it consists of a spiral flue traversing the entire
+   circumference and winding upwards to the top of the chamber. There is
+   an interior well or chamber 6 ft. diameter by 12 ft. high, having a
+   domed top, and communicating with the outer spiral flue by four ports
+   at the top of the chamber. Dust traps, baffle walls and cleaning
+   doors are also provided for the retention and subsequent weekly
+   removal of the flue dust. The apparatus forms a large reservoir of
+   heat maintained at a steady temperature of from 1500º to 1800° F.,
+   and is useful in keeping up steam in the boiler at an equable
+   pressure for a long period. It requires no attention, and has proved
+   successful for its purpose.
+
+   Travelling cranes for transporting refuse and feeding cells are
+   sometimes employed at destructor stations, as, for example, at
+   Hamburg. Here the transportation of the refuse is effected by means
+   of specially constructed water-tight iron wagons, containing
+   detachable boxes provided with two double-flap doors at the top for
+   loading, and one flap-door at the back for unloading. There are
+   thirty-six furnaces of the Horsfall type placed in two ranks, each
+   arranged in three blocks of six in the large furnace hall. An
+   electric crane running above each rank lifts the boxes off the wagons
+   and carries them to the feeding-hole of each well. Here the box is
+   tipped up by an electric pulley and emptied on to the furnace
+   platform. When the travelling crane is used, the carts (four-wheeled)
+   bringing the refuse may be constructed so that the body of the
+   carriage can be taken off the wheels, lifted up and tipped direct
+   over the furnace as required, and returned again to its frame. The
+   adoption of the travelling crane admits of the reduction in size of
+   the main building, as less platform space for unloading refuse carts
+   is required; the inclined roadway may also be dispensed with. Where a
+   destructor site will not admit of an inclined roadway and platform,
+   the refuse may be discharged from the collecting carts into a lift;
+   and thence elevated into the feeding-bins.
+
+   Other accessory plant in use at most modern destructor stations
+   includes machinery for the removal, crushing and various means of
+   utilization of the residual clinker, stoking tools, air heaters or
+   regenerators for the production of hot-air blast to the furnaces,
+   superheaters and thermal storage arrangements for equalizing the
+   output of power from the station during the 24-hours' day.
+
+
+Working of destructors.
+
+The general arrangement of a battery of refuse cells at a destructor
+station is illustrated by fig. 5. The cells are arranged either side by
+side, with a common main flue in the rear, or back to back with the main
+flue placed in the centre and leading to a tall chimney-shaft. The
+heated gases on leaving the cells pass through the combustion chamber
+into the main flue, and thence go forward to the boilers, where their
+heat is absorbed and utilized. Forced draught, or in many cases, hot
+blast, is supplied from fans through a conduit commanding the whole of
+the cells. An inclined roadway, of as easy gradient as circumstances
+will admit, is provided for the conveyance of the refuse to the tipping
+platform, from which it is fed through feed-holes into the furnaces. In
+the installation of a destructor, the choice of suitable plant and the
+general design of the works must be largely dependent upon local
+requirements, and should be entrusted to an engineer experienced in
+these matters. The following primary considerations, however, may be
+enumerated as materially affecting the design of such works:--
+
+   (a) The plant must be simple, easily worked without stoppages, and
+   without mechanical complications upon which stokers may lay the blame
+   for bad results. (b) It must be strong, must withstand variations of
+   temperature, must not be liable to get out of order, and should admit
+   of being readily repaired. (c) It must be such as can be easily
+   understood by stokers or firemen of average intelligence, so that the
+   continuous working of the plant may not be disorganized by change of
+   workmen. (d) A sufficiently high temperature must be attained in the
+   cells to reduce the refuse to an entirely innocuous clinker, and all
+   fumes or gases should pass either through an adjoining red-hot cell
+   or through a chamber whose temperature is maintained by the ordinary
+   working of the destructor itself at a degree sufficient to exclude
+   the possibility of the escape of any unconsumed gases, vapours or
+   particles. The temperature may vary between 1500° and 2000°. (e) The
+   plant must be so worked that while some of the cells are being
+   recharged, others are at a glowing red heat, in order that a high
+   temperature may be uniformly maintained. (f) The design of the
+   furnaces must admit of clinkering and recharging being easily and
+   quickly performed, the furnace doors being open for a minimum of time
+   so as to obviate the inrush of cold air to lower the temperature ...
+
+                          (_Continued in volume 8, slice 3, page 109._)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Patent No. 3125 (1876).
+
+  [2] Patent No. 8271 (1891).
+
+  [3] Patents No. 8999 (1887); No. 14,709 (1888); No. 22,531 (1891).
+
+  [4] Patent No. 18,719 (1888).
+
+  [5] Patents No. 15,598 (1893) and 23,712 (1893); also Beaman and
+    Deas Sludge Furnace, Patent No. 13,029 (1894).
+
+  [6] _Compte Rendu des Travaux de la Société des Ingénieurs Civils de
+    France_, folio 775 (June 1897).
+
+  [7] Patent No. 15,482 (1885).
+
+  [8] Patents No. 1955 (1867) and No. 378 (1879).
+
+  [9] Patent No. 4896 (1891).
+
+  [10] Patent No. 20,207 (1892).
+
+  [11] Patents No. 18,398 (1892) and No. 12,990 (1892).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 2, by Various
+
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Volume VIII slice II - Demijohn to Destructors.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 2
+       "Demijohn" to "Destructor"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 15, 2009 [EBook #30685]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3>VOLUME VIII slice II<br /><br />
+Demijohn to Destructor</h3>
+<hr />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>1</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMIJOHN,</span> a glass bottle or jar with a large round body and
+narrow neck, encased in wicker-work and provided with handles.
+The word is also used of an erthenware jar, similarly covered
+with wicker. The capacity of a demijohn varies from two to
+twelve gallons, but the common size contains five gallons.
+According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the word is an adaptation
+of a French <i>Dame Jeanne</i>, or Dame Jane, an application
+of a personal name to an object which is not uncommon; cf. the
+use of &ldquo;Toby&rdquo; for a particular form of jug and the many uses
+of the name &ldquo;Jack.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMISE,</span> an Anglo-French legal term (from the Fr. <i>démettre</i>,
+Lat. <i>dimittere</i>, to send away) for a transfer of an estate, especially
+by lease. The word has an operative effect in a lease implying a
+covenant for &ldquo;quiet enjoyment&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord and Tenant</a></span>).
+The phrase &ldquo;demise of the crown&rdquo; is used in English law to
+signify the immediate transfer of the sovereignty, with all its
+attributes and prerogatives, to the successor without any interregnum
+in accordance with the maxim &ldquo;the king never dies.&rdquo;
+At common law the death of the sovereign <i>eo facto</i> dissolved
+parliament, but this was abolished by the Representation of the
+People Act 1867, § 51. Similarly the common law doctrine that
+all offices held under the crown determined at its demise has
+been negatived by the Demise of the Crown Act 1901. &ldquo;Demise&rdquo;
+is thus often used loosely for death or decease.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMIURGE</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dêmiourgos">&#948;&#951;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="dêmios">&#948;&#942;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, of or for the people,
+and <span class="grk" title="ergon">&#7954;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#957;</span>, work), a handicraftsman or artisan. In Homer the
+word has a wide application, including not only hand-workers
+but even heralds and physicians. In Attica the demiurgi formed
+one of the three classes (with the Eupatridae and the geomori,
+georgi or agroeci) into which the early population was divided
+(cf. Arist. <i>Ath. Pol.</i> xiii. 2). They represented either a class of the
+whole population, or, according to Busolt, a commercial nobility
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eupatridae</a></span>). In the sense of &ldquo;worker for the people&rdquo;
+the word was used throughout the Peloponnese, with the exception
+of Sparta, and in many parts of Greece, for a higher
+magistrate. The demiurgi among other officials represent Elis
+and Mantineia at the treaty of peace between Athens, Argos, Elis
+and Mantineia in 420 B.C. (Thuc. v. 47). In the <a href="#artlinks">Achaean League</a>
+(q.v.) the name is given to ten elective officers who presided
+over the assembly, and Corinth sent &ldquo;Epidemiurgi&rdquo; every year
+to Potidaea, officials who apparently answered to the Spartan
+harmosts. In Plato <span class="grk" title="dêmiourgos">&#948;&#951;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span> is the name given to the &ldquo;creator
+of the world&rdquo; (<i>Timaeus</i>, 40) and the word was so adopted by
+the Gnostics (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gnosticism</a></span>).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMMIN,</span> a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, on the
+navigable river Peene (which in the immediate neighbourhood
+receives the Trebel and the Tollense), 72 m. W.N.W. of Stettin,
+on the Berlin-Stralsund railway. Pop. (1905) 12,541. It has
+manufactures of textiles, besides breweries, distilleries and
+tanneries, and an active trade in corn and timber.</p>
+
+<p>The town is of Slavonian origin and of considerable antiquity,
+and was a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne. It
+was besieged by a German army in 1148, and captured by Henry
+the Lion in 1164. In the Thirty Years&rsquo; War Demmin was the
+object of frequent conflicts, and even after the peace of Westphalia
+was taken and retaken in the contest between the electoral
+prince and the Swedes. It passed to Prussia in 1720, and its
+fortifications were dismantled in 1759. In 1807 several engagements
+took place in the vicinity between the French and Russians.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMOCHARES</span> (c. 355-275 B.C.), nephew of Demosthenes,
+Athenian orator and <span class="correction" title="changed from stateman">statesman</span>, was one of the few distinguished
+Athenians in the period of decline. He is first heard of in 322,
+when he spoke in vain against the surrender of Demosthenes
+and the other anti-Macedonian orators demanded by Antipater.
+During the next fifteen years he probably lived in exile. On the
+restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307
+he occupied a prominent position, but was banished in 303
+for having ridiculed the decree of Stratocles, which contained
+a fulsome eulogy of Demetrius. He was recalled in 298, and
+during the next four years<a name="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> fortified and equipped the city with
+provisions and ammunition. In 296 (or 295) he was again
+banished for having concluded an alliance with the Boeotians,
+and did not return until 287 (or 286). In 280 he induced the
+Athenians to erect a public monument in honour of his uncle with
+a suitable inscription. After his death (some five years later)
+the son of Demochares proposed and obtained a decree (Plutarch,
+<i>Vitae decem oratorum</i>, p. 851) that a statue should be erected in
+his honour, containing a record of his public services, which seem
+to have consisted in a reduction of public expenses, a more
+prudent management of the state finances (after his return in
+287) and successful begging missions to the rulers of Egypt and
+Macedonia. Although a friend of the Stoic Zeno, Demochares
+regarded all other philosophers as the enemies of freedom, and
+in 306 supported the proposal of one Sophocles, advocating their
+expulsion from Attica. According to Cicero (<i>Brutus</i>, 83) Demochares
+was the author of a history of his own times, written in
+an oratorical rather than a historical style. As a speaker
+he was noted for his freedom of language (<i>Parrhesiastes</i>, Seneca,
+<i>De ira</i>, iii. 23). He was violently attacked by Timaeus, but found
+a strenuous defender in Polybius (xii. 13).</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See also Plutarch, <i>Demosthenes</i>, 30, <i>Demetrius</i>, 24, <i>Vitae decem
+oratorum</i>, p. 847; J. G. Droysen&rsquo;s essay on Demochares in <i>Zeitschrift
+für die Altertumswissenschaft</i> (1836), Nos. 20, 21.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the &ldquo;four years&rsquo; war&rdquo; and the chronological questions involved,
+see C. W. Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec.</i> ii. 445.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMOCRACY</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dêmokratia">&#948;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#943;&#945;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="dêmos">&#948;&#8134;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, the people, i.e.
+the commons, and <span class="grk" title="kratos">&#954;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, rule), in political science, that form
+of government in which the people rules itself, either directly,
+as in the small city-states of Greece, or through representatives.
+According to Aristotle, democracy is the perverted form of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2"></a>2</span>
+third form of government, which he called <span class="grk" title="politeia">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>, &ldquo;polity&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;constitutional government,&rdquo; the rule of the majority of the
+free and equal citizens, as opposed to monarchy and aristocracy,
+the rule respectively of an individual and of a minority consisting
+of the best citizens (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Government</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aristocracy</a></span>).
+Aristotle&rsquo;s restriction of &ldquo;democracy&rdquo; to <i>bad</i> popular government,
+i.e. mob-rule, or, as it has sometimes been called,
+&ldquo;ochlocracy&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="ochlos">&#8002;&#967;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, mob), was due to the fact that the
+Athenian democracy had in his day degenerated far below the
+ideals of the 5th century, when it reached its zenith under Pericles.
+Since Aristotle&rsquo;s day the word has resumed its natural meaning,
+but democracy in modern times is a very different thing from
+what it was in its best days in Greece and Rome. The Greek
+states were what are known as &ldquo;city-states,&rdquo; the characteristic
+of which was that all the citizens could assemble together in the
+city at regular intervals for legislative and other purposes. This
+sovereign assembly of the people was known at Athens as the
+<a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a> (q.v.), at Sparta as the <a href="#artlinks">Apella</a> (q.v.), at Rome variously
+as the Comitia Centuriata or the Concilium Plebis (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comitia</a></span>).
+Of representative government in the modern sense there is
+practically no trace in Athenian history, though certain of the
+magistrates (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>) had a quasi-representative character.
+Direct democracy is impossible except in small states.
+In the second place the qualification for citizenship was rigorous;
+thus Pericles restricted citizenship to those who were the sons of
+an Athenian father, himself a citizen, and an Athenian mother
+(<span class="grk" title="ex amphoin astoin">&#7952;&#958; &#7936;&#956;&#966;&#972;&#8150;&#957; &#7936;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#8150;&#957;</span>). This system excluded not only all the slaves,
+who were more numerous than the free population, but also
+resident aliens, subject allies, and those Athenians whose descent
+did not satisfy this criterion (<span class="grk" title="tô genei mê katharoi">&#964;&#8183; &#947;&#941;&#957;&#949;&#953; &#956;&#8052; &#954;&#945;&#952;&#945;&#961;&#959;&#943;</span>). The Athenian
+democracy, which was typical in ancient Greece, was a highly
+exclusive form of government.</p>
+
+<p>With the growth of empire and nation states this narrow
+parochial type of democracy became impossible. The population
+became too large and the distance too great for regular assemblies
+of qualified citizens. The rigid distinction of citizens and non-citizens
+was progressively more difficult to maintain, and new
+criteria of citizenship came into force. The first difficulty has
+been met by various forms of representative government. The
+second problem has been solved in various ways in different
+countries; moderate democracies have adopted a low property
+qualification, while extreme democracy is based on the extension
+of citizenship to all adult persons with or without distinction
+of sex. The essence of modern representative government
+is that the people does not govern itself, but periodically
+elects those who shall govern on its behalf (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Government</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Representation</a></span>).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMOCRATIC PARTY,</span> originally <span class="sc">Democratic-Republican
+Party</span>, the oldest of existing political parties in the United States.
+Its origin lay in the principles of local self-government and
+repugnance to social and political aristocracy established as
+cardinal tenets of American colonial democracy, which by the
+War of Independence, which was essentially a democratic movement,
+became the basis of the political institutions of the nation.
+The evils of lax government, both central and state, under the
+Confederation caused, however, a marked anti-democratic
+reaction, and this united with the temperamental conservatism
+of the framers of the constitution of 1787 in the shaping of that
+conservative instrument. The influences and interests for and
+against its adoption took form in the groupings of Federalists
+and Anti-Federalists, and these, after the creation of the new
+government, became respectively, in underlying principles, and,
+to a large extent, in personnel, the <a href="#artlinks">Federalist party</a> (q.v.) and
+the Democratic-Republican party.<a name="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The latter, organized by
+Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the Federalists dominated by
+Alexander Hamilton, was a real party by 1792. The great service
+of attaching to the constitution a democratic bill of rights belongs
+to the Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republican party,
+although this was then amorphous. The Democratic-Republican
+party gained full control of the government, save the judiciary,
+in 1801, and controlled it continuously thereafter until 1825.
+No political &ldquo;platforms&rdquo; were then known, but the writings
+of Jefferson, who dominated his party throughout this period,
+take the place of such. His inaugural address of 1801 is a famous
+statement of democratic principles, which to-day are taken for
+granted only because, through the party organized by him to
+secure their success, they became universally accepted as the
+ideal of American institutions. In all the colonies, says John
+Adams, &ldquo;a court and a country party had always contended&rdquo;;
+Jefferson&rsquo;s followers believed sincerely that the Federalists were
+a new court party, and monarchist. Hence they called themselves
+&ldquo;Republicans&rdquo; as against monarchists,&mdash;standing also, incidentally,
+for states&rsquo; rights against the centralization that monarchy
+(or any approach to it) implied; and &ldquo;Democrats&rdquo; as against
+aristocrats,&mdash;standing for the &ldquo;common rights of Englishmen,&rdquo;
+the &ldquo;rights of man,&rdquo; the levelling of social ranks and the widening
+of political privileges. In the early years of its history&mdash;and
+during the period of the French Revolution and afterwards&mdash;the
+Republicans sympathized with the French as against the
+British, the Federalists with the British as against the French.</p>
+
+<p>Devotion to abstract principles of democracy and liberty, and
+in practical politics a strict construction of the constitution,
+in order to prevent an aggrandizement of national power at the
+expense of the states (which were nearer popular control) or the
+citizens, have been permanent characteristics of the Democratic
+party as contrasted with its principal opponents; but neither
+these nor any other distinctions have been continuously or
+consistently true throughout its long course.<a name="FnAnchor_2b" href="#Footnote_2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> After 1801 the
+commercial and manufacturing nationalistic<a name="FnAnchor_3b" href="#Footnote_3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> elements of the
+Federalist party, being now dependent on Jefferson for protection,
+gradually went over to the Republicans, especially after the War
+of 1812; moreover, administration of government naturally
+developed in Republican ranks a group of broad-constructionists.
+These groups fused, and became an independent party.<a name="FnAnchor_4b" href="#Footnote_4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> They
+called themselves <i>National</i> Republicans, while the Jacksonian
+Republicans soon came to be known simply as Democrats.<a name="FnAnchor_5b" href="#Footnote_5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+Immediately afterward followed the tremendous victory of the
+Jacksonians in 1828,&mdash;a great advance in radical democracy
+over the victory of 1800. In the interval the Federalist party
+had disappeared, and practically the entire country, embracing
+Jeffersonian democracy, had passed through the school of the
+Republican party. It had established the power of the &ldquo;people&rdquo;
+in the sense of that word in present-day American politics. Bills
+of rights in every state constitution protected the citizen; some
+state judges were already elective; very soon the people came
+to nominate their presidential candidates in national conventions,
+and draft their party platforms through their convention
+representatives.<a name="FnAnchor_6b" href="#Footnote_6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> After the National Republican scission
+the Democratic party, weakened thereby in its nationalistic
+tendencies, and deprived of the leadership of Jackson, fell
+quickly under the control of its Southern adherents and became
+virtually sectional in its objects. Its states&rsquo; rights doctrine was
+turned to the defence of slavery. In thus opposing anti-slavery
+sentiment&mdash;inconsistently, alike as regarded the &ldquo;rights of man&rdquo;
+and constitutional construction, with its original and permanent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"></a>3</span>
+principles&mdash;it lost morale and power. As a result of the contest
+over Kansas it became fatally divided, and in 1860 put forward
+two presidential tickets: one representing the doctrine of
+Jefferson Davis that the constitution recognized slave-property,
+and therefore the national government must protect slavery in
+the territories; the other representing Douglas&rsquo;s doctrine that
+the inhabitants of a territory might virtually exclude slavery by
+&ldquo;unfriendly legislation.&rdquo; The combined popular votes for the
+two tickets exceeded that cast by the new, anti-slavery Republican
+party (the second of the name) for Lincoln; but the election was
+lost. During the ensuing Civil War such members of the party
+as did not become War Democrats antagonized the Lincoln
+administration, and in 1864 made the great blunder of pronouncing
+the war &ldquo;a failure.&rdquo; Owing to Republican errors in reconstruction
+and the scandals of President Grant&rsquo;s administration,
+the party gradually regained its strength and morale, until,
+having largely subordinated Southern questions to economic
+issues, it cast for Tilden for president in 1876 a popular vote
+greater than that obtained by the Republican candidate, Hayes,
+and gained control of the House of Representatives. The
+Electoral Commission, however, made Hayes president, and the
+quiet acceptance of this decision by the Democratic party did
+it considerable credit.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1877 the Southern states have been almost solidly
+Democratic; but, except on the negro question, such unanimity
+among Southern whites has been, naturally, factitious; and by
+no means an unmixed good for the party. Apart from the
+&ldquo;Solid South,&rdquo; the period after 1875 is characterized by two
+other party difficulties. The first was the attempt from 1878 to
+1896 to &ldquo;straddle&rdquo; the silver issue;<a name="FnAnchor_7b" href="#Footnote_7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the second, an attempt
+after 1896 to harmonize general elements of conservatism and
+radicalism within the party. In 1896 the South and West gained
+control of the organization, and the national campaigns of
+1896 and 1900 were fought and lost mainly on the issue of
+&ldquo;free silver,&rdquo; which, however, was abandoned before 1904.
+After 1898 &ldquo;imperialism,&rdquo; to which the Democrats were hostile,
+became another issue. Finally, after 1896, there became very
+apparent in the party a tendency to attract the radical elements
+of society in the general re-alignment of parties taking place
+on industrial-social issues; the Democratic party apparently
+attracting, in this readjustment, the &ldquo;radicals&rdquo; and the
+&ldquo;masses&rdquo; as in the time of Jefferson and Jackson. In this
+process, in the years 1896-1900, it took over many of the principles
+and absorbed, in large part, the members of the radical third-party
+of the &ldquo;Populists,&rdquo; only to be confronted thereupon by the
+growing strength of Socialism, challenging it to a farther radical
+widening of its programme. From 1860 to 1908 it elected but a
+single president (Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897).<a name="FnAnchor_8b" href="#Footnote_8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
+All American parties accepted long ago in theory &ldquo;Jeffersonian
+democracy&rdquo;; but the Democratic party has been &ldquo;the political
+champion of those elements of the [American] democracy which
+are most democratic. It stands nearest the people.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_9b" href="#Footnote_9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a> It may
+be noted that the Jeffersonian Republicans did not attempt to
+democratize the constitution itself. The choice of a president
+was soon popularized, however, in effect; and the popular
+election of United States senators is to-day a definite Democratic
+tenet.<a name="FnAnchor_10b" href="#Footnote_10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;For an exposition of the party&rsquo;s principles see
+Thomas Jefferson, <i>Writings</i>, ed. by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York,
+1892-1899); J. P. Foley (ed.), <i>The Jeffersonian Cyclopaedia</i> (New
+York, 1900); and especially the <i>Campaign Text-Books</i> of more recent
+times, usually issued by the national Democratic committee in
+alternate years, and M. Carey, <i>The Democratic Speaker&rsquo;s Handbook</i>
+(Cincinnati, 1868). For a hostile criticism of the party, see
+W. D. Jones, <i>Mirror of Modern Democracy</i>; <i>History of the Democratic
+Party from 1825 to 1861</i> (New York, 1864); Jonathan Norcross, <i>History
+of Democracy Considered as a Party-Name and a Political Organization</i>
+(New York, 1883); J. H. Patton, <i>The Democratic Party: Its
+Political History and Influence</i> (New York, 1884). Favourable
+treatises are R. H. Gillet, <i>Democracy in the United States</i> (New York,
+1868); and George Fitch, <i>Political Facts: an Historical Text-Book
+of the Democratic and Other Parties</i> (Baltimore, 1884). See also,
+for general political history, Thomas H. Benton, <i>Thirty Years&rsquo; View</i>
+(2 vols., New York, 1854-1856, and later editions); James G. Blaine,
+<i>Twenty Years of Congress</i> (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1893);
+S. S. Cox, <i>Three Decades of Federal Legislation</i> (Providence, 1885);
+S. P. Orth, <i>Five American Politicians: a Study in the Evolution of
+American Politics</i> (Cleveland, 1906), containing sketches of four
+Democratic leaders&mdash;Burr, De Witt Clinton, Van Buren and Douglas;
+J. Macy, <i>Party Organization and Machinery</i> (New York, 1904);
+J. H. Hopkins, <i>History of Political Parties in the United States</i>
+(New York, 1900); E. S. Stanwood, <i>History of the Presidency</i>
+(last ed., Boston, 1904); J. P. Gordy, <i>History of Political Parties</i>, i.
+(New York, 1900); H. J. Ford, <i>Rise and Growth of American Politics</i>
+(New York, 1898); Alexander Johnston, <i>History of American Politics</i>
+(New York, 1900, and later editions); C. E. Merriam, <i>A History
+of American Political Theories</i> (New York, 1903), containing
+chapters on the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian Democracy;
+and James A. Woodburn, <i>Political Parties and Party Problems in
+the United States</i> (New York, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The prefix &ldquo;Democratic&rdquo; was not used by Jefferson; it became
+established, however, and official.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2b" href="#FnAnchor_2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Under the rubric of &ldquo;strict construction&rdquo; fall the greatest
+struggles in the party&rsquo;s history: those over the United States Bank,
+over tariffs&mdash;for protection or for &ldquo;revenue&rdquo; only&mdash;over &ldquo;internal
+improvements,&rdquo; over issues of administrative economy in providing
+for the &ldquo;general welfare,&rdquo; &amp;c. The course of the party
+has frequently been inconsistent, and its doctrines have shown,
+absolutely considered, progressive latitudinarianism.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3b" href="#FnAnchor_3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;Nationalistic&rdquo; is used here and below, not in the sense of a
+general nationalistic spirit, such as that of Jackson, but to indicate
+the centralizing tendency of a broad construction of constitutional
+powers in behalf of commerce and manufactures.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4b" href="#FnAnchor_4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Standing for protective tariffs, internal improvements, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5b" href="#FnAnchor_5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> It should be borne in mind, however, that the Democratic party
+of Jackson was not strictly <i>identical</i> with the Democratic-Republican
+party of Jefferson,&mdash;and some writers date back the origin of the
+present Democratic party only to 1828-1829.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6b" href="#FnAnchor_6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The Democratic national convention of 1832 was preceded by an
+Anti-Masonic convention of 1830 and by the National-Republican
+convention of 1831; but the Democratic platform of 1840 was the
+first of its kind.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7b" href="#FnAnchor_7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The attitude of the Republican party was no less inconsistent
+and evasive.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8b" href="#FnAnchor_8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> It controlled the House of Representatives from 1874 to 1894
+except in 1880-1882 and 1888-1890; but except for a time in
+Cleveland&rsquo;s second term, there were never simultaneously a
+Democratic president and a Democratic majority in Congress.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9b" href="#FnAnchor_9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Professor A. D. Morse in <i>International Monthly</i>, October 1900.
+He adds, &ldquo;It has done more to Americanize the foreigner than all
+other parties.&rdquo; (It is predominant in the great cities of the country.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10b" href="#FnAnchor_10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> In connexion with the prevalent popular tendency to regard the
+president as a people&rsquo;s tribune, it may be noted that a strong presidential
+veto is, historically, peculiarly a Democratic contribution,
+owing to the history of Jackson&rsquo;s (compare Cleveland&rsquo;s) administration.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMOCRITUS,</span> probably the greatest of the Greek physical
+philosophers, was a native of Abdera in Thrace, or as some say&mdash;probably
+wrongly&mdash;of Miletus (Diog. Laërt. ix. 34). Our
+knowledge of his life is based almost entirely on tradition of an
+untrustworthy kind. He seems to have been born about 470 or
+460 B.C., and was, therefore, an older contemporary of Socrates.
+He inherited a considerable property, which enabled him to
+travel widely in the East in search of information. In Egypt
+he settled for seven years, during which he studied the mathematical
+and physical systems of the ancient schools. The
+extent to which he was influenced by the Magi and the Eastern
+astrologists is a matter of pure conjecture. He returned from
+his travels impoverished; one tradition says that he received
+500 talents from his fellow-citizens, and that a public funeral was
+decreed him. Another tradition states that he was regarded as
+insane by the Abderitans, and that Hippocrates was summoned
+to cure him. Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died at the age
+of ninety; others make him as much as twenty years older.
+His works, according to Diogenes Laërtius, numbered seventy-two,
+and were characterized by a purity of style which compares
+favourably with that of Plato. The absurd epithet, the
+&ldquo;laughing philosopher,&rdquo; applied to him by some unknown and
+very superficial thinker, may possibly have contributed in
+some measure to the fact that his importance was for centuries
+overlooked. It is interesting, however, to notice that Bacon
+(<i>De Principiis</i>) assigns to him his true place in the history of
+thought, and points out that both in his own day and later
+&ldquo;in the times of Roman learning&rdquo; he was spoken of in terms
+of the highest praise. In the variety of his knowledge, and in
+the importance of his influence on both Greek and modern
+speculation he was the Aristotle of the 5th century, while the
+sanity of his metaphysical theory has led many to regard him
+as the equal, if not the superior, of Plato.</p>
+
+<p>His views may be treated under the following heads:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Atoms and Cosmology</i> (adopted in part at least from
+the doctrines of Leucippus, though the relations between the
+two are hopelessly obscure). While agreeing with the Eleatics
+as to the eternal sameness of Being (nothing can arise out of
+nothing; nothing can be reduced to nothing), Democritus
+followed the physicists in denying its oneness and immobility.
+Movement and plurality being necessary to explain the phenomena
+of the universe and impossible without space (not-Being),
+he asserted that the latter had an equal right with Being
+to be considered existent. Being is the Full (<span class="grk" title="plêres">&#960;&#955;&#8134;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>, <i>plenum</i>);
+not-Being is the Void (<span class="grk" title="kenon">&#954;&#949;&#957;&#972;&#957;</span>, <i>vacuum</i>), the infinite space in which
+moved the infinite number of atoms into which the single Being
+of the Eleatics was broken up. These atoms are eternal and
+invisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>4</span>
+diminished (hence the name <span class="grk" title="atomos">&#7940;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;indivisible&rdquo;); absolutely
+full and incompressible, they are without pores and entirely fill
+the space they occupy; homogeneous, differing only in figure
+(as A from N), arrangement (as AN from NA), position (as N is
+Z on its side), magnitude (and consequently in weight, although
+some authorities dispute this). But while the atoms thus differ
+in quantity, their differences of quality are only apparent, due
+to the impressions caused on our senses by different configurations
+and combinations of atoms. A thing is only hot or cold, sweet
+or bitter, hard or soft by convention (<span class="grk" title="nomô">&#957;&#972;&#956;&#8179;</span>); the only things
+that exist in reality (<span class="grk" title="eteê">&#7952;&#964;&#949;&#8135;</span>) are the atoms and the void. Locke&rsquo;s
+distinction between primary and secondary qualities is here
+anticipated. Thus, the atoms of water and iron are the same,
+but those of the former, being smooth and round, and therefore
+unable to hook on to one another, roll over and over like small
+globes, whereas the atoms of iron, being rough, jagged and
+uneven, cling together and form a solid body. Since all
+phenomena are composed of the same eternal atoms (just as a
+tragedy and a comedy contain the same letters) it may be said
+that nothing comes into being or perishes in the absolute sense
+of the words (cf. the modern &ldquo;indestructibility of matter&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;conservation of energy&rdquo;), although the compounds of the atoms
+are liable to increase and decrease, appearance and disappearance&mdash;in
+other words, to birth and death. As the atoms are eternal
+and uncaused, so is motion; it has its origin in a preceding
+motion, and so on <i>ad infinitum</i>. For the Love and Hate of
+Empedocles and the <i>Nous</i> (Intelligence) of Anaxagoras, Democritus
+substituted fixed and necessary laws (not chance; that is
+a misrepresentation due chiefly to Cicero). Everything can be
+explained by a purely mechanical (but not fortuitous) system,
+in which there is no room for the idea of a providence or an
+intelligent cause working with a view to an end. The origin of
+the universe was explained as follows. An infinite number of
+atoms was carried downwards through infinite space. The
+larger (and heavier), falling with greater velocity, overtook and
+collided with the smaller (and lighter), which were thereby forced
+upwards. This caused various lateral and contrary movements,
+resulting in a whirling movement (<span class="grk" title="dinê">&#948;&#943;&#957;&#951;</span>) resembling the rotation
+of Anaxagoras, whereby similar atoms were brought together
+(as in the winnowing of grain) and united to form larger bodies
+and worlds. Atoms and void being infinite in number and
+extent, and motion having always existed, there must always
+have been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar
+atoms, in various stages of growth and decay.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Soul.</i>&mdash;Democritus devoted considerable attention to
+the structure of the human body, the noblest portion of which
+he considered to be the soul, which everywhere pervades it, a
+psychic atom being intercalated between two corporeal atoms.
+Although, in accordance with his principles, Democritus was
+bound to regard the soul as material (composed of round,
+smooth, specially mobile atoms, identified with the fire-atoms
+floating in the air), he admitted a distinction between it and the
+body, and is even said to have looked upon it as something
+divine. These all-pervading soul atoms exercise different functions
+in different organs; the head is the seat of reason, the heart of
+anger, the liver of desire. Life is maintained by the inhalation
+of fresh atoms to replace those lost by exhalation, and when
+respiration, and consequently the supply of atoms, ceases, the
+result is death. It follows that the soul perishes with, and in the
+same sense as, the body.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Perception.</i>&mdash;Sensations are the changes produced in the
+soul by external impressions, and are the result of contact, since
+every action of one body (and all representations are corporeal
+phenomena) upon another is of the nature of a shock. Certain
+emanations (<span class="grk" title="aporrhoai, aporrhoiai">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#8164;&#8165;&#959;&#945;&#943;, &#7936;&#960;&#972;&#8164;&#8165;&#959;&#953;&#945;&#953;</span>) or images (<span class="grk" title="eidôla">&#949;&#7988;&#948;&#969;&#955;&#945;</span>), consisting of
+subtle atoms, thrown off from the surface of an object, penetrate
+the body through the pores. On the principle that like acts upon
+like, the particular senses are only affected by that which
+resembles them. We see by means of the eye alone, and hear by
+means of the ear alone, these organs being best adapted to receive
+the images or sound currents. The organs are thus merely
+conduits or passages through which the atoms pour into the soul.
+The eye, for example, is damp and porous, and the act of seeing
+consists in the reflection of the image (<span class="grk" title="deikelon">&#948;&#949;&#943;&#954;&#949;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span>) mirrored on the
+smooth moist surface of the pupil. To the interposition of air
+is due the fact that all visual images are to some extent blurred.
+At the same time Democritus distinguished between obscure
+(<span class="grk" title="skotiê">&#963;&#954;&#959;&#964;&#943;&#951;</span>) cognition, resting on sensation alone, and genuine
+(<span class="grk" title="gnêsiê">&#947;&#957;&#951;&#963;&#943;&#951;</span>), which is the result of inquiry by reason, and is concerned
+with atoms and void, the only real existences. This
+knowledge, however, he confessed was exceedingly difficult to
+attain.</p>
+
+<p>It is in Democritus first that we find a real attempt to explain
+colour. He regards black, red, white and green as primary.
+White is characteristically smooth, i.e. casting no shadow, even,
+flat; black is uneven, rough, shadowy and so on. The other
+colours result from various mixtures of these four, and are
+infinite in number. Colour itself is not objective; it is found not
+in the ultimate <i>plenum</i> and <i>vacuum</i>, but only in derived objects
+according to their physical qualities and relations.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Theology.</i>&mdash;The system of Democritus was altogether anti-theistic.
+But, although he rejected the notion of a deity taking
+part in the creation or government of the universe, he yielded
+to popular prejudice so far as to admit the existence of a class
+of beings, of the same form as men, grander, composed of very
+subtle atoms, less liable to dissolution, but still mortal, dwelling
+in the upper regions of air. These beings also manifested themselves
+to man by means of images in dreams, communicated with
+him, and sometimes gave him an insight into the future. Some
+of them were benevolent, others malignant. According to
+Plutarch, Democritus recognized one god under the form of a
+fiery sphere, the soul of the world, but this idea is probably
+of later origin. The popular belief in gods was attributed by
+Democritus to the desire to explain extraordinary phenomena
+(thunder, lightning, earthquakes) by reference to superhuman
+agency.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Ethics.</i>&mdash;Democritus&rsquo;s moral system&mdash;the first collection of
+ethical precepts which deserves the name&mdash;strongly resembles
+the negative side of the system of Epicurus. The <i>summum
+bonum</i> is the maximum of pleasure with the minimum of pain.
+But true pleasure is not sensual enjoyment; it has its principle
+in the soul. It consists not in the possession of wealth or flocks
+and herds, but in good humour, in the just disposition and constant
+tranquillity of the soul. Hence the necessity of avoiding
+extremes; too much and too little are alike evils. True happiness
+consists in taking advantage of what one has and being
+content with it (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Fragments edited by F. Mullach (1843) with
+commentary and in his <i>Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum</i>, i. (1860).
+See also H. Ritter and L. Preller, <i>Historia philosophiae</i> (chap. i. ad
+fin.); P. Lafaist (Lafaye), <i>Dissertation sur la philosophie atomistique</i>
+(1833); L. Liard, <i>De Democrito philosopho</i> (Paris, 1873);
+H. C. Liepmann, <i>Die Leucipp-Democritischen Atome</i> (Leipzig, 1886);
+F. A. Lange, <i>Geschichte des Materialismus</i> (Eng. trans. by E. C. Thomas,
+1877); G. Hart, <i>Zur Seelen- und Erkenntnislehre des Democritus</i>
+(Leipzig, 1886); P. Natorp, <i>Die Ethika des Demokritos</i> (Marburg,
+1893); A. Dyroff, <i>Demokritstudien</i> (Leipzig, 1899); among general
+works C. A. Brandis, <i>Gesch. d. Entwickelungen d. griech. Philosophie</i>
+(Bonn, 1862-1864); Ed. Zeller, <i>Pre-Socratic Philosophy</i> (Eng. trans.,
+London, 1881); for his theory of sense-perception see especially
+J. I. Beare, <i>Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition</i> (Oxford, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMOGEOT, JACQUES CLAUDE</span> (1808-1804), French man
+of letters, was born in Paris on the 5th of July 1808. He was
+professor of rhetoric at the lycée Saint Louis, and subsequently
+assistant professor at the Sorbonne. He wrote many detached
+papers on various literary subjects, and two reports on
+secondary education in England and Scotland in collaboration
+with H. Montucci. His reputation rests on his excellent <i>Histoire
+de la littérature française depuis ses origines jusqu&rsquo;à nos jours</i>
+(1851), which has passed through many subsequent editions.
+He was also the author of a <i>Tableau de la littérature française au
+XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1859), and of a work (3 vols., 1880-1883) on the
+influence of foreign literatures on the development of French
+literature. He died in Paris in 1894.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMOGRAPHY</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="dêmos">&#948;&#8134;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, people, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to
+write), the science which deals with the statistics of health and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"></a>5</span>
+disease, of the physical, intellectual, physiological and economical
+aspects of births, marriages and mortality. The first to employ
+the word was Achille Guillard in his <i>Éléments de statistique
+humaine ou démographie comparée</i> (1855), but the meaning which
+he attached to it was merely that of the science which treats
+of the condition, general movement and progress of population
+in civilized countries, i.e. little more than what is comprised in
+the ordinary vital statistics, gleaned from census and registration
+reports. The word has come to have a much wider meaning
+and may now be defined as that branch of statistics which deals
+with the life-conditions of peoples.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM</span> (1667-1754), English mathematician
+of French extraction, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, on the
+26th of May 1667. He belonged to a French Protestant family,
+and was compelled to take refuge in England at the revocation of
+the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Having laid the foundation of his
+mathematical studies in France, he prosecuted them further in
+London, where he read public lectures on natural philosophy for
+his support. The <i>Principia mathematica</i> of Sir Isaac Newton,
+which chance threw in his way, caused him to prosecute his
+studies with vigour, and he soon became distinguished among
+first-rate mathematicians. He was among the intimate personal
+friends of Newton, and his eminence and abilities secured his
+admission into the Royal Society of London in 1697, and afterwards
+into the Academies of Berlin and Paris. His merit was
+so well known and acknowledged by the Royal Society that they
+judged him a fit person to decide the famous contest between
+Newton and G. W. Leibnitz (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infinitesimal Calculus</a></span>).
+The life of Demoivre was quiet and uneventful. His old age was
+spent in obscure poverty, his friends and associates having
+nearly all passed away before him. He died at London, on the
+27th of November 1754.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>The <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> contain several of his papers. He
+also published some excellent works, such as <i>Miscellanea analytica
+de seriebus et quadraturis</i> (1730), in 4to. This contained some elegant
+and valuable improvements on then existing methods, which have
+themselves, however, long been superseded. But he has been more
+generally known by his <i>Doctrine of Chances, or Method of Calculating
+the Probabilities of Events at Play</i>. This work was first printed in
+1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. It was reprinted in
+1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition
+was afterwards published with additions in 1756. He also published
+a <i>Treatise on Annuities</i> (1725), which has passed through several
+revised and corrected editions.</p>
+
+<p>See C. Hutton, <i>Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary</i> (1815).
+For <i>Demoivre&rsquo;s Theorem</i> see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trigonometry: Analytical.</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMONETIZATION</span>, a term employed in monetary science in
+two different senses. (a) The depriving or divesting of a metal
+of its standard monetary value. From 1663 to 1717 silver was
+the standard of value in England and gold coins passed at their
+market value. The debasement and underrating of the silver
+coinage insensibly brought about the demonetization of silver
+in England as a standard of value and the substitution of gold.
+During the latter half of the 19th century, the tremendous
+depreciation of silver, owing to its continually increasing production,
+and consequently the impossibility of preserving any
+ratio of stability between it and gold, led to the abandonment or
+demonetization of the metal as a standard and to its use merely
+as token money. (b) The withdrawal of coin from circulation, as,
+for example, in England that of all pre-Victorian gold coins under
+the provisions of the Coinage Act 1889, and the royal proclamation
+of the 22nd of November 1890.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMONOLOGY</span> (<span class="grk" title="Daimôn">&#916;&#945;&#943;&#956;&#969;&#957;</span>, demon, genius, spirit), the branch
+of the science of religions which relates to superhuman beings
+which are not gods. It deals both with benevolent beings which
+have no circle of worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below
+the rank of gods, and with malevolent beings of all kinds. It may
+be noted that the original sense of &ldquo;demon&rdquo; was a benevolent
+being; but in English the name now connotes malevolence; in
+German it has a neutral sense, e.g. <i>Korndämonen</i>. Demons,
+when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to either of the
+classes of spirits recognized by primitive <a href="#artlinks">animism</a> (q.v.); that is
+to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable souls, or
+discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body; a sharp
+distinction is often drawn between these two classes, notably
+by the Melanesians, the West Africans and others; the Arab
+<i>jinn</i>, for example, are not reducible to modified human souls;
+at the same time these classes are frequently conceived as producing
+identical results, e.g. diseases.</p>
+
+<p>Under the head of demons are classified only such spirits as
+are believed to enter into relations with the human race; the
+term therefore includes (1) human souls regarded as genii or
+familiars, (2) such as receive a cult (for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ancestor
+Worship</a></span>), and (3) ghosts or other malevolent revenants;
+excluded are souls conceived as inhabiting another world. But
+just as gods are not necessarily spiritual, demons may also be
+regarded as corporeal; vampires for example are sometimes
+described as human heads with appended entrails, which issue
+from the tomb to attack the living during the night watches.
+The so-called Spectre Huntsman of the Malay Peninsula is said
+to be a man who scours the firmament with his dogs, vainly
+seeking for what he could not find on earth&mdash;a buck mouse-deer
+pregnant with male offspring; but he seems to be a living man;
+there is no statement that he ever died, nor yet that he is a
+spirit. The incubus and succubus of the middle ages are sometimes
+regarded as spiritual beings; but they were held to give
+very real proof of their bodily existence. It should, however,
+be remembered that primitive peoples do not distinguish clearly
+between material and immaterial beings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prevalence of Demons.</i>&mdash;According to a conception of the
+world frequently found among peoples of the lower cultures,
+all the affairs of life are supposed to be under the control of
+spirits, each ruling a certain element or even object, and themselves
+in subjection to a greater spirit. Thus, the Eskimo are
+said to believe in spirits of the sea, earth and sky, the winds,
+the clouds and everything in nature. Every cove of the seashore,
+every point, every island and prominent rock has its guardian
+spirit. All are of the malignant type, to be propitiated only by
+acceptable offerings from persons who desire to visit the locality
+where it is supposed to reside. A rise in culture often results in
+an increase in the number of spiritual beings with whom man
+surrounds himself. Thus, the Koreans go far beyond the
+Eskimo and number their demons by thousands of billions;
+they fill the chimney, the shed, the living-room, the kitchen,
+they are on every shelf and jar; in thousands they waylay
+the traveller as he leaves his home, beside him, behind him,
+dancing in front of him, whirring over his head, crying out
+upon him from air, earth and water.</p>
+
+<p>Especially complicated was the ancient Babylonian demonology;
+all the petty annoyances of life&mdash;a sudden fall, a headache,
+a quarrel&mdash;were set down to the agency of fiends; all the stronger
+emotions&mdash;love, hate, jealousy and so on&mdash;were regarded as the
+work of demons; in fact so numerous were they, that there were
+special fiends for various parts of the human body&mdash;one for the
+head, another for the neck, and so on. Similarly in Egypt at the
+present day the <i>jinn</i> are believed to swarm so thickly that it is
+necessary to ask their permission before pouring water on the
+ground, lest one should accidentally be soused and vent his
+anger on the offending human being. But these beliefs are far
+from being confined to the uncivilized; Greek philosophers like
+Porphyry, no less than the fathers of the Church, held that the
+world was pervaded with spirits; side by side with the belief in
+witchcraft, we can trace through the middle ages the survival of
+primitive animistic views; and in our own day even these beliefs
+subsist in unsuspected vigour among the peasantry of the more
+uneducated European countries. In fact the ready acceptance
+of spiritualism testifies to the force with which the primitive
+animistic way of looking at things appealed to the white races
+in the middle of the last century.</p>
+
+<p><i>Character of Spiritual World.</i>&mdash;The ascription of malevolence
+to the world of spirits is by no means universal. In West Africa
+the Mpongwe believe in local spirits, just as do the Eskimo; but
+they are regarded as inoffensive in the main; true, the passer-by
+must make some trifling offering as he nears their place of
+abode; but it is only occasionally that mischievous acts, such as
+the throwing down of a tree on a passer-by, are, in the view of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>6</span>
+natives, perpetuated by the Ombuiri. So too, many of the spirits
+especially concerned with the operations of nature are conceived
+as neutral or even benevolent; the European peasant fears the
+corn-spirit only when he irritates him by trenching on his domain
+and taking his property by cutting the corn; similarly, there is
+no reason why the more insignificant personages of the pantheon
+should be conceived as malevolent, and we find that the <i>Petara</i>
+of the Dyaks are far from indiscriminating and malignant, though
+disease and death are laid at their door.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification.</i>&mdash;Besides the distinctions of human and non-human,
+hostile and friendly, the demons in which the lower races
+believe are classified by them according to function, each class
+with a distinctive name, with extraordinary minuteness, the list
+in the case of the Malays running to several score. They have,
+for example, a demon of the waterfall, a demon of wild-beast
+tracks, a demon which interferes with snares for wild-fowl, a
+baboon demon, which takes possession of dancers and causes them
+to perform wonderful feats of climbing, &amp;c. But it is impossible
+to do more than deal with a few types, which will illustrate the
+main features of the demonology of savage, barbarous and semi-civilized
+peoples.</p>
+
+<p>(a) Natural causes, either of death or of disease, are hardly,
+if at all, recognized by the uncivilized; everything is attributed
+to spirits or magical influence of some sort. The spirits which
+cause disease may be human or non-human and their influence is
+shown in more than one way; they may enter the body of the
+victim (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Possession</a></span>), and either dominate his mind as well
+as his body, inflict specific diseases, or cause pains of various
+sorts. Thus the Mintra of the Malay Peninsula have a demon
+corresponding to every kind of disease known to them; the
+Tasmanian ascribed a gnawing pain to the presence within him
+of the soul of a dead man, whom he had unwittingly summoned
+by mentioning his name and who was devouring his liver; the
+Samoan held that the violation of a food tabu would result in the
+animal being formed within the body of the offender and cause
+his death. The demon theory of disease is still attested by some
+of our medical terms; epilepsy (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epilêpsis">&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#955;&#951;&#968;&#953;&#962;</span>, seizure) points
+to the belief that the patient is possessed. As a logical consequence
+of this view of disease the mode of treatment among
+peoples in the lower stages of culture is mainly magical; they
+endeavour to propitiate the evil spirits by sacrifice, to expel them
+by spells, &amp;c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exorcism</a></span>), to drive them away by blowing, &amp;c.;
+conversely we find the Khonds attempt to keep away smallpox
+by placing thorns and brushwood in the paths leading to places
+decimated by that disease, in the hope of making the disease
+demon retrace his steps. This theory of disease disappeared
+sooner than did the belief in possession; the energumens
+(<span class="grk" title="energoumenoi">&#7952;&#957;&#949;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#973;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span>) of the early Christian church, who were under
+the care of a special clerical order of exorcists, testify to a belief
+in possession; but the demon theory of disease receives no recognition;
+the energumens find their analogues in the converts
+of missionaries in China, Africa and elsewhere. Another way in
+which a demon is held to cause disease is by introducing itself into
+the patient&rsquo;s body and sucking his blood; the Malays believe
+that a woman who dies in childbirth becomes a <i>langsuir</i> and
+sucks the blood of children; victims of the lycanthrope are
+sometimes said to be done to death in the same way; and it is
+commonly believed in Africa that the wizard has the power of
+killing people in this way, probably with the aid of a familiar.</p>
+
+<p>(b) One of the primary meanings of <span class="grk" title="daimôn">&#948;&#945;&#943;&#956;&#969;&#957;</span> is that of genius
+or familiar, tutelary spirit; according to Hesiod the men of the
+golden race became after death guardians or watchers over
+mortals. The idea is found among the Romans also; they
+attributed to every man a genius who accompanied him through
+life. A Norse belief found in Iceland is that the <i>fylgia</i>, a genius
+in animal form, attends human beings; and these animal
+guardians may sometimes be seen fighting; in the same way the
+Siberian shamans send their animal familiars to do battle instead
+of deciding their quarrels in person. The animal guardian reappears
+in the <i>nagual</i> of Central America (see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Totemism</a></span>),
+the <i>yunbeai</i> of some Australian tribes, the <i>manitou</i> of the
+Red Indian and the bush soul of some West African tribes;
+among the latter the link between animal and human being
+is said to be established by the ceremony of the blood bond.
+Corresponding to the animal guardian of the ordinary man, we
+have the familiar of the witch or wizard. All the world over it is
+held that such people can assume the form of animals; sometimes
+the power of the shaman is held to depend on his being
+able to summon his familiar; among the Ostiaks the shaman&rsquo;s
+coat was covered with representations of birds and beasts; two
+bear&rsquo;s claws were on his hands; his wand was covered with
+mouse-skin; when he wished to divine he beat his drum till a
+black bird appeared and perched on his hut; then the shaman
+swooned, the bird vanished, and the divination could begin.
+Similarly the Greenland <i>angekok</i> is said to summon his <i>torngak</i>
+(which may be an ancestral ghost or an animal) by drumming;
+he is heard by the bystanders to carry on a conversation and
+obtain advice as to how to treat diseases, the prospects of good
+weather and other matters of importance. The familiar, who is
+sometimes replaced by the devil, commonly figured in witchcraft
+trials; and a statute of James I. enacted that all persons invoking
+an evil spirit or consulting, covenanting with, entertaining,
+employing, feeding or rewarding any evil spirit should be guilty
+of felony and suffer death. In modern spiritualism the familiar
+is represented by the &ldquo;guide,&rdquo; corresponding to which we have
+the theosophical &ldquo;guru.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(c) The familiar is sometimes an ancestral spirit, and here we
+touch the fringe of the cult of the dead (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ancestor
+Worship</a></span>). Especially among the lower races the dead are
+regarded as hostile; the Australian avoids the grave even of a
+kinsman and elaborate ceremonies of mourning are found amongst
+most primitive peoples, whose object seems to be to rid the living
+of the danger they run by association with the ghost of the dead.
+Among the Zulu the spirits of the dead are held to be friendly or
+hostile, just as they were in life; on the Congo a man after death
+joins the good or bad spirits according as his life has been good
+or bad. Especially feared among many peoples are the souls
+of those who have committed suicide or died a violent death;
+the woman who dies in childbed is held to become a demon of
+the most dangerous kind; even the unburied, as restless, dissatisfied
+spirits, are more feared than ordinary ghosts. Naturally
+spirits of these latter kinds are more valuable as familiars than
+ordinary dead men&rsquo;s souls. We find many recipes for securing
+their aid. In the Malay Peninsula the blood of a murdered man
+must be put in a bottle and prayers said over; after seven days
+of this worship a sound is heard and the operator puts his finger
+into the bottle for the polong, as the demon is called, to suck;
+it will fly through the air in the shape of an exceedingly diminutive
+female figure, and is always preceded by its pet, the pelesit, in
+the shape of a grasshopper. In Europe a similar demon is said
+to be obtainable from a cock&rsquo;s egg. In South Africa and India,
+on the other hand, the magician digs up a dead body, especially
+of a child, to secure a familiar. The evocation of spirits, especially
+in the form of necromancy, is an important branch of the demonology
+of many peoples; and the peculiarities of trance mediumship,
+which seem sufficiently established by modern research,
+go far to explain the vogue of this art. It seems to have been
+common among the Jews, and the case of the witch of Endor is
+narrated in a way to suggest something beyond fraud; in the
+book of magic which bears the name of Dr Faustus may be found
+many of the formulae for raising demons; in England may be
+mentioned especially Dr Dee as one of the most famous of those
+who claimed before the days of modern <a href="#artlinks">spiritualism</a> (q.v.) to
+have intercourse with the unseen world and to summon demons
+at his will. Sometimes the spirits were summoned to appear
+as did the phantoms of the Greek heroes to Odysseus; sometimes
+they were called to enter a crystal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystal-Gazing</a></span>);
+sometimes they are merely asked to declare the future or communicate
+by moving external objects without taking a visible
+form; thus among the Karens at the close of the burial ceremonies
+the ghost of the dead man, which is said to hover round
+till the rites are completed, is believed to make a ring swing
+round and snap the string from which it hangs.</p>
+
+<p>(d) The vampire is a particular form of demon which calls for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>7</span>
+some notice. In the Malay Peninsula, parts of Polynesia, &amp;c.,
+it is conceived as a head with attached entrails, which issues, it
+may be from the grave, to suck the blood of living human beings.
+According to the Malays a <i>penanggalan</i> (vampire) is a living
+witch, and can be killed if she can be caught; she is especially
+feared in houses where a birth has taken place and it is the
+custom to hang up a bunch of thistle in order to catch her; she
+is said to keep vinegar at home to aid her in re-entering her own
+body. In Europe the Slavonic area is the principal seat of
+vampire beliefs, and here too we find, as a natural development,
+that means of preventing the dead from injuring the living have
+been evolved by the popular mind. The corpse of the vampire,
+which may often be recognized by its unnaturally ruddy and
+fresh appearance, should be staked down in the grave or its head
+should be cut off; it is interesting to note that the cutting off of
+heads of the dead was a neolithic burial rite.</p>
+
+<p>(e) The vampire is frequently blended in popular idea with
+the <a href="#artlinks">Poltergeist</a> (q.v.) or knocking spirit, and also with the werwolf
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lycanthropy</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>(f) As might be expected, dream demons are very common;
+in fact the word &ldquo;nightmare&rdquo; (A.S. <i>mær</i>, spirit, elf) preserves
+for us a record of this form of belief, which is found right down
+to the lowest planes of culture. The Australian, when he suffers
+from an oppression in his sleep, says that Koin is trying to throttle
+him; the Caribs say that Maboya beats them in their sleep;
+and the belief persists to this day in some parts of Europe;
+horses too are said to be subject to the persecutions of demons,
+which ride them at night. Another class of nocturnal demons
+are the incubi and succubi, who are said to consort with human
+beings in their sleep; in the Antilles these were the ghosts of the
+dead; in New Zealand likewise ancestral deities formed liaisons
+with females; in the Samoan Islands the inferior gods were
+regarded as the fathers of children otherwise unaccounted for;
+the Hindus have rites prescribed by which a companion nymph
+may be secured. The question of the real existence of incubi and
+succubi, whom the Romans identified with the fauns, was gravely
+discussed by the fathers of the church; and in 1418 Innocent VIII.
+set forth the doctrine of lecherous demons as an indisputable
+fact; and in the history of the Inquisition and of trials for witchcraft
+may be found the confessions of many who bore witness
+to their reality. In the <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i> Burton assures
+us that they were never more numerous than in A.D. 1600.</p>
+
+<p>(g) Corresponding to the personal tutelary spirit (supra, b) we
+have the genii of buildings and places. The Romans celebrated
+the birthday of a town and of its genius, just as they celebrated
+that of a man; and a snake was a frequent form for this kind of
+demon; when we compare with this the South African belief that
+the snakes which are in the neighbourhood of the kraal are the
+incarnations of the ancestors of the residents, it seems probable
+that some similar idea lay at the bottom of the Roman belief; to
+this day in European folklore the house snake or toad, which lives
+in the cellar, is regarded as the &ldquo;life index&rdquo; or other self of the
+father of the house; the death of one involves the death of the
+other, according to popular belief. The assignment of genii to
+buildings and gates is connected with an important class of
+sacrifices; in order to provide a tutelary spirit, or to appease
+chthonic deities, it was often the custom to sacrifice a human
+being or an animal at the foundation of a building; sometimes we
+find a similar guardian provided for the frontier of a country or of
+a tribe. The house spirit is, however, not necessarily connected
+with this idea. In Russia the <i>domovoi</i> (house spirit) is an
+important personage in folk-belief; he may object to certain
+kinds of animals, or to certain colours in cattle; and must,
+generally speaking, be propitiated and cared for. Corresponding
+to him we have the drudging goblin of English folklore.</p>
+
+<p>(h) It has been shown above how the animistic creed postulates
+the existence of all kinds of local spirits, which are sometimes
+tied to their habitats, sometimes free to wander. Especially
+prominent in Europe, classical, medieval and modern, and in
+East Asia, is the spirit of the lake, river, spring, or well, often
+conceived as human, but also in the form of a bull or horse; the
+term Old Nick may refer to the water-horse Nök. Less specialized
+in their functions are many of the figures of modern folklore,
+some of whom have perhaps replaced some ancient goddess,
+e.g. Frau Holda; others, like the Welsh Pwck, the Lancashire
+boggarts or the more widely found Jack-o&rsquo;-Lantern (Will o&rsquo; the
+Wisp), are sprites who do no more harm than leading the
+wanderer astray. The banshee is perhaps connected with
+ancestral or house spirits; the Wild Huntsman, the Gabriel
+hounds, the Seven Whistlers, &amp;c., are traceable to some actual
+phenomenon; but the great mass of British goblindom cannot
+now be traced back to savage or barbarous analogues. Among
+other local sprites may be mentioned the kobolds or spirits of the
+mines. The fairies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fairy</a></span>), located in the fairy knolls by the
+inhabitants of the Shetlands, may also be put under this head.</p>
+
+<p>(i) The subject of plant souls is referred to in connexion with
+<a href="#artlinks">animism</a> (q.v.); but certain aspects of this phase of belief
+demand more detailed treatment. Outside the European area
+vegetation spirits of all kinds seem to be conceived, as a rule, as
+anthropomorphic; in classical Europe, and parts of the Slavonic
+area at the present day, the tree spirit was believed to have the
+form of a goat, or to have goats&rsquo; feet.</p>
+
+<p>Of special importance in Europe is the conception of the
+so-called &ldquo;corn spirit&rdquo;; W. Mannhardt collected a mass of
+information proving that the life of the corn is supposed to exist
+apart from the corn itself and to take the form, sometimes of an
+animal, sometimes of a man or woman, sometimes of a child.
+There is, however, no proof that the belief is animistic in the
+proper sense. The animal which popular belief identified with
+the corn demon is sometimes killed in the spring in order to
+mingle its blood or bones with the seed; at harvest-time it is
+supposed to sit in the last corn and the animals driven out from it
+are sometimes killed; at others the reaper who cuts the last ear
+is said to have killed the &ldquo;wolf&rdquo; or the &ldquo;dog,&rdquo; and sometimes
+receives the name of &ldquo;wolf&rdquo; or &ldquo;dog&rdquo; and retains it till the next
+harvest. The corn spirit is also said to be hiding in the barn till
+the corn is threshed, or it may be said to reappear at midwinter,
+when the farmer begins to think of his new year of labour and
+harvest. Side by side with the conception of the corn spirit as
+an animal is the anthropomorphic view of it; and this element
+must have predominated in the evolution of the cereal deities
+like Demeter; at the same time traces of the association of gods
+and goddesses of corn with animal embodiments of the corn spirit
+are found.</p>
+
+<p>(j) In many parts of the world, and especially in Africa, is
+found the conception termed the &ldquo;otiose creator&rdquo;; that is to
+say, the belief in a great deity, who is the author of all that exists
+but is too remote from the world and too high above terrestrial
+things to concern himself with the details of the universe. As
+a natural result of this belief we find the view that the operations
+of nature are conducted by a multitude of more or less obedient
+subordinate deities; thus, in Portuguese West Africa the
+Kimbunda believe in Suku-Vakange, but hold that he has committed
+the government of the universe to innumerable <i>kilulu</i>
+good and bad; the latter kind are held to be far more numerous,
+but Suku-Vakange is said to keep them in order by occasionally
+smiting them with his thunderbolts; were it not for this, man&rsquo;s
+lot would be insupportable.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the gods of an older religion degenerate into the
+demons of the belief which supersedes it. A conspicuous example
+of this is found in the attitude of the Hebrew prophets to the gods
+of the nations, whose power they recognize without admitting
+their claim to reverence and sacrifice. The same tendency is seen
+in many early missionary works and is far from being without
+influence even at the present day. In the folklore of European
+countries goblindom is peopled by gods and nature-spirits of an
+earlier heathendom. We may also compare the Persian <i>devs</i>
+with the Indian <i>devas</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Expulsion of Demons.</i>&mdash;In connexion with demonology mention
+must be made of the custom of expelling ghosts, spirits or evils
+generally. Primitive peoples from the Australians upwards
+celebrate, usually at fixed intervals, a driving out of hurtful
+influences. Sometimes, as among the Australians, it is merely
+the ghosts of those who have died in the year which are thus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"></a>8</span>
+driven out; from this custom must be distinguished another,
+which consists in dismissing the souls of the dead at the close of
+the year and sending them on their journey to the other world;
+this latter custom seems to have an entirely different origin and
+to be due to love and not fear of the dead. In other cases it is
+believed that evil spirits generally or even non-personal evils
+such as sins are believed to be expelled. In these customs
+originated perhaps the scapegoat, some forms of <a href="#artlinks">sacrifice</a> (q.v.)
+and other cathartic ceremonies.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>; Frazer, <i>Golden Bough</i>;
+Skeat, <i>Malay Magic</i>; Bastian, <i>Der Mensch in der Geschichte</i>;
+Callaway, <i>Religion of the Amazulu</i>; Hild, <i>Étude sur les démons</i>;
+Welcker, <i>Griechische Götterlehre</i>, i. 731; <i>Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.</i>
+xxvi. 79; Calmet, <i>Dissertation sur les esprits</i>; Maury, <i>La Magie</i>;
+L. W. King, <i>Babylonian Magic</i>; Lenormant, <i>La Magie chez les
+Chaldéens</i>; R. C. Thompson, <i>Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia</i>;
+Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>; Roskoff, <i>Geschichte des Teufels</i>; Sibly,
+<i>Illustration of the Occult Sciences</i>; Scott, <i>Demonology</i>; Pitcairn,
+<i>Scottish Criminal Trials</i>; <i>Jewish Quarterly Rev.</i> viii. 576, &amp;c.;
+Horst, <i>Zauberbibliothek</i>; <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Demonology.&rdquo;
+See also bibliography to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Possession</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Animism</a></span> and other articles.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS</span> (1806-1871), English mathematician
+and logician, was born in June 1806, at Madura, in the
+Madras presidency. His father, Colonel John De Morgan, was
+employed in the East India Company&rsquo;s service, and his grandfather
+and great-grandfather had served under Warren Hastings.
+On the mother&rsquo;s side he was descended from James Dodson, F.R.S.,
+author of the <i>Anti-logarithmic Canon</i> and other mathematical
+works of merit, and a friend of Abraham Demoivre. Seven
+months after the birth of Augustus, Colonel De Morgan brought
+his wife, daughter and infant son to England, where he left
+them during a subsequent period of service in India, dying in
+1816 on his way home.</p>
+
+<p>Augustus De Morgan received his early education in several
+private schools, and before the age of fourteen years had learned
+Latin, Greek and some Hebrew, in addition to acquiring much
+general knowledge. At the age of sixteen years and a half he
+entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied mathematics,
+partly under the tuition of Sir G. B. Airy. In 1825 he gained a
+Trinity scholarship. De Morgan&rsquo;s love of wide reading somewhat
+interfered with his success in the mathematical tripos, in
+which he took the fourth place in 1827. He was prevented from
+taking his M.A. degree, or from obtaining a fellowship, by his
+conscientious objection to signing the theological tests then
+required from masters of arts and fellows at Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>A career in his own university being closed against him, he
+entered Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn; but had hardly done so when the establishment,
+in 1828, of the university of London, in Gower Street,
+afterwards known as University College, gave him an opportunity
+of continuing his mathematical pursuits. At the early age of
+twenty-two he gave his first lecture as professor of mathematics
+in the college which he served with the utmost zeal and success
+for a third of a century. His connexion with the college, indeed,
+was interrupted in 1831, when a disagreement with the governing
+body caused De Morgan and some other professors to resign their
+chairs simultaneously. When, in 1836, his successor was accidentally
+drowned, De Morgan was requested to resume the
+professorship.</p>
+
+<p>In 1837 he married Sophia Elizabeth, daughter of William
+Frend, a Unitarian in faith, a mathematician and actuary in
+occupation, a notice of whose life, written by his son-in-law,
+will be found in the <i>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
+Society</i> (vol. v.). They settled in Chelsea (30 Cheyne Row), where
+in later years Mrs De Morgan had a large circle of intellectual
+and artistic friends.</p>
+
+<p>As a teacher of mathematics De Morgan was unrivalled. He
+gave instruction in the form of continuous lectures delivered
+extempore from brief notes. The most prolonged mathematical
+reasoning, and the most intricate formulae, were given with
+almost infallible accuracy from the resources of his extraordinary
+memory. De Morgan&rsquo;s writings, however excellent, give little
+idea of the perspicuity and elegance of his viva voce expositions,
+which never failed to fix the attention of all who were worthy
+of hearing him. Many of his pupils have distinguished themselves,
+and, through Isaac Todhunter and E. J. Routh, he had
+an important influence on the later Cambridge school. For
+thirty years he took an active part in the business of the Royal
+Astronomical Society, editing its publications, supplying obituary
+notices of members, and for eighteen years acting as one of the
+honorary secretaries. He was also frequently employed as consulting
+actuary, a business in which his mathematical powers,
+combined with sound judgment and business-like habits, fitted
+him to take the highest place.</p>
+
+<p>De Morgan&rsquo;s mathematical writings contributed powerfully
+towards the progress of the science. His memoirs on the
+&ldquo;Foundation of Algebra,&rdquo; in the 7th and 8th volumes of the
+<i>Cambridge Philosophical Transactions</i>, contain some of the most
+important contributions which have been made to the philosophy
+of mathematical method; and Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, in the
+preface to his <i>Lectures on Quaternions</i>, refers more than once to
+those papers as having led and encouraged him in the working
+out of the new system of quaternions. The work on <i>Trigonometry
+and Double Algebra</i> (1849) contains in the latter part a
+most luminous and philosophical view of existing and possible
+systems of symbolic calculus. But De Morgan&rsquo;s influence on
+mathematical science in England can only be estimated by a
+review of his long series of publications, which commence, in
+1828, with a translation of part of Bourdon&rsquo;s <i>Elements of Algebra</i>,
+prepared for his students. In 1830 appeared the first edition of
+his well-known <i>Elements of Arithmetic</i>, which did much to raise
+the character of elementary training. It is distinguished by a
+simple yet thoroughly philosophical treatment of the ideas of
+number and magnitude, as well as by the introduction of new
+abbreviated processes of computation, to which De Morgan
+always attributed much practical importance. Second and third
+editions were called for in 1832 and 1835; a sixth edition was
+issued in 1876. De Morgan&rsquo;s other principal mathematical
+works were <i>The Elements of Algebra</i> (1835), a valuable but somewhat
+dry elementary treatise; the <i>Essay on Probabilities</i> (1838),
+forming the 107th volume of <i>Lardner&rsquo;s Cyclopaedia</i>, which forms
+a valuable introduction to the subject; and <i>The Elements of
+Trigonometry and Trigonometrical Analysis, preliminary to the
+Differential Calculus</i> (1837). Several of his mathematical works
+were published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,
+of which De Morgan was at one time an active member.
+Among these may be mentioned the <i>Treatise on the Differential
+and Integral Calculus</i> (1842); the <i>Elementary Illustrations of the
+Differential and Integral Calculus</i>, first published in 1832, but
+often bound up with the larger treatise; the essay, <i>On the Study
+and Difficulties of Mathematics</i> (1831); and a brief treatise on
+<i>Spherical Trigonometry</i> (1834). By some accident the work on
+probability in the same series, written by Sir J. W. Lubbock and
+J. Drinkwater-Bethune, was attributed to De Morgan, an error
+which seriously annoyed his nice sense of bibliographical accuracy.
+For fifteen years he did all in his power to correct the mistake,
+and finally wrote to <i>The Times</i> to disclaim the authorship. (See
+<i>Monthly Notices</i> of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxvi.
+p. 118.) Two of his most elaborate treatises are to be found in the
+<i>Encyclopaedia metropolitana</i>, namely the articles on the Calculus
+of Functions, and the Theory of Probabilities. De Morgan&rsquo;s minor
+mathematical writings were scattered over various periodicals.
+A list of these and other papers will be found in the <i>Royal
+Society&rsquo;s Catalogue</i>, which contains forty-two entries under the
+name of De Morgan.</p>
+
+<p>In spite, however, of the excellence and extent of his mathematical
+writings, it is probably as a logical reformer that De
+Morgan will be best remembered. In this respect he stands
+alongside of his great contemporaries Sir W. R. Hamilton and
+George Boole, as one of several independent discoverers of the
+all-important principle of the quantification of the predicate.
+Unlike most mathematicians, De Morgan always laid much stress
+upon the importance of logical training. In his admirable papers
+upon the modes of teaching arithmetic and geometry, originally
+published in the <i>Quarterly Journal of Education</i> (reprinted in <i>The
+Schoolmaster</i>, vol ii.), he remonstrated against the neglect of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>9</span>
+logical doctrine. In 1839 he produced a small work called <i>First
+Notions of Logic</i>, giving what he had found by experience to be
+much wanted by students commencing with <i>Euclid</i>. In October
+1846 he completed the first of his investigations, in the form of a
+paper printed in the <i>Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical
+Society</i> (vol. viii. No. 29). In this paper the principle of the
+quantified predicate was referred to, and there immediately
+ensued a memorable controversy with Sir W. R. Hamilton regarding
+the independence of De Morgan&rsquo;s discovery, some communications
+having passed between them in the autumn of 1846. The
+details of this dispute will be found in the original pamphlets,
+in the <i>Athenaeum</i> and in the appendix to De Morgan&rsquo;s <i>Formal
+Logic</i>. Suffice it to say that the independence of De Morgan&rsquo;s
+discovery was subsequently recognized by Hamilton. The eight
+forms of proposition adopted by De Morgan as the basis of his
+system partially differ from those which Hamilton derived
+from the quantified predicate. The general character of De
+Morgan&rsquo;s development of logical forms was wholly peculiar and
+original on his part.</p>
+
+<p>Late in 1847 De Morgan published his principal logical treatise,
+called <i>Formal Logic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and
+Probable</i>. This contains a reprint of the <i>First Notions</i>, an elaborate
+development of his doctrine of the syllogism, and of the
+numerical definite syllogism, together with chapters of great
+interest on probability, induction, old logical terms and fallacies.
+The severity of the treatise is relieved by characteristic touches
+of humour, and by quaint anecdotes and allusions furnished from
+his wide reading and perfect memory. There followed at
+intervals, in the years 1850, 1858, 1860 and 1863, a series of four
+elaborate memoirs on the &ldquo;Syllogism,&rdquo; printed in volumes ix.
+and x. of the <i>Cambridge Philosophical Transactions</i>. These
+papers taken together constitute a great treatise on logic,
+in which he substituted improved systems of notation, and
+developed a new logic of relations, and a new onymatic system
+of logical expression. In 1860 De Morgan endeavoured to render
+their contents better known by publishing a <i>Syllabus of a
+Proposed System of Logic</i>, from which may be obtained a good
+idea of his symbolic system, but the more readable and interesting
+discussions contained in the memoirs are of necessity omitted.
+The article &ldquo;Logic&rdquo; in the <i>English Cyclopaedia</i> (1860) completes
+the list of his logical publications.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout his logical writings De Morgan was led by the idea
+that the followers of the two great branches of exact science,
+logic and mathematics, had made blunders,&mdash;the logicians in
+neglecting mathematics, and the mathematicians in neglecting
+logic. He endeavoured to reconcile them, and in the attempt
+showed how many errors an acute mathematician could detect
+in logical writings, and how large a field there was for discovery.
+But it may be doubted whether De Morgan&rsquo;s own system,
+&ldquo;horrent with mysterious spiculae,&rdquo; as Hamilton aptly described
+it, is fitted to exhibit the real analogy between quantitative and
+qualitative reasoning, which is rather to be sought in the logical
+works of Boole.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>Perhaps the largest part, in volume, of De Morgan&rsquo;s writings remains
+still to be briefly mentioned; it consists of detached articles
+contributed to various periodical or composite works. During the
+years 1833-1843 he contributed very largely to the first edition of
+the <i>Penny Cyclopaedia</i>, writing chiefly on mathematics, astronomy,
+physics and biography. His articles of various length cannot be
+less in number than 850, and they have been estimated to constitute
+a sixth part of the whole <i>Cyclopaedia</i>, of which they formed perhaps
+the most valuable portion. He also wrote biographies of Sir Isaac
+Newton and Edmund Halley for Knight&rsquo;s <i>British Worthies</i>, various
+notices of scientific men for the <i>Gallery of Portraits</i>, and for the uncompleted
+<i>Biographical Dictionary</i> of the Useful Knowledge Society,
+and at least seven articles in Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman
+Biography</i>. Some of De Morgan&rsquo;s most interesting and useful minor
+writings are to be found in the <i>Companions to the British Almanack</i>, to
+which he contributed without fail one article each year from 1831 up
+to 1857 inclusive. In these carefully written papers he treats a great
+variety of topics relating to astronomy, chronology, decimal coinage,
+life assurance, bibliography and the history of science. Most of
+them are as valuable now as when written.</p>
+
+<p>Among De Morgan&rsquo;s miscellaneous writings may be mentioned his
+<i>Explanation of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere</i>, 1836, including
+a description of the maps of the stars, published by the Useful Knowledge
+Society; his <i>Treatise on the Globes, Celestial and Terrestrial</i>, 1845,
+and his remarkable <i>Book of Almanacks</i> (2nd edition, 1871), which
+contains a series of thirty-five almanacs, so arranged with indices of
+reference, that the almanac for any year, whether in old style or new,
+from any epoch, ancient or modern, up to A. D. 2000, may be found
+without difficulty, means being added for verifying the almanac and
+also for discovering the days of new and full moon from 2000 B. C. up
+to A. D. 2000. De Morgan expressly draws attention to the fact that
+the plan of this book was that of L. B. Francoeur and J. Ferguson,
+but the plan was developed by one who was an unrivalled master of
+all the intricacies of chronology. The two best tables of logarithms,
+the small five-figure tables of the Useful Knowledge Society (1839 and
+1857), and Shroen&rsquo;s Seven Figure-Table (5th ed., 1865), were printed
+under De Morgan&rsquo;s superintendence. Several works edited by him
+will be found mentioned in the <i>British Museum Catalogue</i>. He made
+numerous anonymous contributions through a long series of years
+to the <i>Athenaeum</i>, and to <i>Notes and Queries</i>, and occasionally to
+<i>The North British Review</i>, <i>Macmillan&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable labour was spent by De Morgan upon the subject
+of decimal coinage. He was a great advocate of the pound and mil
+scheme. His evidence on this subject was sought by the Royal
+Commission, and, besides constantly supporting the Decimal
+Association in periodical publications, he published several separate
+pamphlets on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>One marked characteristic of De Morgan was his intense and yet
+reasonable love of books. He was a true bibliophile and loved to
+surround himself, as far as his means allowed, with curious and rare
+books. He revelled in all the mysteries of watermarks, title-pages,
+colophons, catch-words and the like; yet he treated bibliography
+as an important science. As he himself wrote, &ldquo;the most worthless
+book of a bygone day is a record worthy of preservation; like a
+telescopic star, its obscurity may render it unavailable for most
+purposes; but it serves, in hands which know how to use it, to determine
+the places of more important bodies.&rdquo; His evidence before
+the Royal Commission on the British Museum in 1850 (Questions
+5704*-5815,* 6481-6513, and 8966-8967), should be studied by all
+who would comprehend the principles of bibliography or the art of
+constructing a catalogue, his views on the latter subject corresponding
+with those carried out by Panizzi in the <i>British Museum Catalogue</i>.
+A sample of De Morgan&rsquo;s bibliographical learning is to be found in
+his account of <i>Arithmetical Books, from the Invention of Printing</i>
+(1847), and finally in his <i>Budget of Paradoxes</i>. This latter work
+consists of articles most of which were originally published in the
+Athenaeum, describing the various attempts which have been made
+to invent a perpetual motion, to square the circle, or to trisect the
+angle; but De Morgan took the opportunity to include many curious
+bits gathered from his extensive reading, so that the <i>Budget</i>, as reprinted
+by his widow (1872), with much additional matter prepared
+by himself, forms a remarkable collection of scientific <i>ana</i>. De
+Morgan&rsquo;s correspondence with contemporary scientific men was very
+extensive and full of interest. It remains unpublished, as does also
+a large mass of mathematical tracts which he prepared for the use
+of his students, treating all parts of mathematical science, and
+embodying some of the matter of his lectures. De Morgan&rsquo;s library
+was purchased by Lord Overstone, and presented to the university
+of London.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1866 his life became clouded by the circumstances which led
+him to abandon the institution so long the scene of his labours.
+The refusal of the council to accept the recommendation of the
+senate, that they should appoint an eminent Unitarian minister
+to the professorship of logic and mental philosophy, revived all
+De Morgan&rsquo;s sensitiveness on the subject of sectarian freedom;
+and, though his feelings were doubtless excessive, there is no
+doubt that gloom was thrown over his life, intensified in 1867 by
+the loss of his son George Campbell De Morgan, a young man of
+the highest scientific promise, whose name, as De Morgan
+expressly wished, will long be connected with the London
+Mathematical Society, of which he was one of the founders.
+From this time De Morgan rapidly fell into ill-health, previously
+almost unknown to him, dying on the 18th of March 1871. An
+interesting and truthful sketch of his life will be found in the
+<i>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</i> for the 9th of
+February 1872, vol. xxii. p. 112, written by A. C. Ranyard, who
+says, &ldquo;He was the kindliest, as well as the most learned of men&mdash;benignant
+to every one who approached him, never forgetting the
+claims which weakness has on strength.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>De Morgan left no published indications of his opinions on
+religious questions, in regard to which he was extremely reticent.
+He seldom or never entered a place of worship, and declared that
+he could not listen to a sermon, a circumstance perhaps due to
+the extremely strict religious discipline under which he was
+brought up. Nevertheless there is reason to believe that he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"></a>10</span>
+was of a deeply religious disposition. Like M. Faraday and
+Sir I. Newton he entertained a confident belief in Providence,
+founded not on any tenuous inference, but on personal
+feeling. His hope of a future life also was vivid to the last.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to omit a reference to his witty sayings, some
+specimens of which are preserved in Dr Sadler&rsquo;s most interesting
+<i>Diary of Henry Crabb Robinson</i> (1869), which also contains a
+humorous account of H. C. R. by De Morgan. It may be
+added that De Morgan was a great reader and admirer of
+Dickens; he was also fond of music, and a fair performer on
+the flute.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. S. J.)</div>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">William Frend De Morgan</span> (b. 1839), first became
+known in artistic circles as a potter, the &ldquo;De Morgan&rdquo; tiles
+being remarkable for his rediscovery of the secret of some beautiful
+colours and glazes. But later in life he became even better
+known to the literary world by his novels, <i>Joseph Vance</i> (1906),
+<i>Alice for Short</i> (1907), <i>Somehow Good</i> (1908) and <i>It Never Can
+Happen Again</i> (1909), in which the influence of Dickens and of
+his own earlier family life were conspicuous.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMOSTHENES,</span> the great Attic orator and statesman, was
+born in 384 (or 383) B.C. His father, who bore the same name,
+was an Athenian citizen belonging to the deme of Paeania. His
+mother, Cleobule, was the daughter of Gylon, a citizen who had
+been active in procuring the protection of the kings of Bosporus
+for the Athenian colony of Nymphaeon in the Crimea, and whose
+wife was a native of that region. On these grounds the adversaries
+of Demosthenes, in after-days, used absurdly to taunt him with
+a traitorous or barbarian ancestry. The boy had a bitter foretaste
+of life. He was seven years old when his father died,
+leaving property (in a manufactory of swords, and another of
+upholstery) worth about £3500, which, invested as it seems to
+have been (20% was not thought exorbitant), would have
+yielded rather more than £600 a year, £300 a year was a very
+comfortable income at Athens, and it was possible to live decently
+on a tenth of it. Nicias, a very rich man, had property equivalent,
+probably, to not more than £4000 a year. Demosthenes was born
+then, to a handsome, though not a great fortune. But his
+guardians&mdash;two nephews of his father, Aphobus and Demophon,
+and one Therippides&mdash;abused their trust, and handed over to
+Demosthenes, when he came of age, rather less than one-seventh
+of his patrimony, perhaps between £50 and £60 a year.
+Demosthenes, after studying with <a href="#artlinks">Isaeus</a> (q.v.)&mdash;then the great
+master of forensic eloquence and of Attic law, especially in will
+cases<a name="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a>&mdash;brought an action against Aphobus, and gained a verdict
+for about £2400. But it does not appear that he got the money;
+and, after some more fruitless proceedings against Onetor,
+the brother-in-law of Aphobus, the matter was dropped,&mdash;not,
+however, before his relatives had managed to throw a public
+burden (the equipment of a ship of war) on their late ward,
+whereby his resources were yet further straitened. He now
+became a professional writer of speeches or pleas (<span class="grk" title="logographos">&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#959;&#962;</span>)
+for the law courts, sometimes speaking himself. Biographers
+have delighted to relate how painfully Demosthenes made himself
+a tolerable speaker,&mdash;how, with pebbles in his mouth, he
+tried his lungs against the waves, how he declaimed as he ran up
+hill, how he shut himself up in a cell, having first guarded himself
+against a longing for the haunts of men by shaving one side of
+his head, how he wrote out Thucydides eight times, how he was
+derided by the Assembly and encouraged by a judicious actor who
+met him moping about the Peiraeus. He certainly seems to have
+been the reverse of athletic (the stalwart Aeschines upbraids him
+with never having been a sportsman), and he probably had some
+sort of defect or impediment in his speech as a boy. Perhaps the
+most interesting fact about his work for the law courts is that
+he seems to have continued it, in some measure, through the most
+exciting parts of his great political career. The speech for
+Phormio belongs to the same year as the plea for Megalopolis.
+The speech against Boeotus &ldquo;Concerning the Name&rdquo; comes
+between the First Philippic and the First Olynthiac. The speech
+against Pantaenetus comes between the speech &ldquo;On the Peace&rdquo;
+and the Second Philippic.</p>
+
+<p>The political career of Demosthenes, from his first direct
+contact with public affairs in 355 B.C. to his death in 322, has
+an essential unity. It is the assertion, in successive
+<span class="sidenote">Political career and creed.</span>
+forms adapted to successive moments, of unchanging
+principles. Externally, it is divided into the chapter
+which precedes and the chapter which follows
+Chaeronea. But its inner meaning, the secret of its indomitable
+vigour, the law which harmonizes its apparent contrasts, cannot
+be understood unless it is regarded as a whole. Still less can it
+be appreciated in all its large wisdom and sustained self-mastery
+if it is viewed merely as a duel between the ablest champion and
+the craftiest enemy of Greek freedom. The time indeed came
+when Demosthenes and Philip stood face to face as representative
+antagonists in a mortal conflict. But, for Demosthenes, the
+special peril represented by Philip, the peril of subjugation to
+Macedon, was merely a disastrous accident. Philip happened
+to become the most prominent and most formidable type of a
+danger which was already threatening Greece before his baleful
+star arose. As Demosthenes said to the Athenians, if the
+Macedonian had not existed, they would have made another
+Philip for themselves. Until Athens recovered something of its
+old spirit, there must ever be a great standing danger, not for
+Athens only, but for Greece,&mdash;the danger that sooner or later, in
+some shape, from some quarter&mdash;no man could foretell the hour,
+the manner or the source&mdash;barbarian violence would break up
+the gracious and undefiled tradition of separate Hellenic life.</p>
+
+<p>What was the true relation of Athens to Greece? The answer
+which he gave to this question is the key to the life of
+Demosthenes. Athens, so Demosthenes held, was the natural
+head of Greece. Not, however, as an empress holding subject
+or subordinate cities in a dependence more or less compulsory.
+Rather as that city which most nobly expressed the noblest
+attributes of Greek political existence, and which, by her preeminent
+gifts both of intellect and of moral insight, was primarily
+responsible, everywhere and always, for the maintenance of those
+attributes in their integrity. Wherever the cry of the oppressed
+goes up from Greek against Greek, it was the voice of Athens
+which should first remind the oppressor that Hellene differed
+from barbarian in postponing the use of force to the persuasions
+of equal law. Wherever a barbarian hand offered wrong to any
+city of the Hellenic sisterhood, it was the arm of Athens which
+should first be stretched forth in the holy strength of Apollo the
+Averter. Wherever among her own children the ancient loyalty
+was yielding to love of pleasure or of base gain, there, above all,
+it was the duty of Athens to see that the central hearth of Hellas
+was kept pure. Athens must never again seek &ldquo;empire&rdquo; in the
+sense which became odious under the influence of Cleon and
+Hyperbolus,&mdash;when, to use the image of Aristophanes, the allies
+were as Babylonian slaves grinding in the Athenian mill. Athens
+must never permit, if she could help it, the re-establishment of
+such a domination as Sparta exercised in Greece from the battle
+of Aegospotami to the battle of Leuctra. Athens must aim
+at leading a free confederacy, of which the members should be
+bound to her by their own truest interests. Athens must seek
+to deserve the confidence of all Greeks alike.</p>
+
+<p>Such, in the belief of Demosthenes, was the part which Athens
+must perform if Greece was to be safe. But reforms must be
+effected before Athens could be capable of such a part. The evils
+to be cured were different phases of one malady. Athens had
+long been suffering from the profound decay of public spirit.
+Since the early years of the Peloponnesian War, the separation
+of Athenian society from the state had been growing more and
+more marked. The old type of the eminent citizen, who was at
+once statesman and general, had become almost extinct. Politics
+were now managed by a small circle of politicians. Wars were
+conducted by professional soldiers whose troops were chiefly
+mercenaries, and who were usually regarded by the politicians
+<span class="sidenote">Theoric fund.</span>
+either as instruments or as enemies. The mass of the
+citizens took no active interest in public affairs. But,
+though indifferent to principles, they had quickly sensitive
+partialities for men, and it was necessary to keep them in
+good humour. Pericles had introduced the practice of giving a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>11</span>
+small bounty from the treasury to the poorer citizens, for the purpose
+of enabling them to attend the theatre at the great festivals,&mdash;in
+other words, for the purpose of bringing them under the
+concentrated influence of the best Attic culture. A provision
+eminently wise for the age of Pericles easily became a mischief
+when the once honourable name of &ldquo;demagogue&rdquo; began to
+mean a flatterer of the mob. Before the end of the Peloponnesian
+War the festival-money (<i>theoricon</i>) was abolished. A few
+years after the restoration of the democracy it was again introduced.
+But until 354 B.C. it had never been more than a gratuity,
+of which the payment depended on the treasury having a surplus.
+In 354 B.C. Eubulus became steward of the treasury. He was
+an able man, with a special talent for finance, free from all taint
+of personal corruption, and sincerely solicitous for the honour
+of Athens, but enslaved to popularity, and without principles
+of policy. His first measure was to make the festival-money a
+permanent item in the budget. Thenceforth this bounty was in
+reality very much what Demades afterwards called it,&mdash;the
+cement (<span class="grk" title="kolla">&#954;&#972;&#955;&#955;&#945;</span>) of the democracy.</p>
+
+<p>Years before the danger from Macedon was urgent, Demosthenes
+had begun the work of his life,&mdash;the effort to lift the spirit
+of Athens, to revive the old civic loyalty, to rouse the
+<span class="sidenote">Forensic speeches in Public causes.</span>
+city into taking that place and performing that part
+which her own welfare as well as the safety of Greece
+prescribed. His formally political speeches must never
+be considered apart from his forensic speeches in public causes.
+The Athenian procedure against the proposer of an unconstitutional
+law&mdash;i.e. of a law incompatible with existing laws&mdash;had a
+direct tendency to make the law court, in such cases, a political
+arena. The same tendency was indirectly exerted by the
+tolerance of Athenian juries (in the absence of a presiding expert
+like a judge) for irrelevant matter, since it was usually easy for a
+speaker to make capital out of the adversary&rsquo;s political antecedents.
+But the forensic speeches of Demosthenes for public
+causes are not only political in this general sense. They are
+documents, as indispensable as the Olynthiacs or Philippics,
+for his own political career. Only by taking them along with the
+formally political speeches, and regarding the whole as one
+unbroken series, can we see clearly the full scope of the task
+which he set before him,&mdash;a task in which his long resistance to
+Philip was only the most dramatic incident, and in which his
+real achievement is not to be measured by the event of
+Chaeronea.</p>
+
+<p>A forensic speech, composed for a public cause, opens the
+political career of Demosthenes with a protest against a signal
+abuse. In 355 B.C., at the age of twenty-nine, he wrote the
+speech &ldquo;Against Androtion.&rdquo; This combats on legal grounds a
+proposal that the out-going senate should receive the honour of a
+golden crown. In its larger aspect, it is a denunciation of the
+corrupt system which that senate represented, and especially of
+the manner in which the treasury had been administered by
+Aristophon. In 354 B.C. Demosthenes composed and spoke the
+oration &ldquo;Against Leptines,&rdquo; who had effected a slender saving
+for the state by the expedient of revoking those hereditary
+exemptions from taxation which had at various times been
+conferred in recognition of distinguished merit. The descendants
+of Harmodius and Aristogeiton alone had been excepted from
+the operation of the law. This was the first time that the voice
+of Demosthenes himself had been heard on the public concerns
+of Athens, and the utterance was a worthy prelude to the career
+of a statesman. He answers the advocates of the retrenchment
+by pointing out that the public interest will not ultimately be
+served by a wholesale violation of the public faith. In the same
+year he delivered his first strictly political speech, &ldquo;On the Navy
+Boards&rdquo; (Symmories). The Athenians, irritated by the support
+which Artaxerxes had lately given to the revolt of their allies,
+and excited by rumours of his hostile preparations, were feverishly
+eager for a war with Persia. Demosthenes urges that such an
+enterprise would at present be useless; that it would fail to unite
+Greece; that the energies of the city should be reserved for a real
+emergency; but that, before the city can successfully cope with
+any war, there must be a better organization of resources, and,
+first of all, a reform of the navy, which he outlines with characteristic
+lucidity and precision.</p>
+
+<p>Two years later (352 B.C.) he is found dealing with a more
+definite question of foreign policy. Sparta, favoured by the
+depression of Thebes in the Phocian War, was threatening
+Megalopolis. Both Sparta and Megalopolis sent embassies to
+Athens. Demosthenes supported Megalopolis. The ruin of
+Megalopolis would mean, he argued, the return of Spartan
+domination in the Peloponnesus. Athenians must not favour
+the tyranny of any one city. They must respect the rights of all
+the cities, and thus promote unity based on mutual confidence.
+In the same year Demosthenes wrote the speech &ldquo;Against
+Timocrates,&rdquo; to be spoken by the same Diodorus who had before
+prosecuted Androtion, and who now combated an attempt to
+screen Androtion and others from the penalties of embezzlement.
+The speech &ldquo;Against Aristocrates,&rdquo; also of 352 B.C., reproves that
+foreign policy of feeble makeshifts which was now popular at
+Athens. The Athenian tenure of the Thracian Chersonese partly
+depended for its security on the good-will of the Thracian prince
+Cersobleptes. Charidemus, a soldier of fortune who had already
+played Athens false, was now the brother-in-law and the favourite
+of Cersobleptes. Aristocrates proposed that the person of
+Charidemus should be invested with a special sanctity, by the
+enactment that whoever attempted his life should be an outlaw
+from all dominions of Athens. Demosthenes points out that
+such adulation is as futile as it is fulsome. Athens can secure
+the permanence of her foreign possessions only in one way&mdash;by
+being strong enough to hold them.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, between 355 and 352, Demosthenes had laid down
+the main lines of his policy. Domestic administration must be
+purified. Statesmen must be made to feel that they
+<span class="sidenote">Principles of policy.</span>
+are responsible to the state. They must not be allowed
+to anticipate judgment on their deserts by voting each
+other golden crowns. They must not think to screen misappropriation
+of public money by getting partisans to pass new
+laws about state-debtors. Foreign policy must be guided by a
+larger and more provident conception of Athenian interests.
+When public excitement demands a foreign war, Athens must not
+rush into it without asking whether it is necessary, whether it
+will have Greek support, and whether she herself is ready for it.
+When a strong Greek city threatens a weak one, and seeks to
+purchase Athenian connivance with the bribe of a border-town,
+Athens must remember that duty and prudence alike command
+her to respect the independence of all Greeks. When it is proposed,
+by way of insurance on Athenian possessions abroad, to
+flatter the favourite of a doubtful ally, Athens must remember
+that such devices will not avail a power which has no army
+except on paper, and no ships fit to leave their moorings.</p>
+
+<p>But the time had gone by when Athenians could have tranquil
+leisure for domestic reform. A danger, calling for prompt action,
+had at last come very near. For six years Athens had
+<span class="sidenote">Athens and Philip.</span>
+been at war with Philip on account of his seizure of
+Amphipolis. Meanwhile he had destroyed Potidaea
+and founded Philippi. On the Thracian coasts he had
+become master of Abdera and Maronea. On the Thessalian coast
+he had acquired Methone. In a second invasion of Thessaly,
+he had overthrown the Phocians under Onomarchus, and had
+advanced to Thermopylae, to find the gates of Greece closed
+against him by an Athenian force. He had then marched
+to Heraeon on the Propontis, and had dictated a peace to
+Cersobleptes. He had formed an alliance with Cardia, Perinthus
+and Byzantium. Lastly, he had begun to show designs on the
+great Confederacy of Olynthus, the more warlike Miletus of
+the North. The First Philippic of Demosthenes was spoken in
+351 B.C. The Third Philippic&mdash;the latest of the extant political
+speeches&mdash;was spoken in 341 B.C. Between these he delivered
+eight political orations, of which seven are directly concerned
+with Philip. The whole series falls into two great divisions.
+The first division comprises those speeches which were spoken
+against Philip while he was still a foreign power threatening
+Greece from without. Such are the First Philippic and the three
+orations for Olynthus. The second division comprises the speeches
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>12</span>
+spoken against Philip when, by admission to the Amphictyonic
+Council, he had now won his way within the circle of the Greek
+states, and when the issue was no longer between Greece and
+Macedonia, but between the Greek and Macedonian parties in
+Greece. Such are the speech &ldquo;On the Peace,&rdquo; the speech &ldquo;On
+the Embassy,&rdquo; the speech &ldquo;On the Chersonese,&rdquo; the Second and
+Third Philippics.</p>
+
+<p>The First Philippic, spoken early in 351 B.C., was no sudden
+note of alarm drawing attention to an unnoticed peril. On the
+contrary, the Assembly was weary of the subject. For
+<span class="sidenote">First Philippic.</span>
+six years the war with Philip had been a theme of barren
+talk. Demosthenes urges that it is time to do something,
+and to do it with a plan. Athens fighting Philip has fared,
+he says, like an amateur boxer opposed to a skilled pugilist.
+The helpless hands have only followed blows which a trained eye
+should have taught them to parry. An Athenian force must be
+stationed in the north, at Lemnos or Thasos. Of 2000 infantry
+and 200 cavalry at least one quarter must be Athenian citizens
+capable of directing the mercenaries.</p>
+
+<p>Later in the same year Demosthenes did another service to the
+cause of national freedom. Rhodes, severed by its own act from
+the Athenian Confederacy, had since 355 been virtually subject
+to Mausolus, prince (<span class="grk" title="dynastês">&#948;&#965;&#957;&#940;&#963;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>) of Caria, himself a tributary of
+Persia. Mausolus died in 351, and was succeeded by his widow
+Artemisia. The democratic party in Rhodes now appealed to
+Athens for help in throwing off the Carian yoke. Demosthenes
+supported their application in his speech &ldquo;For the Rhodians.&rdquo;
+No act of his life was a truer proof of statesmanship. He failed.
+But at least he had once more warned Athens that the cause of
+political freedom was everywhere her own, and that, wherever
+that cause was forsaken, there a new danger was created both for
+Athens and for Greece.</p>
+
+<p>Next year (350) an Athenian force under Phocion was sent to
+Euboea, in support of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria, against the
+faction of Cleitarchus. Demosthenes protested against
+<span class="sidenote">Euboean War.</span>
+spending strength, needed for greater objects, on the
+local quarrels of a despot. Phocion won a victory at
+Tamynae. But the &ldquo;inglorious and costly war&rdquo; entailed an
+outlay of more than £12,000 on the ransom of captives alone,
+and ended in the total destruction of Athenian influence throughout
+Euboea. That island was now left an open field for the
+intrigues of Philip. Worst of all, the party of Eubulus not only
+defeated a proposal, arising from this campaign, for applying the
+festival-money to the war-fund, but actually carried a law making
+it high treason to renew the proposal. The degree to which
+political enmity was exasperated by the Euboean War may be
+judged from the incident of Midias, an adherent of Eubulus,
+and a type of opulent rowdyism. Demosthenes was choragus
+of his tribe, and was wearing the robe of that sacred office at
+the great festival in the theatre of Dionysus, when Midias struck
+him on the face. The affair was eventually compromised. The
+speech &ldquo;Against Midias&rdquo; written by Demosthenes for the trial
+(in 349) was neither spoken nor completed, and remains, as few
+will regret, a sketch.</p>
+
+<p>It was now three years since, in 352, the Olynthians had sent
+an embassy to Athens, and had made peace with their only sure
+ally. In 350 a second Olynthian embassy had sought
+<span class="sidenote">Olynthiacs.</span>
+and obtained Athenian help. The hour of Olynthus
+had indeed come. In 349 Philip opened war against
+the Chalcidic towns of the Olynthian League. The First and
+Second Olynthiacs of Demosthenes were spoken in that year in
+support of sending one force to defend Olynthus and another to
+attack Philip. &ldquo;Better now than later,&rdquo; is the thought of the
+First Olynthiac. The Second argues that Philip&rsquo;s strength is
+overrated. The Third&mdash;spoken in 348&mdash;carries us into the midst
+of action.<a name="FnAnchor_2c" href="#Footnote_2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It deals with practical details. The festival-fund
+must be used for the war. The citizens must serve in person.
+A few months later, Olynthus and the thirty-two towns of the
+confederacy were swept from the earth. Men could walk over
+their sites, Demosthenes said seven years afterwards, without
+knowing that such cities had existed. It was now certain that
+Philip could not be stopped outside of Greece. The question
+was, What point within Greece shall he be allowed to reach?</p>
+
+<p>Eubulus and his party, with that versatility which is the
+privilege of political vagueness, now began to call for a congress
+of the allies to consider the common danger. They found a
+brilliant interpreter in Aeschines, who, after having been a tragic
+actor and a clerk to the assembly, had entered political life with
+the advantages of a splendid gift for eloquence, a fine presence,
+a happy address, a ready wit and a facile conscience. While
+his opponents had thus suddenly become warlike, Demosthenes
+had become pacific. He saw that Athens must have time to
+collect strength. Nothing could be gained, meanwhile, by going
+on with the war. Macedonian sympathizers at Athens, of whom
+Philocrates was the chief, also favoured peace. Eleven envoys,
+including Philocrates, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, were sent
+to Philip in February 346 B.C. After a debate at Athens, peace
+<span class="sidenote">Peace between Philip and Athens.</span>
+was concluded with Philip in April. Philip on the one
+hand, Athens and her allies on the other, were to keep
+what they respectively held at the time when the peace
+was ratified. But here the Athenians made a fatal
+error. Philip was bent on keeping the door of Greece open.
+Demosthenes was bent on shutting it against him. Philip was
+now at war with the people of Halus in Thessaly. Thebes had
+for ten years been at war with Phocis. Here were two distinct
+chances for Philip&rsquo;s armed intervention in Greece. But if the
+Halians and the Phocians were included in the peace, Philip
+could not bear arms against them without violating the peace.
+Accordingly Philip insisted that they should not be included.
+Demosthenes insisted they should be included. They were
+not included. The result followed speedily. The same envoys
+were sent a second time to Philip at the end of April 346 for
+the purpose of receiving his oaths in ratification of the peace.
+It was late in June before he returned from Thrace to Pella&mdash;thus
+gaining, under the terms, all the towns that he had taken meanwhile.
+He next took the envoys with him through Thessaly to
+Thermopylae. There&mdash;at the invitation of Thessalians and
+Thebans&mdash;he intervened in the Phocian War. Phalaecus
+<span class="sidenote">End of Phocian War.</span>
+surrendered. Phocis was crushed. Philip took its
+place in the Amphictyonic Council, and was thus
+established as a Greek power in the very centre, at the
+sacred hearth, of Greece. The right of precedence in
+consultation of the oracle (<span class="grk" title="promanteia">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>) was transferred from
+Athens to Philip. While indignant Athenians were clamouring for
+the revocation of the peace, Demosthenes upheld it in his speech
+&ldquo;On the Peace&rdquo; in September. It ought never to have been
+made on such terms, he said. But, having been made, it had
+better be kept. &ldquo;If we went to war now, where should we find
+allies? And after losing Oropus, Amphipolis, Cardia, Chios, Cos,
+Rhodes, Byzantium, shall we fight about the shadow of Delphi?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>During the eight years between the peace of Philocrates and
+the battle of Chaeronea, the authority of Demosthenes steadily
+grew, until it became first predominant and then paramount. He
+had, indeed, a melancholy advantage. Each year his argument
+was more and more cogently enforced by the logic of facts. In
+344 he visited the Peloponnesus for the purpose of counteracting
+Macedonian intrigue. Mistrust, he told the Peloponnesian
+cities, is the safeguard of free communities against tyrants.
+Philip lodged a formal complaint at Athens. Here, as elsewhere,
+the future master of Greece reminds us of Napoleon on the eve of
+the first empire. He has the same imperturbable and persuasive
+effrontery in protesting that he is doing one thing at the moment
+when his energies are concentrated on doing the opposite.
+Demosthenes replied in the Second Philippic. &ldquo;If,&rdquo; he
+<span class="sidenote">Second Philippic.</span>
+said, &ldquo;Philip is the friend of Greece, we are doing
+wrong. If he is the enemy of Greece, we are doing
+right. Which is he? I hold him to be our enemy, because
+everything that he has hitherto done has benefited himself and
+hurt us.&rdquo; The prosecution of Aeschines for malversation on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13"></a>13</span>
+embassy (commonly known as <i>De falsa legatione</i>), which was
+brought to an issue in the following year, marks the moral
+strength of the position now held by Demosthenes. When the
+gravity of the charge and the complexity of the evidence are
+considered, the acquittal of Aeschines by a narrow majority
+must be deemed his condemnation. The speech &ldquo;On the
+Affairs of the Chersonese&rdquo; and the Third Philippic were the
+crowning efforts of Demosthenes. Spoken in the same year,
+341 B.C., and within a short space of each other, they must be
+taken together. The speech &ldquo;On the Affairs of the Chersonese&rdquo;
+regards the situation chiefly from an Athenian point of view.
+&ldquo;If the peace means,&rdquo; argues Demosthenes, &ldquo;that Philip can
+seize with impunity one Athenian possession after another, but
+that Athenians shall not on their peril touch aught that belongs
+to Philip, where is the line to be drawn? We shall go to war, I
+am told, when it is necessary. If the necessity has not come
+<span class="sidenote">Third Philippic.</span>
+yet, when will it come?&rdquo; The Third Philippic surveys
+a wider horizon. It ascends from the Athenian to the
+Hellenic view. Philip has annihilated Olynthus and
+the Chalcidic towns. He has ruined Phocis. He has frightened
+Thebes. He has divided Thessaly. Euboea and the Peloponnesus
+are his. His power stretches from the Adriatic to
+the Hellespont. Where shall be the end? Athens is the last
+hope of Greece. And, in this final crisis, Demosthenes was the
+embodied energy of Athens. It was Demosthenes who went to
+Byzantium, brought the estranged city back to the Athenian
+alliance, and snatched it from the hands of Philip. It was
+Demosthenes who, when Philip had already seized Elatea,
+hurried to Thebes, who by his passionate appeal gained one last
+chance, the only possible chance, for Greek freedom, who broke
+down the barrier of an inveterate jealousy, who brought Thebans
+to fight beside Athenians, and who thus won at the eleventh
+hour a victory for the spirit of loyal union which took away
+at least one bitterness from the unspeakable calamity of
+Chaeronea.</p>
+
+<p>But the work of Demosthenes was not closed by the ruin of his
+cause. During the last sixteen years of his life (338-322) he
+rendered services to Athens not less important, and
+<span class="sidenote">Municipal activity.</span>
+perhaps more difficult, than those which he had
+rendered before. He was now, as a matter of course,
+foremost in the public affairs of Athens. In January 337, at the
+annual winter Festival of the Dead in the Outer Ceramicus, he
+spoke the funeral oration over those who had fallen at Chaeronea.
+He was member of a commission for strengthening the fortifications
+of the city (<span class="grk" title="teichopoios">&#964;&#949;&#953;&#967;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#972;&#962;</span>). He administered the festival-fund.
+During a dearth which visited Athens between 330 and 326 he
+was charged with the organization of public relief. In 324 he was
+chief (<span class="grk" title="architheoros">&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#953;&#952;&#941;&#969;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>) of the sacred embassy to Olympia. Already,
+in 336, Ctesiphon had proposed that Demosthenes should receive
+a golden crown from the state, and that his extraordinary merits
+should be proclaimed in the theatre at the Great Dionysia. The
+proposal was adopted by the senate as a bill (<span class="grk" title="probouleuma">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#946;&#959;&#959;&#973;&#955;&#949;&#965;&#956;&#945;</span>);
+but it must be passed by the Assembly before it could become
+an act (<span class="grk" title="psêphisma">&#968;&#942;&#966;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#945;</span>). To prevent this, Aeschines gave notice, in 336,
+that he intended to proceed against Ctesiphon for having proposed
+an unconstitutional measure. For six years Aeschines avoided
+action on this notice. At last, in 330, the patriotic party felt
+strong enough to force him to an issue. Aeschines spoke the
+speech &ldquo;Against Ctesiphon,&rdquo; an attack on the whole public life
+of Demosthenes. Demosthenes gained an overwhelming victory
+for himself and for the honour of Athens in the most finished, the
+most splendid and the most pathetic work of ancient eloquence&mdash;the
+immortal oration &ldquo;On the Crown.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the winter of 325-324 Harpalus, the receiver-general of
+Alexander in Asia, fled to Greece, taking with him 8000 mercenaries,
+and treasure equivalent to about a million and
+<span class="sidenote">Affair of Harpalus.</span>
+a quarter sterling. On the motion of Demosthenes
+he was warned from the harbours of Attica. Having
+left his troops and part of his treasure at Taenarum, he again
+presented himself at the Peiraeus, and was now admitted. He
+spoke fervently of the opportunity which offered itself to those
+who loved the freedom of Greece. All Asia would rise with Athens
+to throw off the hated yoke. Fiery patriots like Hypereides were
+in raptures. For zeal which could be bought Harpalus had other
+persuasions. But Demosthenes stood firm. War with Alexander
+would, he saw, be madness. It could have but one result,&mdash;some
+indefinitely worse doom for Athens. Antipater and Olympias
+presently demanded the surrender of Harpalus. Demosthenes
+opposed this. But he reconciled the dignity with the loyalty of
+Athens by carrying a decree that Harpalus should be arrested,
+and that his treasure should be deposited in the Parthenon, to be
+held in trust for Alexander. Harpalus escaped from prison. The
+amount of the treasure, which Harpalus had stated as 700 talents,
+proved to be no more than 350. Demosthenes proposed that the
+Areopagus should inquire what had become of the other 350.
+Six months, spent in party intrigues, passed before the Areopagus
+gave in their report (<span class="grk" title="apophasis">&#7936;&#960;&#972;&#966;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>). The report inculpated
+nine persons. Demosthenes headed the list of the accused.
+Hypereides was among the ten public prosecutors. Demosthenes
+was condemned, fined fifty talents, and, in default of
+payment, imprisoned. After a few days he escaped from prison
+to Aegina, and thence to Troezen. Two things in this obscure
+affair are beyond reasonable doubt. First, that Demosthenes
+was not bribed by Harpalus. The hatred of the Macedonian
+party towards Demosthenes, and the fury of those vehement
+patriots who cried out that he had betrayed their best opportunity,
+combined to procure his condemnation, with the help,
+probably, of some appearances which were against him.
+Secondly, it can hardly be questioned that, by withstanding the
+hot-headed patriots at this juncture, Demosthenes did heroic
+service to Athens.</p>
+
+<p>Next year (323 B.C.) Alexander died. Then the voice of Demosthenes,
+calling Greece to arms, rang out like a trumpet. Early
+in August 322 the battle of Crannon decided the
+<span class="sidenote">End of Lamian War.</span>
+Lamian War against Greece. Antipater demanded, as
+the condition on which he would refrain from besieging
+Athens, the surrender of the leading patriots. Demades
+moved the decree of the Assembly by which Demosthenes,
+Hypereides, and some others were condemned to death as
+<span class="sidenote">Demosthenes condemned.</span>
+traitors. On the 20th of Boedromion (September 16)
+322, a Macedonian garrison occupied Munychia. It
+was a day of solemn and happy memories, a day
+devoted, in the celebration of the Great Mysteries, to
+sacred joy,&mdash;the day on which the glad procession of the Initiated
+returned from Eleusis to Athens. It happened, however, to have
+another association, more significant than any ironical contrast
+for the present purpose of Antipater. It was the day on which,
+thirteen years before, Alexander had punished the rebellion of
+Thebes with annihilation.</p>
+
+<p>The condemned men had fled to Aegina. Parting there from
+Hypereides and the rest, Demosthenes went on to Calauria, a
+small island off the coast of Argolis. In Calauria there
+<span class="sidenote">Flight to Calauria.</span>
+was an ancient temple of Poseidon, once a centre of
+Minyan and Ionian worship, and surrounded with a
+peculiar sanctity as having been, from time immemorial, an
+inviolable refuge for the pursued. Here Demosthenes sought
+asylum. Archias of Thurii, a man who, like Aeschines, had begun
+life as a tragic actor, and who was now in the pay of Antipater,
+soon traced the fugitive, landed in Calauria, and appeared before
+the temple of Poseidon with a body of Thracian spearmen.
+Plutarch&rsquo;s picturesque narrative bears the marks of artistic
+elaboration. Demosthenes had dreamed the night before that
+he and Archias were competing for a prize as tragic actors; the
+house applauded Demosthenes; but his chorus was shabbily
+equipped, and Archias gained the prize. Archias was not the
+man to stick at sacrilege. In Aegina, Hypereides and the others
+had been taken from the shrine of Aeacus. But he hesitated to
+violate an asylum so peculiarly sacred as the Calaurian temple.
+Standing before its open door, with his Thracian soldiers around
+him, he endeavoured to prevail on Demosthenes to quit the holy
+precinct. Antipater would be certain to pardon him. Demosthenes
+sat silent, with his eyes fixed on the ground. At last, as
+the emissary persisted in his bland persuasions, he looked up and
+said,&mdash;&ldquo;Archias, you never moved me by your acting, and you
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"></a>14</span>
+will not move me now by your promises.&rdquo; Archias lost his temper,
+and began to threaten. &ldquo;Now,&rdquo; rejoined Demosthenes, &ldquo;you
+speak like a real Macedonian oracle; before you were acting.
+Wait a moment, then, till I write to my friends.&rdquo; With these
+words, Demosthenes withdrew into the inner part of the temple,&mdash;still
+visible, however, from the entrance. He took out a roll of
+paper, as if he were going to write, put the pen to his mouth, and
+bit it, as was his habit in composing. Then he threw his head
+back, and drew his cloak over it. The Thracian spearmen, who
+were watching him from the door, began to gibe at his cowardice.
+<span class="sidenote">Death.</span>
+Archias went in to him, encouraged him to rise,
+repeated his old arguments, talked to him of reconciliation
+with Antipater. By this time Demosthenes felt that the
+poison which he had sucked from the pen was beginning to work.
+He drew the cloak from his face, and looked steadily at Archias.
+&ldquo;Now you can play the part of Creon in the tragedy as soon as
+you like,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;and cast forth my body unburied. But I,
+O gracious Poseidon, quit thy temple while I yet live; Antipater
+and his Macedonians have done what they could to pollute it.&rdquo;
+He moved towards the door, calling to them to support his
+tottering steps. He had just passed the altar of the god, when he
+fell, and with a groan gave up the ghost (October 322 B.C.).</p>
+
+<p>As a statesman, Demosthenes needs no epitaph but his own
+words in the speech &ldquo;On the Crown,&rdquo;&mdash;<i>I say that, if the event had
+been manifest to the whole world beforehand, not even then
+<span class="sidenote">Political character.</span>
+ought Athens to have forsaken this course, if Athens had
+any regard for her glory, or for her past, or for the ages to
+come.</i> The Persian soldier in Herodotus, following Xerxes to
+foreseen ruin, confides to his fellow-guest at the banquet that the
+bitterest pain which man can know is <span class="grk" title="polla phroneonta mêdenoss krateein">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#955;&#8048;
+&#966;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#941;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#945; &#956;&#951;&#948;&#949;&#957;&#8056;&#962; &#954;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#941;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>,&mdash;complete, but helpless, prescience. In the grasp of a
+more inexorable necessity, the champion of Greek freedom was
+borne onward to a more tremendous catastrophe than that which
+strewed the waters of Salamis with Persian wrecks and the field of
+Plataea with Persian dead; but to him, at least, it was given to
+proclaim aloud the clear and sure foreboding that filled his soul,
+to do all that true heart and free hand could do for his cause, and,
+though not to save, yet to encourage, to console and to ennoble.
+As the inspiration of his life was larger and higher than the mere
+courage of resistance, so his merit must be regarded as standing
+altogether outside and above the struggle with Macedon. The
+great purpose which he set before him was to revive the public
+spirit, to restore the political vigour, and to re-establish the
+Panhellenic influence of Athens,&mdash;never for her own advantage
+merely, but always in the interest of Greece. His glory is, that
+while he lived he helped Athens to live a higher life. Wherever
+the noblest expressions of her mind are honoured, wherever the
+large conceptions of Pericles command the admiration of statesmen,
+wherever the architect and the sculptor love to dwell on the
+masterpieces of Ictinus and Pheidias, wherever the spell of ideal
+beauty or of lofty contemplation is exercised by the creations of
+Sophocles or of Plato, there it will be remembered that the spirit
+which wrought in all these would have passed sooner from among
+men, if it had not been recalled from a trance, which others were
+content to mistake for the last sleep, by the passionate breath of
+Demosthenes.</p>
+
+<p>The orator in whom artistic genius was united, more perfectly
+than in any other man, with moral enthusiasm and with intellectual
+grasp, has held in the modern world the same
+<span class="sidenote">Oratory.</span>
+rank which was accorded to him in the old; but he
+cannot enjoy the same appreciation. Macaulay&rsquo;s ridicule has
+rescued from oblivion the criticism which pronounced the
+eloquence of Chatham to be more ornate than that of Demosthenes,
+and less diffuse than that of Cicero. Did the critic, asks
+Macaulay, ever hear any speaking that was less ornamented than
+that of Demosthenes, or more diffuse than that of Cicero? Yet
+the critic&rsquo;s remark was not so pointless as Macaulay thought
+it. Sincerity and intensity are, indeed, to the modern reader,
+the most obvious characteristics of Demosthenes. His style is,
+on the whole, singularly free from what we are accustomed to
+regard as rhetorical embellishment. Where the modern orator
+would employ a wealth of imagery, or elaborate a picture in
+exquisite detail, Demosthenes is content with a phrase or a
+word. Burke uses, in reference to Hyder Ali, the same image
+which Demosthenes uses in reference to Philip. &ldquo;Compounding
+all the materials of fury, havoc, desolation, into one black cloud,
+he hung for a while on the declivity of the mountains. Whilst
+the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on this
+menacing meteor, which darkened all their horizon, it suddenly
+burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains
+of the Carnatic.&rdquo; Demosthenes forbears to amplify. &ldquo;The
+people gave their voice, and the danger which hung upon our
+borders went by like a cloud.&rdquo; To our modern feeling, the
+eloquence of Demosthenes exhibits everywhere a general stamp
+of earnest and simple strength. But it is well to remember the
+charge made against the style of Demosthenes by a contemporary
+Greek orator, and the defence offered by the best Greek
+critic of oratory. Aeschines reproached the diction of Demosthenes
+with excess of elaboration and adornment (<span class="grk" title="periergia">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#949;&#961;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span>).
+Dionysius, in reply, admits that Demosthenes does at times
+depart from simplicity,&mdash;that his style is sometimes elaborately
+ornate and remote from the ordinary usage. But, he adds,
+Demosthenes adopts this manner where it is justified by the
+elevation of his theme. The remark may serve to remind us of
+our modern disadvantage for a full appreciation of Demosthenes.
+The old world felt, as we do, his moral and mental greatness, his
+fire, his self-devotion, his insight. But it felt also, as we can
+never feel, the versatile perfection of his skill. This it was that
+made Demosthenes unique to the ancients. The ardent patriot,
+the far-seeing statesman, were united in his person with the consummate
+and unapproachable artist. Dionysius devoted two
+special treatises to Demosthenes,&mdash;one on his language and style
+(<span class="grk" title="lektikos topos">&#955;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962; &#964;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>), the other on his treatment of subject-matter
+(<span class="grk" title="pragmatikos topos">&#960;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962; &#964;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>). The latter is lost. The former is one of
+the best essays in literary criticism which antiquity has
+bequeathed to us. The idea which it works out is that Demosthenes
+has perfected Greek prose by fusing in a glorious harmony
+the elements which had hitherto belonged to separate types.
+The austere dignity of Antiphon, the plain elegance of Lysias,
+the smooth and balanced finish of that middle or normal character
+which is represented by Isocrates, have come together in
+Demosthenes. Nor is this all. In each species he excels the
+specialists. He surpasses the school of Antiphon in perspicuity,
+the school of Lysias in verve, the school of Isocrates in variety, in
+felicity, in symmetry, in pathos, in power. Demosthenes has at
+command all the discursive brilliancy which fascinates a festal
+audience. He has that power of concise and lucid narration, of
+terse reasoning, of persuasive appeal, which is required by the
+forensic speaker. His political eloquence can worthily image
+the majesty of the state, and enforce weighty counsels with lofty
+and impassioned fervour. A true artist, he grudged no labour
+which could make the least part of his work more perfect.
+Isocrates spent ten years on the <i>Panegyricus</i>. After Plato&rsquo;s
+death, a manuscript was found among his papers with the first
+eight words of the <i>Republic</i> arranged in several different orders.
+What wonder, then, asks the Greek critic, if the diligence of
+Demosthenes was no less incessant and minute? &ldquo;To me,&rdquo;
+he says, &ldquo;it seems far more natural that a man engaged in composing
+political discourses, imperishable memorials of his power,
+should neglect not even the smallest details, than that the
+veneration of painters and sculptors, who are darkly showing
+forth their manual tact and toil in a corruptible material, should
+exhaust the refinements of their art on the veins, on the feathers,
+on the down of the lip, and the like niceties.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>More than half of the sixty-one speeches extant under the name
+of Demosthenes are certainly or probably spurious. The results
+to which the preponderance of opinion leans are given
+<span class="sidenote">Works.</span>
+in the following table. Those marked a were already
+rejected or doubted in antiquity; those marked m, first in
+modern times:<a name="FnAnchor_3c" href="#Footnote_3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="page15"></a>15</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6">I. DELIBERATIVE SPEECHES.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Genuine.</span></td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">14.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">On the Navy Boards</td>
+     <td class="tc2">354</td>
+     <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">16.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">For the People of Megalopolis</td>
+     <td class="tc2">352</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">4.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">First Philippic</td>
+     <td class="tc2">351</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">15.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">For the Rhodians</td>
+     <td class="tc2">351</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">1.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">First Olynthiac</td>
+     <td class="tc2">349</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">2.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Second Olynthiac</td>
+     <td class="tc2">349</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">3.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Third Olynthiac</td>
+     <td class="tc2">348</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">5.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">On the Peace</td>
+     <td class="tc2">346</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">6.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Second Philippic</td>
+     <td class="tc2">344</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">8.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">On the Affairs of the Chersonese</td>
+     <td class="tc2">341</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">9.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Third Philippic</td>
+     <td class="tc2">341</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Spurious.</span></td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">7.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">On Halonnesus (by Hegesippus)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">342</td>
+     <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><i>Rhetorical Forgeries</i>.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">17.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">On the Treaty with Alexander.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">10.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">Fourth Philippic.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">11.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">Answer to Philip&rsquo;s Letter.<a name="FnAnchor_4c" href="#Footnote_4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">12.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">Philip&rsquo;s Letter.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">13.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">On the Assessment (<span class="grk" title="syntxis">&#961;&#973;&#957;&#964;&#958;&#953;&#962;</span>).</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6">II. FORENSIC SPEECHES.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">A. In Public Causes.</span></td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Genuine.</span></td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">22.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In (<span class="grk" title="kata">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#940;</span>) Androtionem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">355</td>
+     <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">20.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra (<span class="grk" title="pros">&#960;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>) Leptinem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">354</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">24.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Timocratem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">352</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">23.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Aristocratem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">352</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">21.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Midiam</td>
+     <td class="tc2">349</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">19.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">On the Embassy</td>
+     <td class="tc2">343</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">18.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">On the Crown</td>
+     <td class="tc2">330</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Spurious.</span></td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">58.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Theocrinem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">339</td>
+     <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">25, 26.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical forgeries).</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">B. In Private Causes.</span></td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Genuine.</span></td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">27, 28.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Aphobum I. et II.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">364</td>
+     <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or. </td>
+     <td class="tc2">30, 31.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Onetora I. et II.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">362</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">41.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Spudiam</td>
+     <td class="tc2">?</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">55.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Calliclem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">?</td>
+     <td class="tc1">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">54.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Cononem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">356</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">36.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Pro Phormione</td>
+     <td class="tc2">352</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">39.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Boeotum de Nomine</td>
+     <td class="tc2">350</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">37.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Pantaenetum</td>
+     <td class="tc2">346-5</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">38.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Nausimachum et Diopithem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">?</td>
+     <td class="tc1">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6">SPURIOUS.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6">(<i>The first eight of the following are given by Schäfer to Apollodorus.</i>)</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">52.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Callippum.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">369-8</td>
+     <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">53.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Nicostratum</td>
+     <td class="tc2">after 368</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">49.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Timotheum</td>
+     <td class="tc2">362</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">50.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Polyclem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">357</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">47.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Evergum et Mnesibulum</td>
+     <td class="tc2">356</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">45, 46.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Stephanum I. et II.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">351</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">59.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Neaeram</td>
+     <td class="tc2">349[343-0, Blass]</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">51.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">On the Trierarchic Crown by Cephisodotus?)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">360-359</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">43.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Macartatum</td>
+     <td class="tc2">?</td>
+     <td class="tc1">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">48.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Olympiodorum.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">after 343</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">44.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Leocharem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">?</td>
+     <td class="tc1">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">35.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Lacritum</td>
+     <td class="tc2">341</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">42.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Phaenippum</td>
+     <td class="tc2">?</td>
+     <td class="tc1">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">32.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Zenothemin</td>
+     <td class="tc2">?</td>
+     <td class="tc1">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">34.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Phormionem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">?</td>
+     <td class="tc1">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">29.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Aphobum pro Phano</td>
+     <td class="tc2">&nbsp;</td>
+     <td class="tc1">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">40.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Boeotum de Dote</td>
+     <td class="tc2">347</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">57.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Eubulidem</td>
+     <td class="tc2">346-5</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">33.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">Contra Apaturium</td>
+     <td class="tc2">?</td>
+     <td class="tc1">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td>
+     <td class="tc2">Or.</td>
+     <td class="tc2">56.</td>
+     <td class="tc5a">In Dionysodorum</td>
+     <td class="tc2">not before 322-1</td>
+     <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>Or. 60 (<span class="grk" title="epitaphios">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#964;&#940;&#966;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>) and Or. 61 (<span class="grk" title="erôtikos">&#7952;&#961;&#969;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>) are works of rhetoricians.
+The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used by the
+composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of Aeschines.
+The 56 <span class="grk" title="prooimia">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#959;&#943;&#956;&#953;&#945;</span>, exordia or sketches for political speeches, are by
+various hands and of various dates.<a name="FnAnchor_5c" href="#Footnote_5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> They are valuable as being
+compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from other classical models.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared
+only with the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous
+appreciation, recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfection.
+Dionysius, the closest and most penetrating of his ancient
+critics, exhausts the language of admiration in showing how
+Demosthenes united and elevated whatever had been best in
+earlier masters of the Greek idiom. Hermogenes, in his works
+<span class="sidenote">Literary history of Demosthenes.</span>
+on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes as <span class="grk" title="ho rhêtôr">&#8001; &#8165;&#942;&#964;&#969;&#961;</span>, <i>the</i>
+orator. The writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows
+no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes
+has risen. From his own younger contemporaries,
+Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded their theory of rhetoric
+in large part on his practice, down to the latest Byzantines, the
+consent of theorists, orators, antiquarians, anthologists, lexicographers,
+offered the same unvarying homage to Demosthenes.
+His work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian,
+Basilicus, Aelius, Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to his
+speeches were drawn up by rhetoricians so distinguished as
+Numenius and Libanius. Accomplished men of letters, such as
+Julius Vestinus and Aelius Dionysius, selected from his writings
+choice passages for declamation or perusal, of which fragments
+are incorporated in the miscellany of Photius and the lexicons
+of Harpocration, Pollux and Suidas. It might have been
+anticipated that the purity of a text so widely read and so
+renowned would, from the earliest times, have been guarded with
+jealous care. The works of the three great dramatists had been
+thus protected, about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension.
+But no such good fortune befell the works of Demosthenes.
+Alexandrian criticism was chiefly occupied with poetry. The
+titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed, registered, with
+those of the other orators, in the catalogues (<span class="grk" title="rhêtorikoi pinakes">&#8165;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8054; &#960;&#943;&#957;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#962;</span>)
+of Alexandria and Pergamum. But no thorough attempt was
+made to separate the authentic works from those spurious works
+which had even then become mingled with them. Philosophical
+schools which, like the Stoic, felt the ethical interest of Demosthenes,
+cared little for his language. The rhetoricians who
+imitated or analysed his style cared little for the criticism of his
+text. Their treatment of it had, indeed, a direct tendency to
+falsify it. It was customary to indicate by marks those passages
+which were especially useful for study or imitation. It then
+became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt or interweave such
+passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes, wrote on
+<span class="grk" title="metabolai kai metapoiêseis tôn Dêmosthenous chôriôn">&#956;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#946;&#959;&#955;&#945;&#8054;
+&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#956;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#942;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8182;&#957;
+&#916;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#967;&#969;&#961;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span>, &ldquo;adaptations
+or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes.&rdquo; Such
+manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions
+in the original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed
+on the thought, sentiment and style of Demosthenes, comparatively
+little care was bestowed on his subject-matter. He was
+studied more on the moral and the formal side than on the real
+side. An incorrect substitution of one name for another, a reading
+which gave an impossible date, insertions of spurious laws or
+decrees, were points which few readers would stop to notice.
+Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demosthenes
+were the most universally popular of the classical prose-writers,
+the text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps
+of all, was also the least pure. His more careful students at
+length made an effort to arrest the process of corruption.
+Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical recension, and called
+<span class="grk" title="Attikiana (antigrapha)">&#7944;&#964;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#940; (&#7936;&#957;&#964;&#943;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#945;)</span>, came to be distinguished from the
+vulgates, or <span class="grk" title="dêmôdeis ekdoseis">&#948;&#951;&#956;&#974;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#7952;&#954;&#948;&#972;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes&mdash;upwards of
+170 in number&mdash;one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This
+is <i>Parisinus</i> &Sigma; 2934, of the 10th century. A comparison
+<span class="sidenote">Manuscripts.</span>
+of this MS. with the extracts of Aelius,
+Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third Philippic
+favours the view that it is derived from an <span class="grk" title="Attikianon">&#7944;&#964;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#957;</span>, whereas
+the <span class="grk" title="dêmôdeis ekdoseis">&#948;&#951;&#956;&#974;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#7952;&#954;&#948;&#972;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>, used by Hermogenes and by the
+rhetoricians generally, have been the chief sources of our other
+manuscripts. The collation of this manuscript by Immanuel
+Bekker first placed the textual criticism of Demosthenes on a
+sound footing. Not only is this manuscript nearly free from
+interpolations, but it is the sole voucher for many excellent
+readings. Among the other MSS., some of the most important
+are&mdash;<i>Marcianus</i> 416 F, of the 10th (or 11th) century, the basis
+of the Aldine edition; <i>Augustanus</i> I. (N 85), derived from the
+last, and containing scholia to the speeches on the Crown and the
+Embassy, by Ulpian, with some by a younger writer, who was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>16</span>
+perhaps Moschopulus; <i>Parisinus</i> &Upsilon;; <i>Antverpiensis</i> &Omega;&mdash;the last
+two comparatively free from additions. The fullest authority
+on the MSS. is J. T. Vömel, <i>Notitia codicum Demosth</i>., and
+Prolegomena Critica to his edition published at Halle (1856-1857),
+pp. 175-178.<a name="FnAnchor_6c" href="#Footnote_6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The extant scholia on Demosthenes are for the most part poor.
+Their staple consists of Byzantine erudition; and their value
+depends chiefly on what they have preserved of older
+<span class="sidenote">Scholia.</span>
+criticism. They are better than usual for the <span class="grk" title="Peri stephanou, Kata Timokratous">
+&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#963;&#964;&#949;&#966;&#940;&#957;&#959;&#965;, &#922;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#932;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>;
+best for the <span class="grk" title="Peri parapresbeias">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#960;&#961;&#949;&#963;&#946;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>.
+The Greek commentaries ascribed to Ulpian are especially
+defective on the historical side, and give little essential aid.
+Editions:&mdash;C. W. Müller, in <i>Orat. Att.</i> ii. (1847-1858); <i>Scholia
+Graeca in Demosth. ex cod. aucta et emendata</i> (Oxon., 1851; in
+W. Dindorf&rsquo;s ed.).</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<i>Editio princeps</i> (Aldus, Venice, 1504); J. J.
+Reiske (with notes of J. Wolf, J. Taylor, J. Markland, &amp;c., 1770-1775);
+revised edition of Reiske by G. H. Schäfer (1823-1826);
+I. Bekker, in <i>Oratores Attici</i> (1823-1824), the first edition based on
+codex &Sigma; (see above); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and
+H. Sauppe (1850); W. Dindorf (in Teubner series, 1867, 4th ed. by
+F. Blass, 1885-1889); H. Omont, facsimile edition of codex &Sigma;
+(1892-1893); S. H. Butcher in Oxford <i>Scriptorum Classicorum
+Bibliotheca</i> (1903 foll.); W. Dindorf (9 vols., Oxford, 1846-1851),
+with notes of previous commentators and Greek scholia; R. Whiston
+(political speeches) with introductions and notes (1859-1868). For
+a select list of the numerous English and foreign editions and translations
+of separate speeches see J. B. Mayor, <i>Guide to the Choice of
+Classical Books</i> (1885, suppt. 1896). Mention may here be made of
+<i>De corona</i> by W. W. Goodwin (1901, ed. min., 1904); W. H. Simcox
+(1873, with Aeschines <i>In Ctesiphontem</i>); and P. E. Matheson
+(1899); <i>Leptines</i> by J. E. Sandys (1890); <i>De falsa legatione</i> by
+R. Shilleto (4th ed., 1874); <i>Select Private Orations</i> by J. E. Sandys and
+F. A. Paley (3rd ed., 1898, 1896); <i>Midias</i> by W. W. Goodwin (1906).
+C. R. Kennedy&rsquo;s complete translation is a model of scholarly finish,
+and the appendices on Attic law, &amp;c., are of great value. There are
+indices to Demosthenes by J. Reiske (ed. G. H. Schäfer, 1823);
+S. Preuss (1892). Among recent papyrus finds are fragments of a
+special lexicon to the <i>Aristocratea</i> and a commentary by Didymus
+(ed. H. Diels and W. Schubart, 1904). Illustrative literature: A. D.
+Schäfer, <i>Demosthenes und seine Zeit</i> (2nd ed., 1885-1887), a masterly
+and exhaustive historical work; F. Blass, <i>Die attische Beredsamkeit</i>
+(1887-1898); W. J. Brodribb, &ldquo;Demosthenes&rdquo; in <i>Ancient Classics
+for English Readers</i> (1877); S. H. Butcher, <i>Introduction to the Study
+of Demosthenes</i> (1881); C. G. Böhnecke, <i>Demosthenes, Lykurgos,
+Hyperides, und ihr Zeitalter</i> (1864); A. Bouillé, <i>Histoire de Démosthène</i>
+(2nd ed., 1868); J. Girard, <i>Études sur l&rsquo;éloquence attique</i> (1874);
+M. Croiset, <i>Des idées morales dans l&rsquo;Éloquence politique de Démosthène</i>
+(1874); A. Hug, <i>Demosthenes als politischer Denker</i> (1881);
+L. Brédit, <i>L&rsquo;Éloquence politique en Grèce</i> (2nd ed., 1886); A. Bougot,
+<i>Rivalité d&rsquo;Eschine et Démosthène</i> (1891). For fuller bibliographical
+information consult R. Nicolai, <i>Griechische Literaturgeschichte</i>
+(1881); W. Engelmann, <i>Scriptores Graeci</i> (1881); G. Hüttner in
+C. Bursian&rsquo;s <i>Jahresbericht</i>, li. (1889).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. C. J.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Jebb&rsquo;s <i>Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos</i>, vol. ii. p. 267 f.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2c" href="#FnAnchor_2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest; but
+the question of the order of the First and Second has been much
+discussed. See Grote (<i>History of Greece</i>, chap. 88, appendix), who
+prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, <i>Die attische Beredsamkeit</i>,
+iii. p. 319.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3c" href="#FnAnchor_3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The dates agree in the main with those given by A. D. Schäfer
+in <i>Demosthenes und seine Zeit</i> (2nd ed., 1885-1887), and by F. Blass
+in <i>Die attische Beredsamkeit</i> (1887-1898), who regards thirty-three
+(or possibly thirty-five) of the speeches as genuine.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4c" href="#FnAnchor_4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Or. 11 and 12 are probably both by Anaximenes of Lampsacus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5c" href="#FnAnchor_5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> According to Blass, the second and third epistles and the <i>exordia</i>
+are genuine.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6c" href="#FnAnchor_6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See also H. Usener in <i>Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft der
+Wissenschaften zu Göttingen</i>, p. 188 (1892); J. H. Lipsius, &ldquo;Zur Textcritik
+des Demosthenes&rdquo; in <i>Berichte ... der Königl. Sächsischen
+Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften</i> (1893) with special reference to the
+papyrus finds at the end of the 19th century; E. Bethe, <i>Demosthenis
+scriptorum corpus</i> (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMOTIC</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dêmotikos">&#948;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, of or belonging to the people), a
+term, meaning popular, specially applied to that cursive script
+of the ancient Egyptian language used for business and literary
+purposes,&mdash;for the people. It is opposed to &ldquo;hieratic&rdquo; (Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="hieratikos">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, of or belonging to the priests), the script, an abridged
+form of the hieroglyphic, used in transcribing the religious texts.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writing</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: II., <i>Ancient</i>, D. <i>Language and Writing.</i>)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMOTICA,</span> or <span class="sc">Dimotica</span>, a town of European Turkey, in the
+vilayet of Adrianople; on the Maritza valley branch of the
+Constantinople-Salonica railway, about 35 m. S. of Adrianople.
+Pop. (1905) about 10,000. Demotica is built at the foot of a
+conical hill on the left bank of the river Kizildeli, near its junction
+with the Maritza. It was formerly the seat of a Greek archbishop,
+and besides the ancient citadel and palace on the summit
+of the hill contains several Greek churches, mosques and public
+baths. In the middle ages, when it was named Didymotichos,
+it was one of the principal marts of Thrace; in modern times
+it has regained something of its commercial importance, and
+exports pottery, linen, silk and grain. These goods are sent
+to Dédéagatch for shipment. Demotica was the birthplace of the
+Turkish sultan Bayezid I. (1347); after the battle of Poltava,
+Charles XII. of Sweden resided here from February 1713 to
+October 1714.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMPSTER, THOMAS</span> (1579-1625), Scottish scholar and
+historian, was born at Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, the son of
+Thomas Dempster of Muresk, Auchterless and Killesmont,
+sheriff of Banff and Buchan. According to his own account,
+he was the twenty-fourth of twenty-nine children, and was early
+remarkable for precocious talent. He obtained his early education
+in Aberdeenshire, and at ten entered Pembroke Hall,
+Cambridge; after a short while he went to Paris, and, driven
+thence by the plague, to Louvain, whence by order of the pope
+he was transferred with several other Scottish students to the
+papal seminary at Rome. Being soon forced by ill health to
+leave, he went to the English college at Douai, where he remained
+three years and took his M.A. degree. While at Douai he wrote
+a scurrilous attack on Queen Elizabeth, which caused a riot
+among the English students. But, if his truculent character
+was thus early displayed, his abilities were no less conspicuous;
+and, though still in his teens, he became lecturer on the
+Humanities at Tournai, whence, after but a short stay, he returned
+to Paris, to take his degree of doctor of canon law, and become
+regent of the college of Navarre. He soon left Paris for Toulouse,
+which in turn he was forced to leave owing to the hostility of the
+city authorities, aroused by his violent assertion of university
+rights. He was now elected professor of eloquence at the
+university or academy of Nîmes, but not without a murderous
+attack upon him by one of the defeated candidates and his
+supporters, followed by a suit for libel, which, though he ultimately
+won his case, forced him to leave the town. A short
+engagement in Spain, as tutor to the son of Marshal de Saint Luc,
+was terminated by another quarrel; and Dempster now returned
+to Scotland with the intention of asserting a claim to his father&rsquo;s
+estates. Finding his relatives unsympathetic, and falling into
+heated controversy with the Presbyterian clergy, he made no
+long stay, but returned to Paris, where he remained for seven
+years, becoming professor in several colleges successively. At
+last, however, his temporary connexion with the collège de
+Beauvais was ended by a feat of arms which proved him as stout
+a fighter with his sword as with his pen; and, since his victory
+was won over officers of the king&rsquo;s guard, it again became
+expedient for him to change his place of residence. The dedication
+of his edition of Rosinus&rsquo; <i>Antiquitatum Romanorum corpus
+absolutissimum</i> to King James I. had won him an invitation
+to the English court; and in 1615 he went to London. His
+reception by the king was flattering enough; but his hopes of
+preferment were dashed by the opposition of the Anglican clergy
+to the promotion of a papist. He left for Rome, where, after a
+short imprisonment on suspicion of being a spy, he gained the
+favour of Pope Paul V., through whose influence with Cosimo II.,
+grand duke of Tuscany, he was appointed to the professorship of
+the Pandects at Pisa. He had married while in London, but ere
+long had reason to suspect his wife&rsquo;s relations with a certain
+Englishman. Violent accusations followed, indignantly repudiated;
+a diplomatic correspondence ensued, and a demand was
+made, and supported by the grand duke, for an apology, which
+the professor refused to make, preferring rather to lose his chair.
+He now set out once more for Scotland, but was intercepted by
+the Florentine cardinal Luigi Capponi, who induced him to
+remain at Bologna as professor of Humanity. This was the most
+distinguished post in the most famous of continental universities,
+and Dempster was now at the height of his fame. Though his
+<i>Roman Antiquities</i> and <i>Scotia illustrior</i> had been placed on the
+Index pending correction, Pope Urban VIII. made him a knight
+and gave him a pension. He was not, however, to enjoy his
+honours long. His wife eloped with a student, and Dempster,
+pursuing the fugitives in the heat of summer, caught a fever, and
+died at Bologna on the 6th of September 1625.</p>
+
+<p>Dempster owed his great position in the history of scholarship
+to his extraordinary memory, and to the versatility which made
+him equally at home in philology, criticism, law, biography and
+history. His style is, however, often barbarous; and the obvious
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>17</span>
+defects of his works are due to his restlessness and impetuosity,
+and to a patriotic and personal vanity which led him in Scottish
+questions into absurd exaggerations, and in matters affecting
+his own life into an incurable habit of romancing. The best
+known of his works is the <i>Historia ecclesiastica gentis Scotorum</i>
+(Bologna, 1627). In this book he tries to prove that Bernard
+(Sapiens), Alcuin, Boniface and Joannes Scotus Erigena were
+all Scots, and even Boadicea becomes a Scottish author. This
+criticism is not applicable to his works on antiquarian subjects,
+and his edition of Benedetto Accolti&rsquo;s <i>De bello a Christianis
+contra barbaros</i> (1623) has great merits.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>A portion of his Latin verse is printed in the first volume (pp. 306-354)
+of <i>Delitiae poëtarum Scotorum</i> (Amsterdam, 1637).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMURRAGE</span> (from &ldquo;demur,&rdquo; Fr. <i>demeurer</i>, to delay,
+derived from Lat. <i>mora</i>), in the law of merchant shipping, the
+sum payable by the freighter to the shipowner for detention of
+the vessel in port beyond the number of days allowed for the
+purpose of loading or unloading (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Affreightment: under
+<i>Charter-parties</i></a></span>). The word is also used in railway law for the
+charge on detention of trucks; and in banking for the charge
+per ounce made by the Bank of England in exchanging coin
+or notes for bullion.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEMURRER</span> (from Fr. <i>demeurer</i>, to delay, Lat. <i>morari</i>), in
+English law, an objection taken to the sufficiency, in point of
+law, of the pleading or written statement of the other side. In
+equity pleading a demurrer lay only against the bill, and not
+against the answer; at common law any part of the pleading
+could be demurred to. On the passing of the Judicature Act
+of 1875 the procedure with respect to demurrers in civil cases
+was amended, and, subsequently, by the Rules of the Supreme
+Court, Order XXV. demurrers were abolished and a more
+summary process for getting rid of pleadings which showed
+no reasonable cause of action or defence was adopted, called
+proceedings in lieu of demurrer. Demurrer in criminal cases
+still exists, but is now seldom resorted to. Demurrers are still
+in constant use in the United States. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Answer</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pleading</a></span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENAIN,</span> a town of northern France in the department of
+Nord, 8 m. S.W. of Valenciennes by steam tramway. A mere
+village in the beginning of the 19th century, it rapidly increased
+from 1850 onwards, and, according to the census of 1906, possessed
+22,845 inhabitants, mainly engaged in the coal mines and iron-smelting
+works, to which it owes its development. There are
+also breweries, manufactories of machinery, sugar and glass.
+A school of commerce and industry is among the institutions.
+Denain has a port on the left bank of the Scheldt canal. Its
+vicinity was the scene of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by
+Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by Prince Eugène;
+and the battlefield is marked by a monolithic monument
+inscribed with the verses of Voltaire:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+<p class="ind03">&ldquo;Regardez dans Denain l&rsquo;audacieux Villars</p>
+<p>Disputant le tonnerre à l&rsquo;aigle des Césars.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENBIGH, WILLIAM FEILDING,</span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (d. 1643), son
+of Basil Feilding<a name="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire, and
+of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Walter Aston, was educated
+at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and knighted in 1603. He
+married Susan, daughter of Sir George Villiers, sister of the
+future duke of Buckingham, and on the rise of the favourite
+received various offices and dignities. He was appointed <i>custos
+rotulorum</i> of Warwickshire, and master of the great wardrobe
+in 1622, and created baron and viscount Feilding in 1620, and
+earl of Denbigh on the 14th of September 1622. He attended
+Prince Charles on the Spanish adventure, served as admiral in
+the unsuccessful expedition to Cadiz in 1625, and commanded the
+disastrous attempt upon Rochelle in 1628, becoming the same
+year a member of the council of war, and in 1633 a member of the
+council of Wales. In 1631 Lord Denbigh visited the East. On
+the outbreak of the Civil War he served under Prince Rupert
+and was present at Edgehill. On the 3rd of April 1643 during
+Rupert&rsquo;s attack on Birmingham he was wounded and died from
+the effects on the 8th, being buried at Monks Kirby in Warwickshire.
+His courage, unselfishness and devotion to duty are much
+praised by Clarendon.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See E. Lodge, <i>Portraits</i> (1850), iv. 113; J. Nichols, <i>Hist. of
+Leicestershire</i> (1807), iv. pt. 1, 273; Hist. MSS. <i>Comm Ser.</i> 4th Rep.
+app. 254; <i>Cal. of State Papers, Dom.; Studies in Peerage and Family
+History</i>, by J. H. Round (1901), 216.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Basil Feilding</span>, 2nd earl of Denbigh (c. 1608-1675),
+was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was
+summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Feilding in March
+1629. After seeing military service in the Netherlands he was
+sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to Venice, where he
+remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out Feilding,
+unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among
+the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and,
+having become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made commander-in-chief
+of the Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and
+the neighbouring counties, and lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire.
+During the year 1644 he was fairly active in the field, but in some
+quarters he was distrusted and he resigned his command after
+the passing of the self-denying ordinance in April 1645. At
+Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners appointed
+to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at
+Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge
+Denbigh declared privately that he regretted the position in
+which he found himself, and expressed his willingness to serve
+Charles I. He supported the army in its dispute with the
+parliament, but he would take no part in the trial of Charles I.
+Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a
+member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former
+associates grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded
+as a royalist. In 1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz.
+Although four times married he left no issue when he died on the
+28th of November 1675.</p>
+
+<p>His titles devolved on his nephew <span class="sc">William Feilding</span> (1640-1685),
+son and heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding
+of Lecaghe, Viscount Callan and earl of Desmond), and the
+earldom of Desmond has been held by his descendants to the
+present day in conjunction with the earldom of Denbigh.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The descent of the Feildings from the house of Habsburg, through
+the counts of Laufenburg and Rheinfelden, long considered authentic,
+and immortalized by Gibbon, has been proved to have been based on
+forged documents. See J. H. Round, <i>Peerage and Family History</i>
+(1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENBIGH</span> (<i>Dinbych</i>), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin
+and Wrexham) contributory parliamentary borough, market
+town and county town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches
+of the London &amp; North Western and the Great Western railways.
+Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle, surrounding the hill with a
+double wall, was built, in Edward I.&rsquo;s reign, by Henry de Lacy,
+earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received its first charter.
+The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main gateway is a
+niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but more
+probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton
+Moor, Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the
+Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor.
+The chief buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating
+perhaps from the 13th century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a
+free grammar school (1527); an orphan girl school (funds left by
+Thomas Howel to the Drapers&rsquo; Co., in Henry VII.&rsquo;s reign);
+the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester,
+enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church (begun
+by Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or &ldquo;rows,&rdquo; such as
+those of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of
+St Marcella. The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and
+Elwy. The inhabitants of Denbigh are chiefly occupied in
+the timber trade, butter-making, poultry-farming, bootmaking,
+tanning and quarrying (lime, slate and paving-stones). The
+borough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the peace, but
+no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been
+known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper,
+<i>Baner</i>, being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at
+Bodelwyddan, &amp;c., coal is worked.</p>
+
+<p>The old British tower and castle were called <i>Castell caled
+fryn yn Rhôs</i>, the &ldquo;castle of the hard hill in Rhôs.&rdquo; <i>Din</i> in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"></a>18</span>
+<i>Dinbych</i> means a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle.
+Historically, David (<i>Dafydd</i>), brother of the last Llewelyn, was
+here (<i>aet.</i> Edward I.) perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who
+built the castle (<i>aet.</i> Edward I.), given to the Mortimers and to
+Leicester (under Edward III. and Elizabeth, respectively).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENBIGHSHIRE</span> (<i>Dinbych</i>), a county of N. Wales, bounded
+N. by the Irish Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint
+and Shropshire, S. by Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by
+Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the N. coast, within the
+Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and Llandulas,
+is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a change
+in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is
+partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The
+surface of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified.
+In the N.W. are the bleak Hiraethog (&ldquo;longing&rdquo;) hills, sloping W.
+to the Conwy and E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and
+Abergele bays, on the S. the Yspytty (Lat. <i>Hospitium</i>) and
+Llangwm range, between Denbigh and Merioneth. From this
+watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr and Alwen,
+tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (<i>Dyfrdwy</i>). Some of
+the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those
+of the Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon
+(<i>Rhiwabon</i>) hills and the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals;
+the Berwyn to Offa&rsquo;s Dyke (<i>Wâl Offa</i>) is wild and barren,
+except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and Ceiriog. One feeder of
+the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout fall), another
+rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry bare-hill),
+the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both lakes
+and streams.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>-The geology of the county is full of interest, as it
+develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the
+Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which
+extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo
+formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of
+shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive
+felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just
+within the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y-coed
+and in the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the
+limestone fringe at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian
+covers the entire mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but
+verging on its western slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may
+be traced southward in a continuous line from the mouth of the
+Conway as far as Llanddewi Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near
+Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are abundantly fossiliferous. On its
+eastern slope a narrow broken band of the Old Red, or what may be
+a conglomeratic basement bed of the Carboniferous Limestone series,
+crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this
+the Carboniferous Limestone extends from Llanymynach, its extreme
+southern point, to the Cyrnybrain fault, and there forks into two
+divisions that terminate respectively in the Great Orme&rsquo;s Head and
+in Talargoch, and are separated from each other by the denuded
+shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale of Clwyd the limestone
+underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the eastern division it is
+itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of Ruabon and Minera, and by
+a long reach of the Coal Measures which near Wrexham are 4½ m.
+in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of the red marly beds
+succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but now regarded as
+belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between this and the
+Dee the ground is occupied&mdash;as in the Vale of Clwyd&mdash;by the New
+Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the whole
+of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with glacial drift.
+On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and Plâs Heaton,
+the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone districts,
+have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, hippopotamus
+and other extinct mammals.</p>
+
+<p>Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone
+below, lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable
+fireclays and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures
+about Wrexham.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and
+black cattle are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England
+and sale in London. Oats and turnips, rather than wheat,
+barley and potatoes, occupy the tilled land. The county is
+fairly wooded. There are several important farmers&rsquo; clubs (the
+Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the Cerrig y
+druidion, &amp;c.). The London &amp; North-Western railway (Holyhead
+line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together
+with the lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon),
+via Ruthin and Corwen, Wrexham with Connah&rsquo;s Quay (Great
+Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great
+Western and Great Central railways) have opened up the county.
+Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the Holyhead road from
+London, well built and passing through fine scenery. At Nantglyn
+paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen) slabs and
+slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog. There
+is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn
+Rhiwabon yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit.
+Chirk, Ruabon and Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera
+is the principal lead mine. There is much brick and pottery clay.
+The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite factory. Llangollen and
+Llansantffraid (St Bridgit&rsquo;s) have woollen manufactures.</p>
+
+<p>The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a population
+in 1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county
+is 426,084 acres. The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining
+centre and N. Wales military centre, with a fine church;
+Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held (here are a grammar
+school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt); Llangollen
+and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The
+Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of:
+Denbigh (pop. 6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham
+(14,966). The county has two parliamentary divisions. The
+urban districts are: Abergele and Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay
+and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and Llanrwst (2645).
+Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being held
+at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate
+commissions of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts.
+The ancient county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains
+seventy-five ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a
+parish.</p>
+
+<p>The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the
+lordships of Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog,
+which are roughly the Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway
+and Clwyd, and the lordships of Bromfield, Yale (<i>Iâl</i>, open land)
+and Chirkland, the old possessions of Gruffydd ap Madoc,
+<i>arglwydd</i> (lord) of Dinas Brân. Cefn (Elwy Valley) limestone
+caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros,
+lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &amp;c.; Plâs Heaton cave, the glutton;
+Pont Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that
+of Rhosdigre); Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, &ldquo;platycnemic
+(skeleton) men of Denbighshire&rdquo; (like those of Perthi Chwareu).
+Clawdd Coch has traces of the Romans; so also Penygaer
+and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva (Chester) to
+Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Heriri (<i>Tomen
+y mur</i>). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and
+Pentrefoelas (near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis
+&ldquo;Eliseg&rsquo;s pillar&rdquo; tells of Brochmael and the Cairlegion (Chester)
+struggle against Æthelfrith&rsquo;s invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613,
+while Offa&rsquo;s dike goes back to the Mercian advance. Near
+and parallel to Offa&rsquo;s is the shorter and mysterious Watt&rsquo;s
+dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle comparatively
+untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has cloisters;
+Wrexham, the Brynffynnon &ldquo;nunnery&rdquo;; and at both are
+collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast
+rood lofts and screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait
+brasses and monuments; Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford
+and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd), stained glass. Near Abergele,
+known for its sea baths, is the <i>ogof</i> (or cave), traditionally the
+refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his capture by Bolingbroke
+in 1399.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See J. Williams, <i>Denbigh</i> (1856), and T. F. Tout, <i>Welsh Shires</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENDERA,</span> a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle
+of the great westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here
+was the ancient city of Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the
+sixth of Upper Egypt, and the principal seat of the worship of
+Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess of love and joy. The old
+Egyptian name of Tentyra was written &rsquo;In·t (Ant), but the pronunciation
+of it is unknown: in later days it was &rsquo;In·t-t-ntr·t,
+&ldquo;ant of the goddess,&rdquo; pronounced Ni-tentôri, whence <span class="grk" title="Tentyra, Tentyris">&#932;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#965;&#961;&#945;, &#932;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#965;&#961;&#953;&#962;</span>.
+The temple of Hathor was built in the 1st century B.C.,
+being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and finished
+by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19"></a>19</span>
+rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850
+ft., contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone
+gateways, in the north and the east sides, built by Domitian.
+Another smaller enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also
+of the Roman period.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a
+colonnaded court in front of the present façade, and pylon towers
+at the entrance; but these were never built, probably for lack
+of funds. The building, which is of sandstone, measures about
+300 ft. from front to back, and consists of two oblong rectangles;
+the foremost, placed transversely to the other, is the great
+hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and loftiest part of the
+temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising about one-third
+of the whole structure; the façade has six columns with
+heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great
+columns. The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall
+with six columns, and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary
+chambers. The sanctuary is surrounded by a corridor into which
+the chambers open: on the west side is an apartment forming a
+court and kiosk for the celebration of the feast of the New
+Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of the
+temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several
+chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out,
+the whole of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions
+in crowded characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the
+decoration is even carried into a remarkable series of hidden
+passages and chambers or crypts made in the solid walls for the
+reception of its most valuable treasures. The architectural style
+is dignified and pleasing in design and proportions. The interior
+of the building has been completely cleared: from the outside,
+however, its imposing effect is quite lost, owing to the mounds
+of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of the entrance
+is a &ldquo;Birth House&rdquo; for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and
+behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign
+of Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date
+back to a remote time: the work of some of the early builders
+is in fact referred to in the inscriptions on the present structure.
+Petrie&rsquo;s excavation of the cemetery behind the temple enclosures
+revealed burials dating from the fourth dynasty onwards, the
+most important being mastables of the period from the sixth
+to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited a peculiar
+degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a considerable
+literature before their late origin was established by
+Champollion in 1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof,
+was removed in 1820 to the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.
+Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra VI. occur amongst the
+sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they are purely
+conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu,
+the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears
+sometimes as the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill
+displayed by the Tentyrites in capturing the crocodile is referred
+to by Strabo and other Greek writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth
+satire, takes as his text a religious riot between the Tentyrites
+and the neighbouring Ombites, in the course of which an unlucky
+Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by the opposite party.
+The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south of Edfu,
+where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that
+opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was
+another Ombos, venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See A. Mariette, <i>Dendérah</i> (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880);
+W. M. F. Petrie, <i>Denderah</i> (1900); <i>Nagada</i> and <i>Ballas</i> (1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(<span class="sc">F. Ll. G.</span>)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENDROCOMETES</span> (so named by F. Stein), a genus of
+suctorian Infusoria, characterized by the repeatedly branched
+attached body; each of the lobes of the body gives off a few
+retractile tentacles. It is parasitic on the gills of the so-called
+freshwater shrimp <i>Gammarus pulex</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>For its conjugation see Sydney H. Hickson, in <i>Quarterly Journ. of
+Microsc. Science</i>, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENE-HOLES,</span> the name given to certain caves or excavations
+in England, which have been popularly supposed to be due to the
+Danes or some other of the early northern invaders of the country.
+The common spelling &ldquo;Dane hole&rdquo; is adduced as evidence of
+this, and individual names, such as Vortigern&rsquo;s Caves at Margate,
+and Canute&rsquo;s Gold Mine near Bexley, naturally follow the same
+theory. The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo-Saxon
+<i>den</i>, a hole or valley. There are many underground
+excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent
+in the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found
+chiefly in those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks
+of the Thames. With one exception there are no recorded
+specimens farther east than those of the Grays Thurrock district,
+situated in Hangman&rsquo;s Wood, on the north, and one near
+Rochester on the south side of the river.</p>
+
+<p>The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably
+the same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter
+falling, on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated,
+obviously, by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but,
+although chalk could have been obtained close at hand within
+a few feet, or even inches, from the surface, a depth of from
+45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic feature. It is believed
+that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but as these would
+be of a perishable nature there are no available data of any
+value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a
+domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls
+frequently contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule
+there is only one chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath
+each shaft. From this excessive height it has been inferred that
+the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even
+hiding-places. In some cases the chamber is extended, the roof
+being supported by pillars of chalk left standing. A rare specimen
+of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend. In this case
+the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate
+aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries
+are found connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering
+labyrinth, a careful scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence
+that they are the work of a people of a much later period than
+that of the chambers, or, as they become in these cases, the
+halls of the galleries.</p>
+
+<p>Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of
+Kent and Essex, but the most important groups have been found
+at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey Wood
+and Bexley, and at Gravesend. Those at Bexley and Grays
+Thurrock are the most valuable still existing.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally found that the tool work on the roof or ceiling
+is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position
+could be maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes
+near the roof show that, in all probability, they were made
+by bone or horn picks. And numerous bone picks have been
+discovered in Essex and Kent. These pick-holes are amongst
+the most valuable data for the study of dene-holes, and have
+assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-Roman
+times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been discovered
+in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing the
+date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations.
+Pliny mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, &ldquo;where
+they branched out like the veins of mines.&rdquo; This has been used
+in support of the theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the
+extraction of chalk; but no known dene-hole branches out in this
+way. Chrétien de Troyes has a passage on underground caves in
+Britain which may have reference to dene-holes, and tradition of
+the 14th century treated the dene-holes of Grays as the fabled
+gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the 1st century.</p>
+
+<p>Vortigern&rsquo;s Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which
+have been adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and
+excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different
+parts of the walls.</p>
+
+<p>Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to
+the smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was
+common not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the
+river as Barking Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these
+ready-made hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous
+to descend, were so utilized.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page20"></a>20</span>
+There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been
+originally excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw-wells
+for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) storehouses
+for grain. For several reasons it is unlikely that they were
+used as habitations, although they may have been used occasionally
+as hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is
+equally improbable that they were used for the extraction of
+chalk. The chief reasons against this theory are that chalk
+could have been obtained outcropping close by, and that every
+trace of loose chalk has been removed from the vicinity of the
+holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not descend
+to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about
+14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still
+further. The last of the three possible uses for which these
+prehistoric excavations were designed is usually accepted as
+the most probable. Silos, or underground storehouses, are well
+known in the south of Europe and Morocco. It is supposed that
+the grain was stored in the ear and carefully protected from
+damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the
+chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been put
+forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One
+other theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were
+made in order to get flints for implements, but this is quite
+impossible, as a careful examination of a few examples will show.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>Further reference may be made to <i>Essex Dene-holes</i> by T. V. Holmes
+and W. Cole; to <i>The Archaeological Journal</i> (1882); the <i>Transactions</i>
+of the Essex Field Club; <i>Archaeologia Cantiana</i>, &amp;c.; <i>Dene-holes</i>
+by F. W. Reader, in <i>Old Essex</i>, ed. A. C. Kelway (1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. J. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENGUE</span> (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring
+in warm climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever,
+accompanied by rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with
+severe headache and erythema. After a few days a crisis is
+reached and an interval of two or three days is followed by a
+slighter return of fever and pain and an eruption resembling
+measles, the most marked characteristic of the disease. The
+disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of extreme
+weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is
+known of the aetiology of &ldquo;dengue.&rdquo; The virus is probably
+similar to that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated
+by an intermediary culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic,
+though at intervals it appears to be pandemic and in certain
+districts almost endemic. The area over which the disease ranges
+may be stated generally to be between 32° 47&prime; N. and 23° 23&prime; S.
+Throughout this area &ldquo;dengue&rdquo; is constantly epidemic. The
+earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in 1779-1780
+in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have
+been those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and
+the southern states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending
+practically over the whole of the tropical portions of the East and
+reaching as far as China. In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak
+spread along the shores of the Aegean and over nearly the whole
+of Asia Minor. Perhaps &ldquo;dengue&rdquo; is most nearly endemic in
+equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has
+usually been identified with the Spanish <i>dengue</i>, meaning stiff or
+prim behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suitable
+to the curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the
+disease, similar to the name &ldquo;dandy-fever&rdquo; which was given to
+it by the negroes. According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>
+(quoting Dr Christie in <i>The Glasgow Medical Journal</i>, September
+1881), both &ldquo;dengue&rdquo; and &ldquo;dandy&rdquo; are corruptions of the
+Swahili word <i>dinga</i> or <i>denga</i>, meaning a sudden attack of cramp,
+the Swahili name for the disease being <i>ka-dinga pepo</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Sir Patrick Manson, <i>Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases
+of Warm Climates</i> (1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENHAM, DIXON</span> (1786-1828), English traveller in West
+Central Africa, was born in London on the 1st of January 1786.
+He was educated at Merchant Taylors&rsquo; School, and was articled
+to a solicitor, but joined the army in 1811. First in the 23rd
+Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the 54th foot, he served
+in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and Belgium, and
+received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join
+Dr Oudney and <a href="#artlinks">Hugh Clapperton</a> (q.v.), who had been sent by the
+British government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined
+the expedition at Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised
+escort not forthcoming, Denham, whose energy was boundless,
+started for England to complain of the &ldquo;duplicity&rdquo; of the pasha
+of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers after him with
+promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached
+Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and
+Murzuk was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition
+made its way across the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February
+1823. Here Denham, against the wish of Oudney and Clapperton,
+accompanied a slave-raiding expedition into the Mandara highlands
+south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated, and Denham
+barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set
+out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained
+behind. He explored the western, south and south-eastern
+shores of Lake Chad, and the lower courses of the rivers Waube,
+Logone and Shari. In August 1824, Clapperton having returned
+and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the return journey
+to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted
+lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of
+liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra
+Leone, but after administering the colony for five weeks died of
+fever at Freetown on the 8th of May 1828.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central
+Africa in the years 1822-1824</i> (London, 1826), the greater part of
+which is written by Denham; <i>The Story of Africa</i>, vol. i. chap. xiii.
+(London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENHAM, SIR JOHN</span> (1615-1669), English poet, only son of
+Sir John Denham (1559-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer
+in Ireland, was born in Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father
+became baron of the exchequer in England, and removed to
+London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631 the future
+poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College,
+Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, where he was, says
+John Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit.
+The reputation he had gained at Oxford of being the &ldquo;dreamingest
+young fellow&rdquo; gave way to a scandalous reputation for
+gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton, and seems to have
+lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he wrote his
+paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656
+as <i>The Destruction of Troy</i>, with an excellent verse essay on the
+art of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract
+against gambling, <i>The Anatomy of Play</i> (printed 1651), designed
+to assure his father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into
+his fortune he squandered it at play. It was a surprise to everyone
+when in 1642 he suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, &ldquo;broke
+out like the Irish rebellion, three score thousand strong, when no
+one was aware, nor in the least expected it,&rdquo; by publishing <i>The
+Sophy</i>, a tragedy in five acts, the subject of which was drawn
+from Sir Thomas Herbert&rsquo;s travels. At the beginning of the Civil
+War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was appointed
+governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and
+speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent
+as a prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king
+at Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>In 1642 appeared <i>Cooper&rsquo;s Hill</i>, a poem describing the Thames
+scenery round his home at Egham. The first edition was
+anonymous: subsequent editions show numerous alterations,
+and the poem did not assume its final form until 1655. This
+famous piece, which was Pope&rsquo;s model for his <i>Windsor Forest</i>, was
+not new in theme or manner, but the praise which it received was
+well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham expressed
+his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the
+taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor,
+but these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not
+of the nature of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote
+many squibs against the roundheads. One of the few serious
+pieces belonging to this period is the short poem &ldquo;On the Earl
+of Strafford&rsquo;s Trial and Death.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From this time Denham was much in Charles I.&rsquo;s confidence.
+He was entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and
+from the king when he was in the custody of the parliament, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>21</span>
+duty which he discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but
+in 1648 he was suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and
+thought it wiser to cross the Channel. He helped in the removal
+of the young duke of York to Holland, and for some time he
+served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris, being entrusted by her
+with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent to Poland in
+company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II. They
+succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled
+court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite
+without resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of
+Pembroke at Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham
+should restrict himself to some place of residence to be selected
+by himself at a distance of not less than 20 m. from London;
+subsequently he obtained from the Protector a licence to live at
+Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport to travel abroad with
+the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham&rsquo;s services
+were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His
+qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe
+to regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence
+and peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal &ldquo;Panegyric
+upon Sir John Denham&rsquo;s Recovery from his Madness.&rdquo; He
+eventually secured the services of Christopher Wren as deputy-surveyor.
+In 1660 he was also made a knight of the Bath.</p>
+
+<p>In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret,
+daughter of Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de
+Gramont, a beautiful girl of eighteen. She soon became known
+as the mistress of the duke of York, and the scandal, according
+to common report, shattered the poet&rsquo;s reason. While Denham
+was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was said, by a cup of
+chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the crime,
+but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was
+that Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however,
+was found in the examination after Lady Denham&rsquo;s death.
+Denham survived her for two years, dying at his house near
+Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on the 23rd in Westminster
+Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote the bitter
+political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War entitled
+&ldquo;Directions to a Painter,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Fresh Directions,&rdquo; continuing
+Edmund Waller&rsquo;s &ldquo;Instructions to a Painter.&rdquo; The printer of
+these poems, with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell,
+was sentenced to stand in the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his
+beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>Denham&rsquo;s poems include, beside those already given, a verse
+paraphrase of Cicero&rsquo;s <i>Cato major</i>, and a metrical version of the
+Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly
+praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called <i>Cooper&rsquo;s Hill</i>
+&ldquo;the exact standard of good writing,&rdquo; and Pope in his <i>Windsor
+Forest</i> called him &ldquo;majestic Denham.&rdquo; His collected poems with a
+dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions
+followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers&rsquo; (1810) and other collections
+of the English poets. His political satires were printed with
+some of Rochester&rsquo;s and Marvell&rsquo;s in <i>Bibliotheca curiosa</i>, vol. i.
+(Edinburgh, 1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DÉNIA,</span> a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante;
+on the Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Carcagente.
+Pop. (1900) 12,431. Dénia occupies the seaward slopes
+of a hill surmounted by a ruined castle, and divided by a narrow
+valley on the south from the limestone ridge of Mongó (2500 ft.),
+which commands a magnificent view of the Balearic Islands and
+the Valencian coast. The older houses of Dénia are characterized
+by their flat Moorish roofs (<i>azoteas</i>) and view-turrets (<i>miradores</i>),
+while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are also visible near the
+harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of local commerce,
+many of the older quarters were modernized at the
+beginning of the 20th century. Nails, and woollen, linen and
+esparto grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a
+brisk export trade in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned
+to Great Britain or the United States. Baltic timber and
+British coal are largely imported. The harbour bay, which is
+well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater, contains only a small
+space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand on three sides.
+In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons; about
+half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying
+agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports.</p>
+
+<p>Dénia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae
+(Ampurias in Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early
+date; but its Greek name of <i>Hemeroskopeion</i> was soon superseded
+by the Roman <i>Dianium</i>. In the 1st century B.C., Sertorius
+made it the naval headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and,
+as its name implies, it was already famous for its temple of Diana,
+built in imitation of that at Ephesus. The site of this temple can
+be traced at the foot of the castle hill. Dénia was captured by
+the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253 belonged successively to
+the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia. According to an
+ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose at this
+period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased.
+After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its prosperity
+dwindled away, and only began to revive in the 19th
+century. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14),
+Dénia was thrice besieged; and in 1813 the citadel was held for
+five months by the French against the allied British and Spanish
+forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100 men, and compelled
+to surrender, on honourable terms.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENIKER, JOSEPH</span> (1852-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>) French naturalist and
+anthropologist, was born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia,
+on the 6th of March 1852. After receiving his education at the
+university and technical institute of St Petersburg, he adopted
+engineering as a profession, and in this capacity travelled extensively
+in the petroleum districts of the Caucasus, in Central
+Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in 1876, he
+studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural
+science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural
+History Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological
+works mention may be made of <i>Recherches anatomiques et embryologiques
+sur les singes anthropoides</i> (1886); <i>Étude sur les Kalmouks</i>
+(1883); <i>Les Ghiliaks</i> (1883); and <i>Races et peuples de la
+terre</i> (1900). He became one of the chief editors of the <i>Dictionnaire
+de géographie universelle</i>, and published many papers in the
+anthropological and zoological journals of France.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENILIQUIN,</span> a municipal town of Townsend county, New
+South Wales, Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m.
+by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of
+the town is chiefly connected with the interests of the sheep
+and cattle farmers of the Riverina district, a plain country, in
+the main pastoral, but suited in some parts for cultivation.
+Deniliquin has a well-known public school.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENIM</span> (an abbreviation of <i>serge de Nîmes</i>), the name originally
+given to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled
+cloth made in various colours, usually of cotton, and used for
+overalls, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA</span> (1731-1813), Italian
+historian, was born at Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was
+educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In 1753 he was appointed to the
+chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was soon compelled by the
+influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In 1756 he graduated
+as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a theological
+treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and rhetoric
+in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his <i>Delle revoluzioni
+d&rsquo;Italia</i>, the work on which his reputation is mainly
+founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its
+successive volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied
+his foes and stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the
+Great&rsquo;s invitation, he went to Berlin, where he remained for many
+years, in the course of which he published his <i>Vie et règne de
+Frédéric II</i> (Berlin, 1788) and <i>La Prusse littéraire sous Frédéric
+II</i> (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791). His <i>Delle revoluzioni della
+Germania</i> was published at Florence in 1804, in which year he
+went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the invitation of
+Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1805 his <i>Tableau de la Haute
+Italie, et des Alpes qui l&rsquo;entourent</i>. He died there on the 5th of
+December 1813.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENIS</span> (<span class="sc">Dionysius</span>), <span class="bold">SAINT,</span> first bishop of Paris, patron saint
+of France. According to Gregory of Tours (<i>Hist. Franc.</i> i. 30),
+he was sent into Gaul at the time of the emperor Decius. He
+suffered martyrdom at the village of Catulliacus, the modern St
+Denis. His tomb was situated by the side of the Roman road,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22"></a>22</span>
+where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l&rsquo;Estrée, which existed
+until the 18th century. In the 5th century the clergy of the
+diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625
+Dagobert, son of Lothair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at
+some distance from the basilica, the monastery where the greater
+number of the kings of France have been buried. The festival of
+St Denis is celebrated on the 9th of October. With his name are
+already associated in the <i>Martyrologium Hieronymianum</i> the
+priest Rusticus and the deacon Eleutherius. Other traditions&mdash;of
+no value&mdash;are connected with the name of St Denis. A false
+interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently dating from 724,
+represented St Denis as having received his mission from Pope
+Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian
+(81-96). Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the 9th
+century, identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the
+Areopagite (mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens
+(Eusebius, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> iii. 4. 10, iv. 23. 3), and naturally attributed
+to him the celebrated writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St
+Denis is generally represented carrying his head in his hands.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, Octobris, iv. 696-987; <i>Bibliotheca hagiographica
+graeca</i>, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); <i>Bibliotheca hagiographica
+latina</i>, No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, <i>Les Origines de
+Saint-Denis</i>, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris, 1896); Cahier,
+<i>Caractéristiques des saints</i>, p. 761 (Paris, 1867). (<span class="sc">H. De.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL</span> (1729-1800),
+Austrian poet, was born at Schärding on the Inn, on the 27th
+of September 1729. He was brought up by the Jesuits, entered
+their order, and in 1759 was appointed professor in the
+Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In 1784, after the
+suppression of the college, he was made second custodian of
+the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian.
+He died on the 29th of September 1800. A warm admirer of
+Klopstock, he was one of the leading members of the group of
+so-called &ldquo;bards&rdquo;; and his original poetry, published under the
+title <i>Die Lieder Sineds des Barden</i> (1772), shows all the extravagances
+of the &ldquo;bardic&rdquo; movement. He is best remembered
+as the translator of <i>Ossian</i> (1768-1769; also published together
+with his own poems in 5 vols. as <i>Ossians und Sineds Lieder</i>, 1784).
+More important than either his original poetry or his translations
+were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the literature
+of North Germany; his <i>Sammlung kürzerer Gedichte aus den
+neuern Dichtern Deutschlands</i>, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this
+respect invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical
+compilations, <i>Grundriss der Bibliographie und Bücherkunde</i>
+(1774), <i>Grundriss der Literaturgeschichte</i> (1776), <i>Einleitung in
+die Bücherkunde</i> (1777) and <i>Wiens Buchdruckergeschichte bis 1560</i>
+(1782).</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><i>Ossians und Sineds</i> Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791; but
+a selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol.
+48 (1884) of Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>. His <i>Literarischer
+Nachlass</i> was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2 vols.).
+See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, <i>Michael Denis</i> (1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY</span> (1805-1896), English churchman,
+brother of John Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of
+the House of Commons 1857-1872; Viscount Ossington), was
+born at Ossington, Notts, on the 11th of December 1805, and
+educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828 he was
+elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor,
+during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon,
+he became rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became
+a prebendary of Sarum in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 1851
+he was preferred to the valuable living of East Brent, Somerset,
+and in the same year was made archdeacon of Taunton. For
+many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme High
+Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding
+all &ldquo;progressive&rdquo; movements in education or theology as
+abomination, and vehemently repudiating the &ldquo;higher criticism&rdquo;
+from the days of <i>Essays and Reviews</i> (1860) to those of <i>Lux
+Mundi</i> (1890). In 1853 he resigned his position as examining
+chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing to his pronounced
+eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a neighbouring
+clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison was
+condemned by the archbishops&rsquo; court at Bath (1856); but on
+appeal the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this
+judgment on a technical plea. The result was to make Denison
+a keen champion of the ritualistic school. He edited <i>The Church
+and State Review</i> (1862-1865). Secular state education and the
+&ldquo;conscience clause&rdquo; were anathema to him. Until the end of
+his life he remained a protagonist in theological controversy and
+a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism; but the
+sharpest religious or political differences never broke his personal
+friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for
+which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest
+festivals. He died on the 21st of March 1896.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR</span> (1839-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), Canadian soldier
+and publicist, was born in Toronto on the 31st of August 1839.
+In 1861 he was called to the bar, and was from 1865-1867 a
+member of the city council. From the first he took a prominent
+part in the organization of the military forces of Canada, becoming
+a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He saw
+active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the
+rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct
+of the Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in
+1869-70, he abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully
+contested Algoma in the Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained
+free from party ties. In 1877 he was appointed police magistrate
+of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one of the founders of the
+&ldquo;Canada First&rdquo; party, which did much to shape the national
+aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter
+of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great
+Britain and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal
+Society of Canada, and was president of the section dealing with
+English history and literature. The best known of his military
+works is his <i>History of Modern Cavalry</i> (London, 1877), which
+was awarded first prize by the Russian government in an open
+competition and has been translated into German, Russian and
+Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences under the
+title of <i>Soldiering in Canada</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENISON,</span> a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about
+2½ m. from the S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas.
+Pop. (1890) 10,958; (1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes;
+(1910 census) 13,632. It is served by the Houston &amp; Texas
+Central, the Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas, the Texas &amp; Pacific, and
+the St Louis &amp; San Francisco (&rsquo;Frisco System) railways, and is
+connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line. Denison
+is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known
+as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier&rsquo;s academy (Roman
+Catholic). It is chiefly important as a railway centre, as a
+collecting and distributing point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs
+and poultry, and general farming products of the surrounding
+region, and as a wholesale and jobbing market for the upper
+Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and among its
+manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and foundry
+products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its
+factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47.0% more than
+in 1900. Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of
+the construction of the Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas railway to
+this point in 1872, and was named in honour of George Denison
+(1822-1876), a director of the railway; it became a city in 1891,
+and in 1907 adopted the commission form of government.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENIZEN</span> (derived through the Fr. from Lat. <i>de intus</i>, &ldquo;from
+within,&rdquo; i.e. as opposed to &ldquo;foreign&rdquo;), an alien who obtains
+by letters patent (<i>ex donatione regis</i>) certain of the privileges of
+a British subject. He cannot be a member of the privy council
+or of parliament, or hold any civil or military office of trust, or
+take a grant of land from the crown. The Naturalization Act
+1870 provides that nothing therein contained shall affect the
+grant of any letters of denization by the sovereign.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENIZLI</span> (anc. <i><a href="#artlinks">Laodicea</a> (q.v.) ad Lycum</i>), chief town of a
+sanjak of the Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft.
+Pop. about 17,000. It is beautifully situated at the foot of Baba
+Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus),
+and is connected by a branch line with the station of Gonjeli
+on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the place of Laodicea
+when that town was deserted during the wars between the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>23</span>
+Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174.
+It had become a fine Moslem city in the 14th century, and was
+then called Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered
+products of its Greek inhabitants. The delightful gardens of
+Denizli have obtained for it the name of the &ldquo;Damascus of
+Anatolia.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENMAN, THOMAS,</span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1779-1854), English judge,
+was born in London, the son of a well-known physician, on the
+23rd of July 1779. He was educated at Eton and St John&rsquo;s
+College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1800. Soon after
+leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806 he was called to the
+bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, and at once entered upon practice. His
+success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a position at
+the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord
+Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of
+the Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of
+the counsel for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords
+was very powerful, and some competent judges even considered
+it not inferior to Brougham&rsquo;s. It contained one or two daring
+passages, which made the king his bitter enemy, and retarded
+his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818 he was
+returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the
+Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for
+Nottingham, for which place he continued to sit till his elevation
+to the bench in 1832. His liberal principles had caused his
+exclusion from office till in 1822 he was appointed common
+serjeant by the corporation of London. In 1830 he was made
+attorney-general under Lord Grey&rsquo;s administration. Two years
+later he was made lord chief justice of the King&rsquo;s Bench, and
+in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most
+celebrated for his decision in the important privilege case of
+<i>Stockdale</i> v. <i>Hansard</i> (9 Ad. &amp; El. I.; 11 Ad. &amp; El. 253), but
+he was never ranked as a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned
+his chief justiceship and retired into private life. He died on
+the 26th of September 1854, his title continuing in the direct line.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Hon. George Denman</span> (1819-1896), his fourth son, was
+also a distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen&rsquo;s Bench
+from 1872 till his death in 1896.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Memoir of <i>Thomas, first Lord Denman</i>, by Sir Joseph Arnould
+(2 vols., 1873); E. Manson, <i>Builders of our Law</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENMARK</span> (<i>Danmark</i>), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying
+part of a peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic
+and North Seas, in the middle latitudes of the eastern coast.
+The kingdom lies between 54° 33&prime; and 57° 45&prime; N. and between
+8° 4&prime; 54&Prime; and 12° 47&prime; 25&Prime; E., exclusive of the island of Bornholm,
+which, as will be seen, is not to be included in the Danish archipelago.
+The peninsula is divided between Denmark and Germany
+(Schleswig-Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and
+the greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. <i>Jylland</i>). Its northern
+part is actually insular, divided from the mainland by the
+Limfjord or Liimfjord, which communicates with the North Sea
+to the west and the Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though
+broad and possessing lacustrine characteristics to the west, has
+only very narrow entrances. The connexion with the North Sea
+dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds Jutland to the north
+and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the Baltic by the
+Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric peninsula
+in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western
+Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is
+uniformly low, the highest elevation in the whole country, the
+Himmelbjerg near Aarhus in eastern Jutland, being little more
+than 500 ft. above the sea. Denmark, however, is nowhere low
+in the sense in which Holland is; the country is pleasantly
+diversified, and rises a little at the coast even though it remains
+flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the south-eastern
+part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and meadows,
+and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the western
+and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to a
+wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending
+towards the sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain
+charm even about these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be
+said that Denmark is wanting in natural beauty of a quiet
+order. Lakes, though small, are numerous; the largest are the
+Arresö and the Esromsö in Zealand, and the chain of lakes in
+the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river
+in Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not
+exceeding 80 m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech-woods,
+are extremely beautiful. The coasts are generally low
+and sandy; the whole western shore of Jutland is a succession
+of sand ridges and shallow lagoons, very dangerous to shipping.
+In many places the sea has encroached; even in the 19th
+century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last
+twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to
+secure the coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand
+dunes, from 500 yds. to 7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of
+this coast for about 200 m. Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low,
+sandy point, stretches far into the northern sea, dividing the
+Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western side the coast is
+bolder and less inhospitable; there are several excellent havens,
+especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere, however, very
+high, except at one or two points in Jutland, and at the eastern
+extremity of Möen, where limestone cliffs occur.</p>
+
+<p>Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the
+geographical description of which is given under that heading.
+Out of the total area of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland,
+including the small islands adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and
+the insular part of the kingdom (including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m.
+The islands may be divided into two groups, consisting of the
+two principal islands Fünen and Zealand, and the lesser islands
+attendant on each. Fünen (Dan. <i>Fyen</i>), in form roughly an oval
+with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated from
+Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide in the north, but
+averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and
+known as the Little Belt. Fünen, geologically a part of southern
+Jutland, has similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of
+fertile meadows, the typical beech-forests clothing the low hills
+and the presence of numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial
+signs of likeness. Several islands, none of great extent, lie off
+the west coast of Fünen in the Little Belt; off the south, however,
+an archipelago is enclosed by the long narrow islands of
+Aerö (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.), including in a
+triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge, Avernakö,
+Dreiö, Turö and others. These are generally fertile and well
+cultivated. Aeröskjöbing and Rudkjöbing, on Aerö and
+Langeland respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is
+the great castle of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the 13th
+century. The chief towns of Fünen itself are all coastal. Odense
+is the principal town, lying close to a great inlet behind the
+peninsula of Hindsholm on the north-east, known as Odense
+Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for the steam-ferry to
+Korsör in Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks the
+southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a
+fjord of the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the
+crossing of the Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of
+the fortifications which were stormed by John of Ranzau in
+1535; Middelfart is a seaside resort near the narrowest reach
+of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small port on the north coast.
+All these towns are served by railways radiating from Odense.
+The strait crossed by the Nyborg-Korsör ferry is the Great Belt
+which divides the Fünen from the Zealand group, and is continued
+south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight
+eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt,
+named from an island 15 m. in length, with several large villages,
+which lies somewhat apart from the main archipelago.</p>
+
+<p>Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. <i>Sjaelland</i>), measuring 82 m. N.
+to S. by 68 E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line
+indented by fjords and projecting into long spits or promontories,
+may be considered as the nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it
+contains the capital, Copenhagen, and such important towns as
+Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsör, Naestved and Elsinore (Helsingör).
+Its topography is described in detail under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zealand</a></span>. Its
+attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of itself,
+only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"></a>24</span>
+coast of Möen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island
+formed three separate isles in 1100, and the village of Borre, now
+2 m. inland, was the object of an attack by a fleet from Lübeck
+in 1510. On Falster is the port of Nykjöbing, and from Gjedser,
+the extreme southern point of Denmark, communication is
+maintained with Warnemünde in Germany (29 m.). From
+Nykjöbing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to
+Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other
+towns are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the
+14th century, Saxkjöbing and Rödby. The island of Bornholm
+lies 86 m. E. of the nearest point of the archipelago, and as it
+belongs geologically to Sweden (from which it is distant only
+22 m.) must be considered to be physically an appendage rather
+than an internal part of the kingdom of Denmark.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere
+formed by the so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish
+geologists call the Boulder Sand. The former, as is well known,
+owes its origin to the action of ice on the mountains of Norway
+in the Glacial period. It is unstratified; but by the action of
+water on it, stratified deposits have been formed, some of clay,
+containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very extensive
+ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost everywhere
+the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of Jutland,
+a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but really
+sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder
+formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period,
+which in many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs
+on the sea-coast. Much of the Danish chalk, including the well-known
+limestone of Faxe, belongs to the highest or &ldquo;Danian&rdquo;
+subdivision of the Cretaceous period. In the south-western
+parts a succession of strata, described as the Brown Coal or
+Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the boulder
+clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which occur
+in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations
+come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the
+southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost
+portion of the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay
+lies immediately on the primitive rock, except in the south-western
+corner of the island, where a series of strata appear belonging to
+the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, the
+true Coal formation, &amp;c., being absent. Some parts of Denmark
+are supposed to have been finally raised out of the sea towards
+the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the country
+did not appear above the water till about the close of the Glacial
+period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a
+large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though
+slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction
+from Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island
+of Fyen, a little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea-beaches,
+marked by accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones,
+&amp;c., have been noticed as much as 20 ft. above the present level.
+But the upheaval does not seem to affect all parts equally.
+Even in historic times it has vastly changed the aspect and
+configuration of the country.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate, Flora, Fauna.</i>&mdash;The climate of Denmark does not
+differ materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude;
+but whilst the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so
+that most of the evergreens which adorn an English garden in the
+winter cannot be grown in the open in Denmark. During thirty
+years the annual mean temperature varied from 43.88° F. to
+46.22° in different years and different localities, the mean
+average for the whole country being 45.14°. The islands have,
+upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland. The
+mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to
+March, are 33.26°, 31.64°, 31.82°, and 33.98° respectively, or for
+the whole winter 32.7°; that of the summer, June to August,
+59.2°, but considerable irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an
+average on twenty days in each of the four winter months, but
+only on two days in either October or May. A fringe of ice
+generally lines the greater part of the Danish coasts on the eastern
+side for some time during the winter, and both the Sound and the
+Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In some
+winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of sledges
+passing between Copenhagen and Malmö. The annual rainfall
+varies between 21.58 in. and 27.87 in. in different years and
+different localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland;
+while the small island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual
+rainfall of only 15.78 in. More than half the rainfall occurs
+from July to November, the wettest month being September, with
+an average of 2.95 in.; the driest month is April, with an
+average of 1.14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent in the summer.
+South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and from
+September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which
+is particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds
+prevail from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the
+north of Jutland, a cold and dry N.W. wind called <i>skai</i> prevails
+in May and June, and is exceedingly destructive to vegetation;
+while along the west coast of the peninsula similar effects are
+produced by a salt mist, which carries its influence from 15 to
+30 m. inland.</p>
+
+<p>The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might
+be anticipated in a country of such simple physical structure.
+The ordinary forms of the north of Europe grow freely in the mild
+air and protected soil of the islands and the eastern coast; while
+on the heaths and along the sandhills on the Atlantic side there
+flourish a number of distinctive species. The Danish forest is
+almost exclusively made up of beech, a tree which thrives better
+in Denmark than in any other country of Europe. The oak and
+ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were abundant
+in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost
+universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient
+origin, for in the first half of the 17th century the oak was still
+the characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark
+except under careful cultivation, which, however, is largely
+practised in <a href="#artlinks">Jutland</a> (q.v.). But again, abundant traces of
+ancient extensive forests of fir and pine are found in the numerous
+peat bogs which supply a large proportion of the fuel locally used.
+In Bornholm, it should be mentioned, the flora is more like that
+of Sweden; not the beech, but the pine, birch and ash are the
+most abundant trees.</p>
+
+<p>The wild animals and birds of Denmark are those of the rest
+of central Europe. The larger quadrupeds are all extinct; even
+the red deer, formerly so abundant that in a single hunt in
+Jutland in 1593 no less than 1600 head of deer were killed, is now
+only to be met with in preserves. In the prehistoric &ldquo;kitchen-middens&rdquo;
+(<i>kjökkenmödding</i>) and elsewhere, however, vestiges are
+found which prove that the urochs, the wild boar, the beaver,
+the bear and the wolf all existed subsequently to the arrival of
+man. The usual domestic animals are abundantly found in
+Denmark, with the exception of the goat, which is uncommon.
+The sea fisheries are of importance. Oysters are found in some
+places, but have disappeared from many localities, where their
+abundance in ancient times is proved by their shell moulds on the
+coast. The Gudenaa is the only salmon river in Denmark.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr> <td class="figcenter1"> <a href="images/img24full.png">
+     <img src="images/img24.jpg"
+         style="border:0; width:538px; height:750px"
+         alt="Denmark" title="Denmark" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The population of Denmark in 1901 was
+2,449,540. It was 929,001 in 1801, showing an increase during
+the century in the proportion of 1 to 2.63. In 1901 the average
+density of the population of Denmark was 165.2 to the square
+mile, but varied much in the different parts. Jutland showed
+an average of only 109 inhabitants per square mile, whilst on the
+islands, which had a total population of 1,385,537, the average
+stood at 272.95, owing, on the one hand, to the fact that large
+tracts in the interior of Jutland are almost uninhabited, and on
+the other to the fact that the capital of the country, with its proportionately
+large population, is situated on the island of Zealand.
+The percentages of urban and rural population are respectively
+about 38 and 62. A notable movement of the population to the
+towns began about the middle of the 19th century, and increased
+until very near its end. It was stronger on the islands, where the
+rural population increased by 5.3% only in eleven years, whereas
+in Jutland the increase of the rural population between 1890 and
+1901 amounted to 12.0%. Here, however, peculiar circumstances
+contributed to the increase, as successful efforts have
+been made to render the land fruitful by artificial means. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"></a>25</span>
+Danes are a yellow-haired and blue-eyed Teutonic race of
+middle stature, bearing traces of their kinship with the northern
+Scandinavian peoples. Their habits of life resemble those of the
+North Germans even more than those of the Swedes. The independent
+tenure of the land by a vast number of small farmers,
+who are their own masters, gives an air of carelessness, almost of
+truculence, to the well-to-do Danish peasants. They are generally
+slow of speech and manner, and somewhat irresolute, but
+take an eager interest in current politics, and are generally fairly
+educated men of extreme democratic principles. The result of
+a fairly equal distribution of wealth is a marked tendency towards
+equality in social intercourse. The townspeople show a bias in
+favour of French habits and fashions. The separation from
+the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more than
+half German, intensified the national character; the Danes are
+intensely patriotic; and there is no portion of the Danish
+dominions except perhaps in the West Indian islands, where
+a Scandinavian language is not spoken. The preponderance of
+the female population over the male is approximately as 1052 to
+1000. The male sex remains in excess until about the twentieth
+year, from which age the female sex preponderates in increasing
+ratio with advancing age. The percentage of illegitimacy is high
+as a whole, although in some of the rural districts it is very low.
+But in Copenhagen 20% of the births are illegitimate. Between
+the middle and the end of the 19th century the rate of mortality
+decreased most markedly for all ages. During the last decade of
+the century it ranged between 19.5 per thousand in 1891 and
+15.1 in 1898 (17.4 in 1900). Emigration for some time in the
+19th century at different periods, both in its early part and towards
+its close, seriously affected the population of Denmark. But in
+the last decade it greatly diminished. Thus in 1892 the number
+of emigrants to Transatlantic places rose to 10,422 but in 1900
+it was only 3570. The great bulk of them go to the United States;
+next in favour is Canada.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The roads of Denmark form an extensive
+and well-maintained system. The railway system is also fairly
+complete, the state owning about three-fifths of the total mileage,
+which amounts to some 2000. Two lines enter Denmark from
+Schleswig across the frontier. The main Danish lines are as
+follows. From the frontier a line runs east by Fredericia, across
+the island of Fünen by Odense and Nyborg, to Korsör on Zealand,
+and thence by Roskilde to Copenhagen. The straits between
+Fredericia and Middelfart and between Nyborg and Korsör are
+crossed by powerful steam-ferries which are generally capable of
+conveying a limited number of railway wagons. This system is
+also in use on the line which runs south from Roskilde to the island
+of Falster, from the southernmost point of which, Gjedser, ferry-steamers
+taking railway cars serve Warnemünde in Germany.
+The main lines in Jutland run (a) along the eastern side north
+from Fredericia by Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg and
+Hjörring, to Frederikshavn, and (b) along the western side from
+Esbjerg by Skjerne and Vemb, and thence across the peninsula
+by Viborg to Langaa on the eastern line. The lines are generally
+of standard gauge (4 ft. 8½ in.), but there is also a considerable
+mileage of light narrow-gauge railways. Besides the numerous
+steam-ferries which connect island and island, and Jutland with
+the islands, and the Gjedser-Warnemünde route, a favourite
+passenger line from Germany is that between Kiel and Korsör,
+while most of the German Baltic ports have direct connexion with
+Copenhagen. With Sweden communications are established by
+ferries across the Sound between Copenhagen and Malmö and
+Landskrona, and between Elsinore (Helsingör) and Helsingborg.
+The postal department maintains a telegraph and telephone
+service.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industries.</i>&mdash;The main source of wealth in Denmark is agriculture,
+which employs about two-fifths of the entire population.
+Most of the land is freehold and cultivated by the owner himself,
+and comparatively little land is let on lease except very large
+holdings and glebe farms. The independent small farmer
+(<i>bönder</i>) maintains a hereditary attachment to his ancestral
+holding. There is also a class of cottar freeholders (<i>junster</i>).
+Fully 74% of the total area of the country is agricultural land.
+Of this only about one-twelfth is meadow land. The land under
+grain crops is not far short of one-half the remainder, the principal
+crops being oats, followed by barley and rye in about equal
+quantities, with wheat about one-sixth that of barley and hardly
+one-tenth that of oats. Beet is extensively grown. During the
+last forty years of the 19th century dairy-farming was greatly
+developed in Denmark, and brought to a high degree of perfection
+by the application of scientific methods and the best machinery,
+as well as by the establishment of joint dairies. The Danish
+government has assisted this development by granting money
+for experiments and by a rigorous system of inspection for the
+prevention of adulteration. The co-operative system plays an
+important part in the industries of butter-making, poultry-farming
+and the rearing of swine.</p>
+
+<p>Rabbits, which are not found wild in Denmark, are bred for
+export. Woods cover fully 7% of the area, and their preservation
+is considered of so much importance that private owners are
+under strict control as regards cutting of timber. The woods
+consist mostly of beech, which is principally used for fuel, but
+pines were extensively planted during the 19th century. Allusion
+has been made already to the efforts to plant the extensive heaths
+in <a href="#artlinks">Jutland</a> (q.v.) with pine-trees.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Rates and taxes on land are mostly levied according
+to a uniform system of assessment, the unit of which is
+called a <i>Tonde Hartkorn</i>. The Td. Htk., as it is usually abbreviated,
+has further subdivision, and is intended to correspond to
+the same value of land throughout the country. The Danish
+measure for land is a <i>Tonde Land</i> (Td. L.), which is equal to 1.363
+statute acres. Of the best ploughing land a little over 6 Td. L.,
+or about 8 acres, go to a Td. Htk., but of unprofitable land a Td.
+Htk. may represent 300 acres or more. On the islands and in the
+more fertile part of Jutland the average is about 10 Td. L., or
+13½ acres. Woodland, tithes, &amp;c., are also assessed to Td. Htk.
+for fiscal purposes. In the island of Bornholm, the assessment
+is somewhat different, though the general state of agricultural
+holdings is the same as in other parts. The selling value of land
+has shown a decrease in modern times on account of the agricultural
+depression. A homestead with land assessed less than
+1 Td. Htk. is legally called a <i>Huus</i> or <i>Sted</i>, i.e. cottage, whilst
+a farm assessed at 1 Td. Htk. or more is called <i>Gaard</i>, i.e. farm.
+Farms of between 1 and 12 Td. Htk. are called <i>Bondergaarde</i>, or
+peasant farms, and are subject to the restriction that such a holding
+cannot lawfully be joined to or entirely merged into another.
+They may be subdivided, and portions may be added to another
+holding, but the homestead, with a certain amount of land, must
+be preserved as a separate holding for ever. The seats of the
+nobility and landed gentry are called <i>Herregaarde</i>. The peasants
+hold about 73% of all the land according to its value. As regards
+their size about 30% are assessed from 1 to 4 Td. Htk.; about
+33% from 4 to 8 Td. Htk.; the remainder at about 8 Td. Htk.
+An annual sum is voted by parliament out of which loans are
+granted to cottagers who desire to purchase small freehold plots.</p>
+
+<p>The fishery along the coasts of Denmark is of some importance
+both on account of the supply of food obtained thereby for the
+population of the country, and on account of the export; but the
+good fishing grounds, not far from the Danish coast, particularly
+in the North Sea, are mostly worked by the fishing vessels of other
+nations, which are so numerous that the Danish government is
+obliged to keep gun-boats stationed there in order to prevent
+encroachments on territorial waters.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;The mineral products of Denmark are
+unimportant. It is one of the poorest countries of Europe in
+this particular. It is rich, however, in clays, while in the island
+of Bornholm there are quarries of freestone and marble. The
+factories of Denmark supply mainly local needs. The largest are
+those engaged in the construction of engines and iron ships. The
+manufacture of woollens and cotton, the domestic manufacture
+of linen in Zealand, sugar refineries, paper mills, breweries, and
+distilleries may also be mentioned. The most notable manufacture
+is that of porcelain. The nucleus of this industry was a
+factory started in 1772, by F. H. Müller, for the making of china
+out of Bornholm clay. In 1779 it passed into the hands of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"></a>26</span>
+state, and has remained there ever since, though there are
+also private factories. Originally the Copenhagen potters
+imitated the Dresden china made at Meissen, but they later produced
+graceful original designs. The creations of Thorvaldsen
+have been largely repeated and imitated in this ware. Trade-unionism
+flourishes in Denmark, and strikes are of frequent
+occurrence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;Formerly the commercial legislation of Denmark
+was to such a degree restrictive that imported manufactures had
+to be delivered to the customs, where they were sold by public
+auction, the proceeds of which the importer received from the
+custom-houses after a deduction was made for the duty. To this
+restriction, as regards foreign intercourse, was added a no less
+injurious system of inland duties impeding the commerce of the
+different provinces with each other. The want of roads also,
+and many other disadvantages, tended to keep down the development
+of both commerce and industry. During the 19th century,
+however, several commercial treaties were concluded between
+Denmark and the other powers of Europe, which made the
+Danish tariff more regular and liberal.</p>
+
+<p>The vexed question, of many centuries&rsquo; standing, concerning
+the claim of Denmark to levy dues on vessels passing through the
+<a href="#artlinks">Sound</a> (q.v.), was settled by the abolition of the dues in 1857.
+The commerce of Denmark is mainly based on home production
+and home consumption, but a certain quantity of goods is imported
+with a view to re-exportation, for which the free port and
+bonded warehouses at Copenhagen give facilities. In modern
+times the value of Danish commerce greatly increased, being
+doubled in the last twenty years of the 19th century, and exceeding
+a total of fifty millions sterling. The value of export is
+exceeded as a whole by that of import in the proportion, roughly,
+of 1 to 1.35. By far the most important articles of export may be
+classified as articles of food of animal origin, a group which covers
+the vast export trade in the dairy produce, especially butter, for
+which Denmark is famous. The value of the butter for export
+reaches nearly 40% of the total value of Danish exports. A
+small proportion of the whole is imported chiefly from Russia
+(also Siberia) and Sweden and re-exported as of foreign origin.
+The production of margarine is large, but not much is exported,
+margarine being largely consumed in Denmark instead of
+butter, which is exported. Next to butter the most important
+article of Danish export is bacon, and huge quantities of eggs
+are also exported. Exports of less value, but worthy of special
+notice, are vegetables and wool, bones and tallow, also dairy
+machinery, and finally cement, the production of which is a
+growing industry. The classes of articles of food of animal
+origin, and living animals, are the only ones of which the
+exportation exceeds the importation; with regard to all other
+goods, the reverse is the case. In the second of these classes the
+most important export is home-bred horned cattle. The trade
+in live sheep and swine, which was formerly important, has mostly
+been converted into a dead-meat trade. A proportionally large
+importation of timber is caused by the scarcity of native timber
+suitable for building purposes, the plantations of firs and pines
+being insufficient to produce the quantity required, and the
+quality of the wood being inferior beyond the age of about forty
+years. The large importation of coal, minerals and metals, and
+goods made from them is likewise caused by the natural poverty
+of the country in these respects.</p>
+
+<p>Denmark carries on its principal import trade with Germany,
+Great Britain and the United States of America, in this order,
+the proportions being about 30, 20 and 16% respectively of the
+total. Its principal export trade is with Great Britain, Germany
+and Sweden, the percentage of the whole being 60, 18 and 10.
+With Russia, Norway and France (in this order) general trade is
+less important, but still large. A considerable proportion of
+Denmark&rsquo;s large commercial fleet is engaged in the carrying
+trade between foreign, especially British, ports.</p>
+
+<p>Under a law of the 4th of May 1907 it was enacted that the
+metric system of weights and measures should come into official
+use in three years from that date, and into general use in
+five years.</p>
+
+<p><i>Money and Banking.</i>&mdash;The unit of the Danish monetary system,
+as of the Swedish and Norwegian, is the <i>krone</i> (crown), equal to
+1s. 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">3</span>d., which is divided into 100 <i>öre</i>; consequently 7½ öre are
+equal to one penny. Since 1873 gold has been the standard, and
+gold pieces of 20 and 10 kroner are coined, but not often met with,
+as the public prefers bank-notes. The principal bank is the
+National Bank at Copenhagen, which is the only one authorized
+to issue notes. These are of the value of 10, 50, 100 and 500 kr.
+Next in importance are the Danske Landmands Bank, the
+Handels Bank and the Private Bank, all at Copenhagen. The
+provincial banks are very numerous; many of them are at the
+same time savings banks. Their rate of interest, with few exceptions,
+is 3½ to 4%. There exist, besides, in Denmark several
+mutual loan associations (<i>Kreditforeninger</i>), whose business is
+the granting of loans on mortgage. Registration of mortgages
+is compulsory in Denmark, and the system is extremely simple, a
+fact which has been of the greatest importance for the improvement
+of the country. There are comparatively large institutions
+for insurance of all kinds in Denmark. The largest office for life
+insurance is a state institution. By law of the 9th of April 1891
+a system of old-age pensions was established for the benefit of
+persons over sixty years of age.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;Denmark is a limited monarchy, according to
+the law of 1849, revised in 1866. The king shares his power with
+the parliament (<i>Rigsdag</i>), which consists of two chambers, the
+<i>Landsthing</i> and the <i>Folkething</i>, but the constitution contains no
+indication of any difference in their attributes. The Landsthing,
+or upper house, however, is evidently intended to form the conservative
+element in the constitutional machinery. While the
+114 members of the Folkething (House of Commons) are elected
+for three years in the usual way by universal suffrage, 12 out of
+the 66 members of the Landsthing are life members nominated
+by the crown. The remaining 54 members of the Landsthing are
+returned for eight years according to a method of proportionate
+representation by a body of deputy electors. Of these deputies
+one-half are elected in the same way as members of the Folkething,
+without any property qualification for the voters; the
+other half of the deputy electors are chosen in the towns by those
+who during the last preceding year were assessed on a certain
+minimum of income, or paid at least a certain amount in rates
+and taxes. In the rural districts the deputy electors returned by
+election are supplemented by an equal number of those who have
+paid the highest amounts in taxes and county rates together.
+In this manner a representation is secured for fairly large
+minorities, and what is considered a fair share of influence on
+public affairs given to those who contribute the most to the needs
+of the state. The franchise is held by every male who has reached
+his thirtieth year, subject to independence of public charity and
+certain other circumstances. A candidate for either house of the
+Rigsdag must have passed the age of twenty-five. Members are
+paid ten kroner each day of the session and are allowed travelling
+expenses. The houses meet each year on the first Monday in
+October. The constitutional theory of the Folkething is that of
+one member for every 16,000 inhabitants. The Faeröe islands,
+which form an integral part of the kingdom of Denmark in the
+wider sense, are represented in the Danish parliament, but not
+the other dependencies of the Danish crown, namely Iceland,
+Greenland and the West Indian islands of St Thomas, St John
+and St Croix. The budget is considered by the Folkething at the
+beginning of each session. The revenue and expenditure average
+annually about £4,700,000. The principal items of revenue are
+customs and excise, land and house tax, stamps, railways, legal
+fees, the state lottery and death duties. A considerable reserve
+fund is maintained to meet emergencies. The public debt is
+about £13,500,000 and is divided into an internal debt, bearing
+interest generally at 3½%, and a foreign debt (the larger), with
+interest generally at 3%. The revenue and expenditure of the
+Faeröes are included in the budget for Denmark proper, but
+Iceland and the West Indies have their separate budgets. The
+Danish treasury receives nothing from these possessions; on the
+contrary, Iceland receives an annual grant, and the West Indian
+islands have been heavily subsidized by the Danish finances to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"></a>27</span>
+assist the sugar industry. The administration of <a href="#artlinks">Greenland</a>
+(q.v.) entails an annual loss which is posted on the budget of the
+ministry of finances. The state council (<i>Statsraad</i>) includes the
+presidency of the council and ministries of war, and marine,
+foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, public institution and
+ecclesiastical, agriculture and public works.</p>
+
+<p><i>Local Government.</i>&mdash;For administrative purposes the country is
+divided into eighteen counties (<i>Amter</i>, singular <i>Amt</i>), as follows.
+(1) Covering the islands of Zealand and lesser adjacent islands,
+Copenhagen, Frederiksborg, Holbaek, Sorö, Praestö. (2) Covering
+the islands of Laaland and Falster, Maribo. (3) Covering
+Fünen, Langeland and adjacent islets, Svendborg, Odense.
+(4) On the mainland, Hjörring, Aalborg, Thisted, Ringkjöbing,
+Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle, Ribe. (5) Bornholm. The
+principal civil officer in each of these is the <i>Amtmand</i>. Local
+affairs are managed by the <i>Amstraad</i> and <i>Sogneraad</i>, corresponding
+to the English county council and parish council. These
+institutions date from 1841, but they have undergone several
+modifications since. The members of these councils are elected
+on a system similar to that applied to the elections for the
+Landsthing. The same is the case with the provincial town
+councils. That of Copenhagen is elected by those who are rated
+on an income of at least 400 kroner (£22). The burgomasters are
+appointed by the crown, except at Copenhagen, where they are
+elected by the town council, subject to royal approbation. The
+financial position of the municipalities in Denmark is generally
+good. The ordinary budget of Copenhagen amounts to about
+£1,100,000 a year.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justice.</i>&mdash;For the administration of justice Denmark is
+divided into <i>herreds</i> or hundreds; as, however, they are mostly
+of small extent, several are generally served by one judge
+(<i>herredsfoged</i>); the townships are likewise separate jurisdictions,
+each with a <i>byfoged</i>. There are 126 such local judges, each of
+whom deals with all kinds of cases arising in his district, and
+is also at the head of the police. There are two intermediary
+Courts of Appeal (<i>Overret</i>), one in Copenhagen, another in
+Viborg; the Supreme Court of Appeal (<i>Höjesteret</i>) sits at Copenhagen.
+In the capital the different functions are more divided.
+There is also a Court of Commerce and Navigation, on which
+leading members of the trading community serve as assessors.
+In the country, Land Commissions similarly constituted deal with
+many questions affecting agricultural holdings. A peculiarity
+of the Danish system is that, with few exceptions, no civil cause
+can be brought before a court until an attempt has been made
+at effecting an amicable settlement. This is mostly done by
+so-called Committees of Conciliation, but in some cases by the
+court itself before commencing formal judicial proceedings. In
+this manner three-fifths of all the causes are settled, and many
+which remain unsettled are abandoned by the plaintiffs.
+Sanitary matters are under the control of a Board of Health.
+The whole country is divided into districts, in each of which a
+medical man is appointed with a salary, who is under the obligation
+to attend to poor sick and assist the authorities in medical
+matters, inquests, &amp;c. The relief of the poor is well organized,
+mostly on the system of out-door relief. Many workhouses have
+been established for indigent persons capable of work. There are
+also many almshouses and similar institutions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Army and Navy.</i>&mdash;The active army consists of a life guard
+battalion and 10 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, infantry,
+5 cavalry regiments of 3 squadrons each, 12 field batteries (now
+re-armed with a Krupp Q.F. equipment), 3 battalions of fortress
+artillery and 6 companies of engineers, with in addition various
+local troops and details. The peace strength of permanent
+troops, without the annual contingent of recruits, is about
+13,500 officers and men, the annual contingent of men trained
+two or three years with the colours about 22,500, and the annual
+contingent of special reservists (men trained for brief periods)
+about 17,000. Thus the number of men maintained under arms
+(without calling up the reserves) is as high as 75,000 during
+certain periods of the year and averages nearly 60,000. Reservists
+who have definitively left the colours are recalled for short
+refresher trainings, the number of men so trained in 1907 being
+about 80,000. The field army on a war footing, without depot
+troops, garrison troops and reservists, would be about 50,000
+strong, but by constituting new cadres at the outbreak of war
+and calling up the reserves it could be more than doubled, and as
+a matter of fact nearly 120,000 men were with the colours in the
+man&oelig;uvre season in 1907. The term of service is eight years in
+the active army and its reserves and eight years in the second
+line. The armament of the infantry is the Krag-jorgensen of
+.314 in. calibre, model 1889, that of the field artillery a 7.5 cm.
+Krupp Q.F. equipment, model 1902. The navy consists of 6
+small battleships, 3 coast defence armour-clads, 5 protected
+cruisers, 5 gun-boats, and 24 torpedo craft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;The national or state church of Denmark is officially
+styled &ldquo;Evangelically Reformed,&rdquo; but is popularly described
+as Lutheran. The king must belong to it. There is complete
+religious toleration, but though most of the important Christian
+communities are represented their numbers are very small. The
+Mormon apostles for a considerable time made a special raid upon
+the Danish peasantry and a few hundreds profess this faith.
+There are seven dioceses, Fünen, Laaland and Falster, Aarhus,
+Aalborg, Viborg and Ribe, while the primate is the bishop
+of Zealand, and resides at Copenhagen, but his cathedral is at
+Roskilde. The bishops have no political function by reason of
+their office, although they may, and often do, take a prominent
+part in politics. The greater part of the pastorates comprise
+more than one parish. The benefices are almost without exception
+provided with good residences and glebes, and the tithes, &amp;c.,
+generally afford a comfortable income. The bishops have fixed
+salaries in lieu of tithes appropriated by the state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education and Arts.</i>&mdash;The educational system of Denmark is
+maintained at a high standard. The instruction in primary schools
+is gratuitous. Every child is bound to attend the parish school at
+least from the seventh to the thirteenth year, unless the parents
+can prove that it receives suitable instruction in other ways.
+The schools are under the immediate control of school boards
+appointed by the parish councils, but of which the incumbent of
+the parish is <i>ex-officio</i> member; superior control is exercised by
+the Amtmand, the rural dean, and the bishop, under the Minister
+for church and education. Secondary public schools are provided
+in towns, in which moderate school fees are paid. There are also
+public grammar-schools. Nearly all schools are day-schools.
+There are only two public schools, which, though on a much
+smaller scale, resemble the great English schools, namely,
+those of Sorö and Herlufsholm, both founded by private munificence.
+Private schools are generally under a varying measure
+of public control. The university is at <a href="#artlinks">Copenhagen</a> (q.v.).
+Amongst numerous other institutions for the furtherance of
+science and training of various kinds may be mentioned the large
+polytechnic schools; the high school for agriculture and veterinary
+art; the royal library; the royal society of sciences;
+the museum of northern antiquities; the society of northern
+antiquaries, &amp;c. The art museums of Denmark are not considerable,
+except the museum of Thorvaldsen, at Copenhagen, but
+much is done to provide first-rate training in the fine arts and
+their application to industry through the Royal Academy of Arts,
+and its schools. Finally, it may be mentioned that a sum
+proportionately large is available from public funds and regular
+parliamentary grants for furthering science and arts by temporary
+subventions to students, authors, artists and others of insufficient
+means, in order to enable them to carry out particular works, to
+profit by foreign travel, &amp;c. The principal scientific societies
+and institutions are detailed under Copenhagen. During the
+earlier part of the 19th century not a few men could be mentioned
+who enjoyed an exceptional reputation in various departments
+of science, and Danish scientists continue to contribute their full
+share to the advancement of knowledge. The society of sciences,
+that of northern antiquaries, the natural history and the botanical
+societies, &amp;c., publish their transactions and proceedings,
+but the <i>Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift</i>, of which 14 volumes with
+259 plates were published (1861-1884), and which was in the
+foremost rank in its department, ceased with the death in
+1884 of the editor, the distinguished zoologist, I. C. Schiödte.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>28</span>
+Another extremely valuable publication of wide general interest,
+the <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, is published by the commission for
+the exploration of Greenland. What may be called the modern
+&ldquo;art&rdquo; current, with its virtues and vices, is as strong in Denmark
+as in England. Danish sculpture will be always famous, if only
+through the name of Thorvaldsen. In architecture the prevailing
+fashion is a return to the style of the first half of the 17th century,
+called the Christian IV. style; but in this branch of art no
+marked excellence has been obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;J. P. Trap, <i>Statistisk Topographisk Beskrivelse af
+Kongeriget Danmark</i> (Copenhagen, 1859-1860, 3 vols., 2nd ed., 1872-1879);
+V. Falbe-Hansen and W. Scharling, <i>Danmarks Statistik</i>
+(Copenhagen, 1878-1891, 6 vols.). (Various writers) <i>Vort Folk i
+det nittende Aarhundrede</i> (Copenhagen, 1899 et seq.), illustrated;
+J. Carlsen, H. Olrik and C. N. Starcke, <i>Le Danemark</i> (Copenhagen,
+1900), 700 pp.; illustrated, published in connexion with the Paris
+Exhibition. <i>Statistisk Aarbog</i> (1896, &amp;c.). Annual publication,
+and other publications of Statens Statistiske Bureau, Copenhagen;
+<i>Annuaire météorologique</i>, Danish Meteorological Institution, Copenhagen;
+E. Löffler, <i>Dänemarks Natur and Volk</i> (Copenhagen, 1905);
+Margaret Thomas, <i>Denmark Past and Present</i> (London, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. A. G.; O. J. R. H.)</div>
+
+<p class="center sc">History</p>
+
+<p><i>Ancient.</i>&mdash;Our earliest knowledge of Denmark is derived
+from Pliny, who speaks of three islands named &ldquo;Skandiai,&rdquo; a
+name which is also applied to Sweden. He says nothing about
+the inhabitants of these islands, but tells us more about the
+Jutish peninsula, or Cimbric Chersonese as he calls it. He
+places the Saxons on the neck, above them the Sigoulones,
+Sabaliggoi and Kobandoi, then the Chaloi, then above them the
+Phoundousioi, then the Charondes and finally the Kimbroi.
+He also mentions the three islands called Alokiai, at the northern
+end of the peninsula. This would point to the fact that the
+Limfjord was then open at both ends, and agree with Adam of
+Bremen (iv. 16), who also speaks of three islands called Wendila,
+Morse and Thud. The Cimbri and Charydes are mentioned in
+the <i>Monumentum Ancyranum</i> as sending embassies to Augustus
+in A.D. 5. The Promontorium Cimbrorum is spoken of in Pliny,
+who says that the Sinus Codanus lies between it and Mons
+Saevo. The latter place is probably to be found in the high-lying
+land on the N.E. coast of Germany, and the Sinus Codanus
+must be the S.W. corner of the Baltic, and not the whole sea.
+Pomponius Mela says that the Cimbri and Teutones dwelt on the
+Sinus Codanus, the latter also in Scandinavia (or Sweden). The
+Romans believed that these Cimbri and Teutones were the same
+as those who invaded Gaul and Italy at the end of the 2nd century
+B.C. The Cimbri may probably be traced in the province of
+Aalborg, formerly known as Himmerland; the Teutones, with
+less certainty, may be placed in Thyth or Thyland, north of the
+Limfjord. No further reference to these districts is found till
+towards the close of the migration period, about the beginning of
+the 6th century, when the <a href="#artlinks">Heruli</a> (q.v.), a nation dwelling in or
+near the basin of the Elbe, were overthrown by the Langobardi.
+According to Procopius (<i>Bellum Gothicum</i>, ii. 15), a part of them
+made their way across the &ldquo;desert of the Slavs,&rdquo; through the
+lands of the Warni and the Danes to Thoule (i.e. Sweden). This
+is the first recorded use of the name &ldquo;Danes.&rdquo; It occurs again
+in Gregory of Tours (<i>Historiae Francorum</i>, iii. 3) in connexion
+with an irruption of a Götish (loosely called Danish) fleet into the
+Netherlands (c. 520). From this time the use of the name is
+fairly common. The heroic poetry of the Anglo-Saxons may
+carry the name further back, though probably it is not very
+ancient, at all events on the mainland.</p>
+
+<p>According to late Danish tradition Denmark now consisted
+of Vitheslaeth (i.e. Zealand, Möen, Falster and Laaland),
+Jutland (with Fyen) and Skaane. Jutland was acquired by
+Dan, the eponymous ancestor of the Danes. He also won
+Skaane, including the modern provinces of Halland, Kristianstad,
+Malmöhus and Blekinge, and these remained part of Denmark
+until the middle of the 17th century. These three divisions
+always remained more or less distinct, and the Danish kings had
+to be recognized at Lund, Ringsted and Viborg, but Zealand
+was from time immemorial the centre of government, and Lejre
+was the royal seat and national sanctuary. According to tradition
+this dates from the time of Skiöldr, the eponymous ancestor of the
+Danish royal family of Skiöldungar. He was a son of Othin and
+husband of the goddess Gefjon, who created Zealand. Anglo-Saxon
+tradition also speaks of Scyld (i.e. Skiöldr), who was
+regarded as the ancestor of both the Danish and English royal
+families, and it represented him as coming as a child of unknown
+origin in a rudderless boat. There can be little doubt that from
+a remote antiquity Zealand had been a religious sanctuary,
+and very probably the god Nerthus was worshipped here by the
+Angli and other tribes as described in Tacitus (<i>Germania</i>, c. 40).
+The Lejre sanctuary was still in existence in the time of Thietmar
+of Merseburg (i. 9), at the beginning of the 11th century.</p>
+
+<p>In Scandinavian tradition the next great figure is Fróðe the
+peace-king, but it is not before the 5th century that we meet with
+the names of any kings which can be regarded as definitely
+historical. In <i>Beowulf</i> we hear of a Danish king Healfdene,
+who had three sons, Heorogar, Hrothgar and Halga. The hero
+Beowulf comes to the court of Hrothgar from the land of the
+Götar, where Hygelac is king. This Hygelac is undoubtedly to
+be identified with the Chochilaicus, king of the Danes (really
+Götar) who, as mentioned above, made a raid against the Franks
+c. 520. Beowulf himself won fame in this campaign, and by the
+aid of this definite chronological datum we can place the reign
+of Healfdene in the last half of the 5th century, and that of
+Hrothgar&rsquo;s nephew Hrothwulf, son of Halga, about the middle
+of the 6th century. Hrothgar and Halga correspond to Saxo&rsquo;s
+Hroar and Helgi, while Hrothwulf is the famous Rolvo or
+Hrólfr Kraki of Danish and Norse saga. There is probably some
+historical truth in the story that Heoroweard or Hiörvarðr was
+responsible for the death of Hrólfr Kraki. Possibly a still earlier
+king of Denmark was Sigarr or Sigehere, who has won lasting
+fame from the story of his daughter Signy and her lover
+Hagbarðr.</p>
+
+<p>From the middle of the 6th to the beginning of the 8th century
+we know practically nothing of Danish history. There are
+numerous kings mentioned in Saxo, but it is impossible to identify
+them historically. We have mention at the beginning of the
+8th century of a Danish king Ongendus (cf. O. E. Ongenþeow)
+who received a mission led by St Willibrord, and it was probably
+about this time that there flourished a family of whom tradition
+records a good deal. The founder of this line was Ivarr Viðfaðmi
+of Skaane, who became king of Sweden. His daughter Auðr
+married one Hroerekr and became the mother of Haraldr
+Hilditönn. The genealogy of Haraldr is given differently in Saxo,
+but there can be no doubt of his historical existence. In his time
+it is said that the land was divided into four kingdoms&mdash;Skaane,
+Zealand, Fyen and Jutland. After a reign of great splendour
+Haraldr met his death in the great battle of Bråvalla (Bravík in
+Östergötland), where he was opposed by his nephew Ring, king
+of Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>The battle probably took place about the year 750. Fifty
+years later the Danes begin to be mentioned with comparative
+frequency in continental annals. From 777-798 we have mention
+of a certain Sigifridus as king of the Danes, and then in 804 his
+name is replaced by that of one Godefridus, This Godefridus
+is the Godefridus-Guthredus of Saxo, and is to be identified also
+with Guðröðr the Yngling, king in Vestfold in Norway. He came
+into conflict with Charlemagne, and was preparing a great
+expedition against him when he was killed by one of his own
+followers (c. 810). He was succeeded by his brother Hemmingus,
+but the latter died in 812 and there was a disputed succession.
+The two claimants were &ldquo;Sigefridus nepos Godefridi regis&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Anulo nepos Herioldi quondam regis&rdquo; (i.e. probably
+Haraldr Hilditönn). A great battle took place in which both
+claimants were slain, but the party of Anulo (O.N. Áli) were
+victorious and appointed as kings Anulo&rsquo;s brothers Herioldus
+and Reginfridus. They soon paid a visit to Vestfold, &ldquo;the
+extreme district of their realm, whose peoples and chief men were
+refusing to be made subject to them,&rdquo; and on their return had
+trouble with the sons of Godefridus. The latter expelled them
+from their kingdom, and in 814 Reginfridus fell in a vain attempt
+to regain it. Herioldus now received the support of the emperor,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29"></a>29</span>
+and after several unsuccessful attempts a compromise was
+effected in 819 when the parties agreed to share the realm.
+In 820 Herioldus was baptized at Mainz and received from the
+emperor a grant of Riustringen in N.E. Friesland. In 827 he
+was expelled from his kingdom, but St Anskar, who had been sent
+with Herioldus to preach Christianity, remained at his post. In
+836 we find one Horic as king of the Danes; he was probably
+a son of Godefridus. During his reign there was trouble with
+the emperor as to the overlordship of Frisia. In the meantime
+Herioldus remained on friendly terms with Lothair and received
+a further grant of Walcheren and the neighbouring districts.
+In 850 Horic was attacked by his own nephews and compelled
+to share the kingdom with them, while in 852 Herioldus was
+charged with treachery and slain by the Franks. In 854 a revolution
+took place in Denmark itself. Horic&rsquo;s nephew Godwin,
+returning from exile with a large following of Northmen, overthrew
+his uncle in a three days&rsquo; battle in which all members
+of the royal house except one boy are said to have perished.
+This boy now became king as &ldquo;Horicus junior.&rdquo; Of his reign
+we know practically nothing. The next kings mentioned are
+Sigafrid and Halfdane, who were sons of the great Viking leader
+Ragnarr Loðbrok. There is also mention of a third king named
+Godefridus. The exact chronology and relationship of these
+kings it is impossible to determine, but we know that Healfdene
+died in Scotland in 877, while Godefridus was treacherously
+slain by Henry of Saxony in 885. During these and the next
+few years there is mention of more than one king of the names
+Sigefridus and Godefridus: the most important event associated
+with their names is that two kings Sigefridus and Godefridus fell
+in the great battle on the Dyle in 891.</p>
+
+<p>We now have the names of several kings, Heiligo, Olaph (of
+Swedish origin), and his sons Chnob and Gurth. Then come a
+Danish ruler Sigeric, followed by Hardegon, son of Swein, coming
+from Norway. At some date after 916 we find mention of one
+&ldquo;Hardecnuth Urm&rdquo; ruling among the Danes. Adam of Bremen,
+from whom these details come, was himself uncertain whether
+&ldquo;so many kings or rather tyrants of the Danes ruled together or
+succeeded one another at short intervals.&rdquo; Hardecnuth Urm
+is to be identified with the famous Gorm the old, who married
+Thyra Danmarkarbót: their son was Harold Bluetooth.</p>
+<div class="author">(<span class="sc">A. Mw.</span>)</div>
+
+<p><i>Medieval and Modern.</i>&mdash;Danish history first becomes authentic
+at the beginning of the 9th century. The Danes, the southernmost
+branch of the Scandinavian family, referred to by Alfred
+(c. 890) as occupying Jutland, the islands and Scania, were, in
+777, strong enough to defy the Frank empire by harbouring
+its fugitives. Five years later we find a Danish king, Sigfrid,
+among the princes who assembled at Lippe in 782 to make
+their submission to Charles the Great. About the same
+time Willibrord, from his see at Utrecht, made an unsuccessful
+attempt to convert the &ldquo;wild Danes.&rdquo; These three salient
+facts are practically the sum of our knowledge of early Danish
+history previous to the Viking period. That mysterious upheaval,
+most generally attributed to a love of adventure, stimulated by
+the pressure of over-population, began with the ravaging of
+Lindisfarne in 793, and virtually terminated with the establishment
+of Rollo in Normandy (911). There can be little doubt
+that the earlier of these expeditions were from Denmark, though
+the term Northmen was originally applied indiscriminately to all
+these terrible visitants from the unknown north. The rovers
+who first chastened and finally colonized southern England and
+Normandy were certainly Danes.</p>
+
+<p>The Viking raids were one of the determining causes of the
+establishment of the feudal monarchies of western Europe,
+but the untameable freebooters were themselves finally
+<span class="sidenote">Conversion of the Danes.</span>
+subdued by the Church. At first sight it seems curious
+that Christianity should have been so slow to reach
+Denmark. But we must bear in mind that one very
+important consequence of the Viking raids was to annihilate the
+geographical remoteness which had hitherto separated Denmark
+from the Christian world. Previously to 793 there lay between
+Jutland and England a sea which no keel had traversed within
+the memory of man. The few and peaceful traders who explored
+those northern waters were careful never to lose sight of the
+Saxon, Frisian and Frankish shores during their passage. Nor
+was communication with the west by land any easier. For generations
+the obstinately heathen Saxons had lain, a compact and
+impenetrable mass, between Scandinavia and the Frank empire,
+nor were the measures adopted by Charles the Great for the
+conversion of the Saxons to the true faith very much to the
+liking of their warlike Danish neighbours on the other side.
+But by the time that Charles had succeeded in &ldquo;converting&rdquo;
+the Saxons, the Viking raids were already at their height, and
+though generally triumphant, necessity occasionally taught the
+Northmen the value of concessions. Thus it was the desire
+to secure his Jutish kingdom which induced Harold Klak, in
+826, to sail up the Rhine to Ingelheim, and there accept
+baptism, with his wife, his son Godfred and 400 of his suite,
+acknowledging the emperor as his overlord, and taking back
+with him to Denmark the missionary monk Ansgar. Ansgar
+preached in Denmark from 826 to 861, but it was not till after
+the subsidence of the Viking raids that Adaldag, archbishop
+of Hamburg, could open a new and successful mission, which
+resulted in the erection of the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ribe and
+Aarhus (c. 948), though the real conversion of Denmark must be
+dated from the baptism of King Harold Bluetooth (960).</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Danish monarchy was attempting to aggrandize
+itself at the expense of the Germans, the Wends who then
+occupied the Baltic littoral as far as the Vistula, and
+<span class="sidenote">Danish expansion.</span>
+the other Scandinavian kingdoms. Harold Bluetooth
+(940-986) subdued German territory south of the
+Eider, extended the <i>Danevirke</i>, Denmark&rsquo;s great line of defensive
+fortifications, to the south of Schleswig and planted the military
+colony of Julin or Jomsborg, at the mouth of the Oder. Part of
+Norway was first seized after the united Danes and Swedes had
+defeated and slain King Olaf Trygvessön at the battle of Svolde
+(1000); and between 1028 and 1035 Canute the Great added the
+whole kingdom to his own; but the union did not long survive
+him. Equally short-lived was the Danish dominion in England,
+which originated in a great Viking expedition of King Sweyn I.</p>
+
+<p>The period between the death of Canute the Great and the
+accession of Valdemar I. was a troublous time for Denmark.
+The kingdom was harassed almost incessantly, and
+<span class="sidenote">Consolidation of the kingdom under the Valdemars, 1157-1251.</span>
+more than once partitioned, by pretenders to the throne,
+who did not scruple to invoke the interference of the
+neighbouring monarchs, and even of the heathen
+Wends, who established themselves for a time on
+the southern islands. Yet, throughout this chaos, one
+thing made for future stability, and that was the
+growth and consolidation of a national church, which culminated
+in the erection of the archbishopric of Lund (c. 1104) and
+the consequent ecclesiastical independence of Denmark. The
+third archbishop of Lund was Absalon (1128-1201), Denmark&rsquo;s
+first great statesman, who so materially assisted Valdemar I.
+(1157-1182) and Canute VI. (1182-1202) to establish the
+dominion of Denmark over the Baltic, mainly at the expense
+of the Wends. The policy of Absalon was continued on a still
+vaster scale by Valdemar II. (1202-1241), at a time when the
+German kingdom was too weak and distracted to intervene to
+save its seaboard; but the treachery of a vassal and the loss of
+one great battle sufficed to plunge this unwieldy, unsubstantial
+empire in the dust. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valdemar</a></span> I., II., and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Absalon</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Yet the age of the Valdemars was one of the most glorious in
+Danish history, and it is of political importance as marking a
+turning-point. Favourable circumstances had, from the first,
+given the Danes the lead in Scandinavia. They held the richest
+and therefore the most populous lands, and geographically
+they were nearer than their neighbours to western civilization.
+Under the Valdemars, however, the ancient patriarchal system
+was merging into a more complicated development, of separate
+estates. The monarchy, now dominant, and far wealthier than
+before, rested upon the support of the great nobles, many of
+whom held their lands by feudal tenure, and constituted the
+royal <i>Raad</i>, or council. The clergy, fortified by royal privileges,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>30</span>
+had also risen to influence; but celibacy and independence of the
+civil courts tended to make them more and more of a separate
+caste. Education was spreading. Numerous Danes, lay as well
+as clerical, regularly frequented the university of Paris. There
+were signs too of the rise of a vigorous middle class, due to the
+extraordinary development of the national resources (chiefly
+the herring fisheries, horse-breeding and cattle-rearing) and the
+foundation of gilds, the oldest of which, the <i>Edslag</i> of Schleswig,
+dates from the early 12th century. The <i>bonder</i>, or yeomen, were
+prosperous and independent, with well-defined rights. Danish
+territory extended over 60,000 sq. kilometres, or nearly double
+its present area; the population was about 700,000; and 160,000
+men and 1400 ships were available for national defence.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Valdemar II. a period of disintegration ensued.
+Valdemar&rsquo;s son, Eric Plovpenning, succeeded him as king; but
+his near kinsfolk also received huge appanages, and
+<span class="sidenote">Period of disintegration.</span>
+family discords led to civil wars. Throughout the
+13th and part of the 14th century, the struggle raged
+between the Danish kings and the Schleswig dukes;
+and of six monarchs no fewer than three died violent deaths.
+Superadded to these troubles was a prolonged struggle for
+supremacy between the popes and the crown, and, still more
+serious, the beginning of a breach between the kings and nobles,
+which had important constitutional consequences. The prevalent
+disorder had led to general lawlessness, in consequence of which
+the royal authority had been widely extended; and a strong
+opposition gradually arose which protested against the abuses
+of this authority. In 1282 the nobles extorted from King Eric
+Glipping the first <i>Haandfaestning</i>, or charter, which recognized
+the <i>Danehof</i>, or national assembly, as a regular branch of the
+administration and gave guarantees against further usurpations.
+Christopher II. (1319-1331) was constrained to grant another
+charter considerably reducing the prerogative, increasing the
+privileges of the upper classes, and at the same time reducing the
+burden of taxation. But aristocratic licence proved as mischievous
+as royal incompetence; and on the death of Christopher II.
+the whole kingdom was on the verge of dissolution. Eastern
+Denmark was in the hands of one magnate; another magnate
+held Jutland and Fünen in pawn; the dukes of Schleswig were
+practically independent of the Danish crown; the Scandian provinces
+had (1332) surrendered themselves to Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>It was reserved for another Valdemar (<a href="#artlinks">Valdemar IV</a>., q.v.) to
+reunite and weld together the scattered members of his heritage.
+His long reign (1340-1375) resulted in the re-establishment
+<span class="sidenote">Valdemar IV., 1340-1375.</span>
+of Denmark as the great Baltic power. It is also
+a very interesting period of her social and constitutional
+development. This great ruler, who had to fight, year
+after year, against foreign and domestic foes, could, nevertheless,
+always find time to promote the internal prosperity of his much
+afflicted country. For the dissolution of Denmark, during the
+long anarchy, had been internal as well as external. The whole
+social fabric had been convulsed and transformed. The monarchy
+had been undermined. The privileged orders had aggrandized
+themselves at the expense of the community. The yeoman class
+had sunk into semi-serfdom. In a word, the natural cohesion of
+the Danish nation had been loosened and there was no security
+for law and justice. To make an end of this universal lawlessness
+Valdemar IV. was obliged, in the first place, to re-establish the
+royal authority by providing the crown with a regular and certain
+income. This he did by recovering the alienated royal demesnes
+in every direction, and from henceforth the annual <i>landgilde</i>, or
+rent, paid by the royal tenants, became the monarch&rsquo;s principal
+source of revenue. Throughout his reign Valdemar laboured
+incessantly to acquire as much land as possible. Moreover, the
+old distinction between the king&rsquo;s private estate and crown
+property henceforth ceases; all such property was henceforth
+regarded as the hereditary possession of the Danish crown.</p>
+
+<p>The national army was also re-established on its ancient
+footing. Not only were the magnates sharply reminded that they
+held their lands on military tenure, but the towns were also made
+to contribute both men and ships, and peasant levies, especially
+archers, were recruited from every parish. Everywhere indeed
+Valdemar intervened personally. The smallest detail was not
+beneath his notice. Thus he invented nets for catching wolves
+and built innumerable water-mills, &ldquo;for he would not let the
+waters run into the sea before they had been of use to the
+community.&rdquo; Under such a ruler law and order were speedily re-established.
+The popular tribunals regained their authority, and
+a supreme court of justice, <i>Det Kongelige Retterting</i>, presided over
+by Valdemar himself, not only punished the unruly and guarded
+the prerogatives of the crown, but also protected the weak and
+defenceless from the tyranny of the strong. Nor did Valdemar
+hesitate to meet his people in public and periodically render an
+account of his stewardship. He voluntarily resorted to the old
+practice of summoning national assemblies, the so-called <i>Danehof</i>.
+At the first of these assemblies held at Nyborg, Midsummer Day
+1314, the bishops and councillors solemnly promised that the
+commonalty should enjoy all the ancient rights and privileges
+conceded to them by Valdemar II., and the wise provision that
+the <i>Danehof</i> should meet annually considerably strengthened its
+authority. The keystone to the whole constitutional system was
+&ldquo;King Valdemar&rsquo;s Charter&rdquo; issued in May 1360 at the <i>Rigsmöde</i>,
+or parliament, held at Kalundborg in May 1360. This charter
+was practically an act of national pacification, the provisions
+of which king and people together undertook to enforce for the
+benefit of the commonweal.</p>
+
+<p>The work of Valdemar was completed and consolidated by
+his illustrious daughter Margaret (1375-1412), whose crowning
+achievement was the Union of Kalmar (1397), whereby
+<span class="sidenote">The Union of Kalmar, 1397.</span>
+she sought to combine the three northern kingdoms
+into a single state dominated by Denmark. In any
+case Denmark was bound to be the only gainer by
+the Union. Her population was double that of the two other
+kingdoms combined, and neither Margaret nor her successors
+observed the stipulations that each country should retain its own
+laws and customs and be ruled by natives only. In both Norway
+and Sweden, therefore, the Union was highly unpopular. The
+Norwegian aristocracy was too weak, however, seriously to
+endanger the Union at any time, but Sweden was, from the
+first, decidedly hostile to Margaret&rsquo;s whole policy. Nevertheless
+during her lifetime the system worked fairly well; but her pupil
+and successor, Eric of Pomerania, was unequal to the burden
+of empire and embroiled himself both with his neighbours and
+his subjects. The Hanseatic League, whose political ascendancy
+had been shaken by the Union, enraged by Eric&rsquo;s efforts to bring
+in the Dutch as commercial rivals, as well as by the establishment
+of the Sound tolls, materially assisted the Holsteiners in
+their twenty-five years&rsquo; war with Denmark (1410-35), and
+Eric VII. himself was finally deposed (1439) in favour of his
+nephew, Christopher of Bavaria.</p>
+
+<p>The deposition of Eric marks another turning-point in Danish
+history. It was the act not of the people but of the <i>Rigsraad</i>
+(Senate), which had inherited the authority of the
+<span class="sidenote">Growth of the power of the nobles.</span>
+ancient <i>Danehof</i> and, after the death of Margaret,
+grew steadily in power at the expense of the crown.
+As the government grew more and more aristocratic,
+the position of the peasantry steadily deteriorated. It is under
+Christopher that we first hear, for instance, of the <i>Vornedskab</i>, or
+patriarchal control of the landlords over their tenants, a system
+which degenerated into rank slavery. In Jutland, too, after
+the repression, in 1441, of a peasant rising, something very like
+serfdom was introduced.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Christopher III. without heirs, in 1448, the
+Rigsraad elected his distant cousin, Count Christian of Oldenburg,
+king; but Sweden preferred Karl Knutsson (Charles
+<span class="sidenote">Break-up of the Union.</span>
+&ldquo;VIII.&rdquo;), while Norway finally combined with Denmark,
+at the conference of Halmstad, in a double
+election which practically terminated the Union,
+though an agreement was come to that the survivor of the two
+kings should reign over all three kingdoms. Norway, subsequently,
+threw in her lot definitively with Denmark. Dissensions
+resulting in interminable civil wars had, even before the Union,
+exhausted the resources of the poorest of the three northern
+realms; and her ruin was completed by the ravages of the Black
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>31</span>
+Death, which wiped out two-thirds of her population. Unfortunately,
+too, for Norway&rsquo;s independence, the native gentry had
+gradually died out, and were succeeded by immigrant Danish
+fortune-hunters; native burgesses there were none, and the
+peasantry were mostly thralls; so that, excepting the clergy,
+there was no patriotic class to stand up for the national
+liberties.</p>
+
+<p>Far otherwise was it in the wealthier kingdom of Sweden. Here
+the clergy and part of the nobility were favourable to the Union;
+but the vast majority of the people hated it as a foreign usurpation.
+Matters were still further complicated by the continual
+interference of the Hanseatic League; and Christian I. (1448-1481)
+and Hans (1481-1513), whose chief merit it is to have
+founded the Danish fleet, were, during the greater part of their
+reigns, only nominally kings of Sweden. Hans also received
+in fief the territory of Dietmarsch from the emperor, but, in
+attempting to subdue the hardy Dietmarschers, suffered a
+crushing defeat in which the national banner called &ldquo;Danebrog&rdquo;
+fell into the enemy&rsquo;s hands (1500). Moreover, this defeat led to a
+successful rebellion in Sweden, and a long and ruinous war with
+Lübeck, terminated by the peace of Malmö, 1512. It was during
+this war that a strong Danish fleet dominated the Baltic for the
+first time since the age of the Valdemars.</p>
+
+<p>On the succession of Hans&rsquo;s son, Christian II. (1513-1523),
+Margaret&rsquo;s splendid dream of a Scandinavian empire seemed,
+finally, about to be realized. The young king, a man
+<span class="sidenote">Christian II., 1513-1523.</span>
+of character and genius, had wide views and original
+ideas. Elected king of Denmark and Norway, he succeeded
+in subduing Sweden by force of arms; but
+he spoiled everything at the culmination of his triumph by the
+hideous crime and blunder known as the Stockholm massacre,
+which converted the politically divergent Swedish nation into the
+irreconcilable foe of the unional government (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Christian
+II.</a></span>). Christian&rsquo;s contempt of nationality in Sweden is the more
+remarkable as in Denmark proper he sided with the people
+against the aristocracy, to his own undoing in that age of privilege
+and prejudice. His intentions, as exhibited to his famous
+<i>Landelove</i> (National Code), were progressive and enlightened to
+an eminent degree; so much so, indeed, that they mystified
+the people as much as they alienated the patricians; but his
+actions were often of revolting brutality, and his whole career
+was vitiated by an incurable double-mindedness which provoked
+general distrust. Yet there is no doubt that Christian II. was
+a true patriot, whose ideal it was to weld the three northern
+kingdoms into a powerful state, independent of all foreign
+influences, especially of German influence as manifested in the
+commercial tyranny of the Hansa League. His utter failure was
+due, partly to the vices of an undisciplined temperament, and
+partly to the extraordinary difficulties of the most inscrutable
+period of European history, when the shrewdest heads were at
+fault and irreparable blunders belonged to the order of the day.
+That period was the period of the Reformation, which profoundly
+affected the politics of Scandinavia. Christian II. had always
+subordinated religion to politics, and was Papist or Lutheran
+according to circumstances. But, though he treated the Church
+more like a foe than a friend and was constantly at war with the
+Curia, he retained the Catholic form of church worship and never
+seems to have questioned the papal supremacy. On the flight of
+Christian II. and the election of his uncle, Frederick I. (1523-1533),
+<span class="sidenote">Frederick I., 1523-1533. The Reformation.</span>
+the Church resumed her jurisdiction and everything
+was placed on the old footing. The newly
+elected and still insecure German king at first remained
+neutral; but in the autumn of 1525 the current of
+Lutheranism began to run so strongly in Denmark as
+to threaten to whirl away every opposing obstacle. This novel
+and disturbing phenomenon was mainly due to the zeal and
+eloquence of the ex-monk Hans Tausen and his associates, or
+disciples, Peder Plad and Sadolin; and, in the autumn of 1526,
+Tausen was appointed one of the royal chaplains. The three
+ensuing years were especially favourable for the Reformation,
+as during that time the king had unlooked-for opportunities for
+filling the vacant episcopal sees with men after his own heart,
+and at heart he was a Lutheran. The reformation movement in
+Denmark was further promoted by Schleswig-Holstein influence.
+Frederick&rsquo;s eldest son Duke Christian had, since 1527, resided at
+Haderslev, where he collected round him Lutheran teachers
+from Germany, and made his court the centre of the propaganda
+of the new doctrine. On the other hand, the Odense Recess of
+the 20th of August 1527, which put both confessions on a footing
+of equality, remained unrepealed; and so long as it remained in
+force, the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishops, and, consequently,
+their authority over the &ldquo;free preachers&rdquo; (whose ambition
+convulsed all the important towns of Denmark and aimed
+at forcibly expelling the Catholic priests from their churches)
+remained valid, to the great vexation of the reformers. The
+inevitable ecclesiastical crisis was still further postponed by the
+superior stress of two urgent political events&mdash;Christian II.&rsquo;s
+invasion of Norway (1531) and the outbreak, in 1533, of
+<span class="sidenote">The Count&rsquo;s War, 1533-36.</span>
+&ldquo;<i>Grevens fejde</i>,&rdquo; or &ldquo;The Count&rsquo;s War&rdquo; (1534-36),
+the count in question being Christopher of Oldenburg,
+great-nephew of King Christian I., whom Lübeck and
+her allies, on the death of Frederick I., raised up
+against Frederick&rsquo;s son Christian III. The Catholic
+party and the lower orders generally took the part of Count
+Christopher, who acted throughout as the nominee of the captive
+Christian II., while the Protestant party, aided by the Holstein
+dukes and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sided with Christian III.
+The war ended with the capture of Copenhagen by the forces of
+Christian III., on the 29th of July 1536, and the triumph of so
+devoted a Lutheran sealed the fate of the Roman Catholic
+Church in Denmark, though even now it was necessary for the
+victorious king to proceed against the bishops and their friends
+by a <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i>, engineered by his German generals the Rantzaus.
+The Recess of 1536 enacted that the bishops should forfeit their
+temporal and spiritual authority, and that all their property
+should be transferred to the crown for the good of the commonwealth.
+In the following year a Church ordinance, based upon
+the canons of Luther, Melanchthon and Bugenhagen, was drawn
+up, submitted to Luther for his approval, and promulgated on
+the 2nd of September 1537. On the same day seven &ldquo;superintendents,&rdquo;
+including Tausen and Sadolin, all of whom had
+worked zealously for the cause of the Reformation, were
+consecrated in place of the dethroned bishops. The position of
+the superintendents and of the reformed church generally was
+consolidated by the Articles of Ribe in 1542, and the constitution
+of the Danish church has practically continued the same to the
+present day. But Catholicism could not wholly or immediately
+be dislodged by the teaching of Luther. It had struck deep
+roots into the habits and feelings of the people, and traces of its
+survival were distinguishable a whole century after the triumph
+of the Reformation. Catholicism lingered longest in the cathedral
+chapters. Here were to be found men of ability proof against
+the eloquence of Hans Tausen or Peder Plad and quite capable
+of controverting their theories&mdash;men like Povl Helgesen, for
+instance, indisputably the greatest Danish theologian of his day,
+a scholar whose voice was drowned amidst the clash of conflicting
+creeds.</p>
+
+<p>Though the Reformation at first did comparatively little for
+education,<a name="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and the whole spiritual life of Denmark was poor and
+feeble in consequence for at least a generation afterwards,
+<span class="sidenote">Effects of the Reformation.</span>
+the change of religion was of undeniable, if
+temporary, benefit to the state from the political
+point of view. The enormous increase of the royal
+revenue consequent upon the confiscation of the property of the
+Church could not fail to increase the financial stability of the
+monarchy. In particular the suppression of the monasteries
+benefited the crown in two ways. The old church had, indeed,
+frequently rendered the state considerable financial aid, but such
+voluntary assistance was, from the nature of the case, casual
+and arbitrary. Now, however, the state derived a fixed and
+certain revenue from the confiscated lands; and the possession
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>32</span>
+of immense landed property at the same time enabled the
+crown advantageously to conduct the administration. The
+gross revenue of the state is estimated to have risen threefold.
+Before the Reformation the annual revenue from land averaged
+400,000 bushels of corn; after the confiscations of Church
+property it averaged 1,200,000 bushels. The possession of a
+full purse materially assisted the Danish government in its
+domestic administration, which was indeed epoch-making. It
+enabled Christian III. to pay off his German mercenaries
+immediately after the religious <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 1536. It enabled
+him to prosecute shipbuilding with such energy that, by 1550,
+the royal fleet numbered at least thirty vessels, which were
+largely employed as a maritime police in the pirate-haunted
+Baltic and North Seas. It enabled him to create and
+remunerate adequately a capable official class, which proved
+its efficiency under the strictest supervision, and ultimately
+produced a whole series of great statesmen and admirals like
+Johan Friis, Peder Oxe, Herluf Trolle and Peder Skram. It is
+not too much to say that the increased revenue derived from the
+appropriation of Church property, intelligently applied, gave
+<span class="sidenote">European influence of Denmark, 1544-1626.</span>
+Denmark the hegemony of the North during the
+latter part of Christian III.&rsquo;s reign, the whole reign
+of Frederick II. and the first twenty-five years of the
+reign of Christian IV., a period embracing, roughly
+speaking, eighty years (1544-1626). Within this period
+Denmark was indisputably the leading Scandinavian
+power. While Sweden, even after the advent of Gustavus Vasa,
+was still of but small account in Europe, Denmark easily held
+her own in Germany and elsewhere, even against Charles V., and
+was important enough, in 1553, to mediate a peace between the
+emperor and Saxony. Twice during this period Denmark and
+Sweden measured their strength in the open field, on the first
+occasion in the &ldquo;Scandinavian Seven Years&rsquo; War&rdquo; (1562-70),
+on the second in the &ldquo;Kalmar War&rdquo; (1611-13), and on both
+occasions Denmark prevailed, though the temporary advantage
+she gained was more than neutralized by the intense feeling of
+hostility which the unnatural wars, between the two kindred
+peoples of Scandinavia, left behind them. Still, the fact remains
+that, for a time, Denmark was one of the great powers of Europe.
+Frederick II., in his later years (1571-1588), aspired to the
+dominion of all the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts,
+and before he died he was able to enforce the rule that all foreign
+ships should strike their topsails to Danish men-of-war as a token
+of his right to rule the northern seas. Favourable political
+circumstances also contributed to this general acknowledgment
+of Denmark&rsquo;s maritime greatness. The power of the Hansa had
+gone; the Dutch were enfeebled by their contest with Spain;
+England&rsquo;s sea-power was yet in the making; Spain, still the
+greatest of the maritime nations, was exhausting her resources
+in the vain effort to conquer the Dutch. Yet more even than to
+felicitous circumstances, Denmark owed her short-lived greatness
+to the great statesmen and administrators whom Frederick II.
+succeeded in gathering about him. Never before, since the age
+of Margaret, had Denmark been so well governed, never before
+had she possessed so many political celebrities nobly emulous for
+the common good.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick II. was succeeded by his son Christian IV. (April 4,
+1588), who attained his majority on the 17th of August 1596, at
+the age of nineteen. The realm which Christian IV. was
+<span class="sidenote">Denmark at the accession of Christian IV., 1588.</span>
+to govern had undergone great changes within the last
+two generations. Towards the south the boundaries of
+the Danish state remained unchanged. Levensaa and
+the Eider still separated Denmark from the Empire.
+Schleswig was recognized as a Danish fief, in contradistinction
+to Holstein, which owed vassalage to the Empire. The
+&ldquo;kingdom&rdquo; stretched as far as Kolding and Skedborg, where
+the &ldquo;duchy&rdquo; began; and this duchy since its amalgamation
+with Holstein by means of a common <i>Landtag</i>, and especially
+since the union of the dual duchy with the kingdom on almost
+equal terms in 1533, was, in most respects, a semi-independent
+state, Denmark, moreover, like Europe in general, was, politically,
+on the threshold of a transitional period. During the whole
+course of the 16th century the monarchical form of government
+was in every large country, with the single exception of Poland,
+rising on the ruins of feudalism. The great powers of the late
+16th and early 17th centuries were to be the strong, highly
+centralized, hereditary monarchies, like France, Spain and
+Sweden. There seemed to be no reason why Denmark also should
+not become a powerful state under the guidance of a powerful
+monarchy, especially as the sister state of Sweden was developing
+into a great power under apparently identical conditions. Yet,
+while Sweden was surely ripening into the dominating power of
+northern Europe, Denmark had as surely entered upon a period
+of uninterrupted and apparently incurable decline. What was
+the cause of this anomaly? Something of course must be allowed
+for the superior and altogether extraordinary genius of the great
+princes of the house of Vasa; yet the causes of the decline
+of Denmark lay far deeper than this. They may roughly be
+summed up under two heads: the inherent weakness of an
+elective monarchy, and the absence of that public spirit which
+is based on the intimate alliance of ruler and ruled. Whilst
+Gustavus Vasa had leaned upon the Swedish peasantry, in other
+words upon the bulk of the Swedish nation, which was and
+continued to be an integral part of the Swedish body-politic,
+Christian III. on his accession had crushed the middle and lower
+classes in Denmark and reduced them to political insignificance.
+Yet it was not the king who benefited by this blunder. The
+Danish monarchy since the days of Margaret had continued to be
+purely elective; and a purely elective monarchy at that stage of
+the political development of Europe was a mischievous anomaly.
+It signified in the first place that the crown was not the highest
+power in the state, but was subject to the aristocratic <i>Rigsraad</i>,
+or council of state. The <i>Rigsraad</i> was the permanent owner of the
+realm and the crown-lands; the king was only their temporary
+administrator. If the king died before the election of his
+successor, the <i>Rigsraad</i> stepped into the king&rsquo;s place. Moreover,
+an elective monarchy implied that, at every fresh succession, the
+king was liable to be bound by a new <i>Haandfaestning</i>, or charter.
+The election itself might, and did, become a mere formality;
+but the condition precedent of election, the acceptance of
+the charter, invariably limiting the royal authority, remained a
+reality. This period of aristocratic rule, which dates practically
+from the accession of Frederick I. (1523), and lasted for nearly
+a century and a half, is known in Danish history as <i>Adelsvaelde</i>,
+or rule of the nobles.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the king was the ruler of the realm, but over a very
+large portion of it he had but a slight control. The crown-lands
+and most of the towns were under his immediate jurisdiction,
+but by the side of the crown-lands lay the estates of the nobility,
+which already comprised about one-half of the superficial area
+of Denmark, and were in many respects independent of the central
+government both as regards taxation and administration. In a
+word, the monarchy had to share its dominion with the nobility;
+and the Danish nobility in the 16th century was one of the most
+exclusive and selfish aristocracies in Europe, and already far
+advanced in decadence. Hermetically sealing itself from any
+intrusion from below, it deteriorated by close and constant intermarriage;
+and it was already, both morally and intellectually,
+below the level of the rest of the nation. Yet this very aristocracy,
+whose claim to consideration was based not upon its own
+achievements but upon the length of its pedigrees, insisted upon
+an amplification of its privileges which endangered the economical
+and political interests of the state and the nation. The time was
+close at hand when a Danish magnate was to demonstrate that he
+preferred the utter ruin of his country to any abatement of his
+own personal dignity.</p>
+
+<p>All below the king and the nobility were generally classified
+together as &ldquo;subjects.&rdquo; Of these lower orders the clergy stood
+first in the social scale. As a spiritual estate, indeed, it had
+ceased to exist at the Reformation, though still represented in the
+<i>Rigsdag</i> or diet. Since then too it had become quite detached
+from the nobility, which ostentatiously despised the teaching
+profession. The clergy recruited themselves therefore from
+the class next below them, and looked more and more to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33"></a>33</span>
+crown for help and protection as they drew apart from
+the gentry, who, moreover, as dispensers of patronage, lost no
+opportunity of appropriating church lands and cutting down
+tithes.</p>
+
+<p>The burgesses had not yet recovered from the disaster of
+&ldquo;Grevens fejde&rdquo;; but while the towns had become more
+dependent on the central power, they had at the same time been
+released from their former vexatious subjection to the local magnates,
+and could make their voices heard in the <i>Rigsdag</i>, where
+they were still, though inadequately, represented. Within the
+Estate of Burgesses itself, too, a levelling process had begun.
+The old municipal patriciate, which used to form the connecting
+link between the <i>bourgeoisie</i> and the nobility, had disappeared,
+and a feeling of common civic fellowship had taken its place.
+All this tended to enlarge the political views of the burgesses, and
+was not without its influence on the future. Yet, after all, the
+prospects of the burgesses depended mainly on economic conditions;
+and in this respect there was a decided improvement,
+due to the increasing importance of money and commerce all
+over Europe, especially as the steady decline of the Hanse towns
+immediately benefited the trade of Denmark-Norway; Norway
+by this time being completely merged in the Danish state,
+and ruled from Copenhagen. There can, indeed, be no doubt
+that the Danish and Norwegian merchants at the end of the
+16th century flourished exceedingly, despite the intrusion and
+competition of the Dutch and the dangers to neutral shipping
+arising from the frequent wars between England, Spain and
+the Netherlands.</p>
+
+<p>At the bottom of the social ladder lay the peasants, whose
+condition had decidedly deteriorated. Only in one respect had
+they benefited by the peculiar conditions of the 16th century:
+the rise in the price of corn without any corresponding rise in the
+land-tax must have largely increased their material prosperity.
+Yet the number of peasant-proprietors had diminished, while
+the obligations of the peasantry generally had increased; and,
+still worse, their obligations were vexatiously indefinite, varying
+from year to year and even from month to month. They
+weighed especially heavily on the so-called <i>Ugedasmaend</i>, who
+were forced to work two or three days a week in the demesne
+lands. This increase of villenage morally depressed the peasantry,
+and widened still further the breach between the yeomanry and
+the gentry. Politically its consequences were disastrous. While
+in Sweden the free and energetic peasant was a salutary power
+in the state, which he served with both mind and plough, the
+Danish peasant was sinking to the level of a bondman. While
+the Swedish peasants were well represented in the Swedish
+<i>Riksdag</i>, whose proceedings they sometimes dominated, the
+Danish peasantry had no political rights or privileges whatever.</p>
+
+<p>Such then, briefly, was the condition of things in Denmark
+when, in 1588, Christian IV. ascended the throne. Where so much
+was necessarily uncertain and fluctuating, there was
+<span class="sidenote">Christian IV., 1588-1648.</span>
+room for an almost infinite variety of development.
+Much depended on the character and personality of
+the young prince who had now taken into his hands
+the reins of government, and for half a century was to guide the
+destinies of the nation. In the beginning of his reign the hand
+of the young monarch, who was nothing if not energetic, made
+itself felt in every direction. The harbours of Copenhagen,
+Elsinore and other towns were enlarged; many decaying towns
+were abolished and many new ones built under more promising
+conditions, including Christiania, which was founded in August
+1624, on the ruins of the ancient city of Oslo. Various attempts
+were also made to improve trade and industry by abolishing the
+still remaining privileges of the Hanseatic towns, by promoting
+a wholesale immigration of skilful and well-to-do Dutch traders
+and handicraftsmen into Denmark under most favourable
+conditions, by opening up the rich fisheries of the Arctic seas,
+and by establishing joint-stock chartered companies both in the
+East and the West Indies. Copenhagen especially benefited by
+Christian IV.&rsquo;s commercial policy. He enlarged and embellished
+it, and provided it with new harbours and fortifications; in short,
+did his best to make it the worthy capital of a great empire.
+But it was in the foreign policy of the government that the royal
+influence was most perceptible. Unlike Sweden, Denmark had
+remained outside the great religious-political movements which
+were the outcome of the Catholic reaction; and the peculiarity
+of her position made her rather hostile than friendly to the other
+Protestant states. The possession of the Sound enabled her to
+close the Baltic against the Western powers; the possession of
+Norway carried along with it the control of the rich fisheries
+which were Danish monopolies, and therefore a source of irritation
+to England and Holland. Denmark, moreover, was above
+all things a Scandinavian power. While the territorial expansion
+of Sweden in the near future was a matter of necessity, Denmark
+had not only attained, but even exceeded, her natural limits.
+Aggrandizement southwards, at the expense of the German
+empire, was becoming every year more difficult; and in every
+other direction she had nothing more to gain. Nay, more,
+Denmark&rsquo;s possession of the Scanian provinces deprived Sweden
+of her proper geographical frontiers. Clearly it was Denmark&rsquo;s
+wisest policy to seek a close alliance with Sweden in their common
+interests, and after the conclusion of the &ldquo;Kalmar War&rdquo; the
+two countries did remain at peace for the next thirty-one years.
+But the antagonistic interests of the two countries in Germany
+during the Thirty Years&rsquo; War precipitated a fourth contest
+between them (1643-45), in which Denmark would have been
+utterly ruined but for the heroism of King Christian IV. and his
+command of the sea during the crisis of the struggle. Even so,
+<span class="sidenote">First losses of territory.</span>
+by the peace of Brömsebro (February 8, 1645)
+Denmark surrendered the islands of Oesel and Gotland
+and the provinces of Jemteland and Herjedal (in
+Norway) definitively, and Halland for thirty years.
+The freedom from the Sound tolls was by the same treaty also
+extended to Sweden&rsquo;s Baltic provinces.</p>
+
+<p>The peace of Brömsebro was the first of the long series
+of treaties, extending down to our own days, which mark the
+progressive shrinkage of Danish territory into an irreducible
+minimum. Sweden&rsquo;s appropriation of Danish soil had begun,
+and at the same time Denmark&rsquo;s power of resisting the encroachments
+of Sweden was correspondingly reduced. The Danish
+national debt, too, had risen enormously, while the sources of
+future income and consequent recuperation had diminished
+or disappeared. The Sound tolls, for instance, in consequence of
+the treaties of Brömsebro and Kristianopel (by the latter treaty
+very considerable concessions were made to the Dutch) had sunk
+from 400,000 to 140,000 rix-dollars. The political influence of
+the crown, moreover, had inevitably been weakened, and the
+conduct of foreign affairs passed from the hands of the king
+<span class="sidenote">Frederick III., 1648-1670.</span>
+into the hands of the <i>Rigsraad</i>. On the accession
+of Frederick III. (1648-1670) moreover, the already
+diminished royal prerogative was still further curtailed
+by the <i>Haandfaestning</i>, or charter, which he was
+compelled to sign. Fear and hatred of Sweden, and the never
+abandoned hope of recovering the lost provinces, animated king
+and people alike; but it was Denmark&rsquo;s crowning misfortune
+that she possessed at this difficult crisis no statesman of the first
+rank, no one even approximately comparable with such competitors
+as Charles X. of Sweden or the &ldquo;Great Elector&rdquo;
+Frederick William of Brandenburg. From the very beginning
+of his reign Frederick III. was resolved upon a rupture at the
+first convenient opportunity, while the nation was, if possible,
+even more bellicose than the king. The apparently insuperable
+difficulties of Sweden in Poland was the feather that turned the
+scale; on the 1st of June 1657, Frederick III. signed the manifesto
+justifying a war which was never formally declared and brought
+Denmark to the very verge of ruin. The extraordinary details
+of this dramatic struggle will be found elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frederick
+III.</a></span>, king of Denmark, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charles X.</a></span>, king of Sweden);
+<span class="sidenote">Peace of Roskilde, 1658.</span>
+suffice it to say that by the peace of Roskilde
+(February 26, 1658), Denmark consented to cede the
+three Scanian provinces, the island of Bornholm and
+the Norwegian provinces of Baahus and Trondhjem;
+to renounce all anti-Swedish alliances and to exempt all Swedish
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>34</span>
+vessels, even when carrying foreign goods, from all tolls. These
+terrible losses were somewhat retrieved by the subsequent
+treaty of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660) concluded by the Swedish
+regency with Frederick III. after the failure of Charles X.&rsquo;s
+second war against Denmark, a failure chiefly owing to the
+heroic defence of the Danish capital (1658-60). By this treaty
+<span class="sidenote">Treaty of Copenhagen, 1660.</span>
+Sweden gave back the province of Trondhjem and the
+isle of Bornholm and released Denmark from the most
+onerous of the obligations of the treaty of Roskilde.
+In fact the peace of Copenhagen came as a welcome
+break in an interminable series of disasters and humiliations.
+Anyhow, it confirmed the independence of the Danish state.
+On the other hand, if Denmark had emerged from the war with
+her honour and dignity unimpaired, she had at the same time
+tacitly surrendered the dominion of the North to her Scandinavian
+rival.</p>
+
+<p>But the war just terminated had important political consequences,
+which were to culminate in one of the most curious and
+interesting revolutions of modern history. In the first
+<span class="sidenote">Hereditary monarchy established, 1660.</span>
+place, it marks the termination of the <i>Adelsvaelde</i>, or
+rule of the nobility. By their cowardice, incapacity,
+egotism and treachery during the crisis of the struggle,
+the Danish aristocracy had justly forfeited the respect
+of every other class of the community, and emerged from the
+war hopelessly discredited. On the other hand, Copenhagen,
+proudly conscious of her intrinsic importance and of her inestimable
+services to the country, whom she had saved from annihilation
+by her constancy, now openly claimed to have a voice in public
+affairs. Still higher had risen the influence of the crown. The
+courage and resource displayed by Frederick III. in the extremity
+of the national danger had won for &ldquo;the least expansive of
+monarchs&rdquo; an extraordinary popularity.</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th of September 1660, the <i>Rigsdag</i>, which was to
+repair the ravages of the war and provide for the future, was
+opened with great ceremony in the <i>Riddersaal</i> of the castle
+of Copenhagen. The first bill laid before the Estates by the
+government was to impose an excise tax on the principal articles
+of consumption, together with subsidiary taxes on cattle, poultry,
+&amp;c., in return for which the abolition of all the old direct taxes
+was promised. The nobility at first claimed exemption from
+taxation altogether, while the clergy and burgesses insisted upon
+an absolute equality of taxation. There were sharp encounters
+between the presidents of the contending orders, but the position
+of the Lower Estates was considerably prejudiced by the dissensions
+of its various sections. Thus the privileges of the bishops
+and of Copenhagen profoundly irritated the lower clergy and
+the unprivileged towns, and made a cordial understanding
+impossible, till Hans Svane, bishop of Copenhagen, and Hans
+Nansen the burgomaster, who now openly came forward as the
+leader of the reform movement, proposed that the privileges
+which divided the non-noble Estates should be abolished. In
+accordance with this proposal, the two Lower Estates, on the
+16th of September, subscribed a memorandum addressed to the
+<i>Rigsraad</i>, declaring their willingness to renounce their privileges,
+provided the nobility did the same; which was tantamount to a
+declaration that the whole of the clergy and burgesses had made
+common cause against the nobility. The opposition so formed
+took the name of the &ldquo;Conjoined Estates.&rdquo; The presentation
+of the memorial provoked an outburst of indignation. But the
+nobility soon perceived the necessity of complete surrender.
+On the 30th of September the First Estate abandoned its former
+standpoint and renounced its privileges, with one unimportant
+reservation.</p>
+
+<p>The struggle now seemed to be ended, and the financial
+question having also been settled, the king, had he been so
+minded, might have dismissed the Estates. But the still more
+important question of reform was now raised. On the 17th of
+September the burgesses introduced a bill proposing a new
+constitution, which was to include local self-government in the
+towns, the abolition of serfdom, and the formation of a national
+army. It fell to the ground for want of adequate support; but
+another proposition, the fruit of secret discussion between the
+king and his confederates, which placed all fiefs under the control
+of the crown as regards taxation, and provided for selling and
+letting them to the highest bidder, was accepted by the Estate
+of burgesses. The significance of this ordinance lay in the fact
+that it shattered the privileged position of the nobility, by
+abolishing the exclusive right to the possession of fiefs. What
+happened next is not quite clear. Our sources fail us, and we are
+at the mercy of doubtful rumours and more or less unreliable
+anecdotes. We have a vision of intrigues, mysterious conferences,
+threats and bribery, dimly discernible through a shifting mirage
+of tradition.</p>
+
+<p>The first glint of light is a letter, dated the 23rd of September,
+from Frederick III. to Svane and Nansen, authorizing them to
+communicate the arrangements already made to reliable men,
+and act quickly, as &ldquo;if the others gain time they may possibly
+gain more.&rdquo; The first step was to make sure of the city train-bands:
+of the garrison of Copenhagen the king had no doubt.
+The headquarters of the conspirators was the bishop&rsquo;s palace
+near <i>Vor Frue</i> church, between which and the court messages
+were passing continually, and where the document to be adopted
+by the Conjoined Estates took its final shape. On the 8th of
+October the two burgomasters, Hans Nansen and Kristoffer
+Hansen, proposed that the realm of Denmark should be made
+over to the king as a hereditary kingdom, without prejudice to
+the privileges of the Estates; whereupon they proceeded to Brewer&rsquo;s
+Hall, and informed the Estate of burgesses there assembled
+of what had been done. A fiery oration from Nansen dissolved
+some feeble opposition; and simultaneously Bishop Svane
+carried the clergy along with him. The so-called &ldquo;Instrument,&rdquo;
+now signed by the Lower Estates, offered the realm to the king
+and his house as a hereditary monarchy, by way of thank-offering
+mainly for his courageous deliverance of the kingdom during
+the war; and the <i>Rigsraad</i> and the nobility were urged to
+notify the resolution to the king, and desire him to maintain
+each Estate in its due privileges, and to give a written counter-assurance
+that the revolution now to be effected was for the sole
+benefit of the state. Events now moved forward rapidly. On
+the 10th of October a deputation from the clergy and burgesses
+proceeded to the Council House where the <i>Rigsraad</i> were deliberating,
+to demand an answer to their propositions. After
+a tumultuous scene, the aristocratic <i>Raad</i> rejected the &ldquo;Instrument&rdquo;
+altogether, whereupon the deputies of the commons proceeded
+to the palace and were graciously received by the king,
+who promised them an answer next day. The same afternoon
+the guards in the streets and on the ramparts were doubled; on
+the following morning the gates of the city were closed, powder
+and bullets were distributed among the city train-bands, who
+were bidden to be in readiness when the alarm bell called them,
+and cavalry was massed on the environs of the city. The same
+afternoon the king sent a message to the <i>Rigsraad</i> urging them
+to declare their views quickly, as he could no longer hold himself
+responsible for what might happen. After a feeble attempt
+at a compromise the <i>Raad</i> gave way. On the 13th of October
+it signed a declaration to the effect that it associated itself
+still with the Lower Estates in the making over of the kingdom,
+as a hereditary monarchy, to his majesty and his heirs male and
+female. The same day the king received the official communication
+of this declaration and the congratulation of the burgomasters.
+Thus the ancient constitution was transformed; and
+Denmark became a monarchy hereditary in Frederick III. and
+his posterity.</p>
+
+<p>But although hereditary sovereignty had been introduced, the
+laws of the land had not been abolished. The monarch was
+specifically now a sovereign overlord, but he had not been
+absolved from his obligations towards his subjects. Hereditary
+sovereignty <i>per se</i> was not held to signify unlimited dominion,
+still less absolutism. On the contrary, the magnificent gift of
+the Danish nation to Frederick III. was made under express
+conditions. The &ldquo;Instrument&rdquo; drawn up by the Lower
+Estates implied the retention of all their rights; and the king,
+in accepting the gift of a hereditary crown, did not repudiate
+the implied inviolability of the privileges of the donors.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>35</span>
+Unfortunately everything had been left so vague, that it was
+an easy matter for ultra-royalists like Svane and Nansen to
+ignore the privileges of the Estates, and even the Estates
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th of October a committee was summoned to the
+palace to organize the new government. The discussion turned
+mainly upon two points, (1) whether a new oath of homage should
+be taken to the king, and (2) what was to be done with the
+<i>Haandfaestning</i> or royal charter. The first point was speedily
+decided in the affirmative, and, as to the second, it was ultimately
+decided that the king should be released from his oath and the
+charter returned to him; but a rider was added suggesting that
+he should, at the same time, promulgate a Recess providing for
+his own and his people&rsquo;s welfare. Thus Frederick III. was not
+left absolutely his own master; for the provision regarding a
+Recess, or new constitution, showed plainly enough that such
+a constitution was expected, and, once granted, would of course
+have limited the royal power.</p>
+
+<p>It now only remained to execute the resolutions of the committee.
+On the 17th of October the charter, which the king had
+sworn to observe twelve years before, was solemnly handed back
+to him at the palace, Frederick III. thereupon promising to rule
+as a Christian king to the satisfaction of all the Estates of the
+realm. On the following day the king, seated on the topmost
+step of a lofty tribune surmounted by a baldaquin, erected in the
+midst of the principal square of Copenhagen, received the public
+homage of his subjects of all ranks, in the presence of an immense
+concourse, on which occasion he again promised to rule &ldquo;as a
+Christian hereditary king and gracious master,&rdquo; and, &ldquo;as soon as
+possible, to prepare and set up&rdquo; such a constitution as should
+secure to his subjects a Christian and indulgent sway. The
+ceremony concluded with a grand banquet at the palace. After
+dinner the queen and the clergy withdrew; but the king remained.
+An incident now occurred which made a strong impression on all
+present. With a brimming beaker in his hand, Frederick III.
+went up to Hans Nansen, drank with him and drew him aside.
+They communed together in a low voice for some time, till the
+burgomaster, succumbing to the influence of his potations,
+fumbled his way to his carriage with the assistance of some of
+his civic colleagues. Whether Nansen, intoxicated by wine
+and the royal favour, consented on this occasion to sacrifice the
+privileges of his order and his city, it is impossible to say; but
+it is significant that, from henceforth, we hear no more of the
+Recess which the more liberal of the leaders of the lower
+orders had hoped for when they released Frederick III. from
+the obligations of the charter.</p>
+
+<p>We can follow pretty plainly the stages of the progress from
+a limited to an absolute monarchy. By an act dated the 10th
+of January 1661, entitled &ldquo;Instrument, or pragmatic
+<span class="sidenote">Establishment of absolute rule.</span>
+sanction,&rdquo; of the king&rsquo;s hereditary right to the kingdoms
+of Denmark and Norway, it was declared that
+all the prerogatives of majesty, and &ldquo;all regalia as an
+absolute sovereign lord,&rdquo; had been made over to the king. Yet,
+even after the issue of the &ldquo;Instrument,&rdquo; there was nothing,
+strictly speaking, to prevent Frederick III. from voluntarily
+conceding to his subjects some share in the administration.
+Unfortunately the king was bent upon still further emphasizing
+the plenitude of his power. At Copenhagen his advisers were
+busy framing drafts of a <i>Lex Regia Perpetua</i>; and the one
+which finally won the royal favour was the famous <i>Kongelov</i>, or
+&ldquo;King&rsquo;s Law.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This document was in every way unique. In the first place
+it is remarkable for its literary excellence. Compared with the
+barbarous macaronic jargon of the contemporary official language
+it shines forth as a masterpiece of pure, pithy and original
+Danish. Still more remarkable are the tone and tenor of this
+royal law. The <i>Kongelov</i> has the highly dubious honour of being
+the one written law in the civilized world which fearlessly carries
+out absolutism to the last consequences. The monarchy is declared
+to owe its origin to the surrender of the supreme authority
+by the Estates to the king. The maintenance of the indivisibility
+of the realm and of the Christian faith according to the
+Augsburg Confession, and the observance of the <i>Kongelov</i> itself,
+are now the sole obligations binding upon the king. The supreme
+spiritual authority also is now claimed; and it is expressly stated
+that it becomes none to crown him; the moment he ascends the
+throne, crown and sceptre belong to him of right. Moreover,
+par. 26 declares guilty of <i>lèse-majesté</i> whomsoever shall in any
+way usurp or infringe the king&rsquo;s absolute authority. In the
+following reign the ultra-royalists went further still. In their
+eyes the king was not merely autocratic, but sacrosanct. Thus
+before the anointing of Christian V. on the 7th of June 1671, a
+ceremony by way of symbolizing the new autocrat&rsquo;s humble
+submission to the Almighty, the officiating bishop of Zealand
+delivered an oration in which he declared that the king was God&rsquo;s
+immediate creation, His vicegerent on earth, and that it was the
+bounden duty of all good subjects to serve and honour the
+celestial majesty as represented by the king&rsquo;s terrestrial majesty.
+The <i>Kongelov</i> is dated and subscribed the 14th of November
+1665, but was kept a profound secret, only two initiated persons
+knowing of its existence until after the death of Frederick III.,
+one of them being Kristoffer Gabel, the king&rsquo;s chief intermediary
+during the revolution, and the other the author and custodian
+of the <i>Kongelov</i>, Secretary Peder Schumacher, better known as
+Griffenfeldt. It is significant that both these confidential agents
+were plebeians.</p>
+
+<p>The revolution of 1660 was certainly beneficial to Norway.
+With the disappearance of the <i>Rigsraad</i>, which, as representing
+the Danish crown, had hitherto exercised sovereignty
+<span class="sidenote">Effects of the revolution of 1660.</span>
+over both kingdoms, Norway ceased to be a subject
+principality. The sovereign hereditary king stood in
+exactly the same relations to both kingdoms; and
+thus, constitutionally, Norway was placed on an equality with
+Denmark, united with but not subordinate to it. It is clear
+that the majority of the Norwegian people hoped that the
+revolution would give them an administration independent
+of the Danish government; but these expectations were not
+realised. Till the cessation of the Union in 1814, Copenhagen
+continued to be the headquarters of the Norwegian administration;
+both kingdoms had common departments of state; and
+the common chancery continued to be called the Danish chancery.
+On the other hand the condition of Norway was now greatly
+improved. In January 1661 a land commission was appointed
+to investigate the financial and economical conditions of the
+kingdoms; the fiefs were transformed into counties; the nobles
+were deprived of their immunity from taxation; and in July
+1662 the Norwegian towns received special privileges, including
+the monopoly of the lucrative timber trade.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Enevaelde</i>, or absolute monarchy, also distinctly benefited
+the whole Danish state by materially increasing its reserve of
+native talent. Its immediate consequence was to throw open
+every state appointment to the middle classes; and the middle
+classes of that period, with very few exceptions, monopolized the
+intellect and the energy of the nation. New blood of the best
+quality nourished and stimulated the whole body politic. Expansion
+and progress were the watchwords at home, and abroad
+<span class="sidenote">Christian V., 1670-1699.</span>
+it seemed as if Denmark were about to regain her
+former position as a great power. This was especially
+the case during the brief but brilliant administration
+of Chancellor Griffenfeldt. Then, if ever, Denmark
+had the chance of playing once more a leading part in international
+politics. But Griffenfeldt&rsquo;s difficulties, always serious,
+were increased by the instability of the European situation,
+depending as it did on the ambition of Louis XIV. Resolved to
+conquer the Netherlands, the French king proceeded, first of all,
+to isolate her by dissolving the Triple Alliance. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Griffenfeldt</a></span>.) In April 1672 a treaty was concluded
+between France and Sweden, on condition that France should not
+include Denmark in her system of alliances without the consent
+of Sweden. This treaty showed that Sweden weighed more in
+the French balances than Denmark. In June 1672 a French
+army invaded the Netherlands; whereupon the elector of
+Brandenburg contracted an alliance with the emperor Leopold,
+to which Denmark was invited to accede; almost simultaneously
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36"></a>36</span>
+the States-General began to negotiate for a renewal of the recently
+expired Dano-Dutch alliance.</p>
+
+<p>In these circumstances it was as difficult for Denmark to
+remain neutral as it was dangerous for her to make a choice.
+An alliance with France would subordinate her to
+<span class="sidenote">Denmark in the Great Northern War.</span>
+Sweden; an alliance with the Netherlands would expose
+her to an attack from Sweden. The Franco-Swedish
+alliance left Griffenfeldt no choice but to accede to the
+opposite league, for he saw at once that the ruin of the
+Netherlands would disturb the balance of power in the north by
+giving an undue preponderance to England and Sweden. But
+Denmark&rsquo;s experience of Dutch promises in the past was not
+reassuring; so, while negotiating at the Hague for a renewal of
+the Dutch alliance, he at the same time felt his way at Stockholm
+towards a commercial treaty with Sweden. His Swedish mission
+proved abortive, but, as he had anticipated, it effectually accelerated
+the negotiations at the Hague, and frightened the Dutch
+into unwonted liberality. In May 1673 a treaty of alliance was
+signed by the ambassador of the States-General at Copenhagen,
+whereby the Netherlands pledged themselves to pay Denmark
+large subsidies in return for the services of 10,000 men and
+twenty warships, which were to be held in readiness in case the
+United Provinces were attacked by another enemy besides
+France. Thus, very dexterously, Griffenfeldt had succeeded in
+gaining his subsidies without sacrificing his neutrality.</p>
+
+<p>His next move was to attempt to detach Sweden from France;
+but, Sweden showing not the slightest inclination for a <i>rapprochement</i>,
+Denmark was compelled to accede to the anti-French
+league, which she did by the treaty of Copenhagen, of January
+1674, thereby engaging to place an army of 20,000 in the field
+when required; but here again Griffenfeldt safeguarded himself
+to some extent by stipulating that this provision was not to be
+operative till the allies were attacked by a fresh enemy. When,
+in December 1674, a Swedish army invaded Prussian Pomerania,
+Denmark was bound to intervene as a belligerent, but Griffenfeldt
+endeavoured to postpone this intervention as long as
+possible; and Sweden&rsquo;s anxiety to avoid hostilities with her
+southern neighbour materially assisted him to postpone the evil
+day. He only wanted to gain time, and he gained it. To the last
+he endeavoured to avoid a rupture with France even if he broke
+with Sweden; but he could not restrain for ever the foolish
+impetuosity of his own sovereign, Christian V., and his fall in
+the beginning of 1676 not only, as he had foreseen, involved
+Denmark in an unprofitable war, but, as his friend and disciple,
+Jens Juel, well observed, relegated her henceforth to the humiliating
+position of an international catspaw. Thus at the peace of
+Fontainebleau (September 2, 1679) Denmark, which had borne
+the brunt of the struggle in the Baltic, was compelled by the
+inexorable French king to make full restitution to Sweden, the
+treaty between the two northern powers being signed at Lund
+on the 26th of September. Freely had she spent her blood and
+her treasure, only to emerge from the five years&rsquo; contest exhausted
+and empty-handed.</p>
+
+<p>By the peace of Fontainebleau Denmark had been sacrificed
+to the interests of France and Sweden; forty-one years later she
+was sacrificed to the interests of Hanover and Prussia by the
+peace of Copenhagen (1720), which ended the Northern War so
+far as the German powers were concerned. But it would not
+have terminated advantageously for them at all, had not the
+powerful and highly efficient Danish fleet effectually prevented
+the Swedish government from succouring its distressed German
+provinces, and finally swept the Swedish fleets out of the northern
+waters. Yet all the compensation Denmark received for her
+inestimable services during a whole decade was 600,000 rix-dollars!
+The bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, the province of
+Farther Pomerania and the isle of Rügen which her armies had
+actually conquered, and which had been guaranteed to her by a
+whole catena of treaties, went partly to the upstart electorate
+of Hanover and partly to the upstart kingdom of Prussia, both of
+which states had been of no political importance whatever at the
+beginning of the war of spoliation by which they were, ultimately,
+to profit so largely and so cheaply.</p>
+
+<p>The last ten years of the reign of Christian V.&rsquo;s successor,
+Frederick IV. (1699-1730), were devoted to the nursing and
+development of the resources of the country, which had
+<span class="sidenote">Frederick IV., 1699-1730.</span>
+suffered only less severely than Sweden from the effects
+of the Great Northern War. The court, seriously pious,
+did much for education. A wise economy also contributed
+to reduce the national debt within manageable limits, and
+in the welfare of the peasantry Frederick IV. took a deep interest.
+In 1722 serfdom was abolished in the case of all peasants in the
+royal estates born after his accession.</p>
+
+<p>The first act of Frederick&rsquo;s successor, Christian VI. (1730-1746),
+was to abolish the national militia, which had been an intolerable
+burden upon the peasantry; yet the more pressing
+<span class="sidenote">Christian VI., 1730-1746.</span>
+agrarian difficulties were not thereby surmounted,
+as had been hoped. The price of corn continued
+to fall; the migration of the peasantry assumed
+alarming proportions; and at last, &ldquo;to preserve the land&rdquo; as
+well as to increase the defensive capacity of the country, the
+national militia was re-established by the decree of the 4th of
+February 1733, which at the same time bound to the soil all
+peasants between the age of nine and forty. Reactionary as the
+measure was it enabled the agricultural interest, on which the
+prosperity of Denmark mainly depended, to tide over one of the
+most dangerous crises in its history; but certainly the position
+of the Danish peasantry was never worse than during the reign
+of the religious and benevolent Christian VI.</p>
+
+<p>Under the peaceful reign of Christian&rsquo;s son and successor,
+Frederick V. (1746-1766), still more was done for commerce,
+industry and agriculture. To promote Denmark&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Frederick V., 1746-1766.</span>
+carrying trade, treaties were made with the Barbary
+States, Genoa and Naples; and the East Indian
+Trading Company flourished exceedingly. On the
+other hand the condition of the peasantry was even worse under
+Frederick V. than it had been under Christian VI., the <i>Stavnsbaand</i>,
+or regulation which bound all males to the soil, being
+made operative from the age of four. Yet signs of a coming
+amelioration were not wanting. The theory of the physiocrats
+now found powerful advocates in Denmark; and after 1755, when
+the press censorship was abolished so far as regarded political
+economy and agriculture, a thorough discussion of the whole
+agrarian question became possible. A commission appointed
+in 1757 worked zealously for the repeal of many agricultural
+abuses; and several great landed proprietors introduced hereditary
+leaseholds, and abolished the servile tenure.</p>
+
+<p>Foreign affairs during the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian
+VI. were left in the capable hands of J. H. E. Bernstorff, who
+aimed at steering clear of all foreign complications and preserving
+inviolable the neutrality of Denmark. This he succeeded in
+doing, in spite of the Seven Years&rsquo; War and of the difficulties
+attending the thorny Gottorp question in which Sweden and
+Russia were equally interested. The same policy was victoriously
+pursued by his nephew and pupil Andreas Bernstorff, an
+even greater man than the elder Bernstorff, who controlled the
+foreign policy of Denmark from 1773 to 1778, and again from
+<span class="sidenote">Christian VII., 1766-1808.</span>
+1784 till his death in 1797. The period of the younger
+Bernstorff synchronizes with the greater part of the
+long reign of Christian VII. (1766-1808), one of the
+most eventful periods of modern Danish history. The
+king himself was indeed a semi-idiot, scarce responsible for his
+actions, yet his was the era of such striking personalities as
+the brilliant charlatan Struensee, the great philanthropist and
+reformer C. D. F. Reventlow, the ultra-conservative Ove
+Hoegh-Guldberg, whose mission it was to repair the damage done
+by Struensee, and that generation of alert and progressive spirits
+which surrounded the young crown prince Frederick, whose first
+act, on taking his seat in the council of state, at the age of
+sixteen, on the 4th of April 1784, was to dismiss Guldberg.</p>
+
+<p>A fresh and fruitful period of reform now began, lasting till
+nearly the end of the century, and interrupted only by the brief
+but costly war with Sweden in 1788. The emancipation of
+the peasantry was now the burning question of the day, and
+the whole matter was thoroughly ventilated. Bernstorff and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>37</span>
+crown prince were the most zealous advocates of the peasantry
+in the council of state; but the honour of bringing the whole
+peasant question within the range of practical politics undoubtedly
+belongs to C. D. F. <a href="#artlinks">Reventlow</a> (q.v.). Nor was the
+reforming principle limited to the abolition of serfdom. In 1788
+the corn trade was declared free; the Jews received civil rights;
+and the negro slave trade was forbidden. In 1796 a special
+ordinance reformed the whole system of judicial procedure,
+making it cheaper and more expeditious; while the toll ordinance
+of the 1st of February 1797 still further extended the principle
+of free trade. Moreover, until two years after Bernstorff&rsquo;s death
+in 1797, the Danish press enjoyed a larger freedom of speech than
+the press of any other absolute monarchy in Europe, so much so
+that at last Denmark became suspected of favouring Jacobin
+views. But in September 1799 under strong pressure from
+the Russian emperor Paul, the Danish government forbade
+anonymity, and introduced a limited censorship.</p>
+
+<p>It was Denmark&rsquo;s obsequiousness to Russia which led to the
+first of her unfortunate collisions with Great Britain. In 1800
+the Danish government was persuaded by the tsar
+<span class="sidenote">Denmark and Great Britain in the Napoleonic Wars.</span>
+to accede to the second Armed Neutrality League,
+which Russia had just concluded with Prussia and
+Sweden. Great Britain retaliated by laying an
+embargo on the vessels of the three neutral powers,
+and by sending a considerable fleet to the Baltic under
+the command of Parker and Nelson. Surprised and unprepared
+though they were, the Danes, nevertheless, on the 2nd of April
+1801, offered a gallant resistance; but their fleet was destroyed,
+their capital bombarded, and, abandoned by Russia, they were
+compelled to submit to a disadvantageous peace.</p>
+
+<p>The same vain endeavour of Denmark to preserve her neutrality
+led to the second breach with England. After the peace of Tilsit
+there could be no further question of neutrality. Napoleon had
+determined that if Great Britain refused to accept Russia&rsquo;s
+mediation, Denmark, Sweden and Portugal were to be forced to
+close their harbours to her ships and declare war against her.
+It was the intention of the Danish government to preserve its
+neutrality to the last, although, on the whole, it preferred an
+alliance with Great Britain to a league with Napoleon, and was
+even prepared for a breach with the French emperor if he pressed
+her too hardly. The army had therefore been assembled in
+Holstein, and the crown prince regent was with it. But the
+British government did not consider Denmark strong enough to
+resist France, and Canning had private trustworthy information
+of the designs of Napoleon, upon which he was bound to act. He
+sent accordingly a fleet, with 30,000 men on board, to the Sound
+to compel Denmark, by way of security for her future conduct,
+to unite her fleet with the British fleet. Denmark was offered
+an alliance, the complete restitution of her fleet after the war, a
+guarantee of all her possessions, compensation for all expenses,
+and even territorial aggrandizement.</p>
+
+<p>Dictatorially presented as they were, these terms were liberal
+and even generous; and if a great statesman like Bernstorff
+had been at the head of affairs in Copenhagen, he would, no
+doubt, have accepted them, even if with a wry face. But the
+prince regent, if a good patriot, was a poor politician, and
+invincibly obstinate. When, therefore, in August 1807, Gambier
+arrived in the Sound, and the English plenipotentiary Francis
+James Jackson, not perhaps the most tactful person that could
+have been chosen, hastened to Kiel to place the British demands
+before the crown prince, Frederick not only refused to negotiate,
+but ordered the Copenhagen authorities to put the city in the best
+state of defence possible. Taking this to be tantamount to a
+declaration of war, on the 16th of August the British army
+landed at Vedbäck; and shortly afterwards the Danish capital
+was invested. Anything like an adequate defence was hopeless;
+<span class="sidenote">Loss of Norway. Treaty of Kiel, 1814.</span>
+a bombardment began which lasted from the 2nd of
+September till the 5th of September, and ended with
+the capitulation of the city and the surrender of the
+fleet intact, the prince regent having neglected to give
+orders for its destruction. After this Denmark, unwisely, but
+not unnaturally, threw herself into the arms of Napoleon and
+continued to be his faithful ally till the end of the war. She was
+punished for her obstinacy by being deprived of Norway, which
+she was compelled to surrender to Sweden by the terms of the
+treaty of Kiel (1814), on the 14th of January, receiving by way
+of compensation a sum of money and Swedish Pomerania, with
+Rügen, which were subsequently transferred to Prussia in exchange
+for the duchy of Lauenburg and 2,000,000 rix-dollars.</p>
+
+<p>On the establishment of the German Confederation in 1815,
+Frederick VI. acceded thereto as duke of Holstein, but refused
+to allow Schleswig to enter it, on the ground that Schleswig was
+an integral part of the Danish realm.</p>
+
+<p>The position of Denmark from 1815 to 1830 was one of great
+difficulty and distress. The loss of Norway necessitated considerable
+reductions of expenditure, but the economies
+<span class="sidenote">Denmark after 1815.</span>
+actually practised fell far short of the requirements of
+the diminished kingdom and its depleted exchequer;
+while the agricultural depression induced by the enormous fall in
+the price of corn all over Europe caused fresh demands upon
+the state, and added 10,000,000 rix-dollars to the national debt
+before 1835. The last two years of the reign of Frederick VI.
+(1838-1839) were also remarkable for the revival of political life,
+provincial consultative assemblies being established for Jutland,
+the Islands, Schleswig and Holstein, by the ordinance of the 28th
+of May 1831. But these consultative assemblies were regarded
+as insufficient by the Danish Liberals, and during the last years
+of Frederick VI. and the whole reign of his successor, Christian
+VIII. (1839-1848), the agitation for a free constitution,
+<span class="sidenote">Constitutional agitation. Beginnings of the Schleswig-Holstein Question.</span>
+both in Denmark and the duchies, continued to grow
+in strength, in spite of press prosecutions and other
+repressive measures. The rising national feeling in
+Germany also stimulated the separatist tendencies
+of the duchies; and &ldquo;Schleswig-Holsteinism,&rdquo; as
+it now began to be called, evoked in Denmark the
+counter-movement known as <i>Eiderdansk-politik</i>,
+i.e. the policy of extending Denmark to the Eider and
+obliterating German Schleswig, in order to save Schleswig
+from being absorbed by Germany. This division of national
+sentiment within the monarchy, complicated by the approaching
+extinction of the Oldenburg line of the house of
+Denmark, by which, in the normal course under the Salic law,
+the succession to Holstein would have passed away from the
+Danish crown, opened up the whole complicated Schleswig-Holstein
+Question with all its momentous consequences. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein Question</a></span>.) Within the monarchy itself,
+during the following years, &ldquo;Schleswig-Holsteinism&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Eiderdanism&rdquo; faced each other as rival, mutually exacerbating
+forces; and the efforts of succeeding governments to solve the
+insoluble problem broke down ever on the rock of nationalist
+passion and the interests of the German powers. The unionist
+<span class="sidenote">Unionist Constitution of 1848, and war with Prussia.</span>
+constitution, devised by Christian VIII., and promulgated
+by his successor, Frederick VII. (1848-1863),
+on the 28th of January 1848, led to the armed intervention
+of Prussia, at the instance of the new German
+parliament at Frankfort; and, though with the help
+of Russian and British diplomacy, the Danes were
+ultimately successful, they had to submit, in 1851, to the
+government of Holstein by an international commission consisting
+of three members, Prussian, Austrian and Danish respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Denmark, meanwhile, had been engaged in providing herself
+with a parliament on modern lines. The constitutional rescript
+of the 28th of January 1848 had been withdrawn in favour of an
+electoral law for a national assembly, of whose 152 members
+38 were to be nominated by the king and to form an Upper
+House (<i>Landsting</i>), while the remainder were to be elected by
+the people and to form a popular chamber (<i>Folketing</i>). The
+<i>Bondevenlige</i>, or philo-peasant party, which objected to the king&rsquo;s
+right of nomination and preferred a one-chamber system, now
+separated from the National Liberals on this point. But the
+National Liberals triumphed at the general election; fear of
+reactionary tendencies finally induced the Radicals to accede to
+the wishes of the majority; and on the 5th of June 1849 the new
+constitution received the royal sanction.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="page38"></a>38</p>
+
+<p>At this stage Denmark&rsquo;s foreign relations prejudicially affected
+her domestic politics. The Liberal Eiderdansk party was for
+dividing Schleswig into three distinct administrative
+<span class="sidenote">Germany and the Danish duchies.</span>
+belts, according as the various nationalities predominated
+(language rescripts of 1851), but German sentiment
+was opposed to any such settlement and, still worse,
+the great continental powers looked askance on the new Danish
+constitution as far too democratic. The substance of the notes
+embodying the exchange of views, in 1851 and 1852, between the
+German great powers and Denmark, was promulgated, on the
+28th of January 1852, in the new constitutional decree which,
+together with the documents on which it was founded, was known
+<span class="sidenote">Convention of 1852.</span>
+as the Conventions of 1851 and 1852. Under this
+arrangement each part of the monarchy was to have
+local autonomy, with a common constitution for
+common affairs. Holstein was now restored to
+Denmark, and Prussia and Austria consented to take part in the
+conference of London, by which the integrity of Denmark was
+upheld, and the succession to the whole monarchy settled on
+Prince Christian, youngest son of Duke William of
+Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, and husband of Louise of
+Hesse, the niece of King Christian VIII. The &ldquo;legitimate&rdquo;
+heir to the duchies, under the Salic law, Duke Christian of
+Sonderburg-Augustenburg, accepted the decision of the London
+conference in consideration of the purchase by the Danish
+government of his estates in Schleswig.</p>
+
+<p>On the 2nd of October 1855 was promulgated the new common
+constitution, which for two years had been the occasion of a
+fierce contention between the Conservatives and the
+<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1855.</span>
+Radicals. It proved no more final than its predecessors.
+The representatives of the duchies in the new common
+<i>Rigsraad</i> protested against it, as subversive of the Conventions
+of 1851 and 1852; and their attitude had the support
+of the German powers. In 1857, <a href="#artlinks">Carl Christian Hall</a> (q.v.) became
+prime minister. After putting off the German powers by seven
+years of astute diplomacy, he realized the impossibility of carrying
+out the idea of a common constitution and, on the 30th of March
+1862, a royal proclamation was issued detaching Holstein as far
+as possible from the common monarchy. Later in the year he
+<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1863 and accession of Christian IX.</span>
+introduced into the <i>Rigsraad</i> a common constitution
+for Denmark and Schleswig, which was carried through
+and confirmed by the council of state on the 13th of
+November 1863. It had not, however, received the
+royal assent when the death of Frederick VII. brought
+the &ldquo;Protocol King&rdquo; Christian IX. to the throne.
+Placed between the necessity of offending his new subjects or
+embroiling himself with the German powers, Christian chose the
+remoter evil and, on the 18th of November, the new constitution
+became law. This once more opened up the whole question in an
+acute form. Frederick, son of Christian of Augustenburg, refusing
+to be bound by his father&rsquo;s engagements, entered Holstein
+and, supported by the Estates and the German diet, proclaimed
+himself duke. The events that followed: the occupation of the
+<span class="sidenote">Prusso-Danish War of 1864, and cession of the duchies.</span>
+duchies by Austria and Prussia, the war of 1864,
+gallantly fought by the Danes against overwhelming
+odds, and the astute diplomacy by which Bismarck
+succeeded in ultimately gaining for Prussia the seaboard
+so essential for her maritime power, are dealt with
+elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein Question</a></span>). For
+Denmark the question was settled when, by the peace
+of Vienna (October 30, 1864), the duchies were irretrievably
+lost to her. At the peace of Prague, which terminated the
+Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Napoleon III. procured the insertion
+in the treaty of paragraph v., by which the northern
+districts of Schleswig were to be reunited to Denmark when the
+majority of the population by a free vote should so desire; but
+when Prussia at last thought fit to negotiate with Denmark
+on the subject, she laid down conditions which the Danish
+government could not accept. Finally, in 1878, by a separate
+agreement between Austria and Prussia, paragraph v. was
+rescinded.</p>
+
+<p>The salient feature of Danish politics during subsequent years
+was the struggle between the two <i>Tings</i>, the <i>Folketing</i> or Lower
+House, and the <i>Landsting</i>, or Upper House of the
+<span class="sidenote">Constitutional struggles in Denmark since 1866.</span>
+<i>Rigsdag</i>. This contest began in 1872, when a combination
+of all the Radical parties, known as the
+&ldquo;United Left,&rdquo; passed a vote of want of confidence
+against the government and rejected the budget.
+Nevertheless, the ministry, supported by the <i>Landsting</i>,
+refused to resign; and the crisis became acute when, in 1875,
+J. B. Estrup became prime minister. Perceiving that the coming
+struggle would be essentially a financial one, he retained the
+ministry of finance in his own hands; and, strong in the support
+of the king, the <i>Landsting</i>, and a considerable minority in the
+country itself, he devoted himself to the double task of establishing
+the political parity of the <i>Landsting</i> with the <i>Folketing</i> and
+strengthening the national armaments, so that, in the event of
+a war between the European great powers, Denmark might be
+able to defend her neutrality.</p>
+
+<p>The Left was willing to vote 30,000,000 crowns for
+extraordinary military expenses, exclusive of the fortifications
+of Copenhagen, on condition that the amount should be raised
+by a property and income tax; and, as the elections of 1875 had
+given them a majority of three-fourths in the popular chamber,
+they spoke with no uncertain voice. But the Upper House
+steadily supported Estrup, who was disinclined to accept any
+such compromise. As an agreement between the two houses on
+the budget proved impossible, a provisional financial decree was
+issued on the 12th of April 1877, which the Left stigmatized as a
+breach of the constitution. But the difficulties of the ministry
+were somewhat relieved by a split in the Radical party, still
+further accentuated by the elections of 1879, which enabled
+Estrup to carry through the army and navy defence bill and
+the new military penal code by leaning alternately upon one or
+the other of the divided Radical groups.</p>
+
+<p>After the elections of 1881, which brought about the reamalgamation
+of the various Radical sections, the opposition presented
+a united front to the government, so that, from 1882 onwards,
+legislation was almost at a standstill. The elections of 1884
+showed clearly that the nation was also now on the side of the
+Radicals, 83 out of the 102 members of the <i>Folketing</i> belonging
+to the opposition. Still Estrup remained at his post. He had
+underestimated the force of public opinion, but he was conscientiously
+convinced that a Conservative ministry was necessary to
+Denmark at this crisis. When therefore the <i>Rigsdag</i> rejected
+the budget, he advised the king to issue another provisional
+financial decree. Henceforth, so long as the <i>Folketing</i> refused to
+vote supplies, the ministry regularly adopted these makeshifts.
+In 1886 the Left, having no constitutional means of dismissing
+the Estrup ministry, resorted for the first time to negotiations;
+but it was not till the 1st of April 1894 that the majority of the
+<i>Folketing</i> could arrive at an agreement with the government and
+the <i>Landsting</i> as to a budget which should be retrospective and
+sanction the employment of the funds so irregularly obtained for
+military expenditure. The whole question of the provisional
+financial decrees was ultimately regularized by a special resolution
+of the <i>Rigsdag</i>; and the retirement of the Estrup ministry in
+August 1894 was the immediate result of the compromise.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the composition of 1894, the animosity between
+<i>Folketing</i> and <i>Landsting</i> continues to characterize Danish politics,
+and the situation has been complicated by the division of both
+Right and Left into widely divergent groups. The elections of
+1895 resulted in an undeniable victory of the extreme Radicals;
+and the budget of 1895-1896 was passed only at the last moment
+by a compromise. The session of 1896-1897 was remarkable for
+a <i>rapprochement</i> between the ministry and the &ldquo;Left Reform
+Party,&rdquo; caused by the secessions of the &ldquo;Young Right,&rdquo; which led
+to an unprecedented event in Danish politics&mdash;the voting of the
+budget by the Radical <i>Folketing</i> and its rejection by the Conservative
+<i>Landsting</i> in May 1897; whereupon the ministry resigned
+in favour of the moderate Conservative Hörring cabinet, which
+induced the Upper House to pass the budget. The elections of
+1898 were a fresh defeat for the Conservatives, and in the autumn
+session of the same year, the <i>Folketing</i>, by a crushing majority of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>39</span>
+85 to 12, rejected the military budget. The ministry was
+saved by a mere accident&mdash;the expulsion of Danish agitators
+from North Schleswig by the German government, which evoked
+a passion of patriotic protest throughout Denmark, and united
+all parties, the war minister declaring in the <i>Folketing</i>, during
+the debate on the military budget (January 1899), that the
+armaments of Denmark were so far advanced that any great
+power must think twice before venturing to attack her. The
+chief event of the year 1899 was the great strike of 40,000
+artisans, which cost Denmark 50,000,000 crowns, and brought
+about a reconstruction of the cabinet in order to bring in, as
+minister of the interior, Ludwig Ernest Bramsen, the great
+specialist in industrial matters, who succeeded (September 2-4)
+in bringing about an understanding between workmen and
+employers. The session 1900-1901 was remarkable for the
+further disintegration of the Conservative party still in office
+(the Sehested cabinet superseded the Hörring cabinet on the
+27th of April 1900) and the almost total paralysis of parliament,
+caused by the interminable debates on the question of taxation
+reform. The crisis came in 1901. Deprived of nearly all its
+supporters in the <i>Folketing</i>, the Conservative ministry resigned,
+and King Christian was obliged to assent to the formation of
+a &ldquo;cabinet of the Left&rdquo; under Professor Deuntzer. Various
+reforms were carried, but the proposal to sell the Danish islands
+in the West Indies to the United States fell through. During
+these years the relations between Denmark and the German
+empire improved, and in the country itself the cause of social
+democracy made great progress. In January 1906 King Christian
+ended his long reign, and was succeeded by his son Frederick VIII.
+At the elections of 1906 the government lost its small absolute
+majority, but remained in power with support from the Moderates
+and Conservatives. It was severely shaken, however, when
+Herr A. Alberti, who had been minister of justice since 1901,
+and was admitted to be the strongest member of the cabinet, was
+openly accused of nepotism and abuse of the power of his position.
+These charges gathered weight until the minister was forced to
+resign in July 1908, and in September he was arrested on a charge
+of forgery in his capacity as director of the Zealand Peasants&rsquo;
+Savings Bank. The ministry, of which Herr Jens Christian
+Christensen was head, was compelled to resign in October. The
+effect of these revelations was profound not only politically, but
+also economically; the important export trade in Danish butter,
+especially, was adversely affected, as Herr Alberti had been
+interested in numerous dairy companies.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;I. <span class="sc">General History.</span> <i>Danmarks Riges
+Historie</i> (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); R. Nisbet Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i>
+(Cambridge, 1905); H. Weitemeyer, <i>Denmark</i> (London, 1901);
+Adolf Ditley Jörgensen, <i>Historiske Afhandlinger</i> (Copenhagen, 1898);
+<i>ib. Fortaellinger af Nordens Historie</i> (Copenhagen, 1892). II. <span class="sc">Early
+And Medieval History.</span> Saxo, <i>Gesta Danorum</i> (Strassburg, 1886);
+<i>Repertorium diplomaticum regni Danici mediaevalis</i> (Copenhagen,
+1894); Ludvig Holberg, <i>Konge og Danehof</i> (Copenhagen, 1895);
+Poul Frederik Barford, <i>Danmarks Historie 1319-1536</i> (Copenhagen,
+1885); <i>ib. 1536-1670</i> (Copenhagen, 1891). III. <span class="sc">16th to 19th
+Century.</span> Philip P. Munch, <i>Kobstadstyrelsen i Danmark</i> (Copenhagen,
+1900); Peter Edvard Holm, <i>Danmark Norges indre Historie,
+1660-1720</i> (Copenhagen, 1885-1886); <i>ib. Danmark Norges Historie,
+1720-1814</i> (Copenhagen, 1891-1894); Sören Bloch Thrige, <i>Danmarks
+Historie i vort Aarhundrede</i> (Copenhagen, 1888); Marcus
+Rubin, <i>Frederick VI.&rsquo;s Tid fra Kielerfreden</i> (Copenhagen, 1895);
+Christian Frederick von Holten, <i>Erinnerungen; Der deutsch-dänische
+Krieg</i> (Stuttgart, 1900); Niels Peter Jensen, <i>Den anden slesvigske
+Krig</i> (Copenhagen, 1900); S. N. Mouritsen, <i>Vor Forfatnings Historie</i>
+(Copenhagen, 1894); Carl Frederik Vilhelm Mathildus Rosenberg,
+<i>Danmark i Aaret 1848</i> (Copenhagen, 1891). See also the special
+bibliographies appended to the biographies of the Danish kings
+and statesmen.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<p class="center sc">Literature</p>
+
+<p>The present language of Denmark is derived directly from
+the same source as that of Sweden, and the parent of both is the
+old Scandinavian (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scandinavian Languages</a></span>). In Iceland
+this tongue, with some modifications, has remained in use, and
+until about 1100 it was the literary language of the whole of
+Scandinavia. The influence of Low German first, and High
+German afterwards, has had the effect of drawing modern Danish
+constantly farther from this early type. The difference began to
+show itself in the 12th century. R. K. Rask, and after him
+N. M. Petersen, have distinguished four periods in the development
+of the language, The first, which has been called Oldest
+Danish, dating from about 1100 and 1250, shows a slightly
+changed character, mainly depending on the system of inflections.
+In the second period, that of Old Danish, bringing us down to
+1400, the change of the system of vowels begins to be settled,
+and masculine and feminine are mingled in a common gender.
+An indefinite article has been formed, and in the conjugation of
+the verb a great simplicity sets in. In the third period, 1400-1530,
+the influence of German upon the language is supreme, and
+culminates in the Reformation. The fourth period, from 1530 to
+about 1680, completes the work of development, and leaves the
+language as we at present find it.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest work known to have been written in Denmark was
+a Latin biography of Knud the Saint, written by an English monk
+Ælnoth, who was attached to the church of St Alban in Odense
+where King Knud was murdered. Denmark produced several
+Latin writers of merit. Anders Sunesen (d. 1228) wrote a long
+poem in hexameters, <i>Hexaëmeron</i>, describing the creation.
+Under the auspices of Archbishop Absalon the monks of Sorö
+began to compile the annals of Denmark, and at the end of the
+12th century Svend Aagesen, a cleric of Lund, compiled from
+Icelandic sources and oral tradition his <i>Compendiosa historia
+regum Daniae</i>. The great <a href="#artlinks">Saxo Grammaticus</a> (q.v.) wrote his
+<i>Historia Danica</i> under the same patronage.</p>
+
+<p>It was not till the 16th century that literature began to be
+generally practised in the vernacular in Denmark. The oldest
+laws which are still preserved date from the beginning of the 13th
+century, and many different collections are in existence.<a name="FnAnchor_2e" href="#Footnote_2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> A
+single work detains us in the 13th century, a treatise on medicine<a name="FnAnchor_3e" href="#Footnote_3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+by Henrik Harpestreng, who died in 1244. The first royal edict
+written in Danish is dated 1386; and the Act of Union at Kalmar,
+written in 1397, is the most important piece of the vernacular of
+the 14th century. Between 1300 and 1500, however, it is supposed
+that the <i>Kjaempeviser</i>, or Danish ballads, a large collection
+of about 500 epical and lyrical poems, were originally composed,
+and these form the most precious legacy of the Denmark of the
+middle ages, whether judged historically or poetically. We know
+nothing of the authors of these poems, which treat of the heroic
+adventures of the great warriors and lovely ladies of the chivalric
+age in strains of artless but often exquisite beauty. Some of the
+subjects are borrowed in altered form from the old mythology,
+while a few derive from Christian legend, and many deal with
+national history. The language in which we receive these ballads,
+however, is as late as the 16th or even the 17th century, but it
+is believed that they have become gradually modernized in the
+course of oral tradition. The first attempt to collect the ballads
+was made in 1591 by Anders Sörensen Vedel (1542-1616), who
+published 100 of them. Peder Syv printed 100 more in 1695.
+In 1812-1814 an elaborate collection in five volumes appeared
+at Christiania, edited by W. H. F. Abrahamson, R. Nyerup
+and K. M. Rahbek. Finally, Svend Grundtvig produced an
+exhaustive edition, <i>Danmarks gamle Folkeviser</i> (Copenhagen,
+1853-1883, 5 vols.), which was supplemented (1891) by A. Olrik.</p>
+
+<p>In 1490, the first printing press was set up at Copenhagen, by
+Gottfried of Gemen, who had brought it from Westphalia; and
+five years later the first Danish book was printed. This was the
+famous <i>Rimkrönike</i><a name="FnAnchor_4e" href="#Footnote_4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a>; a history of Denmark in rhymed Danish
+verse, attributed by its first editor to Niels (d. 1481); a monk of
+the monastery of Sorö. It extends to the death of Christian I.,
+in 1481, which may be supposed to be approximately the date
+of the poem. In 1479 the university of Copenhagen had been
+founded. In 1506 the same Gottfried of Gemen published a
+famous collection of proverbs, attributed to Peder Laale.
+Mikkel, priest of St Alban&rsquo;s Church in Odense, wrote three sacred
+poems, <i>The Rose-Garland of Maiden Mary</i>, <i>The Creation</i> and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>40</span>
+<i>Human Life</i>, which came out together in 1514, shortly before
+his death. The popular <i>Lucidarius</i> also appeared in the vulgar
+tongue.</p>
+
+<p>These few productions appeared along with innumerable works
+in Latin, and dimly heralded a Danish literature. It was the
+Reformation that first awoke the living spirit in the popular
+tongue. <a href="#artlinks">Christiern Pedersen</a> (q.v.; 1480-1554) was the first man
+of letters produced in Denmark. He edited and published, at
+Paris in 1514, the Latin text of the old chronicler, Saxo Grammaticus;
+he worked up in their present form the beautiful half-mythical
+stories of <i>Karl Magnus</i> (Charlemagne) and <i>Holger
+Danske</i> (Ogier the Dane). He further translated the
+Psalms of David and the New Testament, printed in 1529, and
+finally&mdash;in conjunction with Bishop Peder Palladius&mdash;the Bible,
+which appeared in 1550. Hans Tausen, the bishop of Ribe
+(1494-1561), continued Pedersen&rsquo;s work, but with far less
+literary talent. He may, however, be considered as the greatest
+orator and teacher of the Reformation movement. He wrote a
+number of popular hymns, partly original, partly translations;
+translated the Pentateuch from the Hebrew; and published
+(1536) a collection of sermons embodying the reformed doctrine
+and destined for the use of clergy and laity.</p>
+
+<p>The Catholic party produced one controversialist of striking
+ability, Povel Helgesen<a name="FnAnchor_5e" href="#Footnote_5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (b. c. 1480), also known as Paulus
+Eliae. He had at first been inclined to the party of reform,
+but when Luther broke definitely with the papal authority he
+became a bitter opponent. His most important polemical work
+is an answer (1528) to twelve questions on the religious question
+propounded by Gustavus I. of Sweden. He is also supposed to be
+the author of the <i>Skiby Chronicle</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_6e" href="#Footnote_6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> in which he does not confine
+himself to the duties of a mere annalist, but records his personal
+opinion of people and events. Vedel, by the edition of the
+<i>Kjaempeviser</i> which is mentioned above, gave an immense
+stimulus to the progress of literature. He published an excellent
+translation of Saxo Grammaticus in 1575. The first edition of
+a Danish <i>Reineke Fuchs</i>, by Herman Weigere, appeared at
+Lübeck in 1555, and the first authorized Psalter in 1559. Arild
+Huitfeld wrote <i>Chronicle of the Kingdom of Denmark</i>, printed in
+ten volumes, between 1595 and 1604.</p>
+
+<p>There are few traces of dramatic effort in Denmark before
+the Reformation; and many of the plays of that period may be
+referred to the class of school comedies. Hans Sthen, a lyrical
+poet, wrote a morality entitled <i>Kortvending</i> (&ldquo;Change of Fortune&rdquo;),
+which is really a collection of monologues to be delivered
+by students. The anonymous <i>Ludus de Sancto Kanuto</i><a name="FnAnchor_7e" href="#Footnote_7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> (c. 1530)
+which in spite of its title, is written in Danish, is the earliest
+Danish national drama. The burlesque drama assigned to
+Christian Hansen, <i>The Faithless Wife</i>, is the only one of its
+kind that has survived. But the best of these old dramatic
+authors was a priest of Viborg, Justesen Ranch (1539-1607),
+who wrote <i>Kong Salomons Hylding</i> (&ldquo;The Crowning of King
+Solomon&rdquo;) (1585), <i>Samsons Faengsel</i> (&ldquo;The Imprisonment of
+Samson&rdquo;), which includes lyrical passages which have given it
+claims to be considered the first Danish opera, and a farce, <i>Karrig
+Niding</i> (&ldquo;The Miserly Miscreant&rdquo;). Beside these works Ranch
+wrote a famous moralizing poem, entitled &ldquo;A new song, of the
+nature and song of certain birds, in which many vices are punished,
+and many virtues praised.&rdquo; Peder Clausen<a name="FnAnchor_8e" href="#Footnote_8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (1545-1614),
+a Norwegian by birth and education, wrote a <i>Description of
+Norway</i>, as well as an admirable translation of Snorri Sturlason&rsquo;s
+<i>Heimskringla</i>, published ten years after Clausen&rsquo;s death. The
+father of Danish poetry, Anders Kristensen Arrebo (1587-1637),
+was bishop of Trondhjem, but was deprived of his see for immorality.
+He was a poet of considerable genius, which is most
+brilliantly shown in an imitation of Du Bartas&rsquo;s <i>Divine Semaine</i>,
+the <i>Hexaëmeron</i>, a poem on the creation, in six books, which did
+not appear till 1661. He also made a translation of the Psalms.</p>
+
+<p>He was followed by Anders Bording (1619-1677), a cheerful
+occasional versifier, and by Thöger Reenberg (1656-1742), a poet
+of somewhat higher gifts, who lived on into a later age. Among
+prose writers should be mentioned the grammarian Peder Syv,<a name="FnAnchor_9e" href="#Footnote_9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+(1631-1702); Bishop Erik Pontoppidan (1616-1678), whose
+<i>Grammatica Danica</i>, published in 1668, is the first systematic
+analysis of the language; Birgitta Thott (1610-1662), a lady
+who translated Seneca (1658); and Leonora Christina Ulfeld,
+daughter of Christian IV., who has left a touching account of
+her long imprisonment in her <i>Jammersminde</i>. Ole Worm (1588-1654),
+a learned pedagogue and antiquarian, preserved in his
+<i>Danicorum monumentorum libri sex</i> (Copenhagen, 1643) the
+descriptions of many antiquities which have since perished or
+been lost.</p>
+
+<p>In two spiritual poets the advancement of the literature of
+Denmark took a further step. Thomas Kingo<a name="FnAnchor_10e" href="#Footnote_10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> (1634-1703) was
+the first who wrote Danish with perfect ease and grace. He was
+a Scot by descent, and retained the vital energy of his ancestors
+as a birthright. In 1677 he became bishop in Fünen, where
+he died in 1703. His <i>Winter Psalter</i> (1689), and the so-called
+<i>Kingo&rsquo;s Psalter</i> (1699), contained brilliant examples of lyrical
+writing, and an employment of language at once original and
+national. Kingo had a charming fancy, a clear sense of form and
+great rapidity and variety of utterance. Some of his very best
+hymns are in the little volume he published in 1681, and hence
+the old period of semi-articulate Danish may be said to close with
+this eventful decade, which also witnessed the birth of Holberg.
+The other great hymn-writer was Hans Adolf Brorson (1694-1764),
+who published in 1740 a great psalm-book at the king&rsquo;s
+command, in which he added his own to the best of Kingo&rsquo;s.
+Both these men held high posts in the church, one being bishop
+of Fünen and the other of Ribe; but Brorson was much inferior
+to Kingo in genius. With these names the introductory period
+of Danish literature ends. The language was now formed, and
+was being employed for almost all the uses of science and philosophy.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#artlinks">Ludvig Holberg</a> (q.v.; 1684-1754) may be called the founder
+of modern Danish literature. His various works still retain their
+freshness and vital attraction. As an historian his style was terse
+and brilliant, his spirit philosophical, and his data singularly
+accurate. He united two unusual gifts, being at the same time
+the most cultured man of his day, and also in the highest degree
+a practical person, who clearly perceived what would most rapidly
+educate and interest the uncultivated. In his thirty-three
+dramas, sparkling comedies in prose, more or less in imitation of
+Molière, he has left his most important positive legacy to literature.
+Nor in any series of comedies in existence is decency so
+rarely sacrificed to a desire for popularity or a false sense of wit.</p>
+
+<p>Holberg founded no school of immediate imitators, but his
+stimulating influence was rapid and general. The university
+of Copenhagen, which had been destroyed by fire in 1728, was
+reopened in 1742, and under the auspices of the historian Hans
+Gram (1685-1748), who founded the Danish Royal Academy of
+Sciences, it inspired an active intellectual life. Gram laid the
+foundation of critical history in Denmark. He brought to bear
+on the subject a full knowledge of documents and sources. His
+best work lies in his annotated editions of the older chroniclers.
+In 1744 Jakob Langebek (1710-1775) founded the Society for
+the Improvement of the Danish Language, which opened the field
+of philology. He began the great collection of <i>Scriptores rerum
+Danicarum medii aevi</i> (9 vols., Copenhagen, 1772-1878). In
+jurisprudence Andreas Höier (1690-1739) represented the new
+impulse, and in zoology <a href="#artlinks">Erik Pontoppidan</a> (q.v.), the younger.
+This last name represents a lifelong activity in many branches
+of literature. From Holberg&rsquo;s college of Sorö, two learned
+professors, Jens Schelderup Sneedorff (1724-1764) and Jens Kraft
+(1720-1765), disseminated the seeds of a wider culture. All
+these men were aided by the generous and enlightened patronage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>41</span>
+of Frederick V. A little later on, the German poet Klopstock
+settled in Copenhagen, bringing with him the prestige of his great
+reputation, and he had a strong influence in Germanizing
+Denmark. He founded, however, the Society for the Fine Arts,
+and had it richly endowed. The first prize offered was won by
+Christian Braumann Tullin (1728-1765) for his beautiful poem
+of <i>May-day</i>. Tullin, a Norwegian by birth, represents the first
+accession of a study of external nature in Danish poetry; he was
+an ardent disciple of the English poet Thomson. Christian
+Falster (1690-1752) wrote satires of some merit, but most of his
+work is in Latin. The <i>New Heroic Poems</i> of Jörgen Sorterup are
+notable as imitations of the old folk-literature. Ambrosius Stub<a name="FnAnchor_11e" href="#Footnote_11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a>
+(1705-1758) was a lyrist of great sweetness, born before his due
+time, whose poems, not published till 1771, belong to a later age
+than their author.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Lyrical Revival.</i>&mdash;Between 1742 and 1749, that is to say,
+at the very climax of the personal activity of Holberg, several
+poets were born, who were destined to enrich the language with
+its first group of lyrical blossoms. Of these the two eldest,
+Wessel and Ewald, were men of extraordinary genius, and
+destined to fascinate the attention of posterity, not only by the
+brilliance of their productions, but by the suffering and brevity
+of their lives. <a href="#artlinks">Johannes Ewald</a> (q.v.; 1743-1781) was not only
+the greatest Danish lyrist of the 18th century, but he had few
+rivals in the whole of Europe. As a dramatist, pure and simple,
+his bird-like instinct of song carried him too often into a sphere
+too exalted for the stage; but he has written nothing that is
+not stamped with the exquisite quality of distinction. Johan
+Herman Wessel<a name="FnAnchor_12e" href="#Footnote_12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> (1742-1785) excited even greater hopes in his
+contemporaries, but left less that is immortal behind him. After
+the death of Holberg, the affectation of Gallicism had reappeared
+in Denmark; and the tragedies of Voltaire, with their stilted
+rhetoric, were the most popular dramas of the day. Johan
+Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), a young writer who did better things
+later on, gave the finishing touch to the exotic absurdity by
+bringing out a wretched piece called <i>Zarina</i>, which was hailed by
+the press as the first original Danish tragedy, although Ewald&rsquo;s
+exquisite <i>Rolf Krage</i>, which truly merited that title, had appeared
+two years before. Wessel, who up to that time had only been
+known as the president of a club of wits, immediately wrote
+<i>Love without Stockings</i> (1772), in which a plot of the most abject
+triviality is worked out in strict accordance with the rules of
+French tragedy, and in most pompous and pathetic Alexandrines.
+The effect of this piece was magical; the Royal Theatre ejected
+its cuckoo-brood of French plays, and even the Italian opera.
+It was now essential that every performance should be national,
+and in the Danish language. To supply the place of the opera,
+native musicians, and especially J. P. E. Hartmann, set the
+dramas of Ewald and others, and thus the Danish school of
+music originated. Johan Nordahl Brun&rsquo;s best work is to be
+found in his patriotic songs and his hymns. He became bishop
+of Bergen in 1803.</p>
+
+<p>Of the other poets of the revival the most important were born
+in Norway. Nordahl Brun, Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Claus
+Fasting (1746-1791), who edited a brilliant aesthetic journal, <i>The
+Critical Observer</i>, Christian H. Pram<a name="FnAnchor_13e" href="#Footnote_13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> (1756-1821), author of
+<i>Staerkodder</i>, a romantic epic, based on Scandinavian legend, and
+Edvard Storm (1749-1794), were associates and mainly fellow-students
+at Copenhagen, where they introduced a style peculiar
+to themselves, and distinct from that of the true Danes. Their
+lyrics celebrated the mountains and rivers of the magnificent
+country they had left; and, while introducing images and
+scenery unfamiliar to the inhabitants of monotonous Denmark,
+they enriched the language with new words and phrases. This
+group of writers is now claimed by the Norwegians as the founders
+of a Norwegian literature; but their true place is certainly among
+the Danes, to whom they primarily appealed. They added
+nothing to the development of the drama, except in the person
+of N. K. Bredal (1733-1778), who became director of the Royal
+Danish Theatre, and the writer of some mediocre plays.</p>
+
+<p>To the same period belong a few prose writers of eminence.
+Werner Abrahamson (1744-1812) was the first aesthetic critic
+Denmark produced. Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was
+eminent in many branches of science, but especially as a medical
+writer. Ove Mailing (1746-1829) was an untiring collector of
+historical data, which he annotated in a lively style. Two
+historians of more definite claim on our attention are Peter
+Frederik Suhm (1728-1798), whose <i>History of Denmark</i> (11 vols.,
+Copenhagen, 1782-1812) contains a mass of original material,
+and Ove Guldberg (1731-1808). In theology Christian Bastholm
+(1740-1819) and Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), bishop of
+Zealand, a Norwegian by birth, demand a reference. But the
+only really great prose-writer of the period was the Norwegian,
+Niels Treschow (1751-1833), whose philosophical works are
+composed in an admirably lucid style, and are distinguished
+for their depth and originality.</p>
+
+<p>The poetical revival sank in the next generation to a more
+mechanical level. The number of writers of some talent was very
+great, but genius was wanting. Two intimate friends, Jonas
+Rein (1760-1821) and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), attempted, with
+indifferent success, to continue the tradition of the Norwegian
+group. Thomas Thaarup (1749-1821) was a fluent and eloquent
+writer of occasional poems, and of homely dramatic idylls. The
+early death of Ole Samsöe (1759-1796) prevented the development
+of a dramatic talent that gave rare promise. But while
+poetry languished, prose, for the first time, began to flourish
+in Denmark. Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was a pleasing
+novelist, a dramatist of some merit, a pathetic elegist, and a witty
+song-writer; he was also a man full of the literary instinct, and
+through a long life he never ceased to busy himself with editing
+the works of the older poets, and spreading among the people a
+knowledge of Danish literature through his magazine, <i>Minerva</i>,
+edited in conjunction with C. H. Pram. Peter Andreas Heiberg
+(1758-1841) was a political and aesthetic critic of note. He was
+exiled from Denmark in company with another sympathizer with
+the principles of the French Revolution, Malte Conrad Brunn
+(1775-1826), who settled in Paris, and attained a world-wide
+reputation as a geographer. O. C. Olufsen (1764-1827) was a
+writer on geography, zoology and political economy. Rasmus
+Nyerup (1759-1829) expended an immense energy in the compilation
+of admirable works on the history of language and literature.
+From 1778 to his death he exercised a great power in the statistical
+and critical departments of letters. The best historian of this
+period, however, was Engelstoft (1774-1850), and the most
+brilliant theologian Bishop Mynster (1775-1854). In the annals
+of modern science Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) is a name
+universally honoured. He explained his inventions and described
+his discoveries in language so lucid and so characteristic that he
+claims an honoured place in the literature of the country of whose
+culture, in other branches, he is one of the most distinguished
+ornaments.</p>
+
+<p>On the threshold of the romantic movement occurs the name
+of <a href="#artlinks">Jens Baggesen</a> (q.v.; 1764-1826), a man of great genius,
+whose work was entirely independent of the influences around
+him. Jens Baggesen is the greatest comic poet that Denmark
+has produced; and as a satirist and witty lyrist he has no rival
+among the Danes. In his hands the difficulties of the language
+disappear; he performs with the utmost ease extraordinary
+<i>tours de force</i> of style. His astonishing talents were wasted on
+trifling themes and in a fruitless resistance to the modern spirit
+in literature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Romanticism.</i>&mdash;With the beginning of the 19th century the new
+light in philosophy and poetry, which radiated from Germany
+through all parts of Europe, found its way into Denmark also.
+In scarcely any country was the result so rapid or so brilliant.
+There arose in Denmark a school of poets who created for themselves
+a reputation in all parts of Europe, and would have done
+honour to any nation or any age. The splendid cultivation of
+metrical art threw other branches into the shade; and the epoch
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42"></a>42</span>
+of which we are about to speak is eminent above all for mastery
+over verse. The swallow who heralded the summer was a
+German by birth, Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt<a name="FnAnchor_14e" href="#Footnote_14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a> (1769-1826),
+who came over to Copenhagen from Pomerania, and
+prepared the way for the new movement. Since Ewald no one
+had written Danish lyrical verse so exquisitely as Schack von
+Staffeldt, and the depth and scientific precision of his thought
+won him a title which he has preserved, of being the first philosophic
+poet of Denmark. The writings of this man are the
+deepest and most serious which Denmark had produced, and at
+his best he yields to no one in choice and skilful use of expression.
+This sweet song of Schack von Staffeldt&rsquo;s, however, was early
+silenced by the louder choir that one by one broke into music
+around him. It was <a href="#artlinks">Adam Gottlob Öhlenschläger</a> (q.v.; 1779-1850),
+the greatest poet of Denmark, who was to bring about
+the new romantic movement. In 1802 he happened to meet the
+young Norwegian Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), who had just
+returned from a scientific tour in Germany, full of the doctrines
+of Schelling. Under the immediate direction of Steffens,
+Öhlenschläger began an entirely new poetic style, and destroyed
+all his earlier verses. A new epoch in the language began, and the
+rapidity and matchless facility of the new poetry was the wonder
+of Steffens himself. The old Scandinavian mythology lived in the
+hands of Öhlenschläger exactly as the classical Greek religion was
+born again in Keats. He aroused in his people the slumbering
+sense of their Scandinavian nationality.</p>
+
+<p>The retirement of Öhlenschläger comparatively early in life,
+left the way open for the development of his younger contemporaries,
+among whom several had genius little inferior to
+his own. Steen Steensen Blicher (1782-1848) was a Jutlander,
+and preserved all through life the characteristics of his sterile and
+sombre fatherland. After a struggling youth of great poverty,
+he published, in 1807-1809, a translation of Ossian; in 1814 a
+volume of lyrical poems; and in 1817 he attracted considerable
+attention by his descriptive poem of <i>The Tour in Jutland</i>. His
+real genius, however, did not lie in the direction of verse; and
+his first signal success was with a story, <i>A Village Sexton&rsquo;s Diary</i>,
+in 1824, which was rapidly followed by other tales, descriptive of
+village life in Jutland, for the next twelve years. These were
+collected in five volumes (1833-1836). His masterpiece is a collection
+of short stories, called <i>The Spinning Room</i>. He also produced
+many national lyrics of great beauty. But it was Blicher&rsquo;s use of
+<i>patois</i> which delighted his countrymen with a sense of freshness
+and strength. They felt as though they heard Danish for the first
+time spoken in its fulness. The poet Aarestrup (in 1848) declared
+that Blicher had raised the Danish language to the dignity of
+Icelandic. Blicher is a stern realist, in many points akin to
+Crabbe, and takes a singular position among the romantic
+idealists of the period, being like them, however, in the love of
+precise and choice language, and hatred of the mere commonplaces
+of imaginative writing.<a name="FnAnchor_15e" href="#Footnote_15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#artlinks">Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig</a> (q.v.; 1783-1872), like
+Öhlenschläger, learned the principles of the German romanticism
+from the lips of Steffens. He adopted the idea of introducing the
+Old Scandinavian element into art, and even into life, still more
+earnestly than the older poet. <a href="#artlinks">Bernhard Severin Ingemann</a>
+(q.v.; 1789-1862) contributed to Danish literature historical
+romances in the style of Sir Walter Scott. <a href="#artlinks">Johannes Carsten
+Hauch</a> (q.v.; 1790-1872) first distinguished himself as a disciple
+of Öhlenschläger, and fought under him in the strife against the
+old school and Baggesen. But the master misunderstood the
+disciple; and the harsh repulse of Öhlenschläger silenced Hauch
+for many years. He possessed, however, a strong and fluent
+genius, which eventually made itself heard in a multitude of
+volumes, poems, dramas and novels. All that Hauch wrote is
+marked by great qualities, and by distinction; he had a native
+bias towards the mystical, which, however, he learned to keep
+in abeyance.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#artlinks">Johan Ludvig Heiberg</a> (q.v.; 1791-1860) was a critic who
+ruled the world of Danish taste for many years. His mother,
+the Baroness <a href="#artlinks">Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd</a> (q.v.; 1773-1856), wrote
+a large number of anonymous novels. Her knowledge of life,
+her sparkling wit and her almost faultless style, make these
+short stories masterpieces of their kind.</p>
+
+<p>Christian Hviid Bredahl (1784-1860) produced six volumes
+of <i>Dramatic Scenes</i><a name="FnAnchor_16e" href="#Footnote_16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> (1819-1833) which, in spite of their many
+brilliant qualities, were little appreciated at the time. Bredahl
+gave up literature in despair to become a peasant farmer, and
+died in poverty.</p>
+
+<p>Ludvig Adolf Bödtcher (1793-1874) wrote a single volume of
+lyrical poems, which he gradually enlarged in succeeding editions.
+He was a consummate artist in verse, and his impressions are
+given with the most delicate exactitude of phrase, and in a very
+fine strain of imagination. He was a quietist and an epicurean,
+and the closest parallel to Horner in the literature of the North.
+Most of Bödtcher&rsquo;s poems deal with Italian life, which he learned
+to know thoroughly during a long residence in Rome. He was
+secretary to Thorwaldsen for a considerable time.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#artlinks">Christian Winther</a> (q.v.; 1796-1876) made the island of
+Zealand his loving study, and that province of Denmark belongs
+to him no less thoroughly than the Cumberland lakes belong
+to Wordsworth. Between the latter poet and Winther there
+was much resemblance. He was, without compeer, the greatest
+pastoral lyrist of Denmark. His exquisite strains, in which pure
+imagination is blended with most accurate and realistic descriptions
+of scenery and rural life, have an extraordinary charm not
+easily described.</p>
+
+<p>The youngest of the great poets born during the last twenty
+years of the 18th century was <a href="#artlinks">Henrik Hertz</a> (q.v.; 1797-1870).
+As a satirist and comic poet he followed Baggesen, and in all
+branches of the poetic art stood a little aside out of the main
+current of romanticism. He introduced into the Danish literature
+of his time inestimable elements of lucidity and purity. In his
+best pieces Hertz is the most modern and most cosmopolitan of
+the Danish writers of his time.</p>
+
+<p>It is noticeable that all the great poets of the romantic period
+lived to an advanced age. Their prolonged literary activity&mdash;for
+some of them, like Grundtvig, were busy to the last&mdash;had a
+slightly damping influence on their younger contemporaries, but
+certain names in the next generation have special prominence.
+<a href="#artlinks">Hans Christian Andersen</a> (q.v.; 1805-1875) was the greatest of
+modern fabulists. In 1835 there appeared the first collection of
+his <i>Fairy Tales</i>, and won him a world-wide reputation. Almost
+every year from this time forward until near his death he published
+about Christmas time one or two of these unique stories, so delicate
+in their humour and pathos, and so masterly in their simplicity.
+Carl Christian Bagger (1807-1846) published volumes in 1834
+and 1836 which gave promise of a great future,&mdash;a promise
+broken by his early death. <a href="#artlinks">Frederik Paludan-Müller</a> (q.v.;
+1809-1876) developed, as a poet, a magnificent career, which
+contrasted in its abundance with his solitary and silent life as a
+man. His mythological or pastoral dramas, his great satiric
+epos of <i>Adam Homo</i> (1841-1848), his comedies, his lyrics, and
+above all his noble philosophic tragedy of <i>Kalanus</i>, prove the
+immense breadth of his compass, and the inexhaustible riches
+of his imagination. C. L. Emil Aarestrup (1800-1856) published
+in 1838 a volume of vivid erotic poetry, but its quality was
+only appreciated after his death. Edvard Lembcke (1815-1897)
+made himself famous as the admirable translator of Shakespeare,
+but the incidents of 1864 produced from him some volumes of
+direct and manly patriotic verse.</p>
+
+<p>The poets completely ruled the literature of Denmark during
+this period. There were, however, eminent men in other departments
+of letters, and especially in philology. Rasmus Christian
+Rask (1787-1832) was one of the most original and gifted linguists
+of his age. His grammars of Old Frisian, Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon
+were unapproached in his own time, and are still admirable.
+Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862), a disciple of Rask, was the
+author of an admirable <i>History of Denmark in the Heathen</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43"></a>43</span>
+<i>Antiquity</i>, and the translator of many of the sagas. Martin
+Frederik Arendt (1773-1823), the botanist and archaeologist,
+did much for the study of old Scandinavian records. Christian
+Molbech (1783-1857) was a laborious lexicographer, author of
+the first good Danish dictionary, published in 1833. In Joachim
+Frederik Schouw (1789-1852), Denmark produced a very eminent
+botanist, author of an exhaustive <i>Geography of Plants</i>. In later
+years he threw himself with zeal into politics. His botanical
+researches were carried on by Frederik Liebmann (1813-1856).
+The most famous zoologist contemporary with these men was
+Salomon Dreier (1813-1842).</p>
+
+<p>The romanticists found their philosopher in a most remarkable
+man, Sören Aaby Kierkegaard (1813-1855), one of the most
+subtle thinkers of Scandinavia, and the author of some brilliant
+philosophical and polemical works. A learned philosophical
+writer, not to be compared, however, for genius or originality to
+Kierkegaard, was Frederik Christian Sibbern (1785-1872). He
+wrote a dissertation <i>On Poetry and Art</i> (3 vols., 1853-1869) and
+<i>The Contents of a MS. from the Year 2135</i> (3 vols., 1858-1872).</p>
+
+<p>Among novelists who were not also poets was Andreas Nikolai
+de Saint-Aubain (1798-1865), who, under the pseudonym of
+Carl Bernhard, wrote a series of charming romances. Mention
+must also be made of two dramatists, Peter Thun Feorsom
+(1777-1817), who produced an excellent translation of Shakespeare
+(1807-1816), and Thomas Overskou (1798-1873), author of a long
+series of successful comedies, and of a history of the Danish
+theatre (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1854-1864).</p>
+
+<p>Other writers whose names connect the age of romanticism
+with a later period were Meyer Aron Goldschmidt (1819-1887),
+author of novels and tales; Herman Frederik Ewald (1821-1908),
+who wrote a long series of historical novels; Jens Christian
+Hostrup (1818-1892), a writer of exquisite comedies; and the
+miscellaneous writer Erik Bögh (1822-1899). In zoology,
+J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813-1898); in philology, J. N. Madvig
+(1804-1886) and his disciple V. Thomsen (b. 1842); in antiquarianism,
+C. J. Thomsen (1788-1865) and J. J. Asmussen
+Worsaae (1821-1885); and in philosophy, Rasmus Nielsen
+(1809-1884) and Hans Bröchner (1820-1875), deserve mention.</p>
+
+<p>The development of imaginative literature in Denmark became
+very closely defined during the latter half of the 19th century.
+The romantic movement culminated in several poets of great
+eminence, whose deaths prepared the way for a new school.
+In 1874 Bödtcher passed away, in 1875 Hans Christian Andersen,
+in the last week of 1876 Winther, and the greatest of all, Frederik
+Paludan-Müller. The field was therefore left open to the
+successors of those idealists, and in 1877 the reaction began to
+be felt. The eminent critic, Dr <a href="#artlinks">Georg Brandes</a> (q.v.), had long
+foreseen the decline of pure romanticism, and had advocated a
+more objective and more exact treatment of literary phenomena.
+Accordingly, as soon as all the great planets had disappeared,
+a new constellation was perceived to have risen, and all the stars
+in it had been lighted by the enthusiasm of Brandes. The new
+writers were what he called Naturalists, and their sympathies
+were with the latest forms of exotic, but particularly of French
+literature. Among these fresh forces three immediately took
+place as leaders&mdash;Jacobsen, Drachmann and Schandorph. In
+<a href="#artlinks">J. P. Jacobsen</a> (q.v.; 1847-1885) Denmark was now taught
+to welcome the greatest artist in prose which she has ever possessed;
+his romance of <i>Marie Grubbe</i> led off the new school with
+a production of unexampled beauty. But Jacobsen died young,
+and the work was really carried out by his two companions. <a href="#artlinks">Holger
+Drachmann</a> (q.v.; 1846-1908) began life as a marine painter;
+and a first little volume of poems, which he published in 1872,
+attracted slight attention. In 1877 he came forward again with
+one volume of verse, another of fiction, a third of travel; in each
+he displayed great vigour and freshness of touch, and he rose at
+one leap to the highest position among men of promise. Drachmann
+retained his place, without rival, as the leading imaginative
+writer in Denmark. For many years he made the aspects of
+life at sea his particular theme, and he contrived to rouse the
+patriotic enthusiasm of the Danish public as it had never been
+roused before. His various and unceasing productiveness, his
+freshness and vigour, and the inexhaustible richness of his lyric
+versatility, early brought Drachmann to the front and kept him
+there. Meanwhile prose imaginative literature was ably supported
+by Sophus Schandorph (1836-1901), who had been entirely
+out of sympathy with the idealists, and had taken no step while
+that school was in the ascendant. In 1876, in his fortieth year,
+he was encouraged by the change in taste to publish a volume
+of realistic stories, <i>Country Life</i>, and in 1878 a novel, <i>Without a
+Centre</i>. He has some relation with Guy de Maupassant as a close
+analyst of modern types of character, but he has more humour. He
+has been compared with such Dutch painters of low life as Teniers.
+His talent reached its height in the novel called <i>Little Folk</i> (1880),
+a most admirable study of lower middle-class life in Copenhagen.
+He was for a while, without doubt, the leading living novelist,
+and he went on producing works of great force, in which, however,
+a certain monotony is apparent. The three leaders had meanwhile
+been joined by certain younger men who took a prominent
+position. Among these Karl Gjellerup and Erik Skram were the
+earliest. Gjellerup (b. 1857), whose first works of importance
+date from 1878, was long uncertain as to the direction of his
+powers; he was poet, novelist, moralist and biologist in one;
+at length he settled down into line with the new realistic school,
+and produced in 1882 a satirical novel of manners which had a
+great success, <i>The Disciple of the Teutons</i>. Erik Skram (b. 1847)
+had in 1879 written a solitary novel, <i>Gertrude Coldbjörnsen</i>,
+which created a sensation, and was hailed by Brandes as exactly
+representing the &ldquo;naturalism&rdquo; which he desired to see
+encouraged; but Skram has written little else of importance.
+Other writers of reputation in the naturalistic school were
+Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), and Herman Bang (b. 1858). Peter
+Nansen (b. 1861) has come into wide notoriety as the author,
+in particularly beautiful Danish, of a series of stories of a
+pronouncedly sexual type, among which <i>Maria</i> (1894) has been
+the most successful. Meanwhile, several of the elder generation,
+unaffected by the movement of realism, continued to please the
+public. Three lyrical poets, H. V. Kaalund (1818-1885), Carl
+Ploug (1813-1894) and Christian Richardt (1831-1892), of very
+great talent, were not yet silent, and among the veteran novelists
+were still active H. F. Ewald and Thomas Lange (1829-1887).
+Ewald&rsquo;s son Carl (1856-1908) achieved a great name as a novelist,
+but did his most characteristic work in a series of books for
+children, in which he used the fairy tale, in the manner of Hans
+Andersen, as a vehicle for satire and a theory of morals. During
+the whole of this period the most popular writer of Denmark was
+J. C. C. Brosböll (1816-1900), who wrote, under the pseudonym
+Carit Etlar, a vast number of tales. Another popular novelist
+was Vilhelm Bergsöe (b. 1835), author of <i>In the Sabine Mountains</i>
+(1871), and other romances. Sophus Bauditz (b. 1850) persevered
+in composing novels which attain a wide general popularity.
+Mention must be made also of the dramatist Christian Molbech
+(1821-1888).</p>
+
+<p>Between 1885 and 1892 there was a transitional period in
+Danish literature. Up to that time all the leaders had been
+united in accepting the naturalistic formula, which was combined
+with an individualist and a radical tendency. In 1885, however,
+Drachmann, already the recognized first poet of the country,
+threw off his allegiance to Brandes, denounced the exotic tradition,
+declared himself a Conservative, and took up a national and
+patriotic attitude. He was joined a little later by Gjellerup, while
+Schandorph remained stanchly by the side of Brandes. The camp
+was thus divided. New writers began to make their appearance,
+and, while some of these were stanch to Brandes, others were
+inclined to hold rather with Drachmann. Of the authors who
+came forward during this period of transition, the strongest
+novelist proved to be Hendrik Pontoppidan (b. 1857). In some
+of his books he reminds the reader of Turgeniev. Pontoppidan
+published in 1898 the first volume of a great novel entitled <i>Lykke-Per</i>,
+the biography of a typical Jutlander named Per Sidenius,
+a work to be completed in eight volumes. From 1893 to 1909 no
+great features of a fresh kind revealed themselves. The Danish
+public, grown tired of realism, and satiated with pathological
+phenomena, returned to a fresh study of their own national
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44"></a>44</span>
+characteristics. The cultivation of verse, which was greatly discouraged
+in the eighties, returned. Drachmann was supported by
+excellent younger poets of his school. J. J. Jörgensen (b. 1866),
+a Catholic decadent, was very prolific. Otto C. Fönss (b. 1853)
+published seven little volumes of graceful lyrical poems in praise
+of gardens and of farm-life. Andreas Dolleris (b. 1850), of Vejle,
+showed himself an occasional poet of merit. Alfred Ipsen (b. 1852)
+must also be mentioned as a poet and critic. Valdemar Rördam,
+whose <i>The Danish Tongue</i> was the lyrical success of 1901, may
+also be named. Some attempts were made to transplant
+the theories of the symbolists to Denmark, but without signal
+success. On the other hand, something of a revival of naturalism
+is to be observed in the powerful studies of low life admirably
+written by Karl Larsen (b. 1860).</p>
+
+<p>The drama has long flourished in Denmark. The principal
+theatres are liberally open to fresh dramatic talent of every kind,
+and the great fondness of the Danes for this form of entertainment
+gives unusual scope for experiments in halls or private
+theatres; nothing is too eccentric to hope to obtain somewhere
+a fair hearing. Drachmann produced with very great success
+several romantic dramas founded on the national legends. Most
+of the novelists and poets already mentioned also essayed the
+stage, and to those names should be added these of Einar
+Christiansen (b. 1861), Ernst von der Recke (b. 1848), Oskar
+Benzon (b. 1856) and Gustav Wied (b. 1858).</p>
+
+<p>In theology no names were as eminent as in the preceding
+generation, in which such writers as H. N. Clausen (1793-1877),
+and still more Hans Lassen Martensen (1808-1884), lifted the
+prestige of Danish divinity to a high point. But in history the
+Danes have been very active. Karl Ferdinand Allen (1811-1871)
+began a comprehensive history of the Scandinavian kingdoms
+(5 vols., 1864-1872). Jens Peter Trap (1810-1885) concluded
+his great statistical account of Denmark in 1879. The 16th
+century was made the subject of the investigations of <a href="#artlinks">Troels
+Lund</a> (q.v.). About 1880 several of the younger historians
+formed the plan of combining to investigate and publish the
+sources of Danish history; in this the indefatigable Johannes
+Steenstrup (b. 1844) was prominent. The domestic history of
+the country began, about 1885, to occupy the attention of
+Edvard Holm (b. 1833), O. Nielsen and the veteran P. Frederik
+Barfod (1811-1896). The naval histories of G. Lütken attracted
+much notice. Besides the names already mentioned, A. D.
+Jörgensen (1840-1897), J. Fredericia (b. 1849), Christian Erslev
+(b. 1852) and Vilhelm Mollerup have all distinguished themselves
+in the excellent school of Danish historians. In 1896 an
+elaborate composite history of Denmark was undertaken by some
+leading historians (pub. 1897-1905). In philosophy nothing has
+recently been published of the highest value. Martensen&rsquo;s <i>Jakob
+Böhme</i> (1881) belongs to an earlier period. H. Höffding (b. 1843)
+has been the most prominent contributor to psychology. His
+<i>Problems of Philosophy</i> and his <i>Philosophy of Religion</i> were
+translated into English in 1906. Alfred Lehmann (b. 1858) has,
+since 1896, attracted a great deal of attention by his sceptical
+investigation of psychical phenomena. F. Rönning has written
+on the history of thought in Denmark. In the criticism of art,
+Julius Lange (1838-1896), and later Karl Madsen, have done
+excellent service. In literary criticism Dr Georg Brandes is
+notable for the long period during which he remained predominant.
+His was a steady and stimulating presence, ever
+pointing to the best in art and thought, and his influence on
+his age was greater than that of any other Dane.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;R. Nyerup, <i>Den danske Digtekunsts Historie</i>
+(1800-1808), and <i>Almindeligt Literaturlexikon</i> (1818-1820); N. M.
+Petersen, <i>Literaturhistorie</i> (2nd ed., 1867-1871, 5 vols.); Overskou,
+<i>Den danske Skueplads</i> (1854-1866, 5 vols.), with a continuation
+(2 vols., 1873-1876) by E Collin; Chr. Bruun, <i>Bibliotheca Danica</i>
+(3 vols., 1872-1896); Bricka, <i>Dansk biografisk Lexikon</i> (1887-1901);
+J. Paludan, <i>Danmarks Literatur i Middelalderen</i> (Copenhagen, 1896);
+P. Hansen, <i>Illustreret Dansk Literaturhistorie</i> (3 vols., 1901-1902);
+F. W. Horn, <i>History of the Scandinavian North from the most ancient
+times to the present</i> (English translation by Rasmus B. Anderson
+(Chicago, 1884), with bibliographical appendix by Thorwald Solberg);
+Ph. Schweitzer, <i>Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur</i> (3 pts.,
+Leipzig, 1886-1889), forming vol. viii. of the <i>Geschichte der Weltlitteratur</i>.
+See also Brandes, <i>Kritiker og Portraiter</i> (1870); Brandes,
+<i>Danske Ditgere</i> (1877); Marie Herzfeld, <i>Die Skandinavische
+Litteratur und ihre Tendenzen</i> (Berlin and Leipzig, 1898); Hjalmar
+Hjorth Boyesen, <i>Essays on Scandinavian Literature</i> (London, 1895);
+Edmund Gosse, <i>Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe</i> (new ed.,
+London, 1883); Vilhelm Andersen, <i>Litteraturbilleder</i> (Copenhagen,
+1903); A. P. J. Schener, <i>Kortfattet Indledning til Romantikkus
+Periode i Danmarks Litteratur</i> (Copenhagen, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is true the university was established on the 9th of September
+1537, but its influence was of very gradual growth and small at
+first.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2e" href="#FnAnchor_2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Collected as <i>Samling af gamle danske Love</i> (5 vols., Copenhagen,
+1821-1827).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3e" href="#FnAnchor_3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Henrik Harpestraengs Laegebog</i> (ed. C. Molbech, Copenhagen,
+1826).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4e" href="#FnAnchor_4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Ed. C. Molbech (Copenhagen, 1825).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5e" href="#FnAnchor_5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See <i>Povel Eliesens danske Skrifter</i> (Copenhagen, 1855, &amp;c.),
+edited by C. E. Secher.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6e" href="#FnAnchor_6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See <i>Monumenta historiae Danicae</i> (ed. H. Rördam, vol. i., 1873).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7e" href="#FnAnchor_7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Ed. Sophus Birket Smith (Copenhagen, 1868), who also edited
+the comedies ascribed to Chr. Hansen as <i>De tre aeldste danske
+Skuespil</i> (1874), and the works of Ranch (1876).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8e" href="#FnAnchor_8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> His works were edited by Gustav Storm (Christiania, 1877-1879).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9e" href="#FnAnchor_9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Fr. W. Horn, <i>Peder Syv</i> (Copenhagen, 1878).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10e" href="#FnAnchor_10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See A. C. L. Heiberg, <i>Thomas Kingo</i> (Odense, 1852).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11e" href="#FnAnchor_11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> His collected works were edited by Fr. Barford (Copenhagen,
+5th ed., 1879).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12e" href="#FnAnchor_12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Wessel&rsquo;s <i>Digte</i> (3rd ed., 1895) are edited by J. Levin, with a
+biographical introduction.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13e" href="#FnAnchor_13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> A biography by his friend, K. L. Rahbek, is prefixed to a selection
+of his poetry (6 vols., 1824-1829).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14e" href="#FnAnchor_14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See F. L. Liebenberg, <i>Schack Staffeldts samlede Digte</i> (2 vols.,
+Copenhagen, 1843), and <i>Samlinger til Schack Staffeldts Levnet</i> (4 vols.,
+1846-1851).]</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15e" href="#FnAnchor_15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Blicher&rsquo;s <i>Tales</i> were edited by P. Hansen (3 vols., Copenhagen,
+1871), and his <i>Poems</i> in 1870.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16e" href="#FnAnchor_16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Edited (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1855, Copenhagen) by F. L. Liebenberg.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENNERY,</span> or <span class="sc">D&rsquo;Ennery</span>, <span class="bold">ADOLPHE</span> (1811-1899), French
+dramatist and novelist, whose real surname was <span class="sc">Philippe</span>, was
+born in Paris on the 17th of June 1811. He obtained his first
+success in collaboration with Charles Desnoyer in <i>Émile, ou le
+fils d&rsquo;un pair de France</i> (1831), a drama which was the first of a
+series of some two hundred pieces written alone or in collaboration
+with other dramatists. Among the best of them may be
+mentioned <i>Gaspard Hauser</i> (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; <i>Les
+Bohémiens de Paris</i> (1842) with Eugène Grangé; with Mallian,
+<i>Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple</i> (1845), in which Madame
+Dorval obtained a great success; <i>La Case d&rsquo;Oncle Tom</i> (1853);
+<i>Les Deux Orphelines</i> (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugène
+Cormon. He wrote the libretto for Gounod&rsquo;s <i>Tribut de Zamora</i>
+(1881); with Louis Gallet and Édouard Blan he composed the
+book of Massenet&rsquo;s <i>Cid</i> (1885); and, again in collaboration with
+Eugène Cormon, the books of Auber&rsquo;s operas, <i>Le Premier Jour de
+bonheur</i> (1868) and <i>Rêve d&rsquo;amour</i> (1869). He prepared for the
+stage Balzac&rsquo;s posthumous comedy <i>Mercadet ou le faiseur</i>,
+presented at the Gymnase theatre in 1851. Reversing the usual
+order of procedure, Dennery adapted some of his plays to the form
+of novels. He died in Paris in 1899.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENNEWITZ,</span> a village of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Brandenburg, near Jüterbog, 40 m. S.W. from Berlin. It is
+memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the 6th of
+September 1813, in which Marshal Ney, with an army of 58,000
+French, Saxons and Poles, was defeated with great loss by 50,000
+Prussians under Generals Bülow (afterwards Count Bülow of
+Dennewitz) and Tauentzien. The site of the battle is marked by
+an iron obelisk.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENNIS, JOHN</span> (1657-1734), English critic and dramatist, the
+son of a saddler, was born in London in 1657. He was educated
+at Harrow School and Caius College, Cambridge, where he took
+his B.A. degree in 1679. In the next year he was fined and dismissed
+from his college for having wounded a fellow-student with
+a sword. He was, however, received at Trinity Hall, where he
+took his M.A. degree in 1683. After travelling in France and
+Italy, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with
+Dryden, Wycherley and others; and being made temporarily
+independent by inheriting a small fortune, he devoted himself to
+literature. The duke of Marlborough procured him a place as one
+of the queen&rsquo;s waiters in the customs with a salary of £120 a year.
+This he afterwards disposed of for a small sum, retaining, at the
+suggestion of Lord Halifax, a yearly charge upon it for a long
+term of years. Neither the poems nor the plays of Dennis are of
+any account, although one of his tragedies, a violent attack on
+the French in harmony with popular prejudice, entitled <i>Liberty
+Asserted</i>, was produced with great success at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn
+Fields in 1704. His sense of his own importance approached
+mania, and he is said to have desired the duke of Marlborough to
+have a special clause inserted in the treaty of Utrecht to secure
+him from French vengeance. Marlborough pointed out that
+although he had been a still greater enemy of the French nation,
+he had no fear for his own security. This tale and others of a
+similar nature may well be exaggerations prompted by his
+enemies, but the infirmities of character and temper indicated in
+them were real. Dennis is best remembered as a critic, and Isaac
+D&rsquo;Israeli, who took a by no means favourable view of Dennis,
+said that some of his criticisms attain classical rank. The
+earlier ones, which have nothing of the rancour that afterwards
+gained him the nickname of &ldquo;Furius,&rdquo; are the best. They are
+<i>Remarks ...</i> (1696), on Blackmore&rsquo;s epic of Prince Arthur;
+<i>Letters upon Several Occasions written by and between Mr Dryden,
+Mr Wycherley, Mr Moyle, Mr Congreve and Mr Dennis, published
+by Mr Dennis</i> (1696): two pamphlets in reply to Jeremy
+Collier&rsquo;s <i>Short View; The Advancement and Reformation of</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>45</span>
+<i>Modern Poetry</i> (1701), perhaps his most important work;
+<i>The Grounds of Criticism in Poetry</i> (1704), in which he argued that
+the ancients owed their superiority over the moderns in poetry
+to their religious attitude; an <i>Essay upon Publick Spirit ...</i>
+(1711), in which he inveighs against luxury, and servile imitation
+of foreign fashions and customs; and <i>Essay on the Genius and
+Writings of Shakespeare in three Letters</i> (1712).</p>
+
+<p>Dennis had been offended by a humorous quotation made
+from his works by Addison, and published in 1713 <i>Remarks upon
+Cato</i>. Much of this criticism was acute and sensible, and it is
+quoted at considerable length by Johnson in his <i>Life of Addison</i>,
+but there is no doubt that Dennis was actuated by personal
+jealousy of Addison&rsquo;s success. Pope replied in <i>The Narrative
+of Dr Robert Norris, concerning the strange and deplorable frenzy
+of John Dennis ...</i> (1713). This pamphlet was full of personal
+abuse, exposing Dennis&rsquo;s foibles, but offering no defence of <i>Cato</i>.
+Addison repudiated any connivance in this attack, and indirectly
+notified Dennis that when he did answer his objections,
+it would be without personalities. Pope had already assailed
+Dennis in 1711 in the <i>Essay on Criticism</i>, as Appius. Dennis
+retorted by <i>Reflections, Critical and Satirical ...</i>, a scurrilous
+production in which he taunted Pope with his deformity, saying
+among other things that he was &ldquo;as stupid and as venomous as
+a hunch-backed toad.&rdquo; He also wrote in 1717 <i>Remarks upon
+Mr Pope&rsquo;s Translation of Homer ...</i> and <i>A True Character of
+Mr Pope</i>. He accordingly figures in the <i>Dunciad</i>, and in a
+scathing note in the edition of 1729 (bk. i. 1. 106) Pope quotes
+his more outrageous attacks, and adds an insulting epigram
+attributed to Richard Savage, but now generally ascribed to
+Pope. More pamphlets followed, but Dennis&rsquo;s day was over. He
+outlived his annuity from the customs, and his last years were
+spent in great poverty. Bishop Atterbury sent him money, and
+he received a small sum annually from Sir Robert Walpole.
+A benefit performance was organized at the Haymarket
+(December 18, 1733) on his behalf. Pope wrote for the occasion
+an ill-natured prologue which Cibber recited. Dennis died within
+three weeks of this performance, on the 6th of January 1734.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>His other works include several plays, for one of which, <i>Appius
+and Virginia</i> (1709), he invented a new kind of thunder. He wrote
+a curious <i>Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner</i> (1706), maintaining
+that opera was the outgrowth of effeminate manners, and
+should, as such, be suppressed. His <i>Works</i> were published in 1702,
+<i>Select Works ...</i> (2 vols.) in 1718, and <i>Miscellaneous Tracts</i>, the first
+volume only of which appeared, in 1727. For accounts of Dennis
+see Cibber&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Poets</i>, vol. iv.; Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli&rsquo;s essays on
+Pope and Addison in the <i>Quarrels of Authors</i>, and &ldquo;On the Influence
+of a Bad Temper in Criticism&rdquo; in <i>Calamities of Authors</i>; and
+numerous references in Pope&rsquo;s <i>Works</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENOMINATION</span> (Lat. <i>denominare</i>, to give a specific name
+to), the giving of a specific name to anything, hence the name or
+designation of a person or thing, and more particularly of a class
+of persons or things; thus, in arithmetic, it is applied to a unit
+in a system of weights and measures, currency or numbers. The
+most general use of &ldquo;denomination&rdquo; is for a body of persons
+holding specific opinions and having a common name, especially
+with reference to the religious opinions of such a body. More
+particularly the word is used of the various &ldquo;sects&rdquo; into which
+members of a common religious faith may be divided. The term
+&ldquo;denominationalism&rdquo; is thus given to the principle of emphasizing
+the distinctions, rather than the common ground, in the faith
+held by different bodies professing one sort of religious belief.
+This use is particularly applied to that system of religious
+education which lays stress on the principle that children
+belonging to a particular religious sect should be publicly taught
+in the tenets of their belief by members belonging to it and under
+the general control of the ministers of the denomination.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT,</span> <span class="sc">Baron de</span> (1747-1825),
+French artist and archaeologist, was born at Chalon-sur-Saône
+on the 4th of January 1747. He was sent to Paris to study law,
+but he showed a decided preference for art and literature, and
+soon gave up his profession. In his twenty-third year he produced
+a comedy, <i>Le Bon Pére</i>, which obtained a <i>succès d&rsquo;estime</i>, as
+he had already won a position in society by his agreeable manners
+and exceptional conversational powers. He became a favourite
+of Louis XV., who entrusted him with the collection and arrangement
+of a cabinet of medals and antique gems for Madame de
+Pompadour, and subsequently appointed him attaché to the
+French embassy at St Petersburg. On the accession of Louis
+XVI. Denon was transferred to Sweden; but he returned, after
+a brief interval, to Paris with the ambassador M. de Vergennes,
+who had been appointed foreign minister. In 1775 Denon was
+sent on a special mission to Switzerland, and took the opportunity
+of visiting Voltaire at Ferney. He made a portrait of the
+philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to
+Paris. His next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where
+he spent seven years, first as secretary to the embassy and afterwards
+as <i>chargé d&rsquo;affaires</i>. He devoted this period to a careful
+study of the monuments of ancient art, collecting many specimens
+and making drawings of others. He also perfected himself in
+etching and mezzotinto engraving. The death of his patron,
+M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, and the rest of his life
+was given mainly to artistic pursuits. On his return to Paris
+he was admitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After
+a brief interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice.
+He also visited Florence and Bologna, and afterwards went to
+Switzerland. While there he heard that his property had been
+confiscated, and his name placed on the list of the proscribed, and
+with characteristic courage he resolved at once to return to Paris.
+His situation was critical, but he was spared, thanks to the
+friendship of the painter David, who obtained for him a commission
+to furnish designs for republican costumes. When the
+Revolution was over, Denon was one of the band of eminent men
+who frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais. Here he
+met Bonaparte, to whose fortunes he wisely attached himself.
+At Bonaparte&rsquo;s invitation he joined the expedition to Egypt, and
+thus found the opportunity of gathering the materials for his most
+important literary and artistic work. He accompanied General
+Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made numerous sketches of the
+monuments of ancient art, sometimes under the very fire of the
+enemy. The results were published in his <i>Voyage dans la basse
+et la haute Égypte</i> (2 vols, fol., with 141 plates, Paris, 1802), a
+work which crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist
+and as an artist. In 1804 he was appointed by Napoleon to the
+important office of director-general of museums, which he filled
+until the restoration in 1815, when he had to retire. He was a
+devoted friend of Napoleon, whom he accompanied in his expeditions
+to Austria, Spain and Poland, taking sketches with his
+wonted fearlessness on the various battlefields, and advising the
+conqueror in his choice of spoils of art from the various cities
+pillaged. After his retirement he began an illustrated history of
+ancient and modern art, in which he had the co-operation of
+several skilful engravers. He died at Paris on the 27th of April
+1825, leaving the work unfinished. It was published posthumously,
+with an explanatory text by Amaury Duval, under the
+title <i>Monuments des arts du dessin chez les peuples tant anciens
+que modernes, recueillis par Vivant Denon</i> (4 vols, fol., Paris, 1829).
+Denon was the author of a novel, <i>Point de lendemain</i> (1777), of
+which further editions were printed in 1812, 1876 and 1879.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See J. Renouvier, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;art pendant la Révolution</i>; A. de la
+Fizelière, <i>L&rsquo;&OElig;uvre originale de Vivant-Denon</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1872-1873);
+Roger Portallis, <i>Les Dessinateurs d&rsquo;illustrations au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i>; D. H. Beraldi, <i>Les Graveurs d&rsquo;illustrations au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENOTATION</span> (from Lat. <i>denotare</i>, to mark out, specify), in
+logic, a technical term used strictly as the correlative of Connotation,
+to describe one of the two functions of a concrete term.
+The concrete term &ldquo;connotes&rdquo; attributes and &ldquo;denotes&rdquo; all
+the individuals which, as possessing these attributes, constitute
+the genus or species described by the term. Thus &ldquo;cricketer&rdquo;
+denotes the individuals who play cricket, and connotes the
+qualities or characteristics by which these individuals are marked.
+In this sense, in which it was first used by J. S. Mill, Denotation
+is equivalent to Extension, and Connotation to Intension. It is
+clear that when the given term is qualified by a limiting adjective
+the Denotation or Extension diminishes, while the Connotation
+or Intension increases; e.g. a generic term like &ldquo;flower&rdquo; has a
+larger Extension, and a smaller Intension than &ldquo;rose&rdquo;: &ldquo;rose&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46"></a>46</span>
+than &ldquo;moss-rose.&rdquo; In more general language Denotation
+is used loosely for that which is meant or indicated by a word,
+phrase, sentence or even an action. Thus a proper name or
+even an abstract term is said to have Denotation. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Connotation</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENS, PETER</span> (1690-1775), Belgian Roman Catholic theologian,
+was born at Boom near Antwerp. Most of his life was
+spent in the archiepiscopal college of Malines, where he was for
+twelve years reader in theology and for forty president. His
+great work was the <i>Theologia moralis et dogmatica</i>, a compendium
+in catechetical form of Roman Catholic doctrine and ethics
+which has been much used as a students&rsquo; text-book. Dens died
+on the 15th of February 1775.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENSITY</span> (Lat. <i>densus</i>, thick), in physics, the mass or quantity
+of matter contained in unit volume of any substance: this is the
+<i>absolute density</i>; the term <i>relative density</i> or <i>specific gravity</i>
+denotes the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a substance
+to the mass of the same volume of some standard substance.
+Since the weights used in conjunction with a balance are really
+standard masses, the word &ldquo;weight&rdquo; may be substituted for
+the word &ldquo;mass&rdquo; in the preceding definitions; and we may
+symbolically express the relations thus:&mdash;If M be the weight of
+substance occupying a volume V, then the absolute density
+&Delta; = M/V; and if m, m<span class="su">1</span> be the weights of the substance and
+of the standard substance which occupy the same volume, the
+relative density or specific gravity S = m/m<span class="su">1</span>; or more generally
+if m<span class="su">1</span> be the weight of a volume v of the substance, and m<span class="su">1</span> the
+weight of a volume v<span class="su">1</span> of the standard, then S = mv<span class="su">1</span>/m<span class="su">1</span>v. In the
+numerical expression of absolute densities it is necessary to
+specify the units of mass and volume employed; while in the case
+of relative densities, it is only necessary to specify the standard
+substance, since the result is a mere number. Absolute densities
+are generally stated in the C.G.S. system, i.e. as grammes per
+cubic centimetre. In commerce, however, other expressions are
+met with, as, for example, &ldquo;pounds per cubic foot&rdquo; (used for
+woods, metals, &amp;c.), &ldquo;pounds per gallon,&rdquo; &amp;c. The standard
+substances employed to determine relative densities are: water
+for liquids and solids, and hydrogen or atmospheric air for gases;
+oxygen (as 16) is sometimes used in this last case. Other
+standards of reference may be used in special connexions; for
+example, the Earth is the usual unit for expressing the relative
+density of the other members of the solar system. Reference
+should be made to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gravitation</a></span> for an account of the
+methods employed to determine the &ldquo;mean density of the earth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In expressing the absolute or relative density of any substance,
+it is necessary to specify the conditions for which the relation
+holds: in the case of gases, the temperature and pressure of the
+experimental gas (and of the standard, in the case of relative
+density); and in the case of solids and liquids, the temperature.
+The reason for this is readily seen; if a mass M of any gas
+occupies a volume V at a temperature T (on the absolute scale)
+and a pressure P, then its absolute density under these conditions
+is &Delta; = M/V; if now the temperature and pressure be changed to
+T<span class="su">1</span> and P<span class="su">1</span>, the volume V<span class="su">1</span> under these conditions is VPT/P<span class="su">1</span>T<span class="su">1</span>,
+and the absolute density is MP<span class="su">1</span>T/VPT<span class="su">1</span>. It is customary to reduce
+gases to the so-called &ldquo;normal temperature and pressure,&rdquo;
+abbreviated to N.T.P., which is 0°C. and 760 mm.</p>
+
+<p>The relative densities of gases are usually expressed in terms
+of the standard gas under the same conditions. The density
+gives very important information as to the molecular weight,
+since by the law of Avogadro it is seen that the relative density
+is the ratio of the molecular weights of the experimental and
+standard gases. In the case of liquids and solids, comparison
+with water at 4°C, the temperature of the maximum density of
+water; at 0°C, the zero of the Centigrade scale and the freezing-point
+of water; at 15° and 18°, ordinary room-temperatures;
+and at 25°, the temperature at which a thermostat may be
+conveniently maintained, are common in laboratory practice.
+The temperature of the experimental substance may or may not
+be the temperature of the standard. In such cases a bracketed
+fraction is appended to the specific gravity, of which the numerator
+and denominator are respectively the temperatures of the
+substance and of the standard; thus 1.093 (0°/4°) means that
+the ratio of the weight of a definite volume of a substance at 0°
+to the weight of the same volume of water 4° is 1.093. It may
+be noted that if comparison be made with water at 4°, the relative
+density is the same as the absolute density, since the unit of mass
+in the C.G.S. system is the weight of a cubic centimetre of water
+at this temperature. In British units, especially in connexion
+with the statement of relative densities of alcoholic liquors for
+Inland Revenue purposes, comparison is made with water at
+62° F. (<span class="correction" title="degree symbol was missing">16.6°</span> C); a reason for this is that the gallon of water
+is defined by statute as weighing 10 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span> at 62° F., and hence the
+densities so expressed admit of the ready conversion of volumes
+to weights. Thus if d be the relative density, then 10d represents
+the weight of a gallon in <span class="uni">&#8468;</span>. The brewer has gone a step further
+in simplifying his expressions by multiplying the density by 1000,
+and speaking of the difference between the density so expressed
+and 1000 as &ldquo;degrees of gravity&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beer</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p class="center sc">Practical Determination of Densities</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <a name="fig_1"><img src="images/img46.jpg" width="49" height="400" alt="Say's Stereometer." title="Say's Stereometer." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Say&rsquo;s<br />Stereometer.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The methods for determining densities may be divided into two
+groups according as hydrostatic principles are employed or not. In
+the group where the principles of hydrostatics are not employed the
+method consists in determining the weight and volume of a certain
+quantity of the substance, or the weights of equal
+volumes of the substance and of the standard. In
+the case of solids we may determine the volume in
+some cases by direct measurement&mdash;this gives at the
+best a very rough and ready value; a better method
+is to immerse the body in a fluid (in which it must
+sink and be insoluble) contained in a graduated
+glass, and to deduce its volume from the height to
+which the liquid rises. The weight may be directly
+determined by the balance. The ratio &ldquo;weight to
+volume&rdquo; is the absolute density. The separate
+determination of the volume and mass of such
+substances as gunpowder, cotton-wool, soluble substances,
+&amp;c., supplies the only means of determining
+their densities. The stereometer of Say, which was
+greatly improved by Regnault and further modified
+by Kopp, permits an accurate determination of the
+volume of a given mass of any such substance. In
+its simplest form the instrument consists of a glass
+tube PC (fig. 1), of uniform bore, terminating in a
+cup PE, the mouth of which can be rendered airtight
+by the plate of glass E. The substance whose
+volume is to be determined is placed in the cup PE,
+and the tube PC is immersed in the vessel of mercury
+D, until the mercury reaches the mark P. The plate
+E is then placed on the cup, and the tube PC raised
+until the surface of the mercury in the tube stands
+at M, that in the vessel D being at C, and the
+height MC is measured. Let k denote this height,
+and let PM be denoted by l. Let u represent the
+volume of air in the cup before the body was inserted,
+v the volume of the body, a the area of the horizontal
+section of the tube PC, and h the height of the
+mercurial barometer. Then, by Boyle&rsquo;s law
+(u - v + al)(h - k) = (u - v)h, and therefore v = u - al(h - k)/k.</p>
+
+<p>The volume u may be determined by repeating the experiment
+when only air is in the cup. In this case v = 0, and the equation
+becomes (u + al<span class="sp">1</span>)(h - k<span class="sp">1</span>) = uh, whence u = al<span class="sp">1</span>(h - k<span class="sp">1</span>)/k<span class="sp">1</span>. Substituting
+this value in the expression for v, the volume of the body inserted in
+the cup becomes known. The chief errors to which the stereometer
+is liable are (1) variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure
+during the experiment, and (2) the presence of moisture which disturbs
+Boyle&rsquo;s law.</p>
+
+<p>The method of weighing equal volumes is particularly applicable
+to the determination of the relative densities of liquids. It consists
+in weighing a glass vessel (1) empty, (2) filled with the liquid, (3)
+filled with the standard substance. Calling the weight of the empty
+vessel w, when filled with the liquid W, and when filled with the
+standard substance W<span class="su">1</span>, it is obvious that W - w, and W<span class="su">1</span> - w,
+are the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and standard,
+and hence the relative density is (W - w)/(W<span class="su">1</span> - w).</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <a name="fig_2"><img src="images/img46a.jpg" width="70" height="162" alt="Fig. 2." title="Fig. 2." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption sc">Fig. 2.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Many forms of vessels have been devised. The commoner
+type of &ldquo;specific gravity bottle&rdquo; consists of a thin
+glass bottle (fig. 2) of a capacity varying from 10 to 100 cc.,
+fitted with an accurately ground stopper, which is vertically
+perforated by a fine hole. The bottle is carefully cleansed
+by washing with soda, hydrochloric acid and distilled
+water, and then dried by heating in an air bath or by blowing
+in warm air. It is allowed to cool and then weighed.
+The bottle is then filled with distilled water, and brought
+to a definite temperature by immersion in a thermostat, and the
+stopper inserted. It is removed from the thermostat, and carefully
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47"></a>47</span>
+wiped. After cooling it is weighed. The bottle is again cleaned and
+dried, and the operations repeated with the liquid under examination
+instead of water. Numerous modifications of this bottle are in
+use. For volatile liquids, a flask provided with a long neck which
+carries a graduation and is fitted with a well-ground stopper is
+recommended. The bringing of the liquid to the mark is effected
+by removing the excess by means of a capillary. In many forms a
+thermometer forms part of the apparatus.</p>
+
+<table style="float: left; width: auto; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figleft1">
+    <a name="fig_3"><img src="images/img47.jpg" width="300" height="267" alt="Fig. 3." title="Fig. 3." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption sc">Fig. 3.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Another type of vessel, named the Sprengel tube or pycnometer
+(Gr. <span class="grk" title="pyknos">&#960;&#965;&#954;&#965;&#972;&#962;</span>, dense), is shown in fig. 3. It consists of a cylindrical
+tube of a capacity ranging from 10 to 50 cc., provided at the upper
+end with a thick-walled capillary bent as shown on the left of the
+figure. From the bottom there leads
+another fine tube, bent upwards, and
+then at right angles so as to be at the
+same level as the capillary branch. This
+tube bears a graduation. A loop of platinum
+wire passed under these tubes serves
+to suspend the vessel from the balance
+arm. The manner of cleansing, &amp;c., is
+the same as in the ordinary form. The
+vessel is filled by placing the capillary
+in a vessel containing the liquid and
+gently aspirating. Care must be taken
+that no air bubbles are enclosed. The
+liquid is adjusted to the mark by
+withdrawing any excess from the capillary end by a strip of
+bibulous paper or by a capillary tube. Many variations of this
+apparatus are in use; in one of the commonest there are two
+cylindrical chambers, joined at the bottom, and each provided
+at the top with fine tubes bent at right angles; sometimes the inlet
+and outlet tubes are provided with caps.</p>
+
+<p>The specific gravity bottle may be used to determine the relative
+density of a solid which is available in small fragments, and is insoluble
+in the standard liquid. The method involves three operations:&mdash;(1)
+weighing the solid in air (W), (2) weighing the specific gravity
+bottle full of liquid (W<span class="su">1</span>), (3) weighing the bottle containing the solid
+and filled up with liquid (W<span class="su">2</span>). It is readily seen that W + W<span class="su">1</span> - W<span class="su">2</span> is
+the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid, and therefore is the
+weight of an equal volume of liquid; hence the relative density is
+W/(W + W<span class="su">1</span> - W<span class="su">2</span>).</p>
+
+<p>The determination of the absolute densities of gases can only be
+effected with any high degree of accuracy by a development of this
+method. As originated by Regnault, it consisted in filling a large
+glass globe with the gas by alternately exhausting with an air-pump
+and admitting the pure and dry gas. The flask was then brought to
+0° by immersion in melting ice, the pressure of the gas taken, and
+the stop-cock closed. The flask is removed from the ice, allowed to
+attain the temperature of the room, and then weighed. The flask
+is now partially exhausted, transferred to the cooling bath, and after
+standing the pressure of the residual gas is taken by a manometer.
+The flask is again brought to room-temperature, and re-weighed.
+The difference in the weights corresponds to the volume of gas at a
+pressure equal to the difference of the recorded pressures. The
+volume of the flask is determined by weighing empty and filled with
+water. This method has been refined by many experimenters,
+among whom we may notice Morley and Lord Rayleigh. Morley
+determined the densities of hydrogen and oxygen in the course of
+his classical investigation of the composition of water. The method
+differed from Regnault&rsquo;s inasmuch as the flask was exhausted to an
+almost complete vacuum, a performance rendered possible by the high
+efficiency of the modern air-pump. The actual experiment necessitates
+the most elaborate precautions, for which reference must be
+made to Morley&rsquo;s original papers in the <i>Smithsonian Contributions
+to Knowledge</i> (1895), or to M. Travers, <i>The Study of Gases</i>. Lord
+Rayleigh has made many investigations of the absolute densities of
+gases, one of which, namely on atmospheric and artificial nitrogen,
+undertaken in conjunction with Sir William Ramsay, culminated in
+the discovery of <a href="#artlinks">argon</a> (q.v.). He pointed out in 1888 (<i>Proc. Roy.
+Soc.</i> 43, p. 361) an important correction which had been overlooked
+by previous experimenters with Regnault&rsquo;s method, viz. the change
+in volume of the experimental globe due to shrinkage under diminished
+pressure; this may be experimentally determined and amounts to
+between 0.04 and 0.16% of the volume of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>Related to the determination of the density of a gas is the determination
+of the density of a vapour, i.e. matter which at ordinary
+temperatures exists as a solid or liquid. This subject owes its
+importance in modern chemistry to the fact that the vapour density,
+when hydrogen is taken as the standard, gives perfectly definite
+information as to the molecular condition of the compound, since
+twice the vapour density equals the molecular weight of the
+compound. Many methods have been devised. In historical order
+we may briefly enumerate the following:&mdash;in 1811, Gay-Lussac
+volatilized a weighed quantity of liquid, which must be readily
+volatile, by letting it rise up a short tube containing mercury and
+standing inverted in a vessel holding the same metal. This method
+was developed by Hofmann in 1868, who replaced the short tube
+of Gay-Lussac by an ordinary barometer tube, thus effecting the
+volatilization in a Torricellian vacuum. In 1826 Dumas devised a
+method suitable for substances of high boiling-point; this consisted
+in its essential point in vaporizing the substance in a flask made of
+suitable material, sealing it when full of vapour, and weighing. This
+method is very tedious in detail. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and
+L. Troost made it available for specially high temperatures by
+employing porcelain vessels, sealing them with the oxyhydrogen
+blow-pipe, and maintaining a constant temperature by a vapour
+bath of mercury (350°), sulphur (440°), cadmium (860°) and zinc
+(1040°). In 1878 Victor Meyer devised his air-expulsion method.</p>
+
+<p>Before discussing the methods now used in detail, a summary of
+the conclusions reached by Victor Meyer in his classical investigations
+in this field as to the applicability of the different methods will
+be given:</p>
+
+<p>(1) For substances which do not boil higher than 260° and have
+vapours stable for 30° above the boiling-point and which do not
+react on mercury, use Victor Meyer&rsquo;s &ldquo;mercury expulsion method.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(2) For substances boiling between 260° and 420°, and which do
+not react on metals, use Meyer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Wood&rsquo;s alloy expulsion method.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(3) For substances boiling at higher temperatures, or for any
+substance which reacts on mercury, Meyer&rsquo;s &ldquo;air expulsion method&rdquo;
+must be used. It is to be noted, however, that this method is
+applicable to substances of any boiling-point (see below).</p>
+
+<p>(4) For substances which can be vaporized only under diminished
+pressure, several methods may be used. (a) Hofmann&rsquo;s is the best
+if the substance volatilizes at below 310°, and does not react on
+mercury; otherwise (b) Demuth and Meyer&rsquo;s, Eykman&rsquo;s, Schall&rsquo;s, or
+other methods may be used.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <a name="fig_4"><img src="images/img47a.jpg" width="70" height="152" alt="Fig. 4." title="Fig. 4." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption sc">Fig. 4.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>1. <i>Meyer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Mercury Expulsion&rdquo; Method.</i>&mdash;A small quantity of
+the substance is weighed into a tube, of the form shown in fig. 4,
+which has a capacity of about 35 cc., provided with a capillary tube
+at the top, and a bent tube about 6 mm. in diameter at the bottom.
+The vessel is completely filled with mercury, the capillary
+sealed, and the vessel weighed. The vessel is then lowered
+into a jacket containing vapour at a known temperature
+which is sufficient to volatilize the substance. Mercury is
+expelled, and when this expulsion ceases, the vessel is
+removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. It is necessary to
+determine the pressure exerted on the vapour by the
+mercury in the narrow limb; this is effected by opening
+the capillary and inclining the tube until the mercury just
+reaches the top of the narrow tube; the difference between
+the height of the mercury in the wide tube and the top of
+the narrow tube represents the pressure due to the mercury column,
+and this must be added to the barometric pressure in order to
+deduce the total pressure on the vapour.</p>
+
+<p>The result is calculated by means of the formula:</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+ <tr><td rowspan="2">D =&nbsp;</td>
+     <td class="tc1">W(1 + &alpha;t) × 7,980,000</td>
+     <td rowspan="2">,</td> </tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom">(p + p<span class="su">1</span> - s)[m{1 + &beta;(t - t<span class="su">0</span>)} - m<span class="su">1</span>{1 + &gamma;(t - t<span class="su">0</span>)}](1 + &gamma;t)</td> </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">in which W = weight of substance taken; t = temperature of vapour
+bath; &alpha; = 0.00366 = temperature coefficient of gases; p = barometric
+pressure; p<span class="su">1</span> = height of mercury column in vessel; s =
+vapour tension of mercury at t°; m = weight of mercury contained in
+the vessel; m<span class="su">1</span> = weight of mercury left in vessel after heating;
+&beta; = coefficient of expansion of glass = .0000303; &gamma; = coefficient of
+expansion of mercury = 0.00018 (0.00019 above 240°) (see <i>Ber.</i> 1877,
+10, p. 2068; 1886, 19, p. 1862).</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Meyer&rsquo;s Wood&rsquo;s Alloy Expulsion Method.</i>&mdash;This method is a
+modification of the one just described. The alloy used is composed
+of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium; it
+melts at 70°, and can be experimented with as readily as mercury.
+The cylindrical vessel is replaced by a globular one, and the pressure
+on the vapour due to the column of alloy in the side tube is readily
+reduced to millimetres of mercury since the specific gravity of the
+alloy at the temperature of boiling sulphur, 444° (at which the
+apparatus is most frequently used), is two-thirds of
+that of mercury (see <i>Ber.</i> 1876, 9, p. 1220).</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <a name="fig_5"><img src="images/img47b.jpg" width="110" height="350" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption sc">Fig. 5.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>3. <i>Meyer&rsquo;s Air Expulsion Method.</i>&mdash;The simplicity,
+moderate accuracy, and adaptability of this method
+to every class of substance which can be vaporized
+entitles it to rank as one of the most potent methods
+in analytical chemistry; its invention is indissolubly
+connected with the name of Victor Meyer, being termed
+&ldquo;Meyer&rsquo;s method&rdquo; to the exclusion of his other
+original methods. It consists in determining the
+air expelled from a vessel by the vapour of a given
+quantity of the substance. The apparatus is shown
+in fig. 5. A long tube (a) terminates at the bottom in
+a cylindrical chamber of about 100-150 cc. capacity.
+The top is fitted with a rubber stopper, or in some
+forms with a stop-cock, while a little way down there
+is a bent delivery tube (b). To use the apparatus, the
+long tube is placed in a vapour bath (c) of the requisite
+temperature, and after the air within the tube is in
+equilibrium, the delivery tube is placed beneath the
+surface of the water in a pneumatic trough, the rubber
+stopper pushed home, and observation made as to
+whether any more air is being expelled. If this be not
+so, a graduated tube (d) is filled with water, and inverted over the
+delivery tube. The rubber stopper is removed and the experimental
+substance introduced, and the stopper quickly replaced to the same
+extent as before. Bubbles are quickly disengaged and collect in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>48</span>
+graduated tube. Solids may be directly admitted to the tube from
+a weighing bottle, while liquids are conveniently introduced by
+means of small stoppered bottles, or, in the case of exceptionally
+volatile liquids, by means of a bulb blown on a piece of thin
+capillary tube, the tube being sealed during the weighing operation,
+and the capillary broken just before transference to the apparatus.
+To prevent the bottom of the apparatus being knocked
+out by the impact of the substance, a layer of sand, asbestos or
+sometimes mercury is placed in the tube. To complete the experiment,
+the graduated tube containing the expelled air is brought
+to a constant and determinate temperature and pressure, and this
+volume is the volume which the given weight of the substance
+would occupy if it were a gas under the same temperature and
+pressure. The vapour density is calculated by the following formula:</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+ <tr><td rowspan="2">D =&nbsp;</td>
+     <td class="tc1">W(1 + &alpha;t) × 587,780</td>
+     <td rowspan="2">,</td> </tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom tc1">(p - s)V</td> </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">in which W = weight of substance taken, V = volume of air expelled,
+&alpha; = 1/273 = .003665, t and p = temperature and pressure at which
+expelled air is measured, and s = vapour pressure of water at t°.</p>
+
+<table style="float: left; width: auto; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figleft1">
+    <a name="fig_6"><img src="images/img48.jpg" width="97" height="350" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption sc">Fig. 6.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>By varying the material of the bulb, this apparatus is rendered
+available for exceptionally high temperatures. Vapour baths of iron
+are used in connexion with boiling anthracene (335°), anthraquinone
+(368°), sulphur (444°), phosphoruspentasulphide (518°);
+molten lead may also be used. For higher temperatures
+the bulb of the vapour density tube is made of
+porcelain or platinum, and is heated in a gas furnace.</p>
+
+<p>(4a) <i>Hofmann&rsquo;s Method.</i>&mdash;Both the <i>modus operandi</i>
+and apparatus employed in this method particularly
+recommend its use for substances which do not react
+on mercury and which boil in a vacuum at below 310°.
+The apparatus (fig. 6) consists of a barometer tube,
+containing mercury and standing in a bath of the same
+metal, surrounded by a vapour jacket. The vapour is
+circulated through the jacket, and the height of the
+mercury read by a cathetometer or otherwise. The substance
+is weighed into a small stoppered bottle, which
+is then placed beneath the mouth of the barometer tube.
+It ascends the tube, the substance is rapidly volatilized,
+and the mercury column is depressed; this depression
+is read off. It is necessary to know the volume of the
+tube above the second level; this may most efficiently
+be determined by calibrating the tube prior to its use.
+Sir T. E. Thorpe employed a barometer tube 96 cm.
+long, and determined the volume from the closed end
+for a distance of about 35 mm. by weighing in mercury;
+below this mark it was calibrated in the ordinary way so that a scale
+reading gave the volume at once. The calculation is effected by the
+following formulae:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+ <tr><td rowspan="2">D =&nbsp;</td>
+     <td class="tc1">760w(1 + 0.003665t)</td>
+     <td rowspan="2">;</td> </tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom tc1">0.0012934 × V × B</td> </tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+ <tr><td rowspan="2">B =&nbsp;</td>
+     <td class="tc1">h</td>
+     <td rowspan="2">&nbsp;- <span style="font-size: 160%">(</span>&nbsp;</td>
+     <td class="tc1">h<span class="su">1</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2">&nbsp;-&nbsp;</td>
+     <td class="tc1">h<span class="su">2</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2">&nbsp;+ s <span style="font-size: 160%">)</span> ,</td> </tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom tc1">1 + 0.00018t<span class="su">1</span></td>
+     <td class="denom tc1">1 + 0.00018t<span class="su">2</span></td>
+     <td class="denom tc1">1 + 0.00018t</td> </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">in which w = weight of substance taken; t = temperature of vapour
+jacket; V = volume of vapour at t; h = height of barometer reduced
+to 0°; t<span class="su">1</span> = temperature of air; h<span class="su">1</span> = height of mercury column below
+vapour jacket; t<span class="su">2</span> = temperature of mercury column not heated by
+vapour; h<span class="su">2</span> = height of mercury column within vapour jacket; s =
+vapour tension of mercury at t°. The vapour tension of mercury
+need not be taken into account when water is used in the jacket.</p>
+
+<p>(4b) <i>Demuth and Meyer&rsquo;s Method.</i>&mdash;The principle of this method
+is as follows:&mdash;In the ordinary air expulsion method, the vapour
+always mixes to some extent with the air in the tube, and this involves
+a reduction of the pressure of the vapour. It is obvious that
+this reduction may be increased by accelerating the diffusion of the
+vapour. This may be accomplished by using a vessel with a somewhat
+wide bottom, and inserting the substance so that it may be
+volatilized very rapidly, as, for example, in tubes of Wood&rsquo;s alloy,
+and by filling the tube with hydrogen. (For further
+details see <i>Ber.</i> 23, p. 311.)</p>
+
+<table style="float: left; width: auto; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figleft1">
+    <a name="fig_7"><img src="images/img48a.jpg" width="150" height="274" alt="Fig. 7." title="Fig. 7." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption sc">Fig. 7.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>We may here notice a modification of Meyer&rsquo;s
+process in which the increase of pressure due to the
+volatilization of the substance, and not the volume
+of the expelled air, is measured. This method has
+been developed by J. S. Lumsden (<i>Journ. Chem.
+Soc.</i> 1903, 83, p. 342), whose apparatus is shown
+diagrammatically in fig. 7. The vaporizing bulb
+A has fused about it a jacket B, provided with a
+condenser c. Two side tubes are fused on to the
+neck of A: the lower one leads to a mercury manometer
+M, and to the air by means of a cock C; the
+upper tube is provided with a rubber stopper
+through which a glass rod passes&mdash;this rod serves
+to support the tube containing the substance to be
+experimented upon, and so avoids the objection to
+the practice of withdrawing the stopper of the tube, dropping the
+substance in, and reinserting the stopper. To use the apparatus, a
+liquid of suitable boiling-point is placed in the jacket and brought
+to the boiling-point. All parts of the apparatus are open to the air,
+and the mercury in the manometer is adjusted so as to come to a
+fixed mark a. The substance is now placed on the support already
+mentioned, and the apparatus closed to the air by inserting the
+cork at D and turning the cock C. By turning or withdrawing
+the support the substance enters the bulb; and during its vaporization
+the free limb of the manometer is raised so as to maintain
+the mercury at a. When the volatilization is quite complete, the
+level is accurately adjusted, and the difference of the levels of the
+mercury gives the pressure exerted by the vapour. To calculate the
+result it is necessary to know the capacity of the apparatus to the
+mark a, and the temperature of the jacket.</p>
+
+<p><i>Methods depending on the Principles of Hydrostatics.</i>&mdash;Hydrostatical
+principles can be applied to density determinations in four
+typical ways: (1) depending upon the fact that the heights of liquid
+columns supported by the same pressure vary inversely as the
+densities of the liquids; (2) depending upon the fact that a body which
+sinks in a liquid loses a weight equal to the weight of liquid which
+it displaces; (3) depending on the fact that a body remains suspended,
+neither floating nor sinking, in a liquid of exactly the same
+density; (4) depending on the fact that a floating body is immersed
+to such an extent that the weight of the fluid displaced equals the
+weight of the body.</p>
+
+<p>1. The method of balancing columns is of limited use. Two forms
+are recognized. In one, applicable only to liquids which do not mix,
+the two liquids are poured into the limbs of a U tube. The heights
+of the columns above the surface of junction of the liquids are inversely
+proportional to the densities of the liquids. In the second
+form, named after Robert Hare (1781-1858), professor of chemistry
+at the university of Pennsylvania, the liquids are drawn or aspirated
+up vertical tubes which have their lower ends placed in reservoirs
+containing the different liquids, and their upper ends connected to a
+common tube which is in communication with an aspirator for
+decreasing the pressure within the vertical tubes. The heights to
+which the liquids rise, measured in each case by the distance between
+the surfaces in the reservoirs and in the tubes, are inversely proportional
+to the densities.</p>
+
+<p>2. The method of &ldquo;hydrostatic weighing&rdquo; is one of the most
+important. The principle may be thus stated: the solid is weighed
+in air, and then in water. If W be the weight in air, and W<span class="su">1</span> the
+weight in water, then W<span class="su">1</span> is always less than W, the difference W - W<span class="su">1</span><span class="su">1</span>
+representing the weight of the water displaced, i.e. the weight of a
+volume of water equal to that of the solid. Hence W/(W - W<span class="su">1</span>) is the
+relative density or specific gravity of the body. The principle is
+readily adapted to the determination of the relative densities of two
+liquids, for it is obvious that if W be the weight of a solid body in air,
+W<span class="su">1</span> and W<span class="su">2</span> its weights when immersed in the liquids, then W - W<span class="su">1</span>
+and W - W<span class="su">2</span> are the weights of equal volumes of the liquids, and
+therefore the relative density is the quotient (W - W<span class="su">1</span>)/(W - W<span class="su">2</span>).
+The determination in the case of solids lighter than water is effected
+by the introduction of a sinker, i.e. a body which when affixed to the
+light solid causes it to sink. If W be the weight of the experimental
+solid in air, w the weight of the sinker in water, and W<span class="su">1</span> the weight of
+the solid plus sinker in water, then the relative density is given by
+W/(W + w - W<span class="su">1</span>). In practice the solid or plummet is suspended
+from the balance arm by a fibre&mdash;silk, platinum, &amp;c.&mdash;and carefully
+weighed. A small stool is then placed over the balance pan, and on
+this is placed a beaker of distilled water so that the solid is totally
+immersed. Some balances are provided with a &ldquo;specific gravity
+pan,&rdquo; i.e. a pan with short suspending arms, provided with a hook
+at the bottom to which the fibre may be attached; when this is so,
+the stool is unnecessary. Any air bubbles are removed from the
+surface of the body by brushing with a camel-hair brush; if the
+solid be of a porous nature it is desirable to boil it for some time in
+water, thus expelling the air from its interstices. The weighing is
+conducted in the usual way by vibrations, except when the weight
+be small; it is then advisable to bring the pointer to zero, an operation
+rendered necessary by the damping due to the adhesion of water
+to the fibre. The temperature and pressure of the air and water
+must also be taken.</p>
+
+<p>There are several corrections of the formula &Delta; = W/(W - W<span class="su">1</span>)
+necessary to the accurate expression of the density. Here we can
+only summarize the points of the investigation. It may be assumed
+that the weighing is made with brass weights in air at t° and p mm.
+pressure. To determine the true weight <i>in vacuo</i> at 0°, account
+must be taken of the different buoyancies, or losses of true weight,
+due to the different volumes of the solids and weights. Similarly
+in the case of the weighing in water, account must be taken of the
+buoyancy of the weights, and also, if absolute densities be required,
+of the density of water at the temperature of the experiment. In a
+form of great accuracy the absolute density &Delta;(0°/4°) is given by</p>
+
+<p class="center">&Delta;(0°/4°) = (&rho;&alpha;W - &delta;W<span class="su">1</span>)/(W - W<span class="su">1</span>),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">in which W is the weight of the body in air at t° and p mm. pressure,
+W<span class="su">1</span> the weight in water, atmospheric conditions remaining very
+nearly the same; &rho; is the density of the water in which the body is
+weighed, &alpha; is (1 + &alpha;t°) in which a is the coefficient of cubical
+expansion of the body, and &delta; is the density of the air at t°, p mm.
+Less accurate formulae are &Delta; = &rho; W/(W - W<span class="su">1</span>), the factor involving
+the density of the air, and the coefficient of the expansion of the
+solid being disregarded, and &Delta; = W/(W - W<span class="su">1</span>), in which the density
+of water is taken as unity. Reference may be made to J. Wade and
+R. W. Merriman, <i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i> 1909, 95, p. 2174.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="page49"></a>49</p>
+
+<table style="float: left; width: auto; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figleft1">
+    <a name="fig_8"><img src="images/img49.jpg" width="400" height="353" alt="Fig. 8." title="Fig. 8." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption sc">Fig. 8.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The determination of the density of a liquid by weighing a
+plummet in air, and in the standard and experimental liquids,
+has been put into a very
+convenient laboratory form
+by means of the apparatus
+known as a Westphal balance
+(fig. 8). It consists of a steelyard
+mounted on a fulcrum;
+one arm carries at its extremity
+a heavy bob and pointer,
+the latter moving along a scale
+affixed to the stand and serving
+to indicate when the beam
+is in its standard position.
+The other arm is graduated
+in ten divisions and carries
+riders&mdash;bent pieces of wire of
+determined weights&mdash;and at
+its extremity a hook from
+which the glass plummet is
+suspended. To complete the
+apparatus there is a glass jar which serves to hold the liquid
+experimented with. The apparatus is so designed that when the
+plummet is suspended in air, the index of the beam is at the zero
+of the scale; if this be not so, then it is adjusted by a levelling
+screw. The plummet is now placed in distilled water at 15°, and the
+beam brought to equilibrium by means of a rider, which we shall call
+1, hung on a hook; other riders are provided, <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">10</span>th and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">100</span>th respectively
+of 1. To determine the density of any liquid it is only necessary
+to suspend the plummet in the liquid, and to bring the beam
+to its normal position by means of the riders; the relative density is
+read off directly from the riders.</p>
+
+<p>3. Methods depending on the free suspension of the solid in a
+liquid of the same density have been especially studied by Retgers
+and Gossner in view of their applicability to density determinations
+of crystals. Two typical forms are in use; in one a liquid is prepared
+in which the crystal freely swims, the density of the liquid
+being ascertained by the pycnometer or other methods; in the other
+a liquid of variable density, the so-called &ldquo;diffusion column,&rdquo; is
+prepared, and observation is made of the level at which the particle
+comes to rest. The first type is in commonest use; since both
+necessitate the use of dense liquids, a summary of the media of most
+value, with their essential properties, will be given.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acetylene tetrabromide</i>, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">2</span>Br<span class="su">4</span>, which is very conveniently
+prepared by passing acetylene into cooled bromine, has a density
+of 3.001 at 6° C. It is highly convenient, since it is colourless,
+odourless, very stable and easily mobile. It may be diluted with
+benzene or toluene.</p>
+
+<p><i>Methylene iodide</i>, CH<span class="su">2</span>I<span class="su">2</span>, has a density of 3.33, and may be diluted
+with benzene. Introduced by Brauns in 1886, it was recommended
+by Retgers. Its advantages rest on its high density and mobility;
+its main disadvantages are its liability to decomposition, the
+originally colourless liquid becoming dark owing to the separation of
+iodine, and its high coefficient of expansion. Its density may be
+raised to 3.65 by dissolving iodoform and iodine in it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thoulet&rsquo;s solution</i>, an aqueous solution of potassium and mercuric
+iodides (potassium iodo-mercurate), introduced by Thoulet and
+subsequently investigated by V. Goldschmidt, has a density of
+3.196 at 22.9°. It is almost colourless and has a small coefficient of
+expansion; its hygroscopic properties, its viscous character, and
+its action on the skin, however, militate against its use. A. Duboin
+(<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1905, p. 141) has investigated the solutions of mercuric
+iodide in other alkaline iodides; sodium iodo-mercurate solution has
+a density of 3.46 at 26°, and gives with an excess of water a dense
+precipitate of mercuric iodide, which dissolves without decomposition
+in alcohol; lithium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3.28
+at 25.6°; and ammonium iodo-mercurate solution a density of
+2.98 at 26°.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rohrbach&rsquo;s solution</i>, an aqueous solution of barium and mercuric
+iodides, introduced by Carl Rohrbach, has a density of 3.588.</p>
+
+<p><i>Klein&rsquo;s solution</i>, an aqueous solution of cadmium borotungstate,
+2Cd(OH)<span class="su">2</span>·B<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·9WO<span class="su">3</span>·16H<span class="su">2</span>O, introduced by D. Klein, has a
+density up to 3.28. The salt melts in its water of crystallization at
+75°, and the liquid thus obtained goes up to a density of 3.6.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silver-thallium nitrate</i>, TIAg(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, introduced by Retgers, melts
+at 75° to form a clear liquid of density 4.8; it may be diluted with
+water.</p>
+
+<p>The method of using these liquids is in all cases the same; a
+particle is dropped in; if it floats a diluent is added and the mixture
+well stirred. This is continued until the particle freely swims,
+and then the density of the mixture is determined by the ordinary
+methods (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mineralogy</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In the &ldquo;diffusion column&rdquo; method, a liquid column uniformly
+varying in density from about 3.3 to 1 is prepared by pouring a little
+methylene iodide into a long test tube and adding five times as much
+benzene. The tube is tightly corked to prevent evaporation, and
+allowed to stand for some hours. The density of the column at any
+level is determined by means of the areometrical beads proposed by
+Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), professor of astronomy at Glasgow
+University. These are hollow glass beads of variable density;
+they may be prepared by melting off pieces of very thin capillary
+tubing, and determining the density in each case by the method just
+previously described. To use the column, the experimental fragment
+is introduced, when it takes up a definite position. By successive
+trials two beads, of known density, say d<span class="su">1</span>, d<span class="su">2</span>, are obtained, one of
+which floats above, and the other below, the test crystal; the
+distances separating the beads from the crystal are determined by
+means of a scale placed behind the tube. If the bead of density d<span class="su">1</span>
+be at the distance l<span class="su">1</span> above the crystal, and that of d<span class="su">2</span> at l<span class="su">2</span> below,
+it is obvious that if the density of the column varies uniformly, then
+the density of the test crystal is (d<span class="su">1</span>l<span class="su">2</span> + d<span class="su">2</span>l<span class="su">1</span>)/(l<span class="su">1</span> + l<span class="su">2</span>).</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <a name="fig_9"><img src="images/img49a.jpg" width="102" height="400" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption">Fig. 9.<br />Brewster&rsquo;s<br />Staktometer</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Acting on a principle quite different from any previously discussed
+is the capillary hydrometer or staktometer of Brewster,
+which is based upon the difference in the surface tension and
+density of pure water, and of mixtures of alcohol and water in varying
+proportions.</p>
+
+<p>If a drop of water be allowed to form at the extremity of a fine
+tube, it will go on increasing until its weight overcomes the surface
+tension by which it clings to the tube, and then it will
+fall. Hence any impurity which diminishes the surface
+tension of the water will diminish the size of the drop
+(unless the density is proportionately diminished).
+According to Quincke, the surface tension of pure water
+in contact with air at 20° C. is 81 dynes per linear centimetre,
+while that of alcohol is only 25.5 dynes; and a
+small percentage of alcohol produces much more than a
+proportional decrease in the surface tension when added
+to pure water. The capillary hydrometer consists simply
+of a small pipette with a bulb in the middle of the stem,
+the pipette terminating in a very fine capillary point.
+The instrument being filled with distilled water, the
+number of drops required to empty the bulb and
+portions of the stem between two marks m and n (fig. 9)
+on the latter is carefully counted, and the experiments
+repeated at different temperatures. The pipette having
+been carefully dried, the process is repeated with pure
+alcohol or with proof spirits, and the strength of any
+admixture of water and spirits is determined from the
+corresponding number of drops, but the formula generally
+given is not based upon sound data. Sir David Brewster
+found with one of these instruments that the number
+of drops of pure water was 734, while of proof spirit,
+sp. gr. 920, the number was 2117.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">References.</span>&mdash;Density and density determinations are discussed in
+all works on practical physics; reference may be made to B. Stewart
+and W. W. Haldane Gee, <i>Practical Physics</i>, vol. i. (1901); Kohlrausch,
+<i>Practical Physics</i>; Ostwald, <i>Physico-Chemical Measurements</i>.
+The density of gases is treated in M. W. Travers, <i>The Experimental
+Study of Gases</i> (1901); and vapour density determinations
+in Lassar-Cohn&rsquo;s <i>Arbeitsmethoden für organisch-chemische Laboratorien</i>
+(1901), and <i>Manual of Organic Chemistry</i> (1896), and in
+H. Biltz, <i>Practical Methods for determining Molecular Weights</i>
+(1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. E.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENTATUS, MANIUS CURIUS,</span> Roman general, conqueror of
+the Samnites and Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was born of humble
+parents, and was possibly of Sabine origin. He is said to have
+been called Dentatus because he was born with his teeth already
+grown (Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> vii. 15). Except that he was tribune of
+the people, nothing certain is known of him until his first consulship
+in 290 B.C. when, in conjunction with his colleague
+P. Cornelius Rufinus, he gained a decisive victory over the
+Samnites, which put an end to a war that had lasted fifty years.
+He also reduced the revolted Sabines to submission; a large
+portion of their territory was distributed among the Roman
+citizens, and the most important towns received the citizenship
+without the right of voting for magistrates (<i>civitas sine suffragio</i>).
+With the proceeds of the spoils of the war Dentatus cut an
+artificial channel to carry off the waters of Lake Velinus, so as to
+drain the valley of Reate. In 275, after Pyrrhus had returned
+from Sicily to Italy, Dentatus (again consul) took the field
+against him. The decisive engagement took place near Beneventum
+in the Campi Arusini, and resulted in the total defeat of
+Pyrrhus. Dentatus celebrated a magnificent triumph, in which
+for the first time a number of captured elephants were exhibited.
+Dentatus was consul for the third time in 274, when he finally
+crushed the Lucanians and Samnites, and censor in 272. In the
+latter capacity he began to build an aqueduct to carry the waters
+of the Anio into the city, but died (270) before its completion.
+Dentatus was looked upon as a model of old Roman simplicity
+and frugality. According to the well-known anecdote, when the
+Samnites sent ambassadors with costly presents to induce him
+to exercise his influence on their behalf in the senate, they found
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50"></a>50</span>
+him sitting on the hearth and preparing his simple meal of roasted
+turnips. He refused their gifts, saying that earthen dishes were
+good enough for him, adding that he preferred ruling those who
+possessed gold to possessing it himself. It is also said that he
+died so poor that the state was obliged to provide dowries for his
+daughters. But these and similar anecdotes must be received
+with caution, and it should be remembered that what was a
+competence in his day would have been considered poverty by
+the Romans of later times.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>Livy, epitome, 11-14; Polybius ii. 19; Eutropius ii. 9, 14;
+Florus i. 18; Val. Max. iv. 3, 5, vi. 3, 4; Cicero, <i>De senectute</i>, 16;
+Juvenal xi. 78; Plutarch, <i>Pyrrhus</i>, 25.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENTIL</span> (from Lat. <i>dens</i>, a tooth), in architecture, a small
+tooth-shaped block used as a repeating ornament in the bed-mould
+of a cornice. Vitruvius (iv. 2) states that the dentil
+represents the end of a rafter (<i>asser</i>); and since it occurs in its
+most pronounced form in the Ionic temples of Asia Minor, the
+Lycian tombs and the porticoes and tombs of Persia, where
+it represents distinctly the reproduction in stone of timber
+construction, there is but little doubt as to its origin. The earliest
+example is that found on the tomb of Darius, c. 500 B.C., cut in the
+rock in which the portico of his palace is reproduced. Its first
+employment in Athens is in the cornice of the caryatid portico
+or tribune of the Erechtheum (480 B.C.). When subsequently
+introduced into the bed-mould of the cornice of the choragic
+monument of Lysicrates it is much smaller in its dimensions.
+In the later temples of Ionia, as in the temple of Priene, the larger
+scale of the dentil is still retained. As a general rule the projection
+of the dentil is equal to its width, and the intervals
+between to half the width. In some cases the projecting band
+has never had the sinkings cut into it to divide up the dentils,
+as in the Pantheon at Rome, and it is then called a dentil-band.
+The dentil was the chief decorative feature employed in the bed-mould
+by the Romans and the Italian Revivalists. In the porch
+of the church of St John Studius at Constantinople, the dentil
+and the interval between are equal in width, and the interval
+is splayed back from top to bottom; this is the form it takes in
+what is known as the &ldquo;Venetian dentil,&rdquo; which was copied from
+the Byzantine dentil in Santa Sophia, Constantinople. There,
+however, it no longer formed part of a bed-mould: its use at
+Santa Sophia was to decorate the projecting moulding enclosing
+the encrusted marbles, and the dentils were cut alternately on
+both sides of the moulding. The Venetian dentil was also introduced
+as a label round arches and as a string course.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENTISTRY</span> (from Lat. <i>dens</i>, a tooth), a special department
+of medical science, embracing the structure, function and
+therapeutics of the mouth and its contained organs,
+<span class="sidenote">Historical sketch.</span>
+specifically the teeth, together with their surgical and
+prosthetic treatment. (For the anatomy of the teeth
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teeth</a></span>.) As a distinct vocation it is first alluded to by
+Herodotus (500 B.C.). There are evidences that at an earlier
+date the Egyptians and Hindus attempted to replace lost teeth
+by attaching wood or ivory substitutes to adjacent sound teeth
+by means of threads or wires, but the gold fillings reputed to
+have been found in the teeth of Egyptian mummies have upon
+investigation been shown to be superficial applications of gold
+leaf for ornamental purposes. The impetus given to medical
+study in the Grecian schools by the followers of Aesculapius
+and especially Hippocrates (500 to 400 B.C.) developed among the
+practitioners of medicine and surgery considerable knowledge of
+dentistry. Galen (A.D. 131) taught that the teeth were true bones
+existing before birth, and to him is credited the belief that the
+upper canine teeth receive branches from the nerve which supplies
+the eye, and hence should be called &ldquo;eye-teeth.&rdquo; Abulcasis
+(10th cent. A.D.) describes the operation by which artificial crowns
+are attached to adjacent sound teeth. Vesalius (1514), Ambroise
+Paré, J. J. Scaliger, T. Kerckring, M. Malpighi, and lesser
+anatomists of the same period contributed dissertations which
+threw some small amount of light upon the structure and
+functions of the teeth. The operation of transplanting teeth is
+usually attributed to John Hunter (1728-1793), who practised it
+extensively, and gave to it additional prominence by transplanting
+a human tooth to the comb of a cock, but the operation was
+alluded to by Ambroise Paré (1509-1590), and there is evidence
+to show that it was practised even earlier. A. von Leeuwenhoek
+in 1678 described with much accuracy the tubular structure of
+the dentine, thus making the most important contribution to
+the subject which had appeared up to that time. Until the latter
+part of the 18th century extraction was practically the only
+operation for the cure of toothache.</p>
+
+<p>The early contributions of France exerted a controlling influence
+upon the development of dental practice. Urbain Hémard,
+surgeon to the cardinal Georges of Armagnac, whom Dr Blake
+(1801) calls an ingenious surgeon and a great man, published in
+1582 his <i>Researches upon the Anatomy of the Teeth, their Nature
+and Properties</i>. Of Hémard, M. Fauchard says: &ldquo;This surgeon
+had read Greek and Latin authors, whose writings he has judiciously
+incorporated in his own works.&rdquo; In 1728 Fauchard, who
+has been called the father of modern dentistry, published his
+celebrated work, entitled <i>Le Chirurgien Dentiste ou traité des
+dents</i>. The preface contains the following statement as to the
+existing status of dental art and science in France, which might
+have been applied with equal truth to any other European
+country:&mdash;&ldquo;The most celebrated surgeons having abandoned
+this branch of surgery, or having but little cultivated it, their
+negligence gave rise to a class of persons who, without theoretic
+knowledge or experience, and without being qualified, practised
+it at hazard, having neither principles nor system. It was only
+since the year 1700 that the intelligent in Paris opened their eyes
+to these abuses, when it was provided that those who intended
+practising dental surgery should submit to an examination by
+men learned in all the branches of medical science, who should
+decide upon their merits.&rdquo; After the publication of Fauchard&rsquo;s
+work the practice of dentistry became more specialized and
+distinctly separated from medical practice, the best exponents
+of the art being trained as apprentices by practitioners of ability,
+who had acquired their training in the same way from their
+predecessors. Fauchard suggested porcelain as an improvement
+upon bone and ivory for the manufacture of artificial teeth, a
+suggestion which he obtained from R. A. F. de Réaumur, the
+French savant and physicist, who was a contributor to the royal
+porcelain manufactory at Sévres. Later, Duchateau, an apothecary
+of St Germain, made porcelain teeth, and communicated his
+discovery to the Academy of Surgery in 1776, but kept the process
+secret. Du Bois Chémant carried the art to England, and the
+process was finally made public by M. Du Bois Foucou. M. Fonzi
+improved the art to such an extent that the Athenaeum of Arts
+in Paris awarded him a medal and crown (March 14, 1808).</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain the 19th century brought the dawning of
+dental science. The work of Dr Blake in 1801 on the anatomy
+of the teeth was distinctly in advance of anything previously
+written on the subject. Joseph Fox was one of the first members
+of the medical profession to devote himself exclusively to dentistry,
+and his work is a repository of the best practice of his time.
+The processes described, though comparatively crude, involve
+principles in use at the present time. Thomas Bell, the successor
+of Fox as lecturer on the structure and disease of the teeth at
+Guy&rsquo;s Hospital, published his well-known work in 1829. About
+this period numerous publications on dentistry made their appearance,
+notably those of Koecker, Johnson and Waite, followed
+somewhat later by the admirable work of Alexander Nasmyth
+(1839). By this time Cuvier, Serres, Rousseau, Bertin, Herissant
+and others in France had added to the knowledge of human
+and comparative dental anatomy, while M. G. Retzius, of Sweden,
+and E. H. Weber, J. C. Rosenmüller, Schreger, J. E. von Purkinje,
+B. Fraenkel and J. Müller in Germany were carrying forward the
+same lines of research. The sympathetic nervous relationships
+of the teeth with other parts of the body, and the interaction of
+diseases of the teeth with general pathological conditions, were
+clearly established. Thus a scientific foundation was laid, and
+dentistry came to be practised as a specialty of medicine. Certain
+minor operations, however, such as the extraction of teeth and
+the stopping of caries in an imperfect way, were still practised by
+barbers, and the empirical practice of dentistry, especially of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51"></a>51</span>
+those operations which were almost wholly mechanical, had
+developed a considerable body of dental artisans who, though
+without medical education in many cases, possessed a high
+degree of manipulative skill. Thus there came to be two classes
+of practitioners, the first regarding dentistry as a specialty of
+medicine, the latter as a distinct and separate calling.</p>
+
+<p>In America representatives of both classes of dentists began
+to arrive from England and France about the time of the Revolution.
+Among these were John Wooffendale (1766), a student of
+Robert Berdmore of Liverpool, surgeon-dentist to George III.;
+James Gardette (1778), a French physician and surgeon; and
+Joseph Lemaire (1781), a French dentist who went out with the
+army of Count Rochambeau. During the winter of 1781-1782,
+while the Continental army was in winter quarters at Providence,
+Rhode Island, Lemaire found time and opportunity to practise
+his calling, and also to instruct one or two persons, notably
+Josiah Flagg, probably the first American dentist. Dental
+practice was thus established upon American soil, where it has
+produced such fertile results.</p>
+
+<p>Until well into the 19th century apprenticeship afforded the
+only means of acquiring a knowledge of dentistry. The profits
+derived from the apprenticeship system fostered secrecy and
+quackery among many of the early practitioners; but the more
+liberal minded and better educated of the craft developed an
+increasing opposition to these narrow methods. In 1837 a local
+<span class="sidenote">Course of training.</span>
+association of dentists was formed in New York, and in
+1840 a national association, The American Society of
+Dental Surgeons, the object of which was &ldquo;to advance
+the science by free communication and interchange of sentiments.&rdquo;
+The first dental periodical in the world, <i>The American
+Journal of Dental Science</i>, was issued in June 1839, and in
+November 1840 was established the Baltimore College of Dental
+Surgery, the first college in the world for the systematic education
+of dentists. Thus the year 1839-1840 marks the birth of the
+three factors essential to professional growth in dentistry. All
+this, combined with the refusal of the medical schools to furnish
+the desired facilities for dental instruction, placed dentistry for
+the time being upon a footing entirely separate from general
+medicine. Since then the curriculum of study preparatory to
+dental practice has been systematically increased both as to its
+content and length, until in all fundamental principles it is
+practically equal to that required for the training of medical
+specialists, and in addition includes the technical subjects
+peculiar to dentistry. In England, and to some extent upon
+the continent, the old apprenticeship system is retained as an
+adjunct to the college course, but it is rapidly dying out, as it has
+already done in America. Owing to the regulation by law of the
+educational requirements, the increase of institutions devoted
+to the professional training of dentists has been rapid in all
+civilized countries, and during the past twenty years especially
+so in the United States. Great Britain possesses upwards of
+twelve institutions for dental instruction, France two, Germany
+and Switzerland six, all being based upon the conception that
+dentistry is a department of general medicine. In the United
+States there were in 1878 twelve dental schools, with about
+700 students; in 1907 there were fifty-seven schools, with 6919
+students. Of these fifty-seven schools, thirty-seven are departments
+of universities or of medical institutions, and there is a
+growing tendency to regard dentistry from its educational aspect as
+a special department of the general medical and surgical practice.</p>
+
+<p>Recent studies have shown that besides being an important
+part of the digestive system, the mouth sustains intimate relationship
+with the general nervous system, and is important as
+the portal of entrance for the majority of the bacteria that cause
+specific diseases. This fact has rendered more intimate the
+relations between dentistry and the general practice of medicine,
+and has given a powerful impetus to scientific studies in dentistry.
+<span class="sidenote">Research.</span>
+Through the researches of Sir J. Tomes, Mummery,
+Hopewell Smith, Williams and others in England,
+O. Hertwig, Weil and Röse in Germany, Andrews, Sudduth
+and Black in America, the minute anatomy and embryology of
+the dental tissues have been worked out with great fulness and
+precision. In particular, it has been demonstrated that certain
+general systemic diseases have a distinct oral expression. Through
+their extensive nervous connexions with the largest of the cranial
+nerves and with the sympathetic nervous system, the teeth
+frequently cause irritation resulting in profound reflex nervous
+phenomena, which are curable only by removal of the local tooth
+disorder. Gout, lithaemia, scurvy, rickets, lead and mercurial
+poisoning, and certain forms of chronic nephritis, produce dental
+and oral lesions which are either pathognomonic or strongly
+indicative of their several constitutional causes, and are thus of
+great importance in diagnosis. The most important dental research
+of modern times is that which was carried out by Professor
+W. D. Miller of Berlin (1884) upon the cause of caries of the teeth,
+a disease said to affect the human race more extensively than any
+other. Miller demonstrated that, as previous observers had
+suspected, caries is of bacterial origin, and that acids play an
+important rôle in the process. The disease is brought about by
+a group of bacteria which develop in the mouth, growing naturally
+upon the débris of starchy or carbohydrate food, producing
+fermentation of the mass, with lactic acid as the end product.
+The lactic acid dissolves the mineral constituent of the tooth
+structure, calcium phosphate, leaving the organic matrix of the
+tooth exposed. Another class of germs, the peptonising and
+putrefactive bacteria, then convert the organic matter into liquid
+or gaseous end products. The accuracy of the conclusions obtained
+from his analytic research was synthetically proved, after
+the manner of Koch, by producing the disease artificially. Caries
+of the teeth has been shown to bear highly important relation to
+more remote or systemic diseases. Exposure and death of the
+dental pulp furnishes an avenue of entrance for disease-producing
+bacteria, by which invasion of the deeper tissues may readily
+take place, causing necrosis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis,
+phlegmon and other destructive inflammations, certain of which,
+affecting the various sinuses of the head, have been found to
+cause meningitis, chronic empyema, metastatic abscesses in
+remote parts of the body, paralysis, epilepsy and insanity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Operative Dentistry.</i>&mdash;The art of dentistry is usually divided
+arbitrarily into <i>operative dentistry</i>, the purpose of which is to
+preserve as far as possible the teeth and associated tissues, and
+<i>prosthetic dentistry</i>, the purpose of which is to supply the loss of
+<span class="sidenote">Filling or stopping.</span>
+teeth by artificial substitutes. The filling of carious
+cavities was probably first performed with lead, suggested
+apparently by an operation recorded by Celsus
+(100 B.C.), who recommended that frail or decayed teeth be
+stuffed with lead previous to extraction, in order that they might
+not break under the forceps. The use of lead as a filling was
+sufficiently prevalent in France during the 17th century to bring
+into use the word <i>plombage</i>, which is still occasionally applied in
+that country to the operation of filling. Gold as a filling material
+came into general use about the beginning of the 19th century.<a name="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+The earlier preparations of gold were so impure as to be virtually
+without cohesion, so that they were of use only in cavities which
+had sound walls for its retention. In the form of rolls or tape it
+was forced into the previously cleaned and prepared cavity, condensed
+with instruments under heavy hand pressure, smoothed
+with files, and finally burnished. Tin foil was also used to a
+limited extent and by the same method. Improvements in the
+refining of gold for dental use brought the product to a fair degree
+of purity, and, about 1855, led to the invention by Dr Robert
+Arthur of Baltimore of a method by which it could be welded
+firmly within the cavity. The cohesive properties of the foil
+were developed by passing it through an alcohol flame, which
+dispelled its surface contaminations. The gold was then welded
+piece by piece into a homogeneous mass by plugging instruments
+with serrated points. In this process of cold-welding, the mallet,
+hitherto in only limited use, was found more efficient than hand
+pressure, and was rapidly developed. The primitive mallet of
+wood, ivory, lead or steel, was supplanted by a mallet in which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52"></a>52</span>
+a hammer was released automatically by a spring condensed by
+pressure of the operator&rsquo;s hand. Then followed mallets operated
+by pneumatic pressure, by the dental engine, and finally by the
+electro-magnet, as utilized in 1867 by Bonwill. These devices
+greatly facilitated the operation, and made possible a partial
+or entire restoration of the tooth-crown in conformity with
+anatomical lines.</p>
+
+<p>The dental engine in its several forms is the outgrowth of the
+simple drill worked by the hand of the operator. It is used in
+removing decayed structure and for shaping the cavity for
+inserting the filling. From time to time its usefulness has been
+extended, so that it is now used for finishing fillings and polishing
+them, for polishing the teeth, removing deposits from them and
+changing their shapes. Its latest development, the <i>dento-surgical
+engine</i>, is of heavier construction and is adapted to operations
+upon all of the bones, a recent addition to its equipment being the
+spiral osteotome of Cryer, by which, with a minimum shock to
+the patient, fenestrae of any size or shape in the brain-case may
+be made, from a simple trepanning operation to the more extensive
+openings required in intra-cranial operations. The rotary
+power may be supplied by the foot of the operator, or by
+hydraulic or electric motors. The rubber dam invented by
+S. C. Barnum of New York (1864) provided a means for protecting
+the field of operations from the oral fluids, and extended the scope
+of operations even to the entire restoration of tooth-crowns with
+cohesive gold foil. Its value has been found to be even greater
+than was at first anticipated. In all operations involving the
+exposed dental pulp or the pulp-chamber and root-canals, it is
+the only efficient method of mechanically protecting the field of
+operation from invasion by disease-producing bacteria.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty and annoyance attending the insertion of gold,
+its high thermal conductivity, and its objectionable colour have
+led to an increasing use of amalgam, guttapercha, and cements
+of zinc oxide mixed with zinc chloride or phosphoric acid.
+Recently much attention has been devoted to restorations with
+porcelain. A piece of platinum foil of .001 inch thickness is
+burnished and pressed into the cavity, so that a matrix is produced
+exactly fitting the cavity. Into this matrix is placed a
+mixture of powdered porcelain and water or alcohol, of the colour
+to match the tooth. The mass is carefully dried and then fused
+until homogeneous. Shrinkage is counteracted by additions of
+porcelain powder, which are repeatedly fused until the whole
+exactly fills the matrix. After cooling, the matrix is stripped
+away and the porcelain is cemented into the cavity. When the
+cement has hardened, the surface of the porcelain is ground
+and polished to proper contour. If successfully made, porcelain
+fillings are scarcely noticeable. Their durability remains to be
+tested.</p>
+
+<p>Until recent times the exposure of the dental pulp inevitably
+led to its death and disintegration, and, by invasion of bacteria
+via the pulp canal, set up an inflammatory process
+<span class="sidenote">Dental therapeutics.</span>
+which eventually caused the loss of the entire tooth.
+A rational system of therapeutics, in conjunction with
+proper antiseptic measures, has made possible both
+the conservative treatment of the dental pulp when exposed, and
+the successful treatment of pulp-canals when the pulp has been
+devitalized either by design or disease. The conservation of the
+exposed pulp is affected by the operation of capping. In capping
+a pulp, irritation is allayed by antiseptic and sedative treatment,
+and a metallic cap, lined with a non-irritant sedative paste, is
+applied under aseptic conditions immediately over the point
+of pulp exposure. A filling of cement is superimposed, and this,
+after it has hardened, is covered with a metallic or other suitable
+filling. The utility of arsenious acid for devitalizing the dental
+pulp was discovered by J. R. Spooner of Montreal, and first
+published in 1836 by his brother Shearjashub in his <i>Guide to
+Sound Teeth</i>. The painful action of arsenic upon the pulp was
+avoided by the addition of various sedative drugs,&mdash;morphia,
+atropia, iodoform, &amp;c.,&mdash;and its use soon became universal. Of
+late years it is being gradually supplanted by immediate surgical
+extirpation under the benumbing effect of cocaine salts. By the
+use of cocaine also the pain incident to excavating and shaping
+of cavities in tooth structure may be controlled, especially when
+the cocaine is driven into the dentine by means of an electric
+current. To fill the pulp-chamber and canals of teeth after loss
+of the pulp, all organic remains of pulp tissue should be removed
+by sterilization, and then, in order to prevent the entrance of
+bacteria, and consequent infection, the canals should be perfectly
+filled. Upon the exclusion of infection depends the future
+integrity and comfort of the tooth. Numberless methods have
+been invented for the operation. Pulpless teeth are thus preserved
+through long periods of usefulness, and even those remains
+of teeth in which the crowns have been lost are rendered comfortable
+and useful as supports for artificial crowns, and as
+abutments for assemblages of crowns, known as bridge-work.</p>
+
+<p>The discoloration of the pulpless tooth through putrefactive
+changes in its organic matter were first overcome by bleaching
+it with chlorine. Small quantities of calcium hypochlorite are
+packed into the pulp-chamber and moistened with dilute acetic
+acid; the decomposition of the calcium salt liberates chlorine <i>in
+situ</i>, which restores the tooth to normal colour in a short time.
+The cavity is afterwards washed out, carefully dried, lined with a
+light-coloured cement and filled. More efficient bleaching agents
+of recent introduction are hydrogen dioxide in a 25% solution
+or a saturated solution of sodium peroxide; they are less irritating
+and much more convenient in application. Unlike chlorine,
+these do not form soluble metallic salts which may subsequently
+discolour the tooth. Hydrogen dioxide may be carried into the
+tooth structure by the electric current. In which case a current
+of not less than forty volts controlled by a suitable graduated
+resistance is applied with the patient in circuit, the anode being a
+platinum-pointed electrode in contact with the dioxide solution
+in the tooth cavity, and the cathode a sponge or plate electrode
+in contact with the hand or arm of the patient. The current is
+gradually turned on until two or three milliamperes are indicated
+by a suitable ammeter. The operation requires usually twenty to
+thirty minutes.</p>
+
+<p>Malposed teeth are not only unsightly but prone to disease, and
+may be the cause of disease in other teeth, or of the associated
+tissues. The impairment of function which their abnormal
+position causes has been found to be the primary cause of
+disturbances of the general bodily health; for example, enlarged
+tonsils, chronic pharyngitis and nasal catarrh, indigestion
+and malnutrition. By the use of springs, screws, vulcanized
+caoutchouc bands, elastic ligatures, &amp;c., as the case may require,
+practically all forms of dental irregularity may be corrected, even
+such protrusions and retrusions of the front teeth as cause great
+disfigurement of the facial contour.</p>
+
+<p>The extraction of teeth, an operation which until quite recent
+times was one of the crudest procedures in minor surgery, has
+been reduced to exactitude by improved instruments,
+<span class="sidenote">Extraction.</span>
+designed with reference to the anatomical relations of
+the teeth and their alveoli, and therefore adapted to the
+several classes of teeth. The operation has been rendered painless
+by the use of anaesthetics. The anaesthetic generally employed
+is nitrous oxide, or laughing-gas, the use of which was discovered
+in 1844 by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Conn., U.S.A.
+Chloroform and ether, as well as other general anaesthetics, have
+been employed in extensive operations because of their more prolonged
+effect; but chloroform, especially, is dangerous, owing to
+its effect upon the heart, which in many instances has suddenly
+failed during the operation. Ether, while less manageable than
+nitrous oxide, has been found to be practically devoid of danger.
+The local injection of solutions of cocaine and allied anaesthetics
+into the gum-tissue is extensively practised; but is attended with
+danger, from the toxic effects of an overdose upon the heart, and
+the local poisonous effect upon the tissues, which lead in numerous
+cases to necrosis and extensive sloughing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dental Prosthesis.</i>&mdash;The fastening of natural teeth or carved
+substitutes to adjoining sound teeth by means of thread or wire
+preceded their attachment to base-plates of carved
+<span class="sidenote">Artificial teeth.</span>
+wood, bone or ivory, which latter method was practised
+until the introduction of swaged metallic plates. Where
+the crown only of a tooth or those of several teeth were lost, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>53</span>
+restoration was effected by engrafting upon the prepared root a
+suitable crown by means of a wooden or metallic pivot. When
+possible, the new crown was that of a corresponding sound tooth
+taken from the mouth of another individual; otherwise an
+artificial crown carved from bone or ivory, or sometimes from the
+tooth of an ox, was used. To replace entire dentures a base-plate
+of carved hippopotamus ivory was constructed, upon which were
+mounted the crowns of natural teeth, or later those of porcelain.
+The manufacture of a denture of this character was tedious and
+uncertain, and required much skill. The denture was kept in
+place by spiral springs attached to the buccal sides of the appliance
+above and below, which caused pressure upon both jaws, necessitating
+a constant effort upon the part of the unfortunate wearer
+to keep it in place. Metallic swaged plates were introduced in
+the latter part of the 18th century. An impression of the gums
+was taken in wax, from which a cast was made in plaster of
+Paris. With this as a model, a metallic die of brass or zinc was
+prepared, upon which the plate of gold or silver was formed, and
+then swaged into contact with the die by means of a female die or
+counter-die of lead. The process is essentially the same to-day,
+with the addition of numerous improvements in detail, which
+have brought it to a high degree of perfection. The discovery, by
+Gardette of Philadelphia in 1800, of the utility of atmospheric
+pressure in keeping artificial dentures in place led to the abandonment
+of spiral springs. A later device for enhancing the stability
+is the vacuum chamber, a central depression in the upper surface
+of the plate, which, when exhausted of air by the wearer, materially
+increases the adhesion. The metallic base-plate is used also
+for supporting one or more artificial teeth, being kept in place
+by metallic clasps fitting to, and partially surrounding, adjacent
+sound natural teeth, the plate merely covering the edentulous
+portion of the alveolar ridge. It may also be kept in place by
+atmospheric adhesion, in which case the palatal vault is included,
+and the vacuum chamber is utilized in the palatal portion to
+increase the adhesion.</p>
+
+<p>In the construction usually practised, porcelain teeth are
+attached to a gold base-plate by means of stay-pieces of gold,
+perforated to receive the platinum pins baked in the body of the
+tooth. The stay-pieces or backings are then soldered to the pins
+and to the plate by means of high-fusing gold solder. The teeth
+used may be single or in sections, and may be with or without
+an extension designed in form and colour to imitate the gum of
+the <span class="correction" title="corrected from aveolar">alveolar</span> border. Even when skillfully executed, the process is
+imperfect in that the jointing of the teeth to each other, and
+their adaptation to the base-plate, leaves crevices and recesses,
+in which food débris and oral secretions accumulate. To obviate
+these defects the enamelled platinum denture was devised.
+Porcelain teeth are first attached to a swaged base-plate of pure
+platinum by a stay-piece of the same metal soldered with pure
+gold, after which the interstices between the teeth are filled, and
+the entire surface of the plate, excepting that in contact with the
+palate and alveolar border, is covered with a porcelain paste
+called the body, which is modelled to the normal contour of the
+gums, and baked in a muffle furnace until vitrified. It is then
+enamelled with a vitreous enamel coloured in imitation of the
+colour of the natural gum, which is applied and fired as before,
+the result being the most artistic and hygienic denture known.
+This is commonly known as the continuous gum method. Originating
+in France in the early part of the 19th century, and variously
+improved by several experimenters, it was brought to its present
+perfection by Dr John Allen of New York about 1846-1847.
+Dentures supported upon cast bases of metallic alloys and of
+aluminium have been employed as substitutes for the more
+expensive dentures of gold and platinum, but have had only a
+limited use, and are less satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Metallic bases were used exclusively as supports for artificial
+dentures until in 1855-1856 Charles Goodyear, jun., patented in
+England a process for constructing a denture upon vulcanized
+caoutchouc as a base. Several modifications followed, each the
+subject of patented improvements. Though the cheapness and
+simplicity of the vulcanite base has led to its abuse in incompetent
+hands, it has on the whole been productive of much
+benefit. It has been used with great success as a means of
+attaching porcelain teeth to metallic bases of gold, silver and
+aluminium. It is extensively used also in correcting irregular
+positions of the teeth, and for making interdental splints in the
+treatment of fractures of the jaws. For the mechanical correction
+of palatal defects causing imperfection of deglutition and speech,
+which comes distinctly within the province of the prosthetic
+dentist, the vulcanite base produces the best-known apparatus.
+Two classes of palatal mechanism are recognized&mdash;the obturator,
+a palatal plate, the function of which is to close perforations
+or clefts in the hard palate, and the artificial velum, a movable
+attachment to the obturator or palatal plate, which closes the
+opening in the divided natural velum and, moving with it,
+enables the wearer to close off the nasopharynx from the oral
+cavity in the production of the guttural sounds. Vulcanite is
+also used for extensive restorations of the jaws after surgical
+operations or loss by disease, and in the majority of instances
+wholly corrects the deformity.</p>
+
+<p>For a time vulcanite almost supplanted gold and silver as
+a base for artificial denture, and developed a generation of
+practitioners deficient in that high degree of skill necessary
+to the construction of dentures upon metallic bases.
+<span class="sidenote">Modern methods.</span>
+The recent development of crown-and-bridge work
+has brought about a renaissance, so that a thorough
+training is more than ever necessary to successful practice in
+mechanical dentistry. The simplest crown is of porcelain, and is
+engrafted upon a sound natural tooth-root by means of a metallic
+pin of gold or platinum, extending into the previously enlarged
+root-canal and cemented in place. In another type of crown the
+point between the root-end and the abutting crown-surface is
+encircled with a metallic collar or band, which gives additional
+security to the attachment and protects the joints from fluids
+or bacteria. Crowns of this character are constructed with a
+porcelain facing attached by a stay-piece or backing of gold to a
+plate and collar, which has been previously fitted to the root-end
+like a ferrule, and soldered to a pin which projects through the
+ferrule into the root-canal. The contour of the lingual surface of
+the crown is made of gold, which is shaped to conform to the
+anatomical lines of the tooth. The shell-crown consists of a
+reproduction of the crown entirely of gold plate, filled with
+cement, and driven over the root-end, which it closely encircles.
+The two latter kinds of crowns may be used as abutments for
+the support of intervening crowns in constructing bridge-work.
+When artificial crowns are supported not by natural tooth-roots
+but by soldering them to abutments, they are termed dummies.
+The number of dummies which may be supported upon a given
+number of roots depends upon the position and character of the
+abutments, the character of the alveolar tissues, the age, sex and
+health of the patient, the character of the occlusion or bite, and
+the force exerted in mastication. In some cases a root will not
+properly support more than one additional crown; in others
+an entire bridge denture has been successfully supported upon
+four well-placed roots. Two general classes of bridge-work are
+recognized, namely, the fixed and the removable. Removable
+bridge-work, though more difficult to construct, is preferable, as
+it can be more thoroughly and easily cleansed. When properly
+made and applied to judiciously selected cases, the bridge
+denture is the most artistic and functionally perfect restoration
+of prosthetic dentistry.</p>
+
+<p>The entire development of modern dentistry dates from the
+19th century, and mainly from its latter half. Beginning with a
+few practitioners and no organized professional basis, educational
+system or literature, its practitioners are to be found in all
+civilized communities, those in Great Britain numbering about
+5000; in the United States, 27,000; France, 1600, of whom
+376 are graduates; German Empire, qualified practitioners
+(<i>Zahnärzte</i>), 1400; practitioners without official qualification,
+4100. Its educational institutions are numerous and well
+equipped. It possesses a large periodical and standard literature
+in all languages. Its practice is regulated by legislative
+enactment in all countries the same as is medical practice.
+The business of manufacturing and selling dentists&rsquo; supplies
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54"></a>54</span>
+represents an enormous industry, in which millions of capital
+are invested.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;W. F. Litch, <i>American System of Dentistry</i>;
+Julius Scheff, jun., <i>Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde</i>; Charles J. Essig,
+<i>American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry</i>; Tomes, <i>Dental Anatomy</i>
+and <i>Dental Surgery</i>; W. D. Miller, <i>Microörganisms of the Human
+Mouth</i>; Hopewell Smith, <i>Dental Microscopy</i>; H. H. Burchard,
+<i>Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and Pharmacology</i>; F. J. S. Gorgas,
+<i>Dental Medicine</i>; E. H. Angle, <i>Treatment of Malocclusion of the
+Teeth and Fractures of the Maxillae</i>; G. Evans, <i>A Practical Treatise
+on Artificial Crown-and-Bridge Work and Porcelain Dental Art</i>;
+C. N. Johnson, <i>Principles and Practice of Filling Teeth, American
+Text-Book of Operative Dentistry</i> (3rd ed., 1905); Edward C. Kirk,
+<i>Principles and Practice of Operative Dentistry</i> (2nd ed., 1905);
+J. S. Marshall, <i>American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry</i> (edited by
+C. R. Turner; 3rd ed., 1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. K.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The filling of teeth with gold foil is recorded in the oldest known
+book on dentistry, <i>Artzney Buchlein</i>, published anonymously in 1530,
+in which the operation is quoted from Mesue (A.D. 857), physician to
+the caliph Haroun al-Raschid.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENTON,</span> an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, 4&frac12; m. N.E. from Stockport, on
+the London &amp; North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 14,934. In
+the township are reservoirs for the water supply of Manchester,
+with a capacity of 1,860,000,000 gallons. The manufacture of
+felt hats is the leading industry. Coal is extensively mined in
+the district.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DENVER,</span> the capital of Colorado, U.S.A., the county-seat
+of Denver county, and the largest city between Kansas City,
+Missouri, and the Pacific coast, sometimes called the &ldquo;Queen
+City of the Plains.&rdquo; Pop. (1870) 4759; (1880) 35,629; (1890)
+106,713; (1900), 133,859, of whom 25,301 were foreign-born
+and 3923 were negroes; (1910 census) 213,381. Of the
+25,301 foreign-born in 1900, 5114 were Germans; 3485, Irish;
+3376, Swedes; 3344, English; 2623, English-Canadian;
+1338, Russians; and 1033, Scots. Denver is an important
+railway centre, being served by nine railways, of which the
+chief are the Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé; the Chicago,
+Burlington &amp; Quincy; the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific;
+the Denver &amp; Rio Grande; the Union Pacific; and the
+Denver, North-Western &amp; Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>Denver lies on the South Platte river, at an altitude exactly
+1 m. above the sea, about 15 m. from the E. base of the Rocky
+mountains, which stretch along the W. horizon from N. to S.
+in an unbroken chain of some 175 m. Excursions may be made
+in all directions into the mountains, affording beautiful scenery
+and interesting views of the mining camps. Various peaks are
+readily accessible from Denver: Long&rsquo;s Peak (14,271 ft.), Gray&rsquo;s
+Peak (14,341 ft.), Torrey Peak (14,336 ft.), Mt. Evans (14,330 ft.),
+Pike&rsquo;s Peak (14,108 ft.), and many others of only slightly less
+altitudes. The streets are excellent, broad and regular. The
+parks are a fine feature of the city; by its charter a fixed
+percentage of all expenditures for public improvements must be
+used to purchase park land. Architectural variety and solidity
+are favoured in the buildings of the city by a wealth of beautiful
+building stones of varied colours (limestones, sandstones, lavas,
+granites and marbles), in addition to which bricks and Roman
+tiles are employed. The State Capitol, built of native granite and
+marble (1887-1895, cost $2,500,000), is an imposing building.
+Noteworthy also are the Denver county court house; the handsome
+East Denver high school; the Federal building, containing
+the United States custom house and post office; the United
+States mint; the large Auditorium, in which the Democratic
+National convention met in 1908; a Carnegie library (1908)
+and the Mining Exchange; and there are various excellent
+business blocks, theatres, clubs and churches. Denver has an
+art museum and a zoological museum. The libraries of the city
+contain an aggregate of some 300,000 volumes. Denver is the
+seat of the Jesuit college of the Sacred Heart (1888; in the
+suburbs); and the university of Denver (Methodist, 1889), a
+co-educational institution, succeeding the Colorado Seminary
+(founded in 1864 by John Evans), and consisting of a college
+of liberal arts, a graduate school, Chamberlin astronomical
+observatory and a preparatory school&mdash;these have buildings
+in University Park&mdash;and (near the centre of the city) the
+Denver and Gross College of Medicine, the Denver law school, a
+college of music in the building of the old Colorado Seminary, and
+a Saturday college (with classes specially for professional men).</p>
+
+<p>The prosperity of the city depends on that of the rich mining
+country about it, on a very extensive wholesale trade, for which
+its situation and railway facilities admirably fit it, and on its
+large manufacturing and farming interests. The value of
+manufactures produced in 1900 was $41,368,698 (increase
+1890-1900, 41.5%). The value of the factory product for 1905,
+however, was 3.3% less than that for 1900, though it represented
+36.6% of the product of the state as a whole. The principal
+industry is the smelting and refining of lead, and the smelting
+works are among the most interesting sights of the city. The
+value of the ore reduced annually is about $10,000,000. Denver
+has also large foundries and machine shops, flour and grist mills,
+and slaughtering and meat-packing establishments. Denver is
+the central live-stock market of the Rocky Mountain states. The
+beet sugar, fruit and other agricultural products of the surrounding
+and tributary section were valued in 1906 at about
+$20,000,000. The assessed valuation of property in the city in
+1905 was $115,338,920 (about the true value), and the bonded
+debt $1,079,595.</p>
+
+<p>At Denver the South Platte is joined by Cherry Creek, and
+here in October 1858 were established on opposite sides of the
+creek two bitterly rival settlements, St Charles and Auraria; the
+former was renamed almost immediately Denver, after General
+J. W. Denver (1818-1892), ex-governor of Kansas (which then
+included Colorado), and Auraria was absorbed. Denver had
+already been incorporated by a provisional local (extra legal)
+&ldquo;legislature,&rdquo; and the Kansas legislature gave a charter to a
+rival company which the Denver people bought out. A city
+government was organized in December 1859; and continued
+under a reincorporation effected by the first territorial legislature
+of 1861. This body adjourned from Colorado City, nominally
+the capital, to Denver, and in 1862 Golden was made the seat of
+government. In 1868 Denver became the capital, but feeling in
+the southern counties was then so strong against Denver that
+provision was made for a popular vote on the situation of the
+capital five years after Colorado should become a state. This
+popular vote confirmed Denver in 1881. Until 1870, when it
+secured a branch railway from the Union Pacific line at Cheyenne
+(Wyoming), the city was on one side of the transcontinental travel-routes.
+The first road was quickly followed by the Kansas
+Pacific from Kansas City (1870, now also part of the Union
+Pacific), the Denver &amp; Rio Grande (1871), the Burlington system
+(1882), the Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé (1887), and other roads
+which have made Denver&rsquo;s fortune. In April 1859 appeared the
+first number of <i>The Rocky Mountain News</i>. The same year a
+postal express to Leavenworth, Kansas (10 days, letters 25 cents
+an ounce) was established; and telegraph connexion with Boston
+and New York ($9 for 10 words) in 1863. A private mint was
+established in 1860. In the &rsquo;seventies all the facilities of a modern
+city&mdash;gas, street-cars, water-works, telephones&mdash;were introduced.
+Much the same might be said of a score of cities in the
+new West, but none is a more striking example than Denver of
+marvellous growth. The city throve on the freighting trade of
+the mines. In 1864 a tremendous flood almost ruined it, and
+another flood in 1878, and a famous strike in Denver and
+Leadville in 1879-1880 were further, but only momentary,
+checks to its prosperity. As in every western city, particularly
+those in mining regions whose sites attained speculative values,
+Denver had grave problems with &ldquo;squatters&rdquo; or &ldquo;land-jumpers&rdquo;
+in her early years; and there was the usual gambling
+and outlawry, sometimes extra-legally repressed by vigilantes.
+Settled social conditions, however, soon established themselves.
+In 1880 there was a memorable election riot under the guise of
+an anti-Chinese demonstration. In the decade 1870-1880 the
+population increased 648.7%. The &rsquo;eighties were notable
+for great real estate activity, and the population of the city
+increased 199.5% from 1880 to 1890. In 1882-1884 three
+successive annual exhibits of a National Mining and Industrial
+Exposition were held. After 1890 growth was slower but
+continuous. In 1902 a city-and-county of Denver was created
+with extensive powers of framing its own charter, and in
+1904 a charter was adopted. The constitution of the state was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55"></a>55</span>
+framed by a convention that sat at Denver from December 1875
+to March 1876; various territorial conventions met here; and
+here W. J. Bryan was nominated in 1908 for the presidency.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEODAND</span> (Lat. <i>Deo dandum</i>, that which is to be given to God),
+in English law, was a personal chattel (any animal or thing)
+which, on account of its having caused the death of a human
+being, was forfeited to the king for pious uses. Blackstone, while
+tracing in the custom an expiatory design, alludes to analogous
+Jewish and Greek laws,<a name="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which required that what occasions a
+man&rsquo;s death should be destroyed. In such usages the notion of
+the punishment of an animal or thing, or of its being morally
+affected from having caused the death of a man, seems to be
+implied. The forfeiture of the offending instrument in no way
+depends on the guilt of the owner. This imputation of guilt to
+inanimate objects or to the lower animals is not inconsistent with
+what we know of the ideas of uncivilized races. In English law,
+deodands came to be regarded as mere forfeitures to the king, and
+the rules on which they depended were not easily explained by
+any key in the possession of the old commentators. The law
+distinguished, for instance, between a thing in motion and a thing
+standing still. If a horse or other animal in motion killed a
+person, whether infant or adult, or if a cart ran over him, it was
+forfeited as a deodand. On the other hand, if death were caused
+by falling from a cart or a horse at rest, the law made the chattel
+a deodand if the person killed were an adult, but not if he
+were below the years of discretion. Blackstone accounts for the
+greater severity against things in motion by saying that in such
+cases the owner is more usually at fault, an explanation which
+is doubtful in point of fact, and would certainly not account
+for other instances of the same tendency. Thus, where a man&rsquo;s
+death is caused by a thing not in motion, that part only which is
+the immediate cause is forfeited, as &ldquo;if a man be climbing up the
+wheel of a cart, and is killed by falling from it, the wheel alone is
+a deodand&rdquo;; whereas, if the cart were in motion, not only the
+wheel but all that moves along with it (as the cart and the
+loading) are forfeited. A similar distinction is to be found in
+Britton. Where a man is killed by a vessel at rest the cargo is not
+deodand; where the vessel is under sail, hull and cargo are both
+deodand. For the distinction between the death of a child and the
+death of an adult Blackstone accounts by suggesting that the child
+&ldquo;was presumed incapable of actual sin, and therefore needed no
+deodand to purchase propitiatory masses; but every adult who
+died in actual sin stood in need of such atonement, according to
+the humane superstition of the founders of the English law.&rdquo; Sir
+Matthew Hale&rsquo;s explanation was that the child could not take
+care of himself, whereon Blackstone asks why the owner should
+save his forfeiture on account of the imbecility of the child, which
+ought to have been an additional reason for caution. The
+finding of a jury was necessary to constitute a deodand, and the
+investigation of the value of the instrument by which death was
+caused occupied an important place among the provisions of
+early English criminal law. It became a necessary part of an
+indictment to state the nature and value of the weapon employed&mdash;as,
+that the stroke was given by a certain penknife, of the value
+of sixpence&mdash;so that the king might have his deodand. Accidents
+on the high seas did not cause forfeiture, being beyond the domain
+of the common law; but it would appear that in the case of
+ships in fresh water the law held good. The king might grant his
+right to deodands to another. In later times these forfeitures
+became extremely unpopular; and juries, with the connivance
+of judges, found deodands of trifling value, so as to defeat the
+inequitable claim. At last, by an act of 1846 they were abolished,
+the date noticeably coinciding with the introduction of railways
+and modern steam-engines.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare also the rule of the Twelve Tables, by which an animal
+which had inflicted mischief might be surrendered in lieu of compensation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEOGARH,</span> the name of several towns of British India. (1) A
+town in the Santal Parganas district of Bengal. Pop. (1901)
+8838. It is famous for a group of twenty-two temples dedicated
+to Siva, the resort of numerous pilgrims. It is connected with
+the East Indian railway by a steam tramway, 5 m. in length.
+(2) The headquarters of the Bamra feudatory state in Bengal;
+58 m. by road from the Bamra Road station on the Bengal-Nagpur
+railway. Pop. (1901) 5702. The town, which is well
+laid out, with parks and gardens, and pleasantly situated in a
+hollow among hills, rapidly increased in population under the
+enlightened administration of the raja, Sir Sudhal Rao, K.C.I.E.
+(b. 1860). It has a state-supported high school affiliated to
+Calcutta University, with a chemical and physical laboratory.
+(3) The chief town of the Deogarh estate in the state of Udaipur,
+Rajputana, about 68 m. N.N.E. of the city of Udaipur. It is
+walled, and contains a fine palace. Pop. (1901) 5384. The
+holder of the estate is styled <i>rawat</i>, and is one of the first-class
+nobles of Mewar. (4) Deogarh Fort, the ancient Devagiri or
+Deogiri (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Daulatabad</a></span>).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DÉOLS,</span> a suburb of the French town of Châteauroux, in the
+department of Indre. Pop. (1906) 2337. Déols lies to the
+north of Châteauroux, from which it is separated by the Indre.
+It preserves a fine Romanesque tower and other remains of the
+church of a famous Benedictine abbey, the most important in
+Berry, founded in 917 by Ebbes the Noble, lord of Déols. A
+gateway flanked by towers survives from the old ramparts of
+the town. The parish church of St Stephen (15th and 16th
+centuries) has a Romanesque façade and a crypt containing the
+ancient Christian tomb of St Ludre and his father St Leocade, who
+according to tradition were lords of the town in the 4th century.
+There are also interesting old paintings of the 10th century
+representing the ancient abbey. The pilgrimage to the tomb of
+St Ludre gave importance to Déols, which under the name of
+<i>Vicus Dolensis</i> was in existence in the Roman period. In 468
+the Visigoths defeated the Gauls there, the victory carrying with
+it the supremacy over the district of Berry. In the middle ages
+the head of the family of Déols enjoyed the title of prince and
+held sway over nearly all Lower Berry, of which the town itself
+was the capital. In the 10th century Raoul of Déols gave his
+castle to the monks of the abbey and transferred his residence
+to Châteauroux. For centuries this change did not affect the
+prosperity of the place, which was maintained by the prestige
+of its abbey. But the burning of the abbey church by the
+Protestants during the religious wars and in 1622 the suppression
+of the abbey by the agency of Henry II., prince of Condé and of
+Déols, owing to the corruption of the monks, led to its decadence.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEPARTMENT</span> (Fr. <i>département</i>, from <i>départir</i>, to separate
+into parts), a division. The word is used of the branches of the
+administration in a state or municipality; in Great Britain it
+is applied to the subordinate divisions only of the great offices
+and boards of state, such as the bankruptcy department of the
+Board of Trade, but in the United States these subordinate
+divisions are known as &ldquo;bureaus,&rdquo; while &ldquo;department&rdquo; is used
+of the eight chief branches of the executive.</p>
+
+<p>A particular use of the word is that for a territorial division
+of France, corresponding loosely to an English county. Previous
+to the French Revolution, the local unit in France was the
+province, but this division was too closely bound up with the
+administrative mismanagement of the old régime. Accordingly,
+at the suggestion of Mirabeau, France was redivided on entirely
+new lines, the thirty-four provinces being broken up into eighty-three
+departments (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolution</a></span>). The idea was
+to render them as nearly as possible equal to a certain average
+of size and population, though this was not always adhered to.
+They derived their names principally from rivers, mountains
+or other prominent geographical features. Under Napoleon the
+number was increased to one hundred and thirty, but in 1815 it
+was reduced to eighty-six. In 1860 three new departments were
+created out of the newly annexed territory of Savoy and Nice. In
+1871 three departments (Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin and Moselle)
+were lost after the German war. Of the remains of the Haut-Rhin
+was formed the territory of Belfort, and the fragments of
+the Moselle were incorporated in the department of Meurthe,
+which was renamed Meurthe-et-Moselle, making the number
+at present eighty-seven. For a complete list of the departments
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>. Each department is presided over by an officer
+called a prefect, appointed by the government, and assisted by a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"></a>56</span>
+prefectorial council (<i>conseil de préfecture</i>). The departments are
+subdivided into arrondissements, each in charge of a sub-prefect.
+Arrondissements are again subdivided into cantons, and these
+into communes, somewhat equivalent to the English parish
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France: <i>Local Government</i></a></span>).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DE PERE,</span> a city of Brown county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both
+sides of the Fox river, 6 m. above its mouth, and 109 m. N. of
+Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 3625; (1900) 4038, of whom 1025
+were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 4523. It is served by
+the Chicago &amp; North-Western and Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St Paul
+railways, by interurban electric lines and by lake and river
+steamboat lines, it being the head of lake navigation on the Fox
+river. Two bridges here span the Fox, which is from <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">3</span> m. to &frac12; m.
+in width. It is a shipping and transfer point and has paper
+mills, machine shops, flour mills, sash, door and blind factories,
+a launch and pleasure-boat factory, and knitting works, cheese
+factories and dairies, brick yards and grain elevators. There is
+an excellent water-power. De Pere is the seat of St Norbert&rsquo;s
+college (Roman Catholic, 1902) and has a public library. North
+of the city is located the state reformatory. On the coming
+of the first European, Jean Nicolet, who visited the place in
+1634-1635, De Pere was the site of a polyglot Indian settlement
+of several thousand attracted by the fishing at the first rapids of
+the Fox river. Here in 1670 Father Claude Allouez established
+the mission of St Francis Xavier, the second in what is now
+Wisconsin. From the name <i>Rapides des Peres</i>, which the French
+applied to the place, was derived the name De Pere. Here
+Nicolas Perrot, the first French commandant in the North-West,
+established his headquarters, and Father Jacques Marquette
+wrote the journal of his journey to the Mississippi. A few
+miles south of the city lived for many years Eleazer Williams
+(c. 1787-1857), the alleged &ldquo;lost dauphin&rdquo; Louis XVII. of France
+and an authority on Indians, especially Iroquois. De Pere was
+incorporated as a village in 1857, and was chartered as a city
+in 1883.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL</span> (1834-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), American
+lawyer and politician, was born in Peekskill, New York, on the
+23rd of April 1834, of a Huguenot family (originally Du Puis or
+De Puy). He graduated at Yale in 1856, entered politics as a
+Whig&mdash;his father had been a Democrat&mdash;was admitted to the
+bar in 1858, was a member of the New York Assembly in
+1861-1862, and was secretary of state of New York state in
+1864-1865. He refused a nomination to be United States
+minister to Japan, and through his friendship with Cornelius and
+William H. Vanderbilt in 1866 became attorney for the New York
+&amp; Harlem railway, in 1869 was appointed attorney of the newly
+consolidated New York Central &amp; Hudson river railway, of which
+he soon became a director, and in 1875 was made general counsel
+for the entire Vanderbilt system of railways. He became second
+vice-president of the New York Central &amp; Hudson river in 1869
+and was its president in 1885-1898, and in 1898 was made
+chairman of the board of directors of the Vanderbilt system. In
+1872 he joined the Liberal-Republican movement, and was
+nominated and defeated for the office of lieutenant-governor of
+New York. In 1888 in the National Republican convention he
+was a candidate for the presidential nomination, but withdrew
+his name in favour of Benjamin Harrison, whose offer to him in
+1889 of the portfolio of state he refused. In 1899 he was elected
+United States senator from New York state, and in 1904 was
+re-elected for the term ending in 1911. His great personal
+popularity, augmented by his ability as an orator, suffered
+considerably after 1905, the inquiry into life insurance company
+methods by a committee of the state legislature resulting in
+acute criticism of his actions as a director of the Equitable Life
+Assurance Society and as counsel to Henry B. Hyde and his
+son. Among his best-known orations are that delivered at
+the unveiling of the Bartholdi statue of Liberty enlightening
+the World (1886), an address at the Washington Centennial in
+New York (1889), and the Columbian oration at the dedication
+ceremonies of the Chicago World&rsquo;s Fair (1892).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEPILATORY</span> (from Lat. <i>depilare</i>, to pull out the <i>pilus</i> or
+hair), any substance, preparation or process which will remove
+superfluous hair. For this purpose caustic alkalis, alkaline earths
+and also orpiment (trisulphide of arsenic) are used, the last being
+somewhat dangerous. No application is permanent in its effect,
+as the hair always grows again. The only permanent method,
+which is, however, painful, slow in operation and likely to leave
+small scars, is by the use of an electric current for the destruction
+of the follicles by electrolysis.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEPORTATION,</span> or <span class="sc">Transportation</span>, a system of punishment
+for crime, of which the essential factor is the removal of the
+criminal to a penal settlement outside his own country. It is to
+be distinguished from mere <a href="#artlinks">expulsion</a> (q.v.) from a country,
+though the term &ldquo;deportation&rdquo; is now used in that sense in
+English law under the Aliens Act 1905 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alien</a></span>). Strictly,
+the deportation or transportation system has ceased to exist in
+England, though the removal or exclusion of undesirable persons
+from British territory, under various Orders in Council, is possible
+in places subject to the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, and in the case
+of criminals under the Extradition Acts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Earlier British Transportation System.</i>&mdash;At a time when the
+British statute-book bristled with capital felonies, when the pick-pocket
+or sheep-stealer was hanged out of hand, when Sir Samuel
+Romilly, to whose strenuous exertions the amelioration of the
+penal code is in a great measure due, declared that the laws
+of England were written in blood, another and less sanguinary
+penalty came into great favour. The deportation of criminals
+beyond the seas grew naturally out of the laws which prescribed
+banishment for certain offences. The Vagrancy Act of Elizabeth&rsquo;s
+reign contained in it the germ of transportation, by empowering
+justices in quarter sessions to banish offenders and order
+them to be conveyed into such parts beyond the seas as should
+be assigned by the privy council. Full effect was given to this
+statute in the next reign, as is proved by a letter of James I.
+<span class="sidenote">American plantations.</span>
+dated 1619, in which the king directs &ldquo;a hundred
+dissolute persons&rdquo; to be sent to Virginia. Another
+act of similar tenor was passed in the reign of
+Charles II., in which the term &ldquo;transportation&rdquo;
+appears to have been first used. A further and more systematic
+development of the system of transportation took place in
+1617, when an act was passed by which offenders who had
+escaped the death penalty were handed over to contractors,
+who engaged to transport them to the American colonies.
+These contractors were vested with a property in the
+labour of the convicts for a certain term, generally from
+seven to fourteen years, and this right they frequently sold.
+Labour in those early days was scarce in the new settlements;
+and before the general adoption of negro slavery there was a
+keen competition for felon hands. An organized system
+of kidnapping prevailed along the British coasts; young lads
+were seized and sold into what was practically white slavery in
+the American plantations. These malpractices were checked, but
+the legitimate traffic in convict labour continued, until it was
+ended peremptorily by the revolt of the American colonies and
+the achievement of their independence in 1776.<a name="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The British legislature, making a virtue of necessity, discovered
+that transportation to the colonies was bound to be attended by
+various inconveniences, particularly by depriving the kingdom of
+many subjects whose labour might be useful to the community;
+and an act was accordingly passed which provides that convicts
+sentenced to transportation might be employed at hard labour
+at home. At the same time the consideration of some scheme
+for their disposal was entrusted to three eminent public men&mdash;Sir
+William Blackstone, Mr Eden (afterwards Lord Auckland)
+and John Howard. The result of their labours was an act for the
+establishment of penitentiary houses, dated 1778. This act is of
+peculiar importance. It contains the first public enunciation of a
+general principle of prison treatment, and shows that even at that
+early date the system since nearly universally adopted was fully
+understood. The object in view was thus stated. It was hoped
+&ldquo;by sobriety, cleanliness and medical assistance, by a regular
+series of labour, by solitary confinement during the intervals of
+work and by due religious instruction to preserve and amend
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"></a>57</span>
+the health of the unhappy offenders, to inure them to habits of
+industry, to guard them from pernicious company, to accustom
+them to serious reflection and to teach them both the principles
+and practice of every Christian and moral duty.&rdquo; The experience
+of succeeding years has added little to these the true principles
+of penal discipline; they form the basis of every species of prison
+system carried out since the passing of an act of 1779.</p>
+
+<p>No immediate action was taken by the committee appointed.
+Its members were not in accord as to the choice of site. One was
+for Islington, another for Limehouse; Howard only stipulated
+for some healthy place well supplied with water and conveniently
+situated for supervision. He was strongly of opinion that the
+penitentiary should be built by convict labour. Howard withdrew
+from the commission, and new members were appointed, who
+were on the eve of beginning the first penitentiary when the
+discoveries of Captain Cook in the South Seas turned the attention
+of the government towards these new lands. The vast territories
+<span class="sidenote">Australian penal settlements.</span>
+of Australasia promised an unlimited field for convict
+colonization, and for the moment the scheme for
+penitentiary houses fell to the ground. Public opinion
+generally preferred the idea of establishing penal
+settlements at a distance from home. &ldquo;There was general
+confidence,&rdquo; says Merivale in his work on colonization, &ldquo;in the
+favourite theory that the best mode of punishing offenders was
+that which removed them from the scene of offence and temptation,
+cut them off by a great gulf of space from all their former
+connexions, and gave them the opportunity of redeeming past
+crimes by becoming useful members of society.&rdquo; These views so
+far prevailed that an expedition consisting of nine transports
+and two men-of-war, the &ldquo;first fleet&rdquo; of Australian annals, sailed
+in March 1787 for New South Wales. This first fleet reached
+Botany Bay in January 1788, but passed on and landed at Port
+Jackson, where it entered and occupied Sydney harbour. From
+that time forward convicts were sent in constantly increasing
+numbers from England to the Antipodes. Yet the early settlement
+at Sydney had not greatly prospered. The infant colony
+had had a bitter struggle for existence. It had been hoped that
+the community would raise its own produce and speedily become
+self-supporting. But the soil was unfruitful; the convicts knew
+nothing of farming. All lived upon rations sent out from home;
+and when convoys with relief lingered by the way famine stared
+all in the face. The colony was long a penal settlement and
+nothing more, peopled only by two classes, convicts and their
+masters; criminal bondsmen on the one hand who had forfeited
+their independence and were bound to labour without wages for the
+state, on the other officials to guard and exact the due performance
+of tasks. A few free families were encouraged to emigrate,
+but they were lost in the mass they were intended to leaven,
+swamped and outnumbered by the convicts, shiploads of whom
+continued to pour in year after year. When the influx increased,
+difficulties as to their employment arose. Free settlers were too
+few to give work to more than a small proportion. Moreover, a
+new policy was in the ascendant, initiated by Governor Macquarie,
+who considered the convicts and their rehabilitation his chief
+care, and steadily discouraged the immigration of any but those
+who &ldquo;came out for their country&rsquo;s good.&rdquo; The great bulk of the
+convict labour thus remained in government hands.</p>
+
+<p>This period marked the first phase in the history of transportation.
+The penal colony, having triumphed over early dangers
+and difficulties, was crowded with convicts in a state of semi-freedom,
+maintained at the public expense and utilized in the
+development of the latent resources of the country. The methods
+employed by Governor Macquarie were not, perhaps, invariably
+the best; the time was hardly ripe as yet for the erection of
+palatial buildings in Sydney, while the congregation of the workmen
+in large bodies tended greatly to their demoralization. But
+some of the works undertaken and carried out were of incalculable
+service to the young colony; and its early advance in wealth and
+prosperity was greatly due to the magnificent roads, bridges and
+other facilities of inter-communication for which it was indebted
+to Governor Macquarie. As time passed the criminal sewage
+flowing from the Old World to the New greatly increased in
+volume under milder and more humane laws. Many now escaped
+the gallows, and much of the overcrowding of the gaols at home
+was caused by the gangs of convicts awaiting transhipment to
+the Antipodes. They were packed off, however, with all convenient
+despatch, and the numbers on government hands in the
+colonies multiplied exceedingly, causing increasing embarrassment
+as to their disposal. Moreover, the expense of the Australian
+convict establishments was enormous.</p>
+
+<p>Some change in system was inevitable, and the plan of &ldquo;assignment&rdquo;
+was introduced; in other words, that of freely lending the
+convicts to any who would relieve the authorities of the burdensome
+<span class="sidenote">Assignment system.</span>
+charge. By this time free settlers were arriving
+in greater number, invited by a different and more
+liberal policy than that of Governor Macquarie.
+Inducements were especially offered to persons
+possessed of capital to assist in the development of the country.
+Assignment developed rapidly; soon eager competition arose for
+the convict hands that had been at first so reluctantly taken.
+Great facilities existed for utilizing them on the wide areas of
+grazing land and on the new stations in the interior. A pastoral
+life, without temptations and contaminating influences, was well
+suited for convicts. As the colony grew richer and more populous,
+other than agricultural employers became assignees, and numerous
+enterprises were set on foot. The trades and callings which
+minister to the needs of all civilized communities were more and
+more largely pursued. There was plenty of work for skilled
+convicts in the towns, and the services of the more intelligent
+were highly prized. It was a great boon to secure gratis the
+assistance of men specially trained as clerks, book-keepers or
+handicraftsmen. Hence all manner of intrigues and man&oelig;uvres
+were afoot on the arrival of drafts and there was a scramble for
+the best hands. Here at once was a palpable flaw in the system
+of assignment. The lot of the convict was altogether unequal.
+Some, the dull, unlettered and unskilled, were drafted up country
+to heavy manual labour at which they remained, while clever
+expert rogues found pleasant, congenial and often profitable
+employment in the towns. The contrast was very marked from
+the first, but it became the more apparent when in due course it
+was seen that some were still engaged in irksome toil, while others
+who had come out by the same ship had already attained to
+affluence and ease. For the latter transportation was no punishment,
+but often the reverse. It meant too often transfer to a new
+world under conditions more favourable to success, removed from
+the keener competition of the old. By adroit management, too,
+convicts often obtained the command of funds, the product of
+nefarious transactions at home, which wives or near relatives or
+unconvicted accomplices presently brought out to them. It was
+easy for the free new-comers to secure the assignment of their
+convict friends; and the latter, although still nominally servants
+and in the background, at once assumed the real control.
+Another system productive of much evil was the employment of
+convict clerks in positions of trust in various government offices;
+convicts did much of the legal work of the colony; a convict was
+clerk to the attorney general; others were schoolmasters and
+were entrusted with the education of youth.</p>
+
+<p>Under a system so anomalous and uncertain the main object
+of transportation as a method of penal discipline and repression
+was in danger of being quite overlooked. Yet the state
+<span class="sidenote">Evils of convict system.</span>
+could not entirely abdicate its functions, although it
+surrendered to a great extent the care of criminals to
+private persons. It had established a code of penalties
+for the coercion of the ill-conducted, while it kept the
+worst perforce in its own hands. The master was always at
+liberty to appeal to the strong arm of the law. A message carried
+to a neighbouring magistrate, often by the culprit himself, brought
+down the prompt retribution of the lash. Convicts might be
+flogged for petty offences, for idleness, drunkenness, turbulence,
+absconding and so forth. At the out-stations some show of
+decorum and regularity was observed, although the work done
+was generally scanty and the convicts were secretly given to all
+manner of evil courses. The town convicts were worse, because
+they were far less controlled. They were nominally under the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58"></a>58</span>
+surveillance and supervision of the police, which amounted to
+nothing at all. They came and went, and amused themselves
+after working hours, so that Sydney and all the large towns were
+hotbeds of vice and immorality. The masters as a rule made
+no attempt to watch over their charges; many of them were
+absolutely unfitted to do so, being themselves of low character,
+&ldquo;emancipists&rdquo; frequently, old convicts conditionally pardoned
+or who had finished their terms. No effort was made to prevent
+the assignment of convicts to improper persons; every applicant
+got what he wanted, even though his own character would not
+bear inspection. All whom the masters could not manage&mdash;the
+incorrigible upon whom the lash and bread and water had been
+tried in vain&mdash;were returned to government charge. These, in
+short, comprised the whole of the refuse of colonial convictdom.
+Every man who could not agree with his master, or who was
+to undergo a penalty greater than flogging or less than capital
+punishment, came back to government and was disposed of in
+one of three ways, (1) the road parties, (2) the chain gang, or (3) the
+penal settlements. (1) In the first case, the convicts might be
+kept in the vicinity of the towns or marched about the country
+according to the work in hand; the labour was severe, but, owing
+to inefficient supervision, never intolerable; the diet was ample
+and there was no great restraint upon independence within
+certain wide limits. To the slackness of control over the road
+parties was directly traceable the frequent escape of desperadoes,
+who, defying recapture, recruited the gangs of bushrangers
+which were a constant terror to the whole country. In (2) the
+chain or iron gangs, as they were sometimes styled, discipline was
+far more rigorous. It was maintained by the constant presence
+of a military guard, and when most efficiently organized the gang
+was governed by a military officer who was also a magistrate.
+The work was really hard, the custody close&mdash;in hulk, stockaded
+barrack or caravan; the first was at Sydney, the second in the
+interior, the last when the undertaking required constant change
+of place. All were locked up from sunset to sunrise; all wore
+heavy leg irons; and all were liable to immediate flagellation.
+The convict &ldquo;scourger&rdquo; was one of the regular officials attached
+to every chain gang. (3) The third and ultimate receptacle was
+the penal settlement, to which no offenders were transferred till
+all other methods of treatment had failed. These were terrible
+cesspools of iniquity, so bad that it seemed, to use the words of
+one who knew them well, that &ldquo;the heart of a man who went to
+them was taken from him and he was given that of a beast.&rdquo;
+The horrors accumulated at Norfolk Island, Moreton Bay, Port
+Arthur and Tasman&rsquo;s Peninsula are almost beyond description.
+The convicts herded together in them were soon utterly degraded
+and brutalized; no wonder that reckless despair took possession
+of them, that death on the gallows for murder purposely committed,
+or the slow terror from starvation following escape into
+surrounding wilds was often welcomed as a relief.</p>
+
+<p>The stage which transportation was now reaching and the
+actual condition of affairs in the Australian colonies about this
+period do not appear to have been much understood in England.
+Earnest and thoughtful men might busy themselves with prison
+discipline at home, and the legislature might watch with peculiar
+interest the results obtained from the special treatment of a
+limited number of selected offenders in Millbank penitentiary.
+But for the great mass of criminality deported to a distant shore
+no very active concern was shown. The country for a long time
+seemed satisfied with transportation. Portions of the system
+might be open to criticism. Thus the Commons committee of
+1832 freely condemned the hulks at Woolwich and other arsenals
+in which a large number of convicts were kept while waiting
+embarkation. It was reported that the indiscriminate association
+of prisoners in them produced more vice, profaneness and
+demoralization than in the ordinary prisons. After dark the
+wildest orgies went on unchecked&mdash;dancing, fighting, gambling,
+singing and so forth; it was easy to get drink and tobacco and
+to see friends from outside. The labour hours were short and
+the tasks light; &ldquo;altogether the situation of the convict in
+the hulks,&rdquo; says the report, &ldquo;cannot be considered penal; it is
+a state of restriction, but hardly of punishment.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>But no objection was raised to transportation. It was considered
+by this same committee &ldquo;a most valuable expedient
+in the system of secondary punishment.&rdquo; They only thought it
+necessary to suggest that exile should be preceded by a period
+of severe probationary punishment in England, a proposal
+which was reiterated later on and actually adopted. It was in
+the country most closely affected that dissatisfaction first began
+to find voice. Already in 1832 the most reputable sections of
+Australian society were beginning to murmur grievously. Transportation
+had fostered the growth of a strong party&mdash;that
+representing convict views&mdash;and these were advocated boldly in
+<span class="sidenote">Australian objections.</span>
+unprincipled prints. This party, constantly recruited
+from the emancipists and ticket-of-leave holders,
+gradually grew very numerous, and threatened soon
+to swamp the honest and untainted parts of the
+community. As years passed the prevalence of crime, and the
+universally low tone of morality due to the convict element,
+became more and more in the ascendant. At length in 1835
+Judge Burton made a loud protest, and in a charge to the grand
+jury of Sydney plainly intimated that transportation must cease.
+While it existed, he said, the colonies could never rise to their
+proper position; they could not claim free institutions. This
+bold but forcible language commanded attention. It was speedily
+echoed in England, and particularly by Archbishop Whately,
+who argued that transportation failed in all the leading requisites
+of any system of secondary punishment. Transportation
+exercised no salutary terror in offenders; it was no longer exile to
+an unknown inhospitable region, but to one flowing with milk and
+honey, whither innumerable friends and associates had gone
+already. The most glowing descriptions came back of the wealth
+which any clever fellow might easily amass; stories were told
+and names mentioned of those who had made ample fortunes in
+Australia in a few years. As a matter of fact the convicts, or at
+least large numbers of them, had prospered exceedingly. Some
+had incomes of twenty, thirty, even forty thousand pounds a year.
+The deteriorating effects of the system were plainly manifest on
+the surface from the condition of the colony,&mdash;the profligacy of
+the towns, the scant reprobation of crimes and those who had
+committed them. Down below, in the openly sanctioned slavery
+called assignment, in the demoralizing chain gangs and in the
+inexpressibly horrible penal settlements, were more abundant
+and more awful proofs of the general wickedness and corruption.
+Moreover these appalling results were accompanied by colossal
+expenditure. The cost of the colonial convict establishments,
+with the passages out, amounted annually to upwards of
+£300,000; another £100,000 was expended on the military
+garrisons; and various items brought the whole outlay to about
+half a million per annum. It may be argued that this was not a
+heavy price to pay for peopling a continent and laying the foundations
+of a vast Australasian empire. But that empire could never
+have expanded to its present dimensions if it had depended on
+convict immigration alone. There was a point, too, at which
+all development, all progress, would have come to a full stop
+had it not been relieved of its stigma as a penal colony.</p>
+
+<p>That point was reached between 1835 and 1840, when a
+powerful party came into existence in New South Wales, pledged
+to bring about the abandonment of transportation. A strongly
+hostile feeling was also gaining ground in England. In 1837
+<span class="sidenote">Reform movement.</span>
+a new committee of the House of Commons had
+made a patient and searching investigation into the
+merits and demerits of the system and freely condemned
+it. The government had no choice but to give way;
+it could not ignore the protests of the colonists, backed up by
+such an authoritative expression of opinion. In 1840 orders were
+issued to suspend the deportation of criminals to New South
+Wales. But what was to become of the convicts? It was
+impossible to keep them at home. The hulks which might have
+served had also failed; the faultiness of their internal management
+had been fully proved. The committee had recommended
+the erection of more penitentiaries. But the costly experiment
+of Millbank had been barren of results. The model prison at
+Pentonville, in process of construction under the pressure of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>59</span>
+movement towards prison reform, could offer but limited accommodation.
+A proposal was put forward to construct convict
+barracks in the vicinity of the great arsenals; but this, which
+contained really the germ of the present British penal system,
+was premature. The government in this dilemma steered a
+middle course and resolved to adhere to transportation, but under
+a greatly modified and it was hoped much improved form. The
+colony of Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land, younger and less self-reliant than
+its neighbour, had also endured convict immigration but had
+made no protest. It was resolved to direct the whole stream
+of deportation upon Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land, which was thus constituted
+one vast colonial prison. The main principle of the new
+system was one of probation; hence its name. All convicts were
+to pass through various stages and degrees of punishment according
+to their conduct and character. Some general depot was
+needed where the necessary observation could be made, and it
+was found at Millbank penitentiary. Thence boys were sent
+to the prison for juveniles at Parkhurst; the most promising
+subjects among the adults were selected to undergo the experimental
+discipline of solitude and separation at Pentonville; less
+hopeful cases went to the hulks; and all adults alike passed on to
+the Antipodes. Fresh stages awaited the convict on his arrival
+at Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land. The first was limited to &ldquo;lifers&rdquo; and
+colonial convicts sentenced a second time. It consisted in detention
+at one of the penal stations, either Norfolk Island or Tasman&rsquo;s
+Peninsula, where the disgraceful conditions already described
+continued unchanged to the very last. The second stage received
+the largest number, who were subjected in it to gang labour,
+working under restraint in various parts of the colony. These
+probation stations, as they were called, were intended to inculcate
+habits of industry and subordination; they were provided with
+supervisors and religious instructors; and had they not been
+tainted by the vicious virus brought to them by others arriving
+from the penal stations, they might have answered their purpose
+for a time. But they became as bad as the worst of the penal
+settlements and contributed greatly to the breakdown of the
+whole system. The third stage and the first step towards freedom
+was the concession of a pass which permitted the convict to be
+at large under certain conditions to seek work for himself; the
+fourth was a ticket-of-leave, the possession of which allowed him
+to come and go much as he pleased; the fifth and last was
+absolute pardon, with the prospects of rehabilitation.</p>
+
+<p>This scheme seemed admirable on paper; yet it failed completely
+when put into practice. Colonial resources were quite
+unable to bear the pressure. Within two or three years
+<span class="sidenote">Gradual abandonment.</span>
+Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land was inundated with convicts.
+Sixteen thousand were sent out in four years; the
+average annual number in the colony was about
+30,000, and this when there were only 37,000 free settlers.
+Half the whole number of convicts remained in government
+hands and were kept in the probation gangs, engaged upon public
+works of great utility; but the other half, pass-holders
+and ticket-of-leave men in a state of semi-freedom, could
+get little or no employment. The supply greatly exceeded the
+demand; there were no hirers of labour. Had the colony been as
+large and as prosperous as its neighbour it could scarcely have
+absorbed the glut of workmen; but it was really on the verge
+of bankruptcy&mdash;its finances were embarrassed, its trades and
+industries at a standstill. But not only were the convicts idle;
+they were utterly depraved. It was soon found that the system
+which kept large bodies always together had a most pernicious
+effect upon their moral condition. &ldquo;The congregation of
+criminals in large batches without adequate supervision meant
+simply wholesale, widespread pollution,&rdquo; as was said at the time.
+These ever-present and constantly increasing evils forced the
+government to reconsider its position; and in 1846 transportation
+to Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land was temporarily suspended for a
+couple of years, during which it was hoped some relief might be
+afforded. The formation of a new convict colony in North
+Australia had been contemplated; but the project, warmly
+espoused by Mr Gladstone, then under-secretary of state for the
+colonies, was presently abandoned; and it now became clear
+that no resumption of transportation was possible. The measures
+taken to substitute other methods of secondary punishment are
+set forth in the article <a href="#artlinks">Prison</a> (q.v.).</p>
+
+<p><i>France.</i>&mdash;France adopted deportation for criminals as far back
+as 1763, when a penal colony was founded in French Guiana and
+failed disastrously. An expedition was sent there, composed
+<span class="sidenote">French practice.</span>
+of the most evil elements of the Paris population
+and numbering 14,000, all of whom died. The
+attempt was repeated in 1766 and with the same
+miserable result. Other failures are recorded, the worst being
+the scheme of the philanthropist Baron Milius, who in 1823
+planned to form a community on the banks of the Mana (French
+Guiana) by the marriage of exiled convicts and degraded women,
+which resulted in the most ghastly horrors. The principle of
+deportation was then formally condemned by publicists and
+government until suddenly in 1854 it was reintroduced into the
+French penal code with many high-sounding phrases. Splendid
+results were to be achieved in the creation of rich colonies afar,
+and the regeneration of the criminal by new openings in a new
+land. The only outlet available at the moment beyond the sea
+was French Guiana, and it was again to be utilized despite its
+pestilential climate. Thousands were exiled, more than half to
+find certain death; none of the penal settlements prospered.
+No return was made by agricultural development, farms and
+plantations proved a dead loss under the unfavourable conditions
+of labour enforced in a malarious climate and unkindly soil, and
+it was acknowledged by French officials that the attempt to
+establish a penal colony on the equator was utterly futile.
+Deportation to Guiana was not abandoned, but instead of native-born
+French exiles, convicts of subject races, Arabs, Anamites
+and Asiatic blacks, were sent exclusively, with no better success
+as regards colonization.</p>
+
+<p>In 1864, however, it was possible to divert the stream elsewhere.
+New Caledonia in the Australian Pacific was annexed to
+France in 1853. Ten years later it became a new settlement for
+convict emigrants. A first shipload was disembarked in 1864 at
+Noumea, and the foundations of the city laid. Prison buildings
+were the first erected and were planted upon the island of Nou,
+a small breakwater to the Bay of Noumea. Outwardly all went
+well under the fostering care of the authorities. The population
+steadily increased; an average total of 600 in 1867 rose in the
+following year to 1554. In 1874 the convict population exceeded
+5000; in 1880 it had risen to 8000; the total reached 9608
+at the end of December 1883. But from that time forward the
+numbers transported annually fell, for it was found that this
+South Pacific island, with its fertile soil and fairly temperate
+climate, by no means intimidated the dangerous classes; and
+the French administration therefore resumed deportation of
+French-born whites to Guiana, which was known as notoriously
+unhealthy and was likely to act as a more positive deterrent.
+The authorities divided their exiles between the two outlets,
+choosing New Caledonia for the convicts who gave some promise
+of regeneration, and sending criminals with the worst antecedents
+and presumably incorrigible to the settlements on the equator.
+This was in effect to hand over a fertile colony entirely to
+criminals. Free immigration to New Caledonia was checked, and
+the colony became almost exclusively penal. The natural growth
+of a prosperous colonial community made no advance, and
+convict labour did little to stimulate it, the public works, essential
+for development, and construction of roads were neglected; there
+was no extensive clearance of lands, no steady development of
+agriculture. From 1898 simple deportation practically ceased,
+but the islands were full of convicts already sent, and they still
+received the product of the latest invention in the criminal code
+known as &ldquo;relegation,&rdquo; a punishment directed against the
+recidivist or incorrigible criminal whom no penal retribution
+had hitherto touched and whom the French law felt justified
+in banishing for ever to the &ldquo;back of beyond.&rdquo; A certain
+period of time spent in a hard labour prison preceded relegation,
+but the convicts on arrival were generally unfitted to assist in
+colonization. They were for the most part decadent, morally
+and physically; their labour was of no substantial value to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>60</span>
+colonists or themselves, and there was small hope of profitable
+result when they gained conditional liberation, with a concession
+of colonial land and a possibility of rehabilitation by their own
+efforts abroad, for by their sentence they were forbidden to hope
+for return to France. The punishment of relegation was not
+long in favour, the number of sentences to it fell year after year,
+and it has now been practically abandoned.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Countries.</i>&mdash;Penal exile has been practised by some other
+countries as a method of secondary punishment. Russia since
+1823 has directed a stream of offenders, mainly political, upon
+Siberia, and at one time the yearly average sent was 18,000. The
+Siberian exile system, the horrors of which cannot be exaggerated,
+belongs only in part to penitentiary science, but it was very
+distinctly punitive and aimed at regeneration of the individual
+and the development of the soil by new settlements. Although
+the journey was made mostly on foot and not by sea transport,
+the principle of deportation (or more exactly of removal) was
+the essence of the system. The later practice, however, has been
+exactly similar to transportation as originated by England and
+afterwards followed by France. The penal colonization of the
+island of Sakhalin reproduced the preceding methods, and the
+Russian convicts were conveyed by ships through the Suez
+Canal to the Far East. Sakhalin was hopefully intended as an
+outlet for released convicts and their rehabilitation by their own
+efforts, precisely in the manner tried in Australia and New
+Caledonia. The result repeated previous experiences. There was
+land to reclaim, forests to cut down, marshes to drain, everything
+but a temperate climate and a good will of the felon labourers to
+create a prosperous colony. But the convicts would not work; a
+few sought to win the right to occupy a concession of soil, but the
+bulk were pure vagabonds, wandering to and fro in search of food.
+The agricultural enterprise was a complete failure. The wrong
+sites for cultivation were chosen, the labourers were unskilled and
+they handled very indifferent tools. Want amounting to constant
+starvation was a constant rule; the rations were insufficient and
+unwholesome, very little meat eked out with salt fish and with
+entire absence of vegetables. The general tone of morals was
+inconceivably low, and a universal passion for alcohol and card-playing
+prevailed. According to one authority the life of the
+convicts at Sakhalin was a frightful nightmare, &ldquo;a mixture of
+debauchery and innocence mixed with real sufferings and almost
+inconceivable privations, corrupt in every one of its phases.&rdquo;
+The prisons hopelessly ruined all who entered them, all classes
+were indiscriminately herded together. It is now generally
+allowed that deportation, as practised, had utterly failed, the
+chief reasons being the unmanageable numbers sent and the
+absence of outlets for their employment, even at great
+cost.</p>
+
+<p>The prisons on Sakhalin have been described as hotbeds of
+vice; the only classification of prisoners is one based on the length
+of sentence. Some imperfect attempt is made to separate those
+waiting trial from the recidivist or hardened offender, but too
+often the association is indiscriminate. Prison discipline is
+generally slack and ineffective, the staff of warders, from ill-judged
+economy, too weak to supervise or control. The officers
+themselves are of inferior stamp, drunken, untrustworthy, overbearing,
+much given to &ldquo;trafficking&rdquo; with the prisoners, accepting
+bribes to assist escape, quick to misuse and oppress their
+charges. Crime of the worst description is common.</p>
+
+<p>Italy has practised deportation in planting various agricultural
+colonies upon the islands to be found on her coast. They
+were meant to imitate the intermediate prisons of the Irish
+system, where prisoners might work out their redemption, when
+provisionally released. Two were established on the islands
+of Pianoso and Gorgona, and there were settlements made
+on Monte Christo and Capraia. They were used also to give
+effect to the system of enforced residence or <i>domicilio
+coatto</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Portugal also has tried deportation to the African colony
+of Angola on a small scale with some success, and combined
+it with free emigration. The settlers have been represented as
+well disposed towards the convicts, gladly obtaining their
+services or helping them in the matter of security. The
+convict element is orderly, and, although their treatment is
+&ldquo;<i>peu repressive et relativement debonnaire</i>,&rdquo; few commit offences.</p>
+
+<p>The Andaman Islands have been utilized by the Indian
+government since the mutiny (1857) for the deportation of
+heinous criminals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Andaman Islands</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Captain A. Phillip, R.N., <i>The Voyage of Governor
+Phillip to New South Wales</i> (1790); David Collins, <i>Account of the
+English Colony of New South Wales</i> (1798); Archbishop Whately,
+<i>Remarks on Transportation</i> (1834); Herman Merivale, <i>Colonization
+and Colonies</i> (1841); d&rsquo;Haussonville, <i>Établissements pénitentiaires
+en France et aux colonies</i> (1875); George Griffith, <i>In a Prison Land</i>;
+Cuche, <i>Science et legislation pénitentiaire</i> (1905); Hawes, <i>The Uttermost
+East</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See J. C. Ballagh, <i>White Servitude in Virginia</i> (Baltimore, 1895.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEPOSIT</span> (Lat. <i>depositum</i>, from <i>deponere</i>, to lay down, to put
+in the care of), anything laid down or separated; as in geology,
+any mass of material accumulated by a natural agency (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bed</a></span>), and in chemistry, a precipitate or matter settling from
+a solution or suspension. In banking, a deposit may mean,
+generally, a sum of money lodged in a bank without regard to
+the conditions under which it is held, but more specially money
+lodged with a bank on &ldquo;deposit account&rdquo; and acknowledged by
+the banker by a &ldquo;deposit receipt&rdquo; given to the depositor. It is
+then not drawn upon by cheque, usually bears interest at a rate
+varying from time to time, and can only be withdrawn after fixed
+notice. Deposit is also used in the sense of earnest or security
+for the performance of a contract. In the law of mortgage the
+deposit of title-deeds is usual as a security for the repayment of
+money advanced. Such a deposit operates as an equitable
+mortgage. In the law of contract, deposit or simple bailment is
+delivery or bailment of goods in trust to be kept without recompense,
+and redelivered on demand (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bailment</a></span>).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEPOT</span> (from the Fr. <i>dépôt</i>, Lat. <i>depositum</i>, laid down; the
+French accent marks are usually dispensed with in English), a
+place where things may be stored or deposited, such as a furniture
+or forage depot, the accumulation of military stores, especially
+in the theatre of operations. In America the word is used of a
+railway station, whether for passengers or goods; in Great
+Britain on railways the word, when in use, is applied to goods
+stations. A particular military application is to a depot, situated
+as a rule in the centre of the recruiting district of the regiment or
+other unit, where recruits are received and undergo the necessary
+preliminary training before joining the active troops. Such
+depots are maintained in peace time by all armies which have to
+supply distant or oversea garrisons; in an army raised by compulsory
+service and quartered in its own country, the regiments
+are usually stationed in their own districts, and on their taking
+the field for war leave behind a small nucleus for the formation
+and training of drafts to be sent out later. These nucleus troops
+are generally called depot troops.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEPRETIS, AGOSTINO</span> (1813-1887), Italian statesman, was
+born at Mezzana Corte, in the province of Stradella on the 31st
+of January 1813. From early manhood a disciple of Mazzini
+and affiliated to the <i>Giovane Italia</i>, he took an active part in the
+Mazzinian conspiracies and was nearly captured by the Austrians
+while smuggling arms into Milan. Elected deputy in 1848, he
+joined the Left and founded the journal <i>Il Diritto</i>, but held
+no official position until appointed governor of Brescia in 1859.
+In 1860 he went to Sicily on a mission to reconcile the policy of
+Cavour (who desired the immediate incorporation of the island
+in the kingdom of Italy) with that of Garibaldi, who wished to
+postpone the Sicilian <i>plébiscite</i> until after the liberation of Naples
+and Rome. Though appointed pro-dictator of Sicily by Garibaldi,
+he failed in his attempt. Accepting the portfolio of public works
+in the Rattazzi cabinet in 1862, he served as intermediary in
+arranging with Garibaldi the expedition which ended disastrously
+at Aspromonte. Four years later, on the outbreak of war against
+Austria, he entered the Ricasoli cabinet as minister of marine,
+and, by maintaining Admiral Persano in command of the fleet,
+contributed to the defeat of Lissa. His apologists contend,
+however, that, as an inexperienced civilian, he could not have
+made sudden changes in naval arrangements without disorganizing
+the fleet, and that in view of the impending hostilities he was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61"></a>61</span>
+obliged to accept the dispositions of his predecessors. Upon the
+death of Rattazzi in 1873, Depretis became leader of the Left,
+prepared the advent of his party to power, and was called upon
+to form the first cabinet of the Left in 1876. Overthrown by
+Cairoli in March 1878 on the grist-tax question, he succeeded,
+in the following December, in defeating Cairoli, became again
+premier, but on the 3rd of July 1879 was once more overturned
+by Cairoli. In November 1879 he, however, entered the Cairoli
+cabinet as minister of the interior, and in May 1881 succeeded to
+the premiership, retaining that office until his death on the 29th of
+July 1887. During the long interval he recomposed his cabinet
+four times, first throwing out Zanardelli and Baccarini in order
+to please the Right, and subsequently bestowing portfolios upon
+Ricotti, Robilant and other Conservatives, so as to complete the
+political process known as &ldquo;trasformismo.&rdquo; A few weeks before
+his death he repented of his transformist policy, and again included
+Crispi and Zanardelli in his cabinet. During his long term
+of office he abolished the grist tax, extended the suffrage, completed
+the railway system, aided Mancini in forming the Triple
+Alliance, and initiated colonial policy by the occupation of
+Massawa; but, at the same time, he vastly increased indirect
+taxation, corrupted and destroyed the fibre of parliamentary
+parties, and, by extravagance in public works, impaired the
+stability of Italian finance.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEPTFORD,</span> a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London,
+England, bounded N. by Bermondsey, E. by the river Thames
+and Greenwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Camberwell. Pop.
+(1901) 110,398. The name is connected with a ford over the
+Ravensbourne, a stream entering the Thames through Deptford
+Creek. The borough comprises only the parish of Deptford
+St Paul, that of Deptford St Nicholas being included in the
+borough of Greenwich. Deptford is a district of poor streets,
+inhabited by a large industrial population, employed in engineering
+and other riverside works. On the river front, extending
+into the borough of Greenwich, are the royal victualling yard
+and the site of the old Deptford dockyard. The first supplies the
+navy with provisions, medicines, furniture, &amp;c., manufactured or
+stored in the large warehouses here. The dockyard ceased to be
+used in 1869, and was filled up and converted into a foreign cattle
+market by the City Corporation. Of public buildings the most
+noteworthy are St Paul&rsquo;s church (1730), of classic design; the
+municipal buildings; and the hospital for master mariners,
+maintained by the corporation of the Trinity House, which was
+founded at Deptford, the old hall being pulled down in 1787.
+Other institutions are the Goldsmiths&rsquo; Polytechnic Institute,
+New Cross; and the South-eastern fever hospital. A mansion
+known as Sayes Court, taken down in 1729, was the residence of
+the duke of Sussex in the reign of Elizabeth; it was occupied in
+the following century by John Evelyn, author of <i>Sylva</i>, and by
+Peter the Great during his residence in England in 1698. The
+site of its gardens is occupied by Deptford Park of 11 acres.
+Another open space is Telegraph Hill (9½ acres). The parliamentary
+borough of Deptford returns one member. The borough
+council consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 36 councillors.
+Area, 1562.7 acres.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEPUTY</span> (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of <i>deputare</i>, to
+cut off, allot; <i>putare</i> having the original sense of to trim, prune),
+one appointed to act or govern instead of another; one who
+exercises an office in another man&rsquo;s right, a substitute; in
+representative government a member of an elected chamber. In
+general, the powers and duties of a deputy are those of his
+principal (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Representation</a></span>), but the extent to which he
+may exercise them is dependent upon the power delegated to him.
+He may be authorized to exercise the whole of his principal&rsquo;s
+office, in which case he is a general deputy, or to act only in
+some particular matter or service, when he is termed a special
+deputy. In the United Kingdom various officials are specifically
+empowered by statute to appoint deputies to act for them
+under certain circumstances. Thus a clerk of the peace, in case
+of illness, incapacity or absence, may appoint a fit person to act
+as his deputy. While judges of the supreme court cannot act by
+deputy, county court judges and recorders can, in cases of illness
+or unavoidable absence, appoint deputies. So can registrars of
+county courts and returning officers at elections.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DE QUINCEY, THOMAS</span> (1785-1859), English author, was born
+at Greenheys, Manchester, on the 15th of August 1785. He was
+the fifth child in a family of eight (four sons and four daughters).
+His father, descended from a Norman family, was a merchant,
+who left his wife and six children a clear income of £1600 a
+year. Thomas was from infancy a shy, sensitive child, with a
+constitutional tendency to dreaming by night and by day; and,
+under the influence of an elder brother, a lad &ldquo;whose genius for
+mischief amounted to inspiration,&rdquo; who died in his sixteenth year,
+he spent much of his boyhood in imaginary worlds of their own
+creating. The amusements and occupations of the whole family,
+indeed, seem to have been mainly intellectual; and in De
+Quincey&rsquo;s case, emphatically, &ldquo;the child was father to the man.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;My life has been,&rdquo; he affirms in the <i>Confessions</i>, &ldquo;on the whole
+the life of a philosopher; from my birth I was made an intellectual
+creature, and intellectual in the highest sense my pursuits and
+pleasures have been.&rdquo; From boyhood he was more or less in
+contact with a polished circle; his education, easy to one of
+such native aptitude, was sedulously attended to. When he
+was in his twelfth year the family removed to Bath, where he was
+sent to the grammar school, at which he remained for about two
+years; and for a year more he attended another public school at
+Winkfield, Wiltshire. At thirteen he wrote Greek with ease; at
+fifteen he not only composed Greek verses in lyric measures, but
+could converse in Greek fluently and without embarrassment; one
+of his masters said of him, &ldquo;that boy could harangue an Athenian
+mob better than you or I could address an English one.&rdquo;
+Towards the close of his fifteenth year he visited Ireland, with
+a companion of his own age, Lord Westport, the son of Lord
+Altamont, an Irish peer, and spent there in residence and travel
+some months of the summer and autumn of the year 1800,&mdash;being
+a spectator at Dublin of &ldquo;the final ratification of the
+bill which united Ireland to Great Britain.&rdquo; On his return
+to England, his mother having now settled at St John&rsquo;s
+Priory, a residence near Chester, De Quincey was sent
+to the Manchester grammar school, mainly in the hope of
+securing one of the school exhibitions to help his expenses at
+Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>Discontented with the mode in which his guardians conducted
+his education, and with some view apparently of forcing them to
+send him earlier to college, he left this school after less than
+a year&rsquo;s residence&mdash;ran away, in short, to his mother&rsquo;s house.
+There his mother&rsquo;s brother, Colonel Thomas Penson, made an
+arrangement for him to have a weekly allowance, on which he
+might reside at some country place in Wales, and pursue his
+studies, presumably till he could go to college. From Wales,
+however, after brief trial, &ldquo;suffering grievously from want of
+books,&rdquo; he went off as he had done from school, and hid himself
+from guardians and friends in the world of London. And now, as
+he says, commenced &ldquo;that episode, or impassioned parenthesis
+of my life, which is comprehended in <i>The Confessions of an
+English Opium Eater</i>.&rdquo; This London episode extended over a
+year or more; his money soon vanished, and he was in the
+utmost poverty; he obtained shelter for the night in Greek
+Street, Soho, from a moneylender&rsquo;s agent, and spent his days
+wandering in the streets and parks; finally the lad was reconciled
+to his guardians, and in 1803 was sent to Worcester College,
+Oxford, being by this time about nineteen. It was in the course
+of his second year at Oxford that he first tasted opium,&mdash;having
+taken it to allay neuralgic pains. De Quincey&rsquo;s mother had
+settled at Weston Lea, near Bath, and on one of his visits
+to Bath, De Quincey made the acquaintance of Coleridge; he
+took Mrs Coleridge to Grasmere, where he became personally
+acquainted with Wordsworth.</p>
+
+<p>After finishing his career of five years at college in 1808 he
+kept terms at the Middle Temple; but in 1809 visited the
+Wordsworths at Grasmere, and in the autumn returned to
+Dove Cottage, which he had taken on a lease. His choice was
+of course influenced partly by neighbourhood to Wordsworth,
+whom he early appreciated;&mdash;having been, he says, the only man
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62"></a>62</span>
+in all Europe who quoted Wordsworth so early as 1802. His
+friendship with Wordsworth decreased within a few years, and
+when in 1834 De Quincey published in <i>Tait&rsquo;s Magazine</i> his
+reminiscences of the Grasmere circle, the indiscreet references to
+the Wordsworths contained in the article led to a complete
+cessation of intercourse. Here also he enjoyed the society and
+friendship of Coleridge, Southey and especially of Professor
+Wilson, as in London he had of Charles Lamb and his circle. He
+continued his classical and other studies, especially exploring the
+at that time almost unknown region of German literature, and
+indicating its riches to English readers. Here also, in 1816, he
+married Margaret Simpson, the &ldquo;dear M&mdash;&mdash;&rdquo; of whom a
+charming glimpse is accorded to the reader of the <i>Confessions</i>;
+his family came to be five sons and three daughters.</p>
+
+<p>For about a year and a half he edited the <i>Westmoreland Gazette</i>.
+He left Grasmere for London in the early part of 1820. The
+Lambs received him with great kindness and introduced him to
+the proprietors of the <i>London Magazine</i>. It was in this journal
+in 1821 that the <i>Confessions</i> appeared. De Quincey also contributed
+to <i>Blackwood</i>, to <i>Knight&rsquo;s Quarterly Magazine</i>, and later
+to <i>Tait&rsquo;s Magazine</i>. His connexion with <i>Blackwood</i> took him to
+Edinburgh in 1828, and he lived there for twelve years, contributing
+from time to time to the <i>Edinburgh Literary Gazette</i>. His
+wife died in 1837, and the family eventually settled at Lasswade,
+but from this time De Quincey spent his time in lodgings in
+various places, staying at one place until the accumulation of
+papers filled the rooms, when he left them in charge of the
+landlady and wandered elsewhere. After his wife&rsquo;s death he gave
+way for the fourth time in his life to the opium habit, but in 1844
+he reduced his daily quantity by a tremendous effort to six
+grains, and never again yielded. He died in Edinburgh on the
+8th of December 1859, and is buried in the West Churchyard.</p>
+
+<p>During nearly fifty years De Quincey lived mainly by his pen.
+His patrimony seems never to have been entirely exhausted,
+and his habits and tastes were simple and inexpensive; but he
+was reckless in the use of money, and had debts and pecuniary
+difficulties of all sorts. There was, indeed, his associates affirm,
+an element of romance even in his impecuniosity, as there was in
+everything about him; and the diplomatic and other devices
+by which he contrived to keep clear of clamant creditors, while
+scrupulously fulfilling many obligations, often disarmed animosity,
+and converted annoyance into amusement. The famous
+<i>Confessions of an English Opium Eater</i> was published in a small
+volume in 1822, and attracted a very remarkable degree of
+attention, not simply by its personal disclosures, but by the
+extraordinary power of its dream-painting. No other literary
+man of his time, it has been remarked, achieved so high and
+universal a reputation from such merely fugitive efforts. The
+only works published separately (not in periodicals) were a novel,
+<i>Klosterheim</i> (1832), and <i>The Logic of Political Economy</i> (1844).
+After his works were brought together, De Quincey&rsquo;s reputation
+was not merely maintained, but extended. For range of thought
+and topic, within the limits of pure literature, no like amount of
+material of such equality of merit proceeded from any eminent
+writer of the day. However profuse and discursive, De Quincey
+is always polished, and generally exact&mdash;a scholar, a wit, a man of
+the world and a philosopher, as well as a genius. He looked upon
+letters as a noble and responsible calling; in his essay on Oliver
+Goldsmith he claims for literature the rank not only of a fine art,
+but of the highest and most potent of fine arts; and as such he
+himself regarded and practised it. He drew a broad distinction
+between &ldquo;the literature of <i>knowledge</i> and the literature of <i>power</i>,&rdquo;
+asserting that the function of the first is to <i>teach</i>, the function of
+the second to <i>move</i>,&mdash;maintaining that the meanest of authors
+who moves has pre-eminence over all who merely teach, that
+the literature of knowledge must perish by supersession, while the
+literature of power is &ldquo;triumphant for ever as long as the language
+exists in which it speaks.&rdquo; It is to this class of motive literature
+that De Quincey&rsquo;s own works essentially belong; it is by virtue
+of that vital element of power that they have emerged from the
+rapid oblivion of periodicalism, and live in the minds of later
+generations. But their power is weakened by their volume.</p>
+
+<p>De Quincey fully defined his own position and claim to distinction
+in the preface to his collected works. These he divides
+into three classes:&mdash;&ldquo;<i>first</i>, that class which proposes primarily
+to amuse the reader,&rdquo; such as the <i>Narratives, Autobiographic
+Sketches</i>, &amp;c.; &ldquo;<i>second</i>, papers which address themselves purely
+to the understanding as an insulated faculty, or do so primarily,&rdquo;
+such as the essays on Essenism, the Caesars, Cicero, &amp;c.; and
+finally, as a <i>third</i> class, &ldquo;and, in virtue of their aim, as a far
+higher class of compositions,&rdquo; he ranks those &ldquo;modes of impassioned
+prose ranging under no precedents that I am aware
+of in any literature,&rdquo; such as the <i>Confessions</i> and <i>Suspiria de
+Profundis</i>. The high claim here asserted has been questioned;
+and short and isolated examples of eloquent apostrophe, and
+highly wrought imaginative description, have been cited from
+Rousseau and other masters of style; but De Quincey&rsquo;s power
+of sustaining a fascinating and elevated strain of &ldquo;impassioned
+prose&rdquo; is allowed to be entirely his own. Nor, in regard to his
+writings as a whole, will a minor general claim which he makes be
+disallowed, namely, that he &ldquo;does not write without a thoughtful
+consideration of his subject,&rdquo; and also with novelty and freshness
+of view. &ldquo;Generally,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;I claim (not arrogantly, but
+with firmness) the merit of rectification applied to absolute errors,
+or to injurious limitations of the truth.&rdquo; Another obvious
+quality of all his genius is its overflowing fulness of allusion and
+illustration, recalling his own description of a great philosopher
+or scholar&mdash;&ldquo;Not one who depends simply on an infinite memory,
+but also on an infinite and electrical power of combination,
+bringing together from the four winds, like the angel of the
+resurrection, what else were dust from dead men&rsquo;s bones into the
+unity of breathing life.&rdquo; It is useless to complain of his having
+lavished and diffused his talents and acquirements over so vast
+a variety of often comparatively trivial and passing topics.
+The world must accept gifts from men of genius as they offer
+them; circumstance and the hour often rule their form. Those
+influences, no less than the idiosyncrasy of the man, determined
+De Quincey to the illumination of such matter for speculation
+as seemed to lie before him; he was not careful to search out
+recondite or occult themes, though these he did not neglect,&mdash;a
+student, a scholar and a recluse, he was yet at the same time a
+man of the world, keenly interested in the movements of men and
+in the page of history that unrolled itself before him day by day.
+To the discussion of things new, as readily as of things old, aided
+by a capacious, retentive and ready memory, which dispensed
+with reference to printed pages, he brought also the exquisite
+keenness and subtlety of his highly analytic and imaginative
+intellect, the illustrative stores of his vast and varied erudition,
+and that large infusion of common sense which preserved him
+from becoming at any time a mere <i>doctrinaire</i>, or visionary. If
+he did not throw himself into any of the great popular controversies
+or agitations of the day, it was not from any want of
+sympathy with the struggles of humanity or the progress of
+the race, but rather because his vocation was to apply to such
+incidents of his own time, as to like incidents of all history, great
+philosophical principles and tests of truth and power. In politics,
+in the party sense of that term, he would probably have been
+classed as a Liberal Conservative or Conservative Liberal&mdash;at
+one period of his life perhaps the former, and at a later the latter.
+Originally, as we have seen, his surroundings were aristocratic,
+in his middle life his associates, notably Wordsworth, Southey
+and Wilson, were all Tories; but he seems never to have held the
+extreme and narrow views of that circle. Though a flavour of
+high breeding runs through his writings, he has no vulgar sneers
+at the vulgar. As he advanced in years his views became more
+and more decidedly liberal, but he was always as far removed
+from Radicalism as from Toryism, and may be described as a
+philosophical politician, capable of classification under no definite
+party name or colour. Of political economy he had been an
+early and earnest student, and projected, if he did not so far
+proceed with, an elaborate and systematic treatise on the science,
+of which all that appears, however, are his fragmentary <i>Dialogues</i>
+on the system of Ricardo, published in the <i>London Magazine</i> in
+1824, and <i>The Logic of Political Economy</i> (1844). But political
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63"></a>63</span>
+and economic problems largely exercised his thoughts, and his
+historical sketches show that he is constantly alive to their
+interpenetrating influence. The same may be said of his biographies,
+notably of his remarkable sketch of Dr Parr. Neither
+politics nor economics, however, exercised an absorbing influence
+on his mind,&mdash;they were simply provinces in the vast domain of
+universal speculation through which he ranged &ldquo;with unconfined
+wings.&rdquo; How wide and varied was the region he traversed a
+glance at the titles of the papers which make up his collected&mdash;or
+more properly, selected&mdash;works (for there was much matter
+of evanescent interest not reprinted) sufficiently shows. Some
+things in his own line he has done perfectly; he has written
+many pages of magnificently mixed argument, irony, humour
+and eloquence, which, for sustained brilliancy, richness, subtle
+force and purity of style and effect, have simply no parallels;
+and he is without peer the prince of dreamers. The use of opium
+no doubt stimulated this remarkable faculty of reproducing in
+skilfully selected phrase the grotesque and shifting forms of that
+&ldquo;cloudland, gorgeous land,&rdquo; which opens to the sleep-closed eye.</p>
+
+<p>To the appreciation of De Quincey the reader must bring an
+imaginative faculty somewhat akin to his own&mdash;a certain general
+culture, and large knowledge of books, and men and things.
+Otherwise much of that slight and delicate allusion that gives
+point and colour and charm to his writings will be missed; and
+on this account the full enjoyment and comprehension of De
+Quincey must always remain a luxury of the literary and intellectual.
+But his skill in narration, his rare pathos, his wide
+sympathies, the pomp of his dream-descriptions, the exquisite
+playfulness of his lighter dissertations, and his abounding
+though delicate and subtle humour, commend him to a larger
+class. Though far from being a professed humorist&mdash;a character
+he would have shrunk from&mdash;there is no more expert
+worker in a sort of half-veiled and elaborate humour and
+irony than De Quincey; but he employs those resources for
+the most part secondarily. Only in one instance has he given
+himself up to them unreservedly and of set purpose,
+namely, in the famous &ldquo;Essay on Murder considered as one
+of the Fine Arts,&rdquo; published in <i>Blackwood</i>,&mdash;an effort which,
+admired and admirable though it be, is also, it must be
+allowed, somewhat strained. His style, full and flexible, pure
+and polished, is peculiarly his own; yet it is not the style of a
+mannerist,&mdash;its charm is, so to speak, latent; the form never
+obtrudes; the secret is only discoverable by analysis and study.
+It consists simply in the reader&rsquo;s assurance of the writer&rsquo;s
+complete mastery over all the infinite applicability and resources
+of the English language. Hence involutions and parentheses,
+&ldquo;cycle on epicycle,&rdquo; evolve themselves into a stately clearness
+and harmony; and sentences and paragraphs, loaded with
+suggestion, roll on smoothly and musically, without either
+fatiguing or cloying&mdash;rather, indeed, to the surprise as well as
+delight of the reader; for De Quincey is always ready to indulge
+in feats of style, witching the world with that sort of noble
+horsemanship which is as graceful as it is daring.</p>
+
+<p>It has been complained that, in spite of the apparently full
+confidences of the <i>Confessions</i> and <i>Autobiographic Sketches</i>,
+readers are left in comparative ignorance, biographically speaking,
+of the man De Quincey. Two passages in his <i>Confessions</i> afford
+sufficient clues to this mystery. In one he describes himself
+&ldquo;as framed for love and all gentle affections,&rdquo; and in another
+confesses to the &ldquo;besetting infirmity&rdquo; of being &ldquo;too much of an
+eudaemonist.&rdquo; &ldquo;I hanker,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;too much after a state of
+happiness, both for myself and others; I cannot face misery,
+whether my own or not, with an eye of sufficient firmness, and
+am little capable of surmounting present pain for the sake of
+any recessionary benefit.&rdquo; His sensitive disposition dictated the
+ignoring in his writings of traits merely personal to himself, as
+well as his ever-recurrent resort to opium as a doorway of escape
+from present ill; and prompted those habits of seclusion, and
+that apparently capricious abstraction of himself from the society
+not only of his friends, but of his own family, in which he from
+time to time persisted. He confessed to occasional accesses of
+an almost irresistible impulse to flee to the labyrinthine shelter
+of some great city like London or Paris,&mdash;there to dwell solitary
+amid a multitude, buried by day in the cloister-like recesses of
+mighty libraries, and stealing away by night to some obscure
+lodging. Long indulgence in seclusion, and in habits of study the
+most lawless possible in respect of regular hours or any considerations
+of health or comfort,&mdash;the habit of working as pleased
+himself without regard to the divisions of night or day, of times
+of sleeping or waking, even of the slow procession of the seasons,
+had latterly so disinclined him to the restraints, however slight,
+of ordinary social intercourse, that he very seldom submitted
+to them. On such rare occasions, however, as he did appear,
+perhaps at some simple meal with a favoured friend, or in later
+years in his own small but refined domestic circle, he was the most
+charming of guests, hosts or companions. A short and fragile,
+but well-proportioned frame; a shapely and compact head; a
+face beaming with intellectual light, with rare, almost feminine
+beauty of feature and complexion; a fascinating courtesy of
+manner; and a fulness, swiftness and elegance of silvery
+speech,&mdash;such was the irresistible &ldquo;mortal mixture of earth&rsquo;s
+mould&rdquo; that men named De Quincey. He possessed in a high
+degree what James Russell Lowell called &ldquo;the grace of perfect
+breeding, everywhere persuasive, and nowhere emphatic&rdquo;; and
+his whole aspect and manner exercised an undefinable attraction
+over every one, gentle or simple, who came within its influence;
+for shy as he was, he was never rudely shy, making good his
+boast that he had always made it his &ldquo;pride to converse familiarly
+<i>more socratico</i> with all human beings&mdash;man, woman and child&rdquo;&mdash;looking
+on himself as a catholic creature standing in an equal
+relation to high and low, to educated and uneducated. He would
+converse with a peasant lad or a servant girl in phrase as choice,
+and sentences as sweetly turned, as if his interlocutor were his
+equal both in position and intelligence; yet without a suspicion
+of pedantry, and with such complete adaptation of style and topic
+that his talk charmed the humblest as it did the highest that
+listened to it. His conversation was not a monologue; if he had
+the larger share, it was simply because his hearers were only too
+glad that it should be so; he would listen with something like
+deference to very ordinary talk, as if the mere fact of the speaker
+being one of the same company entitled him to all consideration
+and respect. The natural bent of his mind and disposition, and
+his lifelong devotion to letters, to say nothing of his opium
+eating, rendered him, it must be allowed, regardless of ordinary
+obligations in life&mdash;domestic and pecuniary&mdash;to a degree that
+would have been culpable in any less singularly constituted
+mind. It was impossible to deal with or judge De Quincey
+by ordinary standards&mdash;not even his publishers did so. Much
+no doubt was forgiven him, but all that needed forgiveness
+is covered by the kindly veil of time, while his merits as a master
+in English literature are still gratefully acknowledged.<a name="FnAnchor_1i" href="#Footnote_1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>[<span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;In 1853 De Quincey began to prepare an edition
+of his works, <i>Selections Grave and Gay</i>. <i>Writings Published and Unpublished</i>
+(14 vols., Edinburgh, 1853-1860), followed by a second
+edition (1863-1871) with notes by James Hogg and two additional
+volumes; a further supplementary volume appeared in 1878. The
+first comprehensive edition, however, was printed in America
+(Boston, 20 vols., 1850-1855); and the &ldquo;Riverside&rdquo; edition
+(Boston and New York, 12 vols., 1877) is still fuller. The standard
+English edition is <i>The Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey</i> (14
+vols., Edinburgh, 1889-1890), edited by David Masson, who also wrote
+his biography (1881) for the &ldquo;English Men of Letters&rdquo; series. The
+<i>Uncollected Writings of Thomas De Quincey</i> (London, 2 vols., 1890)
+contains a preface and annotations by James Hogg; <i>The Posthumous
+Writings of Thomas De Quincey</i> (2 vols., 1891-1893) were edited by
+A. H. Japp (&ldquo;H. A. Page&rdquo;), who wrote the standard biography,
+<i>Thomas De Quincey: his Life and Writings</i> (London, 2 vols., 2nd ed.,
+1879), and <i>De Quincey Memorials</i> (2 vols., 1891). See also Arvède
+Barine, <i>Neurosés</i> (Paris, 1898); Sir L. Stephen, <i>Hours in a Library</i>;
+H. S. Salt, <i>De Quincey</i> (1904); and <i>De Quincey and his Friends</i> (1895),
+a collection edited by James Hogg, which includes essays by Dr Hill
+Burton and Shadworth Hodgson.]</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. R. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1i" href="#FnAnchor_1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The above account has been corrected and amplified in some
+statements of fact for this edition. Its original author, John Ritchie
+Findlay (1824-1898), proprietor of <i>The Scotsman</i> newspaper, and the
+donor of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, had
+been intimate with De Quincey, and in 1886 published his <i>Personal
+Recollections</i> of him.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>64</p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERA GHAZI KHAN,</span> a town and district of British India,
+in the Punjab. In 1901 the town had a population of 21,700.
+There are several handsome mosques in the native quarter. It
+commands the direct approaches to the Baluch highlands by
+Sakki Sarwar and Fort Monro. For many years past both the
+town and cantonment have been threatened by the erosion of
+the river Indus. The town was founded at the close of the 15th
+century and named after Ghazi Khan, son of Haji Khan, a
+Baluch chieftain, who after holding the country for the Langah
+sultans of Multan had made himself independent. Together
+with the two other <i>deras</i> (settlements), Dera Ismail Khan and
+Dera Fateh Khan, it gave its name to the territorial area locally
+and historically known as Derajat, which after many vicissitudes
+came into the possession of the British after the Sikh War, in 1849,
+and was divided into the two districts of Dera Ghazi Khan and
+Dera Ismail Khan.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Dera Ghazi Khan</span> contains an area of
+5306 sq. m. The district is a long narrow strip of country,
+198 m. in length, sloping gradually from the hills which form
+its western boundary to the river Indus on the east. Below
+the hills the country is high and arid, generally level, but sometimes
+rolling in sandy undulations, and much intersected by hill
+torrents, 201 in number. With the exceptions of two, these
+streams dry up after the rains, and their influence is only felt for
+a few miles below the hills. The eastern portion of the district is
+at a level sufficiently low to benefit by the floods of the Indus. A
+barren tract intervenes between these zones, and is beyond the
+reach of the hill streams on the one hand and of the Indus on the
+other. Although liable to great extremes of temperature, and
+to a very scanty rainfall, the district is not unhealthy. The
+population in 1901 was 471,149, the great majority being Baluch
+Mahommedans. The principal exports are wheat and indigo.
+The only manufactures are for domestic use. There is no railway
+in the district, and only 29 m. of metalled road. The Indus,
+which is nowhere bridged within the district, is navigable by
+native boats. The geographical boundary between the Pathan
+and Baluch races in the hills nearly corresponds with the northern
+limit of the district. The frontier tribes on the Dera Ghazi Khan
+border include the Kasranis, Bozdars, Khosas, Lagharis,
+Khetvans, Gurchanis, Mazaris, Mariris and Bugtis. The chief
+of these are described under their separate names.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERA ISMAIL KHAN,</span> a town and district in the Derajat
+division of the North-West Frontier Province of India. The town
+is situated near the right bank of the Indus, which is here crossed
+by a bridge of boats during half the year. In 1901 it had a
+population of 31,737. It takes its name from Ismail Khan, a
+Baluch chief who settled here towards the end of the 15th century,
+and whose descendants ruled for 300 years. The old town was
+swept away by a flood in 1823, and the present town stands 4 m.
+back from the permanent channel of the river. The native quarters
+are well laid out, with a large bazaar for Afghan traders. It is the
+residence of many Mahommedan gentry. The cantonment accommodates
+about a brigade of troops. There is considerable through
+trade with Afghanistan by the Gomal Pass, and there are local
+manufactures of cotton cloth scarves and inlaid wood-work.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Dera Ismail Khan</span> contains an area of 3403
+sq. m. It was formerly divided into two almost equal portions
+by the Indus, which intersected it from north to south. To the
+west of the Indus the characteristics of the country resemble
+those of Dera Ghazi Khan. To the east of the present bed of the
+river there is a wide tract known as the <i>Kachi</i>, exposed to river
+action. Beyond this, the country rises abruptly, and a barren,
+almost desert plain stretches eastwards, sparsely cultivated, and
+inhabited only by nomadic tribes of herdsmen. In 1901 the
+trans-Indus tract was allotted to the newly formed North-West
+Frontier Province, the cis-Indus tract remaining in the Punjab
+jurisdiction. The cis-Indus portions of the Dera Ismail Khan
+and Bannu districts now comprise the new Punjab district of
+Mianiwali. In 1901 the population was 252,379, chiefly Pathan
+and Baluch Mahommedans. Wheat and wool are exported.</p>
+
+<p>The Indus is navigable by native boats throughout its course
+of 120 m. within the district, which is the borderland of Pathan
+and Baluch tribes, the Pathan element predominating. The chief
+frontier tribes are the Sheranis and Ustaranas.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERBENT,</span> or <span class="sc">Derbend</span>, a town of Russia, Caucasia, in the
+province of Daghestan, on the western shore of the Caspian,
+153 m. by rail N.W. of Baku, in 42° 4&prime; N. and 48° 15&prime; E. Pop.
+(1873) 15,739; (1897) 14,821. It occupies a narrow strip of
+land beside the sea, from which it climbs up the steep heights
+inland to the citadel of Naryn-kaleh, and is on all sides except
+towards the east surrounded by walls built of porous limestone.
+Its general aspect is Oriental, owing to the flat roofs of its two-storeyed
+houses and its numerous mosques. The environs are
+occupied by vineyards, gardens and orchards, in which madder,
+saffron and tobacco, as well as figs, peaches, pears and other
+fruits, are cultivated. Earthenware, weapons and silk and cotton
+fabrics are the principal products of the manufacturing industry.
+To the north of the town is the monument of the <i>Kirk-lar</i>, or
+&ldquo;forty heroes,&rdquo; who fell defending Daghestan against the Arabs
+in 728; and to the south lies the seaward extremity of the
+Caucasian wall (50 m. long), otherwise known as Alexander&rsquo;s
+wall, blocking the narrow pass of the Iron Gate or Caspian Gates
+(<i>Portae Albanae</i> or <i>Portae Caspiae</i>). This, when entire, had a
+height of 29 ft. and a thickness of about 10 ft., and with its iron
+gates and numerous watch-towers formed a valuable defence of
+the Persian frontier. Derbent is usually identified with Albana,
+the capital of the ancient Albania. The modern name, a Persian
+word meaning &ldquo;iron gates,&rdquo; came into use in the end of the 5th
+or the beginning of the 6th century, when the city was refounded
+by Kavadh of the Sassanian dynasty of Persia. The walls and
+the citadel are believed to belong to the time of Kavadh&rsquo;s son,
+Khosrau (Chosroes) Anosharvan. In 728 the Arabs entered into
+possession, and established a principality in the city, which they
+called Bab-el-Abwab (&ldquo;the principal gate&rdquo;), Bab-el-Khadid
+(&ldquo;the iron gate&rdquo;), and Seraill-el-Dagab (&ldquo;the golden throne&rdquo;).
+The celebrated caliph, Harun-al-Rashid, lived in Derbent at
+different times, and brought it into great repute as a seat of the
+arts and commerce. In 1220 it was captured by the Mongols,
+and in the course of the succeeding centuries it frequently changed
+masters. In 1722 Peter the Great of Russia wrested the town
+from the Persians, but in 1736 the supremacy of Nadir Shah was
+again recognized. In 1796 Derbent was besieged by the Russians,
+and in 1813 incorporated with the Russian empire.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERBY, EARLS OF.</span> The 1st earl of Derby was probably
+Robert de Ferrers (d. 1139), who is said by John of Hexham to
+have been made an earl by King Stephen after the battle of
+the Standard in 1138. Robert and his descendants retained
+the earldom until 1266, when Robert (c. 1240-c. 1279), probably
+the 6th earl, having taken a prominent part in the baronial
+rising against Henry III., was deprived of his lands and practically
+of his title. These earlier earls of Derby were also known
+as Earls Ferrers, or de Ferrers, from their surname; as earls
+of Tutbury from their residence; and as earls of Nottingham
+because this county was a lordship under their rule. The large
+estates which were taken from Earl Robert in 1266 were given
+by Henry III. in the same year to his son, Edmund, earl of
+Lancaster; and Edmund&rsquo;s son, Thomas, earl of Lancaster,
+called himself Earl Ferrers. In 1337 Edmund&rsquo;s grandson,
+Henry (c. 1299-1361), afterwards duke of Lancaster, was created
+earl of Derby, and this title was taken by Edward III.&rsquo;s son,
+John of Gaunt, who had married Henry&rsquo;s daughter, Blanche.
+John of Gaunt&rsquo;s son and successor was Henry, earl of Derby,
+who became king as Henry IV. in 1399.</p>
+
+<p>In October 1485 Thomas, Lord Stanley, was created earl of
+Derby, and the title has since been retained by the Stanleys,
+who, however, have little or no connexion with the county
+of Derby. Thomas also inherited the sovereign lordship of the
+Isle of Man, which had been granted by the crown in 1406 to
+his great-grandfather, Sir John Stanley; and this sovereignty
+remained in possession of the earls of Derby till 1736, when it
+passed to the duke of Atholl.</p>
+
+<p>The earl of Derby is one of the three &ldquo;catskin earls,&rdquo; the others
+being the earls of Shrewsbury and Huntingdon. The term
+&ldquo;catskin&rdquo; is possibly a corruption of <i>quatre-skin</i>, derived from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>65</span>
+the fact that in ancient times the robes of an earl (as depicted
+in some early representations) were decorated with four rows of
+ermine, as in the robes of a modern duke, instead of the three
+rows to which they were restricted in later centuries. The three
+&ldquo;catskin&rdquo; earldoms are the only earldoms now in existence which
+date from creations prior to the 17th century.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Thomas Stanley</span>, 1st earl of Derby (c. 1435-1504), was
+the son of Thomas Stanley, who was created Baron Stanley in
+1456 and died in 1459. His grandfather, Sir John Stanley
+(d. 1414), had founded the fortunes of his family by marrying
+Isabel Lathom, the heiress of a great estate in the hundred of West
+Derby in Lancashire; he was lieutenant of Ireland in 1389-1391,
+and again in 1399-1401, and in 1405 received a grant of the
+lordship of Man from Henry IV. The future earl of Derby was
+a squire to Henry VI. in 1454, but not long afterwards married
+Eleanor, daughter of the Yorkist leader, Richard Neville, earl of
+Salisbury. At the battle of Blore Heath in August 1459 Stanley,
+though close at hand with a large force, did not join the royal
+army, whilst his brother William fought openly for York. In
+1461 Stanley was made chief justice of Cheshire by Edward IV.,
+but ten years later he sided with his brother-in-law Warwick in
+the Lancastrian restoration. Nevertheless, after Warwick&rsquo;s fall,
+Edward made Stanley steward of his household. Stanley served
+with the king in the French expedition of 1475, and with Richard
+of Gloucester in Scotland in 1482. About the latter date he
+married, as his second wife, Margaret Beaufort, mother of the
+exiled Henry Tudor. Stanley was one of the executors of
+Edward IV., and was at first loyal to the young king Edward V.
+But he acquiesced in Richard&rsquo;s usurpation, and retaining his
+office as steward avoided any entanglement through his wife&rsquo;s
+share in Buckingham&rsquo;s rebellion. He was made constable of
+England in succession to Buckingham, and granted possession of
+his wife&rsquo;s estates with a charge to keep her in some secret place at
+home. Richard could not well afford to quarrel with so powerful
+a noble, but early in 1485 Stanley asked leave to retire to his
+estates in Lancashire. In the summer Richard, suspicious of his
+continued absence, required him to send his eldest son, Lord
+Strange, to court as a hostage. After Henry of Richmond had
+landed, Stanley made excuses for not joining the king; for his
+son&rsquo;s sake he was obliged to temporize, even when his brother
+William had been publicly proclaimed a traitor. Both the
+Stanleys took the field; but whilst William was in treaty
+with Richmond, Thomas professedly supported Richard. On
+the morning of Bosworth (August 22), Richard summoned
+Stanley to join him, and when he received an evasive reply
+ordered Strange to be executed. In the battle it was William
+Stanley who turned the scale in Henry&rsquo;s favour, but Thomas,
+who had taken no part in the fighting, was the first to salute the
+new king. Henry VII. confirmed Stanley in all his offices, and on
+the 27th of October created him earl of Derby. As husband of
+the king&rsquo;s mother Derby held a great position, which was not
+affected by the treason of his brother William in February 1495.
+In the following July the earl entertained the king and queen
+with much state at Knowsley. Derby died on the 29th of July
+1504. Strange had escaped execution in 1485, through neglect to
+obey Richard&rsquo;s orders; but he died before his father in 1497, and
+his son Thomas succeeded as second earl. An old poem called
+<i>The Song of the Lady Bessy</i>, which was written by a retainer of
+the Stanleys, gives a romantic story of how Derby was enlisted
+by Elizabeth of York in the cause of his wife&rsquo;s son.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>For fuller narratives see J. Gairdner&rsquo;s <i>Richard III.</i> and J. H.
+Ramsay&rsquo;s <i>Lancaster and York</i>; also Seacome&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of the
+House of Stanley</i> (1741).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Edward Stanley</span>, 3rd earl of Derby (1508-1572), was a
+son of Thomas Stanley, 2nd earl and grandson of the 1st earl,
+and succeeded to the earldom on his father&rsquo;s death in May 1521.
+During his minority Cardinal Wolsey was his guardian, and as
+soon as he came of age he began to take part in public life, being
+often in the company of Henry VIII. He helped to quell the
+rising in the north of England known as the Pilgrimage of Grace
+in 1536; but remaining true to the Roman Catholic faith he
+disliked and opposed the religious changes made under Edward
+VI. During Mary&rsquo;s reign the earl was more at ease, but under
+Elizabeth his younger sons, Sir Thomas (d. 1576) and Sir Edward
+Stanley (d. 1609), were concerned in a plot to free Mary, queen of
+Scots, and he himself was suspected of disloyalty. However, he
+kept his numerous dignities until his death at Lathom House,
+near Ormskirk, on the 24th of October 1572.</p>
+
+<p>Derby&rsquo;s first wife was Katherine, daughter of Thomas Howard,
+duke of Norfolk, by whom he had, with other issue, a son Henry,
+the 4th earl (c. 1531-1593), who was a member of the council of
+the North, and like his father was lord-lieutenant of Lancashire.
+Henry was one of the commissioners who tried Mary, queen of
+Scots, and was employed by Elizabeth on other high undertakings
+both at home and abroad. He died on the 25th of
+September 1593. His wife Margaret (d. 1596), daughter of
+Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, was descended through
+the Brandons from King Henry VII. Two of his sons, Ferdinando
+(c. 1559-1594), and William (c. 1561-1642), became in turn the
+5th and 6th earls of Derby. Ferdinando, the 5th earl (d. 1594),
+wrote verses, and is eulogized by the poet Spenser under the name
+of Amyntas.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">James Stanley</span>, 7th earl of Derby (1607-1651), sometimes
+styled the Great Earl of Derby, eldest son of William, 6th
+earl, and Elizabeth de Vere, daughter of Edward, 17th earl of
+Oxford, was born at Knowsley on the 31st of January 1607.
+During his father&rsquo;s life he was known as Lord Strange. After
+travelling abroad he was chosen member of parliament for
+Liverpool in 1625, was created knight of the Bath on the occasion
+of Charles&rsquo;s coronation in 1626, and was joined with his father
+the same year as lieutenant of Lancashire and Cheshire and
+chamberlain of Chester, and in the administration of the Isle of
+Man, being appointed subsequently lord-lieutenant of North
+Wales. On the 7th of March 1628 he was called up to the House
+of Lords as Baron Strange. He took no part in the political
+disputes between king and parliament and preferred country
+pursuits and the care of his estates to court or public life. Nevertheless
+when the Civil War broke out in 1642, Lord Strange
+devoted himself to the king&rsquo;s cause. His plan of securing
+Lancashire at the beginning and raising troops there, which
+promised success, was however discouraged by Charles, who was
+said to be jealous of his power and royal lineage and who commanded
+his presence at Nottingham. His subsequent attempts
+to recover the county were unsuccessful. He was unable to get
+possession of Manchester, was defeated at Chowbent and Lowton
+Moor, and in 1643 after gaining Preston failed to take Bolton and
+Lancaster castles. Finally, after successfully beating off Sir
+William Brereton&rsquo;s attack on Warrington, he was defeated at
+Whalley and withdrew to York, Warrington in consequence
+surrendering to the enemy&rsquo;s forces. In June he left for the Isle
+of Man to attend to affairs there, and in the summer of 1644 he
+took part in Prince Rupert&rsquo;s successful campaign in the north,
+when Lathom House, where Lady Derby had heroically resisted
+the attacks of the besiegers, was relieved, and Bolton Castle
+taken. He followed Rupert to Marston Moor, and after the
+complete defeat of Charles&rsquo;s cause in the north withdrew to the
+Isle of Man, where he held out for the king and offered an asylum
+to royalist fugitives. His administration of the island imitated
+that of Strafford in Ireland. It was strong rather than just. He
+maintained order, encouraged trade, remedied some abuses, and
+defended the people from the exactions of the church; but he
+crushed opposition by imprisoning his antagonists, and aroused a
+prolonged agitation by abolishing the tenant-right and introducing
+leaseholds. In July 1649 he refused scornfully terms offered
+to him by Ireton. By the death of his father on the 29th of
+September 1642 he had succeeded to the earldom, and on the
+12th of January 1650 he obtained the Garter. He was chosen by
+Charles II. to command the troops of Lancashire and Cheshire,
+and on the 15th of August 1651 he landed at Wyre Water in
+Lancashire in support of Charles&rsquo;s invasion, and met the king
+on the 17th. Proceeding to Warrington he failed to obtain
+the support of the Presbyterians through his refusal to take the
+Covenant, and on the 25th was totally defeated at Wigan, being
+severely wounded and escaping with difficulty. He joined
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>66</span>
+Charles at Worcester; after the battle on the 3rd of September
+he accompanied him to Boscobel, and while on his way north
+alone was captured near Nantwich and given quarter. He was
+tried by court-martial at Chester on the 29th of September, and
+on the ground that he was a traitor and not a prisoner of war
+under the act of parliament passed in the preceding month,
+which declared those who corresponded with Charles guilty of
+treason, his quarter was disallowed and he was condemned to
+death. When his appeal for pardon to parliament was rejected,
+though supported by Cromwell, he endeavoured to escape; but
+was recaptured and executed at Bolton on the 15th of October
+1651. He was buried in Ormskirk church. Lord Derby was a
+man of deep religious feeling and of great nobility of character,
+who though unsuccessful in the field served the king&rsquo;s cause with
+single-minded purpose and without expectation of reward. His
+political usefulness was handicapped in the later stages of the
+struggle by his dislike of the Scots, whom he regarded as guilty
+of the king&rsquo;s death and as unfit instruments of the restoration.
+According to Clarendon he was &ldquo;a man of great honour and clear
+courage,&rdquo; and his defects the result of too little knowledge of
+the world. Lord Derby left in MS. &ldquo;A Discourse concerning the
+Government of the Isle of Man&rdquo; (printed in the <i>Stanley Papers</i>
+and in F. Peck&rsquo;s <i>Desiderata Curiosa</i>, vol. ii.) and several volumes
+of historical collections, observations, devotions (<i>Stanley Papers</i>)
+and a commonplace book. He married on the 26th of June 1626
+Charlotte de la Tremoille (1599-1664), daughter of Claude, duc
+de Thouars, and grand-daughter of William the Silent, prince
+of Orange, by whom besides four daughters he had five sons, of
+whom the eldest, Charles (1628-1672), succeeded him as 8th earl.</p>
+
+<p>Charles&rsquo;s two sons, William, the 9th earl (c. 1655-1702), and
+James, the 10th earl (1664-1736), both died without sons, and
+consequently, when James died in February 1736, his titles and
+estates passed to Sir Edward Stanley (1689-1776), a descendant
+of the 1st earl. From him the later earls were descended, the
+12th earl (d. 1834) being his grandson.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Article in <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> with authorities
+and article in same work on Charlotte Stanley, countess of Derby;
+the <i>Stanley Papers</i>, with the too laudatory memoir by F. R. Haines
+(Chetham Soc. publications, vols. 62, 66, 67, 70); <i>Memoires</i>, by De
+Lloyd (1668), 572; <i>State Trials</i>, v. 293-324; <i>Notes &amp; Queries</i>, viii.
+Ser. iii. 246; Seacombe&rsquo;s <i>House of Stanley</i>; Clarendon&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of
+the Rebellion</i>; Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of the Civil War and Protectorate</i>;
+<i>The Land of Home Rule</i>, by Spencer Walpole (1893); <i>Hist. of
+the Isle of Man</i>, by A. W. Moore (1900); Manx Soc. publications,
+vols. 3, 25, 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley</span>, 14th earl of Derby (1799-1869),
+the &ldquo;Rupert of Debate,&rdquo; born at Knowsley in Lancashire
+on the 29th of March 1799, grandson of the 12th earl and
+eldest son of Lord Stanley, subsequently (1834) 13th earl of Derby
+(1775-1851). He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church,
+Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a classical scholar,
+though he took no degree. In 1819 he obtained the Chancellor&rsquo;s
+prize for Latin verse, the subject being &ldquo;Syracuse.&rdquo; He gave
+early promise of his future eminence as an orator, and in his youth
+he used to practise elocution under the instruction of Lady
+Derby, his grandfather&rsquo;s second wife, the actress, Elizabeth
+Farren. In 1820 he was returned for Stockbridge in Hampshire,
+one of the nomination boroughs whose electoral rights were
+swept away by the Reform Bill of 1832, Stanley being a warm
+advocate of their destruction.</p>
+
+<p>His maiden speech was delivered early in the session of 1824 in
+the debate on a private bill for lighting Manchester with gas. On
+the 6th of May 1824 he delivered a vehement and eloquent speech
+against Joseph Hume&rsquo;s motion for a reduction of the Irish Church
+establishment, maintaining in its most conservative form the
+doctrine that church property is as sacred as private property.
+From this time his appearances became frequent; and he soon
+asserted his place as one of the most powerful speakers in the
+House. Specially noticeable almost from the first was the skill
+he displayed in reply. Macaulay, in an essay published in 1834,
+remarked that he seemed to possess intuitively the faculty which
+in most men is developed only by long and laborious practice. In
+the autumn of 1824 Stanley went on an extended tour through
+Canada and the United States in company with Mr Labouchere,
+afterwards Lord Taunton, and Mr Evelyn Denison, afterwards
+Lord Ossington. In May of the following year he married the
+second daughter of Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, created Baron
+Skelmersdale in 1828, by whom he had a family of two sons
+and one daughter who survived.</p>
+
+<p>At the general election of 1826 Stanley renounced his connection
+with Stockbridge, and became the representative of the
+borough of Preston, where the Derby influence was paramount.
+The change of seats had this advantage, that it left him free to
+speak against the system of rotten boroughs, which he did with
+great force during the Reform Bill debates, without laying himself
+open to the charge of personal inconsistency as the representative
+of a place where, according to Gay, cobblers used to &ldquo;feast three
+years upon one vote.&rdquo; In 1827 he and several other distinguished
+Whigs made a coalition with Canning on the defection of the more
+unyielding Tories, and he commenced his official life as under-secretary
+for the colonies, but the coalition was broken up by
+Canning&rsquo;s death in August. Lord Goderich succeeded to the
+premiership, but he never was really in power, and he resigned
+his place after the lapse of a few months. During the succeeding
+administration of the duke of Wellington (1828-1830), Stanley
+and those with whom he acted were in opposition. His robust
+and assertive Liberalism about this period seemed curious afterwards
+to a younger generation who knew him only as the very
+embodiment of Conservatism.</p>
+
+<p>By the advent of Lord Grey to power in November 1830,
+Stanley obtained his first opportunity of showing his capacity for
+a responsible office. He was appointed to the chief secretaryship
+of Ireland, a position in which he found ample scope
+for both administrative and debating skill. On accepting
+office he had to vacate his seat for Preston and seek re-election;
+and he had the mortification of being defeated by the Radical
+&ldquo;orator&rdquo; Hunt. The contest was a peculiarly keen one, and
+turned upon the question of the ballot, which Stanley refused to
+support. He re-entered the House as one of the members for
+Windsor, Sir Hussey Vivian having resigned in his favour. In 1832
+he again changed his seat, being returned for North Lancashire.</p>
+
+<p>Stanley was one of the most ardent supporters of Lord Grey&rsquo;s
+Reform Bill. Of this no other proof is needed than his frequent
+parliamentary utterances, which were fully in sympathy with the
+popular cry &ldquo;The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill.&rdquo;
+Reference may be made especially to the speech he delivered on
+the 4th of March 1831 on the adjourned debate on the second
+reading of the bill, which was marked by all the higher qualities
+of his oratory. Apart from his connexion with the general policy
+of the government, Stanley had more than enough to have
+employed all his energies in the management of his own department.
+The secretary of Ireland has seldom an easy task; Stanley
+found it one of peculiar difficulty. The country was in a very
+unsettled state. The just concession that had been somewhat
+tardily yielded a short time before in Catholic emancipation
+had excited the people to make all sorts of demands, reasonable
+and unreasonable. Undaunted by the fierce denunciations of
+O&rsquo;Connell, who styled him Scorpion Stanley, he discharged with
+determination the ungrateful task of carrying a coercion bill
+through the House. It was generally felt that O&rsquo;Connell,
+powerful though he was, had fairly met his match in Stanley,
+who, with invective scarcely inferior to his own, evaded no
+challenge, ignored no argument, and left no taunt unanswered.
+The title &ldquo;Rupert of Debate&rdquo; is peculiarly applicable to him
+in connexion with the fearless if also often reckless method of
+attack he showed in his parliamentary war with O&rsquo;Connell.
+It was first applied to him, however, thirteen years later by Sir
+Edward Bulwer Lytton in <i>The New Timon</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+<p class="ind03">&ldquo;One after one the lords of time advance;</p>
+<p>Here Stanley meets&mdash;here Stanley scorns the glance!</p>
+<p>The brilliant chief, irregularly great,</p>
+<p>Frank, haughty, rash,&mdash;the Rupert of debate.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The best answer, however, which he made to the attacks of the
+great agitator was not the retorts of debate, effective though
+these were, but the beneficial legislation he was instrumental in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67"></a>67</span>
+passing. He introduced and carried the first national education
+act for Ireland, one result of which was the remarkable and to
+many almost incredible phenomenon of a board composed
+of Catholics, Episcopalians and Presbyterians harmoniously
+administering an efficient education scheme. He was also chiefly
+responsible for the Irish Church Temporalities Act, though the
+bill was not introduced into parliament until after he had quitted
+the Irish secretaryship for another office. By this measure two
+archbishoprics and eight bishoprics were abolished, and a remedy
+was provided for various abuses connected with the revenues of
+the church. As originally introduced, the bill contained a clause
+authorizing the appropriation of surplus revenues to non-ecclesiastical
+purposes. This had, however, been strongly opposed
+from the first by Stanley and several other members of the
+cabinet, and it was withdrawn by the government before the
+measure reached the Lords.</p>
+
+<p>In 1833, just before the introduction of the Irish Church
+Temporalities Bill, Stanley had been promoted to be secretary
+for the colonies with a seat in the cabinet. In this position it fell
+to his lot to carry the emancipation of the slaves to a successful
+practical issue. The speech which he delivered on introducing
+the bill for freeing the slaves in the West Indies, on the 14th of
+May 1833, was one of the finest specimens of his eloquence.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish Church question determined more than one turning-point
+in his political career. The most important occasion on
+which it did so was in 1834, when the proposal of the government
+to appropriate the surplus revenues of the church to educational
+purposes led to his secession from the cabinet, and, as it proved,
+his complete and final separation from the Whig party. In the
+former of these steps he had as his companions Sir James Graham,
+the earl of Ripon and the duke of Richmond. Soon after it
+occurred, O&rsquo;Connell, amid the laughter of the House, described
+the secession in a couplet from Canning&rsquo;s <i>Loves of the Triangles</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+<p class="ind03">&ldquo;Still down thy steep, romantic Ashbourne, glides</p>
+<p>The Derby dilly carrying six insides.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Stanley was not content with marking his disapproval by the
+simple act of withdrawing from the cabinet. He spoke against the
+bill to which he objected with a vehemence that showed the
+strength of his feeling in the matter, and against its authors with
+a bitterness that he himself is understood to have afterwards
+admitted to have been unseemly towards those who had so
+recently been his colleagues. The course followed by the government
+was &ldquo;marked with all that timidity, that want of dexterity,
+which led to the failure of the unpractised shoplifter.&rdquo; His late
+colleagues were compared to &ldquo;thimble-riggers at a country fair,&rdquo;
+and their plan was &ldquo;petty larceny, for it had not the redeeming
+qualities of bold and open robbery.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the end of 1834, Lord Stanley, as he was now styled by
+courtesy, his father having succeeded to the earldom in October,
+was invited by Sir Robert Peel to join the short-lived Conservative
+ministry which he formed after the resignation of Lord
+Melbourne. Though he declined the offer for reasons stated in a
+letter published in the Peel memoirs, he acted from that date
+with the Conservative party, and on its next accession to power,
+in 1841, he accepted the office of colonial secretary, which he had
+held under Lord Grey. His position and his temperament alike,
+however, made him a thoroughly independent supporter of any
+party to which he attached himself. When, therefore, the injury
+to health arising from the late hours in the Commons led him
+in 1844 to seek elevation to the Upper House in the right of his
+father&rsquo;s barony, Sir Robert Peel, in acceding to his request, had
+the satisfaction of at once freeing himself from the possible effects
+of his &ldquo;candid friendship&rdquo; in the House, and at the same time
+greatly strengthening the debating power on the Conservative
+side in the other. If the premier in taking this step had any
+presentiment of an approaching difference on a vital question, it
+was not long in being realized. When Sir Robert Peel accepted
+the policy of free trade in 1846, the breach between him and Lord
+Stanley was, as might have been anticipated from the antecedents
+of the latter, instant and irreparable. Lord Stanley at once
+asserted himself as the uncompromising opponent of that policy,
+and he became the recognized leader of the Protectionist party,
+having Lord George Bentinck and Disraeli for his lieutenants
+in the Commons. They did all that could be done in a case in
+which the logic of events was against them, though Protection
+was never to become more than their watchword.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the peculiarities of English politics, however, that
+a party may come into power because it is the only available one
+at the time, though it may have no chance of carrying the very
+principle to which it owes its organized existence. Such was the
+case when Lord Derby, who had succeeded to the earldom on the
+death of his father in June 1851, was called upon to form his first
+administration in February 1852. He was in a minority, but the
+circumstances were such that no other than a minority government
+was possible, and he resolved to take the only available
+means of strengthening his position by dissolving parliament and
+appealing to the country at the earliest opportunity. The appeal
+was made in autumn, but its result did not materially alter the
+position of parties. Parliament met in November, and by the
+middle of the following month the ministry had resigned in
+consequence of their defeat on Disraeli&rsquo;s budget. For the six
+following years, during Lord Aberdeen&rsquo;s &ldquo;ministry of all the
+talents&rdquo; and Lord Palmerston&rsquo;s premiership, Lord Derby
+remained at the head of the opposition, whose policy gradually
+became more generally Conservative and less distinctively
+Protectionist as the hopelessness of reversing the measures
+adopted in 1846 made itself apparent. In 1855 he was asked to
+form an administration after the resignation of Lord Aberdeen,
+but failing to obtain sufficient support, he declined the task. It
+was in somewhat more hopeful circumstances that, after the
+defeat of Lord Palmerston on the Conspiracy Bill in February
+1858, he assumed for the second time the reins of government.
+Though he still could not count upon a working majority, there
+was a possibility of carrying on affairs without sustaining defeat,
+which was realized for a full session, owing chiefly to the dexterous
+management of Mr Disraeli in the Commons. The one rock
+ahead was the question of reform, on which the wishes of the
+country were being emphatically expressed, but it was not so
+pressing as to require to be immediately dealt with. During the
+session of 1858 the government contrived to pass two measures
+of very considerable importance, one a bill to remove Jewish
+disabilities, and the other a bill to transfer the government of
+India from the East India Company to the crown. Next year
+the question of parliamentary reform had to be faced, and,
+recognizing the necessity, the government introduced a bill
+at the opening of the session, which, in spite of, or rather in
+consequence of, its &ldquo;fancy franchises,&rdquo; was rejected by the
+House, and, on a dissolution, rejected also by the country. A
+vote of no confidence having been passed in the new parliament
+on the 10th of June, Lord Derby at once resigned.</p>
+
+<p>After resuming the leadership of the Opposition Lord Derby
+devoted much of the leisure the position afforded him to the
+classical studies that had always been congenial to him. It was
+his reputation for scholarship as well as his social position that
+had led in 1852 to his appointment to the chancellorship of the
+university of Oxford, in succession to the duke of Wellington;
+and perhaps a desire to justify the possession of the honour on
+the former ground had something to do with his essays in the
+field of authorship. His first venture was a poetical version of the
+ninth ode of the third book of Horace, which appeared in Lord
+Ravensworth&rsquo;s collection of translations of the <i>Odes</i>. In 1862 he
+printed and circulated in influential quarters a volume entitled
+<i>Translations of Poems Ancient and Modern</i>, with a very modest
+dedicatory letter to Lord Stanhope, and the words &ldquo;Not
+published&rdquo; on the title-page. It contained, besides versions of
+Latin, Italian, French and German poems, a translation of the
+first book of the <i>Iliad</i>. The reception of this volume was such as
+to encourage him to proceed with the task he had chosen as his
+<i>magnum opus</i>, the translation of the whole of the <i>Iliad</i>, which
+accordingly appeared in 1864.</p>
+
+<p>During the seven years that elapsed between Lord Derby&rsquo;s
+second and third administrations an industrial crisis occurred
+in his native county, which brought out very conspicuously his
+public spirit and his philanthropy. The destitution in Lancashire
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>68</span>
+caused by the stoppage of the cotton-supply in consequence of the
+American Civil War, was so great as to threaten to overtax the
+benevolence of the country. That it did not do so was probably
+due to Lord Derby more than to any other single man. From the
+first he was the very life and soul of the movement for relief. His
+personal subscription, munificent though it was, represented the
+least part of his service. His noble speech at the meeting in
+Manchester in December 1862, where the movement was initiated,
+and his advice at the subsequent meetings of the committee,
+which he attended very regularly, were of the very highest value
+in stimulating and directing public sympathy. His relations
+with Lancashire had always been of the most cordial description,
+notwithstanding his early rejection by Preston; but it is not
+surprising that after the cotton famine period the cordiality
+passed into a warmer and deeper feeling, and that the name of
+Lord Derby was long cherished in most grateful remembrance
+by the factory operatives.</p>
+
+<p>On the rejection of Earl Russell&rsquo;s Reform Bill in 1866, Lord
+Derby was for the third time entrusted with the formation of a
+cabinet. Like those he had previously formed it was destined to
+be short-lived, but it lived long enough to settle on a permanent
+basis the question that had proved fatal to its predecessor. The
+&ldquo;education&rdquo; of the party that had so long opposed all reform to
+the point of granting household suffrage was the work of another;
+but Lord Derby fully concurred in, if he was not the first to
+suggest, the statesmanlike policy by which the question was
+disposed of in such a way as to take it once for all out of the region
+of controversy and agitation. The passing of the Reform Bill was
+the main business of the session 1867. The chief debates were, of
+course, in the Commons, and Lord Derby&rsquo;s failing powers prevented
+him from taking any large share in those which took place
+in the Lords. His description of the measure as a &ldquo;leap in the
+dark&rdquo; was eagerly caught up, because it exactly represented the
+common opinion at the time,&mdash;the most experienced statesmen,
+while they admitted the granting of household suffrage to be a
+political necessity, being utterly unable to foresee what its effect
+might be on the constitution and government of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Finding himself unable, from declining health, to encounter
+the fatigues of another session, Lord Derby resigned office early
+in 1868. The step he had taken was announced in both Houses
+on the evening of the 25th of February, and warm tributes of
+admiration and esteem were paid by the leaders of the two great
+parties. He yielded the entire leadership of the party as well
+as the premiership to Disraeli. His subsequent appearances in
+public were few and unimportant. It was noted as a consistent
+close to his political life that his last speech in the House of Lords
+should have been a denunciation of Gladstone&rsquo;s Irish Church Bill
+marked by much of his early fire and vehemence. A few months
+later, on the 23rd of October 1869, he died at Knowsley.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Archibald Alison, writing of him when he was in the zenith
+of his powers, styles him &ldquo;by the admission of all parties the
+most perfect orator of his day.&rdquo; Even higher was the opinion of
+Lord Aberdeen, who is reported by <i>The Times</i> to have said that
+no one of the giants he had listened to in his youth, Pitt, Fox,
+Burke or Sheridan, &ldquo;as a speaker, is to be compared with our
+own Lord Derby, when Lord Derby is at his best.&rdquo;</p>
+<div class="author">(W. B. S.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Edward Henry Stanley</span>, 15th earl of Derby (1826-1893),
+eldest son of the 14th earl, was educated at Rugby
+and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a high degree
+and became a member of the society known as the Apostles. In
+March 1848 he unsuccessfully contested the borough of Lancaster,
+and then made a long tour in the West Indies, Canada and the
+United States. During his absence he was elected member for
+King&rsquo;s Lynn, which he represented till October 1869, when he
+succeeded to the peerage. He took his place, as a matter of
+course, among the Conservatives, and delivered his maiden speech
+in May 1850 on the sugar duties. Just before, he had made a
+very brief tour in Jamaica and South America. In 1852 he went
+to India, and while travelling in that country he was appointed
+under-secretary for foreign affairs in his father&rsquo;s first administration.
+From the outset of his career he was known to be a most
+Liberal Conservative, and in 1855 Lord Palmerston offered him
+the post of colonial secretary. He was much tempted by the
+proposal, and hurried down to Knowsley to consult his father,
+who called out when he entered the room, &ldquo;Hallo, Stanley!
+what brings you here?&mdash;Has Dizzy cut his throat, or are you
+going to be married?&rdquo; When the object of his sudden appearance
+had been explained, the Conservative chief received the
+courteous suggestion of the prime minister with anything but
+favour, and the offer was declined. In his father&rsquo;s second
+administration Lord Stanley held, at first, the office of secretary
+for the colonies, but became president of the Board of Control on
+the resignation of Lord Ellenborough. He had the charge of the
+India Bill of 1858 in the House of Commons, became the first
+secretary of state for India, and left behind him in the India
+Office an excellent reputation as a man of business. After the
+revolution in Greece and the disappearance of King Otho, the
+people most earnestly desired to have Queen Victoria&rsquo;s second
+son, Prince Alfred, for their king. He declined the honour, and
+they then took up the idea that the next best thing they could
+do would be to elect some great and wealthy English noble, not
+concealing the hope that although they might have to offer him
+a Civil List he would decline to receive it. Lord Stanley was the
+prime favourite as an occupant of this bed of thorns, and it has
+been said that he was actually offered the crown. That, however,
+is not true; the offer was never formally made. After the fall of
+the Russell government in 1866 he became foreign secretary in
+his father&rsquo;s third administration. He compared his conduct in
+that great post to that of a man floating down a river and fending
+off from his vessel, as well as he could, the various obstacles it
+encountered. He thought that that should be the normal
+attitude of an English foreign minister, and probably under the
+circumstances of the years 1866-1868 it was the right one. He
+arranged the collective guarantee of the neutrality of Luxemburg
+in 1867, negotiated a convention about the &ldquo;Alabama,&rdquo; which,
+however, was not ratified, and most wisely refused to take any
+part in the Cretan troubles. In 1874 he again became foreign
+secretary in Disraeli&rsquo;s government. He acquiesced in the
+purchase of the Suez Canal shares, a measure then considered
+dangerous by many people, but ultimately most successful; he
+accepted the Andrassy Note, but declined to accede to the Berlin
+Memorandum. His part in the later phases of the Russo-Turkish
+struggle has never been fully explained, for with equal wisdom
+and generosity he declined to gratify public curiosity at the cost
+of some of his colleagues. A later generation will know better
+than his contemporaries what were the precise developments of
+policy which obliged him to resign. He kept himself ready to
+explain in the House of Lords the course he had taken if those
+whom he had left challenged him to do so, but from that course
+they consistently refrained. Already in October 1879 it was clear
+enough that he had thrown in his lot with the Liberal party, but
+it was not till March 1880 that he publicly announced this change
+of allegiance. He did not at first take office in the second
+Gladstone government, but became secretary for the colonies in
+December 1882, holding this position till the fall of that government
+in the summer of 1885. In 1886 the old Liberal party was
+run on the rocks and went to pieces. Lord Derby became a
+Liberal Unionist, and took an active part in the general management
+of that party, leading it in the House of Lords till 1891,
+when Lord Hartington became duke of Devonshire. In 1892 he
+presided over the Labour Commission, but his health never
+recovered an attack of influenza which he had in 1891, and he
+died at Knowsley on the 21st of April 1893.</p>
+
+<p>During a great part of Lord Derby&rsquo;s life he was deflected from
+his natural course by the accident of his position as the son of the
+leading Conservative statesman of the day. From first to last
+he was at heart a moderate Liberal. After making allowance,
+however, for this deflecting agency, it must be admitted that in
+the highest quality of the statesman, &ldquo;aptness to be right,&rdquo; he
+was surpassed by none of his contemporaries, or&mdash;if by anybody&mdash;by
+ Sir George Cornewall Lewis alone. He would have been
+more at home in a state of things which did not demand from its
+leading statesman great popular power; he had none of those
+&ldquo;isms&rdquo; and &ldquo;prisms of fancy&rdquo; which stood in such good stead
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69"></a>69</span>
+some of his rivals. He had another defect besides the want
+of popular power. He was so anxious to arrive at right conclusions
+that he sometimes turned and turned and turned a
+subject over till the time for action had passed. One of his best
+lieutenants said of him in a moment of impatience: &ldquo;Lord
+Derby is like the God of Hegel: &lsquo;Er setzt sich, er verneint sich,
+er verneint seine Negation.&rsquo;&rdquo; His knowledge, acquired both
+from books and by the ear, was immense, and he took every
+opportunity of increasing it. He retained his old university
+habit of taking long walks with a congenial companion, even in
+London, and although he cared but little for what is commonly
+known as society&mdash;the society of crowded rooms and fragments
+of sentences&mdash;he very much liked conversation. During the
+many years in which he was a member of &ldquo;The Club&rdquo; he was
+one of its most assiduous frequenters, and his loss was acknowledged
+by a formal resolution. His talk was generally grave, but
+every now and then was lit up by dry humour. The late Lord
+Arthur Russell once said to him, after he had been buying some
+property in southern England: &ldquo;So you still believe in land,
+Lord Derby.&rdquo; &ldquo;Hang it,&rdquo; he replied, &ldquo;a fellow must believe in
+something!&rdquo; He did an immense deal of work outside politics.
+He was lord rector of the University of Glasgow from 1868 to
+1871, and later held the same office in that of Edinburgh. From
+1875 to 1893 he was president of the Royal Literary Fund, and
+attended most closely to his duties then. He succeeded Lord
+Granville as chancellor of the University of London in 1891, and
+remained in that position till his death. He lived much in
+Lancashire, managed his enormous estates with great skill, and
+did a great amount of work as a local magnate. He married in
+1870 Maria Catharine, daughter of the 5th earl de la Warr, and
+widow of the 2nd marquess of Salisbury.</p>
+
+<p>The earl left no children and he was succeeded as 16th earl
+by his brother Frederick Arthur Stanley (1841-1908), who had
+been made a peer as Baron Stanley of Preston in 1886. He was
+secretary of state for war and for the colonies and president of
+the board of trade; and was governor-general of Canada from
+1888 to 1893. He died on the 14th of June 1908, when his eldest
+son, Edward George Villiers Stanley, became earl of Derby. As
+Lord Stanley the latter had been member of parliament for the
+West Houghton division of Lancashire from 1892 to 1906; he
+was financial secretary to the War Office from 1900 to 1903, and
+postmaster-general from 1903 to 1905.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>The best account of the 15th Lord Derby is that which was
+prefixed by W. E. H. Lecky, who knew him very intimately,
+to the edition of his speeches outside parliament, published in
+1894.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. G. D.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERBY,</span> a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
+coextensive with the township of Derby, about 10 m. W. of New
+Haven, at the junction of the Housatonic and Naugatuck rivers.
+Pop. (1900) 7930 (2635 foreign-born); (1910) 8991. It is served
+by the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railway, and by
+interurban electric railways. In Derby there are an opera house,
+owned by the city, and a public library. Across the Housatonic
+is the borough of Shelton (pop. 1910, 4807), which is closely
+related, socially and industrially, to Derby, the two having a
+joint board of trade. Adjoining Derby on the N. along the
+Naugatuck is Ansonia. Derby, Ansonia and Shelton form one of
+the most important manufacturing communities in the state;
+although their total population in 1900 (23,448) was only 2.9%
+of the state&rsquo;s population, the product of their manufactories was
+7.4% of the total manufactured product of Connecticut. Among
+the manufactures of Derby are pianos and organs, woollen goods,
+pins, keys, dress stays, combs, typewriters, corsets, hosiery, guns
+and ammunition, and foundry and machine-shop products.
+Derby was settled in 1642 as an Indian trading post under the
+name Paugasset, and received its present name in 1675. The
+date of organization of the township is unknown. Ansonia was
+formed from a part of Derby in 1889. In 1893 the borough of
+Birmingham, on the opposite side of the Naugatuck, was annexed
+to Derby, and Derby was chartered as a city. In the 18th
+century Derby was the centre of a thriving commerce with the
+West Indies. Derby is the birthplace of David Humphreys
+(1752-1818), a soldier, diplomatist and writer, General
+Washington&rsquo;s aide and military secretary from 1780 until the
+end of the War of Independence, the first minister of the
+United States to Portugal (1790-1797) and minister to Spain in
+1797-1802, and one of the &ldquo;Hartford Wits.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Samuel Orcutt and Ambrose Beardsley, <i>History of the Old
+Town of Derby</i> (Springfield, 1880); and the <i>Town Records of Derby
+from 1655 to 1710</i> (Derby, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERBY,</span> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough,
+and the county town of Derbyshire, England, 128¾ m. N.N.W.
+of London by the Midland railway; it is also served by the
+Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 94,146; (1901) 114,848.
+Occupying a position almost in the centre of England, the town
+is situated chiefly on the western bank of the river Derwent, on an
+undulating site encircled with gentle eminences, from which flow
+the Markeaton and other brooks. In the second half of the 19th
+century the prosperity of the town was enhanced by the establishment
+of the head offices and principal workshops of the Midland
+Railway Company. Derby possesses several handsome public
+buildings, including the town hall, a spacious range of buildings
+erected for the postal and inland revenue offices, the county hall,
+corn exchange and market hall. Among churches may be
+mentioned St Peter&rsquo;s a fine building principally of Perpendicular
+date but with earlier portions; St Alkmund&rsquo;s with its lofty spire,
+Decorated in style; St Andrew&rsquo;s, in the same style, by Sir G. G.
+Scott; and All Saints&rsquo;, which contains a beautiful choir-screen,
+good stained glass and monuments by L. F. Roubiliac, Sir
+Francis Chantrey and others. The body of this church is in
+classic style (1725), but the tower was built 1509-1527, and is one
+of the finest in the midland counties, built in three tiers, and
+crowned with battlements and pinnacles, which give it a total
+height of 210 ft. The Roman Catholic church of St Mary is one
+of the best examples of the work of A. W. Pugin. The Derby
+grammar school, one of the most ancient in England, was placed
+in 1160 under the administration of the chapter of Darley Abbey,
+which lay a little north of Derby. It occupies St Helen&rsquo;s House,
+once the town residence of the Strutt family, and has been
+enlarged in modern times, accommodating about 160 boys. The
+Derby municipal technical college is administered by the corporation.
+Other institutions include schools of science and art,
+public library, museum and art gallery, the Devonshire almshouses,
+a remodelled foundation inaugurated by Elizabeth,
+countess of Shrewsbury, in the 16th century, and the town and
+county infirmary. The free library and museum buildings,
+together with a recreation ground, were gifts to the town from
+M. T. Bass, M.P. (d. 1884), while an arboretum of seventeen
+acres was presented to the town by Joseph Strutt in 1840.</p>
+
+<p>Derby has been long celebrated for its porcelain, which
+rivalled that of Saxony and France. This manufacture was
+introduced about 1750, and although for a time partially
+abandoned, it has been revived. There are also spar works where
+the fluor-spar, or Blue John, is wrought into a variety of useful
+and ornamental articles. The manufacture of silk, hosiery, lace
+and cotton formerly employed a large portion of the population,
+and there are still numerous silk mills and elastic web works.
+Silk &ldquo;throwing&rdquo; or spinning was introduced into England in
+1717 by John Lombe, who found out the secrets of the craft
+when visiting Piedmont, and set up machinery in Derby. Other
+industries include the manufacture of paint, shot, white and
+red lead and varnish; and there are sawmills and tanneries.
+The manufacture of hosiery profited greatly by the inventions
+of Jedediah Strutt about 1750. In the northern suburb of
+Littlechester, there are chemical and steam boiler works. The
+Midland railway works employ a large number of hands. Derby
+is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Southwell. The parliamentary
+borough returns two members. The town is governed
+by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and forty-two councillors. Area,
+3449 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Littlechester, as its name indicates, was the site of a Roman
+fort or village; the site is in great part built over and the remains
+practically effaced. Derby was known in the time of the
+heptarchy as Northworthig, and did not receive the name of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70"></a>70</span>
+Deoraby or Derby until after it was given up to the Danes by the
+treaty of Wedmore and had become one of their five boroughs,
+probably ruled in the ordinary way by an earl with twelve
+&ldquo;lawmen&rdquo; under him. Being won back among the sweeping
+conquests of Æthelflæd, lady of the Mercians, in 917, it prospered
+during the 10th century, and by the reign of Edward the Confessor
+there were 243 burgesses in Derby. However, by 1086 this
+number had decreased to 100, while 103 &ldquo;manses&rdquo; which used
+to be assessed were waste. In spite of this the amount rendered
+by the town to the lord had increased from £24 to £30. The first
+extant charter granted to Derby is dated 1206 and is a grant of all
+those privileges which the burgesses of Nottingham had in the
+time of Henry I. and Henry II., which included freedom from toll,
+a gild merchant, power to elect a provost at their will, and the
+privilege of holding the town at the ancient farm with an increase
+of £10 yearly. The charter also provides that no one shall dye
+cloth within ten leagues of Derby except in the borough. A
+second charter, granted by Henry III. in 1229, limits the power of
+electing a provost by requiring that he shall be removed if he
+be displeasing to the king. Henry III. also granted the burgesses
+two other charters, one in 1225 confirming their privileges and
+granting that the <i>comitatus</i> of Derby should in future be held on
+Thursdays in the borough, the other in 1260 granting that no
+Jew should be allowed to live in the town. In 1337 Edward III.
+on the petition of the burgesses granted that they might have two
+bailiffs instead of one. Derby was incorporated by James I. in
+1611 under the name of the bailiffs and burgesses of Derby, but
+Charles I. in 1637 appointed a mayor, nine aldermen, fourteen
+brethren and fourteen capital burgesses. In 1680 the burgesses
+were obliged to resign their charters, and received a new one,
+which did not, however, alter the government of the town. Derby
+has been represented in parliament by two members since 1295.
+In the rebellion of 1745 the young Pretender marched with his
+army as far south as Derby, where the council was held which
+decided that he should return to Scotland instead of going on to
+London.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>Among early works on Derby are W. Hutton, <i>History of Derby</i>
+(London, 1791); R. Simpson, <i>History and Antiquities of Derby</i>
+(Derby, 1826).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERBYSHIRE,</span> a north midland county of England, bounded
+N. and N.E. by Yorkshire, E. by Nottinghamshire, S.E. and S. by
+Leicestershire, S. and S.W. by Staffordshire, and W. and N.W. by
+Cheshire. The area is 1029.5 sq. m. The physical aspect is much
+diversified. The extreme south of the county is lacking in
+picturesqueness, being for the most part level, with occasional
+slight undulations. The Peak District of the north, on the other
+hand, though inferior in grandeur to the mountainous Lake
+District, presents some of the finest hill scenery in England,
+deriving a special beauty from the richly wooded glens and
+valleys, such as those of Castleton, Glossop, Dovedale and
+Millersdale. The character of the landscape ranges from the wild
+moorland of the Cheshire borders or the grey rocks of the Peak,
+to the park lands and woods of the Chatsworth district. Some of
+the woods are noted for their fine oaks, those at Kedleston, 3 m.
+from Derby, ranking among the largest and oldest in the kingdom.
+From the northern hills the streams of the county radiate.
+Those of the north-west belong to the Mersey, and those of the
+north-east to the Don, but all the others to the Trent, which, like
+the Don, falls into the Humber. The principal river is the Trent,
+which, rising in the Staffordshire moorlands, intersects the
+southern part of Derbyshire, and forms part of its boundary
+with Leicestershire. After the Trent the most important river
+is the Derwent, one of its tributaries, which, taking its rise in the
+lofty ridges of the High Peak, flows southward through a beautiful
+valley, receiving a number of minor streams in its course, including
+the Wye, which, rising near Buxton, traverses the fine
+Millersdale and Monsal Dale. The other principal rivers are the
+following: The Dane rises at the junction of the three counties,
+Staffordshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire. The Goyt has its source
+a little farther north, at the base of the same hill, and, taking a
+N.N.E. direction, divides Derbyshire from Cheshire, and falls into
+the Mersey. The Dove rises on the southern slope, and flows as
+the boundary stream between Derbyshire and Staffordshire for
+nearly its entire course. It receives several feeders, and falls into
+the Trent near Repton. The Erewash is the boundary stream
+between Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. The Rother rises
+about Baslow, and flows into Yorkshire, with a northerly course,
+joining the Don. Besides the attractions of its scenery Derbyshire
+possesses, in Buxton, Matlock and Bakewell, three
+health resorts in much favour on account of their medicinal
+springs.</p>
+
+<p>The whole northward extension of the county is occupied by
+the plateau of the Peak and other plateau-like summits, the
+highest of which are of almost exactly similar elevation. Thus
+in the extreme north Bleaklow Hill reaches 2060 ft., while
+southward from this point along the axis of main elevation are
+found Shelf Moss (2046 ft.), and Kinder Scout and other summits
+of the Peak itself, ranging up to 2088 ft. This plateau-mass is
+demarcated on the north and west by the vales of the Etherow
+and Goyt, by the valley of the Derwent on the east, and in part
+by that of its tributary the Noe on the south. The flanks of the
+plateau are deeply scored by abrupt ravines, often known as
+&ldquo;cloughs&rdquo; (an Anglo-Saxon word, <i>cloh</i>) watered by streams
+which sometimes descend over precipitous ledges in picturesque
+falls, such as the Kinder Downfall, formed by the brook of that
+name which rises on Kinder Scout. The most picturesque
+cloughs are found on the south, descending to Edale, and on the
+west. Edale is the upper part of the Noe valley, and the narrow
+gorge at its head is exceedingly beautiful, as is the more gentle
+scenery of the Vale of Hope, the lower part of the valley. In a
+branch vale is situated <a href="#artlinks">Castleton</a> (q.v.), with the ruined Peak
+Castle, or Castle of the Peak, and the Peak Cavern, Blue John
+Mine and other caves. The upper Derwent valley, or Derwent
+Dale, is narrow and well wooded. In it, near the village of
+Derwent Chapel, is Derwent Hall, a fine old mansion formerly
+a seat of the Newdigate family. On Derwent Edge, above the
+village, are various peculiar rock formations, known by such
+names as the Salt-cellar. Ashopton, another village lower down
+the dale, is a favourite centre, and here the main valley is joined
+by Ashop Dale, a bold defile in its upper part, penetrating the
+heart of the Peak.</p>
+
+<p>The well-known high road crossing the plateau from east to
+west, between the lower Derwent valley, Bakewell, Buxton and
+Macclesfield, shows the various types of scenery characteristic
+of the limestone hill-country of Derbyshire south of the Peak
+itself. The lower Derwent valley, about Chatsworth, Rowsley,
+Darley and Matlock, is open, fertile and well wooded. The road
+leads up the tributary valley of the Wye, which after Bakewell
+quickly narrows, and in successive portions is known as Monsal
+Dale, Millersdale (which the main road does not touch), Chee
+Dale and Wye Dale. On the flanks of these beautiful dales bold
+cliffs and bastions of limestone stand out among rich woods.
+Near the mouth of the valley, about Stanton, the fantastic
+effects of weathering on the limestone are especially well seen,
+as in Rowtor Rocks and Robin Hood&rsquo;s Stride, and in the same
+locality are a remarkable number of tumuli and other early
+remains, and the Hermitage, a cave containing sacred carvings.
+From Buxton the road ascends over the high moors, here open
+and grassy in contrast to the heather of the Peak, and shortly
+after crossing the county boundary, reaches the head of the pass
+well known by the name of an inn, the Cat and Fiddle, at its
+highest point, 1690 ft.</p>
+
+<p>South of Buxton the elevations along the main axis decrease,
+thus Axe Edge reaches 1600 ft., and this height is nowhere
+exceeded as the hills sink to the plain valley of the Trent. The
+dales and ravines which ramify among the limestone heights are
+characteristic and beautiful, and the valley of the <a href="#artlinks">Dove</a> (q.v.)
+or Dovedale, on the border with Staffordshire, is as famous as
+any of the northern dales. Swallow-holes or waterworn caverns
+are common in many parts of the limestone region. The hills
+east of the Derwent are nowhere so high as those to the west&mdash;Margley
+Hill reaches 1793 ft., Howden Edge 1787 ft. and Derwent
+Moors 1505 ft. The plateau type is maintained. The
+valley of the Derwent provides the most attractive scenery in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71"></a>71</span>
+the southern part of the county, from Matlock southward by
+Heage, Belper and Duffield to Derby.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Five well-contrasted types of scenery in Derbyshire are
+clearly traceable to as many varieties of rock; the bleak dry uplands
+of the north and east, with deep-cut ravines and swift clear streams,
+are due to the great mass of Mountain Limestone; round the limestone
+boundary are the valleys with soft outlines in the Pendleside
+Shales; these are succeeded by the rugged moorlands, covered with
+heather and peat, which are due to the Millstone Grit series; eastward
+lies the Derbyshire Coalfield with its gently moulded grass-covered
+hills; southward is the more level tract of red Triassic rocks.
+The principal structural feature is the broad anticline, its axis running
+north and south, which has brought up the Carboniferous Limestone;
+this uplifted region is the southern extremity of the Pennine Range.
+The Carboniferous or &ldquo;Mountain&rdquo; Limestone is the oldest formation
+in the county; its thickness is not known, but it is certainly over
+2000 ft.; it is well exposed in the numerous narrow gorges cut by the
+Derwent and its tributaries and by the Dove on the Staffordshire
+border. Ashwood Dale, Chee Dale, Millersdale, Monsal Dale and the
+valley at Matlock are all flanked by abrupt sides of this rock. It is
+usually a pale, thick-bedded rock, sometimes blue and occasionally,
+as at Ashford, black. In some places, e.g. Thorpe Cloud, it is highly
+fossiliferous, but it is usually somewhat barren except for abundant
+crinoids and smaller organisms. It is polished in large slabs at
+Ashford, where crinoidal, black and &ldquo;rosewood&rdquo; marbles are produced.
+Volcanic rocks, locally called &ldquo;Toadstone,&rdquo; are represented
+in the limestones by intrusive sills and flows of dolerite and by necks
+of agglomerate, notably near Tideswell, Millersdale and Matlock.
+Beds and nodules of chert are abundant in the upper parts of the
+limestone; at Bakewell it is quarried for use in the Potteries. At
+some points the limestone has been dolomitized; near Bonsall it has
+been converted into a granular silicified rock. A series of black
+shales with nodular limestones, the Pendleside series, rests upon the
+Mountain Limestone on the east, south and north-west; much of the
+upper course of the Derwent has been cut through these soft beds.
+Mam Tor, or the Shivering Mountain, is made of these shales. Next
+in upward sequence is a thick mass of sandstones, grits and shales&mdash;the
+Millstone Grit series. On the west side these extend from
+Blacklow Hill to Axe Edge; on the east, from Derwent Edge to near
+Derby; outlying masses form the rough moorland on Kinder Scout
+and the picturesque tors near Stanton-by-Youlgreave. A small
+patch of Millstone Grit and Limestone occurs in the south of the
+county about Melbourne and Ticknall. The Coal Measures repose
+upon the Millstone Grit; the largest area of these rocks lies on the east,
+where they are conterminous with the coalfields of Yorkshire and
+Nottingham. A small tract, part of the Leicestershire coalfield, lies
+in the south-east corner, and in the north-west corner a portion of the
+Lancashire coalfield appears about New Mills and Whaley Bridge.
+They yield valuable coals, clays, marls and ganister. East of
+Bolsover, the Coal Measures are covered unconformably by the
+Permian breccias and magnesian limestone. Flanking the hills
+between Ashbourne and Quarndon are red beds of Bunter marl,
+sandstone and conglomerate; they also appear at Morley, east of the
+Derwent, and again round the small southern coalfield. Most of the
+southern part of the county is occupied by Keuper marls and sandstones,
+the latter yield good building stone; and at Chellaston the
+gypsum beds in the former are excavated on a large scale. Much of
+the Triassic area is covered superficially by glacial drift and alluvium
+of the Trent. Local boulders as well as northern erratics are found
+in the valley of the Derwent. The bones of Pleistocene mammals,
+the rhinoceros, mammoth, bison, hyaena, &amp;c., have been found at
+numerous places, often in caves and fissures in the limestones, e.g. at
+Castleton, Wirksworth and Creswell. At Doveholes the Pleiocene
+<i>Mastodon</i> has been reported. Galena and other lead ores are
+abundant in veins in the limestone, but they are now only worked on
+a large scale at Mill Close, near Winster; calamine, zinc, blende,
+barytes, calcite and fluor-spar are common. A peculiar variety of the
+last named, called &ldquo;Blue John,&rdquo; is found only near Castleton; at
+the same place occurs the remarkable elastic bitumen, &ldquo;elaterite.&rdquo;
+Limestone is quarried at Buxton, Millersdale and Matlock for lime,
+fluxing and chemical purposes. Good sandstone is obtained from
+the Millstone Grit at Stancliffe, Tansley and Whatstandwell. Calcareous
+tufa or travertine occurs in the valley of Matlock and elsewhere,
+and in some places is still being deposited by springs. Large
+pits containing deposits of white sand, clay and pebbles are found
+in the limestone at Longcliff, Newhaven and Carsington.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;From the elevation which it attains in its northern
+division the county is colder and is rainier than other midland
+counties. Even in summer cold and thick fogs are often seen
+hanging over the rivers, and clinging to the lower parts of the
+hills, and hoar-frosts are by no means unknown even in June
+and July. The winters in the uplands are generally severe, and
+the rainfall heavy. At Buxton, at an elevation of about 1000 ft.,
+the mean temperature in January is 34.9° F., and in July 57.5°,
+the mean annual being 45.4°. These conditions contrast with
+those at Derby, in the southern lowland, where the figures are
+respectively 37.5°, 61.2° and 48.8°, while intermediate conditions
+are found at Belper, 9 m. higher up the Derwent valley, where
+the figures are 36.3°, 59.9° and 47.3°. The contrasts shown by
+the mean annual rainfall are similarly marked. Thus at Woodhead,
+lying high in the extreme north, it is 52.03 in., at Buxton
+49.33 in., at Matlock, in the middle part of the Derwent valley,
+35.2 in., and at Derby 24.35 in.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;A little over seven-tenths of the total area of
+the county is under cultivation. Among the higher altitudes of
+north Derbyshire, where the soil is poor and the climate harsh,
+grain is unable to flourish, while even in the more sheltered parts
+of this region the harvest is usually belated. In such districts
+sheep farming is chiefly practised, and there is a considerable
+area of heath pasture. Farther south, heavy crops of wheat,
+turnips and other cereals and green crops are not uncommon,
+while barley is cultivated about Repton and Gresley, and also in
+the east of the county, in order to supply the Burton breweries.
+A large part of the Trent valley is under permanent pasture,
+being devoted to cattle-feeding and dairy-farming. This industry
+has prospered greatly, and the area of permanent pasture
+encroaches continually upon that of arable land. Derbyshire
+cheeses are exported or sent to London in considerable quantities;
+and cheese fairs are held in various parts of the county, as at
+Ashbourne and Derby. A feature of the upland districts is the
+total absence of hedges, and the substitution of limestone walls,
+put together without any mortar or cement.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;The manufactures of Derbyshire are both
+numerous and important, embracing silks, cotton hosiery, iron,
+woollen manufactures, lace, elastic web and brewing. For many
+of these this county has long been famous, especially for that of
+silk, which is carried on to a large extent in Derby, as well as in
+Belper and Duffield. Derby is also celebrated for its china, and
+silk-throwing is the principal industry of the town. Elastic web
+weaving by power looms is carried on to a great extent, and the
+manufacture of lace and net curtains, gimp trimmings, braids
+and cords. In the county town and neighbourhood are several
+important chemical and colour works; and in various parts of
+the county, as at Belper, Cromford, Matlock, Tutbury, are cotton-spinning
+mills, as well as hosiery and tape manufactories. The
+principal works of the Midland Railway Company are at Derby.
+The principal mineral is coal. Ironstone is not extensively
+wrought, but, on account of the abundant supply of coal, large
+quantities are imported for smelting purposes. There are
+smelting furnaces in several districts, as at Alfreton, Chesterfield,
+Derby, Ilkeston. Besides lead, gypsum and zinc are raised, to
+a small extent; and for the quarrying of limestone Derbyshire is
+one of the principal English counties. The east and the extreme
+south-west parts are the principal industrial districts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The chief railway serving the county is the
+Midland, the south, east and north being served by its main line
+and branches. In the north-east and north the Great Central
+system touches the county; in the west the North Staffordshire
+and a branch of the London &amp; North-Western; while a branch of
+the Great Northern serves Derby and other places in the south.
+The Trent &amp; Mersey canal crosses the southern part of the county,
+and there is a branch canal (the Derby) connecting Derby with
+this and with the Erewash canal, which runs north from the
+Trent up the Erewash valley. From it there is a little-used
+branch (the Cromford canal) to Matlock.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The area of the ancient
+county is 658,885 acres, with a population in 1891 of 528,033,
+and 1901 of 620,322. The area of the administrative county is
+652,272 acres. The county contains six hundreds. The municipal
+boroughs are Chesterfield (pop. 27,185), Derby, a county borough
+and the county town (114,848), Glossop (21,526), Ilkeston
+(25,384). The other urban districts are Alfreton (17,505),
+Alvaston and Boulton (1279), Ashbourne (4039), Bakewell (2850),
+Baslow and Bubnell (797), Belper (10,934), Bolsover (6844)
+Bonsall (1360), Brampton and Walton (2698), Buxton (10,181),
+Clay Cross (8358), Dronfield (3809), Fairfield (2969), Heage (2889),
+Heanor (16,249), Long Eaton (13,045), Matlock (5979), Matlock
+Bath and Scarthin Nick (1810), Newbold and Dunston (5986),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72"></a>72</span>
+New Mills (7773), North Darley (2756), Ripley (10,111),
+South Darley (788), Swadlincote (18,014), Whittington (9416),
+Wirksworth (3807). Among other towns may be mentioned
+Ashover (2426), Barlborough (2056), Chapel-en-le-Frith (4626),
+Clowne (3896), Crich (3063), Killamarsh (3644), Staveley (11,420),
+Whitwell (3380). The county is in the Midland circuit, and
+assizes are held at Derby. It has one court of quarter sessions
+and is divided into fifteen petty sessional divisions. The boroughs
+of Derby, Chesterfield and Glossop have separate commissions of
+the peace, and that of Derby has also a separate court of quarter
+sessions. The total number of civil parishes is 314. The county
+is mainly in the diocese of Southwell, with small portions in the
+dioceses of Peterborough and Lichfield, and contains 255 ecclesiastical
+parishes or districts. The parliamentary divisions of
+the county are High Peak, North-Eastern, Chesterfield, Mid,
+Ilkeston, Southern and Western, each returning one member,
+while the parliamentary borough of Derby returns two members.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The earliest English settlements in the district which
+is now Derbyshire were those of the West Angles, who in the
+course of their northern conquests in the 6th century pushed
+their way up the valleys of the Derwent and the Dove, where they
+became known as the Pecsaetan. Later the district formed the
+northern division of Mercia, and in 848 the Mercian witenagemot
+assembled at Repton. In the 9th century the district suffered
+frequently from the ravages of the Danes, who in 874 wintered at
+Repton and destroyed its famous monastery, the burial-place of
+the kings of Mercia. Derby under Guthrum was one of the five
+Danish burghs, but in 917 was recovered by Æthelflæd. In 924
+Edward the Elder fortified Bakewell, and in 942 Edmund
+regained Derby, which had fallen under the Danish yoke.
+Barrows of the Saxon period are numerous in Wirksworth
+hundred and the Bakewell district, among the most remarkable
+being White-low near Winster and Bower&rsquo;s-low near Tissington.
+There are Saxon cemeteries at Stapenhill and Foremark Hall.</p>
+
+<p>Derbyshire probably originated as a shire in the time of
+Æthelstan, but for long it maintained a very close connexion with
+Nottinghamshire, and the Domesday Survey gives a list of local
+customs affecting the two counties alike. The two shire-courts
+sat together for the Domesday Inquest, and the counties were
+united under one sheriff until the time of Elizabeth. The villages
+of Appleby, Oakthorpe, Donisthorpe, Stretton-en-le-Field,
+Willesley, Chilcote and Measham were reckoned as part of
+Derbyshire in 1086, although separated from it by the Leicestershire
+parishes of Over and Nether Seat.</p>
+
+<p>The early divisions of the county were known as wapentakes,
+five being mentioned in Domesday, while 13th-century documents
+mention seven wapentakes, corresponding with the six present
+hundreds, except that Repton and Gresley were then reckoned as
+separate divisions. In the 14th century the divisions were more
+frequently described as hundreds, and Wirksworth alone retained
+the designation wapentake until modern times. Ecclesiastically
+the county constituted an archdeaconry in the diocese of
+Lichfield, comprising the six deaneries of Derby, Ashbourne,
+High Peak, Castillar, Chesterfield and Repington. In 1884 it
+was transferred to the newly formed diocese of Southwell. The
+assizes for Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire were held at
+Nottingham until the reign of Henry III., when they were held
+alternately at Nottingham and Derby until 1569, after which the
+Derbyshire assizes were held at Derby. The court of the Honour
+of Peverel, held at Basford in Nottinghamshire, which formerly
+exercised jurisdiction in the hundreds of Scarsdale, the Peak and
+Wirksworth, was abolished in 1849. The miners of Derbyshire
+formed an independent community under the jurisdiction of
+a steward and barmasters, who held two <a href="#artlinks">Barmote courts</a>
+(q.v.) every year. The forests of Peak and Duffield had their
+separate courts and officers, the justice seat of the former being
+in an extra-parochial part at equal distances from Castleton,
+Tideswell and Bowden, while the pleas of Duffield Forest were
+held at Tutbury. Both were disafforested in the 17th
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest landholder in Derbyshire at the time of the
+Domesday Survey was Henry de Ferrers, who owned almost the
+whole of the modern hundred of Appletree. The Ferrers estates
+were forfeited by Robert, earl of Derby, in the reign of Henry III.
+Another great Domesday landholder was William Peverel, the
+historic founder of Peak Castle, whose vast possessions were
+known as the Honour of Peverel. In 1155 the younger Peverel
+was disinherited for poisoning the earl of Chester, and his estates
+forfeited to the crown. Few Englishmen retained estates of any
+importance after the Conquest, but one, Elfin, an under-tenant
+of Henry de Ferrers, not only held a considerable property but
+was the ancestor of the Derbyshire family of Brailsford. The
+families of Shirley and Gresley can also boast an unbroken descent
+from Domesday tenants.</p>
+
+<p>During the rebellion of Prince Henry against Henry II. the
+castles of Tutbury and Duffield were held against the king, and
+in the civil wars of John&rsquo;s reign Bolsover and Peak Castles were
+garrisoned by the rebellious barons. In the Barons&rsquo; War of the
+reign of Henry III. the earl of Derby was active in stirring up
+feeling in the county against the king, and in 1266 assembled
+a considerable force, which was defeated by the king&rsquo;s party at
+Chesterfield. At the time of the Wars of the Roses discontent
+was rife in Derbyshire, and riots broke out in 1443, but the county
+did not lend active support to either party. On the outbreak of
+the Civil War of the 17th century, the county at first inclined
+to support the king, who received an enthusiastic reception
+when he visited Derby in 1642, but by the close of 1643 Sir
+John Gell of Hopton had secured almost the whole county for
+the parliament. Derby, however, was always royalist in sympathy,
+and did not finally surrender till 1646; in 1659 it rebelled
+against Richard Cromwell, and in 1745 entertained the young
+Pretender.</p>
+
+<p>Derbyshire has always been mainly a mining and manufacturing
+county, though the rich land in the south formerly produced
+large quantities of corn. The lead mines were worked by the
+Romans, and the Domesday Survey mentions lead mines at
+Wirksworth, Matlock, Bakewell, Ashford and Crich. Iron has
+also been produced in Derbyshire from an early date, and coal
+mines were worked at Norton and Alfreton in the beginning of the
+14th century. The woollen industry flourished in the county
+before the reign of John, when an exclusive privilege of dyeing
+cloth was conceded to the burgesses of Derby. Thomas Fuller
+writing in 1662 mentions lead, malt and ale as the chief products
+of the county, and the Buxton waters were already famous in his
+day. The 18th century saw the rise of numerous manufactures.
+In 1718 Sir Thomas and John Lombe set up an improved silk-throwing
+machine at Derby, and in 1758 Jedediah Strutt introduced
+a machine for making ribbed stockings, which became
+famous as the &ldquo;Derby rib.&rdquo; In 1771 Sir Richard Arkwright set
+up one of his first cotton mills in Cromford, and in 1787 there
+were twenty-two cotton mills in the county. The Derby porcelain
+or china manufactory was started about 1750.</p>
+
+<p>From 1295 until the Reform Act of 1832 the county and town
+of Derby each returned two members to parliament. From this
+latter date the county returned four members in two divisions
+until the act of 1868, under which it returned six members for
+three divisions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;Monastic remains are scanty, but there are
+interesting portions of a priory incorporated with the school
+buildings at Repton. The village church of Beauchief Abbey,
+near Dronfield, is a remnant of an abbey founded c. 1175 by
+Robert Fitzranulf. It has a stately transitional Norman tower,
+and three fine Norman arches. Dale Abbey, near Derby, was
+founded early in the 13th century for the Premonstratensian
+order. The ruins are scanty, but the east window is preserved,
+and the present church incorporates remains of the ancient rest-house
+for pilgrims. The church has a peculiar music gallery,
+entered from without. The abbey church contained famous
+stained glass, and some of this is preserved in the neighbouring
+church at Morley. Derbyshire is rich in ecclesiastical architecture
+as a whole. The churches are generally of various styles. The
+chancel of the church at Repton is assigned to the second half of
+the 10th century, though subsequently altered, and the crypt
+beneath is supposed to be earlier still; its roof is supported by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73"></a>73</span>
+four round pillars, and it is approached by two stairways. Other
+remains of pre-Conquest date are the chancel arches in the
+churches of Marston Montgomery and of Sawley; and the
+curiously carved font in Wilne church is attributed to the same
+period. Examples of Norman work are frequent in doorways,
+as in the churches of Allestree and Willington near Repton,
+while a fine tympanum is preserved in the modern church of
+Findern. There is a triple-recessed doorway, with arcade above,
+in the west end of Bakewell church, and there is another fine
+west doorway in Melbourne church, a building principally of the
+late Norman period, with central and small western towers.
+In restoring this church curious mural paintings were discovered.
+At Steetley, near Worksop, is a small Norman chapel, with
+apse, restored from a ruinous condition; Youlgrave church, a
+building of much general interest, has Norman nave pillars and
+a fine font of the same period, and Normanton church has a
+peculiar Norman corbel table. The Early English style is on
+the whole less well exemplified in the county, but Ashbourne
+church, with its central tower and lofty spire, contains beautiful
+details of this period, notably the lancet windows in the Cockayne
+chapel.</p>
+
+<p>The parish churches of Dronfield, Hathersage (with some
+notable stained glass), Sandiacre and Tideswell exemplify the
+Decorated period; the last is a particularly stately and beautiful
+building, with a lofty and ornate western tower and some good
+early brasses. The churches of Dethic, Wirksworth and Chesterfield
+are typical of the Perpendicular period; that of Wirksworth
+contains noteworthy memorial chapels, monuments and brasses,
+and that of Chesterfield is celebrated for its crooked spire.</p>
+
+<p>The remains of castles are few; the ancient Bolsover Castle is
+replaced by a castellated mansion of the 17th century; of the
+Norman Peak Castle near Castleton little is left; of Codnor
+Castle in the Erewash valley there are picturesque ruins of the
+13th century. Among ancient mansions Derbyshire possesses
+one of the most famous in England in Haddon Hall, of the
+15th century. Wingfield manor house is a ruin dating from
+the same century. Hardwick Hall is a very perfect example of
+Elizabethan building; ruins of the old Tudor hall stand near by.
+Other Elizabethan examples are Barlborough and Tissington
+Halls.</p>
+
+<p>The village of Tissington is noted for the maintenance of an
+old custom, that of &ldquo;well-dressing.&rdquo; On the Thursday before
+Easter a special church service is celebrated, and the wells are
+beautifully ornamented with flowers, prayers being offered at
+each. The ceremony has been revived also in several other
+Derbyshire villages.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Davies, <i>New Historical and Descriptive View of Derbyshire</i>
+(Belper, 1811); D. Lysons, <i>Magna Britannia</i>, vol. v. (London, 1817);
+Maunder, <i>Derbyshire Miners&rsquo; Glossary</i> (Bakewell, 1824); R. Simpson,
+<i>Collection of Fragments illustrative of the History of Derbyshire</i> (1826);
+S. Glover, <i>History and Gazetteer of the County of Derby</i>, ed. T. Noble,
+part 1 of vols. i. and ii. (Derby, 1831-1833); T. Bateman, <i>Vestiges
+of the Antiquities of Derbyshire</i> (London, 1848); L. Jewitt, <i>Ballads
+and Songs of Derbyshire</i> (London, 1867); J. C. Cox, <i>Notes on the
+Churches of Derbyshire</i> (Chester, 1875), and <i>Three Centuries of
+Derbyshire Annals</i> (2 vols., London, 1890); R. N. Worth, <i>Derby</i>, in
+&ldquo;Popular County Histories&rdquo; (London, 1886); J. P. Yeatman,
+<i>Feudal History of the County of Derby</i> (3 vols., London, 1886-1895);
+<i>Victoria County History, Derbyshire</i>. See also <i>Notts and Derbyshire
+Notes and Queries</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DEREHAM</span> (properly <span class="sc">East Dereham</span>), a market town in the
+Mid parliamentary division of Norfolk, England, 122 m. N.N.E.
+from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 5545. The church of St Nicholas is a cruciform
+Perpendicular structure with a beautiful central tower, and some
+portions of earlier date. It contains a monument to William
+Cowper, who came to live here in 1796, and the Congregational
+chapel stands on the site of the house where the poet spent his
+last days. Dereham is an important agricultural centre with
+works for the manufacture of agricultural implements, iron
+foundries and a malting industry.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERELICT</span> (from Lat. <i>derelinquere</i>, to forsake), in law,
+property thrown away or abandoned by the owner in such a
+manner as to indicate that he intends to make no further claim to
+it. The word is used more particularly with respect to property
+abandoned at sea (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wreck</a></span>), but it is also applied in other
+senses; for example, land gained from the sea by receding of the
+water is termed <i>dereliction</i>. Land gained gradually and slowly
+by dereliction belongs to the owner of the adjoining land, but in
+the case of sudden or considerable dereliction the land belongs to
+the Crown. This technical use of the term &ldquo;dereliction&rdquo; is to
+be distinguished from the more general modern sense, dereliction
+or abandonment of duty, which implies a culpable failure
+or neglect in moral or legal obligation.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERENBOURG, JOSEPH</span> (1811-1895), Franco-German
+orientalist. He was a considerable force in the educational
+revival of Jewish education in France. He made great contributions
+to the knowledge of Saadia, and planned a complete edition
+of Saadia&rsquo;s works in Arabic and French. A large part of this
+work appeared during his lifetime. He also wrote an <i>Essai sur
+l&rsquo;histoire et la géographie de la Palestine</i> (Paris, 1867). This was
+an original contribution to the history of the Jews and Judaism
+in the time of Christ, and has been much used by later writers on
+the subject (e.g. by Schürer). He also published in collaboration
+with his son Hartwig, <i>Opuscules et traités d&rsquo;Abou-&rsquo;l-Walîd</i> (with
+translation, 1880); <i>Deux Versions hébraïques du livre de Kalilâh
+et Dimnah</i> (1881), and a Latin translation of the same story
+under the title <i>Joannis de Capua directorium vitae humanae</i>
+(1889); <i>Commentaire de Maimonide sur la Mischnah Seder
+Tohorot</i> (Berlin, 1886-1891); and a second edition of S. de
+Sacy&rsquo;s <i>Séances de Hariri</i>. He died on the 29th of July 1895, at
+Ems.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Hartwig Derenbourg</span> (1844-1908), was born in Paris
+on the 17th of June 1844. He was educated at Göttingen and
+Leipzig. Subsequently he studied Arabic at the École des
+Langues Orientales. In 1879 he was appointed professor of
+Arabic, and in 1886  professor of Mahommedan Religion, at the
+École des Hautes Études in Paris. He collaborated with his
+father in the great edition of Saadia and the edition of Abu-&rsquo;l-Walîd,
+and also produced a number of important editions of
+other Arabic writers. Among these are <i>Le Dîwân de Nâbiqa
+Dhoby&#x101;n&#xef;</i>; <i>Le Livre de Sîbawaihi</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1889);
+<i>Chrestomathie élémentaire de l&rsquo;arabe littéral</i> (in collaboration with
+Spiro, 1885; 2nd ed., 1892); <i>Ousâma ibn Mounkidh, un émir
+syrien</i> (1889); <i>Ousâma ibn Mounkidh, préface du livre du bâton</i>
+(with trans., 1887); <i>Al-Fákhrî</i> (1895); <i>Oumâra du Gémen</i>
+(1897), a catalogue of Arabic MSS. in the Escorial (vol. i.,
+1884).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERG, LOUGH,</span> a lake of Ireland, on the boundary of the
+counties Galway, Clare and Tipperary. It is an expansion of the
+Shannon, being the lowest lake on that river, and is 23 m. long
+and generally from 1 to 3 m. broad. It lies where the Shannon
+leaves the central plain of Ireland and flows between the hills
+which border the plain. While the northerly shores of the lake,
+therefore, are flat, the southern are steep and picturesque, being
+backed by the Slieve Aughty, Slieve Bernagh and Arra Mountains.
+Ruined churches and fortresses are numerous on the eastern
+shore, and on Iniscaltra Island are a round tower and remains of
+five churches.</p>
+
+<p>Another <span class="sc">Lough Derg</span>, near Pettigo in Donegal, though small,
+is famous as the traditional scene of St Patrick&rsquo;s purgatory. In
+the middle ages its pilgrimages had a European reputation, and
+they are still observed annually by many of the Irish from June 1
+to August 15. The hospice, chapels, &amp;c., are on Station Island,
+and there is a ruined monastery on Saints&rsquo; Island.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERHAM, WILLIAM</span> (1657-1735), English divine, was born at
+Stoulton, near Worcester, on the 26th of November 1657. He was
+educated at Blockley, in his native county, and at Trinity College,
+Oxford. In 1682 he became vicar of Wargrave, in Berkshire;
+and in 1689 he was preferred to the living of Upminster, in Essex.
+In 1696 he published his <i>Artificial Clockmaker</i>, which went
+through several editions. The best known of his subsequent
+works are <i>Physico-Theology</i>, published in 1713; <i>Astro-Theology</i>,
+1714; and <i>Christo-Theology</i>, 1730. The first two of these books
+were teleological arguments for the being and attributes of God,
+and were used by Paley nearly a century later. In 1702 Derham
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74"></a>74</span>
+was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1716 was made
+a canon of Windsor. He was Boyle lecturer in 1711-1712. His
+last work, entitled A <i>Defence of the Church&rsquo;s Right in Leasehold
+Estates</i>, appeared in 1731. He died on the 5th of April 1735.
+Besides the works published in his own name, Derham, who
+was keenly interested in natural history, contributed a variety
+of papers to the <i>Transactions of the Royal Society, revised the
+Miscellanea Curiosa</i>, edited the correspondence of John Ray and
+Eleazar Albin&rsquo;s <i>Natural History</i>, and published some of the MSS.
+of Robert Hooke, the natural philosopher.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">D&rsquo;ERLON, JEAN BAPTISTE DROUET,</span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1765-1844),
+marshal of France, was born at Reims on the 29th of July 1765.
+He entered the army as a private soldier in 1782, was discharged
+after five years&rsquo; service, re-entered it in 1792, and rose rapidly to
+the rank of an officer. From 1794 to 1796 he was aide-de-camp
+to General Lefebvre. He did good service in the campaigns of
+the revolutionary wars and in 1799 attained the rank of general
+of brigade. In the campaign of that year he was engaged in
+the Swiss operations under Masséna. In 1800 he fought under
+Moreau at Hohenlinden. As a general of division he took part in
+Napoleon&rsquo;s campaigns of 1805 and 1806, and rendered excellent
+service at Jena. He was next engaged under Lefebvre in the
+siege of Danzig and negotiated the terms of surrender; after this
+he rejoined the field army and fought at Friedland (1807),
+receiving a severe wound. After this battle he was made grand
+officer of the Legion of Honour, was created Count d&rsquo;Erlon and
+received a pension. For the next six years d&rsquo;Erlon was almost
+continuously engaged as commander of an army corps in the
+Peninsular War, in which he added greatly to his reputation as a
+capable general. At the pass of Maya in the Pyrenees he inflicted
+a defeat upon Lord Hill&rsquo;s troops, and in the subsequent battles
+of the 1814 campaign he distinguished himself further. After
+the first Restoration he was named commander of the 16th
+military division, but he was soon arrested for conspiring with
+the Orléans party, to which he was secretly devoted. He escaped,
+however, and gave in his adhesion to Napoleon, who had returned
+from Elba. The emperor made him a peer of France, and gave
+him command of the I. army corps, which formed part of the
+Army of the North. In the Waterloo campaign d&rsquo;Erlon&rsquo;s corps
+formed part of Ney&rsquo;s command on the 16th of June, but, in
+consequence of an extraordinary series of misunderstandings,
+took part neither at Ligny nor at Quatre Bras (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo
+Campaign</a></span>). He was not, however, held to account by Napoleon,
+and as the latter&rsquo;s practice in such matters was severe to the
+verge of injustice, it may be presumed that the failure was not
+due to d&rsquo;Erlon.</p>
+
+<p>He was in command of the right wing of the French army
+throughout the great battle of the 18th of June, and fought in
+the closing operations around Paris. At the second Restoration
+d&rsquo;Erlon fled into Germany, only returning to France after the
+amnesty of 1825. He was not restored to the service until the
+accession of Louis Philippe, in whose interests he had engaged in
+several plots and intrigues. As commander of the 12th military
+division (Nantes), he suppressed the legitimist agitation in his
+district and caused the arrest of the duchess of Berry (1832).
+His last active service was in Algeria, of which country he was
+made governor-general in 1834 at the age of seventy. He
+returned to France after two years, and was made marshal of
+France shortly before his death at Paris on the 25th of January
+1844.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERMOT MAC MURROUGH</span> (d. 1171), Irish king of Leinster,
+succeeded his father in the principality of the Hui Cinsellaigh
+(1115) and eventually in the kingship of Leinster. The early
+events of his life are obscure; but about 1152 we find him
+engaged in a feud with O Ruairc, the lord of Breifne (Leitrim and
+Cavan). Dermot abducted the wife of O Ruairc more with the
+object of injuring his rival than from any love of the lady. The
+injured husband called to his aid Roderic, the high king (aird-righ)
+of Connaught; and in 1166 Dermot fled before this powerful
+coalition to invoke the aid of England. Obtaining from Henry II.
+a licence to enlist allies among the Welsh marchers, Dermot
+secured the aid of the Clares and Geraldines. To Richard
+Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and head of the house of Clare,
+Dermot gave his daughter Eva in marriage; and on his death
+was succeeded by the earl in Leinster. The historical importance
+of Dermot lies in the fact that he was the means of introducing
+the English into Ireland. Through his aid the towns of Waterford,
+Wexford and Dublin had already become English colonies
+before the arrival of Henry II. in the island.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>The Song of Dermot and the Earl, an old French Poem</i> (by M.
+Regan?), ed. with trans. by G. H. Orpen, 1892; Kate Norgate,
+<i>England under the Angevin Kings</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERNA</span> (anc. <i>Darnis-Zarine</i>), a town on the north coast of
+Africa and capital of the eastern half of the Ottoman province
+of Bengazi or Barca. Situated below the eastern butt of Jebel
+Akhdar on a small but rich deltaic plain, watered by fine perennial
+springs, it has a growing population and trade, the latter being
+mainly in fruits grown in its extensive palm gardens, and in hides
+and wool brought down by the nomads from the interior. If the
+port were better there would be more rapid expansion. The bay
+is open from N.W. round to S.E. and often inaccessible in winter
+and spring, and the steamers of the <i>Nav. Gen. Italiana</i> sometimes
+have to pass without calling. The population has recovered
+from the great plague epidemic of 1821 and reached its former
+figure of about 7000. A proportion of it is of Moorish stock, of
+Andalusian origin, which emigrated in 1493; the descendants
+preserve a fine facial type. The sheikhs of the local Bedouin
+tribes have houses in the place, and a Turkish garrison of about
+250 men is stationed in barracks. There is a lighthouse W. of the
+bay. A British consular agent is resident and the Italians
+maintain a vice-consul. The names Darnis and Zarine are
+philologically identical and probably refer to the same place. No
+traces are left of the ancient town except some rock tombs.
+Darnis continued to be of some importance in early Moslem times
+as a station on the Alexandria-Kairawan road, and has served
+on more than one occasion as a base for Egyptian attacks on
+Cyrenaica and Tripolitana. In 1805 the government of the
+United States, having a quarrel with the dey of Tripoli on account
+of piracies committed on American shipping, landed a force to
+co-operate in the attack on Derna then being made by Sidi
+Ahmet, an elder brother of the dey. This force, commanded by
+<a href="#artlinks">William Eaton</a> (q.v.), built a fort, whose ruins and rusty guns are
+still to be seen, and began to improve the harbour; but its work
+quickly came to an end with the conclusion of peace. After 1835
+Derna passed under direct Ottoman control, and subsequently
+served as the point whence the sultan exerted a precarious but
+increasing control over eastern Cyrenaica and Marmarica. It is
+now in communication by wireless telegraphy with Rhodes and
+western Cyrenaica. It is the only town, or even large village,
+between Bengazi and Alexandria (600 m.)</p>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DÉROULÈDE, PAUL</span> (1846-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), French author and politician,
+was born in Paris on the 2nd of September 1846. He
+made his first appearance as a poet in the pages of the <i>Revue
+nationale</i>, under the pseudonym of Jean Rebel, and in 1869 produced
+at the Théâtre Français a one-act drama in verse entitled
+<i>Juan Strenner</i>. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he
+enlisted as a private, was wounded and taken prisoner at Sedan,
+and sent to Breslau, but effected his escape. He then served
+under Chanzy and Bourbaki, took part in the latter&rsquo;s disastrous
+retreat to Switzerland, and fought against the Commune in Paris.
+After attaining the rank of lieutenant, he was forced by an
+accident to retire from the army. He published in 1872 a number
+of patriotic poems (<i>Chants du soldat</i>), which enjoyed unbounded
+popularity. This was followed in 1875 by another collection,
+<i>Nouveaux Chants du soldat</i>. In 1877 he produced a drama in
+verse called <i>L&rsquo;Hetman</i>, which derived a passing success from the
+patriotic fervour of its sentiments. For the exhibition of 1878 he
+wrote a hymn, <i>Vive la France</i>, which was set to music by Gounod.
+In 1880 his drama in verse, <i>La Moäbite</i>, which had been accepted
+by the Théâtre Français, was forbidden by the censor on religious
+grounds. In 1882 M. Déroulède founded the <i>Ligue des patriotes</i>,
+with the object of furthering France&rsquo;s &ldquo;revanche&rdquo; against
+Germany. He was one of the first advocates of a Franco-Russian
+alliance, and as early as 1883 undertook a journey to Russia for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>75</span>
+the furtherance of that object. On the rise of General Boulanger,
+M. Déroulède attempted to use the <i>Ligue des patriotes</i>, hitherto a
+non-political organization, to assist his cause, but was deserted by
+a great part of the league and forced to resign his presidency.
+Nevertheless he used the section that remained faithful to him
+with such effect that the government found it necessary in 1889
+to decree its suppression. In the same year he was elected to the
+chamber as member for Angoulême. He was expelled from the
+chamber in 1890 for his disorderly interruptions during debate.
+He did not stand at the elections of 1893, but was re-elected in
+1898, and distinguished himself by his violence as a nationalist
+and anti-Dreyfusard. After the funeral of President Faure, on
+the 23rd of February 1899, he endeavoured to persuade General
+Roget to lead his troops upon the Élysée. For this he was
+arrested, but on being tried for treason was acquitted (May 31).
+On the 12th of August he was again arrested and accused, together
+with André Buffet, Jules Guérin and others, of conspiracy against
+the republic. After a long trial before the high court, he was
+sentenced, on the 4th of January 1900, to ten years&rsquo; banishment
+from France, and retired to San Sebastian. In 1901, he was
+again brought prominently before the public by a quarrel with
+his Royalist allies, which resulted in an abortive attempt to
+arrange a duel with M. Buffet in Switzerland. In November
+1905, however, the law of amnesty enabled him to return to
+France.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the works already mentioned, he published <i>Le Sergent</i>,
+in the <i>Theâtre de campagne</i> (1880); <i>De l&rsquo;éducation nationale</i>
+(1882); <i>Monsieur le Uhlan et les trois couleurs</i> (1884); <i>Le
+Premier grenadier de France; La Tour d&rsquo;Auvergne</i> (1886); <i>Le
+Livre de la ligue des patriotes</i> (1887); <i>Refrains militaires</i> (1888);
+<i>Histoire d&rsquo;amour</i> (1890); a pamphlet entitled <i>Désarmement?</i>
+(1891); <i>Chants du paysan</i> (1894); <i>Poésies Militaires</i> (1896) and
+<i>Messire du Guesclin, drame en vers</i> (1895); <i>La mort de Hoche.
+Cinq actes en prose</i> (1897); <i>La Plus belle fille du monde, conte
+dialogué en vers libres</i> (1898).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERRICK,</span> a sort of <a href="#artlinks">crane</a> (q.v.); the name is derived from
+that of a famous early 17th-century Tyburn hangman, and was
+originally applied as a synonym.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERRING-DO,</span> valour, chivalrous conduct, or &ldquo;desperate
+courage,&rdquo; as it is defined by Sir Walter Scott. The word in its
+present accepted substantival form is a misconstruction of the
+verbal substantive <i>dorryng</i> or <i>durring</i>, daring, and <i>do</i> or <i>don</i>,
+the present infinitive of &ldquo;do,&rdquo; the phrase <i>dorryng do</i> thus
+meaning &ldquo;daring to do.&rdquo; It is used by Chaucer in <i>Troylus</i>,
+and by Lydgate in the <i>Chronicles of Troy</i>. Spenser in the
+<i>Shepherd&rsquo;s Calendar</i> first adapted <i>derring-do</i> as a substantive
+meaning &ldquo;manhood and chevalrie,&rdquo; and this use was revived
+by Scott, through whom it came into vogue with writers of
+romance.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DE RUYTER, MICHAEL ADRIANZOON</span> (1607-1676), Dutch
+naval officer, was born at Flushing on the 24th of March 1607.
+He began his seafaring life at the age of eleven as a cabin boy,
+and in 1636 was entrusted by the merchants of Flushing with
+the command of a cruiser against the French pirates. In 1640 he
+entered the service of the States, and, being appointed rear-admiral
+of a fleet fitted out to assist Portugal against Spain,
+specially distinguished himself at Cape St Vincent, on the 3rd of
+November 1641. In the following year he left the service of the
+States, and, until the outbreak of war with England in 1652, held
+command of a merchant vessel. In 1653 a squadron of seventy
+vessels was despatched against the English, under the command
+of Admiral Tromp. Ruyter, who accompanied the admiral in
+this expedition, seconded him with great skill and bravery in the
+three battles which were fought with the English. He was afterwards
+stationed in the Mediterranean, where he captured several
+Turkish vessels. In 1659 he received a commission to join the
+king of Denmark in his war with the Swedes. As a reward of
+his services, the king of Denmark ennobled him and gave him
+a pension. In 1661 he grounded a vessel belonging to Tunis,
+released forty Christian slaves, made a treaty with the Tunisians,
+and reduced the Algerine corsairs to submission. From his
+achievements on the west coast of Africa he was recalled in 1665
+to take command of a large fleet which had been organized
+against England, and in May of the following year, after a long
+contest off the North Foreland, he compelled the English to take
+refuge in the Thames. On the 7th of June 1672 he fought a
+drawn battle with the combined fleets of England and France, in
+Southwold or Sole Bay, and after the fight he convoyed safely
+home a fleet of merchantmen. His valour was displayed to equal
+advantage in several engagements with the French and English
+in the following year. In 1676 he was despatched to the assistance
+of Spain against France in the Mediterranean, and, receiving
+a mortal wound in the battle on the 21st of April off Messina,
+died on the 29th at Syracuse. A patent by the king of Spain,
+investing him with the dignity of duke, did not reach the fleet till
+after his death. His body was carried to Amsterdam, where a
+magnificent monument to his memory was erected by command
+of the states-general.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>Life</i> of De Ruyter by Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687), and by
+Klopp (2nd ed., Hanover, 1858).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERVISH,</span> a Persian word, meaning &ldquo;seeking doors,&rdquo; i.e.
+&ldquo;beggar,&rdquo; and thus equivalent to the Arabic <i>faq&#xef;r</i> (fakir).
+Generally in Islam it indicates a member of a religious fraternity,
+whether mendicant or not; but in Turkey and Persia it indicates
+more exactly a wandering, begging religious, called, in Arabic-speaking
+countries, more specifically a <i>faqir</i>. With important
+differences, the dervish fraternities may be compared to the
+regular religious orders of Roman Christendom, while the <a href="#artlinks">Ulema</a>
+(q.v.) are, also with important differences, like the secular clergy.
+The origin and history of the mystical life in Islam, which led to
+the growth of the order of dervishes, are treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">&#x15e;&#x16b;fi&rsquo;ism</a></span>
+It remains to treat here more particularly of (1) the dervish
+fraternities, and (2) the &#x15e;&#x16b;f&#xef; hierarchy.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Dervish Fraternities.</i>&mdash;In the earlier times, the relation
+between devotees was that of master and pupil. Those inclined
+to the spiritual life gathered round a revered sheikh (<i>murshid</i>,
+&ldquo;guide,&rdquo; <i>ustadh</i>, <i>pir</i>, &ldquo;teacher&rdquo;), lived with him, shared his
+religious practices and were instructed by him. In time of
+war against the unbelievers, they might accompany him to the
+threatened frontier, and fight under his eye. Thus <i>mur&#x101;bit</i>,
+&ldquo;one who pickets his horse on a hostile frontier,&rdquo; has become
+the <a href="#artlinks">marabout</a> (q.v.) or dervish of French Algeria; and <i>ribat</i>, &ldquo;a
+frontier fort,&rdquo; has come to mean a monastery. The relation,
+also, might be for a time only. The pupil might at any time
+return to the world, when his religious education and training
+were complete. On the death of the master the memory of his
+life and sayings might go down from generation to generation,
+and men might boast themselves as pupils of his pupils. Continuous
+corporations to perpetuate his name were slow in forming.
+Ghazali himself, though he founded, taught and ruled a &#x15e;&#x16b;f&#xef;
+cloister (<i>kh&#x101;nq&#x101;h</i>) at Tus, left no order behind him. But &rsquo;Ad&#xef;
+al-Hakk&#x101;r&#xef;, who founded a cloister at Mosul and died about 1163,
+was long reverenced by the &lsquo;Adawite Fraternity, and in 1166
+died &lsquo;Abd al-Q&#x101;dir al-Jil&#x101;n&#xef;, from whom the Q&#x101;dirite order
+descends, one of the greatest and most influential to this day.
+The troublous times of the break up of the Seljuk rule may have
+been a cause in this, as, with St Benedict, the crumbling Roman
+empire. Many existing fraternities, it is true, trace their origin
+to saints of the third, second and even first Moslem centuries, but
+that is legend purely. Similar is the tendency to claim all the
+early pious Moslems as good &#x15e;&#x16b;f&#xef;s; collections of &#x15e;&#x16b;f&#xef; biography
+begin with the ten to whom Mahomet promised Paradise. So,
+too, the ultimate origin of fraternities is assigned to either Ali
+or Abu Bekr, and in Egypt all are under the rule of a direct
+descendant of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>To give a complete list of these fraternities is quite impossible.
+Commonly, thirty-two are reckoned, but many have vanished
+or have been suppressed, and there are sub-orders innumerable.
+Each has a &ldquo;rule&rdquo; dating back to its founder, and a ritual which
+the members perform when they meet together in their convent
+(<i>kh&#x101;nq&#x101;h</i>, <i>z&#x101;wiya</i>, <i>takya</i>). This may consist simply in the repetition
+of sacred phrases, or it may be an elaborate performance,
+such as the whirlings of the dancing dervishes, the Mevlevites,
+an order founded by Jel&#x101;l ud-D&#xef;n ar-R&#x16b;m&#xef;, the author of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76"></a>76</span>
+great Persian mystical poem, the <i>Mesnevi</i>, and always ruled by
+one of his descendants. Jel&#x101;l ud-D&#xef;n was an advanced pantheist,
+and so are the Mevlevites, but that seems only to earn them the
+dislike of the Ulema, and not to affect their standing in Islam.
+They are the most broad-minded and tolerant of all. There are
+also the performances of the Rif&#x101;&lsquo;ites or &ldquo;howling dervishes.&rdquo;
+In ecstasy they cut themselves with knives; eat live coals and
+glass, handle red-hot iron and devour serpents. They profess
+miraculous healing powers, and the head of the Sa&lsquo;dites, a sub-order,
+used, in Cairo, to ride over the bodies of his dervishes
+without hurting them, the so-called D&#x14d;seh (<i>dausa</i>). These
+different abilities are strictly regulated. Thus, one sub-order
+may eat glass and another may eat only serpents. Another
+division is made by their attitude to the law of Islam. When a
+dervish is in a state of ecstasy (<i>majdh&#x16b;b</i>), he is supposed to be
+unconscious of the actions of his body. Reputed saints, therefore,
+can do practically anything, as their souls will be supposed to be
+out of their bodies and in the heavenly regions. They may not
+only commit the vilest of actions, but neglect in general the
+ceremonial and ritual law. This goes so far that in Persia and
+Turkey dervish orders are classified as <i>b&#x101;-shar&lsquo;</i>, &ldquo;with law,&rdquo; and
+<i>b&#xef;-shar&lsquo;</i>, &ldquo;without law.&rdquo; The latter are really antinomians, and
+the best example of them is the Bakhtashite order, widely spread
+and influential in Turkey and Albania and connected by legend
+with the origin of the Janissaries. The Qalandarite order is known
+to all from the &ldquo;Calenders&rdquo; of the <i>Thousand and One Nights</i>.
+They separated from the Bakhtashites and are under obligation
+of perpetual travelling. The Senussi (Senussia) were the last
+order to appear, and are distinguished from the others by a
+severely puritanic and reforming attitude and strict orthodoxy,
+without any admixture of mystical slackness in faith or conduct.
+Each order is distinguished by a peculiar garb. Candidates for
+admission have to pass through a noviciate, more or less lengthy.
+First comes the <i>&lsquo;ahd</i>, or initial covenant, in which the neophyte
+or <i>mur&#xef;d</i>, &ldquo;seeker,&rdquo; repents of his past sins and takes the sheikh
+of the order he enters as his guide (<i>murshid</i>) for the future.
+He then enters upon a course of instruction and discipline, called
+a &ldquo;path&rdquo; (<i>tar&#xef;qa</i>), on which he advances through diverse
+&ldquo;stations&rdquo; (<i>maq&#x101;m&#x101;t</i>) or &ldquo;passes&rdquo; (<i>&lsquo;aqab&#x101;t</i>) of the spiritual life.
+There is a striking resemblance here to the gnostic system, with
+its seven Archon-guarded gates. On another side, it is plain that
+the sheikh, along with ordinary instruction of the novice, also
+hypnotizes him and causes him to see a series of visions, marking
+his penetration of the divine mystery. The part that hypnosis
+and autohypnosis, conscious and unconscious, has played here
+cannot easily be overestimated. The Mevlevites seem to have
+the most severe noviciate. Their aspirant has to labour as a lay
+servitor of the lowest rank for 1001 days&mdash;called the <i>k&#x101;rr&#x101; kolak</i>,
+or &ldquo;jackal&rdquo;&mdash;before he can be received. For one day&rsquo;s failure
+he must begin again from the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>But besides these full members there is an enormous number
+of lay adherents, like the tertiaries of the Franciscans. Thus,
+nearly every religious man of the Turkish Moslem world is a lay
+member of one order or another, under the duty of saying certain
+prayers daily. Certain trades, too, affect certain orders. Most
+of the Egyptian Q&#x101;dirites, for example, are fishermen and, on
+festival days, carry as banners nets of various colours. On this side,
+the orders bear a striking resemblance to lodges of Freemasons
+and other friendly societies, and points of direct contact have
+even been alleged between the more pantheistic and antinomian
+orders, such as the Bakhtashite, and European Freemasonry.
+On another side, just as the <i>dhikrs</i> of the early ascetic mystics
+suggest comparison with the class-meetings of the early
+Methodists, so these orders are the nearest approach in Islam
+to the different churches of Protestant Christendom. They are
+the only ecclesiastical organization that Islam has ever known,
+but it is a multiform organization, unclassified internally or
+externally. They differ thus from the Roman monastic orders,
+in that they are independent and self-developing, each going its
+own way in faith and practice, limited only by the universal
+conscience (<i>ijm&#x101;&lsquo;</i>, &ldquo;agreement&rdquo;: see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Law</a></span>) of
+Islam. Strange doctrines and moral defects may develop, but
+freedom is saved, and the whole people of Islam can be reached
+and affected.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Saints and the &#x15e;&#x16b;f&#xef; Hierarchy.</i>&mdash;That an elaborate doctrine
+of wonder-working saints should have grown up in Islam may, at
+first sight, appear an extreme paradox. It can, however, be
+conditioned and explained. First, Mahomet left undoubted
+loop-holes for a minor inspiration, legitimate and illegitimate.
+Secondly, the &#x15e;&#x16b;f&#xef;s, under various foreign influences, developed
+these to the fullest. Thirdly, just as the Christian church has
+absorbed much of the mythology of the supposed exterminated
+heathen religions into its cult of local saints, so Islam, to an
+even higher degree, has been overlaid and almost buried by
+the superstitions of the peoples to which it has gone. Their
+religious and legal customs have completely overcome the direct
+commands of the Koran, the traditions from Mahomet and
+even the &ldquo;Agreement&rdquo; of the rest of the Moslem world (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Law</a></span>). The first step in this, it is true, was taken
+by Mahomet himself when he accepted the Meccan pilgrimage and
+the Black Stone. The worship of saints, therefore, has appeared
+everywhere in Islam, with an absolute belief in their miracles
+and in the value of their intercession, living or dead.</p>
+
+<p>Further, there appeared very early in Islam a belief that there
+was always in existence some individual in direct intercourse
+with God and having the right and duty of teaching and ruling
+all mankind. This individual might be visible or invisible;
+his right to rule continued. This is the basis of the Ism&#x101;&lsquo;&#xef;lite
+and Sh&#xef;&lsquo;ite positions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Religion</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Institutions</a></span>). The &#x15e;&#x16b;f&#xef;s applied this idea of
+divine right to the doctrine of saints, and developed it into the
+&#x15e;&#x16b;f&#xef; hierarchy. This is a single, great, invisible organization,
+forming a saintly board of administration, by which the invisible
+government of the world is supposed to be carried on. Its head
+is called the <i>Qu&#355;b</i> (Axis); he is presumably the greatest saint
+of the time, is chosen by God for the office and given greater
+miraculous powers and rights of intercession than any other saint
+enjoys. He wanders through the world, often invisible and
+always unknown, performing the duties of his office. Under
+him there is an elaborate organization of <i>wal&#xef;s</i>, of different ranks
+and powers, according to their sanctity and faith. The term <i>wal&#xef;</i>
+is applied to a saint because of Kor. x. 63, &ldquo;Ho! the <i>wal&#xef;s</i> of
+God; there is no fear upon them, nor do they grieve,&rdquo; where
+<i>wal&#xef;</i> means &ldquo;one who is near,&rdquo; friend or favourite.</p>
+
+<p>In the fraternities, then, all are dervishes, cloistered or lay;
+those whose faith is so great that God has given them miraculous
+powers&mdash;and there are many&mdash;are <i>wal&#xef;s</i>; begging friars are
+<i>fakirs</i>. All forms of life&mdash;solitary, monastic, secular, celibate,
+married, wandering, stationary, ascetic, free&mdash;are open. Their
+theology is some form of S&#x16b;fi&lsquo;ism.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The bibliography of this subject is very large, and
+the following only a selection:&mdash;(1) <i>On Dervishes.</i> In Egypt, Lane&rsquo;s
+<i>Modern Egyptians</i>, chaps. x., xx., xxiv., xxv.; in Turkey, D&rsquo;Ohsson,
+<i>Tableau général de l&rsquo;emp. othoman</i>, ii. (Paris, 1790); <i>Turkey in
+Europe</i> by &ldquo;Odysseus&rdquo; (London, 1900); in Persia, E. G. Browne,
+<i>A Year among the Persians</i> (1893), in Morocco, T. H. Weir, <i>Sheikhs
+of Morocco</i> (Edinburgh, 1904); B. Meakin, <i>The Moors</i> (London, 1902),
+chap. xix.; in Central Asia, all Vambéry&rsquo;s books of travel and
+history. In general, Hughes, <i>Dict. of Islam</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Faqir&rdquo;; Depont
+and Cappolani, <i>Les Confréries religieuses musulmanes</i> (Alger, 1897);
+J. P. Brown, <i>The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism</i> (London, 1868).
+(2) <i>On Saints.</i> I. Goldziher, <i>Muhammedanische Studien</i>, ii. 277 ff.,
+and &ldquo;De l&rsquo;ascétisme aux premiers temps de l&rsquo;Islam&rdquo; in <i>Revue de
+l&rsquo;histoire des religions</i>, vol. xxxvii. pp. 134 ff.; Lane, <i>Modern
+Egyptians</i>, chap. x.; <i>Arabian Nights</i>, chap. iii. note 63; Vollers in
+<i>Zeitsch. d. morgenländ. Gesellsch.</i> xliii. 115 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(<span class="sc">D. B. Ma.</span>)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERWENT</span> (Celtic <i>Dwr-gent</i>, clear water), the name of several
+English rivers. (1) The Yorkshire Derwent collects the greater
+part of the drainage of the North Yorkshire moors, rising in their
+eastern part. A southern head-stream, however, rises in the
+Yorkshire Wolds near Filey, little more than a mile from the
+North Sea, from which it is separated by a morainic deposit, and
+thus flows in an inland direction. The early course of the Derwent
+lies through a flat open valley between the North Yorkshire moors
+and the Yorkshire Wolds, the upper part of which is known as
+the Carrs, when the river follows an artificial drainage cut. It
+receives numerous tributaries from the moors, then breaches the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77"></a>77</span>
+low hills below Malton in a narrow picturesque valley, and
+debouches upon the central plain of Yorkshire. Its direction,
+hitherto westerly and south-westerly from the Carrs, now becomes
+southerly, and it flows roughly parallel to the Ouse, which it
+joins near Barmby-on-the-Marsh, in the level district between
+Selby and the head of the Humber estuary, after a course,
+excluding minor sinuosities, of about 70 m. As a tributary of
+the Ouse it is included in the Humber basin. It is tidal up to
+Sutton-upon-Derwent, 15 m. from the junction with the Ouse,
+and is locked up to Malton, but the navigation is little used. A
+canal leads east from the tidal water to the small market town of
+Pocklington.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The Derbyshire Derwent rises in Bleaklow Hill north of
+the Peak and traverses a narrow dale, which, with those of such
+tributary streams as the Noe, watering Hope Valley, and the Wye,
+is famous for its beauty (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Derbyshire</a></span>). The Derwent flows
+south past Chatsworth, Matlock and Belper and then, passing
+Derby, debouches upon a low plain, and turns south-eastward,
+with an extremely sinuous course, to join the Trent near Sawley.
+Its length is about 60 m. It falls in all some 1700 ft. (from
+Matlock 200 ft.), and no part is navigable, save certain reaches at
+Matlock and elsewhere for pleasure boats.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The Cumberland Derwent rises below Great End in the
+Lake District, draining <span class="correction" title="corrected from Spinkling">Sprinkling</span> and Sty Head tarns, and flows
+through Borrowdale, receiving a considerable tributary from
+Lang Strath. It then drains the lakes of Derwentwater and
+Bassenthwaite, after which its course, hitherto N. and N.N.W.,
+turns W. and W. by S. past Cockermouth to the Irish Sea
+at Workington. The length is about 34 m., and the fall about
+2000 ft. (from Derwentwater 244 ft.); the waters are usually
+beautifully clear, and the river is not navigable. At a former
+period this stream must have formed one large lake covering the
+whole area which includes Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite;
+between which a flat alluvial plain is formed of the deposits of
+the river Greta, which now joins the Derwent from the east
+immediately below Derwentwater, and the Newlands Beck,
+which enters Bassenthwaite. In time of high flood this plain is
+said to have been submerged, and the two lakes thus reunited.</p>
+
+<p>(4) A river Derwent rises in the Pennines near the borders of
+Northumberland and Durham, and, forming a large part of the
+boundary between these counties, takes a north-easterly course
+of 30 m. to the Tyne, which it joins 3 m. above Newcastle.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERWENTWATER, EARL OF,</span> an English title borne by the
+family of Radclyffe, or Radcliffe, from 1688 to 1716 when the
+3rd earl was attainted and beheaded, and claimed by his
+descendants, adherents of the exiled house of Stewart, from that
+date until the death of the last male heir in 1814. Sir Francis
+Radclyffe, 3rd baronet (1625-1697), was the lineal descendant of
+Sir Nicholas Radclyffe, who acquired the extensive Derwentwater
+estates in 1417 through his marriage with the heiress of
+John de Derwentwater, and of Sir Francis Radclyffe, who was
+made a baronet in 1619. In 1688 Sir Francis was created
+Viscount Radclyffe and earl of Derwentwater by James II.,
+and dying in 1697 was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest
+son Edward (1655-1705), who had married Lady Mary Tudor
+(d. 1726), a natural daughter of Charles II. The 2nd earl died
+in 1705, and was succeeded by his eldest son James (1689-1716),
+who was born in London on the 28th of June 1689, and was
+brought up at the court of the Stewarts in France as companion
+to Prince James Edward, the old Pretender. In 1710 he came
+to reside on his English estates, and in July 1712 was married to
+Anna Maria (d. 1723), daughter of Sir John Webb, baronet, of
+Odstock, Wiltshire. Joining without any hesitation in the
+Stewart rising of 1715, Derwentwater escaped arrest owing to the
+devotion of his tenantry, and in October, with about seventy
+followers, he joined Thomas Forster at Green-rig. Like Forster
+the earl was lacking in military experience, and when the rebels
+capitulated at Preston he was conveyed to London and impeached.
+Pleading guilty at his trial he was attainted and
+condemned to death. Great efforts were made to obtain a
+mitigation of the sentence, but the government was obdurate,
+and Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 24th
+of February 1716, declaring on the scaffold his devotion to the
+Roman Catholic religion and to King James III. The earl was
+very popular among his tenantry and in the neighbourhood of
+his residence, Dilston Hall. His gallant bearing and his sad
+fate have been celebrated in song and story, and the <i>aurora
+borealis</i>, which shone with exceptional brightness on the night of
+his execution, is known locally as &ldquo;Lord Derwentwater&rsquo;s lights.&rdquo;
+He left an only son John, who, in spite of his father&rsquo;s attainder,
+assumed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and who died unmarried
+in 1731; and a daughter Alice Mary (d. 1760), who
+married in 1732 Robert James, 8th Baron Petre (1713-1742).</p>
+
+<p>On the death of John Radclyffe in 1731 his uncle Charles
+(1693-1746), the only surviving son of the 2nd earl, took the
+title of earl of Derwentwater. Charles Radclyffe had shared the
+fate of his brother, the 3rd earl, at Preston in November 1715,
+and had been condemned to death for high treason; but, more
+fortunate than James, he had succeeded in escaping from prison,
+and had joined the Stewarts on the Continent. In 1724 he
+married Charlotte Maria (d. 1755), in her own right countess of
+Newburgh, and after spending some time in Rome, he was
+captured by an English ship in November 1745 whilst proceeding
+to join Charles Edward, the young Pretender, in Scotland.
+Condemned to death under his former sentence he was beheaded
+on the 8th of December 1746. His eldest son, James Bartholomew
+(1725-1786), who had shared his father&rsquo;s imprisonment, then
+claimed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and on his mother&rsquo;s
+death in 1755 became 3rd earl of Newburgh. His only son
+and successor, Anthony James (1757-1814), died without issue
+in 1814, when the title became extinct <i>de facto</i> as well as <i>de
+jure</i>. Many of the forfeited estates in Northumberland and
+Cumberland had been settled upon Greenwich Hospital, and in
+1749 a sum of £30,000 had been raised upon them for the benefit
+of the earl of Newburgh. The present representative of the
+Radclyffe family is Lord Petre, and in 1874 the bodies of the
+first three earls of Derwentwater were reburied in the family vault
+of the Petres at Thorndon, Essex.</p>
+
+<p>In 1865 a woman appeared in Northumberland who claimed
+to be a grand-daughter of the 4th earl and, as there were
+no male heirs, to be countess of Derwentwater and owner of the
+estates. She said the 4th earl had not died in 1731 but had
+married and settled in Germany. Her story aroused some
+interest, and it was necessary to eject her by force from Dilston
+Hall.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See R. Patten, <i>History of the Late Rebellion</i> (London, 1717); W. S.
+Gibson, <i>Dilston Hall, or Memoirs of James Radcliffe, earl of Derwentwater</i>
+(London, 1848-1850); G. E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i>
+(Exeter, 1887-1898); and <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, vol. xlvii.
+(London, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DERWENTWATER,</span> a lake of Cumberland, England, in the
+northern part of the celebrated <a href="#artlinks">Lake District</a> (q.v. for the physical
+relations of the lake with the district at large). It is of irregular
+figure, approaching to an oval, about 3 m. in length and from
+½ m. to 1¼ m. in breadth. The greatest depth is 70 ft. The lake
+is seen at one view, within an amphitheatre of mountains of
+varied outline, overlooked by others of greater height. Several
+of the lesser elevations near the lake are especially famous as
+view-points, such as Castle Head, Walla Crag, Ladder Brow and
+Cat Bells. The shores are well wooded, and the lake is studded
+with several islands, of which Lord&rsquo;s Island, Derwent Isle and
+St Herbert&rsquo;s are the principal. Lord&rsquo;s Island was the residence
+of the earls of Derwentwater. St Herbert&rsquo;s Isle receives its name
+from having been the abode of a holy man of that name mentioned
+by Bede as contemporary with St Cuthbert of Farne Island in the
+7th century. Derwent Isle, about six acres in extent, contains
+a handsome residence surrounded by lawns, gardens and timber
+of large growth. The famous Falls of Lodore, at the upper end
+of the lake, consist of a series of cascades in the small Watendlath
+Beck, which rushes over an enormous pile of protruding crags
+from a height of nearly 200 ft. The &ldquo;Floating Island&rdquo; appears
+at intervals on the upper portion of the lake near the mouth
+of the beck. This singular phenomenon is supposed to owe its
+appearance to an accumulation of gas, formed by the decay of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78"></a>78</span>
+vegetable matter, detaching and raising to the surface the matted
+weeds which cover the floor of the lake at this point. The river
+<a href="#artlinks">Derwent</a> (q.v.) enters the lake from the south and leaves it on the
+north, draining it through Bassenthwaite lake, to the Irish Sea.
+To the north-east of the lake lies the town of Keswick.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DES ADRETS, FRANÇOIS DE BEAUMONT,</span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (c. 1512-1587),
+French Protestant leader, was born in 1512 or 1513 at
+the château of La Frette (Isère). During the reign of Henry II. of
+France he served with distinction in the royal army and became
+colonel of the &ldquo;legions&rdquo; of Dauphiné, Provence and Languedoc.
+In 1562, however, he joined the Huguenots, not from religious
+conviction but probably from motives of ambition and personal
+dislike of the house of Guise. His campaign against the Catholics
+in 1562 was eminently successful. In June of that year Des
+Adrets was master of the greater part of Dauphiné. But his
+brilliant military qualities were marred by his revolting atrocities.
+The reprisals he exacted from the Catholics after their massacres
+of the Huguenots at Orange have left a dark stain upon his name.
+The garrisons that resisted him were butchered with every circumstance
+of brutality, and at Montbrison, in Forez, he forced
+eighteen prisoners to precipitate themselves from the top of the
+keep. Having alienated the affections of the Huguenots by
+his pride and violence, he entered into communication with the
+Catholics, and declared himself openly in favour of conciliation.
+On the 10th of January 1563 he was arrested on suspicion by
+some Huguenot officers and confined in the citadel of Nîmes.
+He was liberated at the edict of Amboise in the following March,
+and, distrusted alike by Huguenots and Catholics, retired to the
+château of La Frette, where he died, a Catholic, on the 2nd of
+February 1587.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;J. Roman, <i>Documents inédits sur le baron des
+Adrets</i> (1878); and memoirs and histories of the time. See also
+Guy Allard, <i>Vie de François de Beaumont</i> (1675); l&rsquo;abbé J. C. Martin,
+<i>Histoire politique et militaire de François de Beaumont</i> (1803); Eugène
+and Émile Haag, <i>La France protestante</i> (2nd ed., 1877 seq.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS CHARLES ANTOINE</span>
+(1768-1800), French general, was born of a noble though impoverished
+family. He received a military education at the
+school founded by Marshal d&rsquo;Effiat, and entered the French
+royal army. During the first six years of his service the young
+officer devoted himself assiduously to duty and the study of his
+profession, and at the outbreak of the Revolution threw himself
+whole-heartedly into the cause of liberty. In spite of the pressure
+put upon him by his relatives, he refused to &ldquo;emigrate,&rdquo; and
+in 1792 is found serving on Broglie&rsquo;s staff. The disgrace of this
+general nearly cost young Desaix his life, but he escaped the
+guillotine, and by his conspicuous services soon drew upon
+himself the favour of the Republican government. Like many
+other members of the old ruling classes who had accepted the new
+order of things, the instinct of command, joined to native ability,
+brought Desaix rapidly to high posts. By 1794 he had attained
+the rank of general of division. In the campaign of 1795 he
+commanded Jourdan&rsquo;s right wing, and in Moreau&rsquo;s invasion of
+Bavaria in the following year he held an equally important
+command. In the retreat which ensued when the archduke
+Charles won the battles of Amberg and Würzburg (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French
+Revolutionary Wars</a></span>) Desaix commanded Moreau&rsquo;s rearguard,
+and later the fortress of Kehl, with the highest distinction, and
+his name became a household word, like those of Bonaparte,
+Jourdan, Hoche, Marceau and Kléber. Next year his initial
+successes were interrupted by the Preliminaries of Leoben,
+and he procured for himself a mission into Italy in order to
+meet General Bonaparte, who spared no pains to captivate the
+brilliant young general from the almost rival camps of Germany.
+Provisionally appointed commander of the &ldquo;Army of England,&rdquo;
+Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary
+force intended for Egypt. It was his division which bore the
+brunt of the Mameluke attack at the battle of the Pyramids, and
+he crowned his reputation by his victories over Murad Bey in
+Upper Egypt. Amongst the fellaheen he acquired the significant
+appellation of the &ldquo;Just Sultan.&rdquo; When his chief handed over
+the command to Kléber and prepared to return to France,
+Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany the
+future emperor. But, from various causes, it was many months
+before he could join the new Consul. The campaign of 1800 was
+well on its way to the climax when Desaix at last reported
+himself for duty in Italy. He was immediately assigned to the
+command of a corps of two infantry divisions. Three days later
+(June 14), detached, with Boudet&rsquo;s division, at Rivalta, he heard
+the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the initiative he
+marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonaparte&rsquo;s staff
+officer, who had come to recall him, half way on the route. He
+arrived with Boudet&rsquo;s division at the moment when the Austrians
+were victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, &ldquo;There is yet
+time to win another battle!&rdquo; he led his three regiments straight
+against the enemy&rsquo;s centre. At the moment of victory Desaix
+was killed by a musket ball. Napoleon paid a just tribute to the
+memory of one of the most brilliant soldiers of that brilliant time
+by erecting the monuments of Desaix on the Place Dauphinè and
+the Place des Victoires in Paris.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See F. Martha-Beker, Comte de Mons, <i>Le Général L. C. A. Desaix</i>
+(Paris, 1852).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DÉSAUGIERS, MARC ANTOINE MADELEINE</span> (1772-1827),
+French dramatist and song-writer, son of Marc Antoine
+Désaugiers, a musical composer, was born at Fréjus (Var) on
+the 17th of November 1772. He studied at the Mazarin college
+in Paris, where he had for one of his teachers the critic Julien
+Louis Geoffroy. He entered the seminary Saint Lazare with a
+view to the priesthood, but soon gave up his intention. In his
+nineteenth year he produced in collaboration with his father a
+light opera (1791) adapted from the <i>Médecin malgré lui</i> of Molière.</p>
+
+<p>During the Revolution he emigrated to St Domingo, and during
+the negro revolt he was made prisoner, barely escaping with his
+life. He took refuge in the United States, where he supported
+himself by teaching the piano. In 1797 he returned to his native
+country, and in a very few years he became famous as a writer of
+comedies, operas and vaudevilles, which were produced in rapid
+succession at the Théâtre des Variétés and the Vaudeville. He
+also wrote convivial and satirical songs, which, though different
+in character, can only worthily be compared with those of
+Béranger. He was at one time president of the <i>Caveau</i>, a convivial
+society whose members were then chiefly drawn from
+literary circles. He had the honour of introducing Béranger as a
+member. In 1815 Désaugiers succeeded Pierre Yves Barré as
+manager of the Vaudeville, which prospered under his management
+until, in 1820, the opposition of the Gymnase proved too
+strong for him, and he resigned. He died in Paris on the 9th of
+August 1827.</p>
+
+<p>Among his pieces maybe mentioned <i>Le Valet d&rsquo;emprunt</i> (1807);
+<i>Monsieur Vautour</i> (1811); and <i>Le Règne d&rsquo;un terme et le terme d&rsquo;un
+règne</i>, aimed at Napoleon.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>An edition of Désaugiers&rsquo; <i>Chansons et Poésies diverses</i> appeared in
+1827. A new selection with a notice by Alfred de Bougy appeared
+in 1858. See also Sainte-Beuve&rsquo;s <i>Portraits contemporains</i>, vol. v.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESAULT, PIERRE JOSEPH</span> (1744-1795), French anatomist
+and surgeon, was born at Magny-Vernois (Haute Saône) on the
+6th of February 1744. He was destined for the church, but his
+own inclination was towards the study of medicine; and, after
+learning something from the barber-surgeon of his native village,
+he was settled as an apprentice in the military hospital of Belfort,
+where he acquired some knowledge of anatomy and military
+surgery. Going to Paris when about twenty years of age, he
+opened a school of anatomy in the winter of 1766, the success
+of which excited the jealousy of the established teachers and
+professors, who endeavoured to make him give up his lectures.
+In 1776 he was admitted a member of the corporation of
+surgeons; and in 1782 he was appointed surgeon-major to the
+hospital <i>De la Charité</i>. Within a few years he was recognized
+as one of the leading surgeons of France. The clinical school of
+surgery which he instituted at the Hôtel Dieu attracted great
+numbers of students, not only from every part of France but also
+from other countries; and he frequently had an audience of
+about 600. He introduced many improvements into the practice
+of surgery, as well as into the construction of various surgical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79"></a>79</span>
+instruments. In 1791 he established a <i>Journal de chirurgerie</i>,
+edited by his pupils, which was a record of the most interesting
+cases that had occurred in his clinical school, with the remarks
+which he had made upon them in the course of his lectures. But
+in the midst of his labours he became obnoxious to some of the
+revolutionists, and he was, on some frivolous charge, denounced
+to the popular sections. After being twice examined, he was
+seized on the 28th of May 1793, while delivering a lecture, carried
+away from his theatre, and committed to prison in the Luxembourg.
+In three days, however, he was liberated, and permitted
+to resume his functions. He died in Paris on the 1st of June 1795,
+the story that his death was caused by poison being disproved
+by the autopsy carried out by his pupil, M. F. X. Bichat. A
+pension was settled on his widow by the republic. Together
+with François Chopart (1743-1795) he published a <i>Traité des
+maladies chirurgicales</i> (1779), and Bichat published a digest
+of his surgical doctrines in <i>&OElig;uvres chirurgicales de Desault</i>
+(1798-1799).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DES BARREAUX, JACQUES VALLÉE, SIEUR</span> (1602-1673),
+French poet, was born in Paris in 1602. His great-uncle,
+Geoffroy-Vallée, had been hanged in 1574 for the authorship of
+a book called <i>Le Fléau de la foy</i>. His nephew appears to have
+inherited his scepticism, which on one occasion nearly cost him
+his life. The peasants of Touraine attributed to the presence
+of the unbeliever an untimely frost that damaged the vines,
+and proposed to stone him. His authorship of the sonnet on
+&ldquo;Pénitence,&rdquo; by which he is generally known, has been disputed.
+He had the further distinction of being the first of the lovers of
+Marion Delorme. He died at Chalon-sur-Saône on the 9th of
+May 1673.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>Poésies de Des Barreaux</i> (1904), edited by F. Lachèvre.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESBOROUGH, JOHN</span> (1608-1680), English soldier and
+politician, son of James Desborough of Eltisley, Cambridgeshire,
+and of Elizabeth Hatley of Over, in the same county, was baptized
+on the 13th of November 1608. He was educated for the law.
+On the 23rd of June 1636 he married Eltisley Jane, daughter
+of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon, and sister of the future
+Protector. He took an active part in the Civil War when it
+broke out, and showed considerable military ability. In 1645 he
+was present as major in the engagement at Langport on the 10th
+of July, at Hambleton Hill on the 4th of August, and on the 10th
+of September he commanded the horse at the storming of Bristol.
+Later he took part in the operations round Oxford. In 1648
+as colonel he commanded the forces at Great Yarmouth. He
+avoided all participation in the trial of the king in June 1649,
+being employed in the settlement of the west of England. He
+fought at Worcester as major-general and nearly captured
+Charles II. near Salisbury. After the establishment of the
+Commonwealth he was chosen, on the 17th of January 1652, a
+member of the committee for legal reforms. In 1653 he became
+a member of the Protectorate council of state, and a commissioner
+of the treasury, and was appointed one of the four
+generals at sea and a commissioner for the army and navy. In
+1654 he was made constable of St Briavel&rsquo;s Castle in Gloucestershire.
+Next year he was appointed major-general over the west.
+He had been nominated a member of Barebones&rsquo; parliament
+in 1653, and he was returned to the parliament of 1654 for
+Cambridgeshire, and to that of 1656 for Somersetshire. In July
+1657 he became a member of the privy council, and in 1658 he
+accepted a seat in Cromwell&rsquo;s House of Lords. In spite of his
+near relationship to the Protector&rsquo;s family, he was one of the
+most violent opponents of the assumption by Cromwell of the
+royal title, and after the Protector&rsquo;s death, instead of supporting
+the interests and government of his nephew Richard Cromwell,
+he was, with Fleetwood, the chief instigator and organizer of the
+hostility of the army towards his administration, and forced him
+by threats and menaces to dissolve his parliament in April 1659.
+He was chosen a member of the council of state by the restored
+Rump, and made colonel and governor of Plymouth, but presenting
+with other officers a seditious petition from the army
+council, on the 5th of October, was about a week later dismissed.
+After the expulsion of the Rump by Fleetwood on the 13th of
+October he was chosen by the officers a member of the new
+administration and commissary-general of the horse. The new
+military government, however, rested on no solid foundation, and
+its leaders quickly found themselves without any influence.
+Desborough himself became an object of ridicule, his regiment
+even revolted against him, and on the return of the Rump he
+was ordered to quit London. At the restoration he was excluded
+from the act of indemnity but not included in the clause of pains
+and penalties extending to life and goods, being therefore only
+incapacitated from public employment. Soon afterwards he was
+arrested on suspicion of conspiring to kill the king and queen,
+but was quickly liberated. Subsequently he escaped to Holland,
+where he engaged in republican intrigues. Accordingly he was
+ordered home, in April 1666, on pain of incurring the charge of
+treason, and obeying was imprisoned in the Tower till February
+1667, when he was examined before the council and set free.
+Desborough died in 1680. By his first wife, Cromwell&rsquo;s sister, he
+had one daughter and seven sons; he married a second wife in
+April 1658 whose name is unrecorded. Desborough was a good
+soldier and nothing more; and his only conception of government
+was by force and by the army. His rough person and
+manners are the constant theme of ridicule in the royalist ballads,
+and he is caricatured in Butler&rsquo;s <i>Hudibras</i> and in the <i>Parable of
+the Lion and Fox</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESCARTES, RENÉ</span> (1596-1650), French philosopher, was
+born at La Haye, in Touraine, midway between Tours and
+Poitiers, on the 31st of March 1596, and died at Stockholm on the
+11th of February 1650. The house where he was born is still
+shown, and a <i>métairie</i> about 3 m. off retains the name of
+Les Cartes. His family on both sides was of Poitevin descent.
+Joachim Descartes, his father, having purchased a commission
+as counsellor in the parlement of Rennes, introduced the family
+into that demi-noblesse of the robe which, between the bourgeoisie
+and the high nobility, maintained a lofty rank in French society.
+He had three children, a son who afterwards succeeded to his
+father in the parlement, a daughter who married a M. du Crevis,
+and René, after whose birth the mother died.</p>
+
+<p>Descartes, known as Du Perron, from a small estate destined
+for his inheritance, soon showed an inquisitive mind. From
+1604 to 1612 he studied at the school of La Flêche,
+<span class="sidenote">Early years.</span>
+which Henry IV. had lately founded and endowed for
+the Jesuits. He enjoyed exceptional privileges; his
+feeble health excused him from the morning duties, and thus
+early he acquired the habit of reflection in bed, which clung to
+him throughout life. Even then he had begun to distrust the
+authority of tradition and his teachers. Two years before he
+left school he was selected as one of the twenty-four who went
+forth to receive the heart of Henry IV. as it was borne to its
+resting-place at La Flêche. At the age of sixteen he went home
+to his father, who was now settled at Rennes, and had married
+again. During the winter of 1612 he completed his preparations
+for the world by lessons in horsemanship and fencing; and then
+started as his own master to taste the pleasures of Parisian life.
+Fortunately he went to no perilous lengths; the worst we hear
+of is a passion for gaming. Here, too, he made the acquaintance
+of Claude Mydorge, one of the foremost mathematicians of France,
+and renewed an early intimacy with <a href="#artlinks">Marin Mersenne</a> (q.v.), now
+Father Mersenne, of the order of Minim friars. The withdrawal
+of Mersenne in 1614 to a post in the provinces was the signal for
+Descartes to abandon social life and shut himself up for nearly
+two years in a secluded house of the faubourg St Germain.
+Accident betrayed the secret of his retirement; he was compelled
+to leave his mathematical investigations, and to take part
+in entertainments, where the only thing that chimed in with his
+theorizing reveries was the music. French politics were at that
+time characterized by violence and intrigue to such an extent
+that Paris was no fit place for a student, and there was little
+honourable prospect for a soldier. Accordingly, in May 1617,
+Descartes set out for the Netherlands and took service in the
+army of Prince Maurice of Orange. At Breda he enlisted as a
+volunteer, and the first and only pay which he accepted he kept
+as a curiosity through life. There was a lull in the war, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80"></a>80</span>
+Netherlands was distracted by the quarrels of Gomarists and
+Arminians. During the leisure thus arising, Descartes one day
+had his attention drawn to a placard in the Dutch tongue; as
+the language, of which he never became perfectly master, was
+then strange to him, he asked a bystander to interpret it into
+either French or Latin. The stranger, Isaac Beeckman, principal
+of the college of Dort, offered to do so into Latin, if the inquirer
+would bring him a solution of the problem,&mdash;for the advertisement
+was one of those challenges which the mathematicians of
+the age were accustomed to throw down to all comers, daring
+them to discover a geometrical mystery known as they fancied
+to themselves alone. Descartes promised and fulfilled; and a
+friendship grew up between him and Beeckman&mdash;broken only
+by the dishonesty of the latter, who in later years took credit for
+the novelty contained in a small essay on music (<i>Compendium
+Musicae</i>) which Descartes wrote at this period and entrusted to
+Beeckman.<a name="FnAnchor_1j" href="#Footnote_1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>After spending two years in Holland as a soldier in a period
+of peace, Descartes, in July 1619, attracted by the news of
+the impending struggle between the house of Austria and the
+Protestant princes, consequent upon the election of the palatine
+of the Rhine to the kingdom of Bohemia, set out for upper
+Germany, and volunteered into the Bavarian service. The
+winter of 1619, spent in quarters at Neuburg on the Danube, was
+the critical period in his life. Here, in his warm room (<i>dans un
+poêle</i>), he indulged those meditations which afterwards led to the
+<i>Discourse of Method</i>. It was here that, on the eve of St Martin&rsquo;s
+day, he &ldquo;was filled with enthusiasm, and discovered the foundations
+of a marvellous science.&rdquo; He retired to rest with anxious
+thoughts of his future career, which haunted him through the
+night in three dreams that left a deep impression on his mind.
+The date of his philosophical conversion is thus fixed to a day.
+But as yet he had only glimpses of a logical method which should
+invigorate the syllogism by the co-operation of ancient geometry
+and modern algebra. For during the year that elapsed before he
+left Swabia (and whilst he sojourned at Neuburg and Ulm), and
+amidst his geometrical studies, he would fain have gathered some
+knowledge of the mystical wisdom attributed to the Rosicrucians;
+but the Invisibles, as they called themselves, kept their secret.
+He was present at the battle of Weisser Berg (near Prague), where
+the hopes of the elector palatine were blasted (November 8,
+1620), passed the winter with the army in southern Bohemia,
+and next year served in Hungary under Karl Bonaventura de
+Longueval, Graf von Buquoy or Boucquoi (1571-1621). On the
+death of this general Descartes quitted the imperial service, and
+in July 1621 began a peaceful tour through Moravia, the borders
+of Poland, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Holstein and Friesland,
+from which he reappeared in February 1622 in Belgium, and
+betook himself directly to his father&rsquo;s home at Rennes in
+Brittany.</p>
+
+<p>At Rennes Descartes found little to interest him; and, after
+he had visited the maternal estate of which his father now put
+him in possession, he went to Paris, where he found the Rosicrucians
+the topic of the hour, and heard himself credited with
+partnership in their secrets. A short visit to Brittany enabled
+him, with his father&rsquo;s consent, to arrange for the sale of his
+property in Poitou. The proceeds were invested in such a way
+at Paris as to bring him in a yearly income of between 6000 and
+7000 francs (equal now to more than £500). Towards the end
+of the year Descartes was on his way to Italy. The natural
+phenomena of Switzerland, and the political complications in
+the Valtellina, where the Catholic inhabitants had thrown off the
+yoke of the Grisons and called in the Papal and Spanish troops
+to their assistance, delayed him some time; but he reached
+Venice in time to see the ceremony of the doge&rsquo;s wedlock with the
+Adriatic. After paying his vows at Loretto, he came to Rome,
+which was then on the eve of a year of jubilee&mdash;an occasion which
+Descartes seized to observe the variety of men and manners which
+the city then embraced within its walls. In the spring of 1625
+he returned home by Mont Cenis, observing the avalanches,<a name="FnAnchor_2j" href="#Footnote_2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+instead of, as his relatives hoped, securing a post in the French
+army in Piedmont.</p>
+
+<p>For an instant Descartes seems to have concurred in the plan
+of purchasing a post at Châtellerault, but he gave up the idea,
+and settled in Paris (June 1625), in the quarter where he had
+sought seclusion before. By this time he had ceased to devote
+himself to pure mathematics, and in company with his friends
+Mersenne and Mydorge was deeply interested in the theory of
+the refraction of light, and in the practical work of grinding
+glasses of the best shape suitable for optical instruments. But
+all the while he was engaged with reflections on the nature of
+man, of the soul and of God, and for a while he remained invisible
+even to his most familiar friends. But their importunity made a
+hermitage in Paris impossible; a graceless friend even surprised
+the philosopher in bed at eleven in the morning meditating and
+taking notes. In disgust, Descartes started for the west to take
+part in the siege of La Rochelle, and entered the city with the
+troops (October 1628). A meeting at which he was present after
+his return to Paris decided his vocation. He had expressed an
+opinion that the true art of memory was not to be gained by
+technical devices, but by a philosophical apprehension of things;
+and the cardinal de Berulle, the founder of the Congregation of
+the Oratory, was so struck by the tone of the remarks as to
+impress upon the speaker the duty of spending his life in the
+examination of truth. Descartes accepted the philosophic
+mission, and in the spring of 1629 he settled in Holland. His
+financial affairs he had entrusted to the care of the abbé Picot,
+and as his literary and scientific representative he adopted
+Mersenne.</p>
+
+<p>Till 1649 Descartes lived in Holland. Thrice only did he
+revisit France&mdash;in 1644, 1647 and 1648. The first of these
+occasions was in order to settle family affairs after the death
+of his father in 1640. The second brief visit, in 1647, partly on
+literary, partly on family business, was signalized by the award
+of a pension of 3000 francs, obtained from the royal bounty
+by Cardinal Mazarin. The last visit in 1648 was less fortunate.
+A royal order summoned him to France for new honours&mdash;an
+additional pension and a permanent post&mdash;for his fame had by
+this time gone abroad, and it was the age when princes sought to
+attract genius and learning to their courts. But when Descartes
+arrived, he found Paris rent asunder by the civil war of the
+Fronde. He paid the costs of his royal parchment, and left
+without a word of reproach. The only other occasions on which
+he was out of the Netherlands were in 1630, when he made a
+flying visit to England to observe for himself some alleged
+magnetic phenomena, and in 1634, when he took an excursion
+to Denmark.</p>
+
+<p>During his residence in Holland he lived at thirteen different
+places, and changed his abode twenty-four times. In the choice
+of these spots two motives seem to have influenced him&mdash;the
+neighbourhood of a university or college, and the amenities of
+the situation. Among these towns were Franeker in Friesland,
+Harderwyk, Deventer, Utrecht, Leiden, Amersfoort, Amsterdam,
+Leeuwarden in Friesland. His favourite residences were
+Endegeest, Egmond op den Hoef and Egmond the Abbey (west
+of Zaandam).</p>
+
+<p>The time thus spent seems to have been on the whole happy,
+even allowing for warm discussions with the mathematicians
+and metaphysicians of France, and for harassing controversies in
+the Netherlands. Friendly agents&mdash;chiefly Catholic priests&mdash;were
+the intermediaries who forwarded his correspondence from Dort,
+Haarlem, Amsterdam and Leiden to his proper address, which he
+kept completely secret; and Father Mersenne sent him objections
+and questions. His health, which in his youth had been bad,
+improved. &ldquo;I sleep here ten hours every night,&rdquo; he writes
+from Amsterdam, &ldquo;and no care ever shortens my slumber.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;I take my walk every day through the confusion of a great
+multitude with as much freedom and quiet as you could find in
+your rural avenues.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_3j" href="#Footnote_3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> At his first coming to Franeker he
+arranged to get a cook acquainted with French cookery; but,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>81</span>
+to prevent misunderstanding, it may be added that his diet was
+mainly vegetarian, and that he rarely drank wine. New friends
+gathered round him who took a keen interest in his researches.
+Once only do we find him taking an interest in the affairs of his
+neighbours,&mdash;to ask pardon from the government for a homicide.<a name="FnAnchor_4j" href="#Footnote_4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+He continued the profession of his religion. Sometimes from
+curiosity he went to the ministrations of anabaptists,<a name="FnAnchor_5j" href="#Footnote_5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a> to hear
+the preaching of peasants and artisans. He carried few books
+to Holland with him, but a Bible and the <i>Summa</i> of Thomas
+Aquinas were amongst them.<a name="FnAnchor_6j" href="#Footnote_6j"><span class="sp">6</span></a> One of the recommendations of
+Egmond the Abbey was the free exercise there allowed to the
+Catholic religion. At Franeker his house was a small château,
+&ldquo;separated by a moat from the rest of the town, where the mass
+could be said in safety.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_7j" href="#Footnote_7j"><span class="sp">7</span></a> And one motive in favour of accepting
+an invitation to England lay in the alleged leanings of Charles I.
+to the older church.</p>
+
+<p>The best account of Descartes&rsquo;s mental history during his
+life in Holland is contained in his letters, which extend over the
+whole period, and are particularly frequent in the latter half.
+The majority of them are addressed to Mersenne, and deal with
+problems of physics, musical theory (in which he took a special
+interest), and mathematics. Several letters between 1643 and
+1649 are addressed to the princess Elizabeth, the eldest daughter
+of the ejected elector palatine, who lived at The Hague, where her
+mother maintained the semblance of a royal court. The princess
+was obliged to quit Holland, but kept up a philosophical correspondence
+with Descartes. It is to her that the <i>Principles of
+Philosophy</i> were dedicated; and in her alone, according to
+Descartes, were united those generally separated talents for
+metaphysics and for mathematics which are so characteristically
+co-operative in the Cartesian system. Two Dutch friends,
+Constantijn Huygens (von Zuylichem), father of the more
+celebrated Huygens, and Hoogheland, figure amongst the
+correspondents, not to mention various savants, professors and
+churchmen (particularly Jesuits).</p>
+
+<p>His residence in the Netherlands fell in the most prosperous
+and brilliant days of the Dutch state, under the stadtholdership
+of Frederick Henry (1625-1647). Abroad its navigators monopolized
+the commerce of the world, and explored unknown seas;
+at home the Dutch school of painting reached its acme in
+Rembrandt (1607-1669); and the philological reputation of
+the country was sustained by Grotius, Vossius and the elder
+Heinsius. And yet, though Rembrandt&rsquo;s &ldquo;Nightwatch&rdquo; is dated
+the very year after the publication of the <i>Meditations</i>, not a word
+in Descartes breathes of any work of art or historical learning.
+The contempt of aesthetics and erudition is characteristic of the
+most typical members of what is known as the Cartesian school,
+especially Malebranche. Descartes was not in any strict sense a
+reader. His wisdom grew mainly out of his own reflections and
+experiments. The story of his disgust when he found that
+Queen Christina devoted some time every day to the study of
+Greek under the tuition of Vossius is at least true in substance.<a name="FnAnchor_8j" href="#Footnote_8j"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
+It gives no evidence of science, he remarks, to possess a tolerable
+knowledge of the Roman tongue, such as once was possessed by
+the populace of Rome.<a name="FnAnchor_9j" href="#Footnote_9j"><span class="sp">9</span></a> In all his travels he studied only the
+phenomena of nature and human life. He was a spectator
+rather than an actor on the stage of the world. He entered the
+army, merely because the position gave a vantage-ground from
+which to make his observations. In the political interests which
+these contests involved he took no part; his favourite disciple,
+the princess Elizabeth, was the daughter of the banished king,
+against whom he had served in Bohemia; and Queen Christina,
+his second royal follower, was the daughter of Gustavus
+Adolphus.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Descartes is a type of that spirit of science to which
+erudition and all the heritage of the past seem but elegant
+trifling. The science of Descartes was physics in all its branches,
+but especially as applied to physiology. Science, he says, may
+be compared to a tree; metaphysics is the root, physics is the
+trunk, and the three chief branches are mechanics, medicine and
+morals,&mdash;the three applications of our knowledge to the outward
+world, to the human body, and to the conduct of life.<a name="FnAnchor_10j" href="#Footnote_10j"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Such then was the work that Descartes had in view in Holland.
+His residence was generally divided into two parts&mdash;one his
+workshop for science, the other his reception-room for society.
+&ldquo;Here are my books,&rdquo; he is reported to have told a visitor, as he
+pointed to the animals he had dissected. He worked hard at his
+book on refraction, and dissected the heads of animals in order to
+explain imagination and memory, which he considered physical
+processes.<a name="FnAnchor_11j" href="#Footnote_11j"><span class="sp">11</span></a> But he was not a laborious student. &ldquo;I can say
+with truth,&rdquo; he writes to the princess Elizabeth,<a name="FnAnchor_12j" href="#Footnote_12j"><span class="sp">12</span></a> &ldquo;that the
+principle which I have always observed in my studies, and which
+I believe has helped me most to gain what knowledge I have, has
+been never to spend beyond a very few hours daily in thoughts
+which occupy the imagination, and a very few hours yearly in
+those which occupy the understanding, and to give all the rest of
+my time to the relaxation of the senses and the repose of the
+mind.&rdquo; But his expectations from the study of anatomy and
+physiology went a long way. &ldquo;The conservation of health,&rdquo;
+he writes in 1646, &ldquo;has always been the principal end of my
+studies.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_13j" href="#Footnote_13j"><span class="sp">13</span></a> In 1629 he asks Mersenne to take care of himself
+&ldquo;till I find out if there is any means of getting a medical theory
+based on infallible demonstrations, which is what I am now
+inquiring.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_14j" href="#Footnote_14j"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Astronomical inquiries in connexion with optics,
+meteorological phenomena, and, in a word, the whole field
+of natural laws, excited his desire to explain them. His own
+observation, and the reports of Mersenne, furnished his data. Of
+Bacon&rsquo;s demand for observation and collection of facts he is
+an imitator; and he wishes (in a letter of 1632) that &ldquo;some one
+would undertake to give a history of celestial phenomena after
+the method of Bacon, and describe the sky exactly as it appears
+at present, without introducing a single hypothesis.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_15j" href="#Footnote_15j"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p>
+
+<p>He had several writings in hand during the early years of his
+residence in Holland, but the main work of this period was a
+physical doctrine of the universe which he termed <i>The World</i>.
+Shortly after his arrival he writes to Mersenne that it will probably
+be finished in 1633, but meanwhile asks him not to disclose
+the secret to his Parisian friends. Already anxieties appear as to
+the theological verdict upon two of his fundamental views&mdash;the
+infinitude of the universe, and the earth&rsquo;s rotation round the
+sun.<a name="FnAnchor_16j" href="#Footnote_16j"><span class="sp">16</span></a> But towards the end of year 1633 we find him writing as
+follows:&mdash;&ldquo;I had intended sending you my <i>World</i> as a New
+Year&rsquo;s gift, and a fortnight ago I was still minded to send you a
+fragment of the work, if the whole of it could not be transcribed
+in time. But I have just been at Leyden and Amsterdam to
+ask after Galileo&rsquo;s cosmical system as I imagined I had heard of
+its being printed last year in Italy. I was told that it had been
+printed, but that every copy had been at the same time burnt at
+Rome, and that Galileo had been himself condemned to some
+penalty.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_17j" href="#Footnote_17j"><span class="sp">17</span></a> He has also seen a copy of Galileo&rsquo;s condemnation
+at Liége (September 20, 1633), with the words &ldquo;although he
+professes that the [Copernican] theory was only adopted by him
+as a hypothesis.&rdquo; His friend Beeckman lent him a copy of
+Galileo&rsquo;s work, which he glanced through in his usual manner
+with other men&rsquo;s books; he found it good, and &ldquo;failing more
+in the points where it follows received opinions than where it
+diverges from them.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_18j" href="#Footnote_18j"><span class="sp">18</span></a> The consequence of these reports of the
+hostility of the church led him to abandon all thoughts of
+publishing. <i>The World</i> was consigned to his desk; and although
+doctrines in all essential respects the same constitute the physical
+portion of his <i>Principia</i>, it was not till after the death of Descartes
+that fragments of the work, including <i>Le Monde</i>, or a treatise on
+light, and the physiological tracts <i>L&rsquo;Homme</i> and <i>La Formation du
+f&oelig;tus</i>, were given to the world by his admirer Claude Clerselier
+(1614-1684) in 1664. Descartes was not disposed to be a
+martyr; he had a sincere respect for the church, and had no
+wish to begin an open conflict with established doctrines.</p>
+
+<p>In 1636 Descartes had resolved to publish some specimens of
+the fruits of his method, and some general observations on its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>82</span>
+nature which, under an appearance of simplicity, might sow the
+good seed of more adequate ideas on the world and man. &ldquo;I
+should be glad,&rdquo; he says, when talking of a publisher,<a name="FnAnchor_19j" href="#Footnote_19j"><span class="sp">19</span></a> &ldquo;if the
+whole book were printed in good type, on good paper, and I
+should like to have at least 200 copies for distribution. The book
+will contain four essays, all in French, with the general title of
+&lsquo;Project of a Universal science, capable of raising our nature to
+its highest perfection; also Dioptrics, Meteors and Geometry,
+wherein the most curious matters which the author could select
+as a proof of the universal science which he proposes are explained
+in such a way that even the unlearned may understand them.&rsquo;&rdquo;
+The work appeared anonymously at Leiden (published by Jean
+Maire) in 1637, under the modest title of <i>Essais philosophiques</i>;
+and the project of a universal science becomes the <i>Discours de la
+méthode pour bien conduire sa raison et chercher la vérité dans les
+sciences</i>. In 1644 it appeared in a Latin version, revised by
+Descartes, as <i>Specimina philosophica</i>. A work so widely circulated
+by the author naturally attracted attention, but in France
+it was principally the mathematicians who took it up, and their
+criticisms were more pungent than complimentary. Fermat,
+Roberval and Desargues took exception in their various ways to
+the methods employed in the geometry, and to the demonstrations
+of the laws of refraction given in the Dioptrics and Meteors.
+The dispute on the latter point between Fermat and Descartes
+was continued, even after the philosopher&rsquo;s death, as late as
+1662. In the youthful Dutch universities the effect of the essays
+was greater.</p>
+
+<p>The first public teacher of Cartesian views was Henri Renery,
+a Belgian, who at Deventer and afterwards at Utrecht had
+introduced the new philosophy which he had learned
+<span class="sidenote">Spread of Cartesianism.</span>
+from personal intercourse with Descartes. Renery
+only survived five years at Utrecht, and it was reserved
+for Heinrich Regius (van Roy)&mdash;who in 1638 had been
+appointed to the new chair of botany and theoretical medicine
+at Utrecht, and who visited Descartes at Egmond in order more
+thoroughly to learn his views&mdash;to throw down the gauntlet to
+the adherents of the old methods. With more eloquence than
+judgment, he propounded theses bringing into relief the points
+in which the new doctrines clashed with the old. The attack was
+opened by Gisbert Voët, foremost among the orthodox theological
+professors and clergy of Utrecht. In 1639 he published a
+series of arguments against atheism, in which the Cartesian views
+were not obscurely indicated as perilous for the faith, though no
+name was mentioned. Next year he persuaded the magistracy
+to issue an order forbidding Regius to travel beyond the received
+doctrine. The magisterial views seem to have prevailed in the
+professoriate, which formally in March 1642 expressed its disapprobation
+of the new philosophy as well as of its expositors.
+As yet Descartes was not directly attacked. Voët now issued,
+under the name of Martin Schoock, one of his pupils, a pamphlet
+with the title of <i>Methodus novae philosophiae Renati Descartes</i>, in
+which atheism and infidelity were openly declared to be the effect
+of the new teaching. Descartes replied to Voët directly in a letter,
+published at Amsterdam in 1643. He was summoned before the
+magistrates of Utrecht to defend himself against charges of
+irreligion and slander. What might have happened we cannot
+tell; but Descartes threw himself on the protection of the French
+ambassador and the prince of Orange, and the city magistrates,
+from whom he vainly demanded satisfaction in a dignified letter,<a name="FnAnchor_20j" href="#Footnote_20j"><span class="sp">20</span></a>
+were snubbed by their superiors. About the same time (April
+1645) Schoock was summoned before the university of Groningen,
+of which he was a member, and forthwith disavowed the more
+abusive passages in his book. So did the effects of the <i>odium
+theologicum</i>, for the meanwhile at least, die away.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Discourse of Method</i> Descartes had sketched the main
+points in his new views, with a mental autobiography which
+might explain their origin, and with some suggestions
+<span class="sidenote">Discourse of Method, and Meditations.</span>
+as to their applications. His second great work,.
+<i>Meditations on the First Philosophy</i>, which had been
+begun soon after his settlement in the Netherlands,
+expounded in more detail the foundations of his system,
+laying especial emphasis on the priority of mind to body, and on
+the absolute and ultimate dependence of mind as well as body on
+the existence of God. In 1640 a copy of the work in manuscript
+was despatched to Paris, and Mersenne was requested to lay it
+before as many thinkers and scholars as he deemed desirable,
+with a view to getting their views upon its argument and doctrine.
+Descartes soon had a formidable list of objections to reply to.
+Accordingly, when the work was published at Paris in August
+1641, under the title of <i>Meditationes de prima philosophia ubi de
+Dei existentia et animae immortalitate</i> (though it was in fact not
+the <i>immortality</i> but the <i>immateriality</i> of the mind, or, as the
+second edition described it, <i>animae humanae a corpore distinctio</i>,
+which was maintained), the title went on to describe the larger
+part of the book as containing various objections of learned
+men, with the replies of the author. These objections in the first
+edition are arranged under six heads: the first came from
+Caterus, a theologian of Louvain; the second and sixth are
+anonymous criticisms from various hands; whilst the third,
+fourth and fifth belong respectively to Hobbes, Arnauld and
+Gassendi. In the second edition appeared the seventh&mdash;objections
+from Père Bourdin, a Jesuit teacher of mathematics in
+Paris; and subsequently another set of objections, known
+as those of <i>Hyperaspistes</i>, was included in the collection of
+Descartes&rsquo;s letters. The anonymous objections are very much
+the statement of common-sense against philosophy; those of
+Caterus criticize the Cartesian argument from the traditional
+theology of the church; those of Arnauld are an appreciative
+inquiry into the bearings and consequences of the meditations
+for religion and morality; while those of <a href="#artlinks">Hobbes</a> (q.v.) and
+Gassendi&mdash;both somewhat senior to Descartes and with a
+dogmatic system of their own already formed&mdash;are a keen assault
+upon the spiritualism of the Cartesian position from a generally
+&ldquo;sensational&rdquo; standpoint. The criticisms of the last two are
+the criticisms of a hostile school of thought; those of Arnauld
+are the difficulties of a possible disciple.</p>
+
+<p>In 1644 the third great work of Descartes, the <i>Principia
+philosophiae</i>, appeared at Amsterdam. Passing briefly over
+the conclusions arrived at in the <i>Meditations</i>, it deals
+<span class="sidenote">The Principia.</span>
+in its second, third and fourth parts with the general
+principles of physical science, especially the laws of
+motion, with the theory of vortices, and with the phenomena of
+heat, light, gravity, magnetism, electricity, &amp;c., upon the earth.
+This work exhibits some curious marks of caution. Undoubtedly,
+says Descartes, the world was in the beginning created in all its
+perfection. &ldquo;But yet as it is best, if we wish to understand the
+nature of plants or of men, to consider how they may by degrees
+proceed from seeds, rather than how they were created by God
+in the beginning of the world, so, if we can excogitate some
+extremely simple and comprehensible principles, out of which,
+as if they were seeds, we can prove that stars, and earth and all
+this visible scene could have originated, although we know full
+well that they never did originate in such a way, we shall in that
+way expound their nature far better than if we merely described
+them as they exist at present.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_21j" href="#Footnote_21j"><span class="sp">21</span></a> The Copernican theory is
+rejected in name, but retained in substance. The earth, or other
+planet, does not actually move round the sun; yet it is carried
+round the sun in the subtle matter of the great vortex, where it
+lies in equilibrium,&mdash;carried like the passenger in a boat, who may
+cross the sea and yet not rise from his berth.</p>
+
+<p>In 1647 the difficulties that had arisen at Utrecht were repeated
+on a smaller scale at Leiden. There the Cartesian innovations
+had found a patron in Adrian Heerebord, and were openly
+discussed in theses and lectures. The theological professors took
+the alarm at passages in the <i>Meditations</i>; an attempt to prove
+the existence of God savoured, as they thought, of atheism and
+heresy. When Descartes complained to the authorities of this
+unfair treatment,<a name="FnAnchor_22j" href="#Footnote_22j"><span class="sp">22</span></a> the only reply was an order by which all
+mention of the name of Cartesianism, whether favourable or
+adverse, was forbidden in the university. This was scarcely
+what Descartes wanted, and again he had to apply to the prince
+of Orange, whereupon the theologians were asked to behave with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"></a>83</span>
+civility, and the name of Descartes was no longer proscribed.
+But other annoyances were not wanting from unfaithful disciples
+and unsympathetic critics. The <i>Instantiae</i> of Gassendi appeared
+at Amsterdam in 1644 as a reply to the reply which Descartes had
+published of his previous objections; and the publication by
+Heinrich Regius of his work on physical philosophy (<i>Fundamenta
+physices</i>, 1646) gave the world to understand that he had ceased
+to be a thorough adherent of the philosophy which he had so
+enthusiastically adopted.</p>
+
+<p>It was about 1648 that Descartes lost his friends Mersenne
+and Mydorge by death. The place of Mersenne as his Parisian
+representative was in the main taken by Claude Clerselier (the
+French translator of the Objections and Responses), whom he had
+become acquainted with in Paris. Through Clerselier he came to
+know Pierre Chanut, who in 1645 was sent as French ambassador
+to the court of Sweden. Queen Christina was not yet twenty,
+and took a lively if a somewhat whimsical interest in literary
+and philosophical culture. Through Chanut, with whom she
+was on terms of familiarity, she came to hear of Descartes, and a
+correspondence which the latter nominally carried on with the
+ambassador was in reality intended for the eyes of the queen.
+The correspondence took an ethical tone. It began with a long
+letter on love in all its aspects (February 1647),<a name="FnAnchor_23j" href="#Footnote_23j"><span class="sp">23</span></a> a topic suggested
+by Chanut, who had been discussing it with the queen; and this
+was soon followed by another to Christina herself on the chief
+good. An essay on the passions of the mind (<i>Passions de l&rsquo;âme</i>),
+which had been written originally for the princess Elizabeth,
+in development of some ethical views suggested by the <i>De vita
+beata</i> of Seneca, was enclosed at the same time for Chanut. It
+was a draft of the work published in 1650 under the same title.
+Philosophy, particularly that of Descartes, was becoming a
+fashionable <i>divertissement</i> for the queen and her courtiers, and
+it was felt that the presence of the sage himself was necessary
+to complete the good work of education. An invitation to
+the Swedish court was urged upon Descartes, and after much
+hesitation accepted; a vessel of the royal navy was ordered
+to wait upon him, and in September 1649 he left Egmond for
+the north.</p>
+
+<p>The position on which he entered at Stockholm was unsuited
+for a man who wished to be his own master. The young queen
+wanted Descartes to draw up a code for a proposed
+<span class="sidenote">Death.</span>
+academy of the sciences, and to give her an hour of
+philosophic instruction every morning at five. She had already
+determined to create him a noble, and begun to look out an estate
+in the lately annexed possessions of Sweden on the Pomeranian
+coast. But these things were not to be. His friend Chanut fell
+dangerously ill; and Descartes, who devoted himself to attend
+in the sick-room, was obliged to issue from it every morning in
+the chill northern air of January, and spend an hour in the palace
+library. The ambassador recovered, but Descartes fell a victim
+to the same disease, inflammation of the lungs. The last time he
+saw the queen was on the 1st of February 1650, when he handed
+to her the statutes he had drawn up for the proposed academy.
+On the 11th of February he died. The queen wished to bury him
+at the feet of the Swedish kings, and to raise a costly mausoleum
+in his honour; but these plans were overruled, and a plain
+monument in the Catholic cemetery was all that marked the place
+of his rest. Sixteen years after his death the French treasurer
+d&rsquo;Alibert made arrangements for the conveyance of the ashes to
+his native land; and in 1667 they were interred in the church of
+Ste Geneviève du Mont, the modern Pantheon. In 1819, after
+being temporarily deposited in a stone sarcophagus in the court
+of the Louvre during the Revolutionary epoch, they were
+transferred to St Germain-des-Près, where they now repose
+between Montfaucon and Mabillon. A monument was raised
+to his memory at Stockholm by Gustavus III.; and a modern
+statue has been erected to him at Tours, with an inscription on
+the pedestal: &ldquo;Je pense, donc je suis.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Descartes never married, and had little of the amorous in his
+temperament. He has alluded to a childish fancy for a young
+girl with a slight obliquity of vision; but he only mentions it
+<i>à propos</i> of the consequent weakness which led him to associate
+such a defect with beauty.<a name="FnAnchor_24j" href="#Footnote_24j"><span class="sp">24</span></a> In person he was small, with large
+head, projecting brow, prominent nose, and eyes wide apart,
+with black hair coming down almost to his eyebrows. His voice
+was feeble. He usually dressed in black, with unobtrusive
+propriety.</p>
+
+<p><i>Philosophy.</i>&mdash;The end of all study, says Descartes, in one of his
+earliest writings, ought to be to guide the mind to form true and
+sound judgments on every thing that may be presented to it.<a name="FnAnchor_25j" href="#Footnote_25j"><span class="sp">25</span></a>
+The sciences in their totality are but the intelligence of man;
+and all the details of knowledge have no value save as they
+strengthen the understanding. The mind is not for the sake of
+knowledge, but knowledge for the sake of the mind. This is the
+reassertion of a principle which the middle ages had lost sight of&mdash;that
+knowledge, if it is to have any value, must be intelligence,
+and not erudition.</p>
+
+<p>But how is intelligence, as opposed to erudition, possible?
+The answer to that question is the method of Descartes. That
+idea of a method grew up with his study of geometry
+<span class="sidenote">Mathematics.</span>
+and arithmetic,&mdash;the only branches of knowledge
+which he would allow to be &ldquo;made sciences.&rdquo; But
+they did not satisfy his demand for intelligence. &ldquo;I found in
+them,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;different propositions on numbers of which,
+after a calculation, I perceived the truth; as for the figures, I
+had, so to speak, many truths put before my eyes, and many
+others concluded from them by analogy; but it did not seem to me
+that they told my mind with sufficient clearness why the things
+were as I was shown, and by what means their discovery was
+attained.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_26j" href="#Footnote_26j"><span class="sp">26</span></a> The mathematics of which he thus speaks included
+the geometry of the ancients, as it had been handed down to the
+modern world, and arithmetic with the developments it had
+received in the direction of algebra. The ancient geometry, as we
+know it, is a wonderful monument of ingenuity&mdash;a series of
+<i>tours de force</i>, in which each problem to all appearance stands
+alone, and, if solved, is solved by methods and principles peculiar
+to itself. Here and there particular curves, for example, had
+been obliged to yield the secret of their tangent; but the ancient
+geometers apparently had no consciousness of the general
+bearings of the methods which they so successfully applied.
+Each problem was something unique; the elements of transition
+from one to another were wanting; and the next step which
+mathematics had to make was to find some method of reducing,
+for instance, all curves to a common notation. When that was
+found, the solution of one problem would immediately entail the
+solution of all others which belonged to the same series as itself.</p>
+
+<p>The arithmetical half of mathematics, which had been gradually
+growing into algebra, and had decidedly established itself as such
+in the <i>Ad logisticen speciosam notae priores</i> of François Vieta
+(1540-1603), supplied to some extent the means of generalizing
+geometry. And the algebraists or arithmeticians of the 16th
+century, such as Luca Pacioli (Lucas de Borgo), Geronimo or
+Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), and Niccola Tartaglia (1506-1559),
+had used geometrical constructions to throw light on
+the solution of particular equations. But progress was made
+difficult, in consequence of the clumsy and irregular nomenclature
+employed. With Descartes the use of exponents as now employed
+for denoting the powers of a quantity becomes systematic; and
+without some such step by which the homogeneity of successive
+powers is at once recognized, the binomial theorem could scarcely
+have been detected. The restriction of the early letters of the
+alphabet to known, and of the late letters to unknown, quantities
+is also his work. In this and other details he crowns and completes,
+in a form henceforth to be dominant for the language
+of algebra, the work of numerous obscure predecessors, such as
+Étienne de la Roche, Michael Stifel or Stiefel (1487-1567), and
+others.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus perfected the instrument, his next step was to
+apply it in such a way as to bring uniformity of method into the
+isolated and independent operations of geometry. &ldquo;I had no
+intention,&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_27j" href="#Footnote_27j"><span class="sp">27</span></a> he says in the <i>Method</i>, &ldquo;of attempting to master all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84"></a>84</span>
+the particular sciences commonly called mathematics; but as I
+observed that, with all differences in their objects, they agreed in
+considering merely the various relations or proportions subsisting
+among these objects, I thought it best for my purpose to consider
+these relations in the most general form possible, without referring
+them to any objects in particular except such as would
+most facilitate the knowledge of them. Perceiving further, that
+in order to understand these relations I should sometimes have
+to consider them one by one, and sometimes only to bear them in
+mind or embrace them in the aggregate, I thought that, in order
+the better to consider them individually, I should view them as
+subsisting between straight lines, than which I could find no
+objects more simple, or capable of being more distinctly represented
+to my imagination and senses; and on the other hand
+that, in order to retain them in the memory or embrace an
+aggregate of many, I should express them by certain characters,
+the briefest possible.&rdquo; Such is the basis of the algebraical or
+modern analytical geometry. The problem of the curves is
+solved by their reduction to a problem of straight lines; and the
+locus of any point is determined by its distance from two given
+straight lines&mdash;the axes of co-ordinates. Thus Descartes gave
+to modern geometry that abstract and general character in
+which consists its superiority to the geometry of the ancients.
+In another question connected with this, the problem of drawing
+tangents to any curve, Descartes was drawn into a controversy
+with Pierre (de) Fermat (1601-1663), Gilles Persone de Roberval
+(1602-1675), and Girard Desargues (1593-1661). Fermat and
+Descartes agreed in regarding the tangent to a curve as a secant
+of that curve with the two points of intersection coinciding, while
+Roberval regarded it as the direction of the composite movement
+by which the curve can be described. Both these methods,
+differing from that now employed, are interesting as preliminary
+steps towards the method of fluxions and the differential calculus.
+In pure algebra Descartes expounded and illustrated the general
+methods of solving equations up to those of the fourth degree
+(and believed that his method could go beyond), stated the law
+which connects the positive and negative roots of an equation
+with the changes of sign in the consecutive terms, and introduced
+the method of indeterminate coefficients for the solution of
+equations.<a name="FnAnchor_28j" href="#Footnote_28j"><span class="sp">28</span></a> These innovations have been attributed on inadequate
+evidence to other algebraists, e.g. William Oughtred
+(1575-1660) and Thomas Harriot (1560-1621).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Geometry</i> of Descartes, unlike the other parts of his essays,
+is not easy reading. It dashes at once into the middle of the
+subjects with the examination of a problem which had baffled
+the ancients, and seems as if it were tossed at the heads of
+the French geometers as a challenge. An edition of it appeared
+subsequently, with notes by his friend Florimond de
+Beaune (1601-1652), calculated to smooth the difficulties of
+the work. All along mathematics was regarded by Descartes
+rather as the envelope than the foundation of his method; and
+the &ldquo;universal mathematical science&rdquo; which he sought after
+was only the prelude of a universal science of all-embracing
+character.<a name="FnAnchor_29j" href="#Footnote_29j"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The method of Descartes rests upon the proposition that all
+the objects of our knowledge fall into series, of which the members
+are more or less known by means of one another. In
+<span class="sidenote">Descartes&rsquo; method.</span>
+every such series or group there is a dominant element,
+simple and irresoluble, the standard on which the rest
+of the series depends, and hence, so far as that group or series is
+concerned, absolute. The other members of the group are relative
+and dependent, and only to be understood as in various degrees
+subordinate to the primitive conception. The characteristic by
+which we recognize the fundamental element in a series is its
+intuitive or self-evident character; it is given by &ldquo;the evident
+conception of a healthy and attentive mind so clear and distinct
+that no doubt is left.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_30j" href="#Footnote_30j"><span class="sp">30</span></a> Having discovered this prime or absolute
+member of the group, we proceed to consider the degrees in which
+the other members enter into relation with it. Here deduction
+comes into play to show the dependence of one term upon the
+others; and, in the case of a long chain of intervening links, the
+problem for intelligence is so to enunciate every element, and so
+to repeat the connexion that we may finally grasp all the links
+of the chain in one. In this way we, as it were, bring the causal
+or primal term and its remotest dependent immediately together,
+and raise a derivative knowledge into one which is primary and
+intuitive. Such are the four points of Cartesian method:&mdash;(1)
+Truth requires a clear and distinct conception of its object,
+excluding all doubt; (2) the objects of knowledge naturally fall
+into series or groups; (3) in these groups investigation must
+begin with a simple and indecomposable element, and pass from
+it to the more complex and relative elements; (4) an exhaustive
+and immediate grasp of the relations and interconnexion of
+these elements is necessary for knowledge in the fullest sense of
+that word.<a name="FnAnchor_31j" href="#Footnote_31j"><span class="sp">31</span></a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;There is no question,&rdquo; he says in anticipation of Locke
+and Kant, &ldquo;more important to solve than that of knowing
+what human knowledge is and how far it extends.&rdquo; &ldquo;This is a
+question which ought to be asked at least once in their lives by
+all who seriously wish to gain wisdom. The inquirer will find
+that the first thing to know is intellect, because on it depends the
+knowledge of all other things. Examining next what immediately
+follows the knowledge of pure intellect, he will pass in review all
+the other means of knowledge, and will find that they are two
+(or three), the imagination and the senses (and the memory). He
+will therefore devote all his care to examine and distinguish
+these three means of knowledge; and seeing that truth and error
+can, properly speaking, be only in the intellect, and that the two
+other modes of knowledge are only occasions, he will carefully
+avoid whatever can lead him astray.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_32j" href="#Footnote_32j"><span class="sp">32</span></a> This separation of
+intellect from sense, imagination and memory is the cardinal
+precept of the Cartesian logic; it marks off clear and distinct
+(i.e. adequate and vivid) from obscure, fragmentary and
+incoherent conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Discourse of Method</i> and the <i>Meditations</i> apply what the
+<i>Rules for the Direction of the Mind</i> had regarded in particular
+instances to our conceptions of the world as a whole.
+<span class="sidenote">Fundamental principles of philosophy.</span>
+They propose, that is, to find a simple and indecomposable
+point, or absolute element, which gives to the
+world and thought their order and systematization.
+The grandeur of this attempt is perhaps unequalled in
+the annals of philosophy. The three main steps in the argument
+are the veracity of our thought when that thought is true to
+itself, the inevitable uprising of thought from its fragmentary
+aspects in our habitual consciousness to the infinite and perfect
+existence which God is, and the ultimate reduction of the material
+universe to extension and local movement. There are the central
+dogmas of logic, metaphysics and physics, from which start
+the subsequent inquiries of Locke, Leibnitz and Newton. They
+are also the direct antitheses to the scepticism of Montaigne and
+Pascal, to the materialism of Gassendi and Hobbes, and to the
+superstitious anthropomorphism which defaced the reawakening
+sciences of nature. Descartes laid down the lines on which
+modern philosophy and science were to build. But himself no
+trained metaphysician, and unsusceptible to the lessons of history,
+he gives but fragments of a system which are held together, not
+by their intrinsic consistency, but by the vigour of his personal
+conviction transcending the weaknesses and collisions of his
+several arguments. &ldquo;All my opinions,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;are so
+conjoined, and depend so closely upon one another, that it would
+be impossible to appropriate one without knowing them all.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_33j" href="#Footnote_33j"><span class="sp">33</span></a>
+Yet every disciple of Cartesianism seems to disprove the dictum
+by his example.</p>
+
+<p>The very moment when we begin to think, says Descartes,
+when we cease to be merely receptive, when we draw back and
+fix our attention on any point whatever of our belief,&mdash;that
+moment doubt begins. If we even stop for an instant to ask
+ourselves how a word ought to be spelled, the deeper we ponder
+that one word by itself the more hopeless grows the hesitation.
+The doubts thus awakened must not be stifled, but pressed
+systematically on to the point, if such a point there be, where
+doubt confutes itself. The doubt as to the details is natural; it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>85</span>
+is no less natural to have recourse to authority to silence the
+doubt. The remedy proposed by Descartes is (while not neglecting
+our duties to others, ourselves and God) to let doubt range
+unchecked through the whole fabric of our customary convictions.
+One by one they refuse to render any reasonable account of
+themselves; each seems a mere chance, and the whole tends to
+elude us like a mirage which some malignant power creates for
+our illusion. Attacked in detail, they vanish one after another
+into as many teasing spectra of uncertainty. We are seeking
+from them what they cannot give. But when we have done our
+worst in unsettling them, we come to an ultimate point in the fact
+that it is <i>we</i> who are doubting, <i>we</i> who are thinking. We may
+doubt that we have hands or feet, that we sleep or wake, and that
+there is a world of material things around us; but we cannot
+<span class="sidenote">Cogito ergo sum.</span>
+doubt that we are doubting. We are certain that we
+are thinking, and in so far as we are thinking we are.
+<i>Je pense, donc je suis.</i> In other words, the criterion
+of truth is a clear and distinct conception, excluding all possibility
+of doubt.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental point thus established is the veracity of
+consciousness when it does not go beyond itself, or does not
+postulate something which is external to itself. At this point
+Gassendi arrested Descartes and addressed his objections to him
+as pure intelligence,&mdash;<i>O mens!</i> But even this <i>mens</i>, or mind, is
+but a point&mdash;we have found no guarantee as yet for its continuous
+existence. The analysis must be carried deeper, if we are to gain
+any further conclusions.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the elements of our thought there are some which we
+can make and unmake at our pleasure; there are others which
+come and go without our wish; there is also a third class which is
+of the very essence of our thinking, and which dominates our
+conceptions. We find that all our ideas of limits, sorrows and
+weaknesses presuppose an infinite, perfect and ever-blessed
+something beyond them and including them,&mdash;that all our ideas,
+in all their series, converge to one central idea, in which they find
+their explanation. The formal fact of thinking is what constitutes
+our being; but this thought leads us back, when we consider its
+concrete contents, to the necessary pre-supposition on which our
+ideas depend, the permanent cause on which they and we as
+conscious beings depend. We have therefore the idea of an infinite,
+perfect and all-powerful being&mdash;an idea which cannot be
+the creation of ourselves, and must be given by some being who
+really possesses all that we in idea attribute to him. Such a
+being he identifies with God. But the ordinary idea of God can
+scarcely be identified with such a conception. &ldquo;The majority
+of men,&rdquo; he says himself, &ldquo;do not think of God as an infinite and
+incomprehensible being, and as the sole author from whom all
+things depend; they go no further than the letters of his name.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_34j" href="#Footnote_34j"><span class="sp">34</span></a>
+<span class="sidenote">Nature of God.</span>
+&ldquo;The vulgar almost imagine him as a finite thing.&rdquo;
+The God of Descartes is not merely the creator of
+the material universe; he is also the father of all
+truth in the intellectual world. &ldquo;The metaphysical truths,&rdquo; he
+says, &ldquo;styled eternal have been established by God, and, like
+the rest of his creatures, depend entirely upon him. To say that
+these truths are independent of him is to speak of God as a
+Jupiter or a Saturn,&mdash;to subject him to Styx and the Fates.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_35j" href="#Footnote_35j"><span class="sp">35</span></a>
+The laws of thought, the truths of number, are the decrees of God.
+The expression is anthropomorphic, no less than the dogma of
+material creation; but it is an attempt to affirm the unity of the
+intellectual and the material world. Descartes establishes a
+philosophic monotheism,&mdash;by which the medieval polytheism of
+substantial forms, essences and eternal truths fades away before
+God, who is the ruler of the intellectual world no less than of the
+kingdom of nature and of grace.</p>
+
+<p>To attach a clear and definite meaning to the Cartesian
+doctrine of God, to show how much of it comes from the Christian
+theology and how much from the logic of idealism, how far the
+conception of a personal being as creator and preserver mingles
+with the pantheistic conception of an infinite and perfect something
+which is all in all, would be to go beyond Descartes
+and to ask for a solution of difficulties of which he was
+scarcely aware. It seems impossible to deny that the tendency
+of his principles and his arguments is mainly in the line of a
+metaphysical absolute, as the necessary completion and foundation
+of all being and knowledge. Through the truthfulness of
+that God as the author of all truth he derives a guarantee for our
+perceptions in so far as these are clear and distinct. And it is in
+guaranteeing the veracity of our clear and distinct conceptions
+that the value of his deduction of God seems in his own estimate
+to rest. All conceptions which do not possess these two attributes&mdash;of
+being vivid in themselves and discriminated from all
+others&mdash;cannot be true. But the larger part of our conceptions
+are in such a predicament. We think of things not in the abstract
+elements of the things themselves, but in connexion with, and
+in language which presupposes, other things. Our idea of body,
+e.g., involves colour and weight, and yet when we try to think
+carefully, and without assuming anything, we find that we cannot
+attach any distinct idea to these terms when applied to body.
+In truth therefore these attributes do not belong to body at all;
+and if we go on in the same way testing the received qualities of
+matter, we shall find that in the last resort we understand nothing
+by it but extension, with the secondary and derivative characters
+of divisibility and mobility.</p>
+
+<p>But it would again be useless to ask how extension as the
+characteristic attribute of matter is related to mind which thinks,
+and how God is to be regarded in reference to extension. The
+force of the universe is swept up and gathered in God, who communicates
+motion to the parts of extension, and sustains that
+motion from moment to moment; and in the same way the force
+of mind has really been concentrated in God. Every moment one
+expects to find Descartes saying with Hobbes that man&rsquo;s thought
+has created God, or with Spinoza and Malebranche that it is God
+who really thinks in the apparent thought of man. After all, the
+metaphysical theology of Descartes, however essential in his own
+eyes, serves chiefly as the ground for constructing his theory of
+man and of the universe. His fundamental hypothesis relegates
+to God all forces in their ultimate origin. Hence the world is
+left open for the free play of mechanics and geometry. The disturbing
+conditions of will, life and organic forces are eliminated
+from the problem; he starts with the clear and distinct idea of
+extension, figured and moved, and thence by mathematical laws
+he gives a hypothetical explanation of all things. Such explanation
+of physical phenomena is the main problem of Descartes,
+and it goes on encroaching upon territories once supposed proper
+to the mind. Descartes began with the certainty that we are
+thinking beings; that region remains untouched; but up to its
+very borders the mechanical explanation of nature reigns
+unchecked.</p>
+
+<p>The physical theory, in its earlier form in <i>The World</i>, and later
+in the <i>Principles of Philosophy</i> (which the present account
+follows), rests upon the metaphysical conclusions of the
+<span class="sidenote">Physical theory.</span>
+<i>Meditations</i>. It proposes to set forth the genesis of the
+existing universe from principles which can be plainly
+understood, and according to the acknowledged laws of the transmission
+of movement. The idea of force is one of those obscure
+conceptions which originate in an obscure region, in the sense
+of muscular power. The true physical conception is motion, the
+ultimate ground of which is to be sought in God&rsquo;s infinite power.
+Accordingly the quantity of movement in the universe, like its
+mover, can neither increase nor diminish. The only circumstance
+which physics has to consider is the transference of movement
+from one particle to another, and the change of its direction.
+Man himself cannot increase the sum of motion; he can only alter
+its direction. The whole conception of force may disappear from
+a theory of the universe; and we can adopt a geometrical
+definition of motion as the shifting of one body from the neighbourhood
+of those bodies which immediately touch it, and which
+are assumed to be at rest, to the neighbourhood of other bodies.
+Motion, in short, is strictly locomotion, and nothing else.</p>
+
+<p>Descartes has laid down three laws of nature, and seven
+secondary laws regarding impact. The latter are to a large
+extent incorrect. The first law affirms that every body, so far
+as it is altogether unaffected by extraneous causes, always
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>86</span>
+perseveres in the same state of motion or of rest; and the second
+law that simple or elementary motion is always in a straight line.<a name="FnAnchor_36j" href="#Footnote_36j"><span class="sp">36</span></a>
+These doctrines of inertia, and of the composite character of
+curvilinear motion, were scarcely apprehended even by Kepler
+or Galileo; but they follow naturally from the geometrical
+analysis of Descartes.</p>
+
+<p>Extended body has no limits to its extent, though the power
+of God has divided it in lines discriminating its parts in endless
+ways. The infinite universe is infinitely full of matter. Empty
+space, as distinguished from material extension, is a fictitious
+abstraction. There is no such thing really as a vacuum, any
+more than there are atoms or ultimate indivisible particles.
+In both these doctrines of <i>à priori</i> science Descartes has not
+been subverted, but, if anything, corroborated by the results of
+experimental physics; for the so-called atoms of chemical theory
+already presuppose, from the Cartesian point of view, certain
+aggregations of the primitive particles of matter. Descartes
+regards matter as uniform in character throughout the universe;
+he anticipates, as it were, from his own transcendental ground,
+the revelations of spectrum analysis as applied to the sun and
+stars. We have then to think of a full universe of matter
+(and matter = extension) divided and figured with endless variety,
+and set (and kept) in motion by God; and any sort of division,
+figure and motion will serve the purposes of our supposition as
+well as another. &ldquo;Scarcely any supposition,&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_37j" href="#Footnote_37j"><span class="sp">37</span></a> he says, &ldquo;can be
+made from which the same result, though possibly with greater
+difficulty, might not be deduced by the same laws of nature; for
+since, in virtue of these laws, matter successively assumes all the
+forms of which it is capable, if we consider these forms in order,
+we shall at one point or other reach the existing form of the world,
+so that no error need here be feared from a false supposition.&rdquo;
+As the movement of one particle in a closely-packed universe is
+only possible if all other parts move simultaneously, so that
+the last in the series steps into the place of the first; and as
+the figure and division of the particles varies in each point in the
+universe, there will inevitably at the same instant result throughout
+the universe an innumerable host of more or less circular
+movements, and of vortices or whirlpools of material particles
+varying in size and velocity. Taking for convenience a limited
+<span class="sidenote">Theory of vortices.</span>
+portion of the universe, we observe that in consequence
+of the circular movement, the particles of matter have
+their corners pared off by rubbing against each other;
+and two species of matter thus arise,&mdash;one consisting of small
+globules which continue their circular motion with a (centrifugal)
+tendency to fly off from the centre as they swing round the axis
+of rotation, while the other, consisting of the fine dust&mdash;the
+filings and parings of the original particles&mdash;gradually becoming
+finer and finer, and losing its velocity, tends (centripetally) to
+accumulate in the centre of the vortex, which has been gradually
+left free by the receding particles of globular matter. This finer
+matter which collects in the centre of each vortex is the <i>first</i>
+matter of Descartes&mdash;it constitutes the sun or star. The spherical
+particles are the <i>second</i> matter of Descartes, and their tendency
+to propel one another from the centre in straight lines towards the
+circumference of each vortex is what gives rise to the phenomenon
+of light radiating from the central star. This second matter is
+atmosphere or firmament, which envelops and revolves around
+the central accumulation of first matter.</p>
+
+<p>A third form of matter is produced from the original particles.
+As the small filings produced by friction seek to pass through
+the interstices between the rapidly revolving spherical particles
+in the vortex, they are detained and become twisted and channelled
+in their passage, and when they reach the edge of the inner
+ocean of solar dust they settle upon it as the froth and foam
+produced by the agitation of water gathers upon its surface.
+These form what we term spots in the sun. In some cases they
+come and go, or dissolve into an aether round the sun; but in
+other cases they gradually increase until they form a dense crust
+round the central nucleus. In course of time the star, with
+its expansive force diminished, suffers encroachments from the
+neighbouring vortices, and at length they catch it up. If the
+velocity of the decaying star be greater than that of any part of
+the vortex which has swept it up, it will ere long pass out of the
+range of that vortex, and continue its movement from one to
+another. Such a star is a comet. But in other cases the encrusted
+star settles in that portion of the revolving vortex which
+has a velocity equivalent to its own, and so continues to revolve
+in the vortex, wrapped in its own firmament. Such a reduced and
+impoverished star is a planet; and the several planets of our
+solar system are the several vortices which from time to time have
+been swept up by the central sun-vortex. The same considerations
+serve to explain the moon and other satellites. They too
+were once vortices, swallowed up by some other, which at a later
+day fell a victim to the sweep of our sun.</p>
+
+<p>Such in mere outline is the celebrated theory of <i>vortices</i>, which
+for about twenty years after its promulgation reigned supreme
+in science, and for much longer time opposed a tenacious resistance
+to rival doctrines. It is one of the grandest hypotheses
+which ever have been formed to account by mechanical processes
+for the movements of the universe. While chemistry rests in the
+acceptance of ultimate heterogeneous elements, the vortex-theory
+assumed uniform matter through the universe, and reduced
+cosmical physics to the same principles as regulate terrestrial
+phenomena. It ended the old Aristotelian distinction between
+the sphere beneath the moon and the starry spaces beyond.
+It banished the spirits and genii, to which even Kepler had
+assigned the guardianship of the planetary movements; and,
+if it supposes the globular particles of the envelope to be the
+active force in carrying the earth round the sun, we may
+remember that Newton himself assumed an aether for somewhat
+similar purposes. The great argument on which the Cartesians
+founded their opposition to the Newtonian doctrine was that
+attraction was an occult quality, not wholly intelligible by the
+aid of mere mechanics. The Newtonian theory is an analysis of
+the elementary movements which in their combination determine
+the planetary orbits, and gives the formula of the proportions
+according to which they act. But the Cartesian theory, like
+the later speculations of Kant and Laplace, proposes to give a
+hypothetical explanation of the circumstances and motions which
+in the normal course of things led to the state of things required
+by the law of attraction. In the judgment of D&rsquo;Alembert the
+<span class="correction" title="originally written Cartesan">Cartesian</span> theory was the best that the observations of the age
+admitted; and &ldquo;its explanation of gravity was one of the most
+ingenious hypotheses which philosophy ever imagined.&rdquo; That
+the explanation fails in detail is undoubted: it does not account
+for the ellipticity of the planets; it would place the sun, not in
+one focus, but in the centre of the ellipse; and it would make
+gravity directed towards the centre only under the equator.
+But these defects need not blind us to the fact that this hypothesis
+made the mathematical progress of Hooke, Borelli and Newton
+much more easy and certain. Descartes professedly assumed a
+simplicity in the phenomena which they did not present. But
+such a hypothetical simplicity is the necessary step for solving
+the more complex problems of nature. The danger lies not in
+forming such hypotheses, but in regarding them as final, or as
+more than an attempt to throw light upon our observation of
+the phenomena. In doing what he did, Descartes actually
+exemplified that reduction of the processes of nature to mere
+transposition of the particles of matter, which in different ways
+was a leading idea in the minds of Bacon, Hobbes and Gassendi.
+The defects of Descartes lie rather in his apparently imperfect
+apprehension of the principle of movements uniformly accelerated
+which his contemporary Galileo had illustrated and insisted
+upon, and in the indistinctness which attaches to his views of the
+transmission of motion in cases of impact. It should be added
+that the modern theory of vortex-atoms (Lord Kelvin&rsquo;s) to
+explain the constitution of matter has but slight analogy with
+Cartesian doctrine, and finds a <span class="correction" title="corrected from parellel">parallel</span>, if anywhere, in a
+modification of that doctrine by Malebranche.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the last two parts of the <i>Principles of Philosophy</i>, the
+physical writings of Descartes include the <i>Dioptrics</i> and <i>Meteors</i>,
+as well as passages in the letters. His optical investigations are
+perhaps the subject in which he most contributed to the progress
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>87</span>
+of science; and the lucidity of exposition which marks his
+<i>Dioptrics</i> stands conspicuous even amid the generally luminous
+<span class="sidenote">Optical theories.</span>
+style of his works. Its object is a practical one, to
+determine by scientific considerations the shape of lens
+best adapted to improve the capabilities of the telescope,
+which had been invented not long before. The conclusions
+at which he arrives have not been so useful as he imagined, in
+consequence of the mechanical difficulties. But the investigation
+by which he reaches them has the merit of first prominently
+publishing and establishing the law of the refraction of light.
+Attempts have been made, principally founded on some remarks
+of Huygens, to show that Descartes had learned the principles
+of refraction from the manuscript of a treatise by Willebrord
+Snell, but the facts are uncertain; and, so far as Descartes founds
+his optics on any one, it is probably on the researches of Kepler.
+In any case the discovery is to some extent his own, for his proof
+of the law is founded upon the theory that light is the propagation
+of the aether in straight lines from the sun or luminous body to
+the eye (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Light</a></span>). Thus he approximates to the wave theory
+of light, though he supposed that the transmission of light was
+instantaneous. The chief of his other contributions to optics was
+the explanation of the rainbow&mdash;an explanation far from complete,
+since the unequal refrangibility of the rays of light was yet
+undiscovered&mdash;but a decided advance upon his predecessors,
+notably on the <i>De radiis visus et lucis</i> (1611) of Marc-Antonio
+de Dominis, archbishop of Spalato.</p>
+
+<p>If Descartes had contented himself with thus explaining the
+phenomena of gravity, heat, magnetism, light and similar forces
+by means of the molecular movements of his vortices, even such a
+theory would have excited admiration. But he did not stop short
+in the region of what is usually termed physics. Chemistry and
+biology are alike swallowed up in the one science of physics, and
+reduced to a problem of mechanism. This theory, he believed,
+would afford an explanation of every phenomenon whatever, and
+in nearly every department of knowledge he has given specimens
+of its power. But the most remarkable and daring application
+of the theory was to account for the phenomena of organic life,
+especially in animals and man. &ldquo;If we possessed a thorough
+knowledge,&rdquo; he says,<a name="FnAnchor_38j" href="#Footnote_38j"><span class="sp">38</span></a> &ldquo;of all the parts of the seed of any species
+of animal (e.g. man), we could from that alone, by reasons entirely
+mathematical and certain, deduce the whole figure and conformation
+of each of its members, and, conversely, if we knew several
+peculiarities of this conformation, we could from these deduce
+the nature of its seed.&rdquo; The organism in this way is regarded as
+a machine, constructed from the particles of the seed, which in
+virtue of the laws of motion have arranged themselves (always
+under the governing power of God) in the particular animal shape
+in which we see them. The doctrine of the circulation of the
+blood, which Descartes adopted from Harvey, supplied additional
+arguments in favour of his mechanical theory, and he probably
+did much to popularize the discovery. A fire without light,
+compared to the heat which gathers in a haystack when the hay
+has been stored before it was properly dry&mdash;heat, in short, as an
+agitation of the particles&mdash;is the motive cause of the contraction
+and dilatations of the heart. Those finer particles of the blood
+which become extremely rarefied during this process pass off
+in two directions&mdash;one portion, and the least important in the
+theory, to the organs of generation, the other portion to the
+cavities of the brain. There not merely do they serve to nourish
+the organ, they also give rise to a fine ethereal flame or wind
+through the action of the brain upon them, and thus form the
+so-called &ldquo;animal&rdquo; spirits. From the brain these spirits are
+conveyed through the body by means of the nerves, regarded by
+Descartes as tubular vessels, resembling the pipes conveying the
+water of a spring to act upon the mechanical appliances in an
+artificial fountain. The nerves conduct the animal spirits to act
+upon the muscles, and in their turn convey the impressions of
+the organs to the brain.</p>
+
+<p>Man and the animals as thus described are compared to
+automata, and termed machines. The vegetative and sensitive
+souls which the Aristotelians had introduced to break the leap
+between inanimate matter and man are ruthlessly swept away;
+only one soul, the rational, remains, and that is restricted to man.
+<span class="sidenote">Automatism.</span>
+One hypothesis supplants the various principles of
+life; the rule of absolute mechanism is as complete in
+the animal as in the cosmos. Reason and thought,
+the essential quality of the soul, do not belong to the brutes;
+there is an impassable gulf fixed between man and the lower
+animals. The only sure sign of reason is the power of language&mdash;i.e.
+of giving expression to general ideas; and language in that
+sense is not found save in man. The cries of animals are but
+the working of the curiously-contrived machine, in which, when
+one portion is touched in a certain way, the wheels and springs
+concealed in the interior perform their work, and, it may be, a
+note supposed to express joy or pain is evolved; but there is
+no consciousness or feeling. &ldquo;The animals act naturally and by
+springs, like a watch.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_39j" href="#Footnote_39j"><span class="sp">39</span></a> &ldquo;The greatest of all the prejudices we
+have retained from our infancy is that of believing that the beasts
+think.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_40j" href="#Footnote_40j"><span class="sp">40</span></a> If the beasts can properly be said to see at all, &ldquo;they
+see as we do when our mind is distracted and keenly applied elsewhere;
+the images of outward objects paint themselves on the
+retina, and possibly even the impressions made in the optic nerves
+determine our limbs to different movements, but we feel nothing
+of it all, and move as if we were automata.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_41j" href="#Footnote_41j"><span class="sp">41</span></a> The sentience of
+the animal to the lash of his tyrant is not other than the sensitivity
+of the plant to the influences of light and heat. It is not
+much comfort to learn further from Descartes that &ldquo;he denies
+life to no animal, but makes it consist in the mere heat of the
+heart. Nor does he deny them feeling in so far as it depends on
+the bodily organs.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_42j" href="#Footnote_42j"><span class="sp">42</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Descartes, with an unusual fondness for the letter of Scripture,
+quotes oftener than once in support of this monstrous doctrine.
+the dictum, &ldquo;the blood is the life&rdquo;; and he remarks, with some
+sarcasm possibly, that it is a comfortable theory for the eaters of
+animal flesh. And the doctrine found acceptance among some
+whom it enabled to get rid of the difficulties raised by Montaigne
+and those who allowed more difference between animal and animal
+than between the higher animals and man. It also encouraged
+vivisection&mdash;a practice common with Descartes himself.<a name="FnAnchor_43j" href="#Footnote_43j"><span class="sp">43</span></a> The
+recluses of Port Royal seized it eagerly, discussed automatism,
+dissected living animals in order to show to a morbid curiosity
+the circulation of the blood, were careless of the cries of tortured
+dogs, and finally embalmed the doctrine in a syllogism of their
+logic,&mdash;No matter thinks; every soul of beast is matter: therefore
+no soul of beast thinks.</p>
+
+<p>But whilst all the organic processes in man go on mechanically,
+and though by reflex action he may repel attack unconsciously,
+still the first affirmation of the system was that man was
+essentially a thinking being; and, while we retain this original
+dictum, it must not be supposed that the mind is a mere spectator,
+or like the boatman in the boat. Of course a unity of nature
+<span class="sidenote">Relation of mind and body.</span>
+is impossible between mind and body so described.
+And yet there is a unity of composition, a unity so
+close that the compound is &ldquo;really one and in a sense
+indivisible.&rdquo; You cannot in the actual man cut soul
+and body asunder; they interpenetrate in every member. But
+there is one point in the human frame&mdash;a point midway in the
+brain, single and free, which may in a special sense be called the
+seat of the mind. This is the so-called <span class="correction" title="originally printed as 'c narion'">conarion</span>, or pineal gland,
+where in a minimized point the mind on one hand and the vital
+spirits on the other meet and communicate. In that gland the
+mystery of creation is concentrated; thought meets extension
+and directs it; extension moves towards thought and is perceived.
+Two clear and distinct ideas, it seems, produce an
+absolute mystery. Mind, driven from the field of extension,
+erects its last fortress in the pineal gland. In such a state of
+despair and destitution there is no hope for spiritualism, save
+in God; and Clauberg, Geulincx and Malebranche all take
+refuge under the shadow of his wings to escape the tyranny of
+extended matter.</p>
+
+<p>In the psychology of Descartes there are two fundamental
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"></a>88</span>
+modes of thought,&mdash;perception and volition. &ldquo;It seems to me,&rdquo;
+he says, &ldquo;that in receiving such and such an idea the mind is
+passive, and that it is active only in volition; that its
+<span class="sidenote">Psychology.</span>
+ideas are put in it partly by the objects which touch the
+senses, partly by the impressions in the brain, and
+partly also by the dispositions which have preceded in the mind
+itself and by the movements of its will.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_44j" href="#Footnote_44j"><span class="sp">44</span></a> The will, therefore,
+as being more originative, has more to do with true or false
+judgments than the understanding. Unfortunately, Descartes is
+too lordly a philosopher to explain distinctly what either understanding
+or will may mean. But we gather that in two directions
+our reason is bound up with bodily conditions, which make or mar
+it, according as the will, or central energy of thought, is true to
+itself or not. In the range of perception, intellect is subjected to
+the material conditions of sense, memory and imagination; and
+in infancy, when the will has allowed itself to assent precipitately
+to the conjunctions presented to it by these material processes,
+thought has become filled with obscure ideas. In the moral
+sphere the passions or emotions (which Descartes reduces to the
+six primitive forms of admiration, love, hatred, desire, joy and
+sadness) are the perceptions or sentiments of the mind, caused and
+maintained by some movement of the vital spirits, but specially
+referring to the mind only. The presentation of some object of
+dread, for example, to the eye has or may have a double effect.
+On one hand the animal spirits &ldquo;reflected&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_45j" href="#Footnote_45j"><span class="sp">45</span></a> from the image
+formed on the pineal gland proceed through the nervous tubes to
+make the muscles turn the back and lift the feet, so as to escape
+the cause of the terror. Such is the reflex and mechanical
+movement independent of the mind. But, on the other hand,
+the vital spirits cause a movement in the gland by which the mind
+perceives the affection of the organs, learns that something is to
+be loved or hated, admired or shunned. Such perceptions dispose
+the mind to pursue what nature dictates as useful. But the
+estimate of goods and evils which they give is indistinct and
+unsatisfactory. The office of reason is to give a true and distinct
+appreciation of the values of goods and evils; or firm and
+determinate judgments touching the knowledge of good and
+evil are our proper arms against the influence of the passions.<a name="FnAnchor_46j" href="#Footnote_46j"><span class="sp">46</span></a>
+We are free, therefore, through knowledge: <i>ex magna luce in
+intellectu sequitur magna propensio in voluntate</i>, and <i>omnis peccans
+est ignorans</i>. &ldquo;If we clearly see that what we are doing is wrong,
+it would be impossible for us to sin, so long as we saw it in that
+light.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_47j" href="#Footnote_47j"><span class="sp">47</span></a> Thus the highest liberty, as distinguished from mere
+indifference, proceeds from clear and distinct knowledge, and
+such knowledge can only be attained by firmness and resolution,
+i.e. by the continued exercise of the will. Thus in the perfection
+of man, as in the nature of God, will and intellect must be united.
+For thought, will is as necessary as understanding. And innate
+ideas therefore are mere capacities or tendencies,&mdash;possibilities
+which apart from the will to think may be regarded as nothing
+at all.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cartesian School.</i>&mdash;The philosophy of Descartes fought its
+first battles and gained its first triumphs in the country of his
+adoption. In his lifetime his views had been taught in Utrecht
+and Leiden. In the universities of the Netherlands and of lower
+Germany, as yet free from the conservatism of the old-established
+seats of learning, the new system gained an easy victory over
+Aristotelianism, and, as it was adapted for lectures and examinations,
+soon became almost as scholastic as the doctrines
+it had supplanted. At Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, Franeker,
+Breda, Nimeguen, Harderwyk, Duisburg and Herborn, and at
+the Catholic university of Louvain, Cartesianism was warmly
+expounded and defended in seats of learning, of which many are
+now left desolate, and by adherents whose writings have for the
+most part long lost interest for any but the antiquary.</p>
+
+<p>The Cartesianism of Holland was a child of the universities,
+and its literature is mainly composed of commentaries upon
+the original texts, of theses discussed in the schools,
+<span class="sidenote">Holland.</span>
+and of systematic expositions of Cartesian philosophy
+for the benefit of the student. Three names stand out in this
+Cartesian professoriate,&mdash;Wittich, Clauberg and Geulincx. Christoph
+Wittich (1625-1687), professor at Duisburg and Leiden,
+is a representative of the moderate followers who professed
+to reconcile the doctrines of their school with the faith of
+Christendom and to refute the theology of Spinoza. <a href="#artlinks">Johann
+Clauberg</a> (q.v.) commented clause by clause upon the <i>Meditations</i>
+of Descartes; but he specially claims notice for his work <i>De
+corporis et animae in homine conjunctione</i>, where he maintains
+that the bodily movements are merely procatarctic causes (i.e.
+antecedents, but not strictly causes) of the mental action, and
+sacrifices the independence of man to the omnipotence of God.
+The same tendency is still more pronounced in <a href="#artlinks">Arnold Geulincx</a>
+(q.v.). With him the reciprocal action of mind and body is
+altogether denied; they resemble two clocks, so made by the
+artificer as to strike the same hour together. The mind can act
+only upon itself; beyond that limit, the power of God must
+intervene to make any seeming interaction possible between body
+and soul. Such are the half-hearted attempts at consistency in
+Cartesian thought, which eventually culminate in the pantheism
+of Spinoza (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cartesianism</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Descartes occasionally had not scrupled to interpret the
+Scriptures according to his own tenets, while still maintaining,
+when their letter contradicted him, that the Bible was not meant
+to teach the sciences. Similar tendencies are found amongst his
+followers. Whilst Protestant opponents put him in the list of
+atheists like Vanini, and the Catholics held him as dangerous as
+Luther or Calvin, there were zealous adherents who ventured to
+prove the theory of vortices in harmony with the book of Genesis.
+It was this rationalistic treatment of the sacred writings which
+helped to confound the Cartesians with the allegorical school of
+John Cocceius, as their liberal doctrines in theology justified the
+vulgar identification of them with the heresies of Socinian and
+Arminian. The chief names in this advanced theology connected
+with Cartesian doctrines are Ludwig Meyer, the friend and editor
+of Spinoza, author of a work termed <i>Philosophia scripturae
+interpres</i> (1666); Balthasar Bekker, whose <i>World Bewitched</i>
+helped to discredit the superstitious fancies about the devil; and
+Spinoza, whose <i>Tractatus theologico-politicus</i> is in some respects
+the classical type of rational criticism up to the present day.
+Against this work and the <i>Ethics</i> of Spinoza the orthodox
+Cartesians (who were in the majority), no less than sceptical
+hangers-on like Bayle, raised an all but universal howl of reprobation,
+scarcely broken for about a century.</p>
+
+<p>In France Cartesianism won society and literature before
+it penetrated into the universities. Clerselier (the friend of
+Descartes and his literary executor), his son-in-law
+<span class="sidenote">France.</span>
+Rohault (who achieved that relationship through his
+Cartesianism), and others, opened their houses for readings to
+which the intellectual world of Paris&mdash;its learned professors
+not more than the courtiers and the fair sex,&mdash;flocked to hear the
+new doctrines explained, and possibly discuss their value. Grand
+seigneurs, like the prince of Condé, the duc de Nevers and the
+marquis de Vardes, were glad to vary the monotony of their
+feudal castles by listening to the eloquent rehearsals of Malebranche
+or Regis. And the salons of Mme de Sévigné, of her
+daughter Mme de Grignan, and of the duchesse de Maine for
+a while gave the questions of philosophy a place among the topics
+of polite society, and furnished to Molière the occasion of his
+<i>Femmes savantes</i>. The Château of the duc de Luynes, the translator
+of the <i>Meditations</i>, was the home of a Cartesian club, that
+discussed the questions of automatism and of the composition
+of the sun from filings and parings, and rivalled Port Royal in
+its vivisections. The cardinal de Retz in his leisurely age at
+Commercy found amusement in presiding at disputations between
+the more moderate Cartesians and Don Robert Desgabets, who
+interpreted Descartes in an original way of his own. Though
+rejected by the Jesuits, who found peripatetic formulae a faithful
+weapon against the enemies of the church, Cartesianism was
+warmly adopted by the Oratory, which saw in Descartes something
+of St Augustine, by Port Royal, which discovered a
+connexion between the new system and Jansenism, and by some
+amongst the Benedictines and the order of Ste Geneviève.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="page89"></a>89</p>
+
+<p>The popularity which Cartesianism thus gained in the social
+and literary circles of the capital was largely increased by the
+labours of Pierre-Sylvain Regis (1632-1707). On his visit to
+Toulouse in 1665, with a mission from the Cartesian chiefs, his
+lectures excited boundless interest; ladies threw themselves
+with zeal and ability into the study of philosophy; and Regis
+himself was made the guest of the civic corporation. In 1671
+scarcely less enthusiasm was roused in Montpellier; and in 1680
+he opened a course of lectures at Paris, with such acceptance
+that hearers had to take their seats in advance. Regis, by
+removing the paradoxes and adjusting the metaphysics to the
+popular powers of apprehension, made Cartesianism popular,
+and reduced it to a regular system.</p>
+
+<p>But a check was at hand. Descartes, in his correspondence
+with the Jesuits, had shown an almost cringing eagerness to have
+their powerful organization on his side. Especially he had
+written to Père Mesland, one of the order, to show how the
+Catholic doctrine of the eucharist might be made compatible with
+his theories of matter. But his undue haste to arrange matters
+with the church only served to compromise him more deeply.
+Unwise admirers and malicious opponents exaggerated the
+theological bearings of his system in this detail; and the efforts
+of the Jesuits succeeded in getting the works of Descartes, in
+November 1663, placed upon the index of prohibited books,&mdash;<i>donec
+corrigantur</i>. Thereupon the power of church and state
+enforced by positive enactments the passive resistance of old
+institutions to the novel theories. In 1667, the oration at the
+interment was forbidden by royal order. In 1669, when the chair
+of philosophy at the Collège Royal fell vacant, one of the four
+selected candidates had to sustain a thesis against &ldquo;the pretended
+new philosophy of Descartes.&rdquo; In 1671 the archbishop of Paris,
+by the king&rsquo;s order, summoned the heads of the university to
+his presence, and enjoined them to take stricter measures against
+philosophical novelties dangerous to the faith. In 1673 a decree
+of the parlement against Cartesian and other unlicensed theories
+was on the point of being issued, and was only checked in time by
+the appearance of a burlesque mandamus against the intruder
+Reason, composed by Boileau and some of his brother-poets.
+Yet in 1675 the university of Angers was empowered to repress
+all Cartesian teaching within its domain, and actually appointed
+a commission charged to look for such heresies in the theses and
+the students&rsquo; note-books of the college of Anjou belonging to
+the Oratory. In 1677 the university of Caen adopted not less
+stringent measures against Cartesianism. And so great was the
+influence of the Jesuits, that the congregation of St Maur, the
+canons of Ste Geneviève, and the Oratory laid their official ban
+on the obnoxious doctrines. From the real or fancied <i>rapprochements</i>
+between Cartesianism and Jansenism, it became for a
+while impolitic, if not dangerous, to avow too loudly a preference
+for Cartesian theories. Regis was constrained to hold back for
+ten years his <i>System of Philosophy</i>; and when it did appear, in
+1690, the name of Descartes was absent from the title-page.
+There were other obstacles besides the mild persecutions of the
+church. Pascal and other members of Port Royal openly
+expressed their doubts about the place allowed to God in the
+system; the adherents of Gassendi met it by resuscitating
+atoms; and the Aristotelians maintained their substantial forms
+as of old; the Jesuits argued against the arguments for the being
+of God, and against the theory of innate ideas; whilst Pierre
+Daniel Huet (1630-1721), bishop of Avranches, once a Cartesian
+himself, made a vigorous onslaught on the contempt in which his
+former comrades held literature and history, and enlarged on the
+vanity of all human aspirations after rational truth.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest and most original of the French Cartesians was
+<a href="#artlinks">Malebranche</a> (q.v.). His <i>Recherche de la vérité</i>, in 1674, was the
+baptism of the system into a theistic religion which borrowed
+its imagery from Augustine; it brought into prominence the
+metaphysical base which Louis Delaforge, Jacques Rohault and
+Regis had neither cared for nor understood. But this doctrine
+was a criticism and a divergence, no less than a consequence,
+from the principles in Descartes; and it brought upon
+Malebranche the opposition, not merely of the Cartesian
+physicists, but also of Arnauld, Fénelon and Bossuet, who found,
+or hoped to find, in the <i>Meditations</i>, as properly understood,
+an ally for theology. Popular enthusiasm, however, was with
+Malebranche, as twenty years before it had been with Descartes;
+he was the fashion of the day; and his disciples rapidly increased
+both in France and abroad.</p>
+
+<p>In 1705 Cartesianism was still subject to prohibitions from the
+authorities; but in a project of new statutes, drawn up for the
+faculty of arts at Paris in 1720, the <i>Method</i> and <i>Meditations</i> of
+Descartes were placed beside the <i>Organon</i> and the <i>Metaphysics</i>
+of Aristotle as text-books for philosophical study. And before
+1725, readings, both public and private, were given from
+Cartesian texts in some of the Parisian colleges. But when
+this happened, Cartesianism was no longer either interesting
+or dangerous; its theories, taught as ascertained and verified
+truths, were as worthless as the systematic verbiage which
+preceded them. Already antiquated, it could not resist the wit
+and raillery with which Voltaire, in his <i>Lettres sur les Anglais</i>
+(1728), brought against it the principles and results of Locke and
+Newton. The old Cartesians, Jean Jacques Dortous de Mairan
+(1678-1771) and especially Fontenelle, with his <i>Théorie des
+tourbillons</i> (1752), struggled in vain to refute Newton by styling
+attraction an occult quality. Fortunately the Cartesian method
+had already done its service, even where the theories were
+rejected. The Port Royalists, Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) and
+Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694), had applied it to grammar and
+logic; Jean Domat or Daumat (1625-1696) and Henri François
+Daugesseau (1668-1751) to jurisprudence; Fontenelle, Charles
+Perrault (1628-1703) and Jean Terrasson (1670-1750) to literary
+criticism, and a worthier estimate of modern literature. Though
+it never ceased to influence individual thinkers, it had handed on
+to Condillac its popularity with the masses. A Latin abridgment
+of philosophy, dated 1784, tells us that the innate ideas of
+Descartes are founded on no arguments, and are now universally
+abandoned. The ghost of innate ideas seems to be all that it
+had left.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany a few Cartesian lecturers taught at Leipzig and
+Halle, but the system took no root, any more than in Switzerland,
+where it had a brief reign at Geneva after 1669. In
+<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span>
+Italy the effects were more permanent. What is
+termed the iatro-mechanical school of medicine, with G. A.
+Borelli (1608-1679) as its most notable name, entered in a way
+on the mechanical study of anatomy suggested by Descartes, but
+was probably much more dependent upon the positive researches
+of Galileo. At Naples there grew up a Cartesian school, of which
+the best known members are Michel Angelo Fardella (1650-1708)
+and Cardinal Gerdil (1718-1802), both of whom, however,
+attached themselves to the characteristic views of Malebranche.</p>
+
+<p>In England Cartesianism took but slight hold. Henry More,
+who had given it a modified sympathy in the lifetime of the
+author, became its opponent in later years; and
+<span class="sidenote">England.</span>
+Cudworth differed from it in most essential points.
+Antony Legrand, from Douai, attempted to introduce it into
+Oxford, but failed. He is the author of several works, amongst
+others a system of Cartesian philosophy, where a chapter on
+&ldquo;Angels&rdquo; revives the methods of the schoolmen. His chief
+opponent was Samuel Parker (1640-1688), bishop of Oxford, who,
+in his attack on the irreligious novelties of the Cartesian, treats
+Descartes as a fellow-criminal in infidelity with Hobbes and
+Gassendi. Rohault&rsquo;s version of the Cartesian physics was
+translated into English; and Malebranche found an ardent
+follower in John Norris (1667-1711). Of Cartesianism towards
+the close of the 17th century the only remnants were an overgrown
+theory of vortices, which received its death-blow from
+Newton, and a dubious phraseology anent innate ideas, which
+found a witty executioner in Locke.</p>
+
+<p>For an account of the metaphysical doctrines of Descartes,
+in their connexions with Malebranche and Spinoza, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cartesianism</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;I. <i>Editions and Translations.</i>&mdash;The collected
+works of Descartes were published in Latin in 8 vols. at Amsterdam
+(1670-1683), in 7 vols. at Frankfort (1697) and in 9 vols. by Elzevir
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90"></a>90</span>
+(1713); in French in 13 vols. (Paris, 1724-1729), republished by
+Victor Cousin (Paris, 1824-1826) in 11 vols., and again under the
+authority of the minister of public instruction by C. Adam and
+P. Tannery (1897 foll.). These include his so-called posthumous works.
+<i>The Rules for the Direction of the Mind</i>, <i>The Search for Truth by the
+Light of Nature</i>, and other unimportant fragments, published (in
+Latin) in 1701. In 1859-1860 Foucher de Careil published in two
+parts some unedited writings of Descartes from copies taken by
+Leibnitz from the original papers. Six editions of the <i>Opera philosophica</i>
+appeared at Amsterdam between 1650 and 1678; a two-volume
+edition at Leipzig in 1843; there are also French editions,
+<i>&OElig;uvres philosophiques</i>, by A. Garnier, 3 vols. (1834-1835), and L.
+Aimé-Martin (1838) and <i>&OElig;uvres morales et philosophiques</i> by Aimé-Martin
+with an introduction on life and works by Amedée Prévost
+(Paris, 1855); <i>&OElig;uvres choisies</i> (1850) by Jules Simon. A complete
+French edition of the collected works was begun in the Romance
+Library (1907 foll.). German translations by J. H. von Kirchmann
+under the title <i>Philosophische Werke</i> (with biography, &amp;c., Berlin,
+1868; 2nd <span class="correction" title="period added">ed.,</span> 1882-1891), by Kuno Fischer, <i>Die Hauptschriften
+zur Grundlegung seiner Philosophie</i> (1863), with introduction by
+Ludwig Fischer (1892). There are also numerous editions and translations
+of separate works, especially the <i>Method</i>, in French, German,
+Italian, Spanish and Hungarian. There are English translations by
+J. Veitch, <i>Method, Meditations and Selections from the Principles</i>
+(1850-1853; 11th ed., 1897; New York, 1899); by H. A. P. Torrey
+(New York, 1892).</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>Biographical.</i>&mdash;A. Baillet, <i>La Vie de M. Des Cartes</i> (Paris, 1691;
+Eng. trans., 1692), exhaustive but uncritical; notices in the editions
+of Garnier and Aimé-Martin; A. Hoffmann, <i>René Descartes</i> (1905);
+Elizabeth S. Haldane, <i>Descartes, his Life and Times</i> (1905), containing
+full bibliography; A. Barbier, <i>René Descartes, sa famille, son lieu
+de naissance</i>, &amp;c. (1901); Richard Lowndes, <i>René Descartes, his
+Life and Meditations</i> (London, 1878); J. P. Mahaffy, <i>Descartes</i> (1902),
+with an appendix on Descartes&rsquo;s mathematical work by Frederick
+Purser; Victor de Swarte, <i>Descartes directeur spirituel</i> (Paris, 1904),
+correspondence with the Princess Palatine; C. J. Jeannel, <i>Descartes
+et la princesse palatine</i> (Paris, 1869); <i>Lettres de M. Descartes</i>, ed.
+Claude Clerselier (1657). A useful sketch of recent biographies is to
+be found in <i>The Edinburgh Review</i> (July 1906).</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>Philosophy.</i>&mdash;Beside the histories of philosophy, the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cartesianism</a></span>, and the above works, consult J. B. Bordas-Demoulini
+<i>Le Cartésianisme</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1874); J. P. Damiron, <i>Histoire de
+la philosophie du XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1846); C. B. Renouvier, <i>Manuel
+de philosophie moderne</i> (Paris, 1842); V. Cousin, <i>Fragments philosophiques</i>,
+vol. ii. (3rd ed., Paris, 1838), <i>Fragments de philosophie
+cartésienne</i> (Paris, 1845), and in the <i>Journal des savants</i> (1860-1861);
+F. Bouillier, <i>Hist. de la philosophie cartésienne</i> (Paris, 1854), 2 vols.,
+and <i>Hist. et critique de la révolution cartésienne</i> (Paris, 1842); J. Millet,
+<i>Descartes, sa vie, ses travaux, ses découvertes avant 1637</i> (Paris,
+1867), and <i>Hist. de Descartes depuis 1637</i> (Paris, 1870); L. Liard,
+<i>Descartes</i> (Paris, 1882); A. Fouillée, <i>Descartes</i> (Paris, 1893); <i>Revue
+de métaphysique et de morale</i> (July, 1896, Descartes number); Norman
+Smith, <i>Studies in the Cartesian Philosophy</i> (1902); R. Keussen,
+<i>Bewusstsein und Erkenntnis bei Descartes</i> (1906); A. Kayserling,
+<i>Die Idee der Kausalität in den Lehren der Occasionalisten</i> (1896);
+J. Iverach, <i>Descartes, Spinoza and the New Philosophy</i> (1904);
+R. Joerges, <i>Die Lehre von den Empfindungen bei Descartes</i> (1901);
+Kuno Fischer, <i>Hist. of Mod. Phil. Descartes and his School</i> (Eng. trans.,
+1887); B. Christiansen, <i>Das Urteil bei Descartes</i> (1902); E. Boutroux,
+&ldquo;Descartes and Cartesianism&rdquo; in <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol.
+iv. (1906), chap. 27, with a very full bibliography, pp. 950-953;
+P. Natorp, <i>Descartes&rsquo; Erkenntnisstheorie</i> (Marburg, 1882); L. A.
+Prévost-Paradol, <i>Les Moralistes français</i> (Paris, 1865); C. Schaarschmidt,
+<i>Descartes und Spinoza</i> (Bonn, 1850); R. Adamson, <i>The
+Development of Modern Philosophy</i> (Edinburgh, 1903); J. Müller,
+<i>Der Begriff der sittlichen Unvollkommenheit bei Descartes und Spinoza</i>
+(1890); J. H. von Kirchmann, <i>R. Descartes&rsquo; Prinzipien der Philos.</i>
+(1863); G. Touchard, <i>La Morale de Descartes</i> (1898); Lucien Lévy-Bruhl,
+<i>Hist. of Mod. Philos. in France</i> (Eng. trans., 1899), pp. 1-76.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <i>Science and Mathematics.</i>&mdash;F. Cajori, <i>History of Mathematics</i>
+(London, 1894); M. Cantor, <i>Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der
+Mathematik</i> (Leipzig, 1894-1901); Sir Michael Foster, <i>Hist. of
+Physiol. during the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries</i>
+(1901); Duboux, <i>La Physique de Descartes</i> (Lausanne, 1881); G.
+H. Zeuthen, <i>Geschichte der Mathematik im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert</i>
+(1903); Chasles, <i>Aperçu historique sur l&rsquo;origine et le développement
+des méthodes en géométrie</i> (3rd ed., 1889).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W.; X.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1j" href="#FnAnchor_1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It was only published after the author&rsquo;s death; and of it, besides
+the French version, there exists an English translation &ldquo;by a Person
+of Quality.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2j" href="#FnAnchor_2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, v. 255.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3j" href="#FnAnchor_3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ib. vi. 199.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4j" href="#FnAnchor_4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, viii. 59.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5j" href="#FnAnchor_5j"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Ib. viii. 173.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6j" href="#FnAnchor_6j"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Ib. viii. 181.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7j" href="#FnAnchor_7j"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Ib. vi. 123.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8j" href="#FnAnchor_8j"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Ib. x. 375.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9j" href="#FnAnchor_9j"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Ib. ix. 6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10j" href="#FnAnchor_10j"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Ib. iii. 24.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11j" href="#FnAnchor_11j"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Ib. vi. 234.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12j" href="#FnAnchor_12j"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Ib. ix. 131.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13j" href="#FnAnchor_13j"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Ib. ix. 341.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14j" href="#FnAnchor_14j"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Ib. vi. 89.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15j" href="#FnAnchor_15j"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Ib. vi. 210.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16j" href="#FnAnchor_16j"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Ib. vi. 73.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17j" href="#FnAnchor_17j"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Ib. vi. 239.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18j" href="#FnAnchor_18j"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Ib. vi. 248.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19j" href="#FnAnchor_19j"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, vi. 276.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20j" href="#FnAnchor_20j"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Ib. ix. 250.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21j" href="#FnAnchor_21j"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>Princip.</i> L. iii. S. 45.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22j" href="#FnAnchor_22j"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, x. 26.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23j" href="#FnAnchor_23j"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, x. 3.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24j" href="#FnAnchor_24j"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Ib. x. 53.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25j" href="#FnAnchor_25j"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>Regulae</i>, <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, xi. 202.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26j" href="#FnAnchor_26j"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, xi. 219.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27j" href="#FnAnchor_27j"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Disc. de méthode</i>, part ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28j" href="#FnAnchor_28j"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Géométrie</i>, book iii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29j" href="#FnAnchor_29j"><span class="fn">29</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, xi. 224.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30j" href="#FnAnchor_30j"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Ib. xi. 212.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31j" href="#FnAnchor_31j"><span class="fn">31</span></a> <i>Disc. de méthode</i>, part. ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32j" href="#FnAnchor_32j"><span class="fn">32</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, xi. 243.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33j" href="#FnAnchor_33j"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Ib. vii. 381.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34j" href="#FnAnchor_34j"><span class="fn">34</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, vi. 132.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35j" href="#FnAnchor_35j"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Ib. vi. 109.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36j" href="#FnAnchor_36j"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Princip.</i> part ii. 37.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_37j" href="#FnAnchor_37j"><span class="fn">37</span></a> Ib. part iii. 47.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_38j" href="#FnAnchor_38j"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, iv. 494.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39j" href="#FnAnchor_39j"><span class="fn">39</span></a> Ib. ix. 426.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_40j" href="#FnAnchor_40j"><span class="fn">40</span></a> Ib. x. 204.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41j" href="#FnAnchor_41j"><span class="fn">41</span></a> Ib. vi. 339.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42j" href="#FnAnchor_42j"><span class="fn">42</span></a> Ib. x. 208.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_43j" href="#FnAnchor_43j"><span class="fn">43</span></a> Ib. iv. 452 and 454.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_44j" href="#FnAnchor_44j"><span class="fn">44</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, ix. 166.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_45j" href="#FnAnchor_45j"><span class="fn">45</span></a> <i>Passions de l&rsquo;âme</i>, 36.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_46j" href="#FnAnchor_46j"><span class="fn">46</span></a> Ib. 48.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_47j" href="#FnAnchor_47j"><span class="fn">47</span></a> <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, ix. 170.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESCHAMPS, ÉMILE</span> (1791-1871), French poet and man of
+letters, was born at Bourges on the 20th of February 1791. The
+son of a civil servant, he adopted his father&rsquo;s career, but as early
+as 1812 he distinguished himself by an ode, <i>La Paix conquise</i>,
+which won the praise of Napoleon. In 1818 he collaborated with
+Henri de Latouche in two verse comedies, <i>Selmours de Florian</i>
+and <i>Le Tour de faveur</i>. He and his brother were among the most
+enthusiastic disciples of the <i>cénacle</i> gathered round Victor Hugo,
+and in July 1823 Émile founded with his master the <i>Muse
+française</i>, which during the year of its existence was the special
+organ of the romantic party. His <i>Études françaises et étrangères</i>
+(1828) were preceded by a preface which may be regarded as
+one of the manifestos of the romanticists. The versions of
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> (1839) and of <i>Macbeth</i> (1844),
+important as they were in the history of the romantic movement,
+were never staged. He was the author of several libretti, among
+which may be mentioned the <i>Roméo et Juliette</i> of Berlioz. The
+list of his more important works is completed by his two volumes
+of stories, <i>Contes physiologiques</i> (1854) and <i>Réalités fantastiques</i>
+(1854). He died at Versailles in April 1871. His <i>&OElig;uvres
+complètes</i> were published in 1872-1874 (6 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>His brother, Antoine François Marie, known as <span class="sc">Antony
+Deschamps</span>, was born in Paris on the 12th of March 1800 and
+died at Passy on the 29th of October 1869. Like his brother,
+he was an ardent romanticist, but his production was limited by
+a nervous disorder, which has left its mark on his melancholy
+work. He translated the <i>Divina Commedia</i> in 1829, and his
+poems, <i>Dernières Paroles</i> and <i>Résignation</i>, were republished with
+his brother&rsquo;s in 1841.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE,</span> called <span class="sc">Morel</span> (1346?-1406?),
+French poet, was born at Vertus in Champagne about 1346. He
+studied at Reims, where he is said to have received some lessons
+in the art of versification from Guillaume de Machaut, who is
+stated to have been his uncle. From Reims he proceeded about
+1360 to the university of Orleans to study law and the seven
+liberal arts. He entered the king&rsquo;s service as royal messenger
+about 1367, and was sent on missions to Bohemia, Hungary and
+Moravia. In 1372 he was made <i>huissier d&rsquo;armes</i> to Charles V.
+He received many other important offices, was <i>bailli</i> of Valois,
+and afterwards of Senlis, squire to the Dauphin, and governor of
+Fismes. In 1380 his patron, Charles V., died, and in the same
+year the English burnt down his house at Vertus. In his childhood
+he had been an eye-witness of the English invasion of 1358;
+he had been present at the siege of Reims and seen the march on
+Chartres; he had witnessed the signing of the treaty of Bretigny;
+he was now himself a victim of the English fury. His violent
+hatred of the English found vent in numerous appeals to carry
+the war into England, and in the famous prophecy<a name="FnAnchor_1k" href="#Footnote_1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> that England
+would be destroyed so thoroughly that no one should be able
+to point to her ruins. His own misfortunes and the miseries of
+France embittered his temper. He complained continually of
+poverty, railed against women and lamented the woes of his
+country. His last years were spent on his <i>Miroir de mariage</i>, a
+satire of 13,000 lines against women, which contains some real
+comedy. The mother-in-law of French farce has her prototype
+in the <i>Miroir</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The historical and patriotic poems of Deschamps are of much
+greater value. He does not, like Froissart, cast a glamour over
+the miserable wars of the time but gives a faithful picture of the
+anarchy of France, and inveighs ceaselessly against the heavy
+taxes, the vices of the clergy and especially against those who
+enrich themselves at the expense of the people. The terrible
+ballad with the refrain &ldquo;<i>Sà, de l&rsquo;argent; sà, de l&rsquo;argent</i>&rdquo; is
+typical of his work. Deschamps excelled in the use of the ballade
+and the chant royal. In each of these forms he was the greatest
+master of his time. In ballade form he expressed his regret for
+the death of Du Guesclin, who seems to have been the only man
+except his patron, Charles V., for whom he ever felt any admiration.
+One of his ballades (No. 285) was sent with a copy of his
+works to Geoffrey Chaucer, whom he addresses with the words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+<p class="ind03">&ldquo;Tu es d&rsquo;amours mondains dieux en Albie</p>
+<p>Et de la Rose en la terre Angélique.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Deschamps was the author of an <i>Art poétique</i>, with the title of
+<i>L&rsquo;Art de dictier et de fere chancons, balades, virelais et rondeaulx</i>.
+Besides giving rules for the composition of the kinds of verse
+mentioned in the title he enunciates some curious theories on
+poetry. He divides music into music proper and poetry. Music
+proper he calls artificial on the ground that everyone could by
+dint of study become a musician; poetry he calls natural because
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91"></a>91</span>
+he says it is not an art that can be acquired but a gift. He lays
+immense stress on the harmony of verse, because, as was the
+fashion of his day, he practically took it for granted that all
+poetry was to be sung.</p>
+
+<p>The work of Deschamps marks an important stage in the history
+of French poetry. With him and his contemporaries the long,
+formless narrations of the <i>trouvères</i> give place to complicated and
+exacting kinds of verse. He was perhaps by nature a moralist
+and satirist rather than a poet, and the force and truth of his
+historical pictures gives him a unique place in 14th-century
+poetry. M. Raynaud fixes the date of his death in 1406, or at
+latest, 1407. Two years earlier he had been relieved of his
+charge as <i>bailli</i> of Senlis, his plain-spoken satires having made
+him many enemies at court.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>His <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> were edited (10 vols., 1878-1901) for the
+<i>Société des anciens textes français</i> by Queux de Saint-Hilaire and
+Gaston Raynaud. A supplementary volume consists of an Introduction
+by G. Raynaud. See also Dr E. Hoeppner, <i>Eustache Deschamps</i>
+(Strassburg, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1k" href="#FnAnchor_1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;<i>De la prophécie Merlin sur la destruction d&rsquo;Angleterre qui doit
+brief advenir</i>&rdquo; (<i>&OElig;uvres</i>, No. 211).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESCHANEL, PAUL EUGÈNE LOUIS</span> (1856-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), French
+statesman, son of Émile Deschanel (1819-1904), professor at the
+Collège de France and senator, was born at Brussels, where his
+father was living in exile (1851-1859), owing to his opposition to
+Napoleon III. Paul Deschanel studied law, and began his career
+as secretary to Deshayes de Marcère (1876), and to Jules Simon
+(1876-1877). In October 1885 he was elected deputy for Eure
+and Loire. From the first he took an important place in the
+chamber, as one of the most notable orators of the Progressist
+Republican group. In January 1896 he was elected vice-president
+of the chamber, and henceforth devoted himself to the struggle
+against the Left, not only in parliament, but also in public
+meetings throughout France. His addresses at Marseilles on the
+26th of October 1896, at Carmaux on the 27th of December 1896,
+and at Roubaix on the 10th of April 1897, were triumphs of clear
+and eloquent exposition of the political and social aims of the
+Progressist party. In June 1898 he was elected president of
+the chamber, and was re-elected in 1901, but rejected in 1902.
+Nevertheless he came forward brilliantly in 1904 and 1905 as a
+supporter of the law on the separation of church and state. He
+was elected a member of the French Academy in 1899, his most
+notable works being <i>Orateurs et hommes d&rsquo;état</i> (1888), <i>Figures
+de femmes</i> (1889), <i>La Décentralization</i> (1895), <i>La Question sociale</i>
+(1898).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DES CLOIZEAUX, ALFRED LOUIS OLIVIER LEGRAND</span>
+(1817-1897), French mineralogist, was born at Beauvais, in the
+department of Oise, on the 17th of October 1817. He became
+professor of mineralogy at the École Normale Supérieure and
+afterwards at the Musée d&rsquo;Histoire Naturelle in Paris. He
+studied the geysers of Iceland, and wrote also on the classification
+of some of the eruptive rocks; but his main work consisted in the
+systematic examination of the crystals of numerous minerals, in
+researches on their optical properties and on the subject of polarization.
+He wrote specially on the means of determining the
+different felspars. He was awarded the Wollaston medal by the
+Geological Society of London in 1886. He died in May 1897.
+His best-known books are <i>Leçons de cristallographie</i> (1861);
+<i>Manuel de minéralogie</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1862, 1874 and 1893).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESCLOIZITE,</span> a rare mineral species consisting of basic lead
+and zinc vanadate, (Pb, Zn)<span class="su">2</span>(OH)V0<span class="su">4</span>, crystallizing in the orthorhombic
+system and isomorphous with olivenite. It was discovered
+by A. Damour in 1854, and named by him in honour
+of the French mineralogist Des Cloizeaux. It occurs as small
+prismatic or pyramidal crystals, usually forming drusy crusts
+and stalactitic aggregates; also as fibrous encrusting masses with
+a mammillary surface. The colour is deep cherry-red to brown
+or black, and the crystals are transparent or translucent with a
+greasy lustre; the streak is orange-yellow to brown; specific
+gravity 5.9 to 6.2; hardness 3½. A variety known as cuprodescloizite
+is dull green in colour; it contains a considerable
+amount of copper replacing zinc and some arsenic replacing
+vanadium. Descloizite occurs in veins of lead ores in association
+with pyromorphite, vanadinite, wulfenite, &amp;c. Localities are
+the Sierra de Cordoba in Argentina, Lake Valley in Sierra county,
+New Mexico, Arizona, Phoenixville in Pennsylvania, and Kappel
+(Eisen-Kappel) near Klagenfurt in Carinthia.</p>
+
+<p>Other names which have been applied to this species are
+vanadite, tritochorite and ramirite; the uncertain vanadates
+eusynchite, araeoxene and dechenite are possibly identical
+with it.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESCRIPTIVE POETRY,</span> the name given to a class of literature,
+which may be defined as belonging mainly to the 16th, 17th and
+18th centuries in Europe. From the earliest times, all poetry
+which was not subjectively lyrical was apt to indulge in ornament
+which might be named descriptive. But the critics of the
+17th century formed a distinction between the representations
+of the ancients and those of the moderns. We find Boileau
+emphasizing the statement that, while Virgil <i>paints</i>, Tasso
+<i>describes</i>. This may be a useful indication for us in defining not
+what should, but what in practice has been called &ldquo;descriptive
+poetry.&rdquo; It is poetry in which it is not imaginative passion
+which prevails, but a didactic purpose, or even something of the
+instinct of a sublimated auctioneer. In other words, the landscape,
+or architecture, or still life, or whatever may be the object
+of the poet&rsquo;s attention, is not used as an accessory, but is itself
+the centre of interest. It is, in this sense, not correct to call
+poetry in which description is only the occasional ornament of a
+poem, and not its central subject, descriptive poetry. The landscape
+or still life must fill the canvas, or, if human interest is
+introduced, that must be treated as an accessory. Thus, in the
+<i>Hero and Leander</i> of Marlowe and in the <i>Alastor</i> of Shelley,
+description of a very brilliant kind is largely introduced, yet
+these are not examples of what is technically called &ldquo;descriptive
+poetry,&rdquo; because it is not the strait between Sestos and Abydos,
+and it is not the flora of a tropical glen, which concentrates the
+attention of the one poet or of the other, but it is an example of
+physical passion in the one case and of intellectual passion in the
+other, which is diagnosed and dilated on. On the other hand
+Thomson&rsquo;s <i>Seasons</i>, in which landscape takes the central place,
+and Drayton&rsquo;s <i>Polyolbion</i>, where everything is sacrificed to a
+topographical progress through Britain, are strictly descriptive.</p>
+
+<p>It will be obvious from this definition that the danger ahead
+of all purely descriptive poetry is that it will lack intensity, that
+it will be frigid, if not dead. Description for description&rsquo;s sake,
+especially in studied verse, is rarely a vitalized form of literature.
+It is threatened, from its very conception, with languor and
+coldness; it must exercise an extreme art or be condemned to
+immediate sterility. Boileau, with his customary intelligence,
+was the first to see this, and he thought that the danger might be
+avoided by care in technical execution. His advice to the poets
+of his time was:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+<p class="ind03">&ldquo;Soyez riches et pompeux dans vos descriptions;</p>
+<p>C&rsquo;est-là qu&rsquo;il faut des vers étaler l&rsquo;élégance,&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+<p class="ind03">&ldquo;De figure sans nombre égayez votre ouvrage;</p>
+<p>Que toute y fasse aux yeux une riante image,&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and in verses of brilliant humour he mocked the writer who,
+too full of his subject, and describing for description&rsquo;s sake, will
+never quit his theme until he has exhausted it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+<p class="ind03">&ldquo;Fuyez de ces auteurs l&rsquo;abondance stérile</p>
+<p>Et ne vous chargez point d&rsquo;un détail inutile.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">This is excellent advice, but Boileau&rsquo;s humorous sallies do not
+quite meet the question whether such purely descriptive poetry
+as he criticizes is legitimate at all.</p>
+
+<p>In England had appeared the famous translation (1592-1611),
+by Josuah Sylvester, of the <i>Divine Weeks and Works</i> of Du
+Bartas, containing such lines as those which the juvenile Dryden
+admired so much:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+<p class="ind03">&ldquo;But when winter&rsquo;s keener breath began</p>
+<p>To crystallize the Baltic ocëan,</p>
+<p>To glaze the lakes, and bridle up the floods,</p>
+<p>And perriwig with wool the bald-pate woods.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">There was also the curious physiological epic of Phineas Fletcher,
+<i>The Purple Island</i> (1633). But on the whole it was not until
+French influences had made themselves felt on English poetry,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>92</span>
+that description, as Boileau conceived it, was cultivated as a
+distinct art. The <i>Cooper&rsquo;s Hill</i> (1642) of Sir John Denham may
+be contrasted with the less ambitious <i>Penshurst</i> of Ben Jonson,
+and the one represents the new no less completely than the other
+does the old generation. If, however, we examine <i>Cooper&rsquo;s Hill</i>
+carefully, we perceive that its aim is after all rather philosophical
+than topographical. The Thames is described indeed, but not
+very minutely, and the poet is mainly absorbed in moral reflections.
+Marvell&rsquo;s long poem on the beauties of Nunappleton comes
+nearer to the type. But it is hardly until we reach the 18th
+century that we arrive, in English literature, at what is properly
+known as descriptive poetry. This was the age in which poets,
+often of no mean capacity, began to take such definite themes
+as a small country estate (Pomfret&rsquo;s <i>Choice</i>, 1700), the cultivation
+of the grape (Gay&rsquo;s <i>Wine</i>, 1708), a landscape (Pope&rsquo;s <i>Windsor
+Forest</i>, 1713), a military man&oelig;uvre (Addison&rsquo;s <i>Campaign</i>, 1704),
+the industry of an apple-orchard (Philip&rsquo;s <i>Cyder</i>, 1708) or a piece
+of topography (Tickell&rsquo;s <i>Kensington Gardens</i>, 1722), as the sole
+subject of a lengthy poem, generally written in heroic or blank
+verse. These <i>tours de force</i> were supported by minute efforts in
+miniature-painting, by touch applied to touch, and were often
+monuments of industry, but they were apt to lack personal
+interest, and to suffer from a general and deplorable frigidity.
+They were infected with the faults which accompany an artificial
+style; they were monotonous, rhetorical and symmetrical, while
+the uniformity of treatment which was inevitable to their plan
+rendered them hopelessly tedious, if they were prolonged to any
+great extent.</p>
+
+<p>This species of writing had been cultivated to a considerable
+degree through the preceding century, in Italy and (as the
+remarks of Boileau testify) in France, but it was in England that
+it reached its highest importance. The classic of descriptive
+poetry, in fact, the specimen which the literature of the world
+presents which must be considered as the most important and
+the most successful, is <i>The Seasons</i> (1726-1730) of <a href="#artlinks">James Thomson</a>
+(q.v.). In Thomson, for the first time, a poet of considerable
+eminence appeared, to whom external nature was all sufficient,
+and who succeeded in conducting a long poem to its close by a
+single appeal to landscape, and to the emotions which it directly
+evokes. Coleridge, somewhat severely, described <i>The Seasons</i> as
+the work of a good rather than of a great poet, and it is an indisputable
+fact that, at its very best, descriptive poetry fails to
+awaken the highest powers of the imagination. A great part of
+Thomson&rsquo;s poem is nothing more nor less than a skilfully varied
+catalogue of natural phenomena. The famous description of twilight
+in &ldquo;the fading many-coloured woods&rdquo; of autumn may be
+taken as an example of the highest art to which purely descriptive
+poetry has ever attained. It is obvious, even here, that the effect
+of these rich and sonorous lines, in spite of the splendid effort
+of the artist, is monotonous, and leads us up to no final crisis of
+passion or rapture. Yet Thomson succeeds, as few other poets
+of his class have succeeded, in producing nobly-massed effects
+and comprehensive beauties such as were utterly unknown to his
+predecessors. He was widely imitated in England, especially by
+Armstrong, by Akenside, by Shenstone (in <i>The Schoolmistress</i>,
+1742), by the anonymous author of <i>Albania</i>, 1737, and by
+Goldsmith (in <i>The Deserted Village</i>, 1770). No better example
+of the more pedestrian class of descriptive poetry could be found
+than the last-mentioned poem, with its minute and Dutch-like
+painting:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+<p class="ind03">&ldquo;How often have I paused on every charm:</p>
+<p>The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm;</p>
+<p>The never-failing brook, the busy mill,</p>
+<p>The decent church that topped the neighbouring hill:</p>
+<p>The hawthorn-bush, with seats beneath the shade.</p>
+<p>For talking age and whispering lovers made.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>On the continent of Europe the example of Thomson was almost
+immediately fruitful. Four several translations of <i>The Seasons</i>
+into French contended for the suffrages of the public, and J. F.
+de Saint-Lambert (1716-1803) imitated Thomson in <i>Les Saisons</i>
+(1769), a poem which enjoyed popularity for half a century, and
+of which Voltaire said that it was the only one of its generation
+which would reach posterity. Nevertheless, as Madame du
+Deffand told Walpole, Saint-Lambert is &ldquo;<i>froid, fade et faux,</i>&rdquo;
+and the same may be said of J. A. Roucher (1745-1794), who
+wrote <i>Les Mois</i> in 1779, a descriptive poem famous in its
+day. The Abbé Jacques Delille (1738-1813), perhaps the most
+ambitious descriptive poet who has ever lived, was treated
+as a Virgil by his contemporaries; he published <i>Les Géorgiques</i>
+in 1769, <i>Les Jardins</i> in 1782, and <i>L&rsquo;Homme des champs</i> in 1803,
+but he went furthest in his brilliant, though artificial, <i>Trois
+règnes de la nature</i> (1809), which French critics have called the
+masterpiece of this whole school of descriptive poetry. Delille,
+however, like Thomson before him, was unable to avoid monotony
+and want of coherency. Picture follows picture, and no
+progress is made. The satire of Marie Joseph Chénier, in his
+famous and witty <i>Discours sur les poèmes descriptifs</i>, brought
+the vogue of this species of poetry to an end.</p>
+
+<p>In England, again, Wordsworth, who treated the genius of
+Thomson with unmerited severity, revived descriptive poetry
+in a form which owed more than Wordsworth realized to the
+model of <i>The Seasons</i>. In <i>The Excursion</i> and <i>The Prelude</i>, as
+well as in many of his minor pieces, Wordsworth&rsquo;s philosophical
+and moral intentions cannot prevent us from perceiving the
+large part which pure description takes; and the same may be
+said of much of the early blank verse of S. T. Coleridge. Since
+their day, however, purely descriptive poetry has gone more and
+more completely out of fashion, and its place has been taken by
+the richer and directer effects of such prose as that of Ruskin
+in English, or of Fromentin and Pierre Loti in French. It is
+almost impossible in descriptive verse to obtain those vivid
+and impassioned appeals to the imagination which are of the
+very essence of genuine poetry, and it is unlikely that descriptive
+poetry, as such, will again take a prominent place in living
+literature.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESERT,</span> a term somewhat loosely employed to describe those
+parts of the land surface of the earth which do not produce
+sufficient vegetation to support a human population. Few areas
+of large extent in any part of the world are absolutely devoid of
+vegetation, and the transition from typical desert conditions is
+often very gradual and ill-defined. (&ldquo;Desert&rdquo; comes from Lat.
+<i>deserere</i>, to abandon; distinguish &ldquo;desert,&rdquo; merit, and &ldquo;dessert,&rdquo;
+fruit eaten after dinner, from <i>de</i> and <i>servier</i>, to serve.)</p>
+
+<p>Deserts are conveniently divided into two classes according
+to the causes which give rise to the desert conditions. In &ldquo;cold
+deserts&rdquo; the want of vegetation is wholly due to the prevailing
+low temperature, while in &ldquo;hot deserts&rdquo; the surface is unproductive
+because, on account of high temperature and deficient
+rainfall, evaporation is largely in excess of precipitation. Cold
+deserts accordingly occur in high latitudes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tundra</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polar Regions</a></span>). Hot desert conditions are primarily found
+along the tropical belts of high atmospheric pressure in which the
+conditions of warmth and dryness are most fully realized, and on
+their equatorial sides, but the zonal arrangement is considerably
+modified in some regions by the monsoonal influence of elevated
+land. Thus we have in the northern hemisphere the Sahara
+desert, the deserts of Arabia, Iran, Turan, Takla Makan and
+Gobi, and the desert regions of the Great Basin in North
+America; and in the southern hemisphere the Kalahari desert
+in Africa, the desert of Australia, and the desert of Atacama in
+South America. Where the line of elevated land runs east and
+west, as in Asia, the desert belt tends to be displaced into higher
+latitudes, and where the line runs north and south, as in Africa,
+America and Australia, the desert zone is cut through on the
+windward side of the elevation and the arid conditions intensified
+on the lee side. Desert conditions also arise from local causes,
+as in the case of the Indian desert situated in a region inaccessible
+to either of the two main branches of the south-west monsoon.</p>
+
+<p>Although rivers rising in more favoured regions may traverse
+deserts on their way to the sea, as in the case of the Nile and the
+Colorado, the fundamental physical condition of an arid area is
+that it contributes nothing to the waters of the ocean. The rainfall
+chiefly occurs in violent cloud-bursts, and the soluble matter
+in the soil is carried down by intermittent streams to salt lakes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"></a>93</span>
+around which deposits are formed as evaporation takes place.
+The land forms of a desert are exceedingly characteristic. Surface
+erosion is chiefly due to rapid changes of temperature through a
+wide range, and to the action of wind transferring sand and dust,
+often in the form of &ldquo;dunes&rdquo; resembling the waves of the sea.
+Dry valleys, narrow and of great depth, with precipitous sides,
+and ending in &ldquo;cirques,&rdquo; are probably formed by the intense
+action of the occasional cloud-bursts.</p>
+
+<p>When water can be obtained and distributed over an arid
+region by irrigation, the surface as a rule becomes extremely
+productive. Natural springs give rise to oases at intervals and
+make the crossing of large deserts possible. Where a river crosses
+a desert at a level near that of the general surface, irrigation can
+be carried on with extremely profitable results, as has been done
+in the valley of the Nile and in parts of the Great Basin of North
+America; in cases, however, where the river has cut deeply and
+flows far below the general surface, irrigation is too expensive.
+Much has been done in parts of Australia by means of artesian
+wells.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>For a general account of deserts see Professor Johannes Walther,
+<i>Das Gesetz der Wüstenbildung</i> (Berlin, 1900), in which many references
+to other original authorities will be found.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. N. D.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESERTION,</span> the act of forsaking or abandoning; more
+particularly, the wilful abandonment of an employment or of
+duty, in violation of a legal or moral obligation.</p>
+
+<p>The offence of naval or military desertion is constituted when
+a man absents himself with the intention either of not returning
+or of escaping some important service, such as embarkation for
+foreign service, or service in aid of the civil power. In the
+United Kingdom desertion has always been recognized by the
+civil law, and until 1827 (7 &amp; 8 Geo. IV. c. 28) was a felony
+punishable by death. It was subsequently dealt with by the
+various Mutiny Acts, which were replaced by the Army Act
+1881, renewed annually by the Army (Annual) Act. By § 12
+of the act every person subject to military law who deserts or
+attempts to desert, or who persuades or procures any person to
+desert, shall, on conviction by court martial, if he committed the
+offence when on active service or under orders for active service,
+be liable to suffer death, or such less punishment as is mentioned
+in the act. When the offence is committed under any other
+circumstances, the punishment for the first offence is imprisonment,
+and for the second or any subsequent offence penal servitude
+or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. § 44
+contains a scale of punishments, and §§ 175-184 an enumeration
+of persons subject to military law. By § 153 any person who
+persuades a soldier to desert or aids or assists him or conceals him
+is liable, on conviction, to be imprisoned, with or without hard
+labour, for not more than six months. § 154 makes provision
+for the apprehension of deserters. § 161 lays down that where a
+soldier has served continuously in an exemplary manner for not
+less than three years in any corps of regular forces he is not to be
+tried or punished for desertion which has occurred before the
+commencement of the three years. Desertion from the regular
+forces can only be tried by a military court, but in the case of the
+militia and reserve forces desertion can be tried by a civil court.
+The Army Act of 1881 made a welcome distinction between
+actual desertion, as defined at the commencement of this article,
+and the quitting one regiment in order to enlist in another. This
+offence is now separately dealt with as fraudulent enlistment;
+formerly, it was termed &ldquo;desertion and fraudulent enlistment,&rdquo;
+and the statistics of desertion proper were consequently and
+erroneously magnified. The gross total of desertions in the
+British Army in an average year (1903-1904) was nearly 4000,
+or 1.4% of the average strength of the army, but owing to men
+rejoining from desertion, fraudulent enlistment, &amp;c., the net loss
+was no more than 1286, i.e. less than .5%. The army of the
+United States suffers very severely from desertion, and very few
+deserters rejoin or are recaptured (see <i>Journal of the Roy. United
+Service Inst.</i>, December 1905, p. 1469). In the year 1900-1901,
+3110 men deserted (4.3% of average strength); in 1901-1902,
+4667 (or 5.9%); in 1904-1905, 6553 (or 6.8%); and in 1905-1906,
+6258 out of less than 60,000 men, or 7.4%.</p>
+
+<p>In all armies desertion while on active service is punishable
+by death; on the continent of Europe, owing to the system of
+compulsory service, desertion is infrequent, and takes place
+usually when the deserter wishes to leave his country altogether.
+It was formerly the practice in the English army to punish a man
+convicted of desertion by tattooing on him the letter &ldquo;D&rdquo; to
+prevent his re-enlistment, but this has been long abandoned in
+deference to public opinion, which erroneously adopted the idea
+that the &ldquo;marking&rdquo; was effected by red-hot irons or in some
+other manner involving torture. The Navy Discipline Act 1866,
+and the Naval Deserters Act 1847, contain similar provisions to
+the Army Act of 1881 for dealing with desertions from the navy.
+In the United States navy the term &ldquo;straggling&rdquo; is applied to
+absence without leave, where the probability is that the person
+does not intend to desert. The United States government offers
+a monetary reward of between $20 and $30 for the arrest and
+delivery of deserters from the army and navy.</p>
+
+<p>In the British merchant service the offence of desertion is
+defined as the abandonment of duty by quitting the ship before
+the termination of the engagement, without justification, and
+with the intention of not returning.</p>
+
+<p>Desertion is also the term applied to the act by which a man
+abandons his wife and children, or either of them. Desertion of
+a wife is a matrimonial offence; under the Matrimonial Causes
+Act 1857, a decree of judicial separation may be obtained in
+England by either husband or wife on the ground of desertion,
+without cause, for two years and upwards (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divorce</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>For the desertion of children see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children, Law relating to</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infant</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DES ESSARTS, EMMANUEL ADOLPHE</span> (1839-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), French
+poet and man of letters, was born at Paris on the 5th of February
+1839. His father, Alfred Stanislas Langlois des Essarts
+(d. 1893), was a poet and novelist of considerable reputation.
+The son was educated at the École Normale Supérieure, and
+became a teacher of rhetoric and finally professor of literature
+at Dijon and at Clermont. His works are: <i>Poésies parisiennes</i>
+(1862), a volume of light verse on trifling subjects; <i>Les Élévations</i>
+(1864), philosophical poems; <i>Origines de la poésie lyrique en
+France au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1873); <i>Du génie de Chateaubriand</i> (1876);
+<i>Poèmes de la Révolution</i> (1879); <i>Pallas Athéné</i> (1887); <i>Portraits
+de maîtres</i> (1888), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESFONTAINES, RENÉ LOUICHE</span> (1750-1833), French
+botanist, was born at Tremblay (Île-et-Vilaine) on the 14th of
+February 1750. After graduating in medicine at Paris, he was
+elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1783. In the
+same year he set out for North Africa, on a scientific exploring
+expedition, and on his return two years afterwards brought with
+him a large collection of plants, animals, &amp;c., comprising, it is
+said, 1600 species of plants, of which about 300 were described
+for the first time. In 1786 he was nominated to the post of
+professor at the Jardin des Plantes, vacated in his favour by his
+friend, L. G. Lemonnier. His great work, <i>Flora Atlantica sive
+historia plantarum quae in Atlante, agro Tunetano el Algeriensi
+crescunt</i>, was published in 2 vols. 4to in 1798, and he produced in
+1804 a <i>Tableau de l&rsquo;école botanique du muséum d&rsquo;histoire naturelle
+de Paris</i>, of which a third edition appeared in 1831, under the
+new title <i>Catalogus plantarum horti regii Parisiensis</i>. He was
+also the author of many memoirs on vegetable anatomy and
+physiology, descriptions of new genera and species, &amp;c., one
+of the most important being a &ldquo;Memoir on the Organization of
+the Monocotyledons.&rdquo; He died at Paris on the 16th of November
+1833. His Barbary collection was bequeathed to the Muséum
+d&rsquo;Histoire Naturelle, and his general collection passed into the
+hands of the English botanist, Philip Barker Webb.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESFORGES, PIERRE JEAN BAPTISTE CHOUDARD</span> (1746-1806),
+French dramatist and man of letters, natural son of Dr
+Antoine Petit, was born in Paris on the 15th of September 1746.
+He was educated at the Collège Mazarin and the Collège de
+Beauvais, and at his father&rsquo;s desire began the study of medicine.
+Dr Petit&rsquo;s death left him dependent on his own resources, and
+after appearing on the stage of the Comédie Italienne in Paris
+he joined a troupe of wandering actors, whom he served in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94"></a>94</span>
+capacity of playwright. He married an actress, and the two
+spent three years in St Petersburg, where they were well received.
+In 1782 he produced at the Comédie Italienne an adaptation of
+Fielding&rsquo;s novel with the title <i>Tom Jones à Londres</i>. His first
+great success was achieved with <i>L&rsquo;Épreuve villageoise</i> (1785)
+to the music of Grétry. <i>La Femme jalouse</i>, a five-act comedy in
+verse (1785), <i>Joconde</i> (1790) for the music of Louis Jaden, <i>Les
+Époux divorcés</i> (1799), a comedy, and other pieces followed.
+Desforges was one of the first to avail himself of the new facilities
+afforded under the Revolution for divorce and re-marriage.
+The curious record of his own early indiscretions in <i>Le Poète, ou
+mémoires d&rsquo;un homme de lettres écrits par lui-même</i> (4 vols., 1798)
+is said to have been undertaken at the request of Madame
+Desforges. He died in Paris on the 13th of August 1806.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESGARCINS, MAGDELEINE MARIE</span> [<span class="sc">Louise</span>] (1769-1797),
+French actress, was born at Mont Dauphin (Hautes Alpes). In
+her short career she became one of the greatest of French tragédiennes,
+the associate of Talma, with whom she nearly always
+played. Her début at the Comédie Française occurred on the
+24th of May 1788, in <i>Bajazet</i>, with such success that she was at
+once made <i>sociétaire</i>. She was one of the actresses who left the
+Comédie Française in 1791 for the house in the rue Richelieu,
+soon to become the Théâtre de la République, and there her
+triumphs were no less&mdash;in <i>King Lear</i>, <i>Othello</i>, La Harpe&rsquo;s
+<i>Mélanie et Virginie</i>, &amp;c. Her health, however, failed, and she
+died insane, in Paris, on the 27th of October 1797.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESHAYES, GÉRARD PAUL</span> (1795-1875), French geologist
+and conchologist, was born at Nancy on the 13th of May 1797,
+his father at that time being professor of experimental physics
+in the École Centrale of the department of la Meurthe. He
+studied medicine at Strassburg, and afterwards took the degree
+of <i>bachelier ès lettres</i> in Paris in 1821; but he abandoned the
+medical profession in order to devote himself to natural history.
+For some time he gave private lessons on geology, and subsequently
+became professor of natural history in the Muséum
+d&rsquo;Histoire Naturelle. He was distinguished for his researches on
+the fossil mollusca of the Paris Basin and of other Tertiary areas.
+His studies on the relations of the fossil to the recent species led
+him as early as 1829 to conclusions somewhat similar to those
+arrived at by Lyell, to whom Deshayes rendered much assistance
+in connexion with the classification of the Tertiary system into
+Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. He was one of the founders of
+the Société Géologique de France. In 1839 he began the publication
+of his <i>Traité élémentaire de conchyliologie</i>, the last part
+of which was not issued until 1858. In the same year (1839) he
+went to Algeria for the French Government, and spent three
+years in explorations in that country. His principal work, which
+resulted from the collections he made, <i>Mollusques de l&rsquo;Algérie</i>,
+was issued (incomplete) in 1848. In 1870 the Wollaston medal
+of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him. He
+died at Boran on the 9th of June 1875. His publications included
+<i>Description des coquilles fossiles des environs de Paris</i> (2 vols.
+and atlas, 1824-1837); <i>Description des animaux sans vertèbres
+découverts dans le bassin de Paris</i> (3 vols. and atlas, 1856-1866);
+<i>Catalogue des mollusques de l&rsquo;île la Réunion</i> (1863).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESHOULIÈRES, ANTOINETTE DU LIGIER DE LA GARDE</span>
+(1638-1694), French poet, was born in Paris on the 1st of January
+1638. She was the daughter of Melchior du Ligier, sieur de la
+Garde, <i>maître d&rsquo;hôtel</i> to the queens Marie de&rsquo; Medici and Anne
+of Austria. She received a careful and very complete education,
+acquiring a knowledge of Latin, Spanish and Italian, and studying
+prosody under the direction of the poet Jean Hesnault.
+At the age of thirteen she married Guillaume de Boisguerin,
+seigneur Deshoulières, who followed the prince of Condé as
+lieutenant-colonel of one of his regiments to Flanders about a
+year after the marriage. Madame Deshoulières returned for a time
+to the house of her parents, where she gave herself to writing
+poetry and studying the philosophy of Gassendi. She rejoined
+her husband at Rocroi, near Brussels, where, being distinguished
+for her personal beauty, she became the object of embarrassing
+attentions on the part of the prince of Condé. Having made
+herself obnoxious to the government by her urgent demand for
+the arrears of her husband&rsquo;s pay, she was imprisoned in the
+château of Wilworden. After a few months she was freed by her
+husband, who attacked the château at the head of a small band
+of soldiers. An amnesty having been proclaimed, they returned
+to France, where Madame Deshoulières soon became a conspicuous
+personage at the court of Louis XIV. and in literary society.
+She won the friendship and admiration of the most eminent
+literary men of the age&mdash;some of her more zealous flatterers
+even going so far as to style her the tenth muse and the
+French Calliope. Her poems were very numerous, and included
+specimens of nearly all the minor forms, odes, eclogues, idylls,
+elegies, chansons, ballads, madrigals, &amp;c. Of these the idylls
+alone, and only some of them, have stood the test of time, the
+others being entirely forgotten. She wrote several dramatic
+works, the best of which do not rise to mediocrity. Her friendship
+for Corneille made her take sides for the <i>Phèdre</i> of Pradon
+against that of Racine. Voltaire pronounced her the best of
+women French poets; and her reputation with her contemporaries
+is indicated by her election as a member of the Academy of
+the Ricovrati of Padua and of the Academy of Arles. In 1688
+a pension of 2000 livres was bestowed upon her by the king, and
+she was thus relieved from the poverty in which she had long
+lived. She died in Paris on the 17th February 1694. Complete
+editions of her works were published at Paris in 1695, 1747, &amp;c.
+These include a few poems by her daughter, Antoine Thérèse
+Deshoulières (1656-1718), who inherited her talent.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESICCATION</span> (from the Lat. <i>desiccare</i>, to dry up), the
+operation of drying or removing water from a substance. It is
+of particular importance in practical chemistry. If a substance
+admits of being heated to say 100°, the drying may be effected
+by means of an air-bath, which is simply an oven heated by gas
+or by steam. Otherwise a <i>desiccator</i> must be employed; this
+is essentially a closed vessel in which a hygroscopic substance is
+placed together with the substance to be dried. The process may
+be accelerated by exhausting the desiccator; this so-called
+vacuum desiccation is especially suitable for the concentration
+of aqueous solutions of readily decomposable substances. Of the
+hygroscopic substances in common use, phosphoric anhydride,
+concentrated sulphuric acid, and dry potassium hydrate are
+almost equal in power; sodium hydrate and calcium chloride are
+not much behind.</p>
+
+<p>Two common types of desiccator are in use. In one the
+absorbent is placed at the bottom, and the substance to be dried
+above. Hempel pointed out that the efficiency would be
+increased by inverting this arrangement, since water vapour is
+lighter than air and consequently rises. Liquids are dried either
+by means of the desiccator, or, as is more usual, by shaking with
+a substance which removes the water. Fused calcium chloride
+is the commonest absorbent; but it must not be used with
+alcohols and several other compounds, since it forms compounds
+with these substances. Quicklime, barium oxide, and dehydrated
+copper sulphate are especially applicable to alcohol and
+ether; the last traces of water may be removed by adding
+metallic sodium and distilling. Gases are dried by leading them
+through towers or tubes containing an appropriate drying
+material. The experiments of H. B. Baker on the influence of
+moisture on chemical combination have shown the difficulty of
+removing the last traces of water.</p>
+
+<p>In chemical technology, apparatus on the principle of the
+laboratory air-bath are mainly used. Crystals and precipitates,
+deprived of as much water as possible by centrifugal machines
+or filter-presses, are transported by means of a belt, screw, or
+other form of conveyer, on to trays staged in brick chambers
+heated directly by flue gases or steam pipes; the latter are easily
+controlled, and if the steam be superheated a temperature of
+300° and over may be maintained. In some cases the material
+traverses the chamber from the coolest to the hottest part on a
+conveyer or in wagons. Rotating cylinders are also used; the
+material to be dried being placed inside, and the cylinder heated
+by a steam jacket or otherwise.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO</span> (1428-1464), Italian sculptor,
+was born at Settignano, a village on the southern slope of the hill
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95"></a>95</span>
+of Fiesole, still surrounded by the quarries of sandstone of which
+the hill is formed, and inhabited by a race of &ldquo;stone-cutters.&rdquo;
+Desiderio was for a short time a pupil of Donatello, whom,
+according to Vasari, he assisted in the work on the pedestal
+of David, and he seems to have worked also with Mino da
+Fiesole, with the delicate and refined style of whose works
+those of Desiderio seem to have a closer affinity than with the
+perhaps more masculine tone of Donatello. Vasari particularly
+extols the sculptor&rsquo;s treatment of the figures of women and
+children. It does not appear that Desiderio ever worked elsewhere
+than at Florence; and it is there that those who are
+interested in the Italian sculpture of the Renaissance must seek
+his few surviving decorative and monumental works, though a
+number of his delicately carved marble busts of women and
+children are to be found in the museums and private collections of
+Germany and France. The most prominent of his works are the
+tomb of the secretary of state, Marsuppini, in Santa Croce, and
+the great marble tabernacle of the Annunciation in San Lorenzo,
+both of which belong to the latter period of Desiderio&rsquo;s activity;
+and the cherubs&rsquo; heads which form the exterior frieze of the
+Pazzi Chapel. Vasari mentions a marble bust by Desiderio
+of Marietta degli Strozzi, which for many years was held to
+be identical with a very beautiful bust bought in 1878 from the
+Strozzi family for the Berlin Museum. This bust is now, however,
+generally acknowledged to be the work of Francesco Laurana;
+whilst Desiderio&rsquo;s bust of Marietta has been recognized in another
+marble portrait acquired by the Berlin Museum in 1842. The
+Berlin Museum also owns a coloured plaster bust of an Urbino
+lady by Desiderio, the model for which is in the possession of
+the earl of Wemyss. Other important busts by the master are
+in the Bargello, Florence, the Louvre in Paris, the collections of
+M. Figdor and M. Benda in Vienna, and of M. Dreyfus in Paris.
+Like most of Donatello&rsquo;s pupils, Desiderio worked chiefly in marble,
+and not a single work in bronze has been traced to his hand.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Wilhelm Bode, <i>Die italienische Plastik</i> (Berlin, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESIDERIUS,</span> the last king of the Lombards, is chiefly known
+through his connexion with Charlemagne. He was duke of
+Tuscany and became king of the Lombards after the death of
+Aistulf in 756. Seeking, like his predecessors, to extend the
+Lombard power in Italy, he came into collision with the papacy,
+and about 772 the new pope, Adrian I., implored the aid of
+Charlemagne against him. Other causes of quarrel already
+existed between the Frankish and the Lombard kings. In 770
+Charlemagne had married a daughter of Desiderius; but he soon
+put this lady away, and sent her back to her father. Moreover,
+Gerberga, the widow of Charlemagne&rsquo;s brother Carloman, had
+sought the protection of the Lombard king after her husband&rsquo;s
+death in 771; and in return for the slight cast upon his daughter,
+Desiderius had recognized Gerberga&rsquo;s sons as the lawful Frankish
+kings, and had attacked Adrian for refusing to crown them. Such
+was the position when Charlemagne led his troops across the Alps
+in 773, took the Lombard capital, Ticinum, the modern Pavia,
+in June 774, and added the kingdom of Lombardy to his own
+dominions. Desiderius was carried to France, where he died,
+and his son, Adalgis, spent his life in futile attempts to recover
+his father&rsquo;s kingdom. The name of Desiderius appears in the
+romances of the Carolingian period.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See S. Abel, <i>Untergang des Langobardenreichs</i> (Göttingen, 1859);
+and <i>Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen</i>
+(Leipzig, 1865); L. M. Hartmann, <i>Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter</i>
+(Gotha, 1903); and Paulus Diaconus, <i>Historia Langobardorum</i>, edited
+by L. Bethmann and G. Waitz (Hanover, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESIGN</span> (Fr. <i>dessin</i>, drawing; Lat. <i>designare</i>, to mark out),
+in the arts, a drawing, more especially when made as a guide
+for the execution of work; that side of drawing which deals
+with arrangement rather than representation; and generally,
+by analogy, a deliberate planning, scheming or purpose. Modern
+use has tended to associate design with the word &ldquo;original&rdquo; in
+the sense of new or abnormal. The end of design, however, is
+properly utility, fitness and delight. If a discovery, it should be
+a discovery of what seems inevitable, an inspiration arising out
+of the conditions, and parallel to invention in the sciences. The
+faculty of design has best flourished when an almost spontaneous
+development was taking place in the arts, and while certain
+classes of arts, more or less noble, were generally demanded and
+the demand copiously satisfied, as in the production of Greek
+vases, Byzantine mosaics, Gothic cathedrals, and Renaissance
+paintings. Thus where a &ldquo;school of design&rdquo; arises there is much
+general likeness in the products but also a general progress.
+The common experience&mdash;&ldquo;tradition&rdquo;&mdash;is a part of each
+artist&rsquo;s stock in trade; and all are carried along in a stream of
+continuous exploration. Some of the arts, writing, for instance,
+have been little touched by conscious originality in design, all
+has been progress, or, at least, change, in response to conditions.
+Under such a system, in a time of progress, the proper limitations
+react as intensity; when limitations are removed the designer
+has less and less upon which to react, and unconditioned liberty
+gives him nothing at all to lean on. Design is response to needs,
+conditions and aspirations. The Greeks so well understood this
+that they appear to have consciously restrained themselves to
+the development of selected types, not only in architecture and
+literature, but in domestic arts, like pottery. Design with them
+was less the new than the true.</p>
+
+<p>For the production of a school of design it is necessary that
+there should be a considerable body of artists working together,
+and a large demand from a sympathetic public. A process of
+continuous development is thus brought into being which sustains
+the individual effort. It is necessary for the designer to know
+familiarly the processes, the materials and the skilful use of the
+tools involved in the productions of a given art, and properly
+only one who practises a craft can design for it. It is necessary
+to enter into the traditions of the art, that is, to know past
+achievements. It is necessary, further, to be in relation with
+nature, the great reservoir of ideas, for it is from it that fresh
+thought will flow into all forms of art. These conditions being
+granted, the best and most useful meaning we can give to
+the word design is exploration, experiment, consideration of
+possibilities. Putting too high a value on originality other than
+this is to restrict natural growth from vital roots, in which true
+originality consists. To take design in architecture as an example,
+we have rested too much on definite precedent (a different thing
+from living tradition) and, on the other hand, hoped too much from
+newness. Exploration of the possibilities in arches, vaults, domes
+and the like, as a chemist or a mathematician explores, is little
+accepted as a method in architecture at this time, although in
+antiquity it was by such means that the great master-works were
+produced: the Pantheon, Santa Sophia, Durham and Amiens
+cathedrals. The same is true of all forms of design. Of course
+the genius and inspiration of the individual artist is not here
+ignored, but assumed. What we are concerned with is a mode
+of thought which shall make it most fruitful.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. R. L.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESIRE,</span> in popular usage, a term for a wishing or longing
+for something which one has not got. For its technical use see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>. The word is derived through the French from
+Lat. <i>desiderare</i>, to long or wish for, to miss. The substantive
+<i>desiderium</i> has the special meaning of desire for something one
+has once possessed but lost, hence regret or grief. The usual
+explanation of the word is to connect it with <i>sidus</i>, star, as in
+<i>considerare</i>, to examine the stars with attention, hence, to look
+closely at. If this is so, the history of the transition in meaning
+is unknown. J. B. Greenough (<i>Harvard Studies in Classical
+Philology</i>, i. 96) has suggested that the word is a military slang
+term. According to this theory <i>desiderare</i> meant originally to
+miss a soldier from the ranks at roll-call, the root being that
+seen in <i>sedere</i>, to sit, <i>sedes</i>, seat, place, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESK</span> (from Lat. <i>discus</i>, quoit, in med. sense of &ldquo;table,&rdquo;
+cf. &ldquo;dish&rdquo; and Ger. <i>Tisch</i>, table, from same source), any
+kind of flat or sloping table for writing or reading. Its
+earliest shape was probably that with which we are familiar
+in pictures of the monastic <i>scriptorium</i>&mdash;rather high and
+narrow with a sloping slab. The primitive desk had little
+accommodation for writing materials, and no storage room for
+papers; drawers, cupboards and pigeon-holes were the evolution
+of periods when writing grew common, and when letters and
+other documents requiring preservation became numerous. It
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96"></a>96</span>
+was long the custom to secure papers in chests or cabinets, whereas
+the modern desk serves the double purpose of a writing-table and
+a storehouse for documents. The first development from the
+early stall-like desk consisted of the addition of a drawer; then
+the table came to be supported upon legs or columns, which, as
+in the many beautiful examples constructed by Boulle and his
+school, were often of elaborate grace. Eventually the legs were
+replaced by a series of superimposed drawers forming pedestals&mdash;hence
+the familiar pedestal writing-table.</p>
+
+<p>For a long period there were two distinct contemporary forms
+of desk&mdash;the table and the bureau or escritoire. The latter shape
+attained a popularity so great that, especially in England and
+America, it was found even in houses in which there was little
+occasion for writing. The English-speaking people of the 18th
+century were amazingly fond of pieces of furniture which
+served a double or triple purpose. The bureau&mdash;the word is
+the French generic appellation for a desk&mdash;derives its name
+from the material with which it was originally covered (Fr. <i>bure</i>,
+woollen cloth). It consists of an upright carcass sloping inward
+at the top, and provided with long drawers below. The upper
+part is fitted with small drawers and pigeon-holes, and often with
+secret places, and the writing space is formed by a hinged slab
+supported on runners; when not in use this slab closes up the
+sloping top. During the 18th century innumerable thousands of
+these bureaux were made on both sides of the Atlantic&mdash;indeed,
+if we except tables and chairs, no piece of old furniture is more
+common. In the first part of that period they were usually of
+oak, but when mahogany was introduced into Europe it speedily
+ousted the heavier-looking wood. Its deep rich colour and the
+high polish of which it was capable added appreciably to its
+ornamental appearance. While the pigeon-holes and small
+drawers were used for papers, the long drawers were often
+employed for purposes other than literary. In time the bureau-secretaire
+became a bureau-bookcase, the glazed shelves, which
+were often a separate erection, resting upon the top of the bureau.
+The cabinetmakers of the second half of the 18th century, the
+period of the greatest <i>floraison</i> of this combination, competed
+with each other in devising elegant frets for the glass fronts.
+Solid and satisfying to the eye, if somewhat severe in form, the
+mahogany bureau was usually an exceedingly presentable piece
+of furniture. Occasionally it had a <i>bombé</i> front which mitigated
+its severity; this was especially the case in the Dutch varieties,
+which were in a measure free adaptations of the French Louis
+Quinze <i>commode</i>. These Dutch bureaux, and the English ones
+made in imitation of them, were usually elaborately inlaid with
+floral designs in coloured woods; but whereas the Batavian
+marquetry was often rough and crude, the English work was
+usually of considerable excellence. Side by side with this form of
+writing apparatus was one variety or another of the writing-table
+proper. In so far as it is possible to generalize upon such a detail
+it would appear that the bureau was the desk of the yeoman and
+what we now call the lower middle class, and that the slighter and
+more table-like forms were preferred by those higher in the social
+scale. This probably means no more than that while the one
+class preserved the old English affection for the solid and heavy
+furniture which would last for generations, those who were more
+free to follow the fashions and fancies of their time were, as the
+pecuniarily easy classes always have been, ready to abandon the
+old for the new.</p>
+
+<p>Just about the time when the flat table with its drawers in a
+single row, or in nests serving as pedestals, was finally assuming
+its familiar modern shape, an invention was introduced which
+was destined eventually, so far as numbers and convenience go,
+to supersede all other forms of desk. This was the cylinder-top
+writing-table. Nothing is known of the originator of this device,
+but it is certain that if not French himself he worked in France.
+The historians of French furniture agree in fixing its introduction
+about the year 1750, and we know that a desk worked on this
+principle was in the possession of the French crown in the year
+1760. Even in its early days the cylinder took more than one
+form. It sometimes consisted of a solid piece of curved wood,
+and sometimes of a tambour frame&mdash;that is to say, of a series of
+narrow jointed strips of wood mounted on canvas; the revolving
+shutters of a shop-front are an adaptation of the idea. For a long
+period, however, the cylinder was most often solid, and remained
+so until the latter part of the 19th century, when the &ldquo;American
+roll-top desk&rdquo; began to be made in large numbers. This is
+indeed the old French form with a tambour cylinder, and it is
+now the desk that is most frequently met with all over the world
+for commercial purposes. Its popularity is due to its large
+accommodation, and to the facility with which the closing of the
+cylinder conceals all papers, and automatically locks every drawer.
+To France we owe not only the invention of this ubiquitous form,
+but the construction of many of the finest and most historic desks
+that have survived&mdash;the characteristic marquetry writing-tables
+of the Boulle period, and the gilded splendours of that of Louis
+Quinze have never been surpassed in the history of furniture.
+Indeed, the &ldquo;Bureau du roi&rdquo; which was made for Louis XV. is the
+most famous and magnificent piece of furniture that, so far as we
+know, was ever constructed. This desk, which is now one of the
+treasures of the Louvre, was the work of several artist-artificers,
+chief among whom were Oeben and Riesener&mdash;Oeben, it may be
+added here as a matter of artistic interest, became the grandfather
+of Eugene Delacroix. The bureau is signed &ldquo;Riesener fa.
+1769 à l&rsquo;Arsenal de Paris,&rdquo; but it has been established that,
+however great may have been the share of its construction which
+fell to him, the conception was that of Oeben. The work was
+ordered in 1760; it would thus appear that nine years were
+consumed in perfecting it, which is not surprising when we learn
+from the detailed account of its construction that the work began
+with making a perfect miniature model followed by one of full
+size. The &ldquo;bureau du roi&rdquo; is a large cylinder desk elaborately
+inlaid in marquetry of woods, and decorated with a wonderful
+and ornate series of mounts consisting of mouldings, plaques,
+vases and statuettes of gilt bronze cast and chased. These
+bronzes are the work of Duplessis, Winant and Hervieux. The
+desk, which shows plainly the transition between the Louis
+Quinze and Louis Seize styles, is as remarkable for the boldness
+of its conception as for the magnificent finish of its details. Its
+lines are large, flowing and harmonious, and although it is no
+longer exactly as it left the hands of its makers (Oeben died
+before it was finished) the alterations that have been made have
+hardly interfered with the general effect. For the head of the
+king for whom it was made that of Minerva in a helmet was
+substituted under his successor. The ciphers of Louis XV. have
+been removed and replaced by Sèvres plaques, and even the
+key which bore the king&rsquo;s initial crowned with laurels and
+palm leaves, with his portrait on the one side, and the fleur de lys
+on the other, has been interfered with by an austere republicanism.
+Yet no tampering with details can spoil the monumental nobility
+of this great conception.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESLONGCHAMPS, JACQUES AMAND EUDES-</span> (1794-1867),
+French naturalist and palaeontologist, was born at Caen in
+Normandy on the 17th of January 1794. His parents, though
+poor, contrived to give him a good education, and he studied
+medicine in his native town to such good effect that in 1812 he
+was appointed assistant-surgeon in the navy, and in 1815 surgeon
+assistant major to the military hospital of Caen. Soon afterwards
+he proceeded to Paris to qualify for the degree of doctor of
+surgery, and there the researches and teachings of Cuvier attracted
+his attention to subjects of natural history and palaeontology.
+In 1822 he was elected surgeon to the board of relief at Caen, and
+while he never ceased to devote his energies to the duties of this
+post, he sought relaxation in geological studies. Soon he discovered
+remains of <i>Teleosaurus</i> in one of the Caen quarries, and
+he became an ardent palaeontologist. He was one of the founders
+of the museum of natural history at Caen, and acted as honorary
+curator; he was likewise one of the founders of the <i>Sociétié
+linnéenne de Normandie</i> (1823), to the transactions of which
+society he communicated papers on <i>Teleosaurus</i>, <i>Poekilopleuron</i>
+(<i>Megalosaurus</i>), on Jurassic mollusca and brachiopoda. In 1825
+he became professor of zoology to the faculty of sciences, and in
+1847, dean. He died on the 17th of January 1867.</p>
+
+<p>His son <span class="sc">Eugène Eudes-Deslongchamps</span> (1830-1889), French
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97"></a>97</span>
+palaeontologist, was born in 1830. He succeeded his father about
+the year 1856 as professor of zoology at the faculty of sciences at
+Caen, and in 1861 he became also professor of geology and dean.
+After the death of his father in 1867, he devoted himself to the
+completion of a memoir on the Teleosaurs: the joint labours
+being embodied in his <i>Prodrome des Téléosauriens du Calvados</i>.
+To the Société Linnéenne de Normandie he contributed memoirs
+on Jurassic brachiopods, on the geology of the department of La
+Manche (1856), of Calvados (1856-1863), on the <i>Terrain callovien</i>
+(1859), on <i>Nouvelle-Calédonie</i> (1864), and <i>Études sur les étages
+jurassiques inférieurs de la Normandie</i> (1864). His work <i>Le
+Jura normand</i> was issued in 1877-1878 (incomplete). He died
+at Château Matthieu, Calvados, on the 21st of December 1889.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESMAISEAUX, PIERRE</span> (1673-1745); French writer, was
+born at Saillat, probably in 1673. His father, a minister of the
+reformed church, had to leave France on the revocation of the
+edict of Nantes, and took refuge in Geneva, where Pierre was
+educated. Bayle gave him an introduction to the 3rd Lord
+Shaftesbury, with whom, in 1699, he came to England, where he
+engaged in literary work. He remained in close touch with
+the religious refugees in England and Holland, and constantly in
+correspondence with the leading continental savants and writers,
+who were in the habit of employing him to conduct such business
+as they might have in England. In 1720 he was elected a fellow
+of the Royal Society. Among his works are <i>Vie de St Evremond</i>
+(1711), <i>Vie de Boileau-Despréaux</i> (1712), <i>Vie de Bayle</i> (1730).
+He also took an active part in preparing the <i>Bibliothèque raisonnée
+des ouvrages de l&rsquo;Europe</i> (1728-1753), and the <i>Bibliothèque
+britannique</i> (1733-1747), and edited a selection of St Evremond&rsquo;s
+writings (1706). Part of Desmaiseaux&rsquo;s correspondence is preserved
+in the British Museum, and other letters are in the royal
+library at Copenhagen. He died on the 11th of July 1745.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESMAREST, NICOLAS</span> (1725-1815), French geologist, was
+born at Soulaines, in the department of Aube, on the 16th of
+September 1725. Of humble parentage, he was educated at
+the college of the Oratorians of Troyes and Paris. Taking full
+advantage of the instruction he received, he was able to support
+himself by teaching, and to continue his studies independently.
+Buffon&rsquo;s <i>Theory of the Earth</i> interested him, and in 1753 he
+successfully competed for a prize by writing an essay on the
+ancient connexion between England and France. This attracted
+much attention, and ultimately led to his being employed in
+studying and reporting on manufactures in different countries,
+and in 1788 to his appointment as inspector-general of the
+manufactures of France. He utilized his journeys, travelling on
+foot, so as to add to his knowledge of the earth&rsquo;s structure. In
+1763 he made observations in Auvergne, recognizing that the
+prismatic basalts were old lava streams, comparing them with
+the columns of the Giant&rsquo;s Causeway in Ireland, and referring
+them to the operations of extinct volcanoes. It was not, however,
+until 1774 that he published an essay on the subject, accompanied
+by a geological map, having meanwhile on several occasions
+revisited the district. He then pointed out the succession of
+volcanic outbursts and the changes the rocks had undergone
+through weathering and erosion. As remarked by Sir A. Geikie,
+the doctrine of the origin of valleys by the erosive action of the
+streams which flow through them was first clearly taught by
+Desmarest. An enlarged and improved edition of his map of the
+volcanic region of Auvergne was published after his death, in
+1823, by his son <span class="sc">Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest</span> (1784-1838), who
+was distinguished as a zoologist, and author of memoirs on recent
+and fossil crustacea. He died in Paris on the 20th of September
+1815.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>The Founders of Geology</i>, by Sir A. Geikie (1897), pp. 48-78.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="author sc">(H. B. Wo.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESMARETS</span> (or <span class="sc">Desmaretz</span>), <span class="bold">JEAN,</span> <span class="sc">Sieur de Saint-Sorlin</span>
+(1595-1676), French dramatist and miscellaneous writer,
+was born in Paris in 1595. When he was about thirty he was
+introduced to Richelieu, and became one of the band of writers
+who carried out the cardinal&rsquo;s literary ideas. Desmarets&rsquo;s own
+inclination was to novel-writing, and the success of his romance
+<i>Ariane</i> in 1631 led to his formal admission to the circle that met
+at the house of Valentine Conrart and later developed into the
+Académie Française. Desmarets was its first chancellor. It was
+at Richelieu&rsquo;s request that he began to write for the theatre. In
+this kind he produced a comedy long regarded as a masterpiece,
+<i>Les Visionnaires</i> (1637); a prose-tragedy, <i>Érigone</i> (1638); and
+<i>Scipion</i> (1639), a tragedy in verse. His success led to official
+preferment, and he was made <i>conseiller du roi</i>, <i>contrôleur-général
+de l&rsquo;extraordinaire des guerres</i>, and secretary-general of the fleet
+of the Levant. His long epic <i>Clovis</i> (1657) is noteworthy because
+Desmarets rejected the traditional pagan background, and
+maintained that Christian imagery should supplant it. With
+this standpoint he contributed several works in defence of
+the moderns in the famous quarrel between the Ancients and
+Moderns. In his later years Desmarets devoted himself chiefly
+to producing a quantity of religious poems, of which the best-known
+is perhaps his verse translation of the <i>Office de la Vierge</i>
+(1645). He was a violent opponent of the Jansenists, against
+whom he wrote a <i>Réponse à l&rsquo;insolente apologie de Port-Royal ...</i>
+(1666). He died in Paris on the 28th of October 1676.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See also H. Rigault, <i>Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des
+modernes</i> (1856), pp. 80-103.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESMARETS, NICOLAS,</span> <span class="sc">Sieur de Maillebois</span> (1648-1721),
+French statesman, was born in Paris on the 10th of September
+1648. His mother was the sister of J. B. Colbert, who took him
+into his offices as a clerk. He became counsellor to the parlement
+in 1672, master of requests in 1674 and intendant of finances in
+1678. In these last functions he had to treat with the financiers
+for the coinage of new silver pieces of four sous. After Colbert&rsquo;s
+death he was involved in the legal proceedings taken against those
+financiers who had manufactured coins of bad alloy. The
+prosecution, conducted by the members of the family of Le Tellier,
+rivals of the Colberts, presented no proof against Desmarets.
+Nevertheless he was stripped of his offices and exiled to his
+estates by the king, on the 23rd of December 1683. In March
+1686 he was authorized to return to Paris, and again entered
+into relations with the controllers-general of finance, to whom
+he furnished for more than ten years remarkable memoirs on the
+economic situation in France. As early as 1687 he showed the
+necessity for radical reforms in the system of taxation, insisting
+on the ruin of the people and the excessive expenses of the king.
+By these memoirs he established his claim to a place among
+the great economists of the time, Vauban, Boisguilbert and the
+comte de Boulainvilliers. When in September 1699 Chamillart
+was named controller-general of finances, he took Desmarets for
+counsellor; and when he created the two offices of directors
+of finances, he gave one to Desmarets (October 22, 1703).
+Henceforth Desmarets was veritable minister of finance. Louis
+XIV. had long conversations with him. Madame de Maintenon
+protected him. The economists Vauban and Boisguilbert exchanged
+long conversations with him. When Chamillart found
+his double functions too heavy, and retaining the ministry of
+war resigned that of finance in 1708, Desmarets succeeded him.
+The situation was exceedingly grave. The ordinary revenues of
+the year 1708 amounted to 81,977,007 livres, of which 57,833,233
+livres had already been spent by anticipation, and the expenses
+to meet were 200,251,447 livres. In 1709 a famine reduced still
+more the returns from taxes. Yet Desmarets&rsquo;s reputation renewed
+the credit of the state, and financiers consented to advance
+money they had refused to the king. The emission of paper
+money, and a reform in the collection of taxes, enabled him to
+tide over the years 1709 and 1710. Then Desmarets decided upon
+an &ldquo;extreme and violent remedy,&rdquo; to use his own expression,&mdash;an
+income tax. His &ldquo;tenth&rdquo; was based on Vauban&rsquo;s plan; but
+the privileged classes managed to avoid it, and it proved no better
+than other expedients. Nevertheless Louis XIV. managed to
+meet the most urgent expenses, and the deficit of 1715, about
+350,000,000 livres, was much less than it would have been had
+it not been for Desmarets&rsquo;s reforms. The honourable peace which
+Louis was enabled to conclude at Utrecht with his enemies was certainly
+due to the resources which Desmarets procured for him.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Louis XIV. Desmarets was dismissed by
+the regent along with all the other ministers. He withdrew to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98"></a>98</span>
+his estates. To justify his ministry he addressed to the regent
+a <i>Compte rendu</i>, which showed clearly the difficulties he had
+to meet. His enemies even, like Saint Simon, had to recognize
+his honesty and his talent. He was certainly, after Colbert, the
+greatest finance minister of Louis XIV.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Forbonnais, <i>Recherches et considérations sur les finances de la
+France</i> (2 vols., Basel, 1758); Montyon, <i>Particularités et observations
+sur les ministres des finances de la France</i> (Paris, 1812); De Boislisle,
+<i>Correspondance des contrôleurs-généraux des finances</i> (3 vols., Paris,
+1873-1897); and the same author&rsquo;s &ldquo;Desmarets et l&rsquo;affaire des pièces
+de quatre sols&rdquo; in the appendix to the seventh volume of his edition
+of the <i>Mémoires de Saint-Simon</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author sc">(E. Es.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DES MOINES,</span> the capital and the largest city of Iowa, U.S.A.,
+and the county-seat of Polk county, in the south central part of
+the state, at the confluence of the Raccoon with the Des Moines
+river. Pop. (1890) 50,093; (1900) 62,139, of whom 7946 were
+foreign-born, including 1907 from Sweden and 1432 from
+Germany; (1910 census) 86,368. Des Moines is served by the
+Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy, the Chicago &amp; North-Western,
+the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St Paul,
+the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific, the Wabash, the Minneapolis
+&amp; St Louis, and the Des Moines, Iowa Falls &amp; Northern railways;
+also by several interurban electric lines. The chief building
+in Des Moines is the State Capitol, erected at a cost of about
+$3,000,000; other important buildings are the public library
+(containing, in 1908, 40,415 volumes), the court house, the post
+office, the Iowa State Historical building, a large auditorium
+and two hospitals. As a manufacturing centre the city has
+considerable importance. Among the leading products are
+those of the furnaces, foundries and machine shops, flour and
+grist mills, planing mills, creameries, bridge and iron works,
+publishing houses and a packing house; and brick, tile, pottery,
+patent medicines, furniture, caskets, tombstones, carriages,
+farm machinery, Portland cement, glue, gloves and hosiery. The
+value of the factory product in 1905 was $15,084,958, an increase
+of 79.7% in five years. The city is in one of the most productive
+coal regions of the state, has a large jobbing trade, and is an
+important centre for the insurance business. The Iowa state fair
+is held here annually. In 1908 this city had a park system of
+750 acres. Des Moines is the seat of Des Moines College, a
+Baptist institution, co-educational, founded in 1865 (enrolment,
+1907-1908, 214); of Drake University (co-educational; founded
+in 1881 by the Disciples of Christ; now non-sectarian), with
+colleges of liberal arts, law, medicine, dental surgery and of the
+Bible, a conservatory of music, and a normal school, in which
+are departments of oratory and commercial training, and having
+in 1907-1908 1764 students, of whom 520 were in the summer
+school only; of the Highland Park College, founded in 1890;
+of Grand View College (Danish Lutheran), founded in 1895; and
+of the Capital City commercial college (founded 1884). A new
+city charter, embodying what has become known as the &ldquo;Des
+Moines Plan&rdquo; of municipal government, was adopted in 1907.
+It centralizes power in a council of five (mayor and four councilmen),
+nominated at a non-partisan primary and voted for on
+a non-partisan ticket by the electors of the entire city, ward
+divisions having been abolished. Elections are biennial. Other
+city officers are chosen by the council, and city employees are
+selected by a civil service commission of three members, appointed
+by the council. The mayor is superintendent of the
+department of public affairs, and each of the other administrative
+departments (accounts and finances, public safety,
+streets and public improvements, and parks and public
+property) is under the charge of one of the councilmen. After
+petition signed by a number of voters not less than 25% of the
+number voting at the preceding municipal election, any member
+of the council may be removed by popular vote, to which all
+public franchises must be submitted, and by which the council
+may be compelled to pass any law or ordinance.</p>
+
+<p>A fort called Fort Des Moines was established on the site of the
+city in 1843 to protect the rights of the Sacs and Foxes. In 1843
+the site was opened to settlement by the whites; in 1851 Des
+Moines was incorporated as a town; in 1857 it was first chartered
+as a city, and, for the purpose of a more central location, the seat
+of government was removed hither from Iowa City. A fort was
+re-established here by act of Congress in 1900 and named Fort
+Des Moines. It is occupied by a full regiment of cavalry. The
+name of the city was taken from that of the river, which in turn
+is supposed to represent a corruption by the French of the
+original Indian name, <i>Moingona</i>,&mdash;the French at first using
+the abbreviation &ldquo;moin,&rdquo; and calling the river &ldquo;<i>la rivière des
+moins</i>&rdquo; and then, the name having become associated with the
+Trappist monks, changing it into &ldquo;<i>la rivière des moines</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESMOND, GERALD FITZGERALD,</span> <span class="sc">15th Earl of</span> (d. 1583),
+Irish leader, was son of James, 14th earl, by his second wife More
+O&rsquo;Carroll. His father had agreed in January 1541, as one of the
+terms of his submission to Henry VIII., to send young Gerald
+to be educated in England. At the accession of Edward VI.
+proposals to this effect were renewed; Gerald was to be the
+companion of the young king. Unfortunately for the subsequent
+peace of Munster these projects were not carried out. The
+Desmond estates were held by a doubtful title, and claims on
+them were made by the Butlers, the hereditary enemies of the
+Geraldines, the 9th earl of Ormonde having married Lady Joan
+Fitzgerald, daughter and heiress-general of the 11th earl of
+Desmond. On Ormonde&rsquo;s death she proposed to marry Gerald
+Fitzgerald, and eventually did so, after the death of her second
+husband, Sir Francis Bryan. The effect of this marriage was a
+temporary cessation of open hostility between the Desmonds and
+her son, Thomas Butler, 10th earl of Ormonde.</p>
+
+<p>Gerald succeeded to the earldom in 1558; he was knighted by
+the lord deputy Sussex, and did homage at Waterford. He soon
+established close relations with his namesake Gerald Fitzgerald,
+11th earl of Kildare (1525-1585), and with Shane O&rsquo;Neill. In
+spite of an award made by Sussex in August 1560 regulating
+the matters in dispute between Ormonde and the Fitzgeralds,
+the Geraldine outlaws were still plundering their neighbours.
+Desmond neglected a summons to appear at Elizabeth&rsquo;s court
+for some time on the plea that he was at war with his uncle
+Maurice. When he did appear in London in May 1562 his
+insolent conduct before the privy council resulted in a short
+imprisonment in the Tower. He was detained in England until
+1564, and soon after his return his wife&rsquo;s death set him free from
+such restraint as was provided by her Butler connexion. He now
+raided Thomond, and in Waterford he sought to enforce his feudal
+rights on Sir Maurice Fitzgerald of Decies, who invoked the help
+of Ormonde. The two nobles thereupon resorted to open war,
+fighting a battle at Affane on the Blackwater, where Desmond
+was defeated and taken prisoner. Ormonde and Desmond were
+bound over in London to keep the peace, being allowed to return
+early in 1566 to Ireland, where a royal commission was appointed
+to settle the matters in dispute between them. Desmond and
+his brother Sir John of Desmond were sent over to England,
+where they surrendered their lands to the queen after a short
+experience of the Tower. In the meanwhile Desmond&rsquo;s cousin,
+James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, caused himself to be acclaimed
+captain of Desmond in defiance of Sidney, and in the evident
+expectation of usurping the earldom. He sought to give the
+movement an ultra-Catholic character, with the idea of gaining
+foreign assistance, and allied himself with John Burke, son of
+the earl of Clanricarde, with Connor O&rsquo;Brien, earl of Thomond,
+and even secured Ormonde&rsquo;s brother, Sir Edmund Butler, whom
+Sidney had offended. Piers and Edward Butler also joined the
+rebellion, but the appearance of Sidney and Ormonde in the
+south-west was rapidly followed by the submission of the Butlers.
+Most of the Geraldines were subjugated by Humphrey Gilbert,
+but Fitzmaurice remained in arms, and in 1571 Sir John Perrot
+undertook to reduce him. Perrot hunted him down, and at last
+on the 23rd of February 1573 he made formal submission at
+Kilmallock, lying prostrate on the floor of the church by way of
+proving his sincerity.</p>
+
+<p>Against the advice of the queen&rsquo;s Irish counsellors Desmond
+was allowed to return to Ireland in 1573, the earl promising not
+to exercise palatinate jurisdiction in Kerry until his rights to
+it were proved. He was detained for six months in Dublin, but
+in November slipped through the hands of the government, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99"></a>99</span>
+within a very short time had reduced to a state of anarchy the
+province which Perrot thought to have pacified by his severities.
+Edward Fitzgerald, brother of the earl of Kildare, and lieutenant
+of the queen&rsquo;s pensioners in London, was sent to remonstrate with
+Desmond, but accomplished nothing. Desmond asserted that
+none but Brehon law should be observed between Geraldines;
+and Fitzmaurice seized Captain George Bourchier, one of
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s officers in the west. Essex met the earl near Waterford
+in July, and Bourchier was surrendered, but Desmond
+refused the other demands made in the queen&rsquo;s name. A
+document offering £500 for his head, and £1000 to any one
+who would take him alive, was drawn up but was vetoed by two
+members of the council. On the 18th of July 1574 the Geraldine
+chiefs signed the &ldquo;Combination&rdquo; promising to support the earl
+unconditionally; shortly afterwards Ormonde and the lord
+deputy, Sir William Fitzwilliam, marched on Munster, and put
+Desmond&rsquo;s garrison at Derrinlaur Castle to the sword. Desmond
+submitted at Cork on the 2nd of September, handing over his
+estates to trustees. Sir Henry Sidney visited Munster in 1575,
+and affairs seemed to promise an early restoration of order. But
+Fitzmaurice had fled to Brittany in company with other leading
+Geraldines, John Fitzgerald, seneschal of Imokilly, who had held
+Ballymartyr against Sidney in 1567, and Edmund Fitzgibbon,
+the son of the White Knight who had been attainted in 1571.
+He intrigued at the French and Spanish courts for a foreign
+invasion of Ireland, and at Rome met the adventurer Stucley,
+with whom he projected an expedition which was to make
+a nephew of Gregory XIII. king of Ireland. In 1579 he landed
+in Smerwick Bay, where he was joined later by some Spanish
+soldiers at the Fort del Ore. His ships were captured on the
+29th of July and he himself was slain in a skirmish while on his
+way to Tipperary. Nicholas Sanders, the papal legate who had
+accompanied Fitzmaurice, worked on Desmond&rsquo;s weakness, and
+sought to draw him into open rebellion. Desmond had perhaps
+been restrained before by jealousy of Fitzmaurice; his indecisions
+ceased when on the 1st of November Sir William Pelham
+proclaimed him a traitor. The sack of Youghal and Kinsale by
+the Geraldines was speedily followed by the successes of Ormonde
+and Pelham acting in concert with Admiral Winter. In June
+1581 Desmond had to take to the woods, but he maintained a
+considerable following for some time, which, however, in June
+1583, when Ormonde set a price on his head, was reduced to four
+persons. Five months later, on the 11th of November, he was
+seized and murdered by a small party of soldiers. His brother
+Sir John of Desmond had been caught and killed in December
+1581, and the seneschal of Imokilly had surrendered on the 14th
+of June 1583. After his submission the seneschal acted loyally,
+but his lands excited envy; he was arrested in 1587, and died
+in Dublin Castle two days later.</p>
+
+<p>By his second marriage with Eleanor Butler, the 15th earl left
+two sons, the elder of whom, James, 16th earl (1570-1601), spent
+most of his life in prison. After an unsuccessful attempt in
+1600-1601 to recover his inheritance he returned to England,
+where he died, the title becoming extinct.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See G. E. C(okayne,) <i>Complete Peerage</i>; R. Bagwell, <i>Ireland under
+the Tudors</i> (1885-1890); <i>Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters</i>
+(ed. J. O&rsquo;Donovan, 1851); and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fitzgerald</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESMOND</span> (<i>Des-Mumha</i>), an ancient territorial division of
+Ireland, covering the eastern part of the modern Co. Kerry and
+the western part of Co. Cork. Its creation as a kingdom is placed
+in the year 248, when Oliol Olum, king of Munster, divided his
+territory between his two sons, giving Desmond to Eoghan, and
+Thomond or North Munster to Cormac. In 1329 Maurice
+Fitzthomas or Fitzgerald (d. 1356), lord of Decies and Desmond,
+was created 1st earl of Desmond by Edward III.; like other
+earls created about that time he ruled his territory as a palatinate,
+and his family acquired enormous powers and a large measure
+of independence. Meanwhile native kings continued to reign in
+a restricted territory until 1596. In 1583 came the attainder of
+<a href="#artlinks">Gerald Fitzgerald</a>, 15th earl of Desmond (q.v.), and in 1586 an act
+of parliament declared the forfeiture of the Desmond estates to
+the crown. In 1571 a commission provided for the formation of
+Desmond into a county, and it was regarded as such for a few
+years, but by the beginning of the 17th century it was joined to
+Co. Kerry.</p>
+
+<p>In 1619 the title of earl of Desmond was conferred on Richard
+Preston, Lord Dingwall, at whose death in 1628 it again became
+extinct. It was then bestowed on George Feilding, second son
+of William, earl of Denbigh, who had held the reversion of the
+earldom from 1622. His son William Feilding succeeded as earl
+of Denbigh in 1675, and thenceforward the title of Desmond was
+held in conjunction with that honour.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table style="float: left; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figleft1">
+    <img src="images/img99.jpg" width="97" height="400" alt="DESMOSCOLECIDA" title="DESMOSCOLECIDA" /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="norm" style="padding-right: 1.5em;">
+        <p style="font-size: 80%; line-height: 1em;">From <i>Cambridge Natural
+           History</i>, vol. ii., &ldquo;Worms,&rdquo;
+           &amp;c., by permission of Macmillian
+           &amp; Co. Ltd.</p>
+
+        <p style="line-height: 1em;">Female <i>Desmoscolex
+           elongatus</i> Panceri, ventral
+           view. a, Ovary.
+          (From Panceri.)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESMOSCOLECIDA,</span> a group of minute marine worm-like
+creatures. The body tapers towards each end and is marked by
+a number of well-defined ridges. These
+ridges resemble on a small scale those
+which surround the body of a <i>Porocephalus</i>
+(Linguatulida), and like them
+have no segmental significance. Their
+number varies in the different species.
+The head bears four setae, and some of
+the ridges bear a pair either dorsally
+or ventrally. The setae are movable.
+Two pigment spots between the fourth
+and fifth ridges are regarded as eyes.
+The Desmoscolecida move by looping
+their bodies like geometrid caterpillars
+or leeches, as well as by creeping on their
+setae. The mouth is terminal, and
+leads into a muscular oesophagus which
+opens into a straight intestine terminating
+in an anus, which is said to be
+dorsal in position. The sexes are distinct.
+The testis is single, and its duct
+opens into the intestine and is provided
+with two chitinous spicules. The ovary
+is also single, opening independently
+and anterior to the anus. The nervous
+system is as yet unknown.</p>
+
+<p>There are several species. <i>D. minutus</i>
+Clap. has been met with in the English
+Channel. Others are <i>D. nematoides</i>
+Greef, <i>D. adelphus</i> Greef, <i>D. chaetogaster</i>
+Greef, <i>D. elongatus</i> Panceri, <i>D. lanuginosa</i>
+Panceri. <i>Trichoderma oxycaudatum</i>
+Greef is 0.3 mm. long, and is also a
+&ldquo;ringed creature with long hair-like
+bristles.&rdquo; The male has two spicules,
+and there is some doubt as to whether
+it should be placed with the Desmoscolecida
+or with the Nematoda. With regard to the systematic
+position of the group, it certainly comes nearest&mdash;especially in
+the structure of its reproductive organs&mdash;to the Nematoda. We
+still, however, are very ignorant of the internal anatomy of these
+forms, and until we know more it is impossible to arrive at a
+very definite conclusion as to their position in the animal
+kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Panceri, <i>Atti Acc. Napoli.</i> vii. (1878); Greef, <i>Arch. Naturg.</i>
+35 (i.) (1869), p. 112.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESMOULINS, LUCIE SIMPLICE CAMILLE BENOIST</span> (1760-1794),
+French journalist and politician, who played an important
+part in the French Revolution, was born at Guise, in Picardy, on
+the 2nd of March 1760. His father was lieutenant-general of the
+<i>bailliage</i> of Guise, and through the efforts of a friend obtained
+a <i>bourse</i> for his son, who at the age of fourteen left home for Paris,
+and entered the college of Louis le Grand. In this school, in
+which Robespierre was also a bursar and a distinguished student,
+Camille Desmoulins laid the solid foundation of his learning.
+Destined by his father for the law, at the completion of his legal
+studies he was admitted an advocate of the parlement of Paris
+in 1785. His professional success was not great; his manner was
+violent, his appearance unattractive, and his speech impaired by
+a painful stammer. He indulged, however, his love for literature,
+was closely observant of public affairs, and thus gradually
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100"></a>100</span>
+prepared himself for the main duties of his life&mdash;those of a
+political <i>littérateur</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In March 1789 Desmoulins began his political career. Having
+been nominated deputy from the <i>bailliage</i> of Guise, he appeared
+at Laon as one of the commissioners for the election of deputies
+to the States-General summoned by royal edict of January 24th.
+Camille heralded its meeting by his <i>Ode to the States-General</i>. It
+is, moreover, highly probable that he was the author of a radical
+pamphlet entitled <i>La Philosophie au peuple français</i>, published
+in 1788, the text of which is not known. His hopes of professional
+success were now scattered, and he was living in Paris
+in extreme poverty. He, however, shared to the full the excitement
+which attended the meeting of the States-General. As
+appears from his letters to his father, he watched with exultation
+the procession of deputies at Versailles, and with violent indignation
+the events of the latter part of June which followed the
+closing of the Salle des Menus to the deputies who had named
+themselves the National Assembly. It is further evident that
+Desmoulins was already sympathizing, not only with the enthusiasm,
+but also with the fury and cruelty, of the Parisian crowds.</p>
+
+<p>The sudden dismissal of Necker by Louis XVI. was the event
+which brought Desmoulins to fame. On the 12th of July 1789
+Camille, leaping upon a table outside one of the cafés in
+the garden of the Palais Royal, announced to the crowd
+the dismissal of their favourite. Losing, in his violent excitement,
+his stammer, he inflamed the passions of the mob by his
+burning words and his call &ldquo;To arms!&rdquo; &ldquo;This dismissal,&rdquo;
+he said, &ldquo;is the tocsin of the St Bartholomew of the patriots.&rdquo;
+Drawing, at last, two pistols from under his coat, he declared that
+he would not fall alive into the hands of the police who were
+watching his movements. He descended amid the embraces of
+the crowd, and his cry &ldquo;To arms!&rdquo; resounded on all sides.
+This scene was the beginning of the actual events of the
+Revolution. Following Desmoulins the crowd surged through
+Paris, procuring arms by force; and on the 13th it was partly
+organized as the Parisian militia which was afterwards to be the
+National Guard. On the 14th the Bastille was taken.</p>
+
+<p>Desmoulins may be said to have begun on the following day
+that public literary career which lasted till his death. In May
+and June 1789 he had written <i>La France libre</i>, which, to his
+chagrin, his publisher refused to print. The taking of the Bastille,
+however, and the events by which it was preceded, were a sign
+that the times had changed; and on the 18th of July Desmoulins&rsquo;s
+work was issued. Considerably in advance of public opinion,
+it already pronounced in favour of a republic. By its erudite,
+brilliant and courageous examination of the rights of king, of
+nobles, of clergy and of people, it attained a wide and sudden
+popularity; it secured for the author the friendship and protection
+of Mirabeau, and the studied abuse of numerous royalist
+pamphleteers. Shortly afterwards, with his vanity and love of
+popularity inflamed, he pandered to the passions of the lower
+orders by the publication of his <i>Discours de la lanterne aux
+Parisiens</i> which, with an almost fiendish reference to the excesses
+of the mob, he headed by a quotation from St John, <i>Qui male
+agit odit lucem</i>. Camille was dubbed &ldquo;Procureur-général de
+la lanterne.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In November 1789 Desmoulins began his career as a journalist
+by the issue of the first number of a weekly publication, <i>Les
+Révolutions de France et de Brabant</i>. The title of the publication
+changed after the 73rd number. It ceased to appear at the end
+of July 1791.<a name="FnAnchor_1l" href="#Footnote_1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Success attended the <i>Révolutions</i> from its first to its last
+number, Camille was everywhere famous, and his poverty was
+relieved. These numbers are valuable as an exhibition not so
+much of events as of the feelings of the Parisian people; they
+are adorned, moreover, by the erudition, the wit and the genius
+of the author, but they are disfigured, not only by the most biting
+personalities and the defence and even advocacy of the excesses
+of the mob, but by the entire absence of the forgiveness and pity
+for which the writer was afterwards so eloquently to plead.</p>
+
+<p>Desmoulins was powerfully swayed by the influence of more
+vigorous minds; and for some time before the death of Mirabeau,
+in April 1791, he had begun to be led by Danton, with whom
+he remained associated during the rest of his life. In July 1791
+Camille appeared before the municipality of Paris as head of
+a deputation of petitioners for the deposition of the king. In
+that month, however, such a request was dangerous; there was
+excitement in the city over the presentation of the petition, and
+the private attacks to which Desmoulins had often been subject
+were now followed by a warrant for the arrest of himself and
+Danton. Danton left Paris for a little; Desmoulins, however,
+remained there, appearing occasionally at the Jacobin club.
+Upon the failure of this attempt of his opponents, Desmoulins
+published a pamphlet, <i>Jean Pierre Brissot démasqué</i>, which
+abounded in the most violent personalities. This pamphlet,
+which had its origin in a petty squabble, was followed in 1793
+by a <i>Fragment de l&rsquo;histoire secrète de la Révolution</i>, in which the
+party of the Gironde, and specially Brissot, were most mercilessly
+attacked. Desmoulins took an active part on the 10th of August
+and became secretary to Danton, when the latter became
+minister of justice. On the 8th of September he was elected one of
+the deputies for Paris to the National Convention, where, however,
+he was not successful as an orator. He was of the party of the
+&ldquo;Mountain,&rdquo; and voted for the abolition of royalty and the death
+of the king. With Robespierre he was now more than ever
+associated, and the <i>Histoire des Brissotins</i>, the fragment above
+alluded to, was inspired by the arch-revolutionist. The success
+of the <i>brochure</i>, so terrible as to send the leaders of the Gironde
+to the guillotine, alarmed Danton and the author. Yet the role
+of Desmoulins during the Convention was of but secondary
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>In December 1793 was issued the first number of the <i>Vieux
+Cordelier</i>, which was at first directed against the Hébertists and
+approved of by Robespierre, but which soon formulated Danton&rsquo;s
+idea of a committee of clemency. Then Robespierre turned
+against Desmoulins and took advantage of the popular indignation
+roused against the Hébertists to send them to death. The
+time had come, however, when Saint Just and he were to turn
+their attention not only to <i>les enragés</i>, but to <i>les indulgents</i>&mdash;the
+powerful faction of the Dantonists. On the 7th of January
+1794 Robespierre, who on a former occasion had defended Camille
+when in danger at the hands of the National Convention, in
+addressing the Jacobin club counselled not the expulsion of
+Desmoulins, but the burning of certain numbers of the <i>Vieux
+Cordelier</i>. Camille sharply replied that he would answer with
+Rousseau,&mdash;&ldquo;burning is not answering,&rdquo; and a bitter quarrel
+thereupon ensued. By the end of March not only were Hébert
+and the leaders of the extreme party guillotined, but their
+opponents, Danton, Desmoulins and the best of the moderates,
+were arrested. On the 31st the warrant of arrest was signed and
+executed, and on the 3rd, 4th and 5th of April the trial took place
+before the Revolutionary Tribunal. It was a scene of terror not
+only to the accused but to judges and to jury. The retorts of the
+prisoners were notable. Camille on being asked his age, replied,
+&ldquo;I am thirty-three, the age of the <i>sans-culotte</i> Jesus, a critical age
+for every patriot.&rdquo; This was false; he was thirty-four.<a name="FnAnchor_2l" href="#Footnote_2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The
+accused were prevented from defending themselves; a decree of
+the Convention denied them the right of speech. Armed with
+this and the false report of a spy, who charged the wife of
+Desmoulins with conspiring for the escape of her husband and the
+ruin of the republic, Fouquier-Tinville by threats and entreaties
+obtained from the jury a sentence of death. It was passed in
+absence of the accused, and their execution was appointed for
+the same day.</p>
+
+<p>Since his arrest the courage of Camille had miserably failed.
+He had exhibited in the numbers of the <i>Vieux Cordelier</i> almost
+a disregard of the death which he must have known hovered over
+him. He had with consummate ability exposed the terrors of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101"></a>101</span>
+the Revolution, and had adorned his pages with illustrations from
+Tacitus, the force of which the commonest reader could feel. In
+his last number, the seventh, which his publisher refused to print,
+he had dared to attack even Robespierre, but at his trial it was
+found that he was devoid of physical courage. He had to be torn
+from his seat ere he was removed to prison, and as he sat next to
+Danton in the tumbrel which conveyed them to the guillotine,
+the calmness of the great leader failed to impress him. In his
+violence, bound as he was, he tore his clothes into shreds, and
+his bare shoulders and breast were exposed to the gaze of the
+surging crowd. Of the fifteen guillotined together, including
+among them Marie Jean Hérault de Séchelles, François Joseph
+Westermann and Pierre Philippeaux, Desmoulins died third;
+Danton, the greatest, died last.</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th of December 1790 Camille had married Lucile
+Duplessis, and among the witnesses of the ceremony are observed
+the names of Brissot, Pétion and Robespierre. The only child
+of the marriage, Horace Camille, was born on the 6th of July
+1792. Two days afterwards Desmoulins brought it into notice
+by appearing with it before the municipality of Paris to demand
+&ldquo;the formal statement of the civil estate of his son.&rdquo; The boy
+was afterwards pensioned by the French government, and died
+in Haiti in 1825. Lucile, Desmoulins&rsquo;s accomplished and affectionate
+wife, was, a few days after her husband, and on a false
+charge, condemned to the guillotine. She astonished all onlookers
+by the calmness with which she braved death (April 13, 1794).</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See J. Claretie, <i>&OElig;uvres de Camille Desmoulins avec une étude
+biographique ...</i> &amp;c. (Paris, 1874), and <i>Camille Desmoulins, Lucile
+Desmoulins, étude sur les Dantonistes</i> (Paris, 1875; Eng. trans.,
+London, 1876); F. A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la
+Convention</i> (Paris, 1905, 2nd ed.): G. Lenôtre, &ldquo;La Maison de Camille
+Desmoulins&rdquo; (<i>Le Temps</i>, March 25, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1l" href="#FnAnchor_1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In April 1792 Desmoulins founded with Stanislas Fréron a new
+journal, <i>La Tribune des patriotes</i>, but only four numbers appeared.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2l" href="#FnAnchor_2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This is borne out by the register of his birth and baptism, and by
+words in his last letter to his wife,&mdash;&ldquo;I die at thirty-four.&rdquo; The
+dates (1762-1794) given in so many biographies of Desmoulins are
+certainly inaccurate.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESNOYERS, JULES PIERRE FRANÇOIS STANISLAS</span> (1800-1887),
+French geologist and archaeologist, was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou,
+in the department of Eure-et-Loir, on the 8th of October
+1800. Becoming interested in geology at an early age, he was one
+of the founders of the Société Géologique de France in 1830.
+In 1834 he was appointed librarian of the Museum of Natural
+History in Paris. His contributions to geological science comprise
+memoirs on the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata
+of the Paris Basin and of Northern France, and other papers
+relating to the antiquity of man, and to the question of his
+co-existence with extinct mammalia. His separate books were
+<i>Sur la Craie et sur les terrains tertiaires du Cotentin</i> (1825),
+<i>Recherches géologiques et historiques sur les cavernes</i> (1845). He
+died in 1887.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESOR, PIERRE JEAN ÉDOUARD</span> (1811-1882), Swiss
+geologist, was born at Friedrichsdorf, near Frankfort-on-Main,
+on the 13th of February 1811. Associated in early years with
+Agassiz he studied palaeontology and glacial phenomena, and
+in company with J. D. Forbes ascended the Jungfrau in 1841.
+Desor afterwards became professor of geology in the academy
+at Neuchâtel, continued his studies on the structure of glaciers,
+but gave special attention to the study of Jurassic Echinoderms.
+He also investigated the old lake-habitations of Switzerland,
+and made important observations on the physical features of
+the Sahara. Having inherited considerable property he retired
+to Combe Varin in Val Travers. He died at Nizza on the 23rd
+of February 1882. His chief publications were: <i>Synopsis des
+Échinides fossiles</i> (1858), <i>Aus Sahara</i> (1865), <i>Der Gebirgsbau
+der Alpen</i> (1865), <i>Die Pfahlbauten des Neuenburger Sees</i> (1866),
+<i>Échinologie helvétique</i> (2 vols., 1868-1873, with P. de Loriol).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DE SOTO,</span> a city of Jefferson county, Missouri, U.S.A., on
+Joachim Creek, 42 m. S.S.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 3960;
+(1900) 5611 (332 being foreign-born and 364 negroes); (1910) 4721.
+It is served by the St. Louis, Iron Mountain &amp; Southern railway,
+which has extensive repair shops here. About 2½ m. from De Soto
+is the Bochert mineral spring. In De Soto are Mount St Clement&rsquo;s
+College (Roman Catholic, 1900), a theological seminary of the
+Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer under the charge of the
+Redemptorist Fathers, and a Young Men&rsquo;s Christian Association
+building. De Soto is in a good agricultural and fruit-growing
+region, which produces Indian corn, apples, plums, pears and
+small fruit. Lead and zinc are mined in the vicinity and shipped
+from the city in considerable quantities; and among the city&rsquo;s
+manufactures are shoes, flour and agricultural implements. The
+municipality owns the water-works, the water supply of which is
+furnished by artesian wells. De Soto was laid out in 1855 and
+was incorporated in 1869.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESPARD, EDWARD MARCUS</span> (1751-1803), Irish conspirator,
+was born in Queen&rsquo;s Co., Ireland, in 1751. In 1766 he entered
+the British navy, was promoted lieutenant in 1772, and stationed
+at Jamaica, where he soon proved himself to have considerable
+engineering talent. He served in the West Indies with credit,
+being promoted captain after the San Juan expedition (1779),
+then made governor of the Mosquito Shore and the Bay of
+Honduras, and in 1782 commander of a successful expedition
+against the Spanish possessions on the Black river. In 1784
+he took over the administration of Yucatan. Upon frivolous
+charges he was suspended by Lord Grenville, and recalled to
+England. From 1790 to 1792 these charges were held over him,
+and when dismissed no compensation was forthcoming. His
+complaints caused him to be arrested in 1798; and with a short
+interval he remained in gaol until 1800. By that time Despard
+was desperate, and engaged in a plot to seize the Tower of
+London and Bank of England and assassinate George III. The
+whole idea was patently preposterous, but Despard was arrested,
+tried before a special commission, found guilty of high treason,
+and, with six of his fellow-conspirators, sentenced in 1803 to be
+hanged, drawn and quartered. These were the last men to be
+so sentenced in England. Despard was executed on the 21st of
+February 1803.</p>
+
+<p>His eldest brother, <span class="sc">John Despard</span> (1745-1829), had a long and
+distinguished career in the British army; gazetted an ensign in
+1760, he was promoted through the various intermediate grades
+and became general in 1814. His most active service was in the
+American War of Independence, during which he was twice
+made prisoner.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESPENSER, HUGH LE</span> (d. 1265), chief justiciar of England,
+first plays an important part in 1258, when he was prominent on
+the baronial side in the Mad Parliament of Oxford. In 1260 the
+barons chose him to succeed Hugh Bigod as justiciar, and in 1263
+the king was further compelled to put the Tower of London in
+his hands. On the outbreak of civil war he joined the party of
+Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and led the Londoners when
+they sacked the manor-house of Isleworth, belonging to Richard,
+earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans. Having fought at Lewes
+(1264) he was made governor of six castles after the battle, and
+was then appointed one of the four arbitrators to mediate
+between Simon de Montfort and Gilbert de Clare, earl of
+Gloucester. He was summoned to Simon de Montfort&rsquo;s parliament
+in 1264, and acted as justiciar throughout the earl&rsquo;s
+dictatorship. Despenser was killed at Evesham in August 1265.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See C. Bémont, <i>Simon de Montfort</i> (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in
+<i>Owens College Historical Essays</i>, pp. 76 ff. (Manchester, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESPENSER, HUGH LE</span> (1262-1326), English courtier, was
+a son of the English justiciar who died at Evesham. He fought
+for Edward I. in Wales, France and Scotland, and in 1295 was
+summoned to parliament as a baron. Ten years later he was
+sent by the king to Pope Clement V. to secure Edward&rsquo;s release
+from the oaths he had taken to observe the charters in 1297.
+Almost alone Hugh spoke out for Edward II.&rsquo;s favourite, Piers
+Gaveston, in 1308; but after Gaveston&rsquo;s death in 1312 he himself
+became the king&rsquo;s chief adviser, holding power and influence
+until Edward&rsquo;s defeat at Bannockburn in 1314. Then, hated
+by the barons, and especially by Earl Thomas of Lancaster, as
+a deserter from their party, he was driven from the council, but
+was quickly restored to favour and loaded with lands and honours,
+being made earl of Winchester in 1322. Before this time Hugh&rsquo;s
+son, the younger Hugh le Despenser, had become associated with
+his father, and having been appointed the king&rsquo;s chamberlain
+was enjoying a still larger share of the royal favour. About 1306
+this baron had married Eleanor (d. 1337), one of the sisters and
+heiresses of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, who was slain at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102"></a>102</span>
+Bannockburn; and after a division of the immense Clare lands
+had been made in 1317 violent quarrels broke out between the
+Despensers and the husbands of the other heiresses, Roger of
+Amory and Hugh of Audley. Interwoven with this dispute was
+another between the younger Despenser and the Mowbrays, who
+were supported by Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, about
+some lands in Glamorganshire. Fighting having begun in Wales
+and on the Welsh borders, the English barons showed themselves
+decidedly hostile to the Despensers, and in 1321 Edward II. was
+obliged to consent to their banishment. While the elder Hugh
+left England the younger one remained; soon the king persuaded
+the clergy to annul the sentence against them, and father and
+son were again at court. They fought against the rebellious
+barons at Boroughbridge, and after Lancaster&rsquo;s death in 1322
+they were practically responsible for the government of the
+country, which they attempted to rule in a moderate and constitutional
+fashion. But their next enemy, Queen Isabella, was
+more formidable, or more fortunate, than Lancaster. Returning
+to England after a sojourn in France in 1326 the queen directed
+her arms against her husband&rsquo;s favourites. The elder Despenser
+was seized at Bristol, where he was hanged on the 27th of
+October 1326, and the younger was taken with the king at
+Llantrisant and hanged at Hereford on the 24th of November
+following. The attainder against the Despensers was reversed
+in 1398. The intense hatred with which the barons regarded the
+Despensers was due to the enormous wealth which had passed
+into their hands, and to the arrogance and rapacity of the
+younger Hugh.</p>
+
+<p>The younger Despenser left two sons, Hugh (1308-1349), and
+Edward, who was killed at Vannes in 1342.</p>
+
+<p>The latter&rsquo;s son <span class="sc">Edward le Despenser</span> (d. 1375) fought at
+the battle of Poitiers, and then in Italy for Pope Urban V.; he
+was a patron of Froissart, who calls him <i>le grand sire Despensier</i>.
+His son, <span class="sc">Thomas le Despenser</span> (1373-1400), the husband of
+Constance (d. 1416), daughter of Edmund of Langley, duke of
+York, supported Richard II. against Thomas of Woodstock, duke
+of Gloucester, and the other lords appellant in 1397, when he
+himself was created earl of Gloucester, but he deserted the king
+in 1399. Then, degraded from his earldom for participating in
+Gloucester&rsquo;s death, Despenser joined the conspiracy against
+Henry IV., but he was seized and was executed by a mob at
+Bristol in January 1400.</p>
+
+<p>The elder Edward le Despenser left another son, <span class="sc">Henry</span>
+(c. 1341-1406), who became bishop of Norwich in 1370. In
+early life Henry had been a soldier, and when the peasants
+revolted in 1381 he took readily to the field, defeated the insurgents
+at North Walsham, and suppressed the rising in Norfolk
+with some severity. More famous, however, was the militant
+bishop&rsquo;s enterprise on behalf of Pope Urban VI., who in 1382
+employed him to lead a crusade in Flanders against the supporters
+of the anti-pope Clement VII. He was very successful in capturing
+towns until he came before Ypres, where he was checked,
+his humiliation being completed when his army was defeated by
+the French and decimated by a pestilence. Having returned
+to England the bishop was impeached in parliament and was
+deprived of his lands; Richard II., however, stood by him, and
+he soon regained an influential place in the royal council, and
+was employed to defend his country on the seas. Almost alone
+among his peers Henry remained true to Richard in 1399; he was
+then imprisoned, but was quickly released and reconciled with
+the new king, Henry IV. He died on the 23rd of August 1406.
+Despenser was an active enemy of the Lollards, whose leader,
+John Wycliffe, had fiercely denounced his crusade in Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>The barony of Despenser, called out of abeyance in 1604, was
+held by the Fanes, earls of Westmorland, from 1626 to 1762;
+by the notorious Sir Francis Dashwood from 1763 to 1781;
+and by the Stapletons from 1788 to 1891. In 1891 it was
+inherited, through his mother, by the 7th Viscount Falmouth.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DES PÉRIERS, BONAVENTURE</span> (c. 1500-1544), French
+author, was born of a noble family at Arnay-le-duc in Burgundy
+at the end of the 15th century. The circumstances of his education
+are uncertain, but he became a good classical scholar, and
+was attached to various noble houses in the capacity of tutor.
+In 1533 or 1534 Des Périers visited Lyons, then the most enlightened
+town of France, and a refuge for many liberal scholars
+who might elsewhere have had to suffer for their opinions. He
+gave some assistance to Robert Olivetan and Lefèvre d&rsquo;Étaples
+in the preparation of the vernacular version of the Old Testament,
+and to Étienne Dolet in the <i>Commentarii linguae latinae</i>. In
+1536 he put himself under the protection of Marguerite
+d&rsquo;Angoulême, queen of Navarre, who made him her <i>valet-de-chambre</i>.
+He acted as the queen&rsquo;s secretary, and transcribed the
+<i>Heptaméron</i> for her. It is probable that his duties extended
+beyond those of a mere copyist, and some writers have gone so
+far as to say that the <i>Heptaméron</i> was his work. The free
+discussions permitted at Marguerite&rsquo;s court encouraged a licence
+of thought as displeasing to the Calvinists as to the Catholics.
+This free inquiry became scepticism in Bonaventure&rsquo;s <i>Cymbalum
+Mundi ...</i> (1537), and the queen of Navarre thought it prudent
+to disavow the author, though she continued to help him privately
+until 1541. The book consisted of four dialogues in imitation of
+Lucian. Its allegorical form did not conceal its real meaning,
+and, when it was printed by Morin, probably early in 1538, the
+Sorbonne secured the suppression of the edition before it was
+offered for sale. The dedication provides a key to the author&rsquo;s
+intention: <i>Thomas du Clevier (or Clenier) à son ami Pierre Tryocan</i>
+was recognized by 19th-century editors to be an anagram for
+<i>Thomas l&rsquo;Incrédule à son ami Pierre Croyant</i>. The book was
+reprinted in Paris in the same year. It made many bitter enemies
+for the author. Henri Estienne called it <i>détestable</i>, and Étienne
+Pasquier said it deserved to be thrown into the fire with its author
+if he were still living. Des Périers prudently left Paris, and after
+some wanderings settled at Lyons, where he lived in poverty,
+until in 1544 he put an end to his existence by falling on his
+sword. In 1544 his collected works were printed at Lyons.
+The volume, <i>Recueil des &oelig;uvres de feu Bonaventure des Périers</i>,
+included his poems, which are of small merit, the <i>Traité des
+quatre vertus cardinales après Sénèque</i>, and a translation of the
+<i>Lysis</i> of Plato. In 1558 appeared at Lyons the collection of
+stories and fables entitled the <i>Nouvelles récréations et joyeux devis</i>.
+It is on this work that the claim put forward for Des Périers as
+one of the early masters of French prose rests. Some of the tales
+are attributed to the editors, Nicholas Denisot and Jacques
+Pelletier, but their share is certainly limited to the later ones.
+The book leaves something to be desired on the score of morality,
+but the stories never lack point and are models of simple, direct
+narration in the vigorous and picturesque French of the 16th
+century.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>His <i>&OElig;uvres françaises</i> were published by Louis Lacour (Paris,
+2 vols., 1856). See also the preface to the <i>Cymbalum Mundi ...</i>
+(ed. F. Franck, 1874); A. Cheneviere, <i>Bonaventure Despériers, sa vie,
+ses poésies</i> (1885); and P. Toldo, <i>Contributo allo studio della novella
+francese del XV. e XVI. secolo</i> (Rome, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESPORTES, PHILIPPE</span> (1546-1606), French poet, was born
+at Chartres in 1546. As secretary to the bishop of Le Puy
+he visited Italy, where he gained a knowledge of Italian poetry
+afterwards turned to good account. On his return to France he
+attached himself to the duke of Anjou, and followed him to
+Warsaw on his election as king of Poland. Nine months in
+Poland satisfied the civilized Desportes, but in 1574 his patron
+became king of France as Henry III. He showered favours on
+the poet, who received, in reward for the skill with which he
+wrote occasional poems at the royal request, the abbey of Tiron
+and four other valuable benefices. A good example of the light
+and dainty verse in which Desportes excelled is furnished by
+the well-known <i>villanelle</i> with the refrain &ldquo;Qui premier s&rsquo;en
+repentira,&rdquo; which was on the lips of Henry, duke of Guise, just
+before his tragic death. Desportes was above all an imitator.
+He imitated Petrarch, Ariosto, Sannazaro, and still more closely
+the minor Italian poets, and in 1604 a number of his plagiarisms
+were exposed in the <i>Rencontres des Muses de France et d&rsquo;ltalie</i>.
+As a sonneteer he showed much grace and sweetness, and English
+poets borrowed freely from him. In his old age Desportes
+acknowledged his ecclesiastical preferment by a translation of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>103</span>
+the Psalms remembered chiefly for the brutal <i>mot</i> of Malherbe:
+&ldquo;Votre potage vaut mieux que vos psaumes.&rdquo; Desportes died on
+the 5th of October 1606. He had published in 1573 an edition
+of his works including <i>Diane</i>, <i>Les Amours d&rsquo;Hippolyte</i>, <i>Élégies</i>,
+<i>Bergeries</i>, <i>&OElig;uvres chrétiennes</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>An edition of his <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, by Alfred Michiels, appeared in 1858.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESPOT</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="despotês">&#948;&#949;&#963;&#960;&#972;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, lord or master; the origin of the first
+part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with
+<span class="grk" title="posis">&#960;&#972;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, husband, Lat. <i>potens</i>, powerful), in Greek usage the master
+of a household, hence the ruler of slaves. It was also used by
+the Greeks of their gods, as was the feminine form <span class="grk" title="despoina">&#948;&#941;&#963;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#945;</span>. It
+was, however, principally applied by the Greeks to the absolute
+monarchs of the eastern empires with which they came in contact;
+and it is in this sense that the word, like its equivalent &ldquo;tyrant,&rdquo;
+is in current usage for an absolute sovereign whose rule is not
+restricted by any constitution. In the Roman empire of the
+East &ldquo;despot&rdquo; was early used as a title of honour or address of
+the emperor, and was given by Alexius I. (1081-1118) to the sons,
+brothers and sons-in-law of the emperor (Gibbon, <i>Decline and
+Fall</i>, ed. Bury, vol. vi. 80). It does not seem that the title was
+confined to the heir-apparent by Alexius II. (see Selden, <i>Titles of
+Honour</i>, part ii. chap. i. s. vi.). Later still it was adopted by
+the vassal princes of the empire. This gave rise to the name
+&ldquo;despotats&rdquo; as applied to these tributary states, which survived
+the break-up of the empire in the independent &ldquo;despotats&rdquo; of
+Epirus, Cyprus, Trebizond, &amp;c. Under Ottoman rule the title
+was preserved by the despots of Servia and of the Morea, &amp;c.
+The early use of the term as a title of address for ecclesiastical
+dignitaries survives in its use in the Greek Church as the formal
+mode of addressing a bishop.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DES PRÉS, JOSQUIN</span> (c. 1445-1521), also called <span class="sc">Deprés</span> or
+<span class="sc">Desprez</span>, and by a latinized form of his name, <span class="sc">Jodocus
+Pratensis</span> or <span class="sc">A Prato</span>, French musical composer, was born,
+probably in Condé in the Hennegau, about 1445. He was a
+pupil of Ockenheim, and himself one of the most learned
+musicians of his time. In spite of his great fame, the accounts of
+his life are vague and the dates contradictory. Fétis contributed
+greatly towards elucidating the doubtful points in his <i>Biographie
+universelle</i>. In his early youth Josquin seems to have been a
+member of the choir of the collegiate church at St Quentin; when
+his voice changed he went (about 1455) to Ockenheim to take
+lessons in counterpoint; afterwards he again lived at his birthplace
+for some years, till Pope Sixtus IV. invited him to Rome
+to teach his art to the musicians of Italy, where musical knowledge
+at that time was at a low ebb. In Rome Des Prés lived
+till the death of his protector (1484), and it was there that many
+of his works were written. His reputation grew rapidly, and he
+was considered by his contemporaries to be the greatest master
+of his age. Luther, who was a good judge, is credited with the
+saying that &ldquo;other musicians do with notes what they can,
+Josquin what he likes.&rdquo; The composer&rsquo;s journey to Rome marks
+in a manner the transference of the art from its Gallo-Belgian
+birthplace to Italy, which for the next two centuries remained
+the centre of the musical world. To Des Prés and his pupils
+Arcadelt, Mouton and others, much that is characteristic in
+modern music owes its rise, particularly in their influence upon
+Italian developments under Palestrina. After leaving Rome
+Des Prés went for a time to Ferrara, where the duke Hercules I.
+offered him a home; but before long he accepted an invitation
+of King Louis XII. of France to become the chief singer of the
+royal chapel. According to another account, he was for a time
+at least in the service of the emperor Maximilian I. The date
+of his death has by some writers been placed as early as 1501.
+But this is sufficiently disproved by the fact of one of his finest
+compositions, <i>A Dirge (Déploration) for Five Voices</i>, being
+written to commemorate the death of his master Ockenheim,
+which took place after 1512. The real date of Josquin&rsquo;s decease
+has since been settled as the 27th of August 1521. He was at
+that time a canon of the cathedral of Condé (see Victor Delzant&rsquo;s
+<i>Sépultures de Flandre</i>, No. 118).</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>The most complete list of his compositions&mdash;consisting of masses,
+motets, psalms and other pieces of sacred music&mdash;will be found in
+Fétis. The largest collection of his MS. works, containing no less
+than twenty masses, is in the possession of the papal chapel in Rome.
+In his lifetime Des Prés was honoured as an eminent composer, and
+the musicians of the 16th century are loud in his praise. During the
+17th and 18th centuries his value was ignored, nor does his work
+appear in the collections of Martini and Paolucci. Burney was the
+first to recover him from oblivion, and Forkel continued the task of
+rehabilitation. Ambros furnishes the most exhaustive account of
+his achievements. An admirable account of Josquin&rsquo;s art, from the
+rare point of view of a modern critic who knows how to allow for
+modern difficulties, will be found in the article &ldquo;Josquin,&rdquo; in Grove&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</i>, new ed. vol. ii. The <i>Répertoire
+des chanteurs de St Gervais</i> contains an excellent modern edition of
+Josquin&rsquo;s <i>Miserere</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESPRÈS, SUZANNE</span> (1875-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), French actress, was born
+at Verdun, and trained at the Paris Conservatoire, where in 1897
+she obtained the first prize for comedy, and the second for
+tragedy. She then became associated with, and subsequently
+married, Aurelien Lugné-Poë (b. 1870), the actor-manager, who
+had founded a new school of modern drama, <i>L&rsquo;&OElig;uvre</i>, and she
+had a brilliant success in several plays produced by him. In
+succeeding years she played at the Gymnase and at the Porte
+Saint-Martin, and in 1902 made her début at the Comédie
+Française, appearing in <i>Phèdre</i> and other important parts.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESRUES, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS</span> (1744-1777), French
+poisoner, was born at Chartres in 1744, of humble parents. He
+went to Paris to seek his fortune, and started in business as a
+grocer. He was known as a man of great piety and devotion,
+and his business was reputed to be a flourishing one, but when,
+in 1773, he gave up his shop, his finances, owing to personal
+extravagance, were in a deplorable condition. Nevertheless he
+entered into negotiations with a Madame de la Mothe for the
+purchase from her of a country estate, and, when the time came
+for the payment of the purchase money, invited her to stay with
+him in Paris pending the transfer. While she was still his guest,
+he poisoned first her and then her son, a youth of sixteen. Then,
+having forged a receipt for the purchase money, he endeavoured
+to obtain possession of the property. But by this time the disappearance
+of Madame de la Mothe and her son had aroused
+suspicion. Desrues was arrested, the bodies of his victims were
+discovered, and the crime was brought home to him. He was
+tried, found guilty and condemned to be torn asunder alive and
+burned. The sentence was carried out (1777), Desrues repeating
+hypocritical protestations of his innocence to the last. The
+whole affair created a great sensation at the time, and as late as
+1828 a dramatic version of it was performed in Paris.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESSAIX, JOSEPH MARIE,</span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1764-1834), French
+general, was born at Thonon in Savoy on the 24th of September
+1764. He studied medicine, took his degree at Turin, and then
+went to Paris, where in 1789 he joined the National Guard. In
+1791 he tried without success to raise an <i>émeute</i> in Savoy, in 1792
+he organized the &ldquo;Legion of the Allobroges,&rdquo; and in the following
+years he served at the siege of Toulon, in the Army of the
+Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Army of Italy. He was captured
+at Rivoli, but was soon exchanged. In the spring of 1798 Dessaix
+was elected a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He was
+one of the few in that body who opposed the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the
+18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799). In 1803 he was promoted
+general of brigade, and soon afterwards commander of the
+Legion of Honour. He distinguished himself greatly at the
+battle of Wagram (1809), and was about this time promoted
+general of division and named grand officer of the Legion of
+Honour, and in 1810 was made a count. He took part in the
+expedition to Russia, and was twice wounded. For several
+months he was commandant of Berlin, and afterwards delivered
+the department of Mont Blanc from the Austrians. After the
+first restoration Dessaix held a command under the Bourbons.
+He nevertheless joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days, and in
+1816 he was imprisoned for five months. The rest of his life
+was spent in retirement. He died on the 26th of October 1834.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>Le Général Dessaix, sa vie politique et militaire</i>, by his nephew
+Joseph Dessaix (Paris, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESSAU,</span> a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Anhalt,
+on the left bank of the Mulde, 2 m. from its confluence with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104"></a>104</span>
+Elbe, 67 m. S.W. from Berlin and at the junction of lines to
+Cöthen and Zerbst. Pop. (1905) 55,134. Apart from the old
+quarter lying on the Mulde, the town is well built, is surrounded
+by pleasant gardens and contains many handsome streets and
+spacious squares. Among the latter is the Grosse Markt with
+a statue of Prince Leopold I. of Anhalt-Dessau, &ldquo;the old
+Dessauer.&rdquo; Of the six churches, the Schlosskirche, adorned with
+paintings by Lucas Cranach, in one of which (&ldquo;The Last Supper&rdquo;)
+are portraits of several reformers, is the most interesting. The
+ducal palace, standing in extensive grounds, contains a collection
+of historical curiosities and a gallery of pictures, which includes
+works by Cimabue, Lippi, Rubens, Titian and Van Dyck. Among
+other buildings are the town hall (built 1899-1900), the palace
+of the hereditary prince, the theatre, the administration offices,
+the law courts, the Amalienstift, with a picture gallery, several
+high-grade schools, a library of 30,000 volumes and an excellently
+appointed hospital. There are monuments to the philosopher
+Moses Mendelssohn (born here in 1729), to the poet Wilhelm
+Müller, father of Professor Max Müller, also a native of the place,
+to the emperor William I., and an obelisk commemorating the
+war of 1870-71. The industries of Dessau include the production
+of sugar, which is the chief manufacture, woollen, linen
+and cotton goods, carpets, hats, leather, tobacco and musical
+instruments. There is also a considerable trade in corn and
+garden produce. In the environs are the ducal villas of Georgium
+and Luisium, the gardens of which, as well as those of the
+neighbouring town of Wörlitz, are much admired.</p>
+
+<p>Dessau was probably founded by Albert the Bear; it had
+attained civic rights as early as 1213. It first began to grow into
+importance at the close of the 17th century, in consequence of
+the religious emancipation of the Jews in 1686, and of the
+Lutherans in 1697.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Würdig, <i>Chronik der Stadt Dessau</i> (Dessau, 1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESSEWFFY, AUREL,</span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1808-1842), Hungarian
+journalist and politician, eldest son of Count József Dessewffy
+and Eleonora Sztaray, was born at Nagy-Mihály, county Zemplén,
+Hungary. Carefully educated at his father&rsquo;s house, he was
+accustomed to the best society of his day. While still a child he
+could declaim most of the <i>Iliad</i> in Greek without a book, and
+read and quoted Tacitus with enthusiasm. Under the noble
+influence of Ferencz Kazinczy he became acquainted with the
+chief masterpieces of European literature in their original tongues.
+He was particularly fond of the English, and one of his early
+idols was Jeremy Bentham. He regularly accompanied his father
+to the diets of which he was a member, followed the course of
+the debates, of which he kept a journal, and made the acquaintance
+of the great Széchenyi, who encouraged his aspirations. On
+leaving college, he entered the royal aulic chancellery, and in
+1832 was appointed secretary of the royal stadtholder at Buda.
+The same year he turned his attention to politics and was
+regarded as one of the most promising young orators of the day,
+especially during the sessions of the diet of 1832-1836, when he
+had the courage to oppose Kossuth. At the Pressburg diet in
+1840 Dessewffy was already the leading orator of the more
+enlightened and progressive Conservatives, but incurred great
+unpopularity for not going far enough, with the result that he
+was twice defeated at the polls. But his reputation in court
+circles was increasing; he was appointed a member of the committee
+for the reform of the criminal law in 1840; and, the same
+year with a letter of recommendation from Metternich in his
+pocket, visited England and France, Holland and Belgium, made
+the acquaintance of Thiers and Heine in Paris, and returned home
+with an immense and precious store of practical information.
+He at once proceeded to put fresh life into the despondent and
+irresolute Conservative party, and the Magyar aristocracy, by
+gallantly combating in the <i>Világ</i> the opinions of Kossuth&rsquo;s paper,
+the <i>Pesti Hírlap</i>. But the multiplicity of his labours was too
+much for his feeble physique, and he died on the 9th of February
+1842, at the very time when his talents seemed most indispensable.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>Aus den Papieren des Grafen Aurel Dessewffy</i> (Pest, 1843);
+<i>Memorial Wreath to Count Aurel Dessewffy</i> (Hung.), (Budapest,
+1857); <i>Collected Works of Count Dessewffy, with a Biography</i> (Hung.),
+(Budapest, 1887).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESSOIR, LUDWIG</span> (1810-1874), German actor, whose name
+was originally Leopold Dessauer, was born on the 15th of
+December 1810 at Posen, the son of a Jewish tradesman. He
+made his first appearance on the stage there in 1824 in a small
+part. After some experience at the theatre in Posen and on
+tour, he was engaged at Leipzig from 1834 to 1836. Then he
+was attached to the municipal theatre of Breslau, and in 1837
+appeared at Prague, Brünn, Vienna and Budapest, where he
+accepted an engagement which lasted until 1839. He succeeded
+Karl Devrient at Karlsruhe, and went in 1847 to Berlin, where he
+acted Othello and Hamlet with such extraordinary success that
+he received a permanent engagement at the Hof-theater. From
+1849 to 1872, when he retired on a pension, he played 110 parts,
+frequently on tour, and in 1853 acting in London. He died on
+the 30th of December 1874 in Berlin. Dessoir was twice married;
+his first wife, Theresa, a popular actress (1810-1866), was
+separated from him a year after marriage; his second wife went
+mad on the death of her child. By his first wife Dessoir had one
+son, the actor Ferdinand Dessoir (1836-1892). In spite of certain
+physical disabilities Ludwig Dessoir&rsquo;s genius raised him to the
+first rank of actors, especially as interpreter of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+characters. G. H. Lewes placed Dessoir&rsquo;s Othello above that of
+Kean, and the <i>Athenaeum</i> preferred him in this part to Brooks
+or Macready.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE</span> (1680-1754), French dramatist,
+whose real name was Néricault, was born at Tours in April 1680.
+When he was nineteen years of age he became secretary to
+M. de Puysieux, the French ambassador in Switzerland. In 1716
+he was attached to the French embassy in London, where he
+remained for six years under the abbé Dubois. He contracted
+with a Lancashire lady, Dorothea Johnston, a marriage which
+was not avowed for some years. He drew a picture later of his
+own domestic circumstances in <i>Le Philosophe marié</i> (1726). On his
+return to France (1723) he was elected to the Academy, and in
+1727 he acquired considerable estates, the possession of which
+conferred the privileges of nobility. He spent his later years at
+his château of Fortoiseau near Melun, dying on the 4th of July
+1754. His early comedies were: <i>Le Curieux Impertinent</i> (1710),
+<i>L&rsquo;Ingrat</i> (1712), <i>L&rsquo;Irrésolu</i> (1713) and <i>Le Médisant</i> (1715). The
+best of these is <i>L&rsquo;Irrêsolu</i>, in which Dorante, after hesitating
+throughout the play between Julie and Célimène, marries Julie,
+but concludes the play with the reflection:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center noind">&ldquo;J&rsquo;aurais mieux fait, je crois, d&rsquo;épouser Célimène.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After eleven years of diplomatic service Destouches returned
+to the stage with the <i>Philosophe marié</i> (1727), followed in 1732
+by his masterpiece <i>Le Glorieux</i>, a picture of the struggle then
+beginning between the old nobility and the wealthy <i>parvenus</i> who
+found their opportunity in the poverty of France. Destouches
+wished to revive the comedy of character as understood by
+Molière, but he thought it desirable that the moral should be
+directly expressed. This moralizing tendency spoilt his later
+comedies. Among them may be mentioned: <i>Le Tambour
+nocturne</i> (1736), <i>La Force du naturel</i> (1750) and <i>Le Dissipateur</i>
+(1736).</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>His works were issued in collected form in 1755, 1757, 1811 and,
+in a limited edition (6 vols.), 1822.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DESTRUCTORS.</span> The name destructors is applied by English
+municipal engineers to furnaces, or combinations of furnaces,
+commonly called &ldquo;garbage furnaces&rdquo; in the United States, constructed
+for the purpose of disposing by burning of town refuse,
+which is a heterogeneous mass of material, including, besides
+general household and ash-bin refuse, small quantities of garden
+refuse, trade refuse, market refuse and often street sweepings.
+The mere disposal of this material is not, however, by any means
+the only consideration in dealing with it upon the destructor
+system. For many years past scientific experts, municipal
+engineers and public authorities have been directing careful
+attention to the utilization of refuse as fuel for steam production,
+and such progress in this direction has been made that in many
+towns its calorific value is now being utilized daily for motive-power
+purposes. On the other hand, that proper degree of
+caution which is obtained only by actual experience must be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>105</span>
+exercised in the application of refuse fuel to steam-raising.
+When its value as a low-class fuel was first recognized, the idea
+was disseminated that the refuse of a given population was of
+itself sufficient to develop the necessary steam-power for supplying
+that population with the electric light. The economical
+importance of a combined destructor and electric undertaking
+of this character naturally presented a somewhat fascinating
+stimulus to public authorities, and possibly had much to do
+with the development both of the adoption of the principle of
+dealing with refuse by fire, and of lighting towns by electricity.
+However true this phase of the question may be as the statement
+of a theoretical scientific fact, experience so far does not show
+it to be a basis upon which engineers may venture to calculate,
+although, as will be seen later, under certain circumstances of
+equalized load, which must be considered upon their merits
+in each case, a well-designed destructor plant can be made
+to perform valuable commercial service to an electric or other
+power-using undertaking. Further, when a system, thermal or
+otherwise, for the storage of energy can be introduced and applied
+in a trustworthy and economical manner, the degree of advantage
+to be derived from the utilization of the waste heat from
+destructors will be materially enhanced.</p>
+
+<p>The composition of house refuse, which must obviously affect
+its calorific value, varies considerably in different localities,
+according to the condition, habits and pursuits of the
+<span class="sidenote">Composition and quantity of refuse.</span>
+people. Towns situated in coal-producing districts
+invariably yield a refuse richer in unconsumed carbon
+than those remote therefrom. It is also often found
+that the refuse from different parts of the same town varies
+considerably&mdash;that from the poorest quarters frequently proving
+of greater calorific value than that from those parts occupied by
+the rich and middle classes. This has been attributed to the more
+extravagant habits of the working classes in neglecting to sift
+the ashes from their fires before disposing of them in the ash-bin.
+In Bermondsey, for example, the refuse has been found to possess
+an unusually high calorific value, and this experience is confirmed
+in other parts of the metropolis. Average refuse consists of
+breeze (cinder and ashes), coal and coke, fine dust, vegetable and
+animal matters, straw, shavings, cardboard, bottles, tins, iron,
+bones, broken crockery and other matters in very variable proportions
+according to the character of the district from which it
+is collected. In London the quantity of house refuse amounts
+approximately to 1¼ million tons per annum, which is equivalent
+to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum, or to from 200 to 250
+tons per 1000 of the population per annum. Statistics, however,
+vary widely in different districts. In the vicinity of the metropolis
+the amount varies from 2.5 cwt. per head per annum at Leyton to
+3.5 cwt. at Hornsey, and to as much as 7 cwt. at Ealing. In the
+north of England the total house refuse collected, exclusive of
+street sweepings, amounts on the average to 8 cwt. per head per
+annum. Speaking generally, throughout the country an amount
+of from 5 cwt. to 10 cwt. per head per annum should be allowed
+for. A cubic yard of ordinary house refuse weighs from 12¼ to
+15 cwt. Shop refuse is lighter, frequently containing a large proportion
+of paper, straw and other light wastes. It sometimes
+weighs as little as 7¼ cwt. per cubic yard. A load, by which
+refuse is often estimated, varies in weight from 15 cwt. to 1½ tons.</p>
+
+<p>The question how a town&rsquo;s refuse shall be disposed of must be
+considered both from a commercial and a sanitary point of view.
+Various methods have been practised. Sometimes the
+<span class="sidenote">Refuse disposal.</span>
+household ashes, &amp;c., are mixed with pail excreta, or
+with sludge from a sewage farm, or with lime, and
+disposed of for agricultural purposes, and sometimes they are
+conveyed in carts or by canal to outlying and country districts,
+where they are shot on waste ground or used to fill up hollows and
+raise the level of marshland. Such plans are economical when
+suitable outlets are available. To take the refuse out to sea in
+hopper barges and sink it in deep water is usually expensive and
+frequently unsatisfactory. At Bermondsey, for instance, the
+cost of barging is about 2s. 9d. a ton, while the material may
+be destroyed by fire at a cost of from 10d. to 1s. a ton, exclusive
+of interest and sinking fund on the cost of the works. In other
+cases, as at Chelsea and various dust contractors&rsquo; yards, the
+refuse is sorted and its ingredients are sold; the fine dust may be
+utilized in connexion with manure manufactories, the pots and
+pans employed in forming the foundations of roads, and the
+cinders and vegetable refuse burnt to generate steam. In the
+Arnold system, carried out in Philadelphia and other American
+towns, the refuse is sterilized by steam under pressure, the grease
+and fertilizing substances being extracted at the same time;
+while in other systems, such as those of Weil and Porno, and
+of Defosse, distillation in closed vessels is practised. But the
+destructor system, in which the refuse is burned to an innocuous
+clinker in specially constructed furnaces, is that which must
+finally be resorted to, especially in districts which have become
+well built up and thickly populated.</p>
+
+<p>Various types of furnaces and apparatus have from time
+to time been designed, and the subject has been one of much
+experiment and many failures. The principal towns in
+<span class="sidenote">Types of destructors.</span>
+England which took the lead in the adoption of the
+refuse destructor system were Manchester, Birmingham,
+Leeds, Heckmondwike, Warrington, Blackburn,
+Bradford, Bury, Bolton, Hull, Nottingham, Salford, Ealing and
+London. Ordinary furnaces, built mostly by dust contractors,
+began to come into use in London and in the north of England
+in the second half of the 19th century, but they were not scientifically
+adapted to the purpose, and necessitated the admixture of
+coal or other fuel with the refuse to ensure its cremation. The
+Manchester corporation erected a furnace of this description
+about the year 1873, and Messrs Mead &amp; Co. made an unsatisfactory
+attempt in 1870 to burn house refuse in closed furnaces
+at Paddington. In 1876 Alfred Fryer erected his destructor at
+Manchester, and several other towns adopted this furnace
+shortly afterwards. Other furnaces were from time to time
+brought before the public, among which may be mentioned those
+of Pearce and Lupton, Pickard, Healey, Thwaite, Young,
+Wilkinson, Burton, Hardie, Jacobs and Odgen. In addition to
+these the &ldquo;Beehive&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Nelson&rdquo; destructors became
+well known. The former was introduced by Stafford and Pearson
+of Burnley, and one was erected in 1884 in the parish yard at
+Richmond, Surrey, but the results being unsatisfactory, it was
+closed during the following year. The &ldquo;Nelson&rdquo; furnace,
+patented in 1885 by Messrs Richmond and Birtwistle, was
+erected at Nelson-in-Marsden, Lancashire, but being very costly
+in working was abandoned. The principal types of destructors
+now in use are those of Fryer, Whiley, Horsfall, Warner,
+Meldrum, Beaman and Deas, Heenan and Froude, and the
+&ldquo;Sterling&rdquo; destructor erected by Messrs Hughes and Stirling.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <a name="fig_1a"><img src="images/img105.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="Fryer's Destructor." title="Fryer's Destructor." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Fryer&rsquo;s Destructor.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>The general arrangement of the destructor patented<a name="FnAnchor_1m" href="#Footnote_1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> by Alfred
+Fryer in 1876 is illustrated in fig. 1. An installation upon this
+principle consists of a number of furnaces or cells, usually
+<span class="sidenote">Fryer&rsquo;s.</span>
+arranged in pairs back to back, and enclosed in a
+rectangular block of brickwork having a flat top, upon which the
+house refuse is tipped from the carts.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>106</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <a name="fig_2a"><img src="images/img106a.jpg" width="630" height="325" alt="Horsfall's Improved Destructor." title="Horsfall's Improved Destructor." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Horsfall&rsquo;s Improved Destructor.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A large main flue, which also forms the dust chamber, is placed
+underneath the furnace hearths. The Fryer furnace ordinarily burns
+from 4 to 6 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. It will be observed
+that the outlets for the products of combustion are placed at the back
+near the refuse feed opening, an arrangement which is imperfect in
+design, inasmuch as while a charge of refuse is burning upon the
+furnace bars the charge which is to follow lies on the dead hearth near
+the outlet flue. Here it undergoes drying and partial decomposition,
+giving off offensive empyreumatic vapours which pass into the flue
+without being exposed to sufficient heat to render them entirely
+inoffensive. The serious nuisances thus produced in some instances
+led to the introduction of a second furnace, or &ldquo;cremator,&rdquo; patented
+by C. Jones of Ealing in 1885, which was placed in the main flue
+leading to the chimney-shaft, for the purpose of resolving the organic
+matters present in the vapour, but the greatly increased cost of
+burning due to this device led to its abandonment in many cases.
+This type of cell was largely used during the early period of the
+history of destructors, but has to a considerable extent given place to
+furnaces of more modern design.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <a name="fig_3a"><img src="images/img106b.jpg" width="850" height="371" alt="Meldrum's Destructor at Darwen" title="Meldrum's Destructor at Darwen" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span> - Meldrum&rsquo;s Destructor at Darwen</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A furnace<a name="FnAnchor_2m" href="#Footnote_2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> patented in 1891 by Mr Henry Whiley, superintendent
+of the scavenging department of the Manchester corporation, is
+automatic in its action and was designed primarily with a
+<span class="sidenote">Whiley&rsquo;s.</span>
+view to saving labour&mdash;the cells being fed, stoked and
+clinkered automatically. There is no drying hearth, and the refuse
+carts tip direct into a shoot or hopper at the back which conducts the
+material directly on to movable eccentric grate bars. These automatically
+traverse the material forward into the furnace, and finally
+push it against a flap-door which opens and allows it to fall out.
+This apparatus is adapted for dealing with screened rather than
+unscreened refuse, since it suffers from the objection that the motion
+of the bars tends to allow fine particles to drop through unburnt.
+Some difficulty has been experienced from the refuse sticking in the
+hopper, and exception may also be taken to the continual flapping of
+the door when the clinker passes out, as cold air is thereby admitted
+into the furnace. As in the Fryer cell, the outlet for the products of
+combustion into the main flue is close to the point where the crude
+refuse is fed into the furnace, and the escape of unburnt vapours is
+thus facilitated. Forced draught is applied by means of a Roots
+blower. The Manchester corporation has 28 cells of this type in use,
+and the approximate amount of refuse burnt per cell per 24 hours is
+from 6 to 8 tons at a cost per ton for labour of 3.47 pence.</p>
+
+<p>Horsfall&rsquo;s destructor<a name="FnAnchor_3m" href="#Footnote_3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (fig. 2) is a high-temperature furnace of
+modern type which has been adopted largely in Great Britain and on
+the continent of Europe. In it some of the general features
+<span class="sidenote">Horsfall&rsquo;s.</span>
+of the Fryer cell are retained, but the details differ considerably
+from those of the furnaces already described. Important
+points in the design are the arrangement of the flues and flue outlets
+for the products of combustion, and the introduction of a blast duct
+through which air is forced into a closed ash-pit. The feeding-hole is
+situated at the back of and above the furnace, while the flue opening
+for the emission of the gaseous products is placed at the front of the
+furnace over the dead plate; thus the gases distilled from the raw
+refuse are caused to pass on their way to the main flue over the
+hottest part of the furnace and through the flue opening in the red-hot
+reverberatory arch. The steam jet, which plays an important
+part in the Horsfall furnace, forces air into the closed ash-pit at a
+pressure of about ¾ to 1 in. of water, and in this way a temperature
+varying from 1500° to 2000° F., as tested by a thermo-electric
+pyrometer, is maintained in the main flue. In a battery of cells the
+gases from each are delivered into one main flue, so that a uniform
+temperature is maintained therein sufficiently high to prevent
+noxious vapours from reaching the chimney. The cells being charged
+and clinkered in rotation, when the fire in one is green, in the others
+it is at its hottest, and the products of combustion do not reach the
+boiler surfaces until after they have been mixed in the main flue.
+The cast iron boxes which are provided at the sides of the furnaces,
+and through which the blast air is conveyed on its way to the grate,
+prevent the adhesion of clinker to the side walls of the cells, and very
+materially preserve the brickwork, which otherwise becomes damaged
+by the tools used to remove the clinker. The wide clinkering doors
+are suspended by counterbalance weights and open vertically. The
+rate of working of these cells varies from 8 tons per cell per 24 hours
+at Oldham to 10 tons per cell at Bradford, where the furnaces are of
+a later type. The cost of labour in stoking and clinkering is about 6d.
+per ton of the refuse treated at Bradford, and 9d. per ton at Oldham,
+where the rate of wages is higher. Well-constructed and properly-worked
+plants of this type should give rise to no nuisance, and may
+be located in populous neighbourhoods without danger to the public
+health or comfort. Installations were put down at Fulham (1901),
+Hammerton Street, Bradford (1900), West Hartlepool (1904), and
+other places, and the surplus power generated is employed in the production
+of electric energy.</p>
+
+<p>Warner&rsquo;s destructor,<a name="FnAnchor_4m" href="#Footnote_4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> known as the &ldquo;Perfectus,&rdquo; is, in general
+arrangement, similar to Fryer&rsquo;s, but differs in being provided with
+special charging hoppers, dampers in flues, dust-catching
+<span class="sidenote">Warner&rsquo;s.</span>
+arrangements, rocking grate bars and other improvements.
+The refuse is tipped into feeding-hoppers, consisting of rectangular
+cast iron boxes over which plates are placed to prevent the escape of
+smoke and fumes. At the lower portion of the feeding-hopper is a
+flap-door working on an axis and controlled by an iron lever from the
+tipping platform. When refuse is to be fed into the furnace the lever
+is thrown over, the contents of the hopper drop on to the sloping
+firebrick hearth beneath, and the door is at once closed again. The
+door should be kept open as short a time as possible in order to prevent
+the admission of cold air into the furnace at the back end, since this
+leads to the lowering of the
+temperature of the cells and
+main flue, and also to paper
+and other light refuse being
+carried into the flues and chimney.
+The flues of each furnace
+are provided with dampers,
+which are closed during the
+process of clinkering in order to
+keep up the heat. The cells are
+each 5 ft. wide and 11 ft. deep,
+the rearmost portion consisting
+of a firebrick drying hearth,
+and the front of rocking grate
+bars upon which the combustion
+takes place. The crown of
+each cell is formed of a reverberatory
+firebrick arch having
+openings for the emission of the
+products of combustion. The
+flap dampers which are fitted
+to these openings are operated
+by horizontal spindles passing
+through the brickwork to the
+front of the cell, where they are provided with levers or handles;
+thus each cell can be worked independently of the others. With the
+view of increasing the steam-raising capabilities of the furnace, forced
+draught is sometimes applied and a tubular boiler is placed close to
+the cells. The amount of refuse consumed varies from 5 tons to 8 tons
+per cell per 24 hours. At Hornsey, where 12 cells of this type are
+in use, the cost of labour for burning the refuse is 9½d. per ton.</p>
+
+<p>The Meldurm &ldquo;Simplex&rdquo; destructor (fig. 3), a type of furnace
+which yields good steam-raising results, is in successful operation
+at Rochdale, Hereford, Darwen, Nelson, Plumstead and
+<span class="sidenote">Meldrum&rsquo;s.</span>
+Woolwich, at each of which towns the production of steam
+is an important consideration. Cells have also been laid down at
+Burton, Hunstanton, Blackburn and Shipley, and more recently at
+Burnley, Cleckheaton, Lancaster, Nelson, Sheerness and Weymouth.
+In general arrangement the destructor differs considerably from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107"></a>107</span>
+those previously described. The grates are placed side by side
+without separation except by dead plates, but, in order to localize
+the forced draught, the ash-pit is divided into parts corresponding
+with the different grate areas. Each ash-pit is closed airtight by a
+cast iron plate, and is provided with an air-tight door for removing
+the fine ash. Two patent Meldrum steam-jet blowers are provided
+for each furnace, supplying any required pressure of blast up to
+6 in. water column, though that usually employed does not exceed
+1½ in. The furnaces are designed for hand-feeding from the front,
+but hopper-feeding can be applied if desirable. The products of
+combustion either pass away from the back of each fire-grate into
+a common flue leading to boilers and the chimney-shaft, or are conveyed
+sideways over the various grates and a common fire-bridge
+to the boilers or chimney. The heat in the gases, after passing the
+boilers, is still further utilized to heat the air supplied to the furnaces,
+the gases being passed through an air heater or continuous
+regenerator consisting of a number of cast iron pipes from which the
+air is delivered through the Meldrum &ldquo;blowers&rdquo; at a temperature of
+about 300° F. That a high percentage (15 to 18%) of CO<span class="su">2</span> is obtained
+in the furnaces proves a small excess of free oxygen, and no doubt
+explains the high fuel efficiency obtained by this type of destructor.
+High-pressure boilers of ample capacity are provided for the accumulation
+during periods of light load of a reserve of steam, the storage
+being obtained by utilizing the difference between the highest and
+lowest water-levels and the difference between the maximum and
+working steam-pressure. Patent locking fire-bars, to prevent lifting
+when clinkering, are used in the furnace and have a good life. At
+Rochdale the Meldrum furnaces consume from 53 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span> to 66 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span> of refuse
+per square foot of grate area per hour, as compared with 22.4 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span> per
+square foot in a low-temperature destructor burning 6 tons per cell
+per 24 hours with a grate area of 25 sq. ft. The evaporative efficiency
+of the Rochdale furnaces varies from 1.39 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span> to 1.87 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span> of water
+(actual) per 1 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span> of refuse burned, and an average steam-pressure of
+about 114 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span> per square inch is maintained. The cost of labour and
+supervision amounts to 10d. per ton of refuse dealt with. A
+Lancashire boiler (22 ft. by 6 ft. 6 in.) at the Sewage Outfall Works,
+Hereford, evaporates with refuse fuel 2980 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span> of water per hour,
+equal to 149 indicated horse-power. About 54 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span> of refuse are burnt
+per square foot of grate area per hour with an evaporation of 1.82 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span>
+of water per pound of refuse.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <a name="fig_4a"><img src="images/img107.jpg" width="630" height="319" alt="Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton." title="Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Beaman and Deas destructor<a name="FnAnchor_5m" href="#Footnote_5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (fig. 4) has attracted much
+attention from public authorities, and successful installations
+are in operation at Warrington, Dewsbury, Leyton,
+<span class="sidenote">Beaman and Deas.</span>
+Canterbury, Llandudno, Colne, Streatham, Rotherhithe,
+Wimbledon, Bolton and elsewhere. Its essential features
+include a level-fire grate with ordinary type bars, a high-temperature
+combustion chamber at the back of the cells, a closed ash-pit with
+forced draught, provision for the admission of a secondary air-supply
+at the fire-bridge, and a firebrick hearth sloping at an angle of about
+52°. From the refuse storage platform the material is fed into a
+hopper mouth about 18 in. square, and slides down the firebrick
+hearth, supported by T-irons, to the grate bars, over which it is
+raked and spread with the assistance of long rods manipulated through
+clinkering doors placed at the sides of the cells. A secondary door
+in the rear of the cell facilitates the operation. The fire-bars, spaced
+only <span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">32</span> in. apart, are of the ordinary stationary type. Vertically,
+under the fire-bridge, is an air-conduit, from the top of which lead
+air blast pipes 12 in. in diameter discharging into a hermetically
+closed ash-pit under the grate area. The air is supplied from fans
+(Schiele&rsquo;s patent) at a pressure of from 1½ to 2 in. of water, and is controlled
+by means of baffle valves worked by handles on either side
+of the furnace, conveniently placed for the attendant. The forced
+draught tends to keep the bars cool and lessen wear and tear. The
+fumes from the charge drying on the hearth pass through the fire
+and over the red-hot fire-bridge, which is perforated longitudinally
+with air-passages connected with a small flue leading from a grated
+opening on the face of the brickwork outside; in this way an auxiliary
+supply of heated oxygen is fed into the combustion chamber. This
+chamber, in which a temperature approaching 2000° F. is attained,
+is fitted with large iron doors, sliding with balance weights, which
+allow the introduction of infected articles, bad meat, &amp;c., and also
+give access for the periodical removal of fine ash from the flues.
+The high temperatures attained are utilized by installing one boiler,
+preferably of the Babcock &amp; Wilcox water-tube type, for each pair
+of cells, so that the gases, on their way from the combustion chamber
+to the main flue, pass three times between the boiler tubes. A
+secondary furnace is provided under the boiler for raising steam by
+coal, if required, when the cells are out of use. The grate area of each
+cell is 25 sq. ft., and the consumption varies from 16 up to 20 tons of
+refuse per cell per 24 hours. In a 24-hours&rsquo; test made by the superintendent
+of the cleansing department, Leeds, at the Warrington
+installation, the quantity of water evaporated per pound of refuse was
+1.14 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span>, the average temperature in the combustion chamber 2000°
+F. by copper-wire test, and the average air pressure with forced
+draught 2½ in. (water-gauge). At Leyton, which has a population
+of over 100,000, an 8-cell plant of this type is successfully dealing
+with house refuse and filter press cakes of sewage sludge from the
+sewage disposal works adjoining, and even with material of this low
+calorific value the total steam-power produced is considerable. Each
+cell burns about 16 tons of the mixture in 24 hours and develops
+about 35 indicated horse-power continuously, at an average steam-pressure
+in the boilers of 105 <span class="uni">&#8468;</span>. The cost of labour at Leyton for
+burning the mixed refuse is about 1s. 7d. per ton; at Llandudno,
+where four cells were laid down in connexion with the electric-light
+station in 1898, it is 1s. 3¼d., and at Warrington 9½d. per ton of refuse
+consumed. Combustion is complete, and the destructor may be
+installed in populous districts without nuisance to the inhabitants.
+Further patents (Wilkie&rsquo;s improvements) have been obtained by
+Meldrum Brothers (Manchester) in connexion with this destructor.</p>
+
+<p>The Heenan furnaces are in operation at Farnworth, Gloucester,
+Barrow-in-Furness, Northampton, Mansfield, Wakefield, Blackburn,
+Levenshulme, Kings Norton, Worthing, Birmingham and
+<span class="sidenote">Heenan.</span>
+other places, and are now dealing with over 1200 tons of
+refuse per day. The general arrangement of this destructor somewhat
+resembles that of the Meldrum type. The cells intercommunicate,
+and the mechanical mixture of the gases arising from the
+furnace grates of the various cells is sought by the introduction of
+a special design of reverberatory arch overlying the grates. The
+standard arrangement of this destructor embodies all modern
+arrangements for high-temperature refuse destruction and steam-power
+generation.</p>
+
+<p>Destructors of the &ldquo;Sterling&rdquo; type, combined with electric-power
+generating stations, are installed at Hackney (1901),
+Bermondsey (1902) and Frederiksberg (1903)&mdash;the first-named
+<span class="sidenote">Sterling.</span>
+plant being probably the most powerful combined
+destructor and electricity station yet erected. In these
+modern stations the recognized requirements of an up-to-date refuse-destruction
+plant have been well considered and good calorific results
+are also obtained.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the above-described destructors, other forms have
+been introduced from time to time, but adopted to a less degree;
+amongst these may be mentioned Baker&rsquo;s destructor, Willshear&rsquo;s,
+Hanson&rsquo;s Utilizer, Mason&rsquo;s Gasifier, the Bennett-Phythian,
+Cracknell&rsquo;s (Melbourne, Victoria), Coltman&rsquo;s (Loughborough),
+Willoughby&rsquo;s, and Healey&rsquo;s improved destructors. On the continent
+of Europe systems for the treatment of refuse have also been devised.
+Among these may be mentioned those of M. Defosse and M. Helouis.
+The former has endeavoured to burn the refuse in large quantities by
+using a forced draught and only washing the smoke.<a name="FnAnchor_6m" href="#Footnote_6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Helouis has
+extended the operation by using the heat from the combustion of the
+refuse for drying and distilling the material which is brought gradually
+on to the grate.</p>
+
+<p>Boulnois and Brodie&rsquo;s improved charging tank is a labour-saving
+apparatus consisting of a wrought iron truck, 5 ft. wide by 3 ft. deep,
+and of sufficient length to hold not less than 12 hours
+<span class="sidenote">Destructor accessories.</span>
+supply for the two cells which it serves. The truck,
+which moves along a pair of rails across the top of the
+destructor, may be worked by one man. It is divided into
+compartments holding a charge of refuse in each, and is provided
+with a pair of doors in the bottom, opening downwards, which are
+supported by a series of small wheels running on a central rail. A
+special feeding opening in the reverberatory arch of the cell of the
+width of the truck, situated over the drying hearth, is formed by a
+firebrick arch fitted into a frame capable of being moved backwards
+and forwards by means of a lever. The charging truck, when empty,
+is brought under the tipping platform, and the carts tip directly into
+it. When one of the cells has to be fed, the truck is moved along, so
+that one of the divisions is immediately over the feeding opening, and
+the wheel holding up the bottom doors rests upon the central rail,
+which is continued over the movable covering arch. Then the
+movable arch is rolled back, the doors are released, and the contents
+are discharged into the cell, so that no handling of the refuse is
+required from tipping to feeding. This apparatus is in operation at
+Liverpool, Shoreditch, Cambridge and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Various forms of patent movable fire-bars have been employed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108"></a>108</span>
+in destructor furnaces. Among these may be mentioned Settle&rsquo;s,<a name="FnAnchor_7m" href="#Footnote_7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a>
+Vicar&rsquo;s,<a name="FnAnchor_8m" href="#Footnote_8m"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Riddle&rsquo;s rocking bars,<a name="FnAnchor_9m" href="#Footnote_9m"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Horsfall&rsquo;s self-feeding apparatus,<a name="FnAnchor_10m" href="#Footnote_10m"><span class="sp">10</span></a>
+and Healey&rsquo;s movable bars;<a name="FnAnchor_11m" href="#Footnote_11m"><span class="sp">11</span></a> but complicated movable arrangements
+are not to be recommended, and experience greatly favours the use
+of a simple stationary type of fire-bar.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both; " summary="Illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <a name="fig_5a"><img src="images/img108.jpg" width="850" height="604" alt="Leyton Destructor." title="Leyton Destructor." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Leyton Destructor. Block Plan, showing general arrangement of the Works.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A dust-catching apparatus has been designed and erected at
+Edinburgh, by the Horsfall Furnace Syndicate, in order to overcome
+difficulties in regard to the escape of flue dust, &amp;c., from the
+destructor chimney. Externally, it appears a large circular block
+of brickwork, 18 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. 7 in. high, connected with
+the main flue, and situated between the destructor cells and the
+boiler. Internally it consists of a spiral flue traversing the entire
+circumference and winding upwards to the top of the chamber.
+There is an interior well or chamber 6 ft. diameter by 12 ft. high,
+having a domed top, and communicating with the outer spiral flue
+by four ports at the top of the chamber. Dust traps, baffle walls
+and cleaning doors are also provided for the retention and subsequent
+weekly removal of the flue dust. The apparatus forms a large
+reservoir of heat maintained at a steady temperature of from 1500º
+to 1800° F., and is useful in keeping up steam in the boiler at an
+equable pressure for a long period. It requires no attention, and has
+proved successful for its purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Travelling cranes for transporting refuse and feeding cells are
+sometimes employed at destructor stations, as, for example, at
+Hamburg. Here the transportation of the refuse is effected by
+means of specially constructed water-tight iron wagons, containing
+detachable boxes provided with two double-flap doors at the top for
+loading, and one flap-door at the back for unloading. There are
+thirty-six furnaces of the Horsfall type placed in two ranks, each
+arranged in three blocks of six in the large furnace hall. An electric
+crane running above each rank lifts the boxes off the wagons and
+carries them to the feeding-hole of each well. Here the box is tipped
+up by an electric pulley and emptied on to the furnace platform.
+When the travelling crane is used, the carts (four-wheeled) bringing
+the refuse may be constructed so that the body of the carriage can be
+taken off the wheels, lifted up and tipped direct over the furnace
+as required, and returned again to its frame. The adoption of the
+travelling crane admits of the reduction in size of the main building,
+as less platform space for unloading refuse carts is required; the
+inclined roadway may also be dispensed with. Where a destructor
+site will not admit of an inclined roadway and platform, the refuse
+may be discharged from the collecting carts into a lift; and thence
+elevated into the feeding-bins.</p>
+
+<p>Other accessory plant in use at most modern destructor stations
+includes machinery for the removal, crushing and various means
+of utilization of the residual clinker, stoking tools, air heaters or
+regenerators for the production of hot-air blast to the furnaces,
+superheaters and thermal storage arrangements for equalizing the
+output of power from the station during the 24-hours&rsquo; day.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general arrangement of a battery of refuse cells at a
+destructor station is illustrated by fig. 5. The cells are arranged
+either side by side, with a common main flue in the
+<span class="sidenote">Working of destructors.</span>
+rear, or back to back with the main flue placed in the
+centre and leading to a tall chimney-shaft. The heated
+gases on leaving the cells pass through the combustion
+chamber into the main flue, and thence go forward to the boilers,
+where their heat is absorbed and utilized. Forced draught, or
+in many cases, hot blast, is supplied from fans through a conduit
+commanding the whole of the cells. An inclined roadway, of
+as easy gradient as circumstances will admit, is provided for the
+conveyance of the refuse to the tipping platform, from which it
+is fed through feed-holes into the furnaces. In the installation
+of a destructor, the choice of suitable plant and the general design
+of the works must be largely dependent upon local requirements,
+and should be entrusted to an engineer experienced in these
+matters. The following primary considerations, however, may
+be enumerated as materially affecting the design of such works:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>(a) The plant must be simple, easily worked without stoppages,
+and without mechanical complications upon which stokers may lay
+the blame for bad results. (b) It must be strong, must withstand
+variations of temperature, must not be liable to get out of order, and
+should admit of being readily repaired. (c) It must be such as can be
+easily understood by stokers or firemen of average intelligence, so
+that the continuous working of the plant may not be disorganized by
+change of workmen. (d) A sufficiently high temperature must be
+attained in the cells to reduce the refuse to an entirely innocuous
+clinker, and all fumes or gases should pass either through an adjoining
+red-hot cell or through a chamber whose temperature is maintained
+by the ordinary working of the destructor itself at a degree sufficient
+to exclude the possibility of the escape of any unconsumed gases,
+vapours or particles. The temperature may vary between 1500° and
+2000°. (e) The plant must be so worked that while some of the cells
+are being recharged, others are at a glowing red heat, in order that a
+high temperature may be uniformly maintained. (f) The design of
+the furnaces must admit of clinkering and recharging being easily and
+quickly performed, the furnace doors being open for a minimum of
+time so as to obviate the inrush of cold air to lower the temperature ...</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(<i>Continued in volume 8, slice 3, page 109.</i>)</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1m" href="#FnAnchor_1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Patent No. 3125 (1876).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2m" href="#FnAnchor_2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Patent No. 8271 (1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3m" href="#FnAnchor_3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Patents No. 8999 (1887); No. 14,709 (1888); No. 22,531 (1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4m" href="#FnAnchor_4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Patent No. 18,719 (1888).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5m" href="#FnAnchor_5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Patents No. 15,598 (1893) and 23,712 (1893); also Beaman and
+Deas Sludge Furnace, Patent No. 13,029 (1894).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6m" href="#FnAnchor_6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Compte Rendu des Travaux de la Société des Ingénieurs Civils de
+France</i>, folio 775 (June 1897).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7m" href="#FnAnchor_7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Patent No. 15,482 (1885).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8m" href="#FnAnchor_8m"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Patents No. 1955 (1867) and No. 378 (1879).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9m" href="#FnAnchor_9m"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Patent No. 4896 (1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10m" href="#FnAnchor_10m"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Patent No. 20,207 (1892).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11m" href="#FnAnchor_11m"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Patents No. 18,398 (1892) and No. 12,990 (1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 2, by Various
+
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