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diff --git a/30685-8.txt b/30685-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..668d027 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,16303 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 8, Slice 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 2 + "Demijohn" to "Destructor" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 15, 2009 [EBook #30685] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + (1) A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are + underlined in the HTML version. + + (2) Chapter headings were originally constructed as side-notes. They + were placed here at the head of their respective paragraphs, and moved + to paragraph's start where given at paragraph's middle. See HTML + version for the original headers placement. + + + ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME VIII slice II + + Demijohn to Destructor + + + + +DEMIJOHN, a glass bottle or jar with a large round body and narrow neck, +encased in wicker-work and provided with handles. The word is also used +of an earthenware jar, similarly covered with wicker. The capacity of a +demijohn varies from two to twelve gallons, but the common size contains +five gallons. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the word is an +adaptation of a French _Dame Jeanne_, or Dame Jane, an application of a +personal name to an object which is not uncommon; cf. the use of "Toby" +for a particular form of jug and the many uses of the name "Jack." + + + + +DEMISE, an Anglo-French legal term (from the Fr. _démettre_, Lat. +_dimittere_, to send away) for a transfer of an estate, especially by +lease. The word has an operative effect in a lease implying a covenant +for "quiet enjoyment" (see LANDLORD AND TENANT). The phrase "demise of +the crown" is used in English law to signify the immediate transfer of +the sovereignty, with all its attributes and prerogatives, to the +successor without any interregnum in accordance with the maxim "the king +never dies." At common law the death of the sovereign _eo facto_ +dissolved parliament, but this was abolished by the Representation of +the People Act 1867, § 51. Similarly the common law doctrine that all +offices held under the crown determined at its demise has been negatived +by the Demise of the Crown Act 1901. "Demise" is thus often used loosely +for death or decease. + + + + +DEMIURGE (Gr. [Greek: dêmiourgos], from [Greek: dêmios], of or for the +people, and [Greek: ergon], work), a handicraftsman or artisan. In Homer +the word has a wide application, including not only hand-workers but +even heralds and physicians. In Attica the demiurgi formed one of the +three classes (with the Eupatridae and the geomori, georgi or agroeci) +into which the early population was divided (cf. Arist. _Ath. Pol._ +xiii. 2). They represented either a class of the whole population, or, +according to Busolt, a commercial nobility (see EUPATRIDAE). In the +sense of "worker for the people" the word was used throughout the +Peloponnese, with the exception of Sparta, and in many parts of Greece, +for a higher magistrate. The demiurgi among other officials represent +Elis and Mantineia at the treaty of peace between Athens, Argos, Elis +and Mantineia in 420 B.C. (Thuc. v. 47). In the Achaean League (q.v.) +the name is given to ten elective officers who presided over the +assembly, and Corinth sent "Epidemiurgi" every year to Potidaea, +officials who apparently answered to the Spartan harmosts. In Plato +[Greek: dêmiourgos] is the name given to the "creator of the world" +(_Timaeus_, 40) and the word was so adopted by the Gnostics (see +GNOSTICISM). + + + + +DEMMIN, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, on the navigable river +Peene (which in the immediate neighbourhood receives the Trebel and the +Tollense), 72 m. W.N.W. of Stettin, on the Berlin-Stralsund railway. +Pop. (1905) 12,541. It has manufactures of textiles, besides breweries, +distilleries and tanneries, and an active trade in corn and timber. + +The town is of Slavonian origin and of considerable antiquity, and was a +place of importance in the time of Charlemagne. It was besieged by a +German army in 1148, and captured by Henry the Lion in 1164. In the +Thirty Years' War Demmin was the object of frequent conflicts, and even +after the peace of Westphalia was taken and retaken in the contest +between the electoral prince and the Swedes. It passed to Prussia in +1720, and its fortifications were dismantled in 1759. In 1807 several +engagements took place in the vicinity between the French and Russians. + + + + +DEMOCHARES (c. 355-275 B.C.), nephew of Demosthenes, Athenian orator and +statesman, was one of the few distinguished Athenians in the period of +decline. He is first heard of in 322, when he spoke in vain against the +surrender of Demosthenes and the other anti-Macedonian orators demanded +by Antipater. During the next fifteen years he probably lived in exile. +On the restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307 he +occupied a prominent position, but was banished in 303 for having +ridiculed the decree of Stratocles, which contained a fulsome eulogy of +Demetrius. He was recalled in 298, and during the next four years[1] +fortified and equipped the city with provisions and ammunition. In 296 +(or 295) he was again banished for having concluded an alliance with the +Boeotians, and did not return until 287 (or 286). In 280 he induced the +Athenians to erect a public monument in honour of his uncle with a +suitable inscription. After his death (some five years later) the son of +Demochares proposed and obtained a decree (Plutarch, _Vitae decem +oratorum_, p. 851) that a statue should be erected in his honour, +containing a record of his public services, which seem to have consisted +in a reduction of public expenses, a more prudent management of the +state finances (after his return in 287) and successful begging missions +to the rulers of Egypt and Macedonia. Although a friend of the Stoic +Zeno, Demochares regarded all other philosophers as the enemies of +freedom, and in 306 supported the proposal of one Sophocles, advocating +their expulsion from Attica. According to Cicero (_Brutus_, 83) +Demochares was the author of a history of his own times, written in an +oratorical rather than a historical style. As a speaker he was noted for +his freedom of language (_Parrhesiastes_, Seneca, _De ira_, iii. 23). He +was violently attacked by Timaeus, but found a strenuous defender in +Polybius (xii. 13). + + See also Plutarch, _Demosthenes_, 30, _Demetrius_, 24, _Vitae decem + oratorum_, p. 847; J. G. Droysen's essay on Demochares in + _Zeitschrift für die Altertumswissenschaft_ (1836), Nos. 20, 21. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the "four years' war" and the chronological questions involved, + see C. W. Müller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._ ii. 445. + + + + +DEMOCRACY (Gr. [Greek: dêmokratia], from [Greek: dêmos], the people, +i.e. the commons, and [Greek: kratos], rule), in political science, that +form of government in which the people rules itself, either directly, as +in the small city-states of Greece, or through representatives. +According to Aristotle, democracy is the perverted form of the third +form of government, which he called [Greek: politeia], "polity" or +"constitutional government," the rule of the majority of the free and +equal citizens, as opposed to monarchy and aristocracy, the rule +respectively of an individual and of a minority consisting of the best +citizens (see GOVERNMENT and ARISTOCRACY). Aristotle's restriction of +"democracy" to _bad_ popular government, i.e. mob-rule, or, as it has +sometimes been called, "ochlocracy" ([Greek: ochlos], mob), was due to +the fact that the Athenian democracy had in his day degenerated far +below the ideals of the 5th century, when it reached its zenith under +Pericles. Since Aristotle's day the word has resumed its natural +meaning, but democracy in modern times is a very different thing from +what it was in its best days in Greece and Rome. The Greek states were +what are known as "city-states," the characteristic of which was that +all the citizens could assemble together in the city at regular +intervals for legislative and other purposes. This sovereign assembly of +the people was known at Athens as the Ecclesia (q.v.), at Sparta as the +Apella (q.v.), at Rome variously as the Comitia Centuriata or the +Concilium Plebis (see COMITIA). Of representative government in the +modern sense there is practically no trace in Athenian history, though +certain of the magistrates (see STRATEGUS) had a quasi-representative +character. Direct democracy is impossible except in small states. In the +second place the qualification for citizenship was rigorous; thus +Pericles restricted citizenship to those who were the sons of an +Athenian father, himself a citizen, and an Athenian mother ([Greek: ex +amphoin astoin]). This system excluded not only all the slaves, who were +more numerous than the free population, but also resident aliens, +subject allies, and those Athenians whose descent did not satisfy this +criterion ([Greek: tô genei mê katharoi]). The Athenian democracy, which +was typical in ancient Greece, was a highly exclusive form of +government. + +With the growth of empire and nation states this narrow parochial type +of democracy became impossible. The population became too large and the +distance too great for regular assemblies of qualified citizens. The +rigid distinction of citizens and non-citizens was progressively more +difficult to maintain, and new criteria of citizenship came into force. +The first difficulty has been met by various forms of representative +government. The second problem has been solved in various ways in +different countries; moderate democracies have adopted a low property +qualification, while extreme democracy is based on the extension of +citizenship to all adult persons with or without distinction of sex. The +essence of modern representative government is that the people does not +govern itself, but periodically elects those who shall govern on its +behalf (see GOVERNMENT; REPRESENTATION). + + + + +DEMOCRATIC PARTY, originally DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PARTY, the oldest of +existing political parties in the United States. Its origin lay in the +principles of local self-government and repugnance to social and +political aristocracy established as cardinal tenets of American +colonial democracy, which by the War of Independence, which was +essentially a democratic movement, became the basis of the political +institutions of the nation. The evils of lax government, both central +and state, under the Confederation caused, however, a marked +anti-democratic reaction, and this united with the temperamental +conservatism of the framers of the constitution of 1787 in the shaping +of that conservative instrument. The influences and interests for and +against its adoption took form in the groupings of Federalists and +Anti-Federalists, and these, after the creation of the new government, +became respectively, in underlying principles, and, to a large extent, +in personnel, the Federalist party (q.v.) and the Democratic-Republican +party.[1] The latter, organized by Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the +Federalists dominated by Alexander Hamilton, was a real party by 1792. +The great service of attaching to the constitution a democratic bill of +rights belongs to the Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republican party, +although this was then amorphous. The Democratic-Republican party gained +full control of the government, save the judiciary, in 1801, and +controlled it continuously thereafter until 1825. No political +"platforms" were then known, but the writings of Jefferson, who +dominated his party throughout this period, take the place of such. His +inaugural address of 1801 is a famous statement of democratic +principles, which to-day are taken for granted only because, through the +party organized by him to secure their success, they became universally +accepted as the ideal of American institutions. In all the colonies, +says John Adams, "a court and a country party had always contended"; +Jefferson's followers believed sincerely that the Federalists were a new +court party, and monarchist. Hence they called themselves "Republicans" +as against monarchists,--standing also, incidentally, for states' rights +against the centralization that monarchy (or any approach to it) +implied; and "Democrats" as against aristocrats,--standing for the +"common rights of Englishmen," the "rights of man," the levelling of +social ranks and the widening of political privileges. In the early +years of its history--and during the period of the French Revolution and +afterwards--the Republicans sympathized with the French as against the +British, the Federalists with the British as against the French. + +Devotion to abstract principles of democracy and liberty, and in +practical politics a strict construction of the constitution, in order +to prevent an aggrandizement of national power at the expense of the +states (which were nearer popular control) or the citizens, have been +permanent characteristics of the Democratic party as contrasted with its +principal opponents; but neither these nor any other distinctions have +been continuously or consistently true throughout its long course.[2] +After 1801 the commercial and manufacturing nationalistic[3] elements of +the Federalist party, being now dependent on Jefferson for protection, +gradually went over to the Republicans, especially after the War of +1812; moreover, administration of government naturally developed in +Republican ranks a group of broad-constructionists. These groups fused, +and became an independent party.[4] They called themselves _National_ +Republicans, while the Jacksonian Republicans soon came to be known +simply as Democrats.[5] Immediately afterward followed the tremendous +victory of the Jacksonians in 1828,--a great advance in radical +democracy over the victory of 1800. In the interval the Federalist party +had disappeared, and practically the entire country, embracing +Jeffersonian democracy, had passed through the school of the Republican +party. It had established the power of the "people" in the sense of that +word in present-day American politics. Bills of rights in every state +constitution protected the citizen; some state judges were already +elective; very soon the people came to nominate their presidential +candidates in national conventions, and draft their party platforms +through their convention representatives.[6] After the National +Republican scission the Democratic party, weakened thereby in its +nationalistic tendencies, and deprived of the leadership of Jackson, +fell quickly under the control of its Southern adherents and became +virtually sectional in its objects. Its states' rights doctrine was +turned to the defence of slavery. In thus opposing anti-slavery +sentiment--inconsistently, alike as regarded the "rights of man" and +constitutional construction, with its original and permanent +principles--it lost morale and power. As a result of the contest over +Kansas it became fatally divided, and in 1860 put forward two +presidential tickets: one representing the doctrine of Jefferson Davis +that the constitution recognized slave-property, and therefore the +national government must protect slavery in the territories; the other +representing Douglas's doctrine that the inhabitants of a territory +might virtually exclude slavery by "unfriendly legislation." The +combined popular votes for the two tickets exceeded that cast by the +new, anti-slavery Republican party (the second of the name) for Lincoln; +but the election was lost. During the ensuing Civil War such members of +the party as did not become War Democrats antagonized the Lincoln +administration, and in 1864 made the great blunder of pronouncing the +war "a failure." Owing to Republican errors in reconstruction and the +scandals of President Grant's administration, the party gradually +regained its strength and morale, until, having largely subordinated +Southern questions to economic issues, it cast for Tilden for president +in 1876 a popular vote greater than that obtained by the Republican +candidate, Hayes, and gained control of the House of Representatives. +The Electoral Commission, however, made Hayes president, and the quiet +acceptance of this decision by the Democratic party did it considerable +credit. + +Since 1877 the Southern states have been almost solidly Democratic; but, +except on the negro question, such unanimity among Southern whites has +been, naturally, factitious; and by no means an unmixed good for the +party. Apart from the "Solid South," the period after 1875 is +characterized by two other party difficulties. The first was the attempt +from 1878 to 1896 to "straddle" the silver issue;[7] the second, an +attempt after 1896 to harmonize general elements of conservatism and +radicalism within the party. In 1896 the South and West gained control +of the organization, and the national campaigns of 1896 and 1900 were +fought and lost mainly on the issue of "free silver," which, however, +was abandoned before 1904. After 1898 "imperialism," to which the +Democrats were hostile, became another issue. Finally, after 1896, there +became very apparent in the party a tendency to attract the radical +elements of society in the general re-alignment of parties taking place +on industrial-social issues; the Democratic party apparently attracting, +in this readjustment, the "radicals" and the "masses" as in the time of +Jefferson and Jackson. In this process, in the years 1896-1900, it took +over many of the principles and absorbed, in large part, the members of +the radical third-party of the "Populists," only to be confronted +thereupon by the growing strength of Socialism, challenging it to a +farther radical widening of its programme. From 1860 to 1908 it elected +but a single president (Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897).[8] +All American parties accepted long ago in theory "Jeffersonian +democracy"; but the Democratic party has been "the political champion of +those elements of the [American] democracy which are most democratic. It +stands nearest the people."[9] It may be noted that the Jeffersonian +Republicans did not attempt to democratize the constitution itself. The +choice of a president was soon popularized, however, in effect; and the +popular election of United States senators is to-day a definite +Democratic tenet.[10] + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For an exposition of the party's principles see Thomas + Jefferson, _Writings_, ed. by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York, + 1892-1899); J. P. Foley (ed.), _The Jeffersonian Cyclopaedia_ (New + York, 1900); and especially the _Campaign Text-Books_ of more recent + times, usually issued by the national Democratic committee in + alternate years, and M. Carey, _The Democratic Speaker's Handbook_ + (Cincinnati, 1868). For a hostile criticism of the party, see W. D. + Jones, _Mirror of Modern Democracy_; _History of the Democratic Party + from 1825 to 1861_ (New York, 1864); Jonathan Norcross, _History of + Democracy Considered as a Party-Name and a Political Organization_ + (New York, 1883); J. H. Patton, _The Democratic Party: Its Political + History and Influence_ (New York, 1884). Favourable treatises are R. + H. Gillet, _Democracy in the United States_ (New York, 1868); and + George Fitch, _Political Facts: an Historical Text-Book of the + Democratic and Other Parties_ (Baltimore, 1884). See also, for + general political history, Thomas H. Benton, _Thirty Years' View_ (2 + vols., New York, 1854-1856, and later editions); James G. Blaine, + _Twenty Years of Congress_ (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1893); S. + S. Cox, _Three Decades of Federal Legislation_ (Providence, 1885); S. + P. Orth, _Five American Politicians: a Study in the Evolution of + American Politics_ (Cleveland, 1906), containing sketches of four + Democratic leaders--Burr, De Witt Clinton, Van Buren and Douglas; J. + Macy, _Party Organization and Machinery_ (New York, 1904); J. H. + Hopkins, _History of Political Parties in the United States_ (New + York, 1900); E. S. Stanwood, _History of the Presidency_ (last ed., + Boston, 1904); J. P. Gordy, _History of Political Parties_, i. (New + York, 1900); H. J. Ford, _Rise and Growth of American Politics_ (New + York, 1898); Alexander Johnston, _History of American Politics_ (New + York, 1900, and later editions); C. E. Merriam, _A History of + American Political Theories_ (New York, 1903), containing chapters on + the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian Democracy; and James A. Woodburn, + _Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States_ (New + York, 1903). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The prefix "Democratic" was not used by Jefferson; it became + established, however, and official. + + [2] Under the rubric of "strict construction" fall the greatest + struggles in the party's history: those over the United States Bank, + over tariffs--for protection or for "revenue" only--over "internal + improvements," over issues of administrative economy in providing for + the "general welfare," &c. The course of the party has frequently + been inconsistent, and its doctrines have shown, absolutely + considered, progressive latitudinarianism. + + [3] "Nationalistic" is used here and below, not in the sense of a + general nationalistic spirit, such as that of Jackson, but to + indicate the centralizing tendency of a broad construction of + constitutional powers in behalf of commerce and manufactures. + + [4] Standing for protective tariffs, internal improvements, &c. + + [5] It should be borne in mind, however, that the Democratic party of + Jackson was not strictly _identical_ with the Democratic-Republican + party of Jefferson,--and some writers date back the origin of the + present Democratic party only to 1828-1829. + + [6] The Democratic national convention of 1832 was preceded by an + Anti-Masonic convention of 1830 and by the National-Republican + convention of 1831; but the Democratic platform of 1840 was the first + of its kind. + + [7] The attitude of the Republican party was no less inconsistent and + evasive. + + [8] It controlled the House of Representatives from 1874 to 1894 + except in 1880-1882 and 1888-1890; but except for a time in + Cleveland's second term, there were never simultaneously a Democratic + president and a Democratic majority in Congress. + + [9] Professor A. D. Morse in _International Monthly_, October 1900. + He adds, "It has done more to Americanize the foreigner than all + other parties." (It is predominant in the great cities of the + country.) + + [10] In connexion with the prevalent popular tendency to regard the + president as a people's tribune, it may be noted that a strong + presidential veto is, historically, peculiarly a Democratic + contribution, owing to the history of Jackson's (compare Cleveland's) + administration. + + + + +DEMOCRITUS, probably the greatest of the Greek physical philosophers, +was a native of Abdera in Thrace, or as some say--probably wrongly--of +Miletus (Diog. Laërt. ix. 34). Our knowledge of his life is based almost +entirely on tradition of an untrustworthy kind. He seems to have been +born about 470 or 460 B.C., and was, therefore, an older contemporary of +Socrates. He inherited a considerable property, which enabled him to +travel widely in the East in search of information. In Egypt he settled +for seven years, during which he studied the mathematical and physical +systems of the ancient schools. The extent to which he was influenced by +the Magi and the Eastern astrologists is a matter of pure conjecture. He +returned from his travels impoverished; one tradition says that he +received 500 talents from his fellow-citizens, and that a public funeral +was decreed him. Another tradition states that he was regarded as insane +by the Abderitans, and that Hippocrates was summoned to cure him. +Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died at the age of ninety; others make +him as much as twenty years older. His works, according to Diogenes +Laërtius, numbered seventy-two, and were characterized by a purity of +style which compares favourably with that of Plato. The absurd epithet, +the "laughing philosopher," applied to him by some unknown and very +superficial thinker, may possibly have contributed in some measure to +the fact that his importance was for centuries overlooked. It is +interesting, however, to notice that Bacon (_De Principiis_) assigns to +him his true place in the history of thought, and points out that both +in his own day and later "in the times of Roman learning" he was spoken +of in terms of the highest praise. In the variety of his knowledge, and +in the importance of his influence on both Greek and modern speculation +he was the Aristotle of the 5th century, while the sanity of his +metaphysical theory has led many to regard him as the equal, if not the +superior, of Plato. + +His views may be treated under the following heads:-- + +1. _The Atoms and Cosmology_ (adopted in part at least from the +doctrines of Leucippus, though the relations between the two are +hopelessly obscure). While agreeing with the Eleatics as to the eternal +sameness of Being (nothing can arise out of nothing; nothing can be +reduced to nothing), Democritus followed the physicists in denying its +oneness and immobility. Movement and plurality being necessary to +explain the phenomena of the universe and impossible without space +(not-Being), he asserted that the latter had an equal right with Being +to be considered existent. Being is the Full ([Greek: plêres], plenum); +not-Being is the Void ([Greek: kenon], _vacuum_), the infinite space in +which moved the infinite number of atoms into which the single Being of +the Eleatics was broken up. These atoms are eternal and invisible; +absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be diminished (hence +the name [Greek: atomos], "indivisible"); absolutely full and +incompressible, they are without pores and entirely fill the space they +occupy; homogeneous, differing only in figure (as A from N), arrangement +(as AN from NA), position (as N is Z on its side), magnitude (and +consequently in weight, although some authorities dispute this). But +while the atoms thus differ in quantity, their differences of quality +are only apparent, due to the impressions caused on our senses by +different configurations and combinations of atoms. A thing is only hot +or cold, sweet or bitter, hard or soft by convention ([Greek: nomô]); +the only things that exist in reality ([Greek: eteê]) are the atoms and +the void. Locke's distinction between primary and secondary qualities is +here anticipated. Thus, the atoms of water and iron are the same, but +those of the former, being smooth and round, and therefore unable to +hook on to one another, roll over and over like small globes, whereas +the atoms of iron, being rough, jagged and uneven, cling together and +form a solid body. Since all phenomena are composed of the same eternal +atoms (just as a tragedy and a comedy contain the same letters) it may +be said that nothing comes into being or perishes in the absolute sense +of the words (cf. the modern "indestructibility of matter" and +"conservation of energy"), although the compounds of the atoms are +liable to increase and decrease, appearance and disappearance--in other +words, to birth and death. As the atoms are eternal and uncaused, so is +motion; it has its origin in a preceding motion, and so on _ad +infinitum_. For the Love and Hate of Empedocles and the _Nous_ +(Intelligence) of Anaxagoras, Democritus substituted fixed and necessary +laws (not chance; that is a misrepresentation due chiefly to Cicero). +Everything can be explained by a purely mechanical (but not fortuitous) +system, in which there is no room for the idea of a providence or an +intelligent cause working with a view to an end. The origin of the +universe was explained as follows. An infinite number of atoms was +carried downwards through infinite space. The larger (and heavier), +falling with greater velocity, overtook and collided with the smaller +(and lighter), which were thereby forced upwards. This caused various +lateral and contrary movements, resulting in a whirling movement +([Greek: dinê]) resembling the rotation of Anaxagoras, whereby similar +atoms were brought together (as in the winnowing of grain) and united to +form larger bodies and worlds. Atoms and void being infinite in number +and extent, and motion having always existed, there must always have +been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar atoms, in +various stages of growth and decay. + +2. _The Soul._--Democritus devoted considerable attention to the +structure of the human body, the noblest portion of which he considered +to be the soul, which everywhere pervades it, a psychic atom being +intercalated between two corporeal atoms. Although, in accordance with +his principles, Democritus was bound to regard the soul as material +(composed of round, smooth, specially mobile atoms, identified with the +fire-atoms floating in the air), he admitted a distinction between it +and the body, and is even said to have looked upon it as something +divine. These all-pervading soul atoms exercise different functions in +different organs; the head is the seat of reason, the heart of anger, +the liver of desire. Life is maintained by the inhalation of fresh atoms +to replace those lost by exhalation, and when respiration, and +consequently the supply of atoms, ceases, the result is death. It +follows that the soul perishes with, and in the same sense as, the body. + +3. _Perception._--Sensations are the changes produced in the soul by +external impressions, and are the result of contact, since every action +of one body (and all representations are corporeal phenomena) upon +another is of the nature of a shock. Certain emanations ([Greek: +aporrhoai, aporrhoiai]) or images ([Greek: eidôla]), consisting of +subtle atoms, thrown off from the surface of an object, penetrate the +body through the pores. On the principle that like acts upon like, the +particular senses are only affected by that which resembles them. We see +by means of the eye alone, and hear by means of the ear alone, these +organs being best adapted to receive the images or sound currents. The +organs are thus merely conduits or passages through which the atoms pour +into the soul. The eye, for example, is damp and porous, and the act of +seeing consists in the reflection of the image ([Greek: deikelon]) +mirrored on the smooth moist surface of the pupil. To the interposition +of air is due the fact that all visual images are to some extent +blurred. At the same time Democritus distinguished between obscure +([Greek: skotiê]) cognition, resting on sensation alone, and genuine +([Greek: gnêsiê]), which is the result of inquiry by reason, and is +concerned with atoms and void, the only real existences. This knowledge, +however, he confessed was exceedingly difficult to attain. + +It is in Democritus first that we find a real attempt to explain colour. +He regards black, red, white and green as primary. White is +characteristically smooth, i.e. casting no shadow, even, flat; black is +uneven, rough, shadowy and so on. The other colours result from various +mixtures of these four, and are infinite in number. Colour itself is not +objective; it is found not in the ultimate _plenum_ and _vacuum_, but +only in derived objects according to their physical qualities and +relations. + +4. _Theology._--The system of Democritus was altogether anti-theistic. +But, although he rejected the notion of a deity taking part in the +creation or government of the universe, he yielded to popular prejudice +so far as to admit the existence of a class of beings, of the same form +as men, grander, composed of very subtle atoms, less liable to +dissolution, but still mortal, dwelling in the upper regions of air. +These beings also manifested themselves to man by means of images in +dreams, communicated with him, and sometimes gave him an insight into +the future. Some of them were benevolent, others malignant. According to +Plutarch, Democritus recognized one god under the form of a fiery +sphere, the soul of the world, but this idea is probably of later +origin. The popular belief in gods was attributed by Democritus to the +desire to explain extraordinary phenomena (thunder, lightning, +earthquakes) by reference to superhuman agency. + +5. _Ethics._--Democritus's moral system--the first collection of ethical +precepts which deserves the name--strongly resembles the negative side +of the system of Epicurus. The _summum bonum_ is the maximum of pleasure +with the minimum of pain. But true pleasure is not sensual enjoyment; it +has its principle in the soul. It consists not in the possession of +wealth or flocks and herds, but in good humour, in the just disposition +and constant tranquillity of the soul. Hence the necessity of avoiding +extremes; too much and too little are alike evils. True happiness +consists in taking advantage of what one has and being content with it +(see ETHICS). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fragments edited by F. Mullach (1843) with commentary + and in his _Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum_, i. (1860). See also + H. Ritter and L. Preller, _Historia philosophiae_ (chap. i. ad fin.); + P. Lafaist (Lafaye), _Dissertation sur la philosophie atomistique_ + (1833); L. Liard, _De Democrito philosopho_ (Paris, 1873); H. C. + Liepmann, _Die Leucipp-Democritischen Atome_ (Leipzig, 1886); F. A. + Lange, _Geschichte des Materialismus_ (Eng. trans. by E. C. Thomas, + 1877); G. Hart, _Zur Seelen- und Erkenntnislehre des Democritus_ + (Leipzig, 1886); P. Natorp, _Die Ethika des Demokritos_ (Marburg, + 1893); A. Dyroff, _Demokritstudien_ (Leipzig, 1899); among general + works C. A. Brandis, _Gesch. d. Entwickelungen d. griech. + Philosophie_ (Bonn, 1862-1864); Ed. Zeller, _Pre-Socratic Philosophy_ + (Eng. trans., London, 1881); for his theory of sense-perception see + especially J. I. Beare, _Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition_ + (Oxford, 1906). + + + + +DEMOGEOT, JACQUES CLAUDE (1808-1804), French man of letters, was born in +Paris on the 5th of July 1808. He was professor of rhetoric at the lycée +Saint Louis, and subsequently assistant professor at the Sorbonne. He +wrote many detached papers on various literary subjects, and two reports +on secondary education in England and Scotland in collaboration with H. +Montucci. His reputation rests on his excellent _Histoire de la +littérature française depuis ses origines jusqu'à nos jours_ (1851), +which has passed through many subsequent editions. He was also the +author of a _Tableau de la littérature française au XVII^e siècle_ +(1859), and of a work (3 vols., 1880-1883) on the influence of foreign +literatures on the development of French literature. He died in Paris in +1894. + + + + +DEMOGRAPHY (from Gr. [Greek: dêmos], people, and [Greek: graphein], to +write), the science which deals with the statistics of health and +disease, of the physical, intellectual, physiological and economical +aspects of births, marriages and mortality. The first to employ the word +was Achille Guillard in his _Éléments de statistique humaine ou +démographie comparée_ (1855), but the meaning which he attached to it +was merely that of the science which treats of the condition, general +movement and progress of population in civilized countries, i.e. little +more than what is comprised in the ordinary vital statistics, gleaned +from census and registration reports. The word has come to have a much +wider meaning and may now be defined as that branch of statistics which +deals with the life-conditions of peoples. + + + + +DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM (1667-1754), English mathematician of French +extraction, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, on the 26th of May 1667. He +belonged to a French Protestant family, and was compelled to take refuge +in England at the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Having +laid the foundation of his mathematical studies in France, he prosecuted +them further in London, where he read public lectures on natural +philosophy for his support. The _Principia mathematica_ of Sir Isaac +Newton, which chance threw in his way, caused him to prosecute his +studies with vigour, and he soon became distinguished among first-rate +mathematicians. He was among the intimate personal friends of Newton, +and his eminence and abilities secured his admission into the Royal +Society of London in 1697, and afterwards into the Academies of Berlin +and Paris. His merit was so well known and acknowledged by the Royal +Society that they judged him a fit person to decide the famous contest +between Newton and G. W. Leibnitz (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). The life +of Demoivre was quiet and uneventful. His old age was spent in obscure +poverty, his friends and associates having nearly all passed away before +him. He died at London, on the 27th of November 1754. + + The _Philosophical Transactions_ contain several of his papers. He + also published some excellent works, such as _Miscellanea analytica + de seriebus et quadraturis_ (1730), in 4to. This contained some + elegant and valuable improvements on then existing methods, which + have themselves, however, long been superseded. But he has been more + generally known by his _Doctrine of Chances, or Method of Calculating + the Probabilities of Events at Play_. This work was first printed in + 1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. It was reprinted in + 1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition + was afterwards published with additions in 1756. He also published a + _Treatise on Annuities_ (1725), which has passed through several + revised and corrected editions. + + See C. Hutton, _Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary_ (1815). + For _Demoivre's Theorem_ see TRIGONOMETRY: Analytical. + + + + +DEMONETIZATION, a term employed in monetary science in two different +senses. (a) The depriving or divesting of a metal of its standard +monetary value. From 1663 to 1717 silver was the standard of value in +England and gold coins passed at their market value. The debasement and +underrating of the silver coinage insensibly brought about the +demonetization of silver in England as a standard of value and the +substitution of gold. During the latter half of the 19th century, the +tremendous depreciation of silver, owing to its continually increasing +production, and consequently the impossibility of preserving any ratio +of stability between it and gold, led to the abandonment or +demonetization of the metal as a standard and to its use merely as token +money. (b) The withdrawal of coin from circulation, as, for example, in +England that of all pre-Victorian gold coins under the provisions of the +Coinage Act 1889, and the royal proclamation of the 22nd of November +1890. + + + + +DEMONOLOGY ([Greek: Daimôn], demon, genius, spirit), the branch of the +science of religions which relates to superhuman beings which are not +gods. It deals both with benevolent beings which have no circle of +worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below the rank of gods, and +with malevolent beings of all kinds. It may be noted that the original +sense of "demon" was a benevolent being; but in English the name now +connotes malevolence; in German it has a neutral sense, e.g. +_Korndämonen_. Demons, when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to +either of the classes of spirits recognized by primitive animism (q.v.); +that is to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable souls, or +discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body; a sharp +distinction is often drawn between these two classes, notably by the +Melanesians, the West Africans and others; the Arab _jinn_, for example, +are not reducible to modified human souls; at the same time these +classes are frequently conceived as producing identical results, e.g. +diseases. + +Under the head of demons are classified only such spirits as are +believed to enter into relations with the human race; the term therefore +includes (1) human souls regarded as genii or familiars, (2) such as +receive a cult (for which see ANCESTOR WORSHIP), and (3) ghosts or other +malevolent revenants; excluded are souls conceived as inhabiting another +world. But just as gods are not necessarily spiritual, demons may also +be regarded as corporeal; vampires for example are sometimes described +as human heads with appended entrails, which issue from the tomb to +attack the living during the night watches. The so-called Spectre +Huntsman of the Malay Peninsula is said to be a man who scours the +firmament with his dogs, vainly seeking for what he could not find on +earth--a buck mouse-deer pregnant with male offspring; but he seems to +be a living man; there is no statement that he ever died, nor yet that +he is a spirit. The incubus and succubus of the middle ages are +sometimes regarded as spiritual beings; but they were held to give very +real proof of their bodily existence. It should, however, be remembered +that primitive peoples do not distinguish clearly between material and +immaterial beings. + +_Prevalence of Demons._--According to a conception of the world +frequently found among peoples of the lower cultures, all the affairs of +life are supposed to be under the control of spirits, each ruling a +certain element or even object, and themselves in subjection to a +greater spirit. Thus, the Eskimo are said to believe in spirits of the +sea, earth and sky, the winds, the clouds and everything in nature. +Every cove of the seashore, every point, every island and prominent rock +has its guardian spirit. All are of the malignant type, to be +propitiated only by acceptable offerings from persons who desire to +visit the locality where it is supposed to reside. A rise in culture +often results in an increase in the number of spiritual beings with whom +man surrounds himself. Thus, the Koreans go far beyond the Eskimo and +number their demons by thousands of billions; they fill the chimney, the +shed, the living-room, the kitchen, they are on every shelf and jar; in +thousands they waylay the traveller as he leaves his home, beside him, +behind him, dancing in front of him, whirring over his head, crying out +upon him from air, earth and water. + +Especially complicated was the ancient Babylonian demonology; all the +petty annoyances of life--a sudden fall, a headache, a quarrel--were set +down to the agency of fiends; all the stronger emotions--love, hate, +jealousy and so on--were regarded as the work of demons; in fact so +numerous were they, that there were special fiends for various parts of +the human body--one for the head, another for the neck, and so on. +Similarly in Egypt at the present day the _jinn_ are believed to swarm +so thickly that it is necessary to ask their permission before pouring +water on the ground, lest one should accidentally be soused and vent his +anger on the offending human being. But these beliefs are far from being +confined to the uncivilized; Greek philosophers like Porphyry, no less +than the fathers of the Church, held that the world was pervaded with +spirits; side by side with the belief in witchcraft, we can trace +through the middle ages the survival of primitive animistic views; and +in our own day even these beliefs subsist in unsuspected vigour among +the peasantry of the more uneducated European countries. In fact the +ready acceptance of spiritualism testifies to the force with which the +primitive animistic way of looking at things appealed to the white races +in the middle of the last century. + +_Character of Spiritual World._--The ascription of malevolence to the +world of spirits is by no means universal. In West Africa the Mpongwe +believe in local spirits, just as do the Eskimo; but they are regarded +as inoffensive in the main; true, the passer-by must make some trifling +offering as he nears their place of abode; but it is only occasionally +that mischievous acts, such as the throwing down of a tree on a +passer-by, are, in the view of the natives, perpetuated by the Ombuiri. +So too, many of the spirits especially concerned with the operations of +nature are conceived as neutral or even benevolent; the European peasant +fears the corn-spirit only when he irritates him by trenching on his +domain and taking his property by cutting the corn; similarly, there is +no reason why the more insignificant personages of the pantheon should +be conceived as malevolent, and we find that the _Petara_ of the Dyaks +are far from indiscriminating and malignant, though disease and death +are laid at their door. + +_Classification._--Besides the distinctions of human and non-human, +hostile and friendly, the demons in which the lower races believe are +classified by them according to function, each class with a distinctive +name, with extraordinary minuteness, the list in the case of the Malays +running to several score. They have, for example, a demon of the +waterfall, a demon of wild-beast tracks, a demon which interferes with +snares for wild-fowl, a baboon demon, which takes possession of dancers +and causes them to perform wonderful feats of climbing, &c. But it is +impossible to do more than deal with a few types, which will illustrate +the main features of the demonology of savage, barbarous and +semi-civilized peoples. + +(a) Natural causes, either of death or of disease, are hardly, if at +all, recognized by the uncivilized; everything is attributed to spirits +or magical influence of some sort. The spirits which cause disease may +be human or non-human and their influence is shown in more than one way; +they may enter the body of the victim (see POSSESSION), and either +dominate his mind as well as his body, inflict specific diseases, or +cause pains of various sorts. Thus the Mintra of the Malay Peninsula +have a demon corresponding to every kind of disease known to them; the +Tasmanian ascribed a gnawing pain to the presence within him of the soul +of a dead man, whom he had unwittingly summoned by mentioning his name +and who was devouring his liver; the Samoan held that the violation of a +food tabu would result in the animal being formed within the body of the +offender and cause his death. The demon theory of disease is still +attested by some of our medical terms; epilepsy (Gr. [Greek: epilêpsis], +seizure) points to the belief that the patient is possessed. As a +logical consequence of this view of disease the mode of treatment among +peoples in the lower stages of culture is mainly magical; they endeavour +to propitiate the evil spirits by sacrifice, to expel them by spells, +&c. (see EXORCISM), to drive them away by blowing, &c.; conversely we +find the Khonds attempt to keep away smallpox by placing thorns and +brushwood in the paths leading to places decimated by that disease, in +the hope of making the disease demon retrace his steps. This theory of +disease disappeared sooner than did the belief in possession; the +energumens ([Greek: energoumenoi]) of the early Christian church, who +were under the care of a special clerical order of exorcists, testify to +a belief in possession; but the demon theory of disease receives no +recognition; the energumens find their analogues in the converts of +missionaries in China, Africa and elsewhere. Another way in which a +demon is held to cause disease is by introducing itself into the +patient's body and sucking his blood; the Malays believe that a woman +who dies in childbirth becomes a _langsuir_ and sucks the blood of +children; victims of the lycanthrope are sometimes said to be done to +death in the same way; and it is commonly believed in Africa that the +wizard has the power of killing people in this way, probably with the +aid of a familiar. + +(b) One of the primary meanings of [Greek: daimôn] is that of genius or +familiar, tutelary spirit; according to Hesiod the men of the golden +race became after death guardians or watchers over mortals. The idea is +found among the Romans also; they attributed to every man a genius who +accompanied him through life. A Norse belief found in Iceland is that +the _fylgia_, a genius in animal form, attends human beings; and these +animal guardians may sometimes be seen fighting; in the same way the +Siberian shamans send their animal familiars to do battle instead of +deciding their quarrels in person. The animal guardian reappears in the +_nagual_ of Central America (see article TOTEMISM), the _yunbeai_ of +some Australian tribes, the _manitou_ of the Red Indian and the bush +soul of some West African tribes; among the latter the link between +animal and human being is said to be established by the ceremony of the +blood bond. Corresponding to the animal guardian of the ordinary man, we +have the familiar of the witch or wizard. All the world over it is held +that such people can assume the form of animals; sometimes the power of +the shaman is held to depend on his being able to summon his familiar; +among the Ostiaks the shaman's coat was covered with representations of +birds and beasts; two bear's claws were on his hands; his wand was +covered with mouse-skin; when he wished to divine he beat his drum till +a black bird appeared and perched on his hut; then the shaman swooned, +the bird vanished, and the divination could begin. Similarly the +Greenland _angekok_ is said to summon his _torngak_ (which may be an +ancestral ghost or an animal) by drumming; he is heard by the bystanders +to carry on a conversation and obtain advice as to how to treat +diseases, the prospects of good weather and other matters of importance. +The familiar, who is sometimes replaced by the devil, commonly figured +in witchcraft trials; and a statute of James I. enacted that all persons +invoking an evil spirit or consulting, covenanting with, entertaining, +employing, feeding or rewarding any evil spirit should be guilty of +felony and suffer death. In modern spiritualism the familiar is +represented by the "guide," corresponding to which we have the +theosophical "guru." + +(c) The familiar is sometimes an ancestral spirit, and here we touch the +fringe of the cult of the dead (see also ANCESTOR WORSHIP). Especially +among the lower races the dead are regarded as hostile; the Australian +avoids the grave even of a kinsman and elaborate ceremonies of mourning +are found amongst most primitive peoples, whose object seems to be to +rid the living of the danger they run by association with the ghost of +the dead. Among the Zulu the spirits of the dead are held to be friendly +or hostile, just as they were in life; on the Congo a man after death +joins the good or bad spirits according as his life has been good or +bad. Especially feared among many peoples are the souls of those who +have committed suicide or died a violent death; the woman who dies in +childbed is held to become a demon of the most dangerous kind; even the +unburied, as restless, dissatisfied spirits, are more feared than +ordinary ghosts. Naturally spirits of these latter kinds are more +valuable as familiars than ordinary dead men's souls. We find many +recipes for securing their aid. In the Malay Peninsula the blood of a +murdered man must be put in a bottle and prayers said over; after seven +days of this worship a sound is heard and the operator puts his finger +into the bottle for the polong, as the demon is called, to suck; it will +fly through the air in the shape of an exceedingly diminutive female +figure, and is always preceded by its pet, the pelesit, in the shape of +a grasshopper. In Europe a similar demon is said to be obtainable from a +cock's egg. In South Africa and India, on the other hand, the magician +digs up a dead body, especially of a child, to secure a familiar. The +evocation of spirits, especially in the form of necromancy, is an +important branch of the demonology of many peoples; and the +peculiarities of trance mediumship, which seem sufficiently established +by modern research, go far to explain the vogue of this art. It seems to +have been common among the Jews, and the case of the witch of Endor is +narrated in a way to suggest something beyond fraud; in the book of +magic which bears the name of Dr Faustus may be found many of the +formulae for raising demons; in England may be mentioned especially Dr +Dee as one of the most famous of those who claimed before the days of +modern spiritualism (q.v.) to have intercourse with the unseen world and +to summon demons at his will. Sometimes the spirits were summoned to +appear as did the phantoms of the Greek heroes to Odysseus; sometimes +they were called to enter a crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING); sometimes they +are merely asked to declare the future or communicate by moving external +objects without taking a visible form; thus among the Karens at the +close of the burial ceremonies the ghost of the dead man, which is said +to hover round till the rites are completed, is believed to make a ring +swing round and snap the string from which it hangs. + +(d) The vampire is a particular form of demon which calls for some +notice. In the Malay Peninsula, parts of Polynesia, &c., it is conceived +as a head with attached entrails, which issues, it may be from the +grave, to suck the blood of living human beings. According to the Malays +a _penanggalan_ (vampire) is a living witch, and can be killed if she +can be caught; she is especially feared in houses where a birth has +taken place and it is the custom to hang up a bunch of thistle in order +to catch her; she is said to keep vinegar at home to aid her in +re-entering her own body. In Europe the Slavonic area is the principal +seat of vampire beliefs, and here too we find, as a natural development, +that means of preventing the dead from injuring the living have been +evolved by the popular mind. The corpse of the vampire, which may often +be recognized by its unnaturally ruddy and fresh appearance, should be +staked down in the grave or its head should be cut off; it is +interesting to note that the cutting off of heads of the dead was a +neolithic burial rite. + +(e) The vampire is frequently blended in popular idea with the +Poltergeist (q.v.) or knocking spirit, and also with the werwolf (see +LYCANTHROPY). + +(f) As might be expected, dream demons are very common; in fact the word +"nightmare" (A. S. _mær_, spirit, elf) preserves for us a record of this +form of belief, which is found right down to the lowest planes of +culture. The Australian, when he suffers from an oppression in his +sleep, says that Koin is trying to throttle him; the Caribs say that +Maboya beats them in their sleep; and the belief persists to this day in +some parts of Europe; horses too are said to be subject to the +persecutions of demons, which ride them at night. Another class of +nocturnal demons are the incubi and succubi, who are said to consort +with human beings in their sleep; in the Antilles these were the ghosts +of the dead; in New Zealand likewise ancestral deities formed liaisons +with females; in the Samoan Islands the inferior gods were regarded as +the fathers of children otherwise unaccounted for; the Hindus have rites +prescribed by which a companion nymph may be secured. The question of +the real existence of incubi and succubi, whom the Romans identified +with the fauns, was gravely discussed by the fathers of the church; and +in 1418 Innocent VIII. set forth the doctrine of lecherous demons as an +indisputable fact; and in the history of the Inquisition and of trials +for witchcraft may be found the confessions of many who bore witness to +their reality. In the _Anatomy of Melancholy_ Burton assures us that +they were never more numerous than in A.D. 1600. + +(g) Corresponding to the personal tutelary spirit (supra, b) we have the +genii of buildings and places. The Romans celebrated the birthday of a +town and of its genius, just as they celebrated that of a man; and a +snake was a frequent form for this kind of demon; when we compare with +this the South African belief that the snakes which are in the +neighbourhood of the kraal are the incarnations of the ancestors of the +residents, it seems probable that some similar idea lay at the bottom of +the Roman belief; to this day in European folklore the house snake or +toad, which lives in the cellar, is regarded as the "life index" or +other self of the father of the house; the death of one involves the +death of the other, according to popular belief. The assignment of genii +to buildings and gates is connected with an important class of +sacrifices; in order to provide a tutelary spirit, or to appease +chthonic deities, it was often the custom to sacrifice a human being or +an animal at the foundation of a building; sometimes we find a similar +guardian provided for the frontier of a country or of a tribe. The house +spirit is, however, not necessarily connected with this idea. In Russia +the _domovoi_ (house spirit) is an important personage in folk-belief; +he may object to certain kinds of animals, or to certain colours in +cattle; and must, generally speaking, be propitiated and cared for. +Corresponding to him we have the drudging goblin of English folklore. + +(h) It has been shown above how the animistic creed postulates the +existence of all kinds of local spirits, which are sometimes tied to +their habitats, sometimes free to wander. Especially prominent in +Europe, classical, medieval and modern, and in East Asia, is the spirit +of the lake, river, spring, or well, often conceived as human, but also +in the form of a bull or horse; the term Old Nick may refer to the +water-horse Nök. Less specialized in their functions are many of the +figures of modern folklore, some of whom have perhaps replaced some +ancient goddess, e.g. Frau Holda; others, like the Welsh Pwck, the +Lancashire boggarts or the more widely found Jack-o'-Lantern (Will o' +the Wisp), are sprites who do no more harm than leading the wanderer +astray. The banshee is perhaps connected with ancestral or house +spirits; the Wild Huntsman, the Gabriel hounds, the Seven Whistlers, +&c., are traceable to some actual phenomenon; but the great mass of +British goblindom cannot now be traced back to savage or barbarous +analogues. Among other local sprites may be mentioned the kobolds or +spirits of the mines. The fairies (see FAIRY), located in the fairy +knolls by the inhabitants of the Shetlands, may also be put under this +head. + +(i) The subject of plant souls is referred to in connexion with animism +(q.v.); but certain aspects of this phase of belief demand more detailed +treatment. Outside the European area vegetation spirits of all kinds +seem to be conceived, as a rule, as anthropomorphic; in classical +Europe, and parts of the Slavonic area at the present day, the tree +spirit was believed to have the form of a goat, or to have goats' feet. + +Of special importance in Europe is the conception of the so-called "corn +spirit"; W. Mannhardt collected a mass of information proving that the +life of the corn is supposed to exist apart from the corn itself and to +take the form, sometimes of an animal, sometimes of a man or woman, +sometimes of a child. There is, however, no proof that the belief is +animistic in the proper sense. The animal which popular belief +identified with the corn demon is sometimes killed in the spring in +order to mingle its blood or bones with the seed; at harvest-time it is +supposed to sit in the last corn and the animals driven out from it are +sometimes killed; at others the reaper who cuts the last ear is said to +have killed the "wolf" or the "dog," and sometimes receives the name of +"wolf" or "dog" and retains it till the next harvest. The corn spirit is +also said to be hiding in the barn till the corn is threshed, or it may +be said to reappear at midwinter, when the farmer begins to think of his +new year of labour and harvest. Side by side with the conception of the +corn spirit as an animal is the anthropomorphic view of it; and this +element must have predominated in the evolution of the cereal deities +like Demeter; at the same time traces of the association of gods and +goddesses of corn with animal embodiments of the corn spirit are found. + +(j) In many parts of the world, and especially in Africa, is found the +conception termed the "otiose creator"; that is to say, the belief in a +great deity, who is the author of all that exists but is too remote from +the world and too high above terrestrial things to concern himself with +the details of the universe. As a natural result of this belief we find +the view that the operations of nature are conducted by a multitude of +more or less obedient subordinate deities; thus, in Portuguese West +Africa the Kimbunda believe in Suku-Vakange, but hold that he has +committed the government of the universe to innumerable _kilulu_ good +and bad; the latter kind are held to be far more numerous, but +Suku-Vakange is said to keep them in order by occasionally smiting them +with his thunderbolts; were it not for this, man's lot would be +insupportable. + +Sometimes the gods of an older religion degenerate into the demons of +the belief which supersedes it. A conspicuous example of this is found +in the attitude of the Hebrew prophets to the gods of the nations, whose +power they recognize without admitting their claim to reverence and +sacrifice. The same tendency is seen in many early missionary works and +is far from being without influence even at the present day. In the +folklore of European countries goblindom is peopled by gods and +nature-spirits of an earlier heathendom. We may also compare the Persian +_devs_ with the Indian _devas_. + +_Expulsion of Demons._--In connexion with demonology mention must be +made of the custom of expelling ghosts, spirits or evils generally. +Primitive peoples from the Australians upwards celebrate, usually at +fixed intervals, a driving out of hurtful influences. Sometimes, as +among the Australians, it is merely the ghosts of those who have died in +the year which are thus driven out; from this custom must be +distinguished another, which consists in dismissing the souls of the +dead at the close of the year and sending them on their journey to the +other world; this latter custom seems to have an entirely different +origin and to be due to love and not fear of the dead. In other cases it +is believed that evil spirits generally or even non-personal evils such +as sins are believed to be expelled. In these customs originated perhaps +the scapegoat, some forms of sacrifice (q.v.) and other cathartic +ceremonies. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_; + Skeat, _Malay Magic_; Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_; + Callaway, _Religion of the Amazulu_; Hild, _Étude sur les démons_; + Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_, i. 731; _Trans. Am. Phil. Soc._ + xxvi. 79; Calmet, _Dissertation sur les esprits_; Maury, _La Magie_; + L. W. King, _Babylonian Magic_; Lenormant, _La Magie chez les + Chaldéens_; R. C. Thompson, _Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia_; + Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_; Roskoff, _Geschichte des Teufels_; + Sibly, _Illustration of the Occult Sciences_; Scott, _Demonology_; + Pitcairn, _Scottish Criminal Trials_; _Jewish Quarterly Rev._ viii. + 576, &c.; Horst, _Zauberbibliothek_; _Jewish Encyclopedia_, s.v. + "Demonology." See also bibliography to POSSESSION, ANIMISM and other + articles. (N. W. T.) + + + + +DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS (1806-1871), English mathematician and logician, was +born in June 1806, at Madura, in the Madras presidency. His father, +Colonel John De Morgan, was employed in the East India Company's +service, and his grandfather and great-grandfather had served under +Warren Hastings. On the mother's side he was descended from James +Dodson, F.R.S., author of the _Anti-logarithmic Canon_ and other +mathematical works of merit, and a friend of Abraham Demoivre. Seven +months after the birth of Augustus, Colonel De Morgan brought his wife, +daughter and infant son to England, where he left them during a +subsequent period of service in India, dying in 1816 on his way home. + +Augustus De Morgan received his early education in several private +schools, and before the age of fourteen years had learned Latin, Greek +and some Hebrew, in addition to acquiring much general knowledge. At the +age of sixteen years and a half he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, +and studied mathematics, partly under the tuition of Sir G. B. Airy. In +1825 he gained a Trinity scholarship. De Morgan's love of wide reading +somewhat interfered with his success in the mathematical tripos, in +which he took the fourth place in 1827. He was prevented from taking his +M.A. degree, or from obtaining a fellowship, by his conscientious +objection to signing the theological tests then required from masters of +arts and fellows at Cambridge. + +A career in his own university being closed against him, he entered +Lincoln's Inn; but had hardly done so when the establishment, in 1828, +of the university of London, in Gower Street, afterwards known as +University College, gave him an opportunity of continuing his +mathematical pursuits. At the early age of twenty-two he gave his first +lecture as professor of mathematics in the college which he served with +the utmost zeal and success for a third of a century. His connexion with +the college, indeed, was interrupted in 1831, when a disagreement with +the governing body caused De Morgan and some other professors to resign +their chairs simultaneously. When, in 1836, his successor was +accidentally drowned, De Morgan was requested to resume the +professorship. + +In 1837 he married Sophia Elizabeth, daughter of William Frend, a +Unitarian in faith, a mathematician and actuary in occupation, a notice +of whose life, written by his son-in-law, will be found in the _Monthly +Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society_ (vol. v.). They settled in +Chelsea (30 Cheyne Row), where in later years Mrs De Morgan had a large +circle of intellectual and artistic friends. + +As a teacher of mathematics De Morgan was unrivalled. He gave +instruction in the form of continuous lectures delivered extempore from +brief notes. The most prolonged mathematical reasoning, and the most +intricate formulae, were given with almost infallible accuracy from the +resources of his extraordinary memory. De Morgan's writings, however +excellent, give little idea of the perspicuity and elegance of his viva +voce expositions, which never failed to fix the attention of all who +were worthy of hearing him. Many of his pupils have distinguished +themselves, and, through Isaac Todhunter and E. J. Routh, he had an +important influence on the later Cambridge school. For thirty years he +took an active part in the business of the Royal Astronomical Society, +editing its publications, supplying obituary notices of members, and for +eighteen years acting as one of the honorary secretaries. He was also +frequently employed as consulting actuary, a business in which his +mathematical powers, combined with sound judgment and business-like +habits, fitted him to take the highest place. + +De Morgan's mathematical writings contributed powerfully towards the +progress of the science. His memoirs on the "Foundation of Algebra," in +the 7th and 8th volumes of the _Cambridge Philosophical Transactions_, +contain some of the most important contributions which have been made to +the philosophy of mathematical method; and Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, in the +preface to his _Lectures on Quaternions_, refers more than once to those +papers as having led and encouraged him in the working out of the new +system of quaternions. The work on _Trigonometry and Double Algebra_ +(1849) contains in the latter part a most luminous and philosophical +view of existing and possible systems of symbolic calculus. But De +Morgan's influence on mathematical science in England can only be +estimated by a review of his long series of publications, which +commence, in 1828, with a translation of part of Bourdon's _Elements of +Algebra_, prepared for his students. In 1830 appeared the first edition +of his well-known _Elements of Arithmetic_, which did much to raise the +character of elementary training. It is distinguished by a simple yet +thoroughly philosophical treatment of the ideas of number and magnitude, +as well as by the introduction of new abbreviated processes of +computation, to which De Morgan always attributed much practical +importance. Second and third editions were called for in 1832 and 1835; +a sixth edition was issued in 1876. De Morgan's other principal +mathematical works were _The Elements of Algebra_ (1835), a valuable but +somewhat dry elementary treatise; the _Essay on Probabilities_ (1838), +forming the 107th volume of _Lardner's Cyclopaedia_, which forms a +valuable introduction to the subject; and _The Elements of Trigonometry +and Trigonometrical Analysis, preliminary to the Differential Calculus_ +(1837). Several of his mathematical works were published by the Society +for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, of which De Morgan was at one +time an active member. Among these may be mentioned the _Treatise on the +Differential and Integral Calculus_ (1842); the _Elementary +Illustrations of the Differential and Integral Calculus_, first +published in 1832, but often bound up with the larger treatise; the +essay, _On the Study and Difficulties of Mathematics_ (1831); and a +brief treatise on _Spherical Trigonometry_ (1834). By some accident the +work on probability in the same series, written by Sir J. W. Lubbock and +J. Drinkwater-Bethune, was attributed to De Morgan, an error which +seriously annoyed his nice sense of bibliographical accuracy. For +fifteen years he did all in his power to correct the mistake, and +finally wrote to _The Times_ to disclaim the authorship. (See _Monthly +Notices_ of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxvi. p. 118.) Two of +his most elaborate treatises are to be found in the _Encyclopaedia +metropolitana_, namely the articles on the Calculus of Functions, and the +Theory of Probabilities. De Morgan's minor mathematical writings were +scattered over various periodicals. A list of these and other papers +will be found in the _Royal Society's Catalogue_, which contains +forty-two entries under the name of De Morgan. + +In spite, however, of the excellence and extent of his mathematical +writings, it is probably as a logical reformer that De Morgan will be +best remembered. In this respect he stands alongside of his great +contemporaries Sir W. R. Hamilton and George Boole, as one of several +independent discoverers of the all-important principle of the +quantification of the predicate. Unlike most mathematicians, De Morgan +always laid much stress upon the importance of logical training. In his +admirable papers upon the modes of teaching arithmetic and geometry, +originally published in the _Quarterly Journal of Education_ (reprinted +in _The Schoolmaster_, vol ii.), he remonstrated against the neglect of +logical doctrine. In 1839 he produced a small work called _First +Notions of Logic_, giving what he had found by experience to be much +wanted by students commencing with _Euclid_. In October 1846 he +completed the first of his investigations, in the form of a paper +printed in the _Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society_ +(vol. viii. No. 29). In this paper the principle of the quantified +predicate was referred to, and there immediately ensued a memorable +controversy with Sir W. R. Hamilton regarding the independence of De +Morgan's discovery, some communications having passed between them in +the autumn of 1846. The details of this dispute will be found in the +original pamphlets, in the _Athenaeum_ and in the appendix to De +Morgan's _Formal Logic_. Suffice it to say that the independence of De +Morgan's discovery was subsequently recognized by Hamilton. The eight +forms of proposition adopted by De Morgan as the basis of his system +partially differ from those which Hamilton derived from the quantified +predicate. The general character of De Morgan's development of logical +forms was wholly peculiar and original on his part. + +Late in 1847 De Morgan published his principal logical treatise, called +_Formal Logic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and Probable_. +This contains a reprint of the _First Notions_, an elaborate development +of his doctrine of the syllogism, and of the numerical definite +syllogism, together with chapters of great interest on probability, +induction, old logical terms and fallacies. The severity of the treatise +is relieved by characteristic touches of humour, and by quaint anecdotes +and allusions furnished from his wide reading and perfect memory. There +followed at intervals, in the years 1850, 1858, 1860 and 1863, a series +of four elaborate memoirs on the "Syllogism," printed in volumes ix. and +x. of the _Cambridge Philosophical Transactions_. These papers taken +together constitute a great treatise on logic, in which he substituted +improved systems of notation, and developed a new logic of relations, +and a new onymatic system of logical expression. In 1860 De Morgan +endeavoured to render their contents better known by publishing a +_Syllabus of a Proposed System of Logic_, from which may be obtained a +good idea of his symbolic system, but the more readable and interesting +discussions contained in the memoirs are of necessity omitted. The +article "Logic" in the _English Cyclopaedia_ (1860) completes the list +of his logical publications. + +Throughout his logical writings De Morgan was led by the idea that the +followers of the two great branches of exact science, logic and +mathematics, had made blunders,--the logicians in neglecting +mathematics, and the mathematicians in neglecting logic. He endeavoured +to reconcile them, and in the attempt showed how many errors an acute +mathematician could detect in logical writings, and how large a field +there was for discovery. But it may be doubted whether De Morgan's own +system, "horrent with mysterious spiculae," as Hamilton aptly described +it, is fitted to exhibit the real analogy between quantitative and +qualitative reasoning, which is rather to be sought in the logical works +of Boole. + + Perhaps the largest part, in volume, of De Morgan's writings remains + still to be briefly mentioned; it consists of detached articles + contributed to various periodical or composite works. During the + years 1833-1843 he contributed very largely to the first edition of + the _Penny Cyclopaedia_, writing chiefly on mathematics, astronomy, + physics and biography. His articles of various length cannot be less + in number than 850, and they have been estimated to constitute a + sixth part of the whole _Cyclopaedia_, of which they formed perhaps + the most valuable portion. He also wrote biographies of Sir Isaac + Newton and Edmund Halley for Knight's _British Worthies_, various + notices of scientific men for the _Gallery of Portraits_, and for the + uncompleted _Biographical Dictionary_ of the Useful Knowledge + Society, and at least seven articles in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek + and Roman Biography_. Some of De Morgan's most interesting and useful + minor writings are to be found in the _Companions to the British + Almanack_, to which he contributed without fail one article each year + from 1831 up to 1857 inclusive. In these carefully written papers he + treats a great variety of topics relating to astronomy, chronology, + decimal coinage, life assurance, bibliography and the history of + science. Most of them are as valuable now as when written. + + Among De Morgan's miscellaneous writings may be mentioned his + _Explanation of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere_, 1836, + including a description of the maps of the stars, published by the + Useful Knowledge Society; his _Treatise on the Globes, Celestial and + Terrestrial_, 1845, and his remarkable _Book of Almanacks_ (2nd + edition, 1871), which contains a series of thirty-five almanacs, so + arranged with indices of reference, that the almanac for any year, + whether in old style or new, from any epoch, ancient or modern, up to + A. D. 2000, may be found without difficulty, means being added for + verifying the almanac and also for discovering the days of new and + full moon from 2000 B. C. up to A. D. 2000. De Morgan expressly draws + attention to the fact that the plan of this book was that of L. B. + Francoeur and J. Ferguson, but the plan was developed by one who was + an unrivalled master of all the intricacies of chronology. The two + best tables of logarithms, the small five-figure tables of the Useful + Knowledge Society (1839 and 1857), and Shroen's Seven Figure-Table + (5th ed., 1865), were printed under De Morgan's superintendence. + Several works edited by him will be found mentioned in the _British + Museum Catalogue_. He made numerous anonymous contributions through a + long series of years to the _Athenaeum_, and to _Notes and Queries_, + and occasionally to _The North British Review_, _Macmillan's + Magazine_, &c. + + Considerable labour was spent by De Morgan upon the subject of + decimal coinage. He was a great advocate of the pound and mil scheme. + His evidence on this subject was sought by the Royal Commission, and, + besides constantly supporting the Decimal Association in periodical + publications, he published several separate pamphlets on the subject. + + One marked characteristic of De Morgan was his intense and yet + reasonable love of books. He was a true bibliophile and loved to + surround himself, as far as his means allowed, with curious and rare + books. He revelled in all the mysteries of watermarks, title-pages, + colophons, catch-words and the like; yet he treated bibliography as + an important science. As he himself wrote, "the most worthless book + of a bygone day is a record worthy of preservation; like a telescopic + star, its obscurity may render it unavailable for most purposes; but + it serves, in hands which know how to use it, to determine the places + of more important bodies." His evidence before the Royal Commission + on the British Museum in 1850 (Questions 5704*-5815,* 6481-6513, and + 8966-8967), should be studied by all who would comprehend the + principles of bibliography or the art of constructing a catalogue, + his views on the latter subject corresponding with those carried out + by Panizzi in the _British Museum Catalogue_. A sample of De Morgan's + bibliographical learning is to be found in his account of + _Arithmetical Books, from the Invention of Printing_ (1847), and + finally in his _Budget of Paradoxes_. This latter work consists of + articles most of which were originally published in the Athenaeum, + describing the various attempts which have been made to invent a + perpetual motion, to square the circle, or to trisect the angle; but + De Morgan took the opportunity to include many curious bits gathered + from his extensive reading, so that the _Budget_, as reprinted by his + widow (1872), with much additional matter prepared by himself, forms + a remarkable collection of scientific _ana_. De Morgan's + correspondence with contemporary scientific men was very extensive + and full of interest. It remains unpublished, as does also a large + mass of mathematical tracts which he prepared for the use of his + students, treating all parts of mathematical science, and embodying + some of the matter of his lectures. De Morgan's library was purchased + by Lord Overstone, and presented to the university of London. + +In 1866 his life became clouded by the circumstances which led him to +abandon the institution so long the scene of his labours. The refusal of +the council to accept the recommendation of the senate, that they should +appoint an eminent Unitarian minister to the professorship of logic and +mental philosophy, revived all De Morgan's sensitiveness on the subject +of sectarian freedom; and, though his feelings were doubtless excessive, +there is no doubt that gloom was thrown over his life, intensified in +1867 by the loss of his son George Campbell De Morgan, a young man of +the highest scientific promise, whose name, as De Morgan expressly +wished, will long be connected with the London Mathematical Society, of +which he was one of the founders. From this time De Morgan rapidly fell +into ill-health, previously almost unknown to him, dying on the 18th of +March 1871. An interesting and truthful sketch of his life will be found +in the _Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society_ for the 9th +of February 1872, vol. xxii. p. 112, written by A. C. Ranyard, who says, +"He was the kindliest, as well as the most learned of men--benignant to +every one who approached him, never forgetting the claims which weakness +has on strength." + +De Morgan left no published indications of his opinions on religious +questions, in regard to which he was extremely reticent. He seldom or +never entered a place of worship, and declared that he could not listen +to a sermon, a circumstance perhaps due to the extremely strict +religious discipline under which he was brought up. Nevertheless there +is reason to believe that he was of a deeply religious disposition. +Like M. Faraday and Sir I. Newton he entertained a confident belief in +Providence, founded not on any tenuous inference, but on personal +feeling. His hope of a future life also was vivid to the last. + +It is impossible to omit a reference to his witty sayings, some +specimens of which are preserved in Dr Sadler's most interesting _Diary +of Henry Crabb Robinson_ (1869), which also contains a humorous account +of H. C. R. by De Morgan. It may be added that De Morgan was a great +reader and admirer of Dickens; he was also fond of music, and a fair +performer on the flute. (W. S. J.) + +His son, WILLIAM FREND DE MORGAN (b. 1839), first became known in +artistic circles as a potter, the "De Morgan" tiles being remarkable for +his rediscovery of the secret of some beautiful colours and glazes. But +later in life he became even better known to the literary world by his +novels, _Joseph Vance_ (1906), _Alice for Short_ (1907), _Somehow Good_ +(1908) and _It Never Can Happen Again_ (1909), in which the influence of +Dickens and of his own earlier family life were conspicuous. + + + + +DEMOSTHENES, the great Attic orator and statesman, was born in 384 (or +383) B.C. His father, who bore the same name, was an Athenian citizen +belonging to the deme of Paeania. His mother, Cleobule, was the daughter +of Gylon, a citizen who had been active in procuring the protection of +the kings of Bosporus for the Athenian colony of Nymphaeon in the +Crimea, and whose wife was a native of that region. On these grounds the +adversaries of Demosthenes, in after-days, used absurdly to taunt him +with a traitorous or barbarian ancestry. The boy had a bitter foretaste +of life. He was seven years old when his father died, leaving property +(in a manufactory of swords, and another of upholstery) worth about +£3500, which, invested as it seems to have been (20% was not thought +exorbitant), would have yielded rather more than £600 a year, £300 a +year was a very comfortable income at Athens, and it was possible to +live decently on a tenth of it. Nicias, a very rich man, had property +equivalent, probably, to not more than £4000 a year. Demosthenes was +born then, to a handsome, though not a great fortune. But his +guardians--two nephews of his father, Aphobus and Demophon, and one +Therippides--abused their trust, and handed over to Demosthenes, when he +came of age, rather less than one-seventh of his patrimony, perhaps +between £50 and £60 a year. Demosthenes, after studying with Isaeus +(q.v.)--then the great master of forensic eloquence and of Attic law, +especially in will cases[1]--brought an action against Aphobus, and +gained a verdict for about £2400. But it does not appear that he got the +money; and, after some more fruitless proceedings against Onetor, the +brother-in-law of Aphobus, the matter was dropped,--not, however, before +his relatives had managed to throw a public burden (the equipment of a +ship of war) on their late ward, whereby his resources were yet further +straitened. He now became a professional writer of speeches or pleas +([Greek: logographos]) for the law courts, sometimes speaking himself. +Biographers have delighted to relate how painfully Demosthenes made +himself a tolerable speaker,--how, with pebbles in his mouth, he tried +his lungs against the waves, how he declaimed as he ran up hill, how he +shut himself up in a cell, having first guarded himself against a +longing for the haunts of men by shaving one side of his head, how he +wrote out Thucydides eight times, how he was derided by the Assembly and +encouraged by a judicious actor who met him moping about the Peiraeus. +He certainly seems to have been the reverse of athletic (the stalwart +Aeschines upbraids him with never having been a sportsman), and he +probably had some sort of defect or impediment in his speech as a boy. +Perhaps the most interesting fact about his work for the law courts is +that he seems to have continued it, in some measure, through the most +exciting parts of his great political career. The speech for Phormio +belongs to the same year as the plea for Megalopolis. The speech against +Boeotus "Concerning the Name" comes between the First Philippic and the +First Olynthiac. The speech against Pantaenetus comes between the speech +"On the Peace" and the Second Philippic. + + +Political career and creed. + +The political career of Demosthenes, from his first direct contact with +public affairs in 355 B.C. to his death in 322, has an essential unity. +It is the assertion, in successive forms adapted to successive moments, +of unchanging principles. Externally, it is divided into the chapter +which precedes and the chapter which follows Chaeronea. But its inner +meaning, the secret of its indomitable vigour, the law which harmonizes +its apparent contrasts, cannot be understood unless it is regarded as a +whole. Still less can it be appreciated in all its large wisdom and +sustained self-mastery if it is viewed merely as a duel between the +ablest champion and the craftiest enemy of Greek freedom. The time +indeed came when Demosthenes and Philip stood face to face as +representative antagonists in a mortal conflict. But, for Demosthenes, +the special peril represented by Philip, the peril of subjugation to +Macedon, was merely a disastrous accident. Philip happened to become the +most prominent and most formidable type of a danger which was already +threatening Greece before his baleful star arose. As Demosthenes said to +the Athenians, if the Macedonian had not existed, they would have made +another Philip for themselves. Until Athens recovered something of its +old spirit, there must ever be a great standing danger, not for Athens +only, but for Greece,--the danger that sooner or later, in some shape, +from some quarter--no man could foretell the hour, the manner or the +source--barbarian violence would break up the gracious and undefiled +tradition of separate Hellenic life. + +What was the true relation of Athens to Greece? The answer which he gave +to this question is the key to the life of Demosthenes. Athens, so +Demosthenes held, was the natural head of Greece. Not, however, as an +empress holding subject or subordinate cities in a dependence more or +less compulsory. Rather as that city which most nobly expressed the +noblest attributes of Greek political existence, and which, by her +preeminent gifts both of intellect and of moral insight, was primarily +responsible, everywhere and always, for the maintenance of those +attributes in their integrity. Wherever the cry of the oppressed goes up +from Greek against Greek, it was the voice of Athens which should first +remind the oppressor that Hellene differed from barbarian in postponing +the use of force to the persuasions of equal law. Wherever a barbarian +hand offered wrong to any city of the Hellenic sisterhood, it was the +arm of Athens which should first be stretched forth in the holy strength +of Apollo the Averter. Wherever among her own children the ancient +loyalty was yielding to love of pleasure or of base gain, there, above +all, it was the duty of Athens to see that the central hearth of Hellas +was kept pure. Athens must never again seek "empire" in the sense which +became odious under the influence of Cleon and Hyperbolus,--when, to use +the image of Aristophanes, the allies were as Babylonian slaves grinding +in the Athenian mill. Athens must never permit, if she could help it, +the re-establishment of such a domination as Sparta exercised in Greece +from the battle of Aegospotami to the battle of Leuctra. Athens must aim +at leading a free confederacy, of which the members should be bound to +her by their own truest interests. Athens must seek to deserve the +confidence of all Greeks alike. + + +Theoric fund. + +Such, in the belief of Demosthenes, was the part which Athens must +perform if Greece was to be safe. But reforms must be effected before +Athens could be capable of such a part. The evils to be cured were +different phases of one malady. Athens had long been suffering from the +profound decay of public spirit. Since the early years of the +Peloponnesian War, the separation of Athenian society from the state had +been growing more and more marked. The old type of the eminent citizen, +who was at once statesman and general, had become almost extinct. +Politics were now managed by a small circle of politicians. Wars were +conducted by professional soldiers whose troops were chiefly +mercenaries, and who were usually regarded by the politicians either as +instruments or as enemies. The mass of the citizens took no active +interest in public affairs. But, though indifferent to principles, they +had quickly sensitive partialities for men, and it was necessary to keep +them in good humour. Pericles had introduced the practice of giving a +small bounty from the treasury to the poorer citizens, for the purpose +of enabling them to attend the theatre at the great festivals,--in other +words, for the purpose of bringing them under the concentrated influence +of the best Attic culture. A provision eminently wise for the age of +Pericles easily became a mischief when the once honourable name of +"demagogue" began to mean a flatterer of the mob. Before the end of the +Peloponnesian War the festival-money (_theoricon_) was abolished. A few +years after the restoration of the democracy it was again introduced. +But until 354 B.C. it had never been more than a gratuity, of which the +payment depended on the treasury having a surplus. In 354 B.C. Eubulus +became steward of the treasury. He was an able man, with a special +talent for finance, free from all taint of personal corruption, and +sincerely solicitous for the honour of Athens, but enslaved to +popularity, and without principles of policy. His first measure was to +make the festival-money a permanent item in the budget. Thenceforth this +bounty was in reality very much what Demades afterwards called it,--the +cement ([Greek: kolla]) of the democracy. + + +Forensic speeches in Public causes. + +Years before the danger from Macedon was urgent, Demosthenes had begun +the work of his life,--the effort to lift the spirit of Athens, to +revive the old civic loyalty, to rouse the city into taking that place +and performing that part which her own welfare as well as the safety of +Greece prescribed. His formally political speeches must never be +considered apart from his forensic speeches in public causes. The +Athenian procedure against the proposer of an unconstitutional law--i.e. +of a law incompatible with existing laws--had a direct tendency to make +the law court, in such cases, a political arena. The same tendency was +indirectly exerted by the tolerance of Athenian juries (in the absence +of a presiding expert like a judge) for irrelevant matter, since it was +usually easy for a speaker to make capital out of the adversary's +political antecedents. But the forensic speeches of Demosthenes for +public causes are not only political in this general sense. They are +documents, as indispensable as the Olynthiacs or Philippics, for his own +political career. Only by taking them along with the formally political +speeches, and regarding the whole as one unbroken series, can we see +clearly the full scope of the task which he set before him,--a task in +which his long resistance to Philip was only the most dramatic incident, +and in which his real achievement is not to be measured by the event of +Chaeronea. + +A forensic speech, composed for a public cause, opens the political +career of Demosthenes with a protest against a signal abuse. In 355 +B.C., at the age of twenty-nine, he wrote the speech "Against +Androtion." This combats on legal grounds a proposal that the out-going +senate should receive the honour of a golden crown. In its larger +aspect, it is a denunciation of the corrupt system which that senate +represented, and especially of the manner in which the treasury had been +administered by Aristophon. In 354 B.C. Demosthenes composed and spoke +the oration "Against Leptines," who had effected a slender saving for +the state by the expedient of revoking those hereditary exemptions from +taxation which had at various times been conferred in recognition of +distinguished merit. The descendants of Harmodius and Aristogeiton alone +had been excepted from the operation of the law. This was the first time +that the voice of Demosthenes himself had been heard on the public +concerns of Athens, and the utterance was a worthy prelude to the career +of a statesman. He answers the advocates of the retrenchment by pointing +out that the public interest will not ultimately be served by a +wholesale violation of the public faith. In the same year he delivered +his first strictly political speech, "On the Navy Boards" (Symmories). +The Athenians, irritated by the support which Artaxerxes had lately +given to the revolt of their allies, and excited by rumours of his +hostile preparations, were feverishly eager for a war with Persia. +Demosthenes urges that such an enterprise would at present be useless; +that it would fail to unite Greece; that the energies of the city should +be reserved for a real emergency; but that, before the city can +successfully cope with any war, there must be a better organization of +resources, and, first of all, a reform of the navy, which he outlines +with characteristic lucidity and precision. + +Two years later (352 B.C.) he is found dealing with a more definite +question of foreign policy. Sparta, favoured by the depression of Thebes +in the Phocian War, was threatening Megalopolis. Both Sparta and +Megalopolis sent embassies to Athens. Demosthenes supported Megalopolis. +The ruin of Megalopolis would mean, he argued, the return of Spartan +domination in the Peloponnesus. Athenians must not favour the tyranny of +any one city. They must respect the rights of all the cities, and thus +promote unity based on mutual confidence. In the same year Demosthenes +wrote the speech "Against Timocrates," to be spoken by the same Diodorus +who had before prosecuted Androtion, and who now combated an attempt to +screen Androtion and others from the penalties of embezzlement. The +speech "Against Aristocrates," also of 352 B.C., reproves that foreign +policy of feeble makeshifts which was now popular at Athens. The +Athenian tenure of the Thracian Chersonese partly depended for its +security on the good-will of the Thracian prince Cersobleptes. +Charidemus, a soldier of fortune who had already played Athens false, +was now the brother-in-law and the favourite of Cersobleptes. +Aristocrates proposed that the person of Charidemus should be invested +with a special sanctity, by the enactment that whoever attempted his +life should be an outlaw from all dominions of Athens. Demosthenes +points out that such adulation is as futile as it is fulsome. Athens can +secure the permanence of her foreign possessions only in one way--by +being strong enough to hold them. + + +Principles of policy. + +Thus, between 355 and 352, Demosthenes had laid down the main lines of +his policy. Domestic administration must be purified. Statesmen must be +made to feel that they are responsible to the state. They must not be +allowed to anticipate judgment on their deserts by voting each other +golden crowns. They must not think to screen misappropriation of public +money by getting partisans to pass new laws about state-debtors. Foreign +policy must be guided by a larger and more provident conception of +Athenian interests. When public excitement demands a foreign war, Athens +must not rush into it without asking whether it is necessary, whether it +will have Greek support, and whether she herself is ready for it. When a +strong Greek city threatens a weak one, and seeks to purchase Athenian +connivance with the bribe of a border-town, Athens must remember that +duty and prudence alike command her to respect the independence of all +Greeks. When it is proposed, by way of insurance on Athenian possessions +abroad, to flatter the favourite of a doubtful ally, Athens must +remember that such devices will not avail a power which has no army +except on paper, and no ships fit to leave their moorings. + + +Athens and Philip. + +But the time had gone by when Athenians could have tranquil leisure for +domestic reform. A danger, calling for prompt action, had at last come +very near. For six years Athens had been at war with Philip on account +of his seizure of Amphipolis. Meanwhile he had destroyed Potidaea and +founded Philippi. On the Thracian coasts he had become master of Abdera +and Maronea. On the Thessalian coast he had acquired Methone. In a +second invasion of Thessaly, he had overthrown the Phocians under +Onomarchus, and had advanced to Thermopylae, to find the gates of Greece +closed against him by an Athenian force. He had then marched to Heraeon +on the Propontis, and had dictated a peace to Cersobleptes. He had +formed an alliance with Cardia, Perinthus and Byzantium. Lastly, he had +begun to show designs on the great Confederacy of Olynthus, the more +warlike Miletus of the North. The First Philippic of Demosthenes was +spoken in 351 B.C. The Third Philippic--the latest of the extant +political speeches--was spoken in 341 B.C. Between these he delivered +eight political orations, of which seven are directly concerned with +Philip. The whole series falls into two great divisions. The first +division comprises those speeches which were spoken against Philip while +he was still a foreign power threatening Greece from without. Such are +the First Philippic and the three orations for Olynthus. The second +division comprises the speeches spoken against Philip when, by +admission to the Amphictyonic Council, he had now won his way within the +circle of the Greek states, and when the issue was no longer between +Greece and Macedonia, but between the Greek and Macedonian parties in +Greece. Such are the speech "On the Peace," the speech "On the Embassy," +the speech "On the Chersonese," the Second and Third Philippics. + + +First Philippic. + +The First Philippic, spoken early in 351 B.C., was no sudden note of +alarm drawing attention to an unnoticed peril. On the contrary, the +Assembly was weary of the subject. For six years the war with Philip had +been a theme of barren talk. Demosthenes urges that it is time to do +something, and to do it with a plan. Athens fighting Philip has fared, +he says, like an amateur boxer opposed to a skilled pugilist. The +helpless hands have only followed blows which a trained eye should have +taught them to parry. An Athenian force must be stationed in the north, +at Lemnos or Thasos. Of 2000 infantry and 200 cavalry at least one +quarter must be Athenian citizens capable of directing the mercenaries. + +Later in the same year Demosthenes did another service to the cause of +national freedom. Rhodes, severed by its own act from the Athenian +Confederacy, had since 355 been virtually subject to Mausolus, prince +([Greek: dynastês]) of Caria, himself a tributary of Persia. Mausolus +died in 351, and was succeeded by his widow Artemisia. The democratic +party in Rhodes now appealed to Athens for help in throwing off the +Carian yoke. Demosthenes supported their application in his speech "For +the Rhodians." No act of his life was a truer proof of statesmanship. He +failed. But at least he had once more warned Athens that the cause of +political freedom was everywhere her own, and that, wherever that cause +was forsaken, there a new danger was created both for Athens and for +Greece. + + +Euboean War. + +Next year (350) an Athenian force under Phocion was sent to Euboea, in +support of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria, against the faction of +Cleitarchus. Demosthenes protested against spending strength, needed for +greater objects, on the local quarrels of a despot. Phocion won a +victory at Tamynae. But the "inglorious and costly war" entailed an +outlay of more than £12,000 on the ransom of captives alone, and ended +in the total destruction of Athenian influence throughout Euboea. That +island was now left an open field for the intrigues of Philip. Worst of +all, the party of Eubulus not only defeated a proposal, arising from +this campaign, for applying the festival-money to the war-fund, but +actually carried a law making it high treason to renew the proposal. The +degree to which political enmity was exasperated by the Euboean War may +be judged from the incident of Midias, an adherent of Eubulus, and a +type of opulent rowdyism. Demosthenes was choragus of his tribe, and was +wearing the robe of that sacred office at the great festival in the +theatre of Dionysus, when Midias struck him on the face. The affair was +eventually compromised. The speech "Against Midias" written by +Demosthenes for the trial (in 349) was neither spoken nor completed, and +remains, as few will regret, a sketch. + + +Olynthiacs. + +It was now three years since, in 352, the Olynthians had sent an embassy +to Athens, and had made peace with their only sure ally. In 350 a second +Olynthian embassy had sought and obtained Athenian help. The hour of +Olynthus had indeed come. In 349 Philip opened war against the Chalcidic +towns of the Olynthian League. The First and Second Olynthiacs of +Demosthenes were spoken in that year in support of sending one force to +defend Olynthus and another to attack Philip. "Better now than later," +is the thought of the First Olynthiac. The Second argues that Philip's +strength is overrated. The Third--spoken in 348--carries us into the +midst of action.[2] It deals with practical details. The festival-fund +must be used for the war. The citizens must serve in person. A few +months later, Olynthus and the thirty-two towns of the confederacy were +swept from the earth. Men could walk over their sites, Demosthenes said +seven years afterwards, without knowing that such cities had existed. It +was now certain that Philip could not be stopped outside of Greece. The +question was, What point within Greece shall he be allowed to reach? + + +Peace between Philip and Athens. + +End of Phocian War. + +Eubulus and his party, with that versatility which is the privilege of +political vagueness, now began to call for a congress of the allies to +consider the common danger. They found a brilliant interpreter in +Aeschines, who, after having been a tragic actor and a clerk to the +assembly, had entered political life with the advantages of a splendid +gift for eloquence, a fine presence, a happy address, a ready wit and a +facile conscience. While his opponents had thus suddenly become warlike, +Demosthenes had become pacific. He saw that Athens must have time to +collect strength. Nothing could be gained, meanwhile, by going on with +the war. Macedonian sympathizers at Athens, of whom Philocrates was the +chief, also favoured peace. Eleven envoys, including Philocrates, +Aeschines, and Demosthenes, were sent to Philip in February 346 B.C. +After a debate at Athens, peace was concluded with Philip in April. +Philip on the one hand, Athens and her allies on the other, were to keep +what they respectively held at the time when the peace was ratified. But +here the Athenians made a fatal error. Philip was bent on keeping the +door of Greece open. Demosthenes was bent on shutting it against him. +Philip was now at war with the people of Halus in Thessaly. Thebes had +for ten years been at war with Phocis. Here were two distinct chances +for Philip's armed intervention in Greece. But if the Halians and the +Phocians were included in the peace, Philip could not bear arms against +them without violating the peace. Accordingly Philip insisted that they +should not be included. Demosthenes insisted they should be included. +They were not included. The result followed speedily. The same envoys +were sent a second time to Philip at the end of April 346 for the +purpose of receiving his oaths in ratification of the peace. It was late +in June before he returned from Thrace to Pella--thus gaining, under the +terms, all the towns that he had taken meanwhile. He next took the +envoys with him through Thessaly to Thermopylae. There--at the +invitation of Thessalians and Thebans--he intervened in the Phocian War. +Phalaecus surrendered. Phocis was crushed. Philip took its place in the +Amphictyonic Council, and was thus established as a Greek power in the +very centre, at the sacred hearth, of Greece. The right of precedence in +consultation of the oracle ([Greek: promanteia]) was transferred from +Athens to Philip. While indignant Athenians were clamouring for the +revocation of the peace, Demosthenes upheld it in his speech "On the +Peace" in September. It ought never to have been made on such terms, he +said. But, having been made, it had better be kept. "If we went to war +now, where should we find allies? And after losing Oropus, Amphipolis, +Cardia, Chios, Cos, Rhodes, Byzantium, shall we fight about the shadow +of Delphi?" + + +Second Philippic. + +Third Philippic. + +During the eight years between the peace of Philocrates and the battle +of Chaeronea, the authority of Demosthenes steadily grew, until it +became first predominant and then paramount. He had, indeed, a +melancholy advantage. Each year his argument was more and more cogently +enforced by the logic of facts. In 344 he visited the Peloponnesus for +the purpose of counteracting Macedonian intrigue. Mistrust, he told the +Peloponnesian cities, is the safeguard of free communities against +tyrants. Philip lodged a formal complaint at Athens. Here, as elsewhere, +the future master of Greece reminds us of Napoleon on the eve of the +first empire. He has the same imperturbable and persuasive effrontery in +protesting that he is doing one thing at the moment when his energies +are concentrated on doing the opposite. Demosthenes replied in the +Second Philippic. "If," he said, "Philip is the friend of Greece, we are +doing wrong. If he is the enemy of Greece, we are doing right. Which is +he? I hold him to be our enemy, because everything that he has hitherto +done has benefited himself and hurt us." The prosecution of Aeschines +for malversation on the embassy (commonly known as _De falsa +legatione_), which was brought to an issue in the following year, marks +the moral strength of the position now held by Demosthenes. When the +gravity of the charge and the complexity of the evidence are considered, +the acquittal of Aeschines by a narrow majority must be deemed his +condemnation. The speech "On the Affairs of the Chersonese" and the +Third Philippic were the crowning efforts of Demosthenes. Spoken in the +same year, 341 B.C., and within a short space of each other, they must +be taken together. The speech "On the Affairs of the Chersonese" regards +the situation chiefly from an Athenian point of view. "If the peace +means," argues Demosthenes, "that Philip can seize with impunity one +Athenian possession after another, but that Athenians shall not on their +peril touch aught that belongs to Philip, where is the line to be drawn? +We shall go to war, I am told, when it is necessary. If the necessity +has not come yet, when will it come?" The Third Philippic surveys a +wider horizon. It ascends from the Athenian to the Hellenic view. Philip +has annihilated Olynthus and the Chalcidic towns. He has ruined Phocis. +He has frightened Thebes. He has divided Thessaly. Euboea and the +Peloponnesus are his. His power stretches from the Adriatic to the +Hellespont. Where shall be the end? Athens is the last hope of Greece. +And, in this final crisis, Demosthenes was the embodied energy of +Athens. It was Demosthenes who went to Byzantium, brought the estranged +city back to the Athenian alliance, and snatched it from the hands of +Philip. It was Demosthenes who, when Philip had already seized Elatea, +hurried to Thebes, who by his passionate appeal gained one last chance, +the only possible chance, for Greek freedom, who broke down the barrier +of an inveterate jealousy, who brought Thebans to fight beside +Athenians, and who thus won at the eleventh hour a victory for the +spirit of loyal union which took away at least one bitterness from the +unspeakable calamity of Chaeronea. + + +Municipal activity. + +But the work of Demosthenes was not closed by the ruin of his cause. +During the last sixteen years of his life (338-322) he rendered services +to Athens not less important, and perhaps more difficult, than those +which he had rendered before. He was now, as a matter of course, +foremost in the public affairs of Athens. In January 337, at the annual +winter Festival of the Dead in the Outer Ceramicus, he spoke the funeral +oration over those who had fallen at Chaeronea. He was member of a +commission for strengthening the fortifications of the city ([Greek: +teichopoios]). He administered the festival-fund. During a dearth which +visited Athens between 330 and 326 he was charged with the organization +of public relief. In 324 he was chief ([Greek: architheoros]) of the +sacred embassy to Olympia. Already, in 336, Ctesiphon had proposed that +Demosthenes should receive a golden crown from the state, and that his +extraordinary merits should be proclaimed in the theatre at the Great +Dionysia. The proposal was adopted by the senate as a bill ([Greek: +probouleuma]); but it must be passed by the Assembly before it could +become an act ([Greek: psêphisma]). To prevent this, Aeschines gave +notice, in 336, that he intended to proceed against Ctesiphon for having +proposed an unconstitutional measure. For six years Aeschines avoided +action on this notice. At last, in 330, the patriotic party felt strong +enough to force him to an issue. Aeschines spoke the speech "Against +Ctesiphon," an attack on the whole public life of Demosthenes. +Demosthenes gained an overwhelming victory for himself and for the +honour of Athens in the most finished, the most splendid and the most +pathetic work of ancient eloquence--the immortal oration "On the Crown." + + +Affair of Harpalus. + +In the winter of 325-324 Harpalus, the receiver-general of Alexander in +Asia, fled to Greece, taking with him 8000 mercenaries, and treasure +equivalent to about a million and a quarter sterling. On the motion of +Demosthenes he was warned from the harbours of Attica. Having left his +troops and part of his treasure at Taenarum, he again presented himself +at the Peiraeus, and was now admitted. He spoke fervently of the +opportunity which offered itself to those who loved the freedom of +Greece. All Asia would rise with Athens to throw off the hated yoke. +Fiery patriots like Hypereides were in raptures. For zeal which could be +bought Harpalus had other persuasions. But Demosthenes stood firm. War +with Alexander would, he saw, be madness. It could have but one +result,--some indefinitely worse doom for Athens. Antipater and Olympias +presently demanded the surrender of Harpalus. Demosthenes opposed this. +But he reconciled the dignity with the loyalty of Athens by carrying a +decree that Harpalus should be arrested, and that his treasure should be +deposited in the Parthenon, to be held in trust for Alexander. Harpalus +escaped from prison. The amount of the treasure, which Harpalus had +stated as 700 talents, proved to be no more than 350. Demosthenes +proposed that the Areopagus should inquire what had become of the other +350. Six months, spent in party intrigues, passed before the Areopagus +gave in their report ([Greek: apophasis]). The report inculpated nine +persons. Demosthenes headed the list of the accused. Hypereides was +among the ten public prosecutors. Demosthenes was condemned, fined fifty +talents, and, in default of payment, imprisoned. After a few days he +escaped from prison to Aegina, and thence to Troezen. Two things in this +obscure affair are beyond reasonable doubt. First, that Demosthenes was +not bribed by Harpalus. The hatred of the Macedonian party towards +Demosthenes, and the fury of those vehement patriots who cried out that +he had betrayed their best opportunity, combined to procure his +condemnation, with the help, probably, of some appearances which were +against him. Secondly, it can hardly be questioned that, by withstanding +the hot-headed patriots at this juncture, Demosthenes did heroic service +to Athens. + + +End of Lamian War. + +Demosthenes condemned. + +Next year (323 B.C.) Alexander died. Then the voice of Demosthenes, +calling Greece to arms, rang out like a trumpet. Early in August 322 the +battle of Crannon decided the Lamian War against Greece. Antipater +demanded, as the condition on which he would refrain from besieging +Athens, the surrender of the leading patriots. Demades moved the decree +of the Assembly by which Demosthenes, Hypereides, and some others were +condemned to death as traitors. On the 20th of Boedromion (September 16) +322, a Macedonian garrison occupied Munychia. It was a day of solemn and +happy memories, a day devoted, in the celebration of the Great +Mysteries, to sacred joy,--the day on which the glad procession of the +Initiated returned from Eleusis to Athens. It happened, however, to have +another association, more significant than any ironical contrast for the +present purpose of Antipater. It was the day on which, thirteen years +before, Alexander had punished the rebellion of Thebes with +annihilation. + + +Flight to Calauria. + +Death. + +The condemned men had fled to Aegina. Parting there from Hypereides and +the rest, Demosthenes went on to Calauria, a small island off the coast +of Argolis. In Calauria there was an ancient temple of Poseidon, once a +centre of Minyan and Ionian worship, and surrounded with a peculiar +sanctity as having been, from time immemorial, an inviolable refuge for +the pursued. Here Demosthenes sought asylum. Archias of Thurii, a man +who, like Aeschines, had begun life as a tragic actor, and who was now +in the pay of Antipater, soon traced the fugitive, landed in Calauria, +and appeared before the temple of Poseidon with a body of Thracian +spearmen. Plutarch's picturesque narrative bears the marks of artistic +elaboration. Demosthenes had dreamed the night before that he and +Archias were competing for a prize as tragic actors; the house applauded +Demosthenes; but his chorus was shabbily equipped, and Archias gained +the prize. Archias was not the man to stick at sacrilege. In Aegina, +Hypereides and the others had been taken from the shrine of Aeacus. But +he hesitated to violate an asylum so peculiarly sacred as the Calaurian +temple. Standing before its open door, with his Thracian soldiers around +him, he endeavoured to prevail on Demosthenes to quit the holy precinct. +Antipater would be certain to pardon him. Demosthenes sat silent, with +his eyes fixed on the ground. At last, as the emissary persisted in his +bland persuasions, he looked up and said,--"Archias, you never moved me +by your acting, and you will not move me now by your promises." Archias +lost his temper, and began to threaten. "Now," rejoined Demosthenes, +"you speak like a real Macedonian oracle; before you were acting. Wait a +moment, then, till I write to my friends." With these words, Demosthenes +withdrew into the inner part of the temple,--still visible, however, +from the entrance. He took out a roll of paper, as if he were going to +write, put the pen to his mouth, and bit it, as was his habit in +composing. Then he threw his head back, and drew his cloak over it. The +Thracian spearmen, who were watching him from the door, began to gibe at +his cowardice. Archias went in to him, encouraged him to rise, repeated +his old arguments, talked to him of reconciliation with Antipater. By +this time Demosthenes felt that the poison which he had sucked from the +pen was beginning to work. He drew the cloak from his face, and looked +steadily at Archias. "Now you can play the part of Creon in the tragedy +as soon as you like," he said, "and cast forth my body unburied. But I, +O gracious Poseidon, quit thy temple while I yet live; Antipater and his +Macedonians have done what they could to pollute it." He moved towards +the door, calling to them to support his tottering steps. He had just +passed the altar of the god, when he fell, and with a groan gave up the +ghost (October 322 B.C.). + + +Political character. + +As a statesman, Demosthenes needs no epitaph but his own words in the +speech "On the Crown,"--_I say that, if the event had been manifest to +the whole world beforehand, not even then ought Athens to have forsaken +this course, if Athens had any regard for her glory, or for her past, or +for the ages to come._ The Persian soldier in Herodotus, following +Xerxes to foreseen ruin, confides to his fellow-guest at the banquet +that the bitterest pain which man can know is [Greek: polla phroneonta +mêdenoss krateein],--complete, but helpless, prescience. In the grasp of +a more inexorable necessity, the champion of Greek freedom was borne +onward to a more tremendous catastrophe than that which strewed the +waters of Salamis with Persian wrecks and the field of Plataea with +Persian dead; but to him, at least, it was given to proclaim aloud the +clear and sure foreboding that filled his soul, to do all that true +heart and free hand could do for his cause, and, though not to save, yet +to encourage, to console and to ennoble. As the inspiration of his life +was larger and higher than the mere courage of resistance, so his merit +must be regarded as standing altogether outside and above the struggle +with Macedon. The great purpose which he set before him was to revive +the public spirit, to restore the political vigour, and to re-establish +the Panhellenic influence of Athens,--never for her own advantage +merely, but always in the interest of Greece. His glory is, that while +he lived he helped Athens to live a higher life. Wherever the noblest +expressions of her mind are honoured, wherever the large conceptions of +Pericles command the admiration of statesmen, wherever the architect and +the sculptor love to dwell on the masterpieces of Ictinus and Pheidias, +wherever the spell of ideal beauty or of lofty contemplation is +exercised by the creations of Sophocles or of Plato, there it will be +remembered that the spirit which wrought in all these would have passed +sooner from among men, if it had not been recalled from a trance, which +others were content to mistake for the last sleep, by the passionate +breath of Demosthenes. + + +Oratory. + +The orator in whom artistic genius was united, more perfectly than in +any other man, with moral enthusiasm and with intellectual grasp, has +held in the modern world the same rank which was accorded to him in the +old; but he cannot enjoy the same appreciation. Macaulay's ridicule has +rescued from oblivion the criticism which pronounced the eloquence of +Chatham to be more ornate than that of Demosthenes, and less diffuse +than that of Cicero. Did the critic, asks Macaulay, ever hear any +speaking that was less ornamented than that of Demosthenes, or more +diffuse than that of Cicero? Yet the critic's remark was not so +pointless as Macaulay thought it. Sincerity and intensity are, indeed, +to the modern reader, the most obvious characteristics of Demosthenes. +His style is, on the whole, singularly free from what we are accustomed +to regard as rhetorical embellishment. Where the modern orator would +employ a wealth of imagery, or elaborate a picture in exquisite detail, +Demosthenes is content with a phrase or a word. Burke uses, in reference +to Hyder Ali, the same image which Demosthenes uses in reference to +Philip. "Compounding all the materials of fury, havoc, desolation, into +one black cloud, he hung for a while on the declivity of the mountains. +Whilst the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on +this menacing meteor, which darkened all their horizon, it suddenly +burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the +Carnatic." Demosthenes forbears to amplify. "The people gave their +voice, and the danger which hung upon our borders went by like a cloud." +To our modern feeling, the eloquence of Demosthenes exhibits everywhere +a general stamp of earnest and simple strength. But it is well to +remember the charge made against the style of Demosthenes by a +contemporary Greek orator, and the defence offered by the best Greek +critic of oratory. Aeschines reproached the diction of Demosthenes with +excess of elaboration and adornment ([Greek: periergia]). Dionysius, in +reply, admits that Demosthenes does at times depart from +simplicity,--that his style is sometimes elaborately ornate and remote +from the ordinary usage. But, he adds, Demosthenes adopts this manner +where it is justified by the elevation of his theme. The remark may +serve to remind us of our modern disadvantage for a full appreciation of +Demosthenes. The old world felt, as we do, his moral and mental +greatness, his fire, his self-devotion, his insight. But it felt also, +as we can never feel, the versatile perfection of his skill. This it was +that made Demosthenes unique to the ancients. The ardent patriot, the +far-seeing statesman, were united in his person with the consummate and +unapproachable artist. Dionysius devoted two special treatises to +Demosthenes,--one on his language and style ([Greek: lektikos topos]), +the other on his treatment of subject-matter ([Greek: pragmatikos +topos]). The latter is lost. The former is one of the best essays in +literary criticism which antiquity has bequeathed to us. The idea which +it works out is that Demosthenes has perfected Greek prose by fusing in +a glorious harmony the elements which had hitherto belonged to separate +types. The austere dignity of Antiphon, the plain elegance of Lysias, +the smooth and balanced finish of that middle or normal character which +is represented by Isocrates, have come together in Demosthenes. Nor is +this all. In each species he excels the specialists. He surpasses the +school of Antiphon in perspicuity, the school of Lysias in verve, the +school of Isocrates in variety, in felicity, in symmetry, in pathos, in +power. Demosthenes has at command all the discursive brilliancy which +fascinates a festal audience. He has that power of concise and lucid +narration, of terse reasoning, of persuasive appeal, which is required +by the forensic speaker. His political eloquence can worthily image the +majesty of the state, and enforce weighty counsels with lofty and +impassioned fervour. A true artist, he grudged no labour which could +make the least part of his work more perfect. Isocrates spent ten years +on the _Panegyricus_. After Plato's death, a manuscript was found among +his papers with the first eight words of the _Republic_ arranged in +several different orders. What wonder, then, asks the Greek critic, if +the diligence of Demosthenes was no less incessant and minute? "To me," +he says, "it seems far more natural that a man engaged in composing +political discourses, imperishable memorials of his power, should +neglect not even the smallest details, than that the veneration of +painters and sculptors, who are darkly showing forth their manual tact +and toil in a corruptible material, should exhaust the refinements of +their art on the veins, on the feathers, on the down of the lip, and the +like niceties." + + +Works. + +More than half of the sixty-one speeches extant under the name of +Demosthenes are certainly or probably spurious. The results to which the +preponderance of opinion leans are given in the following table. Those +marked a were already rejected or doubted in antiquity; those marked m, +first in modern times:[3] + + + I. DELIBERATIVE SPEECHES. + + GENUINE. + + Or. 14. On the Navy Boards 354 B.C. + Or. 16. For the People of Megalopolis 352 " + Or. 4. First Philippic 351 " + Or. 15. For the Rhodians 351 " + Or. 1. First Olynthiac 349 " + Or. 2. Second Olynthiac 349 " + Or. 3. Third Olynthiac 348 " + Or. 5. On the Peace 346 " + Or. 6. Second Philippic 344 " + Or. 8. On the Affairs of the Chersonese 341 " + Or. 9. Third Philippic 341 " + + SPURIOUS. + + (a) Or. 7. On Halonnesus (by Hegesippus) 342 B.C. + + _Rhetorical Forgeries_. + + (a) Or. 17. On the Treaty with Alexander. + (a) Or. 10. Fourth Philippic. + (m) Or. 11. Answer to Philip's Letter.[4] + (m) Or. 12. Philip's Letter. + (m) Or. 13. On the Assessment ([Greek: syntxis]). + + + II. FORENSIC SPEECHES. + + A. IN PUBLIC CAUSES. + + GENUINE. + + Or. 22. In ([Greek: kata]) Androtionem 355 B.C. + Or. 20. Contra ([Greek: pros]) Leptinem 354 " + Or. 24. In Timocratem 352 " + Or. 23. In Aristocratem 352 " + Or. 21. In Midiam 349 " + Or. 19. On the Embassy 343 " + Or. 18. On the Crown 330 " + + SPURIOUS. + + (a) Or. 58. In Theocrinem 339 B.C. + (a) Or. 25, 26. In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical forgeries). + + B. IN PRIVATE CAUSES. + + GENUINE. + + Or. 27, 28. In Aphobum I. et II. 364 B.C. + (m) Or. 30, 31. Contra Onetora I. et II. 362 " + Or. 41. Contra Spudiam ? " + (m) Or. 55. Contra Calliclem ? + Or. 54. In Cononem 356 " + Or. 36. Pro Phormione 352 " + (m) Or. 39. Contra Boeotum de Nomine 350 " + Or. 37. Contra Pantaenetum 346-5 " + (m) Or. 38. Contra Nausimachum et Diopithem ? + + SPURIOUS. + + (_The first eight of the following are given by Schäfer to + Apollodorus._) + + (m) Or. 52. Contra Callippum. 369-8 B.C. + (a) Or. 53. Contra Nicostratum after 368 " + (a) Or. 49. Contra Timotheum 362 " + (m) Or. 50. Contra Polyclem 357 " + (a) Or. 47. In Evergum et Mnesibulum 356 " + (m) Or. 45, 46. In Stephanum I. et II. 351 " + (a) Or. 59. In Neaeram 349[343-0, Blass] " + (m) Or. 51. On the Trierarchic Crown (by 360-359 " + Cephisodotus?) + (m) Or. 43. Contra Macartatum ? + (m) Or. 48. In Olympiodorum. after 343 " + (m) Or. 44. Contra Leocharem ? + (a) Or. 35. Contra Lacritum 341 " + (a) Or. 42. Contra Phaenippum ? + (m) Or. 32. Contra Zenothemin ? + (m) Or. 34. Contra Phormionem ? + (m) Or. 29. Contra Aphobum pro Phano + (a) Or. 40. Contra Boeotum de Dote 347 " + (m) Or. 57. Contra Eubulidem 346-5 " + (m) Or. 33. Contra Apaturium ? + (a) Or. 56. In Dionysodorum not before 322-1 " + + Or. 60 ([Greek: epitaphios]) and Or. 61 (Greek: erôtikos) are works + of rhetoricians. The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used + by the composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of + Aeschines. The 56 [Greek: prooimia], exordia or sketches for + political speeches, are by various hands and of various dates.[5] + They are valuable as being compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from + other classical models. + + +Literary history of Demosthenes. + +The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared only with +the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous appreciation, +recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfection. Dionysius, the +closest and most penetrating of his ancient critics, exhausts the +language of admiration in showing how Demosthenes united and elevated +whatever had been best in earlier masters of the Greek idiom. +Hermogenes, in his works on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes as [Greek: +ho rhêtôr], _the_ orator. The writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows +no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes has risen. From his +own younger contemporaries, Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded +their theory of rhetoric in large part on his practice, down to the +latest Byzantines, the consent of theorists, orators, antiquarians, +anthologists, lexicographers, offered the same unvarying homage to +Demosthenes. His work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian, +Basilicus, Aelius, Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to his speeches +were drawn up by rhetoricians so distinguished as Numenius and Libanius. +Accomplished men of letters, such as Julius Vestinus and Aelius +Dionysius, selected from his writings choice passages for declamation or +perusal, of which fragments are incorporated in the miscellany of +Photius and the lexicons of Harpocration, Pollux and Suidas. It might +have been anticipated that the purity of a text so widely read and so +renowned would, from the earliest times, have been guarded with jealous +care. The works of the three great dramatists had been thus protected, +about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension. But no such good fortune +befell the works of Demosthenes. Alexandrian criticism was chiefly +occupied with poetry. The titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed, +registered, with those of the other orators, in the catalogues ([Greek: +rhêtorikoi pinakes]) of Alexandria and Pergamum. But no thorough attempt +was made to separate the authentic works from those spurious works which +had even then become mingled with them. Philosophical schools which, +like the Stoic, felt the ethical interest of Demosthenes, cared little +for his language. The rhetoricians who imitated or analysed his style +cared little for the criticism of his text. Their treatment of it had, +indeed, a direct tendency to falsify it. It was customary to indicate by +marks those passages which were especially useful for study or +imitation. It then became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt or +interweave such passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes, wrote +on [Greek: metabolai kai metapoiêseis tôn Dêmosthenous chôriôn], +"adaptations or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes." Such +manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions in the +original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed on the thought, +sentiment and style of Demosthenes, comparatively little care was +bestowed on his subject-matter. He was studied more on the moral and the +formal side than on the real side. An incorrect substitution of one name +for another, a reading which gave an impossible date, insertions of +spurious laws or decrees, were points which few readers would stop to +notice. Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demosthenes +were the most universally popular of the classical prose-writers, the +text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps of all, was also the +least pure. His more careful students at length made an effort to arrest +the process of corruption. Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical +recension, and called [Greek: Attikiana (antigrapha)], came to be +distinguished from the vulgates, or [Greek: dêmôdeis ekdoseis]. + + +Manuscripts. + +Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes--upwards of 170 in +number--one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This is +_Parisinus_ [Sigma] 2934, of the 10th century. A comparison of this MS. +with the extracts of Aelius, Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third +Philippic favours the view that it is derived from an [Greek: +Attikianon], whereas the [Greek: dêmôdeis ekdoseis], used by Hermogenes +and by the rhetoricians generally, have been the chief sources of our +other manuscripts. The collation of this manuscript by Immanuel Bekker +first placed the textual criticism of Demosthenes on a sound footing. +Not only is this manuscript nearly free from interpolations, but it is +the sole voucher for many excellent readings. Among the other MSS., some +of the most important are--_Marcianus_ 416 F, of the 10th (or 11th) +century, the basis of the Aldine edition; _Augustanus_ I. (N 85), +derived from the last, and containing scholia to the speeches on the +Crown and the Embassy, by Ulpian, with some by a younger writer, who was +perhaps Moschopulus; _Parisinus_ [Upsilon]; _Antverpiensis_ +[Omega]--the last two comparatively free from additions. The fullest +authority on the MSS. is J. T. Vömel, _Notitia codicum Demosth_., and +Prolegomena Critica to his edition published at Halle (1856-1857), pp. +175-178.[6] + + +Scholia. + +The extant scholia on Demosthenes are for the most part poor. Their +staple consists of Byzantine erudition; and their value depends chiefly +on what they have preserved of older criticism. They are better than +usual for the [Greek: Peri stephanou, Kata Timokratous]; best for the +[Greek: Peri parapresbeias]. The Greek commentaries ascribed to Ulpian +are especially defective on the historical side, and give little +essential aid. Editions:--C. W. Müller, in _Orat. Att._ ii. (1847-1858); +_Scholia Graeca in Demosth. ex cod. aucta et emendata_ (Oxon., 1851; in +W. Dindorf's ed.). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Editio princeps_ (Aldus, Venice, 1504); J. J. Reiske + (with notes of J. Wolf, J. Taylor, J. Markland, &c., 1770-1775); + revised edition of Reiske by G. H. Schäfer (1823-1826); I. Bekker, in + _Oratores Attici_ (1823-1824), the first edition based on codex + [Sigma] (see above); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and H. Sauppe + (1850); W. Dindorf (in Teubner series, 1867, 4th ed. by F. Blass, + 1885-1889); H. Omont, facsimile edition of codex [Sigma] (1892-1893); + S. H. Butcher in Oxford _Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca_ (1903 + foll.); W. Dindorf (9 vols., Oxford, 1846-1851), with notes of + previous commentators and Greek scholia; R. Whiston (political + speeches) with introductions and notes (1859-1868). For a select list + of the numerous English and foreign editions and translations of + separate speeches see J. B. Mayor, _Guide to the Choice of Classical + Books_ (1885, suppt. 1896). Mention may here be made of _De corona_ + by W. W. Goodwin (1901, ed. min., 1904); W. H. Simcox (1873, with + Aeschines _In Ctesiphontem_); and P. E. Matheson (1899); _Leptines_ + by J. E. Sandys (1890); _De falsa legatione_ by R. Shilleto (4th ed., + 1874); _Select Private Orations_ by J. E. Sandys and F. A. Paley (3rd + ed., 1898, 1896); _Midias_ by W. W. Goodwin (1906). C. R. Kennedy's + complete translation is a model of scholarly finish, and the + appendices on Attic law, &c., are of great value. There are indices + to Demosthenes by J. Reiske (ed. G. H. Schäfer, 1823); S. Preuss + (1892). Among recent papyrus finds are fragments of a special lexicon + to the _Aristocratea_ and a commentary by Didymus (ed. H. Diels and + W. Schubart, 1904). Illustrative literature: A. D. Schäfer, + _Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (2nd ed., 1885-1887), a masterly and + exhaustive historical work; F. Blass, _Die attische Beredsamkeit_ + (1887-1898); W. J. Brodribb, "Demosthenes" in _Ancient Classics for + English Readers_ (1877); S. H. Butcher, _Introduction to the Study of + Demosthenes_ (1881); C. G. Böhnecke, _Demosthenes, Lykurgos, + Hyperides, und ihr Zeitalter_ (1864); A. Bouillé, _Histoire de + Démosthène_ (2nd ed., 1868); J. Girard, _Études sur l'éloquence + attique_ (1874); M. Croiset, _Des idées morales dans l'Éloquence + politique de Démosthène_ (1874); A. Hug, _Demosthenes als politischer + Denker_ (1881); L. Brédit, _L'Éloquence politique en Grèce_ (2nd ed., + 1886); A. Bougot, _Rivalité d'Eschine et Démosthène_ (1891). For + fuller bibliographical information consult R. Nicolai, _Griechische + Literaturgeschichte_ (1881); W. Engelmann, _Scriptores Graeci_ + (1881); G. Hüttner in C. Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, li. (1889). + (R. C. J.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + + [1] See Jebb's _Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos_, vol. ii. p. + 267 f. + + [2] It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest; + but the question of the order of the First and Second has been much + discussed. See Grote (_History of Greece_, chap. 88, appendix), who + prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, _Die attische + Beredsamkeit_, iii. p. 319. + + [3] The dates agree in the main with those given by A. D. Schäfer in + _Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (2nd ed., 1885-1887), and by F. Blass + in _Die attische Beredsamkeit_ (1887-1898), who regards thirty-three + (or possibly thirty-five) of the speeches as genuine. + + [4] Or. 11 and 12 are probably both by Anaximenes of Lampsacus. + + [5] According to Blass, the second and third epistles and the + _exordia_ are genuine. + + [6] See also H. Usener in _Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft + der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen_, p. 188 (1892); J. H. Lipsius, "Zur + Textcritik des Demosthenes" in _Berichte ... der Königl. Sächsischen + Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_ (1893) with special reference to + the papyrus finds at the end of the 19th century; E. Bethe, + _Demosthenis scriptorum corpus_ (1893). + + + + +DEMOTIC (Gr. [Greek: dêmotikos], of or belonging to the people), a term, +meaning popular, specially applied to that cursive script of the ancient +Egyptian language used for business and literary purposes,--for the +people. It is opposed to "hieratic" (Gr. [Greek: hieratikos], of or +belonging to the priests), the script, an abridged form of the +hieroglyphic, used in transcribing the religious texts. (See WRITING, +and EGYPT: II., _ANCIENT_, D. _LANGUAGE AND WRITING._) + + + + +DEMOTICA, or DIMOTICA, a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of +Adrianople; on the Maritza valley branch of the Constantinople-Salonica +railway, about 35 m. S. of Adrianople. Pop. (1905) about 10,000. +Demotica is built at the foot of a conical hill on the left bank of the +river Kizildeli, near its junction with the Maritza. It was formerly the +seat of a Greek archbishop, and besides the ancient citadel and palace +on the summit of the hill contains several Greek churches, mosques and +public baths. In the middle ages, when it was named Didymotichos, it was +one of the principal marts of Thrace; in modern times it has regained +something of its commercial importance, and exports pottery, linen, silk +and grain. These goods are sent to Dédéagatch for shipment. Demotica was +the birthplace of the Turkish sultan Bayezid I. (1347); after the +battle of Poltava, Charles XII. of Sweden resided here from February +1713 to October 1714. + + + + +DEMPSTER, THOMAS (1579-1625), Scottish scholar and historian, was born +at Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, the son of Thomas Dempster of Muresk, +Auchterless and Killesmont, sheriff of Banff and Buchan. According to +his own account, he was the twenty-fourth of twenty-nine children, and +was early remarkable for precocious talent. He obtained his early +education in Aberdeenshire, and at ten entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge; +after a short while he went to Paris, and, driven thence by the plague, +to Louvain, whence by order of the pope he was transferred with several +other Scottish students to the papal seminary at Rome. Being soon forced +by ill health to leave, he went to the English college at Douai, where +he remained three years and took his M.A. degree. While at Douai he +wrote a scurrilous attack on Queen Elizabeth, which caused a riot among +the English students. But, if his truculent character was thus early +displayed, his abilities were no less conspicuous; and, though still in +his teens, he became lecturer on the Humanities at Tournai, whence, +after but a short stay, he returned to Paris, to take his degree of +doctor of canon law, and become regent of the college of Navarre. He +soon left Paris for Toulouse, which in turn he was forced to leave owing +to the hostility of the city authorities, aroused by his violent +assertion of university rights. He was now elected professor of +eloquence at the university or academy of Nîmes, but not without a +murderous attack upon him by one of the defeated candidates and his +supporters, followed by a suit for libel, which, though he ultimately +won his case, forced him to leave the town. A short engagement in Spain, +as tutor to the son of Marshal de Saint Luc, was terminated by another +quarrel; and Dempster now returned to Scotland with the intention of +asserting a claim to his father's estates. Finding his relatives +unsympathetic, and falling into heated controversy with the Presbyterian +clergy, he made no long stay, but returned to Paris, where he remained +for seven years, becoming professor in several colleges successively. At +last, however, his temporary connexion with the collège de Beauvais was +ended by a feat of arms which proved him as stout a fighter with his +sword as with his pen; and, since his victory was won over officers of +the king's guard, it again became expedient for him to change his place +of residence. The dedication of his edition of Rosinus' _Antiquitatum +Romanorum corpus absolutissimum_ to King James I. had won him an +invitation to the English court; and in 1615 he went to London. His +reception by the king was flattering enough; but his hopes of preferment +were dashed by the opposition of the Anglican clergy to the promotion of +a papist. He left for Rome, where, after a short imprisonment on +suspicion of being a spy, he gained the favour of Pope Paul V., through +whose influence with Cosimo II., grand duke of Tuscany, he was appointed +to the professorship of the Pandects at Pisa. He had married while in +London, but ere long had reason to suspect his wife's relations with a +certain Englishman. Violent accusations followed, indignantly +repudiated; a diplomatic correspondence ensued, and a demand was made, +and supported by the grand duke, for an apology, which the professor +refused to make, preferring rather to lose his chair. He now set out +once more for Scotland, but was intercepted by the Florentine cardinal +Luigi Capponi, who induced him to remain at Bologna as professor of +Humanity. This was the most distinguished post in the most famous of +continental universities, and Dempster was now at the height of his +fame. Though his _Roman Antiquities_ and _Scotia illustrior_ had been +placed on the Index pending correction, Pope Urban VIII. made him a +knight and gave him a pension. He was not, however, to enjoy his honours +long. His wife eloped with a student, and Dempster, pursuing the +fugitives in the heat of summer, caught a fever, and died at Bologna on +the 6th of September 1625. + +Dempster owed his great position in the history of scholarship to his +extraordinary memory, and to the versatility which made him equally at +home in philology, criticism, law, biography and history. His style is, +however, often barbarous; and the obvious defects of his works are due +to his restlessness and impetuosity, and to a patriotic and personal +vanity which led him in Scottish questions into absurd exaggerations, +and in matters affecting his own life into an incurable habit of +romancing. The best known of his works is the _Historia ecclesiastica +gentis Scotorum_ (Bologna, 1627). In this book he tries to prove that +Bernard (Sapiens), Alcuin, Boniface and Joannes Scotus Erigena were all +Scots, and even Boadicea becomes a Scottish author. This criticism is +not applicable to his works on antiquarian subjects, and his edition of +Benedetto Accolti's _De bello a Christianis contra barbaros_ (1623) has +great merits. + + A portion of his Latin verse is printed in the first volume (pp. + 306-354) of _Delitiae poëtarum Scotorum_ (Amsterdam, 1637). + + + + +DEMURRAGE (from "demur," Fr. _demeurer_, to delay, derived from Lat. +_mora_), in the law of merchant shipping, the sum payable by the +freighter to the shipowner for detention of the vessel in port beyond +the number of days allowed for the purpose of loading or unloading (see +AFFREIGHTMENT: UNDER _CHARTER-PARTIES_). The word is also used in +railway law for the charge on detention of trucks; and in banking for +the charge per ounce made by the Bank of England in exchanging coin or +notes for bullion. + + + + +DEMURRER (from Fr. _demeurer_, to delay, Lat. _morari_), in English law, +an objection taken to the sufficiency, in point of law, of the pleading +or written statement of the other side. In equity pleading a demurrer +lay only against the bill, and not against the answer; at common law any +part of the pleading could be demurred to. On the passing of the +Judicature Act of 1875 the procedure with respect to demurrers in civil +cases was amended, and, subsequently, by the Rules of the Supreme Court, +Order XXV. demurrers were abolished and a more summary process for +getting rid of pleadings which showed no reasonable cause of action or +defence was adopted, called proceedings in lieu of demurrer. Demurrer in +criminal cases still exists, but is now seldom resorted to. Demurrers +are still in constant use in the United States. See ANSWER; PLEADING. + + + + +DENAIN, a town of northern France in the department of Nord, 8 m. S.W. +of Valenciennes by steam tramway. A mere village in the beginning of the +19th century, it rapidly increased from 1850 onwards, and, according to +the census of 1906, possessed 22,845 inhabitants, mainly engaged in the +coal mines and iron-smelting works, to which it owes its development. +There are also breweries, manufactories of machinery, sugar and glass. A +school of commerce and industry is among the institutions. Denain has a +port on the left bank of the Scheldt canal. Its vicinity was the scene +of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by Marshal Villars over the +allies commanded by Prince Eugène; and the battlefield is marked by a +monolithic monument inscribed with the verses of Voltaire:-- + + "Regardez dans Denain l'audacieux Villars + Disputant le tonnerre à l'aigle des Césars." + + + + +DENBIGH, WILLIAM FEILDING, 1ST EARL OF (d. 1643), son of Basil +Feilding[1] of Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire, and of Elizabeth, +daughter of Sir Walter Aston, was educated at Emmanuel College, +Cambridge, and knighted in 1603. He married Susan, daughter of Sir +George Villiers, sister of the future duke of Buckingham, and on the +rise of the favourite received various offices and dignities. He was +appointed _custos rotulorum_ of Warwickshire, and master of the great +wardrobe in 1622, and created baron and viscount Feilding in 1620, and +earl of Denbigh on the 14th of September 1622. He attended Prince +Charles on the Spanish adventure, served as admiral in the unsuccessful +expedition to Cadiz in 1625, and commanded the disastrous attempt upon +Rochelle in 1628, becoming the same year a member of the council of war, +and in 1633 a member of the council of Wales. In 1631 Lord Denbigh +visited the East. On the outbreak of the Civil War he served under +Prince Rupert and was present at Edgehill. On the 3rd of April 1643 +during Rupert's attack on Birmingham he was wounded and died from the +effects on the 8th, being buried at Monks Kirby in Warwickshire. His +courage, unselfishness and devotion to duty are much praised by +Clarendon. + + See E. Lodge, _Portraits_ (1850), iv. 113; J. Nichols, _Hist. of + Leicestershire_ (1807), iv. pt. 1, 273; Hist. MSS. _Comm Ser._ 4th + Rep. app. 254; _Cal. of State Papers, Dom.; Studies in Peerage and + Family History_, by J. H. Round (1901), 216. + +His eldest son, BASIL FEILDING, 2nd earl of Denbigh (c. 1608-1675), was +educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was summoned to the House of +Lords as Baron Feilding in March 1629. After seeing military service in +the Netherlands he was sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to +Venice, where he remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out +Feilding, unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among +the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and, having +become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made commander-in-chief of the +Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and the neighbouring counties, and +lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire. During the year 1644 he was fairly +active in the field, but in some quarters he was distrusted and he +resigned his command after the passing of the self-denying ordinance in +April 1645. At Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners +appointed to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at +Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge Denbigh declared +privately that he regretted the position in which he found himself, and +expressed his willingness to serve Charles I. He supported the army in +its dispute with the parliament, but he would take no part in the trial +of Charles I. Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a +member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former associates +grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded as a royalist. In +1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz. Although four times married he +left no issue when he died on the 28th of November 1675. + +His titles devolved on his nephew WILLIAM FEILDING (1640-1685), son and +heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding of Lecaghe, Viscount +Callan and earl of Desmond), and the earldom of Desmond has been held by +his descendants to the present day in conjunction with the earldom of +Denbigh. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The descent of the Feildings from the house of Habsburg, through + the counts of Laufenburg and Rheinfelden, long considered authentic, + and immortalized by Gibbon, has been proved to have been based on + forged documents. See J. H. Round, _Peerage and Family History_ + (1901). + + + + +DENBIGH (_Dinbych_), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin and Wrexham) +contributory parliamentary borough, market town and county town of +Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches of the London & North Western and +the Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle, +surrounding the hill with a double wall, was built, in Edward I.'s +reign, by Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received +its first charter. The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main +gateway is a niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but +more probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton Moor, +Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the +Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor. The chief +buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating perhaps from the 13th +century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a free grammar school (1527); an +orphan girl school (funds left by Thomas Howel to the Drapers' Co., in +Henry VII.'s reign); the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl +of Leicester, enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church +(begun by Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or "rows," such as +those of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of St Marcella. +The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and Elwy. The inhabitants of +Denbigh are chiefly occupied in the timber trade, butter-making, +poultry-farming, bootmaking, tanning and quarrying (lime, slate and +paving-stones). The borough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the +peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been +known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper, _Baner_, +being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at Bodelwyddan, &c., coal +is worked. + +The old British tower and castle were called _Castell caled fryn yn +Rhôs_, the "castle of the hard hill in Rhôs." _Din_ in _Dinbych_ means +a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle. Historically, David +(_Dafydd_), brother of the last Llewelyn, was here (_aet._ Edward I.) +perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who built the castle (_aet._ Edward +I.), given to the Mortimers and to Leicester (under Edward III. and +Elizabeth, respectively). + + + + +DENBIGHSHIRE (_Dinbych_), a county of N. Wales, bounded N. by the Irish +Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint and Shropshire, S. by +Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the +N. coast, within the Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and +Llandulas, is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a +change in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is +partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The surface +of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified. In the N.W. +are the bleak Hiraethog ("longing") hills, sloping W. to the Conwy and +E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and Abergele bays, on the S. the +Yspytty (Lat. _Hospitium_) and Llangwm range, between Denbigh and +Merioneth. From this watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr +and Alwen, tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (_Dyfrdwy_). Some of +the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those of the +Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon (_Rhiwabon_) hills and +the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals; the Berwyn to Offa's Dyke +(_Wâl Offa_) is wild and barren, except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and +Ceiriog. One feeder of the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout +fall), another rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry +bare-hill), the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both +lakes and streams. + + _Geology._-The geology of the county is full of interest, as it + develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the + Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which + extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo + formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of + shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive + felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just within + the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y-coed and in + the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the limestone fringe + at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian covers the entire + mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but verging on its western + slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may be traced southward in a + continuous line from the mouth of the Conway as far as Llanddewi + Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are + abundantly fossiliferous. On its eastern slope a narrow broken band + of the Old Red, or what may be a conglomeratic basement bed of the + Carboniferous Limestone series, crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and + in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this the Carboniferous Limestone extends + from Llanymynach, its extreme southern point, to the Cyrnybrain + fault, and there forks into two divisions that terminate respectively + in the Great Orme's Head and in Talargoch, and are separated from + each other by the denuded shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale + of Clwyd the limestone underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the + eastern division it is itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of + Ruabon and Minera, and by a long reach of the Coal Measures which + near Wrexham are 4½ m. in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of + the red marly beds succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but + now regarded as belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between + this and the Dee the ground is occupied--as in the Vale of Clwyd--by + the New Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the + whole of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with + glacial drift. On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and + Plâs Heaton, the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone + districts, have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, + hippopotamus and other extinct mammals. + + Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone below, + lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable fireclays + and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures about + Wrexham. + +The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and black cattle +are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England and sale in London. +Oats and turnips, rather than wheat, barley and potatoes, occupy the +tilled land. The county is fairly wooded. There are several important +farmers' clubs (the Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the +Cerrig y druidion, &c.). The London & North-Western railway (Holyhead +line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together with the +lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon), via Ruthin and Corwen, +Wrexham with Connah's Quay (Great Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with +Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great Western and Great Central railways) have +opened up the county. Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the +Holyhead road from London, well built and passing through fine scenery. +At Nantglyn paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen) +slabs and slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog. +There is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn Rhiwabon +yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit. Chirk, Ruabon and +Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera is the principal lead mine. +There is much brick and pottery clay. The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite +factory. Llangollen and Llansantffraid (St Bridgit's) have woollen +manufactures. + +The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a population in +1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county is 426,084 acres. +The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining centre and N. Wales military +centre, with a fine church; Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held +(here are a grammar school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt); +Llangollen and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The +Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of: Denbigh (pop. +6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham (14,966). The county has +two parliamentary divisions. The urban districts are: Abergele and +Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and +Llanrwst (2645). Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being +held at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate commissions +of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts. The ancient +county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains seventy-five +ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a parish. + +The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the lordships of +Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog, which are roughly the +Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway and Clwyd, and the lordships of +Bromfield, Yale (_Iâl_, open land) and Chirkland, the old possessions of +Gruffydd ap Madoc, _arglwydd_ (lord) of Dinas Brân. Cefn (Elwy Valley) +limestone caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros, +lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c.; Plâs Heaton cave, the glutton; Pont +Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that of +Rhosdigre); Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, "platycnemic (skeleton) men of +Denbighshire" (like those of Perthi Chwareu). Clawdd Coch has traces of +the Romans; so also Penygaer and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva +(Chester) to Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Heriri (_Tomen +y mur_). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and Pentrefoelas +(near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis "Eliseg's pillar" tells of +Brochmael and the Cairlegion (Chester) struggle against Æthelfrith's +invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613, while Offa's dike goes back to the +Mercian advance. Near and parallel to Offa's is the shorter and +mysterious Watt's dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle +comparatively untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has +cloisters; Wrexham, the Brynffynnon "nunnery"; and at both are +collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast rood lofts and +screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait brasses and monuments; +Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd), +stained glass. Near Abergele, known for its sea baths, is the _ogof_ (or +cave), traditionally the refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his +capture by Bolingbroke in 1399. + + See J. Williams, _Denbigh_ (1856), and T. F. Tout, _Welsh Shires_. + + + + +DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle of the great +westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here was the ancient city of +Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the sixth of Upper Egypt, and +the principal seat of the worship of Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess +of love and joy. The old Egyptian name of Tentyra was written 'In·t +(Ant), but the pronunciation of it is unknown: in later days it was +'In·t-t-ntr·t, "ant of the goddess," pronounced Ni-tentôri, whence +[Greek: Tentyra, Tentyris]. The temple of Hathor was built in the 1st +century B.C., being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and +finished by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great +rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850 ft., +contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone gateways, in +the north and the east sides, built by Domitian. Another smaller +enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also of the Roman period. + +The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a colonnaded +court in front of the present façade, and pylon towers at the entrance; +but these were never built, probably for lack of funds. The building, +which is of sandstone, measures about 300 ft. from front to back, and +consists of two oblong rectangles; the foremost, placed transversely to +the other, is the great hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and +loftiest part of the temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising +about one-third of the whole structure; the façade has six columns with +heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great columns. +The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall with six columns, +and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary chambers. The sanctuary is +surrounded by a corridor into which the chambers open: on the west side +is an apartment forming a court and kiosk for the celebration of the +feast of the New Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of +the temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several +chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out, the whole +of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions in crowded +characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the decoration is even +carried into a remarkable series of hidden passages and chambers or +crypts made in the solid walls for the reception of its most valuable +treasures. The architectural style is dignified and pleasing in design +and proportions. The interior of the building has been completely +cleared: from the outside, however, its imposing effect is quite lost, +owing to the mounds of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of +the entrance is a "Birth House" for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and +behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign of +Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date back to a +remote time: the work of some of the early builders is in fact referred +to in the inscriptions on the present structure. Petrie's excavation of +the cemetery behind the temple enclosures revealed burials dating from +the fourth dynasty onwards, the most important being mastables of the +period from the sixth to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited +a peculiar degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture. + +The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a considerable +literature before their late origin was established by Champollion in +1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof, was removed in 1820 to +the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra +VI. occur amongst the sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they +are purely conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu, +the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears sometimes as +the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill displayed by the Tentyrites +in capturing the crocodile is referred to by Strabo and other Greek +writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth satire, takes as his text a +religious riot between the Tentyrites and the neighbouring Ombites, in +the course of which an unlucky Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by +the opposite party. The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south +of Edfu, where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that +opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was another Ombos, +venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set. + + See A. Mariette, _Dendérah_ (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880); W. + M. F. Petrie, _Denderah_ (1900); _Nagada_ and _Ballas_ (1896). + (F. LL. G.) + + + + +DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein), a genus of suctorian Infusoria, +characterized by the repeatedly branched attached body; each of the +lobes of the body gives off a few retractile tentacles. It is parasitic +on the gills of the so-called freshwater shrimp _Gammarus pulex_. + + For its conjugation see Sydney H. Hickson, in _Quarterly Journ. of + Microsc. Science_, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325. + + + + +DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations in England, +which have been popularly supposed to be due to the Danes or some other +of the early northern invaders of the country. The common spelling "Dane +hole" is adduced as evidence of this, and individual names, such as +Vortigern's Caves at Margate, and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley, +naturally follow the same theory. The word, however, is probably derived +from the Anglo-Saxon _den_, a hole or valley. There are many underground +excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent in +the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found chiefly in +those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks of the Thames. With +one exception there are no recorded specimens farther east than those of +the Grays Thurrock district, situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north, +and one near Rochester on the south side of the river. + +The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably the +same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter falling, +on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated, obviously, +by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but, although chalk could +have been obtained close at hand within a few feet, or even inches, from +the surface, a depth of from 45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic +feature. It is believed that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but +as these would be of a perishable nature there are no available data of +any value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a domed +chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls frequently +contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule there is only one +chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath each shaft. From this +excessive height it has been inferred that the caves were not primarily +intended for habitations or even hiding-places. In some cases the +chamber is extended, the roof being supported by pillars of chalk left +standing. A rare specimen of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend. +In this case the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate +aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries are found +connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering labyrinth, a careful +scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence that they are the work of +a people of a much later period than that of the chambers, or, as they +become in these cases, the halls of the galleries. + +Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of Kent and +Essex, but the most important groups have been found at Grays Thurrock, +in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey Wood and Bexley, and at Gravesend. +Those at Bexley and Grays Thurrock are the most valuable still existing. + +It is generally found that the tool work on the roof or ceiling is +rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position could be +maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes near the roof show +that, in all probability, they were made by bone or horn picks. And +numerous bone picks have been discovered in Essex and Kent. These +pick-holes are amongst the most valuable data for the study of +dene-holes, and have assisted in fixing the date of their formation to +pre-Roman times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been +discovered in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing +the date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations. Pliny +mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, "where they branched +out like the veins of mines." This has been used in support of the +theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the extraction of chalk; but +no known dene-hole branches out in this way. Chrétien de Troyes has a +passage on underground caves in Britain which may have reference to +dene-holes, and tradition of the 14th century treated the dene-holes of +Grays as the fabled gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the 1st +century. + +Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which have been +adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and excellent examples of +various pick-holes may be seen on different parts of the walls. + +Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to the +smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was common +not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the river as Barking +Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these ready-made +hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous to descend, were so +utilized. + +There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been originally +excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw-wells for the +extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) storehouses for +grain. For several reasons it is unlikely that they were used as +habitations, although they may have been used occasionally as +hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is equally improbable +that they were used for the extraction of chalk. The chief reasons +against this theory are that chalk could have been obtained outcropping +close by, and that every trace of loose chalk has been removed from the +vicinity of the holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not +descend to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about +14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still further. +The last of the three possible uses for which these prehistoric +excavations were designed is usually accepted as the most probable. +Silos, or underground storehouses, are well known in the south of Europe +and Morocco. It is supposed that the grain was stored in the ear and +carefully protected from damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof +of one of the chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been +put forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One other +theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were made in order +to get flints for implements, but this is quite impossible, as a careful +examination of a few examples will show. + + Further reference may be made to _Essex Dene-holes_ by T. V. Holmes + and W. Cole; to _The Archaeological Journal_ (1882); the + _Transactions_ of the Essex Field Club; _Archaeologia Cantiana_, &c.; + _Dene-holes_ by F. W. Reader, in _Old Essex_, ed. A. C. Kelway + (1908). + (A. J. P.) + + + + +DENGUE (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring in warm +climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever, accompanied by +rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with severe headache and +erythema. After a few days a crisis is reached and an interval of two or +three days is followed by a slighter return of fever and pain and an +eruption resembling measles, the most marked characteristic of the +disease. The disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of +extreme weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is +known of the aetiology of "dengue." The virus is probably similar to +that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated by an intermediary +culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic, though at intervals it +appears to be pandemic and in certain districts almost endemic. The area +over which the disease ranges may be stated generally to be between 32° +47' N. and 23° 23' S. Throughout this area "dengue" is constantly +epidemic. The earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in +1779-1780 in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have been +those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and the southern +states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending practically over the +whole of the tropical portions of the East and reaching as far as China. +In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak spread along the shores of the Aegean +and over nearly the whole of Asia Minor. Perhaps "dengue" is most nearly +endemic in equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has +usually been identified with the Spanish _dengue_, meaning stiff or prim +behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suitable to the +curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the disease, similar to the +name "dandy-fever" which was given to it by the negroes. According to +the _New English Dictionary_ (quoting Dr Christie in _The Glasgow +Medical Journal_, September 1881), both "dengue" and "dandy" are +corruptions of the Swahili word _dinga_ or _denga_, meaning a sudden +attack of cramp, the Swahili name for the disease being _ka-dinga pepo_. + + See Sir Patrick Manson, _Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases of + Warm Climates_ (1903). + + + + +DENHAM, DIXON (1786-1828), English traveller in West Central Africa, was +born in London on the 1st of January 1786. He was educated at Merchant +Taylors' School, and was articled to a solicitor, but joined the army in +1811. First in the 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the +54th foot, he served in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and +Belgium, and received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join +Dr Oudney and Hugh Clapperton (q.v.), who had been sent by the British +government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined the expedition at +Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised escort not forthcoming, Denham, +whose energy was boundless, started for England to complain of the +"duplicity" of the pasha of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers +after him with promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached +Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and Murzuk +was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition made its way across +the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February 1823. Here Denham, against the +wish of Oudney and Clapperton, accompanied a slave-raiding expedition +into the Mandara highlands south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated, +and Denham barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set +out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained behind. He +explored the western, south and south-eastern shores of Lake Chad, and +the lower courses of the rivers Waube, Logone and Shari. In August 1824, +Clapperton having returned and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the +return journey to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted +lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of +liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra Leone, +but after administering the colony for five weeks died of fever at +Freetown on the 8th of May 1828. + + See _Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central + Africa in the years 1822-1824_ (London, 1826), the greater part of + which is written by Denham; _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. chap. + xiii. (London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown. + + + + +DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669), English poet, only son of Sir John Denham +(1559-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was born in +Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father became baron of the exchequer in +England, and removed to London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631 +the future poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, +Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln's Inn, where he was, says John +Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit. The reputation +he had gained at Oxford of being the "dreamingest young fellow" gave way +to a scandalous reputation for gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton, +and seems to have lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he +wrote his paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656 +as _The Destruction of Troy_, with an excellent verse essay on the art +of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract against +gambling, _The Anatomy of Play_ (printed 1651), designed to assure his +father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into his fortune he +squandered it at play. It was a surprise to everyone when in 1642 he +suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, "broke out like the Irish rebellion, +three score thousand strong, when no one was aware, nor in the least +expected it," by publishing _The Sophy_, a tragedy in five acts, the +subject of which was drawn from Sir Thomas Herbert's travels. At the +beginning of the Civil War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was +appointed governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and +speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent as a +prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king at Oxford. + +In 1642 appeared _Cooper's Hill_, a poem describing the Thames scenery +round his home at Egham. The first edition was anonymous: subsequent +editions show numerous alterations, and the poem did not assume its +final form until 1655. This famous piece, which was Pope's model for his +_Windsor Forest_, was not new in theme or manner, but the praise which +it received was well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham +expressed his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the +taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor, but +these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not of the nature +of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote many squibs against the +roundheads. One of the few serious pieces belonging to this period is +the short poem "On the Earl of Strafford's Trial and Death." + +From this time Denham was much in Charles I.'s confidence. He was +entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and from the king +when he was in the custody of the parliament, a duty which he +discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but in 1648 he was +suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and thought it wiser to +cross the Channel. He helped in the removal of the young duke of York to +Holland, and for some time he served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris, +being entrusted by her with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent +to Poland in company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II. +They succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled +court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite without +resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of Pembroke at +Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham should restrict himself +to some place of residence to be selected by himself at a distance of +not less than 20 m. from London; subsequently he obtained from the +Protector a licence to live at Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport +to travel abroad with the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham's +services were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His +qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe to +regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence and +peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal "Panegyric upon Sir John +Denham's Recovery from his Madness." He eventually secured the services +of Christopher Wren as deputy-surveyor. In 1660 he was also made a +knight of the Bath. + +In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret, daughter of +Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de Gramont, a beautiful +girl of eighteen. She soon became known as the mistress of the duke of +York, and the scandal, according to common report, shattered the poet's +reason. While Denham was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was +said, by a cup of chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the +crime, but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was that +Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however, was found in the +examination after Lady Denham's death. Denham survived her for two +years, dying at his house near Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on +the 23rd in Westminster Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote +the bitter political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War +entitled "Directions to a Painter," and "Fresh Directions," continuing +Edmund Waller's "Instructions to a Painter." The printer of these poems, +with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell, was sentenced to stand in +the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley. + + Denham's poems include, beside those already given, a verse + paraphrase of Cicero's _Cato major_, and a metrical version of the + Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly + praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called _Cooper's Hill_ + "the exact standard of good writing," and Pope in his _Windsor + Forest_ called him "majestic Denham." His collected poems with a + dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions + followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers' (1810) and other + collections of the English poets. His political satires were printed + with some of Rochester's and Marvell's in _Bibliotheca curiosa_, vol. + i. (Edinburgh, 1885). + + + + +DÉNIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante; on the +Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Carcagente. Pop. (1900) +12,431. Dénia occupies the seaward slopes of a hill surmounted by a +ruined castle, and divided by a narrow valley on the south from the +limestone ridge of Mongó (2500 ft.), which commands a magnificent view +of the Balearic Islands and the Valencian coast. The older houses of +Dénia are characterized by their flat Moorish roofs (_azoteas_) and +view-turrets (_miradores_), while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are +also visible near the harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of +local commerce, many of the older quarters were modernized at the +beginning of the 20th century. Nails, and woollen, linen and esparto +grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a brisk export trade +in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned to Great Britain or the +United States. Baltic timber and British coal are largely imported. The +harbour bay, which is well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater, +contains only a small space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand +on three sides. In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons; +about half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying +agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports. + +Dénia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae (Ampurias in +Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early date; but its +Greek name of _Hemeroskopeion_ was soon superseded by the Roman +_Dianium_. In the 1st century B.C., Sertorius made it the naval +headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and, as its name implies, it was +already famous for its temple of Diana, built in imitation of that at +Ephesus. The site of this temple can be traced at the foot of the castle +hill. Dénia was captured by the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253 +belonged successively to the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia. +According to an ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose +at this period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased. +After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its prosperity +dwindled away, and only began to revive in the 19th century. During the +War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), Dénia was thrice besieged; and +in 1813 the citadel was held for five months by the French against the +allied British and Spanish forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100 +men, and compelled to surrender, on honourable terms. + + + + +DENIKER, JOSEPH (1852- ) French naturalist and anthropologist, was +born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia, on the 6th of March 1852. +After receiving his education at the university and technical institute +of St Petersburg, he adopted engineering as a profession, and in this +capacity travelled extensively in the petroleum districts of the +Caucasus, in Central Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in +1876, he studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural +science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural History +Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological works mention may be +made of _Recherches anatomiques et embryologiques sur les singes +anthropoides_ (1886); _Étude sur les Kalmouks_ (1883); _Les Ghiliaks_ +(1883); and _Races et peuples de la terre_ (1900). He became one of the +chief editors of the _Dictionnaire de géographie universelle_, and +published many papers in the anthropological and zoological journals of +France. + + + + +DENILIQUIN, a municipal town of Townsend county, New South Wales, +Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m. by rail N. of +Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of the town is chiefly +connected with the interests of the sheep and cattle farmers of the +Riverina district, a plain country, in the main pastoral, but suited in +some parts for cultivation. Deniliquin has a well-known public school. + + + + +DENIM (an abbreviation of _serge de Nîmes_), the name originally given +to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled cloth made in +various colours, usually of cotton, and used for overalls, &c. + + + + +DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA (1731-1813), Italian historian, was born at +Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In +1753 he was appointed to the chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was +soon compelled by the influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In +1756 he graduated as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a +theological treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and +rhetoric in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his _Delle +revoluzioni d'Italia_, the work on which his reputation is mainly +founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its successive +volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied his foes and +stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the Great's invitation, +he went to Berlin, where he remained for many years, in the course of +which he published his _Vie et règne de Frédéric II_ (Berlin, 1788) and +_La Prusse littéraire sous Frédéric II_ (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791). +His _Delle revoluzioni della Germania_ was published at Florence in +1804, in which year he went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the +invitation of Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1805 his _Tableau de la +Haute Italie, et des Alpes qui l'entourent_. He died there on the 5th of +December 1813. + + + + +DENIS (DIONYSIUS), SAINT, first bishop of Paris, patron saint of France. +According to Gregory of Tours (_Hist. Franc._ i. 30), he was sent into +Gaul at the time of the emperor Decius. He suffered martyrdom at the +village of Catulliacus, the modern St Denis. His tomb was situated by the +side of the Roman road, where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l'Estrée, +which existed until the 18th century. In the 5th century the clergy of +the diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625 Dagobert, +son of Lothair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at some distance from +the basilica, the monastery where the greater number of the kings of +France have been buried. The festival of St Denis is celebrated on the +9th of October. With his name are already associated in the +_Martyrologium Hieronymianum_ the priest Rusticus and the deacon +Eleutherius. Other traditions--of no value--are connected with the name +of St Denis. A false interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently +dating from 724, represented St Denis as having received his mission from +Pope Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian (81-96). +Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the 9th century, +identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the Areopagite +(mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens (Eusebius, _Hist. Eccl._ +iii. 4. 10, iv. 23. 3), and naturally attributed to him the celebrated +writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St Denis is generally represented +carrying his head in his hands. + + See _Acta Sanctorum_, Octobris, iv. 696-987; _Bibliotheca + hagiographica graeca_, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); _Bibliotheca + hagiographica latina_, No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, _Les + Origines de Saint-Denis_, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris, + 1896); Cahier, _Caractéristiques des saints_, p. 761 (Paris, 1867). + (H. DE.) + + + + +DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1729-1800), Austrian poet, was +born at Schärding on the Inn, on the 27th of September 1729. He was +brought up by the Jesuits, entered their order, and in 1759 was +appointed professor in the Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In +1784, after the suppression of the college, he was made second custodian +of the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian. He +died on the 29th of September 1800. A warm admirer of Klopstock, he was +one of the leading members of the group of so-called "bards"; and his +original poetry, published under the title _Die Lieder Sineds des +Barden_ (1772), shows all the extravagances of the "bardic" movement. He +is best remembered as the translator of _Ossian_ (1768-1769; also +published together with his own poems in 5 vols. as _Ossians und Sineds +Lieder_, 1784). More important than either his original poetry or his +translations were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the +literature of North Germany; his _Sammlung kürzerer Gedichte aus den +neuern Dichtern Deutschlands_, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this respect +invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical compilations, +_Grundriss der Bibliographie und Bücherkunde_ (1774), _Grundriss der +Literaturgeschichte_ (1776), _Einleitung in die Bücherkunde_ (1777) and +_Wiens Buchdruckergeschichte bis 1560_ (1782). + + _Ossians und Sineds_ Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791; but a + selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol. 48 + (1884) of Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_. His + _Literarischer Nachlass_ was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2 + vols.). See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, _Michael Denis_ (1881). + + + + +DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY (1805-1896), English churchman, brother of John +Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of the House of Commons 1857-1872; +Viscount Ossington), was born at Ossington, Notts, on the 11th of +December 1805, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828 +he was elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor, +during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon, he became +rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became a prebendary of Sarum +in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 1851 he was preferred to the valuable +living of East Brent, Somerset, and in the same year was made archdeacon +of Taunton. For many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme +High Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding all +"progressive" movements in education or theology as abomination, and +vehemently repudiating the "higher criticism" from the days of _Essays +and Reviews_ (1860) to those of _Lux Mundi_ (1890). In 1853 he resigned +his position as examining chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing +to his pronounced eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a +neighbouring clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison +was condemned by the archbishops' court at Bath (1856); but on appeal +the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this judgment on a +technical plea. The result was to make Denison a keen champion of the +ritualistic school. He edited _The Church and State Review_ (1862-1865). +Secular state education and the "conscience clause" were anathema to +him. Until the end of his life he remained a protagonist in theological +controversy and a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism; +but the sharpest religious or political differences never broke his +personal friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for +which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest festivals. He +died on the 21st of March 1896. + + + + +DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR (1839- ), Canadian soldier and publicist, was +born in Toronto on the 31st of August 1839. In 1861 he was called to the +bar, and was from 1865-1867 a member of the city council. From the first +he took a prominent part in the organization of the military forces of +Canada, becoming a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He +saw active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the +rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct of the +Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in 1869-70, he +abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully contested Algoma in the +Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained free from party ties. In 1877 +he was appointed police magistrate of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one +of the founders of the "Canada First" party, which did much to shape the +national aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter +of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great Britain +and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal Society of Canada, and +was president of the section dealing with English history and +literature. The best known of his military works is his _History of +Modern Cavalry_ (London, 1877), which was awarded first prize by the +Russian government in an open competition and has been translated into +German, Russian and Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences +under the title of _Soldiering in Canada_. + + + + +DENISON, a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about 2½ m. from the +S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 10,958; +(1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes; (1910 census) 13,632. It is +served by the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the +Texas & Pacific, and the St Louis & San Francisco ('Frisco System) +railways, and is connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line. +Denison is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known +as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier's academy (Roman Catholic). It is +chiefly important as a railway centre, as a collecting and distributing +point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs and poultry, and general farming +products of the surrounding region, and as a wholesale and jobbing +market for the upper Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and +among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and +foundry products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its +factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47.0% more than in 1900. +Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of the construction of +the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway to this point in 1872, and was +named in honour of George Denison (1822-1876), a director of the +railway; it became a city in 1891, and in 1907 adopted the commission +form of government. + + + + +DENIZEN (derived through the Fr. from Lat. _de intus_, "from within," +i.e. as opposed to "foreign"), an alien who obtains by letters patent +(_ex donatione regis_) certain of the privileges of a British subject. +He cannot be a member of the privy council or of parliament, or hold any +civil or military office of trust, or take a grant of land from the +crown. The Naturalization Act 1870 provides that nothing therein +contained shall affect the grant of any letters of denization by the +sovereign. + + + + +DENIZLI (anc. _Laodicea (q.v.) ad Lycum_), chief town of a sanjak of the +Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft. Pop. about 17,000. It is +beautifully situated at the foot of Baba Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a +tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus), and is connected by a branch line +with the station of Gonjeli on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the +place of Laodicea when that town was deserted during the wars between +the Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174. It had +become a fine Moslem city in the 14th century, and was then called +Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered products of its Greek +inhabitants. The delightful gardens of Denizli have obtained for it the +name of the "Damascus of Anatolia." + + + + +DENMAN, THOMAS, 1ST BARON (1779-1854), English judge, was born in +London, the son of a well-known physician, on the 23rd of July 1779. He +was educated at Eton and St John's College, Cambridge, where he +graduated in 1800. Soon after leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806 +he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and at once entered upon +practice. His success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a +position at the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord +Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of the +Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of the counsel +for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords was very powerful, and +some competent judges even considered it not inferior to Brougham's. It +contained one or two daring passages, which made the king his bitter +enemy, and retarded his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818 +he was returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the +Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for Nottingham, +for which place he continued to sit till his elevation to the bench in +1832. His liberal principles had caused his exclusion from office till +in 1822 he was appointed common serjeant by the corporation of London. +In 1830 he was made attorney-general under Lord Grey's administration. +Two years later he was made lord chief justice of the King's Bench, and +in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most celebrated +for his decision in the important privilege case of _Stockdale_ v. +_Hansard_ (9 Ad. & El. I.; 11 Ad. & El. 253), but he was never ranked as +a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned his chief justiceship and retired +into private life. He died on the 26th of September 1854, his title +continuing in the direct line. + +The HON. GEORGE DENMAN (1819-1896), his fourth son, was also a +distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen's Bench from 1872 till +his death in 1896. + + See Memoir of _Thomas, first Lord Denman_, by Sir Joseph Arnould (2 + vols., 1873); E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (1904). + + + + +DENMARK (_Danmark_), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying part of a +peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic and North Seas, in +the middle latitudes of the eastern coast. The kingdom lies between 54° +33' and 57° 45' N. and between 8° 4' 54" and 12° 47' 25" E., exclusive +of the island of Bornholm, which, as will be seen, is not to be included +in the Danish archipelago. The peninsula is divided between Denmark and +Germany (Schleswig-Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and the +greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. _Jylland_). Its northern part is +actually insular, divided from the mainland by the Limfjord or +Liimfjord, which communicates with the North Sea to the west and the +Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though broad and possessing +lacustrine characteristics to the west, has only very narrow entrances. +The connexion with the North Sea dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds +Jutland to the north and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the +Baltic by the Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric +peninsula in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western +Sweden. + +There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is uniformly low, +the highest elevation in the whole country, the Himmelbjerg near Aarhus +in eastern Jutland, being little more than 500 ft. above the sea. +Denmark, however, is nowhere low in the sense in which Holland is; the +country is pleasantly diversified, and rises a little at the coast even +though it remains flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the +south-eastern part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and +meadows, and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the +western and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to +a wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending towards the +sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain charm even about +these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be said that Denmark is wanting +in natural beauty of a quiet order. Lakes, though small, are numerous; +the largest are the Arresö and the Esromsö in Zealand, and the chain of +lakes in the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river +in Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not exceeding 80 +m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech-woods, are extremely +beautiful. The coasts are generally low and sandy; the whole western +shore of Jutland is a succession of sand ridges and shallow lagoons, +very dangerous to shipping. In many places the sea has encroached; even +in the 19th century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last +twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to secure the +coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand dunes, from 500 yds. to +7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of this coast for about 200 m. +Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low, sandy point, stretches far into the +northern sea, dividing the Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western +side the coast is bolder and less inhospitable; there are several +excellent havens, especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere, +however, very high, except at one or two points in Jutland, and at the +eastern extremity of Möen, where limestone cliffs occur. + +Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the geographical +description of which is given under that heading. Out of the total area +of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland, including the small islands +adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and the insular part of the kingdom +(including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m. The islands may be divided into two +groups, consisting of the two principal islands Fünen and Zealand, and +the lesser islands attendant on each. Fünen (Dan. _Fyen_), in form +roughly an oval with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated +from Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide in the north, but +averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and known as +the Little Belt. Fünen, geologically a part of southern Jutland, has +similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of fertile meadows, the +typical beech-forests clothing the low hills and the presence of +numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial signs of likeness. Several +islands, none of great extent, lie off the west coast of Fünen in the +Little Belt; off the south, however, an archipelago is enclosed by the +long narrow islands of Aerö (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.), +including in a triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge, +Avernakö, Dreiö, Turö and others. These are generally fertile and well +cultivated. Aeröskjöbing and Rudkjöbing, on Aerö and Langeland +respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is the great castle +of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the 13th century. The chief towns +of Fünen itself are all coastal. Odense is the principal town, lying +close to a great inlet behind the peninsula of Hindsholm on the +north-east, known as Odense Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for +the steam-ferry to Korsör in Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks +the southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a fjord of +the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the crossing of the +Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of the fortifications +which were stormed by John of Ranzau in 1535; Middelfart is a seaside +resort near the narrowest reach of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small +port on the north coast. All these towns are served by railways +radiating from Odense. The strait crossed by the Nyborg-Korsör ferry is +the Great Belt which divides the Fünen from the Zealand group, and is +continued south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight +eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt, named from an +island 15 m. in length, with several large villages, which lies somewhat +apart from the main archipelago. + +Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. _Sjaelland_), measuring 82 m. N. to S. by 68 +E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line indented by fjords +and projecting into long spits or promontories, may be considered as the +nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it contains the capital, Copenhagen, +and such important towns as Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsör, Naestved and +Elsinore (Helsingör). Its topography is described in detail under +ZEALAND. Its attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of +itself, only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern +coast of Möen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island formed +three separate isles in 1100, and the village of Borre, now 2 m. inland, +was the object of an attack by a fleet from Lübeck in 1510. On Falster +is the port of Nykjöbing, and from Gjedser, the extreme southern point +of Denmark, communication is maintained with Warnemünde in Germany (29 +m.). From Nykjöbing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to +Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other towns +are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the 14th century, +Saxkjöbing and Rödby. The island of Bornholm lies 86 m. E. of the +nearest point of the archipelago, and as it belongs geologically to +Sweden (from which it is distant only 22 m.) must be considered to be +physically an appendage rather than an internal part of the kingdom of +Denmark. + +_Geology._--The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere formed by the +so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish geologists call the Boulder +Sand. The former, as is well known, owes its origin to the action of ice +on the mountains of Norway in the Glacial period. It is unstratified; +but by the action of water on it, stratified deposits have been formed, +some of clay, containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very +extensive ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost +everywhere the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of +Jutland, a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but +really sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder +formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period, which in +many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs on the sea-coast. +Much of the Danish chalk, including the well-known limestone of Faxe, +belongs to the highest or "Danian" subdivision of the Cretaceous period. +In the south-western parts a succession of strata, described as the +Brown Coal or Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the +boulder clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which +occur in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations +come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the +southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost portion of +the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay lies immediately on the +primitive rock, except in the south-western corner of the island, where +a series of strata appear belonging to the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic +and Cretaceous formations, the true Coal formation, &c., being absent. +Some parts of Denmark are supposed to have been finally raised out of +the sea towards the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the +country did not appear above the water till about the close of the +Glacial period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a +large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though +slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction from +Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island of Fyen, a +little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea-beaches, marked by +accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones, &c., have been noticed as much +as 20 ft. above the present level. But the upheaval does not seem to +affect all parts equally. Even in historic times it has vastly changed +the aspect and configuration of the country. + +_Climate, Flora, Fauna._--The climate of Denmark does not differ +materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude; but whilst +the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so that most of the +evergreens which adorn an English garden in the winter cannot be grown +in the open in Denmark. During thirty years the annual mean temperature +varied from 43.88° F. to 46.22° in different years and different +localities, the mean average for the whole country being 45.14°. The +islands have, upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland. +The mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to March, are +33.26°, 31.64°, 31.82°, and 33.98° respectively, or for the whole winter +32.7°; that of the summer, June to August, 59.2°, but considerable +irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an average on twenty days in each +of the four winter months, but only on two days in either October or +May. A fringe of ice generally lines the greater part of the Danish +coasts on the eastern side for some time during the winter, and both the +Sound and the Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In +some winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of +sledges passing between Copenhagen and Malmö. The annual rainfall varies +between 21.58 in. and 27.87 in. in different years and different +localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland; while the small +island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual rainfall of only 15.78 +in. More than half the rainfall occurs from July to November, the +wettest month being September, with an average of 2.95 in.; the driest +month is April, with an average of 1.14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent +in the summer. South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and +from September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which is +particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds prevail +from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the north of Jutland, +a cold and dry N.W. wind called _skai_ prevails in May and June, and is +exceedingly destructive to vegetation; while along the west coast of the +peninsula similar effects are produced by a salt mist, which carries its +influence from 15 to 30 m. inland. + +The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might be anticipated +in a country of such simple physical structure. The ordinary forms of +the north of Europe grow freely in the mild air and protected soil of +the islands and the eastern coast; while on the heaths and along the +sandhills on the Atlantic side there flourish a number of distinctive +species. The Danish forest is almost exclusively made up of beech, a +tree which thrives better in Denmark than in any other country of +Europe. The oak and ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were +abundant in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost +universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient origin, +for in the first half of the 17th century the oak was still the +characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark except under +careful cultivation, which, however, is largely practised in Jutland +(q.v.). But again, abundant traces of ancient extensive forests of fir +and pine are found in the numerous peat bogs which supply a large +proportion of the fuel locally used. In Bornholm, it should be +mentioned, the flora is more like that of Sweden; not the beech, but the +pine, birch and ash are the most abundant trees. + +The wild animals and birds of Denmark are those of the rest of central +Europe. The larger quadrupeds are all extinct; even the red deer, +formerly so abundant that in a single hunt in Jutland in 1593 no less +than 1600 head of deer were killed, is now only to be met with in +preserves. In the prehistoric "kitchen-middens" (_kjökkenmödding_) and +elsewhere, however, vestiges are found which prove that the urochs, the +wild boar, the beaver, the bear and the wolf all existed subsequently to +the arrival of man. The usual domestic animals are abundantly found in +Denmark, with the exception of the goat, which is uncommon. The sea +fisheries are of importance. Oysters are found in some places, but have +disappeared from many localities, where their abundance in ancient times +is proved by their shell moulds on the coast. The Gudenaa is the only +salmon river in Denmark. + +[Illustration: DENMARK] + +_Population._--The population of Denmark in 1901 was 2,449,540. It was +929,001 in 1801, showing an increase during the century in the +proportion of 1 to 2.63. In 1901 the average density of the population +of Denmark was 165.2 to the square mile, but varied much in the +different parts. Jutland showed an average of only 109 inhabitants per +square mile, whilst on the islands, which had a total population of +1,385,537, the average stood at 272.95, owing, on the one hand, to the +fact that large tracts in the interior of Jutland are almost +uninhabited, and on the other to the fact that the capital of the +country, with its proportionately large population, is situated on the +island of Zealand. The percentages of urban and rural population are +respectively about 38 and 62. A notable movement of the population to +the towns began about the middle of the 19th century, and increased +until very near its end. It was stronger on the islands, where the rural +population increased by 5.3% only in eleven years, whereas in Jutland +the increase of the rural population between 1890 and 1901 amounted to +12.0%. Here, however, peculiar circumstances contributed to the +increase, as successful efforts have been made to render the land +fruitful by artificial means. The Danes are a yellow-haired and +blue-eyed Teutonic race of middle stature, bearing traces of their +kinship with the northern Scandinavian peoples. Their habits of life +resemble those of the North Germans even more than those of the Swedes. +The independent tenure of the land by a vast number of small farmers, +who are their own masters, gives an air of carelessness, almost of +truculence, to the well-to-do Danish peasants. They are generally slow +of speech and manner, and somewhat irresolute, but take an eager +interest in current politics, and are generally fairly educated men of +extreme democratic principles. The result of a fairly equal distribution +of wealth is a marked tendency towards equality in social intercourse. +The townspeople show a bias in favour of French habits and fashions. The +separation from the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more +than half German, intensified the national character; the Danes are +intensely patriotic; and there is no portion of the Danish dominions +except perhaps in the West Indian islands, where a Scandinavian language +is not spoken. The preponderance of the female population over the male +is approximately as 1052 to 1000. The male sex remains in excess until +about the twentieth year, from which age the female sex preponderates in +increasing ratio with advancing age. The percentage of illegitimacy is +high as a whole, although in some of the rural districts it is very low. +But in Copenhagen 20% of the births are illegitimate. Between the middle +and the end of the 19th century the rate of mortality decreased most +markedly for all ages. During the last decade of the century it ranged +between 19.5 per thousand in 1891 and 15.1 in 1898 (17.4 in 1900). +Emigration for some time in the 19th century at different periods, both +in its early part and towards its close, seriously affected the +population of Denmark. But in the last decade it greatly diminished. +Thus in 1892 the number of emigrants to Transatlantic places rose to +10,422 but in 1900 it was only 3570. The great bulk of them go to the +United States; next in favour is Canada. + +_Communications._--The roads of Denmark form an extensive and +well-maintained system. The railway system is also fairly complete, the +state owning about three-fifths of the total mileage, which amounts to +some 2000. Two lines enter Denmark from Schleswig across the frontier. +The main Danish lines are as follows. From the frontier a line runs east +by Fredericia, across the island of Fünen by Odense and Nyborg, to +Korsör on Zealand, and thence by Roskilde to Copenhagen. The straits +between Fredericia and Middelfart and between Nyborg and Korsör are +crossed by powerful steam-ferries which are generally capable of +conveying a limited number of railway wagons. This system is also in use +on the line which runs south from Roskilde to the island of Falster, +from the southernmost point of which, Gjedser, ferry-steamers taking +railway cars serve Warnemünde in Germany. The main lines in Jutland run +(a) along the eastern side north from Fredericia by Horsens, Aarhus, +Randers, Aalborg and Hjörring, to Frederikshavn, and (b) along the +western side from Esbjerg by Skjerne and Vemb, and thence across the +peninsula by Viborg to Langaa on the eastern line. The lines are +generally of standard gauge (4 ft. 8½ in.), but there is also a +considerable mileage of light narrow-gauge railways. Besides the +numerous steam-ferries which connect island and island, and Jutland with +the islands, and the Gjedser-Warnemünde route, a favourite passenger +line from Germany is that between Kiel and Korsör, while most of the +German Baltic ports have direct connexion with Copenhagen. With Sweden +communications are established by ferries across the Sound between +Copenhagen and Malmö and Landskrona, and between Elsinore (Helsingör) +and Helsingborg. The postal department maintains a telegraph and +telephone service. + +_Industries._--The main source of wealth in Denmark is agriculture, +which employs about two-fifths of the entire population. Most of the +land is freehold and cultivated by the owner himself, and comparatively +little land is let on lease except very large holdings and glebe farms. +The independent small farmer (_bönder_) maintains a hereditary +attachment to his ancestral holding. There is also a class of cottar +freeholders (_junster_). Fully 74% of the total area of the country is +agricultural land. Of this only about one-twelfth is meadow land. The +land under grain crops is not far short of one-half the remainder, the +principal crops being oats, followed by barley and rye in about equal +quantities, with wheat about one-sixth that of barley and hardly +one-tenth that of oats. Beet is extensively grown. During the last forty +years of the 19th century dairy-farming was greatly developed in +Denmark, and brought to a high degree of perfection by the application +of scientific methods and the best machinery, as well as by the +establishment of joint dairies. The Danish government has assisted this +development by granting money for experiments and by a rigorous system +of inspection for the prevention of adulteration. The co-operative +system plays an important part in the industries of butter-making, +poultry-farming and the rearing of swine. + +Rabbits, which are not found wild in Denmark, are bred for export. Woods +cover fully 7% of the area, and their preservation is considered of so +much importance that private owners are under strict control as regards +cutting of timber. The woods consist mostly of beech, which is +principally used for fuel, but pines were extensively planted during the +19th century. Allusion has been made already to the efforts to plant the +extensive heaths in Jutland (q.v.) with pine-trees. + +_Agriculture._--Rates and taxes on land are mostly levied according to a +uniform system of assessment, the unit of which is called a _Tonde +Hartkorn_. The Td. Htk., as it is usually abbreviated, has further +subdivision, and is intended to correspond to the same value of land +throughout the country. The Danish measure for land is a _Tonde Land_ +(Td. L.), which is equal to 1.363 statute acres. Of the best ploughing +land a little over 6 Td. L., or about 8 acres, go to a Td. Htk., but of +unprofitable land a Td. Htk. may represent 300 acres or more. On the +islands and in the more fertile part of Jutland the average is about 10 +Td. L., or 13½ acres. Woodland, tithes, &c., are also assessed to Td. +Htk. for fiscal purposes. In the island of Bornholm, the assessment is +somewhat different, though the general state of agricultural holdings is +the same as in other parts. The selling value of land has shown a +decrease in modern times on account of the agricultural depression. A +homestead with land assessed less than 1 Td. Htk. is legally called a +_Huus_ or _Sted_, i.e. cottage, whilst a farm assessed at 1 Td. Htk. or +more is called _Gaard_, i.e. farm. Farms of between 1 and 12 Td. Htk. +are called _Bondergaarde_, or peasant farms, and are subject to the +restriction that such a holding cannot lawfully be joined to or entirely +merged into another. They may be subdivided, and portions may be added +to another holding, but the homestead, with a certain amount of land, +must be preserved as a separate holding for ever. The seats of the +nobility and landed gentry are called _Herregaarde_. The peasants hold +about 73% of all the land according to its value. As regards their size +about 30% are assessed from 1 to 4 Td. Htk.; about 33% from 4 to 8 Td. +Htk.; the remainder at about 8 Td. Htk. An annual sum is voted by +parliament out of which loans are granted to cottagers who desire to +purchase small freehold plots. + +The fishery along the coasts of Denmark is of some importance both on +account of the supply of food obtained thereby for the population of the +country, and on account of the export; but the good fishing grounds, not +far from the Danish coast, particularly in the North Sea, are mostly +worked by the fishing vessels of other nations, which are so numerous +that the Danish government is obliged to keep gun-boats stationed there +in order to prevent encroachments on territorial waters. + +_Other Industries._--The mineral products of Denmark are unimportant. It +is one of the poorest countries of Europe in this particular. It is +rich, however, in clays, while in the island of Bornholm there are +quarries of freestone and marble. The factories of Denmark supply mainly +local needs. The largest are those engaged in the construction of +engines and iron ships. The manufacture of woollens and cotton, the +domestic manufacture of linen in Zealand, sugar refineries, paper mills, +breweries, and distilleries may also be mentioned. The most notable +manufacture is that of porcelain. The nucleus of this industry was a +factory started in 1772, by F. H. Müller, for the making of china out of +Bornholm clay. In 1779 it passed into the hands of the state, and has +remained there ever since, though there are also private factories. +Originally the Copenhagen potters imitated the Dresden china made at +Meissen, but they later produced graceful original designs. The +creations of Thorvaldsen have been largely repeated and imitated in this +ware. Trade-unionism flourishes in Denmark, and strikes are of frequent +occurrence. + +_Commerce._--Formerly the commercial legislation of Denmark was to such +a degree restrictive that imported manufactures had to be delivered to +the customs, where they were sold by public auction, the proceeds of +which the importer received from the custom-houses after a deduction was +made for the duty. To this restriction, as regards foreign intercourse, +was added a no less injurious system of inland duties impeding the +commerce of the different provinces with each other. The want of roads +also, and many other disadvantages, tended to keep down the development +of both commerce and industry. During the 19th century, however, several +commercial treaties were concluded between Denmark and the other powers +of Europe, which made the Danish tariff more regular and liberal. + +The vexed question, of many centuries' standing, concerning the claim of +Denmark to levy dues on vessels passing through the Sound (q.v.), was +settled by the abolition of the dues in 1857. The commerce of Denmark is +mainly based on home production and home consumption, but a certain +quantity of goods is imported with a view to re-exportation, for which +the free port and bonded warehouses at Copenhagen give facilities. In +modern times the value of Danish commerce greatly increased, being +doubled in the last twenty years of the 19th century, and exceeding a +total of fifty millions sterling. The value of export is exceeded as a +whole by that of import in the proportion, roughly, of 1 to 1.35. By far +the most important articles of export may be classified as articles of +food of animal origin, a group which covers the vast export trade in the +dairy produce, especially butter, for which Denmark is famous. The value +of the butter for export reaches nearly 40% of the total value of Danish +exports. A small proportion of the whole is imported chiefly from Russia +(also Siberia) and Sweden and re-exported as of foreign origin. The +production of margarine is large, but not much is exported, margarine +being largely consumed in Denmark instead of butter, which is exported. +Next to butter the most important article of Danish export is bacon, and +huge quantities of eggs are also exported. Exports of less value, but +worthy of special notice, are vegetables and wool, bones and tallow, +also dairy machinery, and finally cement, the production of which is a +growing industry. The classes of articles of food of animal origin, and +living animals, are the only ones of which the exportation exceeds the +importation; with regard to all other goods, the reverse is the case. In +the second of these classes the most important export is home-bred +horned cattle. The trade in live sheep and swine, which was formerly +important, has mostly been converted into a dead-meat trade. A +proportionally large importation of timber is caused by the scarcity of +native timber suitable for building purposes, the plantations of firs +and pines being insufficient to produce the quantity required, and the +quality of the wood being inferior beyond the age of about forty years. +The large importation of coal, minerals and metals, and goods made from +them is likewise caused by the natural poverty of the country in these +respects. + +Denmark carries on its principal import trade with Germany, Great +Britain and the United States of America, in this order, the proportions +being about 30, 20 and 16% respectively of the total. Its principal +export trade is with Great Britain, Germany and Sweden, the percentage +of the whole being 60, 18 and 10. With Russia, Norway and France (in +this order) general trade is less important, but still large. A +considerable proportion of Denmark's large commercial fleet is engaged +in the carrying trade between foreign, especially British, ports. + +Under a law of the 4th of May 1907 it was enacted that the metric system +of weights and measures should come into official use in three years +from that date, and into general use in five years. + +_Money and Banking._--The unit of the Danish monetary system, as of the +Swedish and Norwegian, is the _krone_ (crown), equal to 1s. 1{1/3}d., +which is divided into 100 _öre_; consequently 7½ öre are equal to one +penny. Since 1873 gold has been the standard, and gold pieces of 20 and +10 kroner are coined, but not often met with, as the public prefers +bank-notes. The principal bank is the National Bank at Copenhagen, which +is the only one authorized to issue notes. These are of the value of 10, +50, 100 and 500 kr. Next in importance are the Danske Landmands Bank, +the Handels Bank and the Private Bank, all at Copenhagen. The provincial +banks are very numerous; many of them are at the same time savings +banks. Their rate of interest, with few exceptions, is 3½ to 4%. There +exist, besides, in Denmark several mutual loan associations +(_Kreditforeninger_), whose business is the granting of loans on +mortgage. Registration of mortgages is compulsory in Denmark, and the +system is extremely simple, a fact which has been of the greatest +importance for the improvement of the country. There are comparatively +large institutions for insurance of all kinds in Denmark. The largest +office for life insurance is a state institution. By law of the 9th of +April 1891 a system of old-age pensions was established for the benefit +of persons over sixty years of age. + +_Government._--Denmark is a limited monarchy, according to the law of +1849, revised in 1866. The king shares his power with the parliament +(_Rigsdag_), which consists of two chambers, the _Landsthing_ and the +_Folkething_, but the constitution contains no indication of any +difference in their attributes. The Landsthing, or upper house, however, +is evidently intended to form the conservative element in the +constitutional machinery. While the 114 members of the Folkething (House +of Commons) are elected for three years in the usual way by universal +suffrage, 12 out of the 66 members of the Landsthing are life members +nominated by the crown. The remaining 54 members of the Landsthing are +returned for eight years according to a method of proportionate +representation by a body of deputy electors. Of these deputies one-half +are elected in the same way as members of the Folkething, without any +property qualification for the voters; the other half of the deputy +electors are chosen in the towns by those who during the last preceding +year were assessed on a certain minimum of income, or paid at least a +certain amount in rates and taxes. In the rural districts the deputy +electors returned by election are supplemented by an equal number of +those who have paid the highest amounts in taxes and county rates +together. In this manner a representation is secured for fairly large +minorities, and what is considered a fair share of influence on public +affairs given to those who contribute the most to the needs of the +state. The franchise is held by every male who has reached his thirtieth +year, subject to independence of public charity and certain other +circumstances. A candidate for either house of the Rigsdag must have +passed the age of twenty-five. Members are paid ten kroner each day of +the session and are allowed travelling expenses. The houses meet each +year on the first Monday in October. The constitutional theory of the +Folkething is that of one member for every 16,000 inhabitants. The +Faeröe islands, which form an integral part of the kingdom of Denmark in +the wider sense, are represented in the Danish parliament, but not the +other dependencies of the Danish crown, namely Iceland, Greenland and +the West Indian islands of St Thomas, St John and St Croix. The budget +is considered by the Folkething at the beginning of each session. The +revenue and expenditure average annually about £4,700,000. The principal +items of revenue are customs and excise, land and house tax, stamps, +railways, legal fees, the state lottery and death duties. A considerable +reserve fund is maintained to meet emergencies. The public debt is about +£13,500,000 and is divided into an internal debt, bearing interest +generally at 3½%, and a foreign debt (the larger), with interest +generally at 3%. The revenue and expenditure of the Faeröes are included +in the budget for Denmark proper, but Iceland and the West Indies have +their separate budgets. The Danish treasury receives nothing from these +possessions; on the contrary, Iceland receives an annual grant, and the +West Indian islands have been heavily subsidized by the Danish finances +to assist the sugar industry. The administration of Greenland (q.v.) +entails an annual loss which is posted on the budget of the ministry of +finances. The state council (_Statsraad_) includes the presidency of the +council and ministries of war, and marine, foreign affairs, the +interior, justice, finance, public institution and ecclesiastical, +agriculture and public works. + +_Local Government._--For administrative purposes the country is divided +into eighteen counties (_Amter_, singular _Amt_), as follows. (1) +Covering the islands of Zealand and lesser adjacent islands, Copenhagen, +Frederiksborg, Holbaek, Sorö, Praestö. (2) Covering the islands of +Laaland and Falster, Maribo. (3) Covering Fünen, Langeland and adjacent +islets, Svendborg, Odense. (4) On the mainland, Hjörring, Aalborg, +Thisted, Ringkjöbing, Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle, Ribe. (5) +Bornholm. The principal civil officer in each of these is the _Amtmand_. +Local affairs are managed by the _Amstraad_ and _Sogneraad_, +corresponding to the English county council and parish council. These +institutions date from 1841, but they have undergone several +modifications since. The members of these councils are elected on a +system similar to that applied to the elections for the Landsthing. The +same is the case with the provincial town councils. That of Copenhagen +is elected by those who are rated on an income of at least 400 kroner +(£22). The burgomasters are appointed by the crown, except at +Copenhagen, where they are elected by the town council, subject to royal +approbation. The financial position of the municipalities in Denmark is +generally good. The ordinary budget of Copenhagen amounts to about +£1,100,000 a year. + +_Justice._--For the administration of justice Denmark is divided into +_herreds_ or hundreds; as, however, they are mostly of small extent, +several are generally served by one judge (_herredsfoged_); the +townships are likewise separate jurisdictions, each with a _byfoged_. +There are 126 such local judges, each of whom deals with all kinds of +cases arising in his district, and is also at the head of the police. +There are two intermediary Courts of Appeal (_Overret_), one in +Copenhagen, another in Viborg; the Supreme Court of Appeal +(_Höjesteret_) sits at Copenhagen. In the capital the different +functions are more divided. There is also a Court of Commerce and +Navigation, on which leading members of the trading community serve as +assessors. In the country, Land Commissions similarly constituted deal +with many questions affecting agricultural holdings. A peculiarity of +the Danish system is that, with few exceptions, no civil cause can be +brought before a court until an attempt has been made at effecting an +amicable settlement. This is mostly done by so-called Committees of +Conciliation, but in some cases by the court itself before commencing +formal judicial proceedings. In this manner three-fifths of all the +causes are settled, and many which remain unsettled are abandoned by the +plaintiffs. Sanitary matters are under the control of a Board of Health. +The whole country is divided into districts, in each of which a medical +man is appointed with a salary, who is under the obligation to attend to +poor sick and assist the authorities in medical matters, inquests, &c. +The relief of the poor is well organized, mostly on the system of +out-door relief. Many workhouses have been established for indigent +persons capable of work. There are also many almshouses and similar +institutions. + +_Army and Navy._--The active army consists of a life guard battalion and +10 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, infantry, 5 cavalry +regiments of 3 squadrons each, 12 field batteries (now re-armed with a +Krupp Q.F. equipment), 3 battalions of fortress artillery and 6 +companies of engineers, with in addition various local troops and +details. The peace strength of permanent troops, without the annual +contingent of recruits, is about 13,500 officers and men, the annual +contingent of men trained two or three years with the colours about +22,500, and the annual contingent of special reservists (men trained for +brief periods) about 17,000. Thus the number of men maintained under +arms (without calling up the reserves) is as high as 75,000 during +certain periods of the year and averages nearly 60,000. Reservists who +have definitively left the colours are recalled for short refresher +trainings, the number of men so trained in 1907 being about 80,000. The +field army on a war footing, without depot troops, garrison troops and +reservists, would be about 50,000 strong, but by constituting new cadres +at the outbreak of war and calling up the reserves it could be more than +doubled, and as a matter of fact nearly 120,000 men were with the +colours in the manoeuvre season in 1907. The term of service is eight +years in the active army and its reserves and eight years in the second +line. The armament of the infantry is the Krag-jorgensen of .314 in. +calibre, model 1889, that of the field artillery a 7.5 cm. Krupp Q.F. +equipment, model 1902. The navy consists of 6 small battleships, 3 coast +defence armour-clads, 5 protected cruisers, 5 gun-boats, and 24 torpedo +craft. + +_Religion._--The national or state church of Denmark is officially +styled "Evangelically Reformed," but is popularly described as Lutheran. +The king must belong to it. There is complete religious toleration, but +though most of the important Christian communities are represented their +numbers are very small. The Mormon apostles for a considerable time made +a special raid upon the Danish peasantry and a few hundreds profess this +faith. There are seven dioceses, Fünen, Laaland and Falster, Aarhus, +Aalborg, Viborg and Ribe, while the primate is the bishop of Zealand, +and resides at Copenhagen, but his cathedral is at Roskilde. The bishops +have no political function by reason of their office, although they may, +and often do, take a prominent part in politics. The greater part of the +pastorates comprise more than one parish. The benefices are almost +without exception provided with good residences and glebes, and the +tithes, &c., generally afford a comfortable income. The bishops have +fixed salaries in lieu of tithes appropriated by the state. + +_Education and Arts._--The educational system of Denmark is maintained +at a high standard. The instruction in primary schools is gratuitous. +Every child is bound to attend the parish school at least from the +seventh to the thirteenth year, unless the parents can prove that it +receives suitable instruction in other ways. The schools are under the +immediate control of school boards appointed by the parish councils, but +of which the incumbent of the parish is _ex-officio_ member; superior +control is exercised by the Amtmand, the rural dean, and the bishop, +under the Minister for church and education. Secondary public schools +are provided in towns, in which moderate school fees are paid. There are +also public grammar-schools. Nearly all schools are day-schools. There +are only two public schools, which, though on a much smaller scale, +resemble the great English schools, namely, those of Sorö and +Herlufsholm, both founded by private munificence. Private schools are +generally under a varying measure of public control. The university is +at Copenhagen (q.v.). Amongst numerous other institutions for the +furtherance of science and training of various kinds may be mentioned +the large polytechnic schools; the high school for agriculture and +veterinary art; the royal library; the royal society of sciences; the +museum of northern antiquities; the society of northern antiquaries, &c. +The art museums of Denmark are not considerable, except the museum of +Thorvaldsen, at Copenhagen, but much is done to provide first-rate +training in the fine arts and their application to industry through the +Royal Academy of Arts, and its schools. Finally, it may be mentioned +that a sum proportionately large is available from public funds and +regular parliamentary grants for furthering science and arts by +temporary subventions to students, authors, artists and others of +insufficient means, in order to enable them to carry out particular +works, to profit by foreign travel, &c. The principal scientific +societies and institutions are detailed under Copenhagen. During the +earlier part of the 19th century not a few men could be mentioned who +enjoyed an exceptional reputation in various departments of science, and +Danish scientists continue to contribute their full share to the +advancement of knowledge. The society of sciences, that of northern +antiquaries, the natural history and the botanical societies, &c., +publish their transactions and proceedings, but the _Naturhistorisk +Tidsskrift_, of which 14 volumes with 259 plates were published +(1861-1884), and which was in the foremost rank in its department, +ceased with the death in 1884 of the editor, the distinguished +zoologist, I. C. Schiödte. Another extremely valuable publication of +wide general interest, the _Meddelelser om Grönland_, is published by +the commission for the exploration of Greenland. What may be called the +modern "art" current, with its virtues and vices, is as strong in +Denmark as in England. Danish sculpture will be always famous, if only +through the name of Thorvaldsen. In architecture the prevailing fashion +is a return to the style of the first half of the 17th century, called +the Christian IV. style; but in this branch of art no marked excellence +has been obtained. + + AUTHORITIES.--J. P. Trap, _Statistisk Topographisk Beskrivelse af + Kongeriget Danmark_ (Copenhagen, 1859-1860, 3 vols., 2nd ed., + 1872-1879); V. Falbe-Hansen and W. Scharling, _Danmarks Statistik_ + (Copenhagen, 1878-1891, 6 vols.). (Various writers) _Vort Folk i det + nittende Aarhundrede_ (Copenhagen, 1899 et seq.), illustrated; J. + Carlsen, H. Olrik and C. N. Starcke, _Le Danemark_ (Copenhagen, + 1900), 700 pp.; illustrated, published in connexion with the Paris + Exhibition. _Statistisk Aarbog_ (1896, &c.). Annual publication, and + other publications of Statens Statistiske Bureau, Copenhagen; + _Annuaire météorologique_, Danish Meteorological Institution, + Copenhagen; E. Löffler, _Dänemarks Natur and Volk_ (Copenhagen, + 1905); Margaret Thomas, _Denmark Past and Present_ (London, 1902). + (C. A. G.; O. J. R. H.) + + +HISTORY + +_Ancient._--Our earliest knowledge of Denmark is derived from Pliny, who +speaks of three islands named "Skandiai," a name which is also applied +to Sweden. He says nothing about the inhabitants of these islands, but +tells us more about the Jutish peninsula, or Cimbric Chersonese as he +calls it. He places the Saxons on the neck, above them the Sigoulones, +Sabaliggoi and Kobandoi, then the Chaloi, then above them the +Phoundousioi, then the Charondes and finally the Kimbroi. He also +mentions the three islands called Alokiai, at the northern end of the +peninsula. This would point to the fact that the Limfjord was then open +at both ends, and agree with Adam of Bremen (iv. 16), who also speaks of +three islands called Wendila, Morse and Thud. The Cimbri and Charydes +are mentioned in the _Monumentum Ancyranum_ as sending embassies to +Augustus in A.D. 5. The Promontorium Cimbrorum is spoken of in Pliny, +who says that the Sinus Codanus lies between it and Mons Saevo. The +latter place is probably to be found in the high-lying land on the N.E. +coast of Germany, and the Sinus Codanus must be the S.W. corner of the +Baltic, and not the whole sea. Pomponius Mela says that the Cimbri and +Teutones dwelt on the Sinus Codanus, the latter also in Scandinavia (or +Sweden). The Romans believed that these Cimbri and Teutones were the +same as those who invaded Gaul and Italy at the end of the 2nd century +B.C. The Cimbri may probably be traced in the province of Aalborg, +formerly known as Himmerland; the Teutones, with less certainty, may be +placed in Thyth or Thyland, north of the Limfjord. No further reference +to these districts is found till towards the close of the migration +period, about the beginning of the 6th century, when the Heruli (q.v.), +a nation dwelling in or near the basin of the Elbe, were overthrown by +the Langobardi. According to Procopius (_Bellum Gothicum_, ii. 15), a +part of them made their way across the "desert of the Slavs," through +the lands of the Warni and the Danes to Thoule (i.e. Sweden). This is +the first recorded use of the name "Danes." It occurs again in Gregory +of Tours (_Historiae Francorum_, iii. 3) in connexion with an irruption +of a Götish (loosely called Danish) fleet into the Netherlands (c. 520). +From this time the use of the name is fairly common. The heroic poetry +of the Anglo-Saxons may carry the name further back, though probably it +is not very ancient, at all events on the mainland. + +According to late Danish tradition Denmark now consisted of Vitheslaeth +(i.e. Zealand, Möen, Falster and Laaland), Jutland (with Fyen) and +Skaane. Jutland was acquired by Dan, the eponymous ancestor of the +Danes. He also won Skaane, including the modern provinces of Halland, +Kristianstad, Malmöhus and Blekinge, and these remained part of Denmark +until the middle of the 17th century. These three divisions always +remained more or less distinct, and the Danish kings had to be +recognized at Lund, Ringsted and Viborg, but Zealand was from time +immemorial the centre of government, and Lejre was the royal seat and +national sanctuary. According to tradition this dates from the time of +Skiöldr, the eponymous ancestor of the Danish royal family of +Skiöldungar. He was a son of Othin and husband of the goddess Gefjon, +who created Zealand. Anglo-Saxon tradition also speaks of Scyld (i.e. +Skiöldr), who was regarded as the ancestor of both the Danish and +English royal families, and it represented him as coming as a child of +unknown origin in a rudderless boat. There can be little doubt that from +a remote antiquity Zealand had been a religious sanctuary, and very +probably the god Nerthus was worshipped here by the Angli and other +tribes as described in Tacitus (_Germania_, c. 40). The Lejre sanctuary +was still in existence in the time of Thietmar of Merseburg (i. 9), at +the beginning of the 11th century. + +In Scandinavian tradition the next great figure is Fróðe the peace-king, +but it is not before the 5th century that we meet with the names of any +kings which can be regarded as definitely historical. In _Beowulf_ we +hear of a Danish king Healfdene, who had three sons, Heorogar, Hrothgar +and Halga. The hero Beowulf comes to the court of Hrothgar from the land +of the Götar, where Hygelac is king. This Hygelac is undoubtedly to be +identified with the Chochilaicus, king of the Danes (really Götar) who, +as mentioned above, made a raid against the Franks c. 520. Beowulf +himself won fame in this campaign, and by the aid of this definite +chronological datum we can place the reign of Healfdene in the last half +of the 5th century, and that of Hrothgar's nephew Hrothwulf, son of +Halga, about the middle of the 6th century. Hrothgar and Halga +correspond to Saxo's Hroar and Helgi, while Hrothwulf is the famous +Rolvo or Hrólfr Kraki of Danish and Norse saga. There is probably some +historical truth in the story that Heoroweard or Hiörvarðr was +responsible for the death of Hrólfr Kraki. Possibly a still earlier king +of Denmark was Sigarr or Sigehere, who has won lasting fame from the +story of his daughter Signy and her lover Hagbarðr. + +From the middle of the 6th to the beginning of the 8th century we know +practically nothing of Danish history. There are numerous kings +mentioned in Saxo, but it is impossible to identify them historically. +We have mention at the beginning of the 8th century of a Danish king +Ongendus (cf. O. E. Ongenþeow) who received a mission led by St +Willibrord, and it was probably about this time that there flourished a +family of whom tradition records a good deal. The founder of this line +was Ivarr Viðfaðmi of Skaane, who became king of Sweden. His daughter +Auðr married one Hroerekr and became the mother of Haraldr Hilditönn. +The genealogy of Haraldr is given differently in Saxo, but there can be +no doubt of his historical existence. In his time it is said that the +land was divided into four kingdoms--Skaane, Zealand, Fyen and Jutland. +After a reign of great splendour Haraldr met his death in the great +battle of Bråvalla (Bravík in Östergötland), where he was opposed by his +nephew Ring, king of Sweden. + +The battle probably took place about the year 750. Fifty years later the +Danes begin to be mentioned with comparative frequency in continental +annals. From 777-798 we have mention of a certain Sigifridus as king of +the Danes, and then in 804 his name is replaced by that of one +Godefridus, This Godefridus is the Godefridus-Guthredus of Saxo, and is +to be identified also with Guðröðr the Yngling, king in Vestfold in +Norway. He came into conflict with Charlemagne, and was preparing a +great expedition against him when he was killed by one of his own +followers (c. 810). He was succeeded by his brother Hemmingus, but the +latter died in 812 and there was a disputed succession. The two +claimants were "Sigefridus nepos Godefridi regis" and "Anulo nepos +Herioldi quondam regis" (i.e. probably Haraldr Hilditönn). A great +battle took place in which both claimants were slain, but the party of +Anulo (O.N. Áli) were victorious and appointed as kings Anulo's brothers +Herioldus and Reginfridus. They soon paid a visit to Vestfold, "the +extreme district of their realm, whose peoples and chief men were +refusing to be made subject to them," and on their return had trouble +with the sons of Godefridus. The latter expelled them from their +kingdom, and in 814 Reginfridus fell in a vain attempt to regain it. +Herioldus now received the support of the emperor, and after several +unsuccessful attempts a compromise was effected in 819 when the parties +agreed to share the realm. In 820 Herioldus was baptized at Mainz and +received from the emperor a grant of Riustringen in N.E. Friesland. In +827 he was expelled from his kingdom, but St Anskar, who had been sent +with Herioldus to preach Christianity, remained at his post. In 836 we +find one Horic as king of the Danes; he was probably a son of +Godefridus. During his reign there was trouble with the emperor as to +the overlordship of Frisia. In the meantime Herioldus remained on +friendly terms with Lothair and received a further grant of Walcheren +and the neighbouring districts. In 850 Horic was attacked by his own +nephews and compelled to share the kingdom with them, while in 852 +Herioldus was charged with treachery and slain by the Franks. In 854 a +revolution took place in Denmark itself. Horic's nephew Godwin, +returning from exile with a large following of Northmen, overthrew his +uncle in a three days' battle in which all members of the royal house +except one boy are said to have perished. This boy now became king as +"Horicus junior." Of his reign we know practically nothing. The next +kings mentioned are Sigafrid and Halfdane, who were sons of the great +Viking leader Ragnarr Loðbrok. There is also mention of a third king +named Godefridus. The exact chronology and relationship of these kings +it is impossible to determine, but we know that Healfdene died in +Scotland in 877, while Godefridus was treacherously slain by Henry of +Saxony in 885. During these and the next few years there is mention of +more than one king of the names Sigefridus and Godefridus: the most +important event associated with their names is that two kings Sigefridus +and Godefridus fell in the great battle on the Dyle in 891. + +We now have the names of several kings, Heiligo, Olaph (of Swedish +origin), and his sons Chnob and Gurth. Then come a Danish ruler Sigeric, +followed by Hardegon, son of Swein, coming from Norway. At some date +after 916 we find mention of one "Hardecnuth Urm" ruling among the +Danes. Adam of Bremen, from whom these details come, was himself +uncertain whether "so many kings or rather tyrants of the Danes ruled +together or succeeded one another at short intervals." Hardecnuth Urm is +to be identified with the famous Gorm the old, who married Thyra +Danmarkarbót: their son was Harold Bluetooth. (A. MW.) + +_Medieval and Modern._--Danish history first becomes authentic at the +beginning of the 9th century. The Danes, the southernmost branch of the +Scandinavian family, referred to by Alfred (c. 890) as occupying +Jutland, the islands and Scania, were, in 777, strong enough to defy the +Frank empire by harbouring its fugitives. Five years later we find a +Danish king, Sigfrid, among the princes who assembled at Lippe in 782 to +make their submission to Charles the Great. About the same time +Willibrord, from his see at Utrecht, made an unsuccessful attempt to +convert the "wild Danes." These three salient facts are practically the +sum of our knowledge of early Danish history previous to the Viking +period. That mysterious upheaval, most generally attributed to a love of +adventure, stimulated by the pressure of over-population, began with the +ravaging of Lindisfarne in 793, and virtually terminated with the +establishment of Rollo in Normandy (911). There can be little doubt that +the earlier of these expeditions were from Denmark, though the term +Northmen was originally applied indiscriminately to all these terrible +visitants from the unknown north. The rovers who first chastened and +finally colonized southern England and Normandy were certainly Danes. + + +Conversion of the Danes. + +The Viking raids were one of the determining causes of the establishment +of the feudal monarchies of western Europe, but the untameable +freebooters were themselves finally subdued by the Church. At first +sight it seems curious that Christianity should have been so slow to +reach Denmark. But we must bear in mind that one very important +consequence of the Viking raids was to annihilate the geographical +remoteness which had hitherto separated Denmark from the Christian +world. Previously to 793 there lay between Jutland and England a sea +which no keel had traversed within the memory of man. The few and +peaceful traders who explored those northern waters were careful never +to lose sight of the Saxon, Frisian and Frankish shores during their +passage. Nor was communication with the west by land any easier. For +generations the obstinately heathen Saxons had lain, a compact and +impenetrable mass, between Scandinavia and the Frank empire, nor were +the measures adopted by Charles the Great for the conversion of the +Saxons to the true faith very much to the liking of their warlike Danish +neighbours on the other side. But by the time that Charles had succeeded +in "converting" the Saxons, the Viking raids were already at their +height, and though generally triumphant, necessity occasionally taught +the Northmen the value of concessions. Thus it was the desire to secure +his Jutish kingdom which induced Harold Klak, in 826, to sail up the +Rhine to Ingelheim, and there accept baptism, with his wife, his son +Godfred and 400 of his suite, acknowledging the emperor as his overlord, +and taking back with him to Denmark the missionary monk Ansgar. Ansgar +preached in Denmark from 826 to 861, but it was not till after the +subsidence of the Viking raids that Adaldag, archbishop of Hamburg, +could open a new and successful mission, which resulted in the erection +of the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ribe and Aarhus (c. 948), though the +real conversion of Denmark must be dated from the baptism of King Harold +Bluetooth (960). + + +Danish expansion. + +Meanwhile the Danish monarchy was attempting to aggrandize itself at the +expense of the Germans, the Wends who then occupied the Baltic littoral +as far as the Vistula, and the other Scandinavian kingdoms. Harold +Bluetooth (940-986) subdued German territory south of the Eider, +extended the _Danevirke_, Denmark's great line of defensive +fortifications, to the south of Schleswig and planted the military +colony of Julin or Jomsborg, at the mouth of the Oder. Part of Norway +was first seized after the united Danes and Swedes had defeated and +slain King Olaf Trygvessön at the battle of Svolde (1000); and between +1028 and 1035 Canute the Great added the whole kingdom to his own; but +the union did not long survive him. Equally short-lived was the Danish +dominion in England, which originated in a great Viking expedition of +King Sweyn I. + +Consolidation of the kingdom under the Valdemars, 1157-1251. + +The period between the death of Canute the Great and the accession of +Valdemar I. was a troublous time for Denmark. The kingdom was harassed +almost incessantly, and more than once partitioned, by pretenders to the +throne, who did not scruple to invoke the interference of the +neighbouring monarchs, and even of the heathen Wends, who established +themselves for a time on the southern islands. Yet, throughout this +chaos, one thing made for future stability, and that was the growth and +consolidation of a national church, which culminated in the erection of +the archbishopric of Lund (c. 1104) and the consequent ecclesiastical +independence of Denmark. The third archbishop of Lund was Absalon +(1128-1201), Denmark's first great statesman, who so materially assisted +Valdemar I. (1157-1182) and Canute VI. (1182-1202) to establish the +dominion of Denmark over the Baltic, mainly at the expense of the Wends. +The policy of Absalon was continued on a still vaster scale by Valdemar +II. (1202-1241), at a time when the German kingdom was too weak and +distracted to intervene to save its seaboard; but the treachery of a +vassal and the loss of one great battle sufficed to plunge this +unwieldy, unsubstantial empire in the dust. (See VALDEMAR I., II., and +ABSALON.) + +Yet the age of the Valdemars was one of the most glorious in Danish +history, and it is of political importance as marking a turning-point. +Favourable circumstances had, from the first, given the Danes the lead +in Scandinavia. They held the richest and therefore the most populous +lands, and geographically they were nearer than their neighbours to +western civilization. Under the Valdemars, however, the ancient +patriarchal system was merging into a more complicated development, of +separate estates. The monarchy, now dominant, and far wealthier than +before, rested upon the support of the great nobles, many of whom held +their lands by feudal tenure, and constituted the royal _Raad_, or +council. The clergy, fortified by royal privileges, had also risen to +influence; but celibacy and independence of the civil courts tended to +make them more and more of a separate caste. Education was spreading. +Numerous Danes, lay as well as clerical, regularly frequented the +university of Paris. There were signs too of the rise of a vigorous +middle class, due to the extraordinary development of the national +resources (chiefly the herring fisheries, horse-breeding and +cattle-rearing) and the foundation of gilds, the oldest of which, the +_Edslag_ of Schleswig, dates from the early 12th century. The _bonder_, +or yeomen, were prosperous and independent, with well-defined rights. +Danish territory extended over 60,000 sq. kilometres, or nearly double +its present area; the population was about 700,000; and 160,000 men and +1400 ships were available for national defence. + + +Period of disintegration. + +On the death of Valdemar II. a period of disintegration ensued. +Valdemar's son, Eric Plovpenning, succeeded him as king; but his near +kinsfolk also received huge appanages, and family discords led to civil +wars. Throughout the 13th and part of the 14th century, the struggle +raged between the Danish kings and the Schleswig dukes; and of six +monarchs no fewer than three died violent deaths. Superadded to these +troubles was a prolonged struggle for supremacy between the popes and +the crown, and, still more serious, the beginning of a breach between +the kings and nobles, which had important constitutional consequences. +The prevalent disorder had led to general lawlessness, in consequence of +which the royal authority had been widely extended; and a strong +opposition gradually arose which protested against the abuses of this +authority. In 1282 the nobles extorted from King Eric Glipping the first +_Haandfaestning_, or charter, which recognized the _Danehof_, or +national assembly, as a regular branch of the administration and gave +guarantees against further usurpations. Christopher II. (1319-1331) was +constrained to grant another charter considerably reducing the +prerogative, increasing the privileges of the upper classes, and at the +same time reducing the burden of taxation. But aristocratic licence +proved as mischievous as royal incompetence; and on the death of +Christopher II. the whole kingdom was on the verge of dissolution. +Eastern Denmark was in the hands of one magnate; another magnate held +Jutland and Fünen in pawn; the dukes of Schleswig were practically +independent of the Danish crown; the Scandian provinces had (1332) +surrendered themselves to Sweden. + + +Valdemar IV., 1340-1375. + +It was reserved for another Valdemar (Valdemar IV., q.v.) to reunite and +weld together the scattered members of his heritage. His long reign +(1340-1375) resulted in the re-establishment of Denmark as the great +Baltic power. It is also a very interesting period of her social and +constitutional development. This great ruler, who had to fight, year +after year, against foreign and domestic foes, could, nevertheless, +always find time to promote the internal prosperity of his much +afflicted country. For the dissolution of Denmark, during the long +anarchy, had been internal as well as external. The whole social fabric +had been convulsed and transformed. The monarchy had been undermined. +The privileged orders had aggrandized themselves at the expense of the +community. The yeoman class had sunk into semi-serfdom. In a word, the +natural cohesion of the Danish nation had been loosened and there was no +security for law and justice. To make an end of this universal +lawlessness Valdemar IV. was obliged, in the first place, to +re-establish the royal authority by providing the crown with a regular +and certain income. This he did by recovering the alienated royal +demesnes in every direction, and from henceforth the annual _landgilde_, +or rent, paid by the royal tenants, became the monarch's principal +source of revenue. Throughout his reign Valdemar laboured incessantly to +acquire as much land as possible. Moreover, the old distinction between +the king's private estate and crown property henceforth ceases; all such +property was henceforth regarded as the hereditary possession of the +Danish crown. + +The national army was also re-established on its ancient footing. Not +only were the magnates sharply reminded that they held their lands on +military tenure, but the towns were also made to contribute both men and +ships, and peasant levies, especially archers, were recruited from every +parish. Everywhere indeed Valdemar intervened personally. The smallest +detail was not beneath his notice. Thus he invented nets for catching +wolves and built innumerable water-mills, "for he would not let the +waters run into the sea before they had been of use to the community." +Under such a ruler law and order were speedily re-established. The +popular tribunals regained their authority, and a supreme court of +justice, _Det Kongelige Retterting_, presided over by Valdemar himself, +not only punished the unruly and guarded the prerogatives of the crown, +but also protected the weak and defenceless from the tyranny of the +strong. Nor did Valdemar hesitate to meet his people in public and +periodically render an account of his stewardship. He voluntarily +resorted to the old practice of summoning national assemblies, the +so-called _Danehof_. At the first of these assemblies held at Nyborg, +Midsummer Day 1314, the bishops and councillors solemnly promised that +the commonalty should enjoy all the ancient rights and privileges +conceded to them by Valdemar II., and the wise provision that the +_Danehof_ should meet annually considerably strengthened its authority. +The keystone to the whole constitutional system was "King Valdemar's +Charter" issued in May 1360 at the _Rigsmöde_, or parliament, held at +Kalundborg in May 1360. This charter was practically an act of national +pacification, the provisions of which king and people together undertook +to enforce for the benefit of the commonweal. + + +The Union of Kalmar, 1397. + +The work of Valdemar was completed and consolidated by his illustrious +daughter Margaret (1375-1412), whose crowning achievement was the Union +of Kalmar (1397), whereby she sought to combine the three northern +kingdoms into a single state dominated by Denmark. In any case Denmark +was bound to be the only gainer by the Union. Her population was double +that of the two other kingdoms combined, and neither Margaret nor her +successors observed the stipulations that each country should retain its +own laws and customs and be ruled by natives only. In both Norway and +Sweden, therefore, the Union was highly unpopular. The Norwegian +aristocracy was too weak, however, seriously to endanger the Union at +any time, but Sweden was, from the first, decidedly hostile to +Margaret's whole policy. Nevertheless during her lifetime the system +worked fairly well; but her pupil and successor, Eric of Pomerania, was +unequal to the burden of empire and embroiled himself both with his +neighbours and his subjects. The Hanseatic League, whose political +ascendancy had been shaken by the Union, enraged by Eric's efforts to +bring in the Dutch as commercial rivals, as well as by the establishment +of the Sound tolls, materially assisted the Holsteiners in their +twenty-five years' war with Denmark (1410-35), and Eric VII. himself was +finally deposed (1439) in favour of his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria. + + +Growth of the power of the nobles. + +The deposition of Eric marks another turning-point in Danish history. It +was the act not of the people but of the _Rigsraad_ (Senate), which had +inherited the authority of the ancient _Danehof_ and, after the death of +Margaret, grew steadily in power at the expense of the crown. As the +government grew more and more aristocratic, the position of the +peasantry steadily deteriorated. It is under Christopher that we first +hear, for instance, of the _Vornedskab_, or patriarchal control of the +landlords over their tenants, a system which degenerated into rank +slavery. In Jutland, too, after the repression, in 1441, of a peasant +rising, something very like serfdom was introduced. + + +Break-up of the Union. + +On the death of Christopher III. without heirs, in 1448, the Rigsraad +elected his distant cousin, Count Christian of Oldenburg, king; but +Sweden preferred Karl Knutsson (Charles "VIII."), while Norway finally +combined with Denmark, at the conference of Halmstad, in a double +election which practically terminated the Union, though an agreement was +come to that the survivor of the two kings should reign over all three +kingdoms. Norway, subsequently, threw in her lot definitively with +Denmark. Dissensions resulting in interminable civil wars had, even +before the Union, exhausted the resources of the poorest of the three +northern realms; and her ruin was completed by the ravages of the Black +Death, which wiped out two-thirds of her population. Unfortunately, +too, for Norway's independence, the native gentry had gradually died +out, and were succeeded by immigrant Danish fortune-hunters; native +burgesses there were none, and the peasantry were mostly thralls; so +that, excepting the clergy, there was no patriotic class to stand up for +the national liberties. + +Far otherwise was it in the wealthier kingdom of Sweden. Here the clergy +and part of the nobility were favourable to the Union; but the vast +majority of the people hated it as a foreign usurpation. Matters were +still further complicated by the continual interference of the Hanseatic +League; and Christian I. (1448-1481) and Hans (1481-1513), whose chief +merit it is to have founded the Danish fleet, were, during the greater +part of their reigns, only nominally kings of Sweden. Hans also received +in fief the territory of Dietmarsch from the emperor, but, in attempting +to subdue the hardy Dietmarschers, suffered a crushing defeat in which +the national banner called "Danebrog" fell into the enemy's hands +(1500). Moreover, this defeat led to a successful rebellion in Sweden, +and a long and ruinous war with Lübeck, terminated by the peace of +Malmö, 1512. It was during this war that a strong Danish fleet dominated +the Baltic for the first time since the age of the Valdemars. + + +Christian II., 1513-1523. + +Frederick I., 1523-1533. The Reformation. + +The Count's War, 1533-36. + +On the succession of Hans's son, Christian II. (1513-1523), Margaret's +splendid dream of a Scandinavian empire seemed, finally, about to be +realized. The young king, a man of character and genius, had wide views +and original ideas. Elected king of Denmark and Norway, he succeeded in +subduing Sweden by force of arms; but he spoiled everything at the +culmination of his triumph by the hideous crime and blunder known as the +Stockholm massacre, which converted the politically divergent Swedish +nation into the irreconcilable foe of the unional government (see +CHRISTIAN II.). Christian's contempt of nationality in Sweden is the +more remarkable as in Denmark proper he sided with the people against +the aristocracy, to his own undoing in that age of privilege and +prejudice. His intentions, as exhibited to his famous _Landelove_ +(National Code), were progressive and enlightened to an eminent degree; +so much so, indeed, that they mystified the people as much as they +alienated the patricians; but his actions were often of revolting +brutality, and his whole career was vitiated by an incurable +double-mindedness which provoked general distrust. Yet there is no doubt +that Christian II. was a true patriot, whose ideal it was to weld the +three northern kingdoms into a powerful state, independent of all +foreign influences, especially of German influence as manifested in the +commercial tyranny of the Hansa League. His utter failure was due, +partly to the vices of an undisciplined temperament, and partly to the +extraordinary difficulties of the most inscrutable period of European +history, when the shrewdest heads were at fault and irreparable blunders +belonged to the order of the day. That period was the period of the +Reformation, which profoundly affected the politics of Scandinavia. +Christian II. had always subordinated religion to politics, and was +Papist or Lutheran according to circumstances. But, though he treated +the Church more like a foe than a friend and was constantly at war with +the Curia, he retained the Catholic form of church worship and never +seems to have questioned the papal supremacy. On the flight of Christian +II. and the election of his uncle, Frederick I. (1523-1533), the Church +resumed her jurisdiction and everything was placed on the old footing. +The newly elected and still insecure German king at first remained +neutral; but in the autumn of 1525 the current of Lutheranism began to +run so strongly in Denmark as to threaten to whirl away every opposing +obstacle. This novel and disturbing phenomenon was mainly due to the +zeal and eloquence of the ex-monk Hans Tausen and his associates, or +disciples, Peder Plad and Sadolin; and, in the autumn of 1526, Tausen +was appointed one of the royal chaplains. The three ensuing years were +especially favourable for the Reformation, as during that time the king +had unlooked-for opportunities for filling the vacant episcopal sees +with men after his own heart, and at heart he was a Lutheran. The +reformation movement in Denmark was further promoted by +Schleswig-Holstein influence. Frederick's eldest son Duke Christian had, +since 1527, resided at Haderslev, where he collected round him Lutheran +teachers from Germany, and made his court the centre of the propaganda +of the new doctrine. On the other hand, the Odense Recess of the 20th of +August 1527, which put both confessions on a footing of equality, +remained unrepealed; and so long as it remained in force, the spiritual +jurisdiction of the bishops, and, consequently, their authority over the +"free preachers" (whose ambition convulsed all the important towns of +Denmark and aimed at forcibly expelling the Catholic priests from their +churches) remained valid, to the great vexation of the reformers. The +inevitable ecclesiastical crisis was still further postponed by the +superior stress of two urgent political events--Christian II.'s invasion +of Norway (1531) and the outbreak, in 1533, of "_Grevens fejde_," or +"The Count's War" (1534-36), the count in question being Christopher of +Oldenburg, great-nephew of King Christian I., whom Lübeck and her +allies, on the death of Frederick I., raised up against Frederick's son +Christian III. The Catholic party and the lower orders generally took +the part of Count Christopher, who acted throughout as the nominee of +the captive Christian II., while the Protestant party, aided by the +Holstein dukes and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sided with Christian III. +The war ended with the capture of Copenhagen by the forces of Christian +III., on the 29th of July 1536, and the triumph of so devoted a Lutheran +sealed the fate of the Roman Catholic Church in Denmark, though even now +it was necessary for the victorious king to proceed against the bishops +and their friends by a _coup d'état_, engineered by his German generals +the Rantzaus. The Recess of 1536 enacted that the bishops should forfeit +their temporal and spiritual authority, and that all their property +should be transferred to the crown for the good of the commonwealth. In +the following year a Church ordinance, based upon the canons of Luther, +Melanchthon and Bugenhagen, was drawn up, submitted to Luther for his +approval, and promulgated on the 2nd of September 1537. On the same day +seven "superintendents," including Tausen and Sadolin, all of whom had +worked zealously for the cause of the Reformation, were consecrated in +place of the dethroned bishops. The position of the superintendents and +of the reformed church generally was consolidated by the Articles of +Ribe in 1542, and the constitution of the Danish church has practically +continued the same to the present day. But Catholicism could not wholly +or immediately be dislodged by the teaching of Luther. It had struck +deep roots into the habits and feelings of the people, and traces of its +survival were distinguishable a whole century after the triumph of the +Reformation. Catholicism lingered longest in the cathedral chapters. +Here were to be found men of ability proof against the eloquence of Hans +Tausen or Peder Plad and quite capable of controverting their +theories--men like Povl Helgesen, for instance, indisputably the +greatest Danish theologian of his day, a scholar whose voice was drowned +amidst the clash of conflicting creeds. + + +Effects of the Reformation. + +European influence of Denmark, 1544-1626. + +Though the Reformation at first did comparatively little for +education,[1] and the whole spiritual life of Denmark was poor and +feeble in consequence for at least a generation afterwards, the change +of religion was of undeniable, if temporary, benefit to the state from +the political point of view. The enormous increase of the royal revenue +consequent upon the confiscation of the property of the Church could not +fail to increase the financial stability of the monarchy. In particular +the suppression of the monasteries benefited the crown in two ways. The +old church had, indeed, frequently rendered the state considerable +financial aid, but such voluntary assistance was, from the nature of the +case, casual and arbitrary. Now, however, the state derived a fixed and +certain revenue from the confiscated lands; and the possession of +immense landed property at the same time enabled the crown +advantageously to conduct the administration. The gross revenue of the +state is estimated to have risen threefold. Before the Reformation the +annual revenue from land averaged 400,000 bushels of corn; after the +confiscations of Church property it averaged 1,200,000 bushels. The +possession of a full purse materially assisted the Danish government in +its domestic administration, which was indeed epoch-making. It enabled +Christian III. to pay off his German mercenaries immediately after the +religious _coup d'état_ of 1536. It enabled him to prosecute +shipbuilding with such energy that, by 1550, the royal fleet numbered at +least thirty vessels, which were largely employed as a maritime police +in the pirate-haunted Baltic and North Seas. It enabled him to create +and remunerate adequately a capable official class, which proved its +efficiency under the strictest supervision, and ultimately produced a +whole series of great statesmen and admirals like Johan Friis, Peder +Oxe, Herluf Trolle and Peder Skram. It is not too much to say that the +increased revenue derived from the appropriation of Church property, +intelligently applied, gave Denmark the hegemony of the North during the +latter part of Christian III.'s reign, the whole reign of Frederick II. +and the first twenty-five years of the reign of Christian IV., a period +embracing, roughly speaking, eighty years (1544-1626). Within this +period Denmark was indisputably the leading Scandinavian power. While +Sweden, even after the advent of Gustavus Vasa, was still of but small +account in Europe, Denmark easily held her own in Germany and elsewhere, +even against Charles V., and was important enough, in 1553, to mediate a +peace between the emperor and Saxony. Twice during this period Denmark +and Sweden measured their strength in the open field, on the first +occasion in the "Scandinavian Seven Years' War" (1562-70), on the second +in the "Kalmar War" (1611-13), and on both occasions Denmark prevailed, +though the temporary advantage she gained was more than neutralized by +the intense feeling of hostility which the unnatural wars, between the +two kindred peoples of Scandinavia, left behind them. Still, the fact +remains that, for a time, Denmark was one of the great powers of Europe. +Frederick II., in his later years (1571-1588), aspired to the dominion +of all the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he died +he was able to enforce the rule that all foreign ships should strike +their topsails to Danish men-of-war as a token of his right to rule the +northern seas. Favourable political circumstances also contributed to +this general acknowledgment of Denmark's maritime greatness. The power +of the Hansa had gone; the Dutch were enfeebled by their contest with +Spain; England's sea-power was yet in the making; Spain, still the +greatest of the maritime nations, was exhausting her resources in the +vain effort to conquer the Dutch. Yet more even than to felicitous +circumstances, Denmark owed her short-lived greatness to the great +statesmen and administrators whom Frederick II. succeeded in gathering +about him. Never before, since the age of Margaret, had Denmark been so +well governed, never before had she possessed so many political +celebrities nobly emulous for the common good. + + +Denmark at the accession of Christian IV., 1588. + +Frederick II. was succeeded by his son Christian IV. (April 4, 1588), +who attained his majority on the 17th of August 1596, at the age of +nineteen. The realm which Christian IV. was to govern had undergone +great changes within the last two generations. Towards the south the +boundaries of the Danish state remained unchanged. Levensaa and the +Eider still separated Denmark from the Empire. Schleswig was recognized +as a Danish fief, in contradistinction to Holstein, which owed vassalage +to the Empire. The "kingdom" stretched as far as Kolding and Skedborg, +where the "duchy" began; and this duchy since its amalgamation with +Holstein by means of a common _Landtag_, and especially since the union +of the dual duchy with the kingdom on almost equal terms in 1533, was, +in most respects, a semi-independent state, Denmark, moreover, like +Europe in general, was, politically, on the threshold of a transitional +period. During the whole course of the 16th century the monarchical +form of government was in every large country, with the single exception +of Poland, rising on the ruins of feudalism. The great powers of the +late 16th and early 17th centuries were to be the strong, highly +centralized, hereditary monarchies, like France, Spain and Sweden. There +seemed to be no reason why Denmark also should not become a powerful +state under the guidance of a powerful monarchy, especially as the +sister state of Sweden was developing into a great power under +apparently identical conditions. Yet, while Sweden was surely ripening +into the dominating power of northern Europe, Denmark had as surely +entered upon a period of uninterrupted and apparently incurable decline. +What was the cause of this anomaly? Something of course must be allowed +for the superior and altogether extraordinary genius of the great +princes of the house of Vasa; yet the causes of the decline of Denmark +lay far deeper than this. They may roughly be summed up under two heads: +the inherent weakness of an elective monarchy, and the absence of that +public spirit which is based on the intimate alliance of ruler and +ruled. Whilst Gustavus Vasa had leaned upon the Swedish peasantry, in +other words upon the bulk of the Swedish nation, which was and continued +to be an integral part of the Swedish body-politic, Christian III. on +his accession had crushed the middle and lower classes in Denmark and +reduced them to political insignificance. Yet it was not the king who +benefited by this blunder. The Danish monarchy since the days of +Margaret had continued to be purely elective; and a purely elective +monarchy at that stage of the political development of Europe was a +mischievous anomaly. It signified in the first place that the crown was +not the highest power in the state, but was subject to the aristocratic +_Rigsraad_, or council of state. The _Rigsraad_ was the permanent owner +of the realm and the crown-lands; the king was only their temporary +administrator. If the king died before the election of his successor, +the _Rigsraad_ stepped into the king's place. Moreover, an elective +monarchy implied that, at every fresh succession, the king was liable to +be bound by a new _Haandfaestning_, or charter. The election itself +might, and did, become a mere formality; but the condition precedent of +election, the acceptance of the charter, invariably limiting the royal +authority, remained a reality. This period of aristocratic rule, which +dates practically from the accession of Frederick I. (1523), and lasted +for nearly a century and a half, is known in Danish history as +_Adelsvaelde_, or rule of the nobles. + +Again, the king was the ruler of the realm, but over a very large +portion of it he had but a slight control. The crown-lands and most of +the towns were under his immediate jurisdiction, but by the side of the +crown-lands lay the estates of the nobility, which already comprised +about one-half of the superficial area of Denmark, and were in many +respects independent of the central government both as regards taxation +and administration. In a word, the monarchy had to share its dominion +with the nobility; and the Danish nobility in the 16th century was one +of the most exclusive and selfish aristocracies in Europe, and already +far advanced in decadence. Hermetically sealing itself from any +intrusion from below, it deteriorated by close and constant +intermarriage; and it was already, both morally and intellectually, +below the level of the rest of the nation. Yet this very aristocracy, +whose claim to consideration was based not upon its own achievements but +upon the length of its pedigrees, insisted upon an amplification of its +privileges which endangered the economical and political interests of +the state and the nation. The time was close at hand when a Danish +magnate was to demonstrate that he preferred the utter ruin of his +country to any abatement of his own personal dignity. + +All below the king and the nobility were generally classified together +as "subjects." Of these lower orders the clergy stood first in the +social scale. As a spiritual estate, indeed, it had ceased to exist at +the Reformation, though still represented in the _Rigsdag_ or diet. +Since then too it had become quite detached from the nobility, which +ostentatiously despised the teaching profession. The clergy recruited +themselves therefore from the class next below them, and looked more and +more to the crown for help and protection as they drew apart from the +gentry, who, moreover, as dispensers of patronage, lost no opportunity +of appropriating church lands and cutting down tithes. + +The burgesses had not yet recovered from the disaster of "Grevens +fejde"; but while the towns had become more dependent on the central +power, they had at the same time been released from their former +vexatious subjection to the local magnates, and could make their voices +heard in the _Rigsdag_, where they were still, though inadequately, +represented. Within the Estate of Burgesses itself, too, a levelling +process had begun. The old municipal patriciate, which used to form the +connecting link between the _bourgeoisie_ and the nobility, had +disappeared, and a feeling of common civic fellowship had taken its +place. All this tended to enlarge the political views of the burgesses, +and was not without its influence on the future. Yet, after all, the +prospects of the burgesses depended mainly on economic conditions; and +in this respect there was a decided improvement, due to the increasing +importance of money and commerce all over Europe, especially as the +steady decline of the Hanse towns immediately benefited the trade of +Denmark-Norway; Norway by this time being completely merged in the +Danish state, and ruled from Copenhagen. There can, indeed, be no doubt +that the Danish and Norwegian merchants at the end of the 16th century +flourished exceedingly, despite the intrusion and competition of the +Dutch and the dangers to neutral shipping arising from the frequent wars +between England, Spain and the Netherlands. + +At the bottom of the social ladder lay the peasants, whose condition had +decidedly deteriorated. Only in one respect had they benefited by the +peculiar conditions of the 16th century: the rise in the price of corn +without any corresponding rise in the land-tax must have largely increased +their material prosperity. Yet the number of peasant-proprietors had +diminished, while the obligations of the peasantry generally had +increased; and, still worse, their obligations were vexatiously +indefinite, varying from year to year and even from month to month. They +weighed especially heavily on the so-called _Ugedasmaend_, who were forced +to work two or three days a week in the demesne lands. This increase of +villenage morally depressed the peasantry, and widened still further the +breach between the yeomanry and the gentry. Politically its consequences +were disastrous. While in Sweden the free and energetic peasant was a +salutary power in the state, which he served with both mind and plough, +the Danish peasant was sinking to the level of a bondman. While the +Swedish peasants were well represented in the Swedish _Riksdag_, whose +proceedings they sometimes dominated, the Danish peasantry had no +political rights or privileges whatever. + + +Christian IV., 1588-1648. + +First losses of territory. + +Such then, briefly, was the condition of things in Denmark when, in +1588, Christian IV. ascended the throne. Where so much was necessarily +uncertain and fluctuating, there was room for an almost infinite variety +of development. Much depended on the character and personality of the +young prince who had now taken into his hands the reins of government, +and for half a century was to guide the destinies of the nation. In the +beginning of his reign the hand of the young monarch, who was nothing if +not energetic, made itself felt in every direction. The harbours of +Copenhagen, Elsinore and other towns were enlarged; many decaying towns +were abolished and many new ones built under more promising conditions, +including Christiania, which was founded in August 1624, on the ruins of +the ancient city of Oslo. Various attempts were also made to improve +trade and industry by abolishing the still remaining privileges of the +Hanseatic towns, by promoting a wholesale immigration of skilful and +well-to-do Dutch traders and handicraftsmen into Denmark under most +favourable conditions, by opening up the rich fisheries of the Arctic +seas, and by establishing joint-stock chartered companies both in the +East and the West Indies. Copenhagen especially benefited by Christian +IV.'s commercial policy. He enlarged and embellished it, and provided it +with new harbours and fortifications; in short, did his best to make it +the worthy capital of a great empire. But it was in the foreign policy +of the government that the royal influence was most perceptible. Unlike +Sweden, Denmark had remained outside the great religious-political +movements which were the outcome of the Catholic reaction; and the +peculiarity of her position made her rather hostile than friendly to the +other Protestant states. The possession of the Sound enabled her to +close the Baltic against the Western powers; the possession of Norway +carried along with it the control of the rich fisheries which were +Danish monopolies, and therefore a source of irritation to England and +Holland. Denmark, moreover, was above all things a Scandinavian power. +While the territorial expansion of Sweden in the near future was a +matter of necessity, Denmark had not only attained, but even exceeded, +her natural limits. Aggrandizement southwards, at the expense of the +German empire, was becoming every year more difficult; and in every +other direction she had nothing more to gain. Nay, more, Denmark's +possession of the Scanian provinces deprived Sweden of her proper +geographical frontiers. Clearly it was Denmark's wisest policy to seek a +close alliance with Sweden in their common interests, and after the +conclusion of the "Kalmar War" the two countries did remain at peace for +the next thirty-one years. But the antagonistic interests of the two +countries in Germany during the Thirty Years' War precipitated a fourth +contest between them (1643-45), in which Denmark would have been utterly +ruined but for the heroism of King Christian IV. and his command of the +sea during the crisis of the struggle. Even so, by the peace of +Brömsebro (February 8, 1645) Denmark surrendered the islands of Oesel +and Gotland and the provinces of Jemteland and Herjedal (in Norway) +definitively, and Halland for thirty years. The freedom from the Sound +tolls was by the same treaty also extended to Sweden's Baltic provinces. + + +Frederick III., 1648-1670. + +Peace of Roskilde, 1658. + +Treaty of Copenhagen, 1660. + +The peace of Brömsebro was the first of the long series of treaties, +extending down to our own days, which mark the progressive shrinkage of +Danish territory into an irreducible minimum. Sweden's appropriation of +Danish soil had begun, and at the same time Denmark's power of resisting +the encroachments of Sweden was correspondingly reduced. The Danish +national debt, too, had risen enormously, while the sources of future +income and consequent recuperation had diminished or disappeared. The +Sound tolls, for instance, in consequence of the treaties of Brömsebro +and Kristianopel (by the latter treaty very considerable concessions +were made to the Dutch) had sunk from 400,000 to 140,000 rix-dollars. +The political influence of the crown, moreover, had inevitably been +weakened, and the conduct of foreign affairs passed from the hands of +the king into the hands of the _Rigsraad_. On the accession of Frederick +III. (1648-1670) moreover, the already diminished royal prerogative was +still further curtailed by the _Haandfaestning_, or charter, which he +was compelled to sign. Fear and hatred of Sweden, and the never +abandoned hope of recovering the lost provinces, animated king and +people alike; but it was Denmark's crowning misfortune that she +possessed at this difficult crisis no statesman of the first rank, no +one even approximately comparable with such competitors as Charles X. of +Sweden or the "Great Elector" Frederick William of Brandenburg. From the +very beginning of his reign Frederick III. was resolved upon a rupture +at the first convenient opportunity, while the nation was, if possible, +even more bellicose than the king. The apparently insuperable +difficulties of Sweden in Poland was the feather that turned the scale; +on the 1st of June 1657, Frederick III. signed the manifesto justifying +a war which was never formally declared and brought Denmark to the very +verge of ruin. The extraordinary details of this dramatic struggle will +be found elsewhere (see FREDERICK III., king of Denmark, and CHARLES X., +king of Sweden); suffice it to say that by the peace of Roskilde +(February 26, 1658), Denmark consented to cede the three Scanian +provinces, the island of Bornholm and the Norwegian provinces of Baahus +and Trondhjem; to renounce all anti-Swedish alliances and to exempt all +Swedish vessels, even when carrying foreign goods, from all tolls. +These terrible losses were somewhat retrieved by the subsequent treaty +of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660) concluded by the Swedish regency with +Frederick III. after the failure of Charles X.'s second war against +Denmark, a failure chiefly owing to the heroic defence of the Danish +capital (1658-60). By this treaty Sweden gave back the province of +Trondhjem and the isle of Bornholm and released Denmark from the most +onerous of the obligations of the treaty of Roskilde. In fact the peace +of Copenhagen came as a welcome break in an interminable series of +disasters and humiliations. Anyhow, it confirmed the independence of the +Danish state. On the other hand, if Denmark had emerged from the war +with her honour and dignity unimpaired, she had at the same time tacitly +surrendered the dominion of the North to her Scandinavian rival. + + +Hereditary monarchy established, 1660. + +But the war just terminated had important political consequences, which +were to culminate in one of the most curious and interesting revolutions +of modern history. In the first place, it marks the termination of the +_Adelsvaelde_, or rule of the nobility. By their cowardice, incapacity, +egotism and treachery during the crisis of the struggle, the Danish +aristocracy had justly forfeited the respect of every other class of the +community, and emerged from the war hopelessly discredited. On the other +hand, Copenhagen, proudly conscious of her intrinsic importance and of +her inestimable services to the country, whom she had saved from +annihilation by her constancy, now openly claimed to have a voice in +public affairs. Still higher had risen the influence of the crown. The +courage and resource displayed by Frederick III. in the extremity of the +national danger had won for "the least expansive of monarchs" an +extraordinary popularity. + +On the 10th of September 1660, the _Rigsdag_, which was to repair the +ravages of the war and provide for the future, was opened with great +ceremony in the _Riddersaal_ of the castle of Copenhagen. The first bill +laid before the Estates by the government was to impose an excise tax on +the principal articles of consumption, together with subsidiary taxes on +cattle, poultry, &c., in return for which the abolition of all the old +direct taxes was promised. The nobility at first claimed exemption from +taxation altogether, while the clergy and burgesses insisted upon an +absolute equality of taxation. There were sharp encounters between the +presidents of the contending orders, but the position of the Lower +Estates was considerably prejudiced by the dissensions of its various +sections. Thus the privileges of the bishops and of Copenhagen +profoundly irritated the lower clergy and the unprivileged towns, and +made a cordial understanding impossible, till Hans Svane, bishop of +Copenhagen, and Hans Nansen the burgomaster, who now openly came forward +as the leader of the reform movement, proposed that the privileges which +divided the non-noble Estates should be abolished. In accordance with +this proposal, the two Lower Estates, on the 16th of September, +subscribed a memorandum addressed to the _Rigsraad_, declaring their +willingness to renounce their privileges, provided the nobility did the +same; which was tantamount to a declaration that the whole of the clergy +and burgesses had made common cause against the nobility. The opposition +so formed took the name of the "Conjoined Estates." The presentation of +the memorial provoked an outburst of indignation. But the nobility soon +perceived the necessity of complete surrender. On the 30th of September +the First Estate abandoned its former standpoint and renounced its +privileges, with one unimportant reservation. + +The struggle now seemed to be ended, and the financial question having +also been settled, the king, had he been so minded, might have dismissed +the Estates. But the still more important question of reform was now +raised. On the 17th of September the burgesses introduced a bill +proposing a new constitution, which was to include local self-government +in the towns, the abolition of serfdom, and the formation of a national +army. It fell to the ground for want of adequate support; but another +proposition, the fruit of secret discussion between the king and his +confederates, which placed all fiefs under the control of the crown as +regards taxation, and provided for selling and letting them to the +highest bidder, was accepted by the Estate of burgesses. The +significance of this ordinance lay in the fact that it shattered the +privileged position of the nobility, by abolishing the exclusive right +to the possession of fiefs. What happened next is not quite clear. Our +sources fail us, and we are at the mercy of doubtful rumours and more or +less unreliable anecdotes. We have a vision of intrigues, mysterious +conferences, threats and bribery, dimly discernible through a shifting +mirage of tradition. + +The first glint of light is a letter, dated the 23rd of September, from +Frederick III. to Svane and Nansen, authorizing them to communicate the +arrangements already made to reliable men, and act quickly, as "if the +others gain time they may possibly gain more." The first step was to +make sure of the city train-bands: of the garrison of Copenhagen the +king had no doubt. The headquarters of the conspirators was the bishop's +palace near _Vor Frue_ church, between which and the court messages were +passing continually, and where the document to be adopted by the +Conjoined Estates took its final shape. On the 8th of October the two +burgomasters, Hans Nansen and Kristoffer Hansen, proposed that the realm +of Denmark should be made over to the king as a hereditary kingdom, +without prejudice to the privileges of the Estates; whereupon they +proceeded to Brewer's Hall, and informed the Estate of burgesses there +assembled of what had been done. A fiery oration from Nansen dissolved +some feeble opposition; and simultaneously Bishop Svane carried the +clergy along with him. The so-called "Instrument," now signed by the +Lower Estates, offered the realm to the king and his house as a +hereditary monarchy, by way of thank-offering mainly for his courageous +deliverance of the kingdom during the war; and the _Rigsraad_ and the +nobility were urged to notify the resolution to the king, and desire him +to maintain each Estate in its due privileges, and to give a written +counter-assurance that the revolution now to be effected was for the +sole benefit of the state. Events now moved forward rapidly. On the 10th +of October a deputation from the clergy and burgesses proceeded to the +Council House where the _Rigsraad_ were deliberating, to demand an +answer to their propositions. After a tumultuous scene, the aristocratic +_Raad_ rejected the "Instrument" altogether, whereupon the deputies of +the commons proceeded to the palace and were graciously received by the +king, who promised them an answer next day. The same afternoon the +guards in the streets and on the ramparts were doubled; on the following +morning the gates of the city were closed, powder and bullets were +distributed among the city train-bands, who were bidden to be in +readiness when the alarm bell called them, and cavalry was massed on the +environs of the city. The same afternoon the king sent a message to the +_Rigsraad_ urging them to declare their views quickly, as he could no +longer hold himself responsible for what might happen. After a feeble +attempt at a compromise the _Raad_ gave way. On the 13th of October it +signed a declaration to the effect that it associated itself still with +the Lower Estates in the making over of the kingdom, as a hereditary +monarchy, to his majesty and his heirs male and female. The same day the +king received the official communication of this declaration and the +congratulation of the burgomasters. Thus the ancient constitution was +transformed; and Denmark became a monarchy hereditary in Frederick III. +and his posterity. + +But although hereditary sovereignty had been introduced, the laws of the +land had not been abolished. The monarch was specifically now a +sovereign overlord, but he had not been absolved from his obligations +towards his subjects. Hereditary sovereignty _per se_ was not held to +signify unlimited dominion, still less absolutism. On the contrary, the +magnificent gift of the Danish nation to Frederick III. was made under +express conditions. The "Instrument" drawn up by the Lower Estates +implied the retention of all their rights; and the king, in accepting +the gift of a hereditary crown, did not repudiate the implied +inviolability of the privileges of the donors. Unfortunately everything +had been left so vague, that it was an easy matter for ultra-royalists +like Svane and Nansen to ignore the privileges of the Estates, and even +the Estates themselves. + +On the 14th of October a committee was summoned to the palace to +organize the new government. The discussion turned mainly upon two +points, (1) whether a new oath of homage should be taken to the king, +and (2) what was to be done with the _Haandfaestning_ or royal charter. +The first point was speedily decided in the affirmative, and, as to the +second, it was ultimately decided that the king should be released from +his oath and the charter returned to him; but a rider was added +suggesting that he should, at the same time, promulgate a Recess +providing for his own and his people's welfare. Thus Frederick III. was +not left absolutely his own master; for the provision regarding a +Recess, or new constitution, showed plainly enough that such a +constitution was expected, and, once granted, would of course have +limited the royal power. + +It now only remained to execute the resolutions of the committee. On the +17th of October the charter, which the king had sworn to observe twelve +years before, was solemnly handed back to him at the palace, Frederick +III. thereupon promising to rule as a Christian king to the satisfaction +of all the Estates of the realm. On the following day the king, seated +on the topmost step of a lofty tribune surmounted by a baldaquin, +erected in the midst of the principal square of Copenhagen, received the +public homage of his subjects of all ranks, in the presence of an +immense concourse, on which occasion he again promised to rule "as a +Christian hereditary king and gracious master," and, "as soon as +possible, to prepare and set up" such a constitution as should secure to +his subjects a Christian and indulgent sway. The ceremony concluded with +a grand banquet at the palace. After dinner the queen and the clergy +withdrew; but the king remained. An incident now occurred which made a +strong impression on all present. With a brimming beaker in his hand, +Frederick III. went up to Hans Nansen, drank with him and drew him +aside. They communed together in a low voice for some time, till the +burgomaster, succumbing to the influence of his potations, fumbled his +way to his carriage with the assistance of some of his civic colleagues. +Whether Nansen, intoxicated by wine and the royal favour, consented on +this occasion to sacrifice the privileges of his order and his city, it +is impossible to say; but it is significant that, from henceforth, we +hear no more of the Recess which the more liberal of the leaders of the +lower orders had hoped for when they released Frederick III. from the +obligations of the charter. + + +Establishment of absolute rule. + +We can follow pretty plainly the stages of the progress from a limited +to an absolute monarchy. By an act dated the 10th of January 1661, +entitled "Instrument, or pragmatic sanction," of the king's hereditary +right to the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, it was declared that all +the prerogatives of majesty, and "all regalia as an absolute sovereign +lord," had been made over to the king. Yet, even after the issue of the +"Instrument," there was nothing, strictly speaking, to prevent Frederick +III. from voluntarily conceding to his subjects some share in the +administration. Unfortunately the king was bent upon still further +emphasizing the plenitude of his power. At Copenhagen his advisers were +busy framing drafts of a _Lex Regia Perpetua_; and the one which finally +won the royal favour was the famous _Kongelov_, or "King's Law." + +This document was in every way unique. In the first place it is +remarkable for its literary excellence. Compared with the barbarous +macaronic jargon of the contemporary official language it shines forth +as a masterpiece of pure, pithy and original Danish. Still more +remarkable are the tone and tenor of this royal law. The _Kongelov_ has +the highly dubious honour of being the one written law in the civilized +world which fearlessly carries out absolutism to the last consequences. +The monarchy is declared to owe its origin to the surrender of the +supreme authority by the Estates to the king. The maintenance of the +indivisibility of the realm and of the Christian faith according to the +Augsburg Confession, and the observance of the _Kongelov_ itself, are +now the sole obligations binding upon the king. The supreme spiritual +authority also is now claimed; and it is expressly stated that it +becomes none to crown him; the moment he ascends the throne, crown and +sceptre belong to him of right. Moreover, par. 26 declares guilty of +_lèse-majesté_ whomsoever shall in any way usurp or infringe the king's +absolute authority. In the following reign the ultra-royalists went +further still. In their eyes the king was not merely autocratic, but +sacrosanct. Thus before the anointing of Christian V. on the 7th of June +1671, a ceremony by way of symbolizing the new autocrat's humble +submission to the Almighty, the officiating bishop of Zealand delivered +an oration in which he declared that the king was God's immediate +creation, His vicegerent on earth, and that it was the bounden duty of +all good subjects to serve and honour the celestial majesty as +represented by the king's terrestrial majesty. The _Kongelov_ is dated +and subscribed the 14th of November 1665, but was kept a profound +secret, only two initiated persons knowing of its existence until after +the death of Frederick III., one of them being Kristoffer Gabel, the +king's chief intermediary during the revolution, and the other the +author and custodian of the _Kongelov_, Secretary Peder Schumacher, +better known as Griffenfeldt. It is significant that both these +confidential agents were plebeians. + + +Effects of the revolution of 1660. + +The revolution of 1660 was certainly beneficial to Norway. With the +disappearance of the _Rigsraad_, which, as representing the Danish +crown, had hitherto exercised sovereignty over both kingdoms, Norway +ceased to be a subject principality. The sovereign hereditary king stood +in exactly the same relations to both kingdoms; and thus, +constitutionally, Norway was placed on an equality with Denmark, united +with but not subordinate to it. It is clear that the majority of the +Norwegian people hoped that the revolution would give them an +administration independent of the Danish government; but these +expectations were not realised. Till the cessation of the Union in 1814, +Copenhagen continued to be the headquarters of the Norwegian +administration; both kingdoms had common departments of state; and the +common chancery continued to be called the Danish chancery. On the other +hand the condition of Norway was now greatly improved. In January 1661 a +land commission was appointed to investigate the financial and +economical conditions of the kingdoms; the fiefs were transformed into +counties; the nobles were deprived of their immunity from taxation; and +in July 1662 the Norwegian towns received special privileges, including +the monopoly of the lucrative timber trade. + + +Christian V., 1670-1699. + +The _Enevaelde_, or absolute monarchy, also distinctly benefited the +whole Danish state by materially increasing its reserve of native +talent. Its immediate consequence was to throw open every state +appointment to the middle classes; and the middle classes of that +period, with very few exceptions, monopolized the intellect and the +energy of the nation. New blood of the best quality nourished and +stimulated the whole body politic. Expansion and progress were the +watchwords at home, and abroad it seemed as if Denmark were about to +regain her former position as a great power. This was especially the +case during the brief but brilliant administration of Chancellor +Griffenfeldt. Then, if ever, Denmark had the chance of playing once more +a leading part in international politics. But Griffenfeldt's +difficulties, always serious, were increased by the instability of the +European situation, depending as it did on the ambition of Louis XIV. +Resolved to conquer the Netherlands, the French king proceeded, first of +all, to isolate her by dissolving the Triple Alliance. (See SWEDEN and +GRIFFENFELDT.) In April 1672 a treaty was concluded between France and +Sweden, on condition that France should not include Denmark in her +system of alliances without the consent of Sweden. This treaty showed +that Sweden weighed more in the French balances than Denmark. In June +1672 a French army invaded the Netherlands; whereupon the elector of +Brandenburg contracted an alliance with the emperor Leopold, to which +Denmark was invited to accede; almost simultaneously the States-General +began to negotiate for a renewal of the recently expired Dano-Dutch +alliance. + + +Denmark in the Great Northern War. + +In these circumstances it was as difficult for Denmark to remain neutral +as it was dangerous for her to make a choice. An alliance with France +would subordinate her to Sweden; an alliance with the Netherlands would +expose her to an attack from Sweden. The Franco-Swedish alliance left +Griffenfeldt no choice but to accede to the opposite league, for he saw +at once that the ruin of the Netherlands would disturb the balance of +power in the north by giving an undue preponderance to England and +Sweden. But Denmark's experience of Dutch promises in the past was not +reassuring; so, while negotiating at the Hague for a renewal of the +Dutch alliance, he at the same time felt his way at Stockholm towards a +commercial treaty with Sweden. His Swedish mission proved abortive, but, +as he had anticipated, it effectually accelerated the negotiations at +the Hague, and frightened the Dutch into unwonted liberality. In May +1673 a treaty of alliance was signed by the ambassador of the +States-General at Copenhagen, whereby the Netherlands pledged themselves +to pay Denmark large subsidies in return for the services of 10,000 men +and twenty warships, which were to be held in readiness in case the +United Provinces were attacked by another enemy besides France. Thus, +very dexterously, Griffenfeldt had succeeded in gaining his subsidies +without sacrificing his neutrality. + +His next move was to attempt to detach Sweden from France; but, Sweden +showing not the slightest inclination for a _rapprochement_, Denmark was +compelled to accede to the anti-French league, which she did by the +treaty of Copenhagen, of January 1674, thereby engaging to place an army +of 20,000 in the field when required; but here again Griffenfeldt +safeguarded himself to some extent by stipulating that this provision +was not to be operative till the allies were attacked by a fresh enemy. +When, in December 1674, a Swedish army invaded Prussian Pomerania, +Denmark was bound to intervene as a belligerent, but Griffenfeldt +endeavoured to postpone this intervention as long as possible; and +Sweden's anxiety to avoid hostilities with her southern neighbour +materially assisted him to postpone the evil day. He only wanted to gain +time, and he gained it. To the last he endeavoured to avoid a rupture +with France even if he broke with Sweden; but he could not restrain for +ever the foolish impetuosity of his own sovereign, Christian V., and his +fall in the beginning of 1676 not only, as he had foreseen, involved +Denmark in an unprofitable war, but, as his friend and disciple, Jens +Juel, well observed, relegated her henceforth to the humiliating +position of an international catspaw. Thus at the peace of Fontainebleau +(September 2, 1679) Denmark, which had borne the brunt of the struggle +in the Baltic, was compelled by the inexorable French king to make full +restitution to Sweden, the treaty between the two northern powers being +signed at Lund on the 26th of September. Freely had she spent her blood +and her treasure, only to emerge from the five years' contest exhausted +and empty-handed. + +By the peace of Fontainebleau Denmark had been sacrificed to the +interests of France and Sweden; forty-one years later she was sacrificed +to the interests of Hanover and Prussia by the peace of Copenhagen +(1720), which ended the Northern War so far as the German powers were +concerned. But it would not have terminated advantageously for them at +all, had not the powerful and highly efficient Danish fleet effectually +prevented the Swedish government from succouring its distressed German +provinces, and finally swept the Swedish fleets out of the northern +waters. Yet all the compensation Denmark received for her inestimable +services during a whole decade was 600,000 rix-dollars! The bishoprics +of Bremen and Verden, the province of Farther Pomerania and the isle of +Rügen which her armies had actually conquered, and which had been +guaranteed to her by a whole catena of treaties, went partly to the +upstart electorate of Hanover and partly to the upstart kingdom of +Prussia, both of which states had been of no political importance +whatever at the beginning of the war of spoliation by which they were, +ultimately, to profit so largely and so cheaply. + + +Frederick IV., 1699-1730. + +The last ten years of the reign of Christian V.'s successor, Frederick +IV. (1699-1730), were devoted to the nursing and development of the +resources of the country, which had suffered only less severely than +Sweden from the effects of the Great Northern War. The court, seriously +pious, did much for education. A wise economy also contributed to reduce +the national debt within manageable limits, and in the welfare of the +peasantry Frederick IV. took a deep interest. In 1722 serfdom was +abolished in the case of all peasants in the royal estates born after +his accession. + + +Christian VI., 1730-1746. + +The first act of Frederick's successor, Christian VI. (1730-1746), was +to abolish the national militia, which had been an intolerable burden +upon the peasantry; yet the more pressing agrarian difficulties were not +thereby surmounted, as had been hoped. The price of corn continued to +fall; the migration of the peasantry assumed alarming proportions; and +at last, "to preserve the land" as well as to increase the defensive +capacity of the country, the national militia was re-established by the +decree of the 4th of February 1733, which at the same time bound to the +soil all peasants between the age of nine and forty. Reactionary as the +measure was it enabled the agricultural interest, on which the +prosperity of Denmark mainly depended, to tide over one of the most +dangerous crises in its history; but certainly the position of the +Danish peasantry was never worse than during the reign of the religious +and benevolent Christian VI. + + +Frederick V., 1746-1766. + +Under the peaceful reign of Christian's son and successor, Frederick V. +(1746-1766), still more was done for commerce, industry and agriculture. +To promote Denmark's carrying trade, treaties were made with the Barbary +States, Genoa and Naples; and the East Indian Trading Company flourished +exceedingly. On the other hand the condition of the peasantry was even +worse under Frederick V. than it had been under Christian VI., the +_Stavnsbaand_, or regulation which bound all males to the soil, being +made operative from the age of four. Yet signs of a coming amelioration +were not wanting. The theory of the physiocrats now found powerful +advocates in Denmark; and after 1755, when the press censorship was +abolished so far as regarded political economy and agriculture, a +thorough discussion of the whole agrarian question became possible. A +commission appointed in 1757 worked zealously for the repeal of many +agricultural abuses; and several great landed proprietors introduced +hereditary leaseholds, and abolished the servile tenure. + + +Christian VII., 1766-1808. + +Foreign affairs during the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian VI. were +left in the capable hands of J. H. E. Bernstorff, who aimed at steering +clear of all foreign complications and preserving inviolable the +neutrality of Denmark. This he succeeded in doing, in spite of the Seven +Years' War and of the difficulties attending the thorny Gottorp question +in which Sweden and Russia were equally interested. The same policy was +victoriously pursued by his nephew and pupil Andreas Bernstorff, an even +greater man than the elder Bernstorff, who controlled the foreign policy +of Denmark from 1773 to 1778, and again from 1784 till his death in +1797. The period of the younger Bernstorff synchronizes with the greater +part of the long reign of Christian VII. (1766-1808), one of the most +eventful periods of modern Danish history. The king himself was indeed a +semi-idiot, scarce responsible for his actions, yet his was the era of +such striking personalities as the brilliant charlatan Struensee, the +great philanthropist and reformer C. D. F. Reventlow, the +ultra-conservative Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, whose mission it was to repair +the damage done by Struensee, and that generation of alert and +progressive spirits which surrounded the young crown prince Frederick, +whose first act, on taking his seat in the council of state, at the age +of sixteen, on the 4th of April 1784, was to dismiss Guldberg. + +A fresh and fruitful period of reform now began, lasting till nearly the +end of the century, and interrupted only by the brief but costly war +with Sweden in 1788. The emancipation of the peasantry was now the +burning question of the day, and the whole matter was thoroughly +ventilated. Bernstorff and the crown prince were the most zealous +advocates of the peasantry in the council of state; but the honour of +bringing the whole peasant question within the range of practical +politics undoubtedly belongs to C. D. F. Reventlow (q.v.). Nor was the +reforming principle limited to the abolition of serfdom. In 1788 the +corn trade was declared free; the Jews received civil rights; and the +negro slave trade was forbidden. In 1796 a special ordinance reformed +the whole system of judicial procedure, making it cheaper and more +expeditious; while the toll ordinance of the 1st of February 1797 still +further extended the principle of free trade. Moreover, until two years +after Bernstorff's death in 1797, the Danish press enjoyed a larger +freedom of speech than the press of any other absolute monarchy in +Europe, so much so that at last Denmark became suspected of favouring +Jacobin views. But in September 1799 under strong pressure from the +Russian emperor Paul, the Danish government forbade anonymity, and +introduced a limited censorship. + + +Denmark and Great Britain in the Napoleonic Wars. + +It was Denmark's obsequiousness to Russia which led to the first of her +unfortunate collisions with Great Britain. In 1800 the Danish government +was persuaded by the tsar to accede to the second Armed Neutrality +League, which Russia had just concluded with Prussia and Sweden. Great +Britain retaliated by laying an embargo on the vessels of the three +neutral powers, and by sending a considerable fleet to the Baltic under +the command of Parker and Nelson. Surprised and unprepared though they +were, the Danes, nevertheless, on the 2nd of April 1801, offered a +gallant resistance; but their fleet was destroyed, their capital +bombarded, and, abandoned by Russia, they were compelled to submit to a +disadvantageous peace. + +The same vain endeavour of Denmark to preserve her neutrality led to the +second breach with England. After the peace of Tilsit there could be no +further question of neutrality. Napoleon had determined that if Great +Britain refused to accept Russia's mediation, Denmark, Sweden and +Portugal were to be forced to close their harbours to her ships and +declare war against her. It was the intention of the Danish government +to preserve its neutrality to the last, although, on the whole, it +preferred an alliance with Great Britain to a league with Napoleon, and +was even prepared for a breach with the French emperor if he pressed her +too hardly. The army had therefore been assembled in Holstein, and the +crown prince regent was with it. But the British government did not +consider Denmark strong enough to resist France, and Canning had private +trustworthy information of the designs of Napoleon, upon which he was +bound to act. He sent accordingly a fleet, with 30,000 men on board, to +the Sound to compel Denmark, by way of security for her future conduct, +to unite her fleet with the British fleet. Denmark was offered an +alliance, the complete restitution of her fleet after the war, a +guarantee of all her possessions, compensation for all expenses, and +even territorial aggrandizement. + + +Loss of Norway. Treaty of Kiel, 1814. + +Dictatorially presented as they were, these terms were liberal and even +generous; and if a great statesman like Bernstorff had been at the head +of affairs in Copenhagen, he would, no doubt, have accepted them, even +if with a wry face. But the prince regent, if a good patriot, was a poor +politician, and invincibly obstinate. When, therefore, in August 1807, +Gambier arrived in the Sound, and the English plenipotentiary Francis +James Jackson, not perhaps the most tactful person that could have been +chosen, hastened to Kiel to place the British demands before the crown +prince, Frederick not only refused to negotiate, but ordered the +Copenhagen authorities to put the city in the best state of defence +possible. Taking this to be tantamount to a declaration of war, on the +16th of August the British army landed at Vedbäck; and shortly +afterwards the Danish capital was invested. Anything like an adequate +defence was hopeless; a bombardment began which lasted from the 2nd of +September till the 5th of September, and ended with the capitulation of +the city and the surrender of the fleet intact, the prince regent having +neglected to give orders for its destruction. After this Denmark, +unwisely, but not unnaturally, threw herself into the arms of Napoleon +and continued to be his faithful ally till the end of the war. She was +punished for her obstinacy by being deprived of Norway, which she was +compelled to surrender to Sweden by the terms of the treaty of Kiel +(1814), on the 14th of January, receiving by way of compensation a sum +of money and Swedish Pomerania, with Rügen, which were subsequently +transferred to Prussia in exchange for the duchy of Lauenburg and +2,000,000 rix-dollars. + +On the establishment of the German Confederation in 1815, Frederick VI. +acceded thereto as duke of Holstein, but refused to allow Schleswig to +enter it, on the ground that Schleswig was an integral part of the +Danish realm. + + +Denmark after 1815. + +Constitutional agitation. Beginnings of the Schleswig-Holstein Question. + +Unionist Constitution of 1848, and war with Prussia. + +The position of Denmark from 1815 to 1830 was one of great difficulty +and distress. The loss of Norway necessitated considerable reductions of +expenditure, but the economies actually practised fell far short of the +requirements of the diminished kingdom and its depleted exchequer; while +the agricultural depression induced by the enormous fall in the price of +corn all over Europe caused fresh demands upon the state, and added +10,000,000 rix-dollars to the national debt before 1835. The last two +years of the reign of Frederick VI. (1838-1839) were also remarkable for +the revival of political life, provincial consultative assemblies being +established for Jutland, the Islands, Schleswig and Holstein, by the +ordinance of the 28th of May 1831. But these consultative assemblies +were regarded as insufficient by the Danish Liberals, and during the +last years of Frederick VI. and the whole reign of his successor, +Christian VIII. (1839-1848), the agitation for a free constitution, both +in Denmark and the duchies, continued to grow in strength, in spite of +press prosecutions and other repressive measures. The rising national +feeling in Germany also stimulated the separatist tendencies of the +duchies; and "Schleswig-Holsteinism," as it now began to be called, +evoked in Denmark the counter-movement known as _Eiderdansk-politik_, +i.e. the policy of extending Denmark to the Eider and obliterating +German Schleswig, in order to save Schleswig from being absorbed by +Germany. This division of national sentiment within the monarchy, +complicated by the approaching extinction of the Oldenburg line of the +house of Denmark, by which, in the normal course under the Salic law, +the succession to Holstein would have passed away from the Danish crown, +opened up the whole complicated Schleswig-Holstein Question with all its +momentous consequences. (See SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION.) Within the +monarchy itself, during the following years, "Schleswig-Holsteinism" and +"Eiderdanism" faced each other as rival, mutually exacerbating forces; +and the efforts of succeeding governments to solve the insoluble problem +broke down ever on the rock of nationalist passion and the interests of +the German powers. The unionist constitution, devised by Christian +VIII., and promulgated by his successor, Frederick VII. (1848-1863), on +the 28th of January 1848, led to the armed intervention of Prussia, at +the instance of the new German parliament at Frankfort; and, though with +the help of Russian and British diplomacy, the Danes were ultimately +successful, they had to submit, in 1851, to the government of Holstein +by an international commission consisting of three members, Prussian, +Austrian and Danish respectively. + +Denmark, meanwhile, had been engaged in providing herself with a +parliament on modern lines. The constitutional rescript of the 28th of +January 1848 had been withdrawn in favour of an electoral law for a +national assembly, of whose 152 members 38 were to be nominated by the +king and to form an Upper House (_Landsting_), while the remainder were +to be elected by the people and to form a popular chamber (_Folketing_). +The _Bondevenlige_, or philo-peasant party, which objected to the king's +right of nomination and preferred a one-chamber system, now separated +from the National Liberals on this point. But the National Liberals +triumphed at the general election; fear of reactionary tendencies +finally induced the Radicals to accede to the wishes of the majority; +and on the 5th of June 1849 the new constitution received the royal +sanction. + + +Germany and the Danish duchies. + +Convention of 1852. + +At this stage Denmark's foreign relations prejudicially affected her +domestic politics. The Liberal Eiderdansk party was for dividing Schleswig +into three distinct administrative belts, according as the various +nationalities predominated (language rescripts of 1851), but German +sentiment was opposed to any such settlement and, still worse, the great +continental powers looked askance on the new Danish constitution as far +too democratic. The substance of the notes embodying the exchange of +views, in 1851 and 1852, between the German great powers and Denmark, was +promulgated, on the 28th of January 1852, in the new constitutional decree +which, together with the documents on which it was founded, was known as +the Conventions of 1851 and 1852. Under this arrangement each part of the +monarchy was to have local autonomy, with a common constitution for common +affairs. Holstein was now restored to Denmark, and Prussia and Austria +consented to take part in the conference of London, by which the integrity +of Denmark was upheld, and the succession to the whole monarchy +settled on Prince Christian, youngest son of Duke William of +Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, and husband of Louise of Hesse, +the niece of King Christian VIII. The "legitimate" heir to the duchies, +under the Salic law, Duke Christian of Sonderburg-Augustenburg, accepted +the decision of the London conference in consideration of the purchase by +the Danish government of his estates in Schleswig. + + +Constitution of 1855. + +Constitution of 1863 and accession of Christian IX. + +Prusso-Danish War of 1864, and cession of the duchies. + +On the 2nd of October 1855 was promulgated the new common constitution, +which for two years had been the occasion of a fierce contention between +the Conservatives and the Radicals. It proved no more final than its +predecessors. The representatives of the duchies in the new common +_Rigsraad_ protested against it, as subversive of the Conventions of +1851 and 1852; and their attitude had the support of the German powers. +In 1857, Carl Christian Hall (q.v.) became prime minister. After putting +off the German powers by seven years of astute diplomacy, he realized +the impossibility of carrying out the idea of a common constitution and, +on the 30th of March 1862, a royal proclamation was issued detaching +Holstein as far as possible from the common monarchy. Later in the year +he introduced into the _Rigsraad_ a common constitution for Denmark and +Schleswig, which was carried through and confirmed by the council of +state on the 13th of November 1863. It had not, however, received the +royal assent when the death of Frederick VII. brought the "Protocol +King" Christian IX. to the throne. Placed between the necessity of +offending his new subjects or embroiling himself with the German powers, +Christian chose the remoter evil and, on the 18th of November, the new +constitution became law. This once more opened up the whole question in +an acute form. Frederick, son of Christian of Augustenburg, refusing to +be bound by his father's engagements, entered Holstein and, supported by +the Estates and the German diet, proclaimed himself duke. The events +that followed: the occupation of the duchies by Austria and Prussia, the +war of 1864, gallantly fought by the Danes against overwhelming odds, +and the astute diplomacy by which Bismarck succeeded in ultimately +gaining for Prussia the seaboard so essential for her maritime power, +are dealt with elsewhere (see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION). For Denmark +the question was settled when, by the peace of Vienna (October 30, +1864), the duchies were irretrievably lost to her. At the peace of +Prague, which terminated the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Napoleon III. +procured the insertion in the treaty of paragraph v., by which the +northern districts of Schleswig were to be reunited to Denmark when the +majority of the population by a free vote should so desire; but when +Prussia at last thought fit to negotiate with Denmark on the subject, +she laid down conditions which the Danish government could not accept. +Finally, in 1878, by a separate agreement between Austria and Prussia, +paragraph v. was rescinded. + + +Constitutional struggles in Denmark since 1866. + +The salient feature of Danish politics during subsequent years was the +struggle between the two _Tings_, the _Folketing_ or Lower House, and +the _Landsting_, or Upper House of the _Rigsdag_. This contest began in +1872, when a combination of all the Radical parties, known as the +"United Left," passed a vote of want of confidence against the +government and rejected the budget. Nevertheless, the ministry, +supported by the _Landsting_, refused to resign; and the crisis became +acute when, in 1875, J. B. Estrup became prime minister. Perceiving that +the coming struggle would be essentially a financial one, he retained +the ministry of finance in his own hands; and, strong in the support of +the king, the _Landsting_, and a considerable minority in the country +itself, he devoted himself to the double task of establishing the +political parity of the _Landsting_ with the _Folketing_ and +strengthening the national armaments, so that, in the event of a war +between the European great powers, Denmark might be able to defend her +neutrality. + +The Left was willing to vote 30,000,000 crowns for extraordinary +military expenses, exclusive of the fortifications of Copenhagen, on +condition that the amount should be raised by a property and income tax; +and, as the elections of 1875 had given them a majority of three-fourths +in the popular chamber, they spoke with no uncertain voice. But the +Upper House steadily supported Estrup, who was disinclined to accept any +such compromise. As an agreement between the two houses on the budget +proved impossible, a provisional financial decree was issued on the 12th +of April 1877, which the Left stigmatized as a breach of the +constitution. But the difficulties of the ministry were somewhat +relieved by a split in the Radical party, still further accentuated by +the elections of 1879, which enabled Estrup to carry through the army +and navy defence bill and the new military penal code by leaning +alternately upon one or the other of the divided Radical groups. + +After the elections of 1881, which brought about the reamalgamation of +the various Radical sections, the opposition presented a united front to +the government, so that, from 1882 onwards, legislation was almost at a +standstill. The elections of 1884 showed clearly that the nation was +also now on the side of the Radicals, 83 out of the 102 members of the +_Folketing_ belonging to the opposition. Still Estrup remained at his +post. He had underestimated the force of public opinion, but he was +conscientiously convinced that a Conservative ministry was necessary to +Denmark at this crisis. When therefore the _Rigsdag_ rejected the +budget, he advised the king to issue another provisional financial +decree. Henceforth, so long as the _Folketing_ refused to vote supplies, +the ministry regularly adopted these makeshifts. In 1886 the Left, +having no constitutional means of dismissing the Estrup ministry, +resorted for the first time to negotiations; but it was not till the 1st +of April 1894 that the majority of the _Folketing_ could arrive at an +agreement with the government and the _Landsting_ as to a budget which +should be retrospective and sanction the employment of the funds so +irregularly obtained for military expenditure. The whole question of the +provisional financial decrees was ultimately regularized by a special +resolution of the _Rigsdag_; and the retirement of the Estrup ministry +in August 1894 was the immediate result of the compromise. + +In spite of the composition of 1894, the animosity between _Folketing_ +and _Landsting_ continues to characterize Danish politics, and the +situation has been complicated by the division of both Right and Left +into widely divergent groups. The elections of 1895 resulted in an +undeniable victory of the extreme Radicals; and the budget of 1895-1896 +was passed only at the last moment by a compromise. The session of +1896-1897 was remarkable for a _rapprochement_ between the ministry and +the "Left Reform Party," caused by the secessions of the "Young Right," +which led to an unprecedented event in Danish politics--the voting of +the budget by the Radical _Folketing_ and its rejection by the +Conservative _Landsting_ in May 1897; whereupon the ministry resigned in +favour of the moderate Conservative Hörring cabinet, which induced the +Upper House to pass the budget. The elections of 1898 were a fresh +defeat for the Conservatives, and in the autumn session of the same +year, the _Folketing_, by a crushing majority of 85 to 12, rejected the +military budget. The ministry was saved by a mere accident--the +expulsion of Danish agitators from North Schleswig by the German +government, which evoked a passion of patriotic protest throughout +Denmark, and united all parties, the war minister declaring in the +_Folketing_, during the debate on the military budget (January 1899), +that the armaments of Denmark were so far advanced that any great power +must think twice before venturing to attack her. The chief event of the +year 1899 was the great strike of 40,000 artisans, which cost Denmark +50,000,000 crowns, and brought about a reconstruction of the cabinet in +order to bring in, as minister of the interior, Ludwig Ernest Bramsen, +the great specialist in industrial matters, who succeeded (September +2-4) in bringing about an understanding between workmen and employers. +The session 1900-1901 was remarkable for the further disintegration of +the Conservative party still in office (the Sehested cabinet superseded +the Hörring cabinet on the 27th of April 1900) and the almost total +paralysis of parliament, caused by the interminable debates on the +question of taxation reform. The crisis came in 1901. Deprived of nearly +all its supporters in the _Folketing_, the Conservative ministry +resigned, and King Christian was obliged to assent to the formation of a +"cabinet of the Left" under Professor Deuntzer. Various reforms were +carried, but the proposal to sell the Danish islands in the West Indies +to the United States fell through. During these years the relations +between Denmark and the German empire improved, and in the country +itself the cause of social democracy made great progress. In January +1906 King Christian ended his long reign, and was succeeded by his son +Frederick VIII. At the elections of 1906 the government lost its small +absolute majority, but remained in power with support from the Moderates +and Conservatives. It was severely shaken, however, when Herr A. +Alberti, who had been minister of justice since 1901, and was admitted +to be the strongest member of the cabinet, was openly accused of +nepotism and abuse of the power of his position. These charges gathered +weight until the minister was forced to resign in July 1908, and in +September he was arrested on a charge of forgery in his capacity as +director of the Zealand Peasants' Savings Bank. The ministry, of which +Herr Jens Christian Christensen was head, was compelled to resign in +October. The effect of these revelations was profound not only +politically, but also economically; the important export trade in Danish +butter, especially, was adversely affected, as Herr Alberti had been +interested in numerous dairy companies. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--I. GENERAL HISTORY. _Danmarks Riges Historie_ + (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); R. Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, + 1905); H. Weitemeyer, _Denmark_ (London, 1901); Adolf Ditley + Jörgensen, _Historiske Afhandlinger_ (Copenhagen, 1898); _ib. + Fortaellinger af Nordens Historie_ (Copenhagen, 1892). II. EARLY AND + MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Saxo, _Gesta Danorum_ (Strassburg, 1886); + _Repertorium diplomaticum regni Danici mediaevalis_ (Copenhagen, + 1894); Ludvig Holberg, _Konge og Danehof_ (Copenhagen, 1895); Poul + Frederik Barford, _Danmarks Historie 1319-1536_ (Copenhagen, 1885); + _ib. 1536-1670_ (Copenhagen, 1891). III. 16TH TO 19TH CENTURY. Philip + P. Munch, _Kobstadstyrelsen i Danmark_ (Copenhagen, 1900); Peter + Edvard Holm, _Danmark Norges indre Historie, 1660-1720_ (Copenhagen, + 1885-1886); _ib. Danmark Norges Historie, 1720-1814_ (Copenhagen, + 1891-1894); Sören Bloch Thrige, _Danmarks Historie i vort + Aarhundrede_ (Copenhagen, 1888); Marcus Rubin, _Frederick VI.'s Tid + fra Kielerfreden_ (Copenhagen, 1895); Christian Frederick von Holten, + _Erinnerungen; Der deutsch-dänische Krieg_ (Stuttgart, 1900); Niels + Peter Jensen, _Den anden slesvigske Krig_ (Copenhagen, 1900); S. N. + Mouritsen, _Vor Forfatnings Historie_ (Copenhagen, 1894); Carl + Frederik Vilhelm Mathildus Rosenberg, _Danmark i Aaret 1848_ + (Copenhagen, 1891). See also the special bibliographies appended to + the biographies of the Danish kings and statesmen. (R. N. B.) + + +LITERATURE + +The present language of Denmark is derived directly from the same source +as that of Sweden, and the parent of both is the old Scandinavian (see +SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES). In Iceland this tongue, with some +modifications, has remained in use, and until about 1100 it was the +literary language of the whole of Scandinavia. The influence of Low +German first, and High German afterwards, has had the effect of drawing +modern Danish constantly farther from this early type. The difference +began to show itself in the 12th century. R. K. Rask, and after him N. +M. Petersen, have distinguished four periods in the development of the +language, The first, which has been called Oldest Danish, dating from +about 1100 and 1250, shows a slightly changed character, mainly +depending on the system of inflections. In the second period, that of +Old Danish, bringing us down to 1400, the change of the system of vowels +begins to be settled, and masculine and feminine are mingled in a common +gender. An indefinite article has been formed, and in the conjugation of +the verb a great simplicity sets in. In the third period, 1400-1530, the +influence of German upon the language is supreme, and culminates in the +Reformation. The fourth period, from 1530 to about 1680, completes the +work of development, and leaves the language as we at present find it. + +The earliest work known to have been written in Denmark was a Latin +biography of Knud the Saint, written by an English monk Ælnoth, who was +attached to the church of St Alban in Odense where King Knud was +murdered. Denmark produced several Latin writers of merit. Anders +Sunesen (d. 1228) wrote a long poem in hexameters, _Hexaëmeron_, +describing the creation. Under the auspices of Archbishop Absalon the +monks of Sorö began to compile the annals of Denmark, and at the end of +the 12th century Svend Aagesen, a cleric of Lund, compiled from +Icelandic sources and oral tradition his _Compendiosa historia regum +Daniae_. The great Saxo Grammaticus (q.v.) wrote his _Historia Danica_ +under the same patronage. + +It was not till the 16th century that literature began to be generally +practised in the vernacular in Denmark. The oldest laws which are still +preserved date from the beginning of the 13th century, and many +different collections are in existence.[2] A single work detains us in +the 13th century, a treatise on medicine[3] by Henrik Harpestreng, who +died in 1244. The first royal edict written in Danish is dated 1386; and +the Act of Union at Kalmar, written in 1397, is the most important piece +of the vernacular of the 14th century. Between 1300 and 1500, however, +it is supposed that the _Kjaempeviser_, or Danish ballads, a large +collection of about 500 epical and lyrical poems, were originally +composed, and these form the most precious legacy of the Denmark of the +middle ages, whether judged historically or poetically. We know nothing +of the authors of these poems, which treat of the heroic adventures of +the great warriors and lovely ladies of the chivalric age in strains of +artless but often exquisite beauty. Some of the subjects are borrowed in +altered form from the old mythology, while a few derive from Christian +legend, and many deal with national history. The language in which we +receive these ballads, however, is as late as the 16th or even the 17th +century, but it is believed that they have become gradually modernized +in the course of oral tradition. The first attempt to collect the +ballads was made in 1591 by Anders Sörensen Vedel (1542-1616), who +published 100 of them. Peder Syv printed 100 more in 1695. In 1812-1814 +an elaborate collection in five volumes appeared at Christiania, edited +by W. H. F. Abrahamson, R. Nyerup and K. M. Rahbek. Finally, Svend +Grundtvig produced an exhaustive edition, _Danmarks gamle Folkeviser_ +(Copenhagen, 1853-1883, 5 vols.), which was supplemented (1891) by A. +Olrik. + +In 1490, the first printing press was set up at Copenhagen, by Gottfried +of Gemen, who had brought it from Westphalia; and five years later the +first Danish book was printed. This was the famous _Rimkrönike_[4]; a +history of Denmark in rhymed Danish verse, attributed by its first +editor to Niels (d. 1481); a monk of the monastery of Sorö. It extends +to the death of Christian I., in 1481, which may be supposed to be +approximately the date of the poem. In 1479 the university of Copenhagen +had been founded. In 1506 the same Gottfried of Gemen published a famous +collection of proverbs, attributed to Peder Laale. Mikkel, priest of St +Alban's Church in Odense, wrote three sacred poems, _The Rose-Garland of +Maiden Mary_, _The Creation_ and _Human Life_, which came out together +in 1514, shortly before his death. The popular _Lucidarius_ also +appeared in the vulgar tongue. + +These few productions appeared along with innumerable works in Latin, +and dimly heralded a Danish literature. It was the Reformation that +first awoke the living spirit in the popular tongue. Christiern Pedersen +(q.v.; 1480-1554) was the first man of letters produced in Denmark. He +edited and published, at Paris in 1514, the Latin text of the old +chronicler, Saxo Grammaticus; he worked up in their present form the +beautiful half-mythical stories of _Karl Magnus_ (Charlemagne) and +_Holger Danske_ (Ogier the Dane). He further translated the Psalms of +David and the New Testament, printed in 1529, and finally--in +conjunction with Bishop Peder Palladius--the Bible, which appeared in +1550. Hans Tausen, the bishop of Ribe (1494-1561), continued Pedersen's +work, but with far less literary talent. He may, however, be considered +as the greatest orator and teacher of the Reformation movement. He wrote +a number of popular hymns, partly original, partly translations; +translated the Pentateuch from the Hebrew; and published (1536) a +collection of sermons embodying the reformed doctrine and destined for +the use of clergy and laity. + +The Catholic party produced one controversialist of striking ability, +Povel Helgesen[5] (b. c. 1480), also known as Paulus Eliae. He had at +first been inclined to the party of reform, but when Luther broke +definitely with the papal authority he became a bitter opponent. His +most important polemical work is an answer (1528) to twelve questions on +the religious question propounded by Gustavus I. of Sweden. He is also +supposed to be the author of the _Skiby Chronicle_,[6] in which he does +not confine himself to the duties of a mere annalist, but records his +personal opinion of people and events. Vedel, by the edition of the +_Kjaempeviser_ which is mentioned above, gave an immense stimulus to the +progress of literature. He published an excellent translation of Saxo +Grammaticus in 1575. The first edition of a Danish _Reineke Fuchs_, by +Herman Weigere, appeared at Lübeck in 1555, and the first authorized +Psalter in 1559. Arild Huitfeld wrote _Chronicle of the Kingdom of +Denmark_, printed in ten volumes, between 1595 and 1604. + +There are few traces of dramatic effort in Denmark before the +Reformation; and many of the plays of that period may be referred to the +class of school comedies. Hans Sthen, a lyrical poet, wrote a morality +entitled _Kortvending_ ("Change of Fortune"), which is really a +collection of monologues to be delivered by students. The anonymous +_Ludus de Sancto Kanuto_[7] (c. 1530) which in spite of its title, is +written in Danish, is the earliest Danish national drama. The burlesque +drama assigned to Christian Hansen, _The Faithless Wife_, is the only +one of its kind that has survived. But the best of these old dramatic +authors was a priest of Viborg, Justesen Ranch (1539-1607), who wrote +_Kong Salomons Hylding_ ("The Crowning of King Solomon") (1585), +_Samsons Faengsel_ ("The Imprisonment of Samson"), which includes +lyrical passages which have given it claims to be considered the first +Danish opera, and a farce, _Karrig Niding_ ("The Miserly Miscreant"). +Beside these works Ranch wrote a famous moralizing poem, entitled "A new +song, of the nature and song of certain birds, in which many vices are +punished, and many virtues praised." Peder Clausen[8] (1545-1614), a +Norwegian by birth and education, wrote a _Description of Norway_, as +well as an admirable translation of Snorri Sturlason's _Heimskringla_, +published ten years after Clausen's death. The father of Danish poetry, +Anders Kristensen Arrebo (1587-1637), was bishop of Trondhjem, but was +deprived of his see for immorality. He was a poet of considerable +genius, which is most brilliantly shown in an imitation of Du Bartas's +_Divine Semaine_, the _Hexaëmeron_, a poem on the creation, in six +books, which did not appear till 1661. He also made a translation of the +Psalms. + +He was followed by Anders Bording (1619-1677), a cheerful occasional +versifier, and by Thöger Reenberg (1656-1742), a poet of somewhat higher +gifts, who lived on into a later age. Among prose writers should be +mentioned the grammarian Peder Syv,[9] (1631-1702); Bishop Erik +Pontoppidan (1616-1678), whose _Grammatica Danica_, published in 1668, +is the first systematic analysis of the language; Birgitta Thott +(1610-1662), a lady who translated Seneca (1658); and Leonora Christina +Ulfeld, daughter of Christian IV., who has left a touching account of +her long imprisonment in her _Jammersminde_. Ole Worm (1588-1654), a +learned pedagogue and antiquarian, preserved in his _Danicorum +monumentorum libri sex_ (Copenhagen, 1643) the descriptions of many +antiquities which have since perished or been lost. + +In two spiritual poets the advancement of the literature of Denmark took +a further step. Thomas Kingo[10] (1634-1703) was the first who wrote +Danish with perfect ease and grace. He was a Scot by descent, and +retained the vital energy of his ancestors as a birthright. In 1677 he +became bishop in Fünen, where he died in 1703. His _Winter Psalter_ +(1689), and the so-called _Kingo's Psalter_ (1699), contained brilliant +examples of lyrical writing, and an employment of language at once +original and national. Kingo had a charming fancy, a clear sense of form +and great rapidity and variety of utterance. Some of his very best hymns +are in the little volume he published in 1681, and hence the old period +of semi-articulate Danish may be said to close with this eventful +decade, which also witnessed the birth of Holberg. The other great +hymn-writer was Hans Adolf Brorson (1694-1764), who published in 1740 a +great psalm-book at the king's command, in which he added his own to the +best of Kingo's. Both these men held high posts in the church, one being +bishop of Fünen and the other of Ribe; but Brorson was much inferior to +Kingo in genius. With these names the introductory period of Danish +literature ends. The language was now formed, and was being employed for +almost all the uses of science and philosophy. + +Ludvig Holberg (q.v.; 1684-1754) may be called the founder of modern +Danish literature. His various works still retain their freshness and +vital attraction. As an historian his style was terse and brilliant, his +spirit philosophical, and his data singularly accurate. He united two +unusual gifts, being at the same time the most cultured man of his day, +and also in the highest degree a practical person, who clearly perceived +what would most rapidly educate and interest the uncultivated. In his +thirty-three dramas, sparkling comedies in prose, more or less in +imitation of Molière, he has left his most important positive legacy to +literature. Nor in any series of comedies in existence is decency so +rarely sacrificed to a desire for popularity or a false sense of wit. + +Holberg founded no school of immediate imitators, but his stimulating +influence was rapid and general. The university of Copenhagen, which had +been destroyed by fire in 1728, was reopened in 1742, and under the +auspices of the historian Hans Gram (1685-1748), who founded the Danish +Royal Academy of Sciences, it inspired an active intellectual life. Gram +laid the foundation of critical history in Denmark. He brought to bear +on the subject a full knowledge of documents and sources. His best work +lies in his annotated editions of the older chroniclers. In 1744 Jakob +Langebek (1710-1775) founded the Society for the Improvement of the +Danish Language, which opened the field of philology. He began the great +collection of _Scriptores rerum Danicarum medii aevi_ (9 vols., +Copenhagen, 1772-1878). In jurisprudence Andreas Höier (1690-1739) +represented the new impulse, and in zoology Erik Pontoppidan (q.v.), the +younger. This last name represents a lifelong activity in many branches +of literature. From Holberg's college of Sorö, two learned professors, +Jens Schelderup Sneedorff (1724-1764) and Jens Kraft (1720-1765), +disseminated the seeds of a wider culture. All these men were aided by +the generous and enlightened patronage of Frederick V. A little later +on, the German poet Klopstock settled in Copenhagen, bringing with him +the prestige of his great reputation, and he had a strong influence in +Germanizing Denmark. He founded, however, the Society for the Fine Arts, +and had it richly endowed. The first prize offered was won by Christian +Braumann Tullin (1728-1765) for his beautiful poem of _May-day_. Tullin, +a Norwegian by birth, represents the first accession of a study of +external nature in Danish poetry; he was an ardent disciple of the +English poet Thomson. Christian Falster (1690-1752) wrote satires of +some merit, but most of his work is in Latin. The _New Heroic Poems_ of +Jörgen Sorterup are notable as imitations of the old folk-literature. +Ambrosius Stub[11] (1705-1758) was a lyrist of great sweetness, born +before his due time, whose poems, not published till 1771, belong to a +later age than their author. + +_The Lyrical Revival._--Between 1742 and 1749, that is to say, at the +very climax of the personal activity of Holberg, several poets were +born, who were destined to enrich the language with its first group of +lyrical blossoms. Of these the two eldest, Wessel and Ewald, were men of +extraordinary genius, and destined to fascinate the attention of +posterity, not only by the brilliance of their productions, but by the +suffering and brevity of their lives. Johannes Ewald (q.v.; 1743-1781) +was not only the greatest Danish lyrist of the 18th century, but he had +few rivals in the whole of Europe. As a dramatist, pure and simple, his +bird-like instinct of song carried him too often into a sphere too +exalted for the stage; but he has written nothing that is not stamped +with the exquisite quality of distinction. Johan Herman Wessel[12] +(1742-1785) excited even greater hopes in his contemporaries, but left +less that is immortal behind him. After the death of Holberg, the +affectation of Gallicism had reappeared in Denmark; and the tragedies of +Voltaire, with their stilted rhetoric, were the most popular dramas of +the day. Johan Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), a young writer who did better +things later on, gave the finishing touch to the exotic absurdity by +bringing out a wretched piece called _Zarina_, which was hailed by the +press as the first original Danish tragedy, although Ewald's exquisite +_Rolf Krage_, which truly merited that title, had appeared two years +before. Wessel, who up to that time had only been known as the president +of a club of wits, immediately wrote _Love without Stockings_ (1772), in +which a plot of the most abject triviality is worked out in strict +accordance with the rules of French tragedy, and in most pompous and +pathetic Alexandrines. The effect of this piece was magical; the Royal +Theatre ejected its cuckoo-brood of French plays, and even the Italian +opera. It was now essential that every performance should be national, +and in the Danish language. To supply the place of the opera, native +musicians, and especially J. P. E. Hartmann, set the dramas of Ewald and +others, and thus the Danish school of music originated. Johan Nordahl +Brun's best work is to be found in his patriotic songs and his hymns. He +became bishop of Bergen in 1803. + +Of the other poets of the revival the most important were born in +Norway. Nordahl Brun, Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Claus Fasting +(1746-1791), who edited a brilliant aesthetic journal, _The Critical +Observer_, Christian H. Pram[13] (1756-1821), author of _Staerkodder_, a +romantic epic, based on Scandinavian legend, and Edvard Storm +(1749-1794), were associates and mainly fellow-students at Copenhagen, +where they introduced a style peculiar to themselves, and distinct from +that of the true Danes. Their lyrics celebrated the mountains and rivers +of the magnificent country they had left; and, while introducing images +and scenery unfamiliar to the inhabitants of monotonous Denmark, they +enriched the language with new words and phrases. This group of writers +is now claimed by the Norwegians as the founders of a Norwegian +literature; but their true place is certainly among the Danes, to whom +they primarily appealed. They added nothing to the development of the +drama, except in the person of N. K. Bredal (1733-1778), who became +director of the Royal Danish Theatre, and the writer of some mediocre +plays. + +To the same period belong a few prose writers of eminence. Werner +Abrahamson (1744-1812) was the first aesthetic critic Denmark produced. +Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was eminent in many branches of science, +but especially as a medical writer. Ove Mailing (1746-1829) was an +untiring collector of historical data, which he annotated in a lively +style. Two historians of more definite claim on our attention are Peter +Frederik Suhm (1728-1798), whose _History of Denmark_ (11 vols., +Copenhagen, 1782-1812) contains a mass of original material, and Ove +Guldberg (1731-1808). In theology Christian Bastholm (1740-1819) and +Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), bishop of Zealand, a Norwegian by +birth, demand a reference. But the only really great prose-writer of the +period was the Norwegian, Niels Treschow (1751-1833), whose +philosophical works are composed in an admirably lucid style, and are +distinguished for their depth and originality. + +The poetical revival sank in the next generation to a more mechanical +level. The number of writers of some talent was very great, but genius +was wanting. Two intimate friends, Jonas Rein (1760-1821) and Jens +Zetlitz (1761-1821), attempted, with indifferent success, to continue +the tradition of the Norwegian group. Thomas Thaarup (1749-1821) was a +fluent and eloquent writer of occasional poems, and of homely dramatic +idylls. The early death of Ole Samsöe (1759-1796) prevented the +development of a dramatic talent that gave rare promise. But while +poetry languished, prose, for the first time, began to flourish in +Denmark. Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was a pleasing novelist, a +dramatist of some merit, a pathetic elegist, and a witty song-writer; he +was also a man full of the literary instinct, and through a long life he +never ceased to busy himself with editing the works of the older poets, +and spreading among the people a knowledge of Danish literature through +his magazine, _Minerva_, edited in conjunction with C. H. Pram. Peter +Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841) was a political and aesthetic critic of +note. He was exiled from Denmark in company with another sympathizer +with the principles of the French Revolution, Malte Conrad Brunn +(1775-1826), who settled in Paris, and attained a world-wide reputation +as a geographer. O. C. Olufsen (1764-1827) was a writer on geography, +zoology and political economy. Rasmus Nyerup (1759-1829) expended an +immense energy in the compilation of admirable works on the history of +language and literature. From 1778 to his death he exercised a great +power in the statistical and critical departments of letters. The best +historian of this period, however, was Engelstoft (1774-1850), and the +most brilliant theologian Bishop Mynster (1775-1854). In the annals of +modern science Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) is a name universally +honoured. He explained his inventions and described his discoveries in +language so lucid and so characteristic that he claims an honoured place +in the literature of the country of whose culture, in other branches, he +is one of the most distinguished ornaments. + +On the threshold of the romantic movement occurs the name of Jens +Baggesen (q.v.; 1764-1826), a man of great genius, whose work was +entirely independent of the influences around him. Jens Baggesen is the +greatest comic poet that Denmark has produced; and as a satirist and +witty lyrist he has no rival among the Danes. In his hands the +difficulties of the language disappear; he performs with the utmost ease +extraordinary _tours de force_ of style. His astonishing talents were +wasted on trifling themes and in a fruitless resistance to the modern +spirit in literature. + +_Romanticism._--With the beginning of the 19th century the new light in +philosophy and poetry, which radiated from Germany through all parts of +Europe, found its way into Denmark also. In scarcely any country was the +result so rapid or so brilliant. There arose in Denmark a school of +poets who created for themselves a reputation in all parts of Europe, +and would have done honour to any nation or any age. The splendid +cultivation of metrical art threw other branches into the shade; and the +epoch of which we are about to speak is eminent above all for mastery +over verse. The swallow who heralded the summer was a German by birth, +Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt[14] (1769-1826), who came over to +Copenhagen from Pomerania, and prepared the way for the new movement. +Since Ewald no one had written Danish lyrical verse so exquisitely as +Schack von Staffeldt, and the depth and scientific precision of his +thought won him a title which he has preserved, of being the first +philosophic poet of Denmark. The writings of this man are the deepest +and most serious which Denmark had produced, and at his best he yields +to no one in choice and skilful use of expression. This sweet song of +Schack von Staffeldt's, however, was early silenced by the louder choir +that one by one broke into music around him. It was Adam Gottlob +Öhlenschläger (q.v.; 1779-1850), the greatest poet of Denmark, who was +to bring about the new romantic movement. In 1802 he happened to meet +the young Norwegian Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), who had just returned +from a scientific tour in Germany, full of the doctrines of Schelling. +Under the immediate direction of Steffens, Öhlenschläger began an +entirely new poetic style, and destroyed all his earlier verses. A new +epoch in the language began, and the rapidity and matchless facility of +the new poetry was the wonder of Steffens himself. The old Scandinavian +mythology lived in the hands of Öhlenschläger exactly as the classical +Greek religion was born again in Keats. He aroused in his people the +slumbering sense of their Scandinavian nationality. + +The retirement of Öhlenschläger comparatively early in life, left the +way open for the development of his younger contemporaries, among whom +several had genius little inferior to his own. Steen Steensen Blicher +(1782-1848) was a Jutlander, and preserved all through life the +characteristics of his sterile and sombre fatherland. After a struggling +youth of great poverty, he published, in 1807-1809, a translation of +Ossian; in 1814 a volume of lyrical poems; and in 1817 he attracted +considerable attention by his descriptive poem of _The Tour in Jutland_. +His real genius, however, did not lie in the direction of verse; and his +first signal success was with a story, _A Village Sexton's Diary_, in +1824, which was rapidly followed by other tales, descriptive of village +life in Jutland, for the next twelve years. These were collected in five +volumes (1833-1836). His masterpiece is a collection of short stories, +called _The Spinning Room_. He also produced many national lyrics of +great beauty. But it was Blicher's use of _patois_ which delighted his +countrymen with a sense of freshness and strength. They felt as though +they heard Danish for the first time spoken in its fulness. The poet +Aarestrup (in 1848) declared that Blicher had raised the Danish language +to the dignity of Icelandic. Blicher is a stern realist, in many points +akin to Crabbe, and takes a singular position among the romantic +idealists of the period, being like them, however, in the love of +precise and choice language, and hatred of the mere commonplaces of +imaginative writing.[15] + +Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (q.v.; 1783-1872), like +Öhlenschläger, learned the principles of the German romanticism from the +lips of Steffens. He adopted the idea of introducing the Old +Scandinavian element into art, and even into life, still more earnestly +than the older poet. Bernhard Severin Ingemann (q.v.; 1789-1862) +contributed to Danish literature historical romances in the style of Sir +Walter Scott. Johannes Carsten Hauch (q.v.; 1790-1872) first +distinguished himself as a disciple of Öhlenschläger, and fought under +him in the strife against the old school and Baggesen. But the master +misunderstood the disciple; and the harsh repulse of Öhlenschläger +silenced Hauch for many years. He possessed, however, a strong and +fluent genius, which eventually made itself heard in a multitude of +volumes, poems, dramas and novels. All that Hauch wrote is marked by +great qualities, and by distinction; he had a native bias towards the +mystical, which, however, he learned to keep in abeyance. + +Johan Ludvig Heiberg (q.v.; 1791-1860) was a critic who ruled the world +of Danish taste for many years. His mother, the Baroness +Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd (q.v.; 1773-1856), wrote a large number of +anonymous novels. Her knowledge of life, her sparkling wit and her +almost faultless style, make these short stories masterpieces of their +kind. + +Christian Hviid Bredahl (1784-1860) produced six volumes of _Dramatic +Scenes_[16] (1819-1833) which, in spite of their many brilliant +qualities, were little appreciated at the time. Bredahl gave up +literature in despair to become a peasant farmer, and died in poverty. + +Ludvig Adolf Bödtcher (1793-1874) wrote a single volume of lyrical +poems, which he gradually enlarged in succeeding editions. He was a +consummate artist in verse, and his impressions are given with the most +delicate exactitude of phrase, and in a very fine strain of imagination. +He was a quietist and an epicurean, and the closest parallel to Horner +in the literature of the North. Most of Bödtcher's poems deal with +Italian life, which he learned to know thoroughly during a long +residence in Rome. He was secretary to Thorwaldsen for a considerable +time. + +Christian Winther (q.v.; 1796-1876) made the island of Zealand his +loving study, and that province of Denmark belongs to him no less +thoroughly than the Cumberland lakes belong to Wordsworth. Between the +latter poet and Winther there was much resemblance. He was, without +compeer, the greatest pastoral lyrist of Denmark. His exquisite strains, +in which pure imagination is blended with most accurate and realistic +descriptions of scenery and rural life, have an extraordinary charm not +easily described. + +The youngest of the great poets born during the last twenty years of the +18th century was Henrik Hertz (q.v.; 1797-1870). As a satirist and comic +poet he followed Baggesen, and in all branches of the poetic art stood a +little aside out of the main current of romanticism. He introduced into +the Danish literature of his time inestimable elements of lucidity and +purity. In his best pieces Hertz is the most modern and most +cosmopolitan of the Danish writers of his time. + +It is noticeable that all the great poets of the romantic period lived +to an advanced age. Their prolonged literary activity--for some of them, +like Grundtvig, were busy to the last--had a slightly damping influence +on their younger contemporaries, but certain names in the next +generation have special prominence. Hans Christian Andersen (q.v.; +1805-1875) was the greatest of modern fabulists. In 1835 there appeared +the first collection of his _Fairy Tales_, and won him a world-wide +reputation. Almost every year from this time forward until near his +death he published about Christmas time one or two of these unique +stories, so delicate in their humour and pathos, and so masterly in +their simplicity. Carl Christian Bagger (1807-1846) published volumes in +1834 and 1836 which gave promise of a great future,--a promise broken by +his early death. Frederik Paludan-Müller (q.v.; 1809-1876) developed, as +a poet, a magnificent career, which contrasted in its abundance with his +solitary and silent life as a man. His mythological or pastoral dramas, +his great satiric epos of _Adam Homo_ (1841-1848), his comedies, his +lyrics, and above all his noble philosophic tragedy of _Kalanus_, prove +the immense breadth of his compass, and the inexhaustible riches of his +imagination. C. L. Emil Aarestrup (1800-1856) published in 1838 a volume +of vivid erotic poetry, but its quality was only appreciated after his +death. Edvard Lembcke (1815-1897) made himself famous as the admirable +translator of Shakespeare, but the incidents of 1864 produced from him +some volumes of direct and manly patriotic verse. + +The poets completely ruled the literature of Denmark during this period. +There were, however, eminent men in other departments of letters, and +especially in philology. Rasmus Christian Rask (1787-1832) was one of +the most original and gifted linguists of his age. His grammars of Old +Frisian, Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon were unapproached in his own time, +and are still admirable. Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862), a disciple +of Rask, was the author of an admirable _History of Denmark in the +Heathen_ _Antiquity_, and the translator of many of the sagas. Martin +Frederik Arendt (1773-1823), the botanist and archaeologist, did much +for the study of old Scandinavian records. Christian Molbech (1783-1857) +was a laborious lexicographer, author of the first good Danish +dictionary, published in 1833. In Joachim Frederik Schouw (1789-1852), +Denmark produced a very eminent botanist, author of an exhaustive +_Geography of Plants_. In later years he threw himself with zeal into +politics. His botanical researches were carried on by Frederik Liebmann +(1813-1856). The most famous zoologist contemporary with these men was +Salomon Dreier (1813-1842). + +The romanticists found their philosopher in a most remarkable man, Sören +Aaby Kierkegaard (1813-1855), one of the most subtle thinkers of +Scandinavia, and the author of some brilliant philosophical and +polemical works. A learned philosophical writer, not to be compared, +however, for genius or originality to Kierkegaard, was Frederik +Christian Sibbern (1785-1872). He wrote a dissertation _On Poetry and +Art_ (3 vols., 1853-1869) and _The Contents of a MS. from the Year 2135_ +(3 vols., 1858-1872). + +Among novelists who were not also poets was Andreas Nikolai de +Saint-Aubain (1798-1865), who, under the pseudonym of Carl Bernhard, +wrote a series of charming romances. Mention must also be made of two +dramatists, Peter Thun Feorsom (1777-1817), who produced an excellent +translation of Shakespeare (1807-1816), and Thomas Overskou (1798-1873), +author of a long series of successful comedies, and of a history of the +Danish theatre (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1854-1864). + +Other writers whose names connect the age of romanticism with a later +period were Meyer Aron Goldschmidt (1819-1887), author of novels and +tales; Herman Frederik Ewald (1821-1908), who wrote a long series of +historical novels; Jens Christian Hostrup (1818-1892), a writer of +exquisite comedies; and the miscellaneous writer Erik Bögh (1822-1899). +In zoology, J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813-1898); in philology, J. N. Madvig +(1804-1886) and his disciple V. Thomsen (b. 1842); in antiquarianism, C. +J. Thomsen (1788-1865) and J. J. Asmussen Worsaae (1821-1885); and in +philosophy, Rasmus Nielsen (1809-1884) and Hans Bröchner (1820-1875), +deserve mention. + +The development of imaginative literature in Denmark became very closely +defined during the latter half of the 19th century. The romantic +movement culminated in several poets of great eminence, whose deaths +prepared the way for a new school. In 1874 Bödtcher passed away, in 1875 +Hans Christian Andersen, in the last week of 1876 Winther, and the +greatest of all, Frederik Paludan-Müller. The field was therefore left +open to the successors of those idealists, and in 1877 the reaction +began to be felt. The eminent critic, Dr Georg Brandes (q.v.), had long +foreseen the decline of pure romanticism, and had advocated a more +objective and more exact treatment of literary phenomena. Accordingly, +as soon as all the great planets had disappeared, a new constellation +was perceived to have risen, and all the stars in it had been lighted by +the enthusiasm of Brandes. The new writers were what he called +Naturalists, and their sympathies were with the latest forms of exotic, +but particularly of French literature. Among these fresh forces three +immediately took place as leaders--Jacobsen, Drachmann and Schandorph. +In J. P. Jacobsen (q.v.; 1847-1885) Denmark was now taught to welcome +the greatest artist in prose which she has ever possessed; his romance +of _Marie Grubbe_ led off the new school with a production of unexampled +beauty. But Jacobsen died young, and the work was really carried out by +his two companions. Holger Drachmann (q.v.; 1846-1908) began life as a +marine painter; and a first little volume of poems, which he published +in 1872, attracted slight attention. In 1877 he came forward again with +one volume of verse, another of fiction, a third of travel; in each he +displayed great vigour and freshness of touch, and he rose at one leap +to the highest position among men of promise. Drachmann retained his +place, without rival, as the leading imaginative writer in Denmark. For +many years he made the aspects of life at sea his particular theme, and +he contrived to rouse the patriotic enthusiasm of the Danish public as +it had never been roused before. His various and unceasing +productiveness, his freshness and vigour, and the inexhaustible +richness of his lyric versatility, early brought Drachmann to the front +and kept him there. Meanwhile prose imaginative literature was ably +supported by Sophus Schandorph (1836-1901), who had been entirely out of +sympathy with the idealists, and had taken no step while that school was +in the ascendant. In 1876, in his fortieth year, he was encouraged by +the change in taste to publish a volume of realistic stories, _Country +Life_, and in 1878 a novel, _Without a Centre_. He has some relation +with Guy de Maupassant as a close analyst of modern types of character, +but he has more humour. He has been compared with such Dutch painters of +low life as Teniers. His talent reached its height in the novel called +_Little Folk_ (1880), a most admirable study of lower middle-class life +in Copenhagen. He was for a while, without doubt, the leading living +novelist, and he went on producing works of great force, in which, +however, a certain monotony is apparent. The three leaders had meanwhile +been joined by certain younger men who took a prominent position. Among +these Karl Gjellerup and Erik Skram were the earliest. Gjellerup (b. +1857), whose first works of importance date from 1878, was long +uncertain as to the direction of his powers; he was poet, novelist, +moralist and biologist in one; at length he settled down into line with +the new realistic school, and produced in 1882 a satirical novel of +manners which had a great success, _The Disciple of the Teutons_. Erik +Skram (b. 1847) had in 1879 written a solitary novel, _Gertrude +Coldbjörnsen_, which created a sensation, and was hailed by Brandes as +exactly representing the "naturalism" which he desired to see +encouraged; but Skram has written little else of importance. Other +writers of reputation in the naturalistic school were Edvard Brandes (b. +1847), and Herman Bang (b. 1858). Peter Nansen (b. 1861) has come into +wide notoriety as the author, in particularly beautiful Danish, of a +series of stories of a pronouncedly sexual type, among which _Maria_ +(1894) has been the most successful. Meanwhile, several of the elder +generation, unaffected by the movement of realism, continued to please +the public. Three lyrical poets, H. V. Kaalund (1818-1885), Carl Ploug +(1813-1894) and Christian Richardt (1831-1892), of very great talent, +were not yet silent, and among the veteran novelists were still active +H. F. Ewald and Thomas Lange (1829-1887). Ewald's son Carl (1856-1908) +achieved a great name as a novelist, but did his most characteristic +work in a series of books for children, in which he used the fairy tale, +in the manner of Hans Andersen, as a vehicle for satire and a theory of +morals. During the whole of this period the most popular writer of +Denmark was J. C. C. Brosböll (1816-1900), who wrote, under the +pseudonym Carit Etlar, a vast number of tales. Another popular novelist +was Vilhelm Bergsöe (b. 1835), author of _In the Sabine Mountains_ +(1871), and other romances. Sophus Bauditz (b. 1850) persevered in +composing novels which attain a wide general popularity. Mention must be +made also of the dramatist Christian Molbech (1821-1888). + +Between 1885 and 1892 there was a transitional period in Danish +literature. Up to that time all the leaders had been united in accepting +the naturalistic formula, which was combined with an individualist and a +radical tendency. In 1885, however, Drachmann, already the recognized +first poet of the country, threw off his allegiance to Brandes, +denounced the exotic tradition, declared himself a Conservative, and +took up a national and patriotic attitude. He was joined a little later +by Gjellerup, while Schandorph remained stanchly by the side of Brandes. +The camp was thus divided. New writers began to make their appearance, +and, while some of these were stanch to Brandes, others were inclined to +hold rather with Drachmann. Of the authors who came forward during this +period of transition, the strongest novelist proved to be Hendrik +Pontoppidan (b. 1857). In some of his books he reminds the reader of +Turgeniev. Pontoppidan published in 1898 the first volume of a great +novel entitled _Lykke-Per_, the biography of a typical Jutlander named +Per Sidenius, a work to be completed in eight volumes. From 1893 to 1909 +no great features of a fresh kind revealed themselves. The Danish +public, grown tired of realism, and satiated with pathological +phenomena, returned to a fresh study of their own national +characteristics. The cultivation of verse, which was greatly +discouraged in the eighties, returned. Drachmann was supported by +excellent younger poets of his school. J. J. Jörgensen (b. 1866), a +Catholic decadent, was very prolific. Otto C. Fönss (b. 1853) published +seven little volumes of graceful lyrical poems in praise of gardens and +of farm-life. Andreas Dolleris (b. 1850), of Vejle, showed himself an +occasional poet of merit. Alfred Ipsen (b. 1852) must also be mentioned +as a poet and critic. Valdemar Rördam, whose _The Danish Tongue_ was the +lyrical success of 1901, may also be named. Some attempts were made to +transplant the theories of the symbolists to Denmark, but without signal +success. On the other hand, something of a revival of naturalism is to +be observed in the powerful studies of low life admirably written by +Karl Larsen (b. 1860). + +The drama has long flourished in Denmark. The principal theatres are +liberally open to fresh dramatic talent of every kind, and the great +fondness of the Danes for this form of entertainment gives unusual scope +for experiments in halls or private theatres; nothing is too eccentric +to hope to obtain somewhere a fair hearing. Drachmann produced with very +great success several romantic dramas founded on the national legends. +Most of the novelists and poets already mentioned also essayed the +stage, and to those names should be added these of Einar Christiansen +(b. 1861), Ernst von der Recke (b. 1848), Oskar Benzon (b. 1856) and +Gustav Wied (b. 1858). + +In theology no names were as eminent as in the preceding generation, in +which such writers as H. N. Clausen (1793-1877), and still more Hans +Lassen Martensen (1808-1884), lifted the prestige of Danish divinity to +a high point. But in history the Danes have been very active. Karl +Ferdinand Allen (1811-1871) began a comprehensive history of the +Scandinavian kingdoms (5 vols., 1864-1872). Jens Peter Trap (1810-1885) +concluded his great statistical account of Denmark in 1879. The 16th +century was made the subject of the investigations of Troels Lund +(q.v.). About 1880 several of the younger historians formed the plan of +combining to investigate and publish the sources of Danish history; in +this the indefatigable Johannes Steenstrup (b. 1844) was prominent. The +domestic history of the country began, about 1885, to occupy the +attention of Edvard Holm (b. 1833), O. Nielsen and the veteran P. +Frederik Barfod (1811-1896). The naval histories of G. Lütken attracted +much notice. Besides the names already mentioned, A. D. Jörgensen +(1840-1897), J. Fredericia (b. 1849), Christian Erslev (b. 1852) and +Vilhelm Mollerup have all distinguished themselves in the excellent +school of Danish historians. In 1896 an elaborate composite history of +Denmark was undertaken by some leading historians (pub. 1897-1905). In +philosophy nothing has recently been published of the highest value. +Martensen's _Jakob Böhme_ (1881) belongs to an earlier period. H. +Höffding (b. 1843) has been the most prominent contributor to +psychology. His _Problems of Philosophy_ and his _Philosophy of +Religion_ were translated into English in 1906. Alfred Lehmann (b. 1858) +has, since 1896, attracted a great deal of attention by his sceptical +investigation of psychical phenomena. F. Rönning has written on the +history of thought in Denmark. In the criticism of art, Julius Lange +(1838-1896), and later Karl Madsen, have done excellent service. In +literary criticism Dr Georg Brandes is notable for the long period +during which he remained predominant. His was a steady and stimulating +presence, ever pointing to the best in art and thought, and his +influence on his age was greater than that of any other Dane. + + AUTHORITIES.--R. Nyerup, _Den danske Digtekunsts Historie_ + (1800-1808), and _Almindeligt Literaturlexikon_ (1818-1820); N. M. + Petersen, _Literaturhistorie_ (2nd ed., 1867-1871, 5 vols.); + Overskou, _Den danske Skueplads_ (1854-1866, 5 vols.), with a + continuation (2 vols., 1873-1876) by E Collin; Chr. Bruun, + _Bibliotheca Danica_ (3 vols., 1872-1896); Bricka, _Dansk biografisk + Lexikon_ (1887-1901); J. Paludan, _Danmarks Literatur i + Middelalderen_ (Copenhagen, 1896); P. Hansen, _Illustreret Dansk + Literaturhistorie_ (3 vols., 1901-1902); F. W. Horn, _History of the + Scandinavian North from the most ancient times to the present_ + (English translation by Rasmus B. Anderson (Chicago, 1884), with + bibliographical appendix by Thorwald Solberg); Ph. Schweitzer, + _Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur_ (3 pts., Leipzig, + 1886-1889), forming vol. viii. of the _Geschichte der + Weltlitteratur_. See also Brandes, _Kritiker og Portraiter_ (1870); + Brandes, _Danske Ditgere_ (1877); Marie Herzfeld, _Die Skandinavische + Litteratur und ihre Tendenzen_ (Berlin and Leipzig, 1898); Hjalmar + Hjorth Boyesen, _Essays on Scandinavian Literature_ (London, 1895); + Edmund Gosse, _Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe_ (new + ed., London, 1883); Vilhelm Andersen, _Litteraturbilleder_ + (Copenhagen, 1903); A. P. J. Schener, _Kortfattet Indledning til + Romantikkus Periode i Danmarks Litteratur_ (Copenhagen, 1894). + (E. G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It is true the university was established on the 9th of September + 1537, but its influence was of very gradual growth and small at + first. + + [2] Collected as _Samling af gamle danske Love_ (5 vols., Copenhagen, + 1821-1827). + + [3] _Henrik Harpestraengs Laegebog_ (ed. C. Molbech, Copenhagen, 1826). + + [4] Ed. C. Molbech (Copenhagen, 1825). + + [5] See _Povel Eliesens danske Skrifter_ (Copenhagen, 1855, &c.), + edited by C. E. Secher. + + [6] See _Monumenta historiae Danicae_ (ed. H. Rördam, vol. i., 1873). + + [7] Ed. Sophus Birket Smith (Copenhagen, 1868), who also edited the + comedies ascribed to Chr. Hansen as _De tre aeldste danske Skuespil_ + (1874), and the works of Ranch (1876). + + [8] His works were edited by Gustav Storm (Christiania, 1877-1879). + + [9] See Fr. W. Horn, _Peder Syv_ (Copenhagen, 1878). + + [10] See A. C. L. Heiberg, _Thomas Kingo_ (Odense, 1852). + + [11] His collected works were edited by Fr. Barford (Copenhagen, 5th + ed., 1879). + + [12] Wessel's _Digte_ (3rd ed., 1895) are edited by J. Levin, with a + biographical introduction. + + [13] A biography by his friend, K. L. Rahbek, is prefixed to a + selection of his poetry (6 vols., 1824-1829). + + [14] See F. L. Liebenberg, _Schack Staffeldts samlede Digte_ (2 vols., + Copenhagen, 1843), and _Samlinger til Schack Staffeldts Levnet_ (4 + vols., 1846-1851). + + [15] Blicher's _Tales_ were edited by P. Hansen (3 vols., Copenhagen, + 1871), and his _Poems_ in 1870. + + [16] Edited (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1855, Copenhagen) by F. L. Liebenberg. + + + + +DENNERY, or D'ENNERY, ADOLPHE (1811-1899), French dramatist and +novelist, whose real surname was PHILIPPE, was born in Paris on the 17th +of June 1811. He obtained his first success in collaboration with +Charles Desnoyer in _Émile, ou le fils d'un pair de France_ (1831), a +drama which was the first of a series of some two hundred pieces written +alone or in collaboration with other dramatists. Among the best of them +may be mentioned _Gaspard Hauser_ (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; _Les +Bohémiens de Paris_ (1842) with Eugène Grangé; with Mallian, +_Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple_ (1845), in which Madame Dorval +obtained a great success; _La Case d'Oncle Tom_ (1853); _Les Deux +Orphelines_ (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugène Cormon. He wrote +the libretto for Gounod's _Tribut de Zamora_ (1881); with Louis Gallet +and Édouard Blan he composed the book of Massenet's _Cid_ (1885); and, +again in collaboration with Eugène Cormon, the books of Auber's operas, +_Le Premier Jour de bonheur_ (1868) and _Rêve d'amour_ (1869). He +prepared for the stage Balzac's posthumous comedy _Mercadet ou le +faiseur_, presented at the Gymnase theatre in 1851. Reversing the usual +order of procedure, Dennery adapted some of his plays to the form of +novels. He died in Paris in 1899. + + + + +DENNEWITZ, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Brandenburg, near Jüterbog, 40 m. S.W. from Berlin. It is memorable as +the scene of a decisive battle on the 6th of September 1813, in which +Marshal Ney, with an army of 58,000 French, Saxons and Poles, was +defeated with great loss by 50,000 Prussians under Generals Bülow +(afterwards Count Bülow of Dennewitz) and Tauentzien. The site of the +battle is marked by an iron obelisk. + + + + +DENNIS, JOHN (1657-1734), English critic and dramatist, the son of a +saddler, was born in London in 1657. He was educated at Harrow School +and Caius College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1679. In +the next year he was fined and dismissed from his college for having +wounded a fellow-student with a sword. He was, however, received at +Trinity Hall, where he took his M.A. degree in 1683. After travelling in +France and Italy, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with +Dryden, Wycherley and others; and being made temporarily independent by +inheriting a small fortune, he devoted himself to literature. The duke +of Marlborough procured him a place as one of the queen's waiters in the +customs with a salary of £120 a year. This he afterwards disposed of for +a small sum, retaining, at the suggestion of Lord Halifax, a yearly +charge upon it for a long term of years. Neither the poems nor the plays +of Dennis are of any account, although one of his tragedies, a violent +attack on the French in harmony with popular prejudice, entitled +_Liberty Asserted_, was produced with great success at Lincoln's Inn +Fields in 1704. His sense of his own importance approached mania, and he +is said to have desired the duke of Marlborough to have a special clause +inserted in the treaty of Utrecht to secure him from French vengeance. +Marlborough pointed out that although he had been a still greater enemy +of the French nation, he had no fear for his own security. This tale and +others of a similar nature may well be exaggerations prompted by his +enemies, but the infirmities of character and temper indicated in them +were real. Dennis is best remembered as a critic, and Isaac D'Israeli, +who took a by no means favourable view of Dennis, said that some of his +criticisms attain classical rank. The earlier ones, which have nothing +of the rancour that afterwards gained him the nickname of "Furius," are +the best. They are _Remarks ..._ (1696), on Blackmore's epic of Prince +Arthur; _Letters upon Several Occasions written by and between Mr +Dryden, Mr Wycherley, Mr Moyle, Mr Congreve and Mr Dennis, published by +Mr Dennis_ (1696): two pamphlets in reply to Jeremy Collier's _Short +View; The Advancement and Reformation of_ _Modern Poetry_ (1701), +perhaps his most important work; _The Grounds of Criticism in Poetry_ +(1704), in which he argued that the ancients owed their superiority over +the moderns in poetry to their religious attitude; an _Essay upon +Publick Spirit ..._ (1711), in which he inveighs against luxury, and +servile imitation of foreign fashions and customs; and _Essay on the +Genius and Writings of Shakespeare in three Letters_ (1712). + +Dennis had been offended by a humorous quotation made from his works by +Addison, and published in 1713 _Remarks upon Cato_. Much of this +criticism was acute and sensible, and it is quoted at considerable +length by Johnson in his _Life of Addison_, but there is no doubt that +Dennis was actuated by personal jealousy of Addison's success. Pope +replied in _The Narrative of Dr Robert Norris, concerning the strange +and deplorable frenzy of John Dennis ..._ (1713). This pamphlet was full +of personal abuse, exposing Dennis's foibles, but offering no defence of +_Cato_. Addison repudiated any connivance in this attack, and indirectly +notified Dennis that when he did answer his objections, it would be +without personalities. Pope had already assailed Dennis in 1711 in the +_Essay on Criticism_, as Appius. Dennis retorted by _Reflections, +Critical and Satirical ..._, a scurrilous production in which he taunted +Pope with his deformity, saying among other things that he was "as +stupid and as venomous as a hunch-backed toad." He also wrote in 1717 +_Remarks upon Mr Pope's Translation of Homer ..._ and _A True Character +of Mr Pope_. He accordingly figures in the _Dunciad_, and in a scathing +note in the edition of 1729 (bk. i. 1. 106) Pope quotes his more +outrageous attacks, and adds an insulting epigram attributed to Richard +Savage, but now generally ascribed to Pope. More pamphlets followed, but +Dennis's day was over. He outlived his annuity from the customs, and his +last years were spent in great poverty. Bishop Atterbury sent him money, +and he received a small sum annually from Sir Robert Walpole. A benefit +performance was organized at the Haymarket (December 18, 1733) on his +behalf. Pope wrote for the occasion an ill-natured prologue which Cibber +recited. Dennis died within three weeks of this performance, on the 6th +of January 1734. + + His other works include several plays, for one of which, _Appius and + Virginia_ (1709), he invented a new kind of thunder. He wrote a + curious _Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner_ (1706), + maintaining that opera was the outgrowth of effeminate manners, and + should, as such, be suppressed. His _Works_ were published in 1702, + _Select Works ..._ (2 vols.) in 1718, and _Miscellaneous Tracts_, the + first volume only of which appeared, in 1727. For accounts of Dennis + see Cibber's _Lives of the Poets_, vol. iv.; Isaac D'Israeli's essays + on Pope and Addison in the _Quarrels of Authors_, and "On the + Influence of a Bad Temper in Criticism" in _Calamities of Authors_; + and numerous references in Pope's _Works_. + + + + +DENOMINATION (Lat. _denominare_, to give a specific name to), the giving +of a specific name to anything, hence the name or designation of a +person or thing, and more particularly of a class of persons or things; +thus, in arithmetic, it is applied to a unit in a system of weights and +measures, currency or numbers. The most general use of "denomination" is +for a body of persons holding specific opinions and having a common +name, especially with reference to the religious opinions of such a +body. More particularly the word is used of the various "sects" into +which members of a common religious faith may be divided. The term +"denominationalism" is thus given to the principle of emphasizing the +distinctions, rather than the common ground, in the faith held by +different bodies professing one sort of religious belief. This use is +particularly applied to that system of religious education which lays +stress on the principle that children belonging to a particular +religious sect should be publicly taught in the tenets of their belief +by members belonging to it and under the general control of the +ministers of the denomination. + + + + +DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT, BARON DE (1747-1825), French artist and +archaeologist, was born at Chalon-sur-Saône on the 4th of January 1747. +He was sent to Paris to study law, but he showed a decided preference +for art and literature, and soon gave up his profession. In his +twenty-third year he produced a comedy, _Le Bon Père_, which obtained a +_succès d'estime_, as he had already won a position in society by his +agreeable manners and exceptional conversational powers. He became a +favourite of Louis XV., who entrusted him with the collection and +arrangement of a cabinet of medals and antique gems for Madame de +Pompadour, and subsequently appointed him attaché to the French embassy +at St Petersburg. On the accession of Louis XVI. Denon was transferred +to Sweden; but he returned, after a brief interval, to Paris with the +ambassador M. de Vergennes, who had been appointed foreign minister. In +1775 Denon was sent on a special mission to Switzerland, and took the +opportunity of visiting Voltaire at Ferney. He made a portrait of the +philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to Paris. +His next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where he spent seven +years, first as secretary to the embassy and afterwards as _chargé +d'affaires_. He devoted this period to a careful study of the monuments +of ancient art, collecting many specimens and making drawings of others. +He also perfected himself in etching and mezzotinto engraving. The death +of his patron, M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, and the rest +of his life was given mainly to artistic pursuits. On his return to +Paris he was admitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After a brief +interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice. He also visited +Florence and Bologna, and afterwards went to Switzerland. While there he +heard that his property had been confiscated, and his name placed on the +list of the proscribed, and with characteristic courage he resolved at +once to return to Paris. His situation was critical, but he was spared, +thanks to the friendship of the painter David, who obtained for him a +commission to furnish designs for republican costumes. When the +Revolution was over, Denon was one of the band of eminent men who +frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais. Here he met Bonaparte, to +whose fortunes he wisely attached himself. At Bonaparte's invitation he +joined the expedition to Egypt, and thus found the opportunity of +gathering the materials for his most important literary and artistic +work. He accompanied General Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made numerous +sketches of the monuments of ancient art, sometimes under the very fire +of the enemy. The results were published in his _Voyage dans la basse et +la haute Égypte_ (2 vols, fol., with 141 plates, Paris, 1802), a work +which crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist and as an artist. +In 1804 he was appointed by Napoleon to the important office of +director-general of museums, which he filled until the restoration in +1815, when he had to retire. He was a devoted friend of Napoleon, whom +he accompanied in his expeditions to Austria, Spain and Poland, taking +sketches with his wonted fearlessness on the various battlefields, and +advising the conqueror in his choice of spoils of art from the various +cities pillaged. After his retirement he began an illustrated history of +ancient and modern art, in which he had the co-operation of several +skilful engravers. He died at Paris on the 27th of April 1825, leaving +the work unfinished. It was published posthumously, with an explanatory +text by Amaury Duval, under the title _Monuments des arts du dessin chez +les peuples tant anciens que modernes, recueillis par Vivant Denon_ (4 +vols, fol., Paris, 1829). Denon was the author of a novel, _Point de +lendemain_ (1777), of which further editions were printed in 1812, 1876 +and 1879. + + See J. Renouvier, _Histoire de l'art pendant la Révolution_; A. de la + Fizelière, _L'OEuvre originale de Vivant-Denon_ (2 vols., Paris, + 1872-1873); Roger Portallis, _Les Dessinateurs d'illustrations au + XVIII^e siècle_; D. H. Beraldi, _Les Graveurs d'illustrations au + XVIII^e siècle_. + + + + +DENOTATION (from Lat. _denotare_, to mark out, specify), in logic, a +technical term used strictly as the correlative of Connotation, to +describe one of the two functions of a concrete term. The concrete term +"connotes" attributes and "denotes" all the individuals which, as +possessing these attributes, constitute the genus or species described +by the term. Thus "cricketer" denotes the individuals who play cricket, +and connotes the qualities or characteristics by which these individuals +are marked. In this sense, in which it was first used by J. S. Mill, +Denotation is equivalent to Extension, and Connotation to Intension. It +is clear that when the given term is qualified by a limiting adjective +the Denotation or Extension diminishes, while the Connotation or +Intension increases; e.g. a generic term like "flower" has a larger +Extension, and a smaller Intension than "rose": "rose" than +"moss-rose." In more general language Denotation is used loosely for +that which is meant or indicated by a word, phrase, sentence or even an +action. Thus a proper name or even an abstract term is said to have +Denotation. (See CONNOTATION.) + + + + +DENS, PETER (1690-1775), Belgian Roman Catholic theologian, was born at +Boom near Antwerp. Most of his life was spent in the archiepiscopal +college of Malines, where he was for twelve years reader in theology and +for forty president. His great work was the _Theologia moralis et +dogmatica_, a compendium in catechetical form of Roman Catholic doctrine +and ethics which has been much used as a students' text-book. Dens died +on the 15th of February 1775. + + + + +DENSITY (Lat. _densus_, thick), in physics, the mass or quantity of +matter contained in unit volume of any substance: this is the _absolute +density_; the term _relative density_ or _specific gravity_ denotes the +ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a substance to the mass of the +same volume of some standard substance. Since the weights used in +conjunction with a balance are really standard masses, the word "weight" +may be substituted for the word "mass" in the preceding definitions; and +we may symbolically express the relations thus:--If M be the weight of +substance occupying a volume V, then the absolute density [Delta] = M/V; +and if m, m_1 be the weights of the substance and of the standard +substance which occupy the same volume, the relative density or specific +gravity S = m/m_1; or more generally if m_1 be the weight of a +volume v of the substance, and m_1 the weight of a volume v_1 of the +standard, then S = mv_{1}/m_{1}v. In the numerical expression of +absolute densities it is necessary to specify the units of mass and +volume employed; while in the case of relative densities, it is only +necessary to specify the standard substance, since the result is a mere +number. Absolute densities are generally stated in the C.G.S. system, +i.e. as grammes per cubic centimetre. In commerce, however, other +expressions are met with, as, for example, "pounds per cubic foot" (used +for woods, metals, &c.), "pounds per gallon," &c. The standard +substances employed to determine relative densities are: water for +liquids and solids, and hydrogen or atmospheric air for gases; oxygen +(as 16) is sometimes used in this last case. Other standards of +reference may be used in special connexions; for example, the Earth is +the usual unit for expressing the relative density of the other members +of the solar system. Reference should be made to the article GRAVITATION +for an account of the methods employed to determine the "mean density of +the earth." + +In expressing the absolute or relative density of any substance, it is +necessary to specify the conditions for which the relation holds: in the +case of gases, the temperature and pressure of the experimental gas (and +of the standard, in the case of relative density); and in the case of +solids and liquids, the temperature. The reason for this is readily +seen; if a mass M of any gas occupies a volume V at a temperature T (on +the absolute scale) and a pressure P, then its absolute density under +these conditions is [Delta] = M/V; if now the temperature and pressure +be changed to T_1 and P_1, the volume V_1 under these conditions is +VPT/P_{1}T_1, and the absolute density is MP_{1}T/VPT_1. It is customary +to reduce gases to the so-called "normal temperature and pressure," +abbreviated to N.T.P., which is 0°C. and 760 mm. + +The relative densities of gases are usually expressed in terms of the +standard gas under the same conditions. The density gives very important +information as to the molecular weight, since by the law of Avogadro it +is seen that the relative density is the ratio of the molecular weights +of the experimental and standard gases. In the case of liquids and +solids, comparison with water at 4°C, the temperature of the maximum +density of water; at 0°C, the zero of the Centigrade scale and the +freezing-point of water; at 15° and 18°, ordinary room-temperatures; and +at 25°, the temperature at which a thermostat may be conveniently +maintained, are common in laboratory practice. The temperature of the +experimental substance may or may not be the temperature of the +standard. In such cases a bracketed fraction is appended to the specific +gravity, of which the numerator and denominator are respectively the +temperatures of the substance and of the standard; thus 1.093 (0°/4°) +means that the ratio of the weight of a definite volume of a substance +at 0° to the weight of the same volume of water 4° is 1.093. It may be +noted that if comparison be made with water at 4°, the relative density +is the same as the absolute density, since the unit of mass in the +C.G.S. system is the weight of a cubic centimetre of water at this +temperature. In British units, especially in connexion with the +statement of relative densities of alcoholic liquors for Inland Revenue +purposes, comparison is made with water at 62°F. (16.6°C); a reason for +this is that the gallon of water is defined by statute as weighing 10 +lb. at 62°F., and hence the densities so expressed admit of the ready +conversion of volumes to weights. Thus if d be the relative density, +then 10d represents the weight of a gallon in lb.. The brewer has gone +a step further in simplifying his expressions by multiplying the density +by 1000, and speaking of the difference between the density so expressed +and 1000 as "degrees of gravity" (see BEER). + + +PRACTICAL DETERMINATION OF DENSITIES + + The methods for determining densities may be divided into two groups + according as hydrostatic principles are employed or not. In the group + where the principles of hydrostatics are not employed the method + consists in determining the weight and volume of a certain quantity + of the substance, or the weights of equal volumes of the substance + and of the standard. In the case of solids we may determine the + volume in some cases by direct measurement--this gives at the best a + very rough and ready value; a better method is to immerse the body in + a fluid (in which it must sink and be insoluble) contained in a + graduated glass, and to deduce its volume from the height to which + the liquid rises. The weight may be directly determined by the + balance. The ratio "weight to volume" is the absolute density. The + separate determination of the volume and mass of such substances as + gunpowder, cotton-wool, soluble substances, &c., supplies the only + means of determining their densities. The stereometer of Say, which + was greatly improved by Regnault and further modified by Kopp, + permits an accurate determination of the volume of a given mass of + any such substance. In its simplest form the instrument consists of a + glass tube PC (fig. 1), of uniform bore, terminating in a cup PE, the + mouth of which can be rendered air-tight by the plate of glass E. The + substance whose volume is to be determined is placed in the cup PE, + and the tube PC is immersed in the vessel of mercury D, until the + mercury reaches the mark P. The plate E is then placed on the cup, + and the tube PC raised until the surface of the mercury in the tube + stands at M, that in the vessel D being at C, and the height MC is + measured. Let k denote this height, and let PM be denoted by l. Let u + represent the volume of air in the cup before the body was inserted, + v the volume of the body, a the area of the horizontal section of the + tube PC, and h the height of the mercurial barometer. Then, by + Boyle's law (u - v + al)(h - k) = (u - v)h, and therefore + v = u - al(h - k)/k. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Say's Stereometer.] + + The volume u may be determined by repeating the experiment when only + air is in the cup. In this case v = 0, and the equation becomes (u + + al¹)(h - k¹) = uh, whence u = al¹(h - k¹)/k¹. Substituting this value + in the expression for v, the volume of the body inserted in the cup + becomes known. The chief errors to which the stereometer is liable + are (1) variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure during the + experiment, and (2) the presence of moisture which disturbs Boyle's + law. + + The method of weighing equal volumes is particularly applicable to + the determination of the relative densities of liquids. It consists + in weighing a glass vessel (1) empty, (2) filled with the liquid, (3) + filled with the standard substance. Calling the weight of the empty + vessel w, when filled with the liquid W, and when filled with the + standard substance W_1, it is obvious that W - w, and W_1 - w, + are the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and standard, and + hence the relative density is (W - w)/(W_1 - w). + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + Many forms of vessels have been devised. The commoner type of + "specific gravity bottle" consists of a thin glass bottle (fig. 2) of + a capacity varying from 10 to 100 cc., fitted with an accurately + ground stopper, which is vertically perforated by a fine hole. The + bottle is carefully cleansed by washing with soda, hydrochloric acid + and distilled water, and then dried by heating in an air bath or by + blowing in warm air. It is allowed to cool and then weighed. The + bottle is then filled with distilled water, and brought to a definite + temperature by immersion in a thermostat, and the stopper inserted. + It is removed from the thermostat, and carefully wiped. After + cooling it is weighed. The bottle is again cleaned and dried, and the + operations repeated with the liquid under examination instead of + water. Numerous modifications of this bottle are in use. For volatile + liquids, a flask provided with a long neck which carries a graduation + and is fitted with a well-ground stopper is recommended. The bringing + of the liquid to the mark is effected by removing the excess by means + of a capillary. In many forms a thermometer forms part of the + apparatus. + + Another type of vessel, named the Sprengel tube or pycnometer (Gr. + [Greek: pyknos], dense), is shown in fig. 3. It consists of a + cylindrical tube of a capacity ranging from 10 to 50 cc., provided at + the upper end with a thick-walled capillary bent as shown on the left + of the figure. From the bottom there leads another fine tube, bent + upwards, and then at right angles so as to be at the same level as + the capillary branch. This tube bears a graduation. A loop of + platinum wire passed under these tubes serves to suspend the vessel + from the balance arm. The manner of cleansing, &c., is the same as in + the ordinary form. The vessel is filled by placing the capillary in a + vessel containing the liquid and gently aspirating. Care must be + taken that no air bubbles are enclosed. The liquid is adjusted to the + mark by withdrawing any excess from the capillary end by a strip of + bibulous paper or by a capillary tube. Many variations of this + apparatus are in use; in one of the commonest there are two + cylindrical chambers, joined at the bottom, and each provided at the + top with fine tubes bent at right angles; sometimes the inlet and + outlet tubes are provided with caps. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + The specific gravity bottle may be used to determine the relative + density of a solid which is available in small fragments, and is + insoluble in the standard liquid. The method involves three + operations:--(1) weighing the solid in air (W), (2) weighing the + specific gravity bottle full of liquid (W_1), (3) weighing the bottle + containing the solid and filled up with liquid (W_2). It is readily + seen that W + W_1 - W_2 is the weight of the liquid displaced by the + solid, and therefore is the weight of an equal volume of liquid; + hence the relative density is W/(W + W_1 - W_2). + + The determination of the absolute densities of gases can only be + effected with any high degree of accuracy by a development of this + method. As originated by Regnault, it consisted in filling a large + glass globe with the gas by alternately exhausting with an air-pump + and admitting the pure and dry gas. The flask was then brought to 0° + by immersion in melting ice, the pressure of the gas taken, and the + stop-cock closed. The flask is removed from the ice, allowed to + attain the temperature of the room, and then weighed. The flask is + now partially exhausted, transferred to the cooling bath, and after + standing the pressure of the residual gas is taken by a manometer. + The flask is again brought to room-temperature, and re-weighed. The + difference in the weights corresponds to the volume of gas at a + pressure equal to the difference of the recorded pressures. The + volume of the flask is determined by weighing empty and filled with + water. This method has been refined by many experimenters, among whom + we may notice Morley and Lord Rayleigh. Morley determined the + densities of hydrogen and oxygen in the course of his classical + investigation of the composition of water. The method differed from + Regnault's inasmuch as the flask was exhausted to an almost complete + vacuum, a performance rendered possible by the high efficiency of the + modern air-pump. The actual experiment necessitates the most + elaborate precautions, for which reference must be made to Morley's + original papers in the _Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge_ + (1895), or to M. Travers, _The Study of Gases_. Lord Rayleigh has + made many investigations of the absolute densities of gases, one of + which, namely on atmospheric and artificial nitrogen, undertaken in + conjunction with Sir William Ramsay, culminated in the discovery of + argon (q.v.). He pointed out in 1888 (_Proc. Roy. Soc._ 43, p. 361) + an important correction which had been overlooked by previous + experimenters with Regnault's method, viz. the change in volume of + the experimental globe due to shrinkage under diminished pressure; + this may be experimentally determined and amounts to between 0.04 and + 0.16% of the volume of the globe. + + Related to the determination of the density of a gas is the + determination of the density of a vapour, i.e. matter which at + ordinary temperatures exists as a solid or liquid. This subject owes + its importance in modern chemistry to the fact that the vapour + density, when hydrogen is taken as the standard, gives perfectly + definite information as to the molecular condition of the compound, + since twice the vapour density equals the molecular weight of the + compound. Many methods have been devised. In historical order we may + briefly enumerate the following:--in 1811, Gay-Lussac volatilized a + weighed quantity of liquid, which must be readily volatile, by + letting it rise up a short tube containing mercury and standing + inverted in a vessel holding the same metal. This method was + developed by Hofmann in 1868, who replaced the short tube of + Gay-Lussac by an ordinary barometer tube, thus effecting the + volatilization in a Torricellian vacuum. In 1826 Dumas devised a + method suitable for substances of high boiling-point; this consisted + in its essential point in vaporizing the substance in a flask made + of suitable material, sealing it when full of vapour, and weighing. + This method is very tedious in detail. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and + L. Troost made it available for specially high temperatures by + employing porcelain vessels, sealing them with the oxyhydrogen + blow-pipe, and maintaining a constant temperature by a vapour bath of + mercury (350°), sulphur (440°), cadmium (860°) and zinc (1040°). In + 1878 Victor Meyer devised his air-expulsion method. + + Before discussing the methods now used in detail, a summary of the + conclusions reached by Victor Meyer in his classical investigations + in this field as to the applicability of the different methods will + be given: + + (1) For substances which do not boil higher than 260° and have + vapours stable for 30° above the boiling-point and which do not react + on mercury, use Victor Meyer's "mercury expulsion method." + + (2) For substances boiling between 260° and 420°, and which do not + react on metals, use Meyer's "Wood's alloy expulsion method." + + (3) For substances boiling at higher temperatures, or for any + substance which reacts on mercury, Meyer's "air expulsion method" + must be used. It is to be noted, however, that this method is + applicable to substances of any boiling-point (see below). + + (4) For substances which can be vaporized only under diminished + pressure, several methods may be used. (a) Hofmann's is the best if + the substance volatilizes at below 310°, and does not react on + mercury; otherwise (b) Demuth and Meyer's, Eykman's, Schall's, or + other methods may be used. + + 1. _Meyer's "Mercury Expulsion" Method._--A small quantity of the + substance is weighed into a tube, of the form shown in fig. 4, which + has a capacity of about 35 cc., provided with a capillary tube at the + top, and a bent tube about 6 mm. in diameter at the bottom. The + vessel is completely filled with mercury, the capillary sealed, and + the vessel weighed. The vessel is then lowered into a jacket + containing vapour at a known temperature which is sufficient to + volatilize the substance. Mercury is expelled, and when this + expulsion ceases, the vessel is removed, allowed to cool, and + weighed. It is necessary to determine the pressure exerted on the + vapour by the mercury in the narrow limb; this is effected by opening + the capillary and inclining the tube until the mercury just reaches + the top of the narrow tube; the difference between the height of the + mercury in the wide tube and the top of the narrow tube represents + the pressure due to the mercury column, and this must be added to the + barometric pressure in order to deduce the total pressure on the + vapour. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + The result is calculated by means of the formula: + + W(1 + [alpha]t) × 7,980,000 +D = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------, + (p + p_1 - s)[m{1 + [beta](t - t_0)} - m_1{1 + [gamma](t - t_0)}](1 + [gamma]t) + + in which W = weight of substance taken; t = temperature of vapour + bath; [alpha] = 0.00366 = temperature coefficient of gases; p = + barometric pressure; p_1 = height of mercury column in vessel; s = + vapour tension of mercury at t°; m = weight of mercury contained in + the vessel; m_1 = weight of mercury left in vessel after heating; + [beta] = coefficient of expansion of glass = .0000303; [gamma] = + coefficient of expansion of mercury = 0.00018 (0.00019 above 240°) + (see _Ber._ 1877, 10, p. 2068; 1886, 19, p. 1862). + + 2. _Meyer's Wood's Alloy Expulsion Method._--This method is a + modification of the one just described. The alloy used is composed of + 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium; it melts + at 70°, and can be experimented with as readily as mercury. The + cylindrical vessel is replaced by a globular one, and the pressure on + the vapour due to the column of alloy in the side tube is readily + reduced to millimetres of mercury since the specific gravity of the + alloy at the temperature of boiling sulphur, 444° (at which the + apparatus is most frequently used), is two-thirds of that of mercury + (see _Ber._ 1876, 9, p. 1220). + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + 3. _Meyer's Air Expulsion Method._--The simplicity, moderate + accuracy, and adaptability of this method to every class of substance + which can be vaporized entitles it to rank as one of the most potent + methods in analytical chemistry; its invention is indissolubly + connected with the name of Victor Meyer, being termed "Meyer's + method" to the exclusion of his other original methods. It consists + in determining the air expelled from a vessel by the vapour of a + given quantity of the substance. The apparatus is shown in fig. 5. A + long tube (a) terminates at the bottom in a cylindrical chamber of + about 100-150 cc. capacity. The top is fitted with a rubber stopper, + or in some forms with a stop-cock, while a little way down there is a + bent delivery tube (b). To use the apparatus, the long tube is placed + in a vapour bath (c) of the requisite temperature, and after the air + within the tube is in equilibrium, the delivery tube is placed + beneath the surface of the water in a pneumatic trough, the rubber + stopper pushed home, and observation made as to whether any more air + is being expelled. If this be not so, a graduated tube (d) is filled + with water, and inverted over the delivery tube. The rubber stopper + is removed and the experimental substance introduced, and the stopper + quickly replaced to the same extent as before. Bubbles are quickly + disengaged and collect in the graduated tube. Solids may be directly + admitted to the tube from a weighing bottle, while liquids are + conveniently introduced by means of small stoppered bottles, or, in + the case of exceptionally volatile liquids, by means of a bulb blown + on a piece of thin capillary tube, the tube being sealed during the + weighing operation, and the capillary broken just before transference + to the apparatus. To prevent the bottom of the apparatus being + knocked out by the impact of the substance, a layer of sand, asbestos + or sometimes mercury is placed in the tube. To complete the + experiment, the graduated tube containing the expelled air is brought + to a constant and determinate temperature and pressure, and this + volume is the volume which the given weight of the substance would + occupy if it were a gas under the same temperature and pressure. The + vapour density is calculated by the following formula: + + W(1 + [alpha]t) x 587,780 + D = -------------------------, + (p - s)V + + in which W = weight of substance taken, V = volume of air expelled, + [alpha] = 1/273 = .003665, t and p = temperature and pressure at + which expelled air is measured, and s = vapour pressure of water at + t°. + + By varying the material of the bulb, this apparatus is rendered + available for exceptionally high temperatures. Vapour baths of iron + are used in connexion with boiling anthracene (335°), anthraquinone + (368°), sulphur (444°), phosphoruspentasulphide (518°); molten lead + may also be used. For higher temperatures the bulb of the vapour + density tube is made of porcelain or platinum, and is heated in a gas + furnace. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + (4a) _Hofmann's Method._--Both the _modus operandi_ and apparatus + employed in this method particularly recommend its use for substances + which do not react on mercury and which boil in a vacuum at below + 310°. The apparatus (fig. 6) consists of a barometer tube, containing + mercury and standing in a bath of the same metal, surrounded by a + vapour jacket. The vapour is circulated through the jacket, and the + height of the mercury read by a cathetometer or otherwise. The + substance is weighed into a small stoppered bottle, which is then + placed beneath the mouth of the barometer tube. It ascends the tube, + the substance is rapidly volatilized, and the mercury column is + depressed; this depression is read off. It is necessary to know the + volume of the tube above the second level; this may most efficiently + be determined by calibrating the tube prior to its use. Sir T. E. + Thorpe employed a barometer tube 96 cm. long, and determined the + volume from the closed end for a distance of about 35 mm. by weighing + in mercury; below this mark it was calibrated in the ordinary way so + that a scale reading gave the volume at once. The calculation is + effected by the following formulae:-- + + 760w(1 + 0.003665t) + D = -------------------; + 0.0012934 × V × B + + h / h_1 h_2 \ + B = -------------- - ( -------------- - ------------ + s), + 1 + 0.00018t_1 \1 + 0.00018t_2 1 + 0.00018t / + + in which w = weight of substance taken; t = temperature of vapour + jacket; V = volume of vapour at t; h = height of barometer reduced to + 0°; t_1 = temperature of air; h_1 = height of mercury column below + vapour jacket; t_2 = temperature of mercury column not heated by + vapour; h_2 = height of mercury column within vapour jacket; s = + vapour tension of mercury at t°. The vapour tension of mercury need + not be taken into account when water is used in the jacket. + + (4b) _Demuth and Meyer's Method._--The principle of this method is as + follows:--In the ordinary air expulsion method, the vapour always + mixes to some extent with the air in the tube, and this involves a + reduction of the pressure of the vapour. It is obvious that this + reduction may be increased by accelerating the diffusion of the + vapour. This may be accomplished by using a vessel with a somewhat + wide bottom, and inserting the substance so that it may be + volatilized very rapidly, as, for example, in tubes of Wood's alloy, + and by filling the tube with hydrogen. (For further details see + _Ber._ 23, p. 311.) + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + We may here notice a modification of Meyer's process in which the + increase of pressure due to the volatilization of the substance, and + not the volume of the expelled air, is measured. This method has been + developed by J. S. Lumsden (_Journ. Chem. Soc._ 1903, 83, p. 342), + whose apparatus is shown diagrammatically in fig. 7. The vaporizing + bulb A has fused about it a jacket B, provided with a condenser c. + Two side tubes are fused on to the neck of A: the lower one leads to + a mercury manometer M, and to the air by means of a cock C; the upper + tube is provided with a rubber stopper through which a glass rod + passes--this rod serves to support the tube containing the substance + to be experimented upon, and so avoids the objection to the practice + of withdrawing the stopper of the tube, dropping the substance in, + and reinserting the stopper. To use the apparatus, a liquid of + suitable boiling-point is placed in the jacket and brought to the + boiling-point. All parts of the apparatus are open to the air, and + the mercury in the manometer is adjusted so as to come to a fixed + mark a. The substance is now placed on the support already mentioned, + and the apparatus closed to the air by inserting the cork at D and + turning the cock C. By turning or withdrawing the support the + substance enters the bulb; and during its vaporization the free limb + of the manometer is raised so as to maintain the mercury at a. When + the volatilization is quite complete, the level is accurately + adjusted, and the difference of the levels of the mercury gives the + pressure exerted by the vapour. To calculate the result it is + necessary to know the capacity of the apparatus to the mark a, and + the temperature of the jacket. + + _Methods depending on the Principles of Hydrostatics._--Hydrostatical + principles can be applied to density determinations in four typical + ways: (1) depending upon the fact that the heights of liquid columns + supported by the same pressure vary inversely as the densities of the + liquids; (2) depending upon the fact that a body which sinks in a + liquid loses a weight equal to the weight of liquid which it + displaces; (3) depending on the fact that a body remains suspended, + neither floating nor sinking, in a liquid of exactly the same + density; (4) depending on the fact that a floating body is immersed + to such an extent that the weight of the fluid displaced equals the + weight of the body. + + 1. The method of balancing columns is of limited use. Two forms are + recognized. In one, applicable only to liquids which do not mix, the + two liquids are poured into the limbs of a U tube. The heights of the + columns above the surface of junction of the liquids are inversely + proportional to the densities of the liquids. In the second form, + named after Robert Hare (1781-1858), professor of chemistry at the + university of Pennsylvania, the liquids are drawn or aspirated up + vertical tubes which have their lower ends placed in reservoirs + containing the different liquids, and their upper ends connected to a + common tube which is in communication with an aspirator for + decreasing the pressure within the vertical tubes. The heights to + which the liquids rise, measured in each case by the distance between + the surfaces in the reservoirs and in the tubes, are inversely + proportional to the densities. + + 2. The method of "hydrostatic weighing" is one of the most important. + The principle may be thus stated: the solid is weighed in air, and + then in water. If W be the weight in air, and W_1 the weight in + water, then W_1 is always less than W, the difference W - W_1 + representing the weight of the water displaced, i.e. the weight of a + volume of water equal to that of the solid. Hence W/(W - W_1) is the + relative density or specific gravity of the body. The principle is + readily adapted to the determination of the relative densities of two + liquids, for it is obvious that if W be the weight of a solid body in + air, W_1 and W_2 its weights when immersed in the liquids, then W - W_1 + and W - W_2 are the weights of equal volumes of the liquids, and + therefore the relative density is the quotient (W - W_1)/(W - W_2). + The determination in the case of solids lighter than water is + effected by the introduction of a sinker, i.e. a body which when + affixed to the light solid causes it to sink. If W be the weight of + the experimental solid in air, w the weight of the sinker in water, + and W_1 the weight of the solid plus sinker in water, then the + relative density is given by W/(W + w - W_1). In practice the solid + or plummet is suspended from the balance arm by a fibre--silk, + platinum, &c.--and carefully weighed. A small stool is then placed + over the balance pan, and on this is placed a beaker of distilled + water so that the solid is totally immersed. Some balances are + provided with a "specific gravity pan," i.e. a pan with short + suspending arms, provided with a hook at the bottom to which the + fibre may be attached; when this is so, the stool is unnecessary. Any + air bubbles are removed from the surface of the body by brushing with + a camel-hair brush; if the solid be of a porous nature it is + desirable to boil it for some time in water, thus expelling the air + from its interstices. The weighing is conducted in the usual way by + vibrations, except when the weight be small; it is then advisable to + bring the pointer to zero, an operation rendered necessary by the + damping due to the adhesion of water to the fibre. The temperature + and pressure of the air and water must also be taken. + + There are several corrections of the formula [Delta] = W/(W - W_1) + necessary to the accurate expression of the density. Here we can only + summarize the points of the investigation. It may be assumed that the + weighing is made with brass weights in air at t° and p mm. pressure. + To determine the true weight _in vacuo_ at 0°, account must be taken + of the different buoyancies, or losses of true weight, due to the + different volumes of the solids and weights. Similarly in the case of + the weighing in water, account must be taken of the buoyancy of the + weights, and also, if absolute densities be required, of the density + of water at the temperature of the experiment. In a form of great + accuracy the absolute density [Delta](0°/4°) is given by + + [Delta](0°/4°) = ([rho][alpha]W - [delta]W_1)/(W - W_1), + + in which W is the weight of the body in air at t° and p mm. pressure, + W_1 the weight in water, atmospheric conditions remaining very nearly + the same; [rho] is the density of the water in which the body is + weighed, [alpha] is (1 + [alpha]t°) in which a is the coefficient of + cubical expansion of the body, and [delta] is the density of the air at + t°, p mm. Less accurate formulae are [Delta] = [rho] W/(W - W_1), the + factor involving the density of the air, and the coefficient of the + expansion of the solid being disregarded, and [Delta] = W/(W - W_1), in + which the density of water is taken as unity. Reference may be made to + J. Wade and R. W. Merriman, _Journ. Chem. Soc._ 1909, 95, p. 2174. + + The determination of the density of a liquid by weighing a plummet in + air, and in the standard and experimental liquids, has been put into + a very convenient laboratory form by means of the apparatus known as + a Westphal balance (fig. 8). It consists of a steelyard mounted on a + fulcrum; one arm carries at its extremity a heavy bob and pointer, + the latter moving along a scale affixed to the stand and serving to + indicate when the beam is in its standard position. The other arm is + graduated in ten divisions and carries riders--bent pieces of wire of + determined weights--and at its extremity a hook from which the glass + plummet is suspended. To complete the apparatus there is a glass jar + which serves to hold the liquid experimented with. The apparatus is + so designed that when the plummet is suspended in air, the index of + the beam is at the zero of the scale; if this be not so, then it is + adjusted by a levelling screw. The plummet is now placed in distilled + water at 15°, and the beam brought to equilibrium by means of a + rider, which we shall call 1, hung on a hook; other riders are + provided, {1/10}th and {1/100}th respectively of 1. To determine the + density of any liquid it is only necessary to suspend the plummet in + the liquid, and to bring the beam to its normal position by means of + the riders; the relative density is read off directly from the + riders. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + 3. Methods depending on the free suspension of the solid in a liquid + of the same density have been especially studied by Retgers and + Gossner in view of their applicability to density determinations of + crystals. Two typical forms are in use; in one a liquid is prepared + in which the crystal freely swims, the density of the liquid being + ascertained by the pycnometer or other methods; in the other a liquid + of variable density, the so-called "diffusion column," is prepared, + and observation is made of the level at which the particle comes to + rest. The first type is in commonest use; since both necessitate the + use of dense liquids, a summary of the media of most value, with + their essential properties, will be given. + + _Acetylene tetrabromide_, C_{2}H_{2}Br_4, which is very + conveniently prepared by passing acetylene into cooled bromine, has a + density of 3.001 at 6° C. It is highly convenient, since it is + colourless, odourless, very stable and easily mobile. It may be + diluted with benzene or toluene. + + _Methylene iodide_, CH_{2}I_2, has a density of 3.33, and may be + diluted with benzene. Introduced by Brauns in 1886, it was + recommended by Retgers. Its advantages rest on its high density and + mobility; its main disadvantages are its liability to decomposition, + the originally colourless liquid becoming dark owing to the + separation of iodine, and its high coefficient of expansion. Its + density may be raised to 3.65 by dissolving iodoform and iodine in + it. + + _Thoulet's solution_, an aqueous solution of potassium and mercuric + iodides (potassium iodo-mercurate), introduced by Thoulet and + subsequently investigated by V. Goldschmidt, has a density of 3.196 + at 22.9°. It is almost colourless and has a small coefficient of + expansion; its hygroscopic properties, its viscous character, and its + action on the skin, however, militate against its use. A. Duboin + (_Compt. rend._, 1905, p. 141) has investigated the solutions of + mercuric iodide in other alkaline iodides; sodium iodo-mercurate + solution has a density of 3.46 at 26°, and gives with an excess of + water a dense precipitate of mercuric iodide, which dissolves without + decomposition in alcohol; lithium iodo-mercurate solution has a + density of 3.28 at 25.6°; and ammonium iodo-mercurate solution a + density of 2.98 at 26°. + + _Rohrbach's solution_, an aqueous solution of barium and mercuric + iodides, introduced by Carl Rohrbach, has a density of 3.588. + + _Klein's solution_, an aqueous solution of cadmium borotungstate, + 2Cd(OH)_{2}·B_{2}O_{3}·9WO_{3}·16H_{2}O, introduced by D. Klein, has + a density up to 3.28. The salt melts in its water of crystallization + at 75°, and the liquid thus obtained goes up to a density of 3.6. + + _Silver-thallium nitrate_, TIAg(NO_3)_2, introduced by Retgers, + melts at 75° to form a clear liquid of density 4.8; it may be diluted + with water. + + The method of using these liquids is in all cases the same; a + particle is dropped in; if it floats a diluent is added and the + mixture well stirred. This is continued until the particle freely + swims, and then the density of the mixture is determined by the + ordinary methods (see MINERALOGY). + + In the "diffusion column" method, a liquid column uniformly varying + in density from about 3.3 to 1 is prepared by pouring a little + methylene iodide into a long test tube and adding five times as much + benzene. The tube is tightly corked to prevent evaporation, and + allowed to stand for some hours. The density of the column at any + level is determined by means of the areometrical beads proposed by + Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), professor of astronomy at Glasgow + University. These are hollow glass beads of variable density; they + may be prepared by melting off pieces of very thin capillary tubing, + and determining the density in each case by the method just + previously described. To use the column, the experimental fragment is + introduced, when it takes up a definite position. By successive + trials two beads, of known density, say d_1, d_2, are obtained, one + of which floats above, and the other below, the test crystal; the + distances separating the beads from the crystal are determined by + means of a scale placed behind the tube. If the bead of density d_1 + be at the distance l_1 above the crystal, and that of d_2 at l_2 + below, it is obvious that if the density of the column varies + uniformly, then the density of the test crystal is (d_{1}l_2 + + d_{2}l_1)/(l_1 + l_2). + + Acting on a principle quite different from any previously discussed + is the capillary hydrometer or staktometer of Brewster, which is + based upon the difference in the surface tension and density of pure + water, and of mixtures of alcohol and water in varying proportions. + + If a drop of water be allowed to form at the extremity of a fine + tube, it will go on increasing until its weight overcomes the surface + tension by which it clings to the tube, and then it will fall. Hence + any impurity which diminishes the surface tension of the water will + diminish the size of the drop (unless the density is proportionately + diminished). According to Quincke, the surface tension of pure water + in contact with air at 20° C. is 81 dynes per linear centimetre, + while that of alcohol is only 25.5 dynes; and a small percentage of + alcohol produces much more than a proportional decrease in the + surface tension when added to pure water. The capillary hydrometer + consists simply of a small pipette with a bulb in the middle of the + stem, the pipette terminating in a very fine capillary point. The + instrument being filled with distilled water, the number of drops + required to empty the bulb and portions of the stem between two marks + m and n (fig. 9) on the latter is carefully counted, and the + experiments repeated at different temperatures. The pipette having + been carefully dried, the process is repeated with pure alcohol or + with proof spirits, and the strength of any admixture of water and + spirits is determined from the corresponding number of drops, but the + formula generally given is not based upon sound data. Sir David + Brewster found with one of these instruments that the number of drops + of pure water was 734, while of proof spirit, sp. gr. 920, the number + was 2117. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9. Brewster's Staktometer] + + REFERENCES.--Density and density determinations are discussed in all + works on practical physics; reference may be made to B. Stewart and + W. W. Haldane Gee, _Practical Physics_, vol. i. (1901); Kohlrausch, + _Practical Physics_; Ostwald, _Physico-Chemical Measurements_. The + density of gases is treated in M. W. Travers, _The Experimental Study + of Gases_ (1901); and vapour density determinations in Lassar-Cohn's + _Arbeitsmethoden für organisch-chemische Laboratorien_ (1901), and + _Manual of Organic Chemistry_ (1896), and in H. Biltz, _Practical + Methods for determining Molecular Weights_ (1899). (C. E.*) + + + + +DENTATUS, MANIUS CURIUS, Roman general, conqueror of the Samnites and +Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was born of humble parents, and was possibly of +Sabine origin. He is said to have been called Dentatus because he was +born with his teeth already grown (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 15). Except +that he was tribune of the people, nothing certain is known of him until +his first consulship in 290 B.C. when, in conjunction with his colleague +P. Cornelius Rufinus, he gained a decisive victory over the Samnites, +which put an end to a war that had lasted fifty years. He also reduced +the revolted Sabines to submission; a large portion of their territory +was distributed among the Roman citizens, and the most important towns +received the citizenship without the right of voting for magistrates +(_civitas sine suffragio_). With the proceeds of the spoils of the war +Dentatus cut an artificial channel to carry off the waters of Lake +Velinus, so as to drain the valley of Reate. In 275, after Pyrrhus had +returned from Sicily to Italy, Dentatus (again consul) took the field +against him. The decisive engagement took place near Beneventum in the +Campi Arusini, and resulted in the total defeat of Pyrrhus. Dentatus +celebrated a magnificent triumph, in which for the first time a number +of captured elephants were exhibited. Dentatus was consul for the third +time in 274, when he finally crushed the Lucanians and Samnites, and +censor in 272. In the latter capacity he began to build an aqueduct to +carry the waters of the Anio into the city, but died (270) before its +completion. Dentatus was looked upon as a model of old Roman simplicity +and frugality. According to the well-known anecdote, when the Samnites +sent ambassadors with costly presents to induce him to exercise his +influence on their behalf in the senate, they found him sitting on the +hearth and preparing his simple meal of roasted turnips. He refused +their gifts, saying that earthen dishes were good enough for him, adding +that he preferred ruling those who possessed gold to possessing it +himself. It is also said that he died so poor that the state was obliged +to provide dowries for his daughters. But these and similar anecdotes +must be received with caution, and it should be remembered that what was +a competence in his day would have been considered poverty by the Romans +of later times. + + Livy, epitome, 11-14; Polybius ii. 19; Eutropius ii. 9, 14; Florus i. + 18; Val. Max. iv. 3, 5, vi. 3, 4; Cicero, _De senectute_, 16; Juvenal + xi. 78; Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 25. + + + + +DENTIL (from Lat. _dens_, a tooth), in architecture, a small +tooth-shaped block used as a repeating ornament in the bed-mould of a +cornice. Vitruvius (iv. 2) states that the dentil represents the end of +a rafter (_asser_); and since it occurs in its most pronounced form in +the Ionic temples of Asia Minor, the Lycian tombs and the porticoes and +tombs of Persia, where it represents distinctly the reproduction in +stone of timber construction, there is but little doubt as to its +origin. The earliest example is that found on the tomb of Darius, c. 500 +B.C., cut in the rock in which the portico of his palace is reproduced. +Its first employment in Athens is in the cornice of the caryatid portico +or tribune of the Erechtheum (480 B.C.). When subsequently introduced +into the bed-mould of the cornice of the choragic monument of Lysicrates +it is much smaller in its dimensions. In the later temples of Ionia, as +in the temple of Priene, the larger scale of the dentil is still +retained. As a general rule the projection of the dentil is equal to its +width, and the intervals between to half the width. In some cases the +projecting band has never had the sinkings cut into it to divide up the +dentils, as in the Pantheon at Rome, and it is then called a +dentil-band. The dentil was the chief decorative feature employed in the +bed-mould by the Romans and the Italian Revivalists. In the porch of the +church of St John Studius at Constantinople, the dentil and the interval +between are equal in width, and the interval is splayed back from top to +bottom; this is the form it takes in what is known as the "Venetian +dentil," which was copied from the Byzantine dentil in Santa Sophia, +Constantinople. There, however, it no longer formed part of a bed-mould: +its use at Santa Sophia was to decorate the projecting moulding +enclosing the encrusted marbles, and the dentils were cut alternately on +both sides of the moulding. The Venetian dentil was also introduced as a +label round arches and as a string course. + + + + +DENTISTRY + + +Historical sketch. + +(from Lat. _dens_, a tooth), a special department of medical +science, embracing the structure, function and therapeutics of the mouth +and its contained organs, specifically the teeth, together with their +surgical and prosthetic treatment. (For the anatomy of the teeth see +TEETH.) As a distinct vocation it is first alluded to by Herodotus (500 +B.C.). There are evidences that at an earlier date the Egyptians and +Hindus attempted to replace lost teeth by attaching wood or ivory +substitutes to adjacent sound teeth by means of threads or wires, but +the gold fillings reputed to have been found in the teeth of Egyptian +mummies have upon investigation been shown to be superficial +applications of gold leaf for ornamental purposes. The impetus given to +medical study in the Grecian schools by the followers of Aesculapius and +especially Hippocrates (500 to 400 B.C.) developed among the +practitioners of medicine and surgery considerable knowledge of +dentistry. Galen (A.D. 131) taught that the teeth were true bones +existing before birth, and to him is credited the belief that the upper +canine teeth receive branches from the nerve which supplies the eye, and +hence should be called "eye-teeth." Abulcasis (10th cent. A.D.) +describes the operation by which artificial crowns are attached to +adjacent sound teeth. Vesalius (1514), Ambroise Paré, J. J. Scaliger, T. +Kerckring, M. Malpighi, and lesser anatomists of the same period +contributed dissertations which threw some small amount of light upon +the structure and functions of the teeth. The operation of transplanting +teeth is usually attributed to John Hunter (1728-1793), who practised it +extensively, and gave to it additional prominence by transplanting a +human tooth to the comb of a cock, but the operation was alluded to by +Ambroise Paré (1509-1590), and there is evidence to show that it was +practised even earlier. A. von Leeuwenhoek in 1678 described with much +accuracy the tubular structure of the dentine, thus making the most +important contribution to the subject which had appeared up to that +time. Until the latter part of the 18th century extraction was +practically the only operation for the cure of toothache. + +The early contributions of France exerted a controlling influence upon +the development of dental practice. Urbain Hémard, surgeon to the +cardinal Georges of Armagnac, whom Dr Blake (1801) calls an ingenious +surgeon and a great man, published in 1582 his _Researches upon the +Anatomy of the Teeth, their Nature and Properties_. Of Hémard, M. +Fauchard says: "This surgeon had read Greek and Latin authors, whose +writings he has judiciously incorporated in his own works." In 1728 +Fauchard, who has been called the father of modern dentistry, published +his celebrated work, entitled _Le Chirurgien Dentiste ou traité des +dents_. The preface contains the following statement as to the existing +status of dental art and science in France, which might have been +applied with equal truth to any other European country:--" The most +celebrated surgeons having abandoned this branch of surgery, or having +but little cultivated it, their negligence gave rise to a class of +persons who, without theoretic knowledge or experience, and without +being qualified, practised it at hazard, having neither principles nor +system. It was only since the year 1700 that the intelligent in Paris +opened their eyes to these abuses, when it was provided that those who +intended practising dental surgery should submit to an examination by +men learned in all the branches of medical science, who should decide +upon their merits." After the publication of Fauchard's work the +practice of dentistry became more specialized and distinctly separated +from medical practice, the best exponents of the art being trained as +apprentices by practitioners of ability, who had acquired their training +in the same way from their predecessors. Fauchard suggested porcelain as +an improvement upon bone and ivory for the manufacture of artificial +teeth, a suggestion which he obtained from R. A. F. de Réaumur, the +French savant and physicist, who was a contributor to the royal +porcelain manufactory at Sévres. Later, Duchateau, an apothecary of St +Germain, made porcelain teeth, and communicated his discovery to the +Academy of Surgery in 1776, but kept the process secret. Du Bois Chémant +carried the art to England, and the process was finally made public by +M. Du Bois Foucou. M. Fonzi improved the art to such an extent that the +Athenaeum of Arts in Paris awarded him a medal and crown (March 14, +1808). + +In Great Britain the 19th century brought the dawning of dental science. +The work of Dr Blake in 1801 on the anatomy of the teeth was distinctly +in advance of anything previously written on the subject. Joseph Fox was +one of the first members of the medical profession to devote himself +exclusively to dentistry, and his work is a repository of the best +practice of his time. The processes described, though comparatively +crude, involve principles in use at the present time. Thomas Bell, the +successor of Fox as lecturer on the structure and disease of the teeth +at Guy's Hospital, published his well-known work in 1829. About this +period numerous publications on dentistry made their appearance, notably +those of Koecker, Johnson and Waite, followed somewhat later by the +admirable work of Alexander Nasmyth (1839). By this time Cuvier, Serres, +Rousseau, Bertin, Herissant and others in France had added to the +knowledge of human and comparative dental anatomy, while M. G. Retzius, +of Sweden, and E. H. Weber, J. C. Rosenmüller, Schreger, J. E. von +Purkinje, B. Fraenkel and J. Müller in Germany were carrying forward the +same lines of research. The sympathetic nervous relationships of the +teeth with other parts of the body, and the interaction of diseases of +the teeth with general pathological conditions, were clearly +established. Thus a scientific foundation was laid, and dentistry came +to be practised as a specialty of medicine. Certain minor operations, +however, such as the extraction of teeth and the stopping of caries in +an imperfect way, were still practised by barbers, and the empirical +practice of dentistry, especially of those operations which were almost +wholly mechanical, had developed a considerable body of dental artisans +who, though without medical education in many cases, possessed a high +degree of manipulative skill. Thus there came to be two classes of +practitioners, the first regarding dentistry as a specialty of medicine, +the latter as a distinct and separate calling. + +In America representatives of both classes of dentists began to arrive +from England and France about the time of the Revolution. Among these +were John Wooffendale (1766), a student of Robert Berdmore of Liverpool, +surgeon-dentist to George III.; James Gardette (1778), a French +physician and surgeon; and Joseph Lemaire (1781), a French dentist who +went out with the army of Count Rochambeau. During the winter of +1781-1782, while the Continental army was in winter quarters at +Providence, Rhode Island, Lemaire found time and opportunity to practise +his calling, and also to instruct one or two persons, notably Josiah +Flagg, probably the first American dentist. Dental practice was thus +established upon American soil, where it has produced such fertile +results. + + +Course of training. + +Until well into the 19th century apprenticeship afforded the only means +of acquiring a knowledge of dentistry. The profits derived from the +apprenticeship system fostered secrecy and quackery among many of the +early practitioners; but the more liberal minded and better educated of +the craft developed an increasing opposition to these narrow methods. In +1837 a local association of dentists was formed in New York, and in 1840 +a national association, The American Society of Dental Surgeons, the +object of which was "to advance the science by free communication and +interchange of sentiments." The first dental periodical in the world, +_The American Journal of Dental Science_, was issued in June 1839, and +in November 1840 was established the Baltimore College of Dental +Surgery, the first college in the world for the systematic education of +dentists. Thus the year 1839-1840 marks the birth of the three factors +essential to professional growth in dentistry. All this, combined with +the refusal of the medical schools to furnish the desired facilities for +dental instruction, placed dentistry for the time being upon a footing +entirely separate from general medicine. Since then the curriculum of +study preparatory to dental practice has been systematically increased +both as to its content and length, until in all fundamental principles +it is practically equal to that required for the training of medical +specialists, and in addition includes the technical subjects peculiar to +dentistry. In England, and to some extent upon the continent, the old +apprenticeship system is retained as an adjunct to the college course, +but it is rapidly dying out, as it has already done in America. Owing to +the regulation by law of the educational requirements, the increase of +institutions devoted to the professional training of dentists has been +rapid in all civilized countries, and during the past twenty years +especially so in the United States. Great Britain possesses upwards of +twelve institutions for dental instruction, France two, Germany and +Switzerland six, all being based upon the conception that dentistry is a +department of general medicine. In the United States there were in 1878 +twelve dental schools, with about 700 students; in 1907 there were +fifty-seven schools, with 6919 students. Of these fifty-seven schools, +thirty-seven are departments of universities or of medical institutions, +and there is a growing tendency to regard dentistry from its educational +aspect as a special department of the general medical and surgical +practice. + + +Research. + +Recent studies have shown that besides being an important part of the +digestive system, the mouth sustains intimate relationship with the +general nervous system, and is important as the portal of entrance for +the majority of the bacteria that cause specific diseases. This fact has +rendered more intimate the relations between dentistry and the general +practice of medicine, and has given a powerful impetus to scientific +studies in dentistry. Through the researches of Sir J. Tomes, Mummery, +Hopewell Smith, Williams and others in England, O. Hertwig, Weil and +Röse in Germany, Andrews, Sudduth and Black in America, the minute +anatomy and embryology of the dental tissues have been worked out with +great fulness and precision. In particular, it has been demonstrated +that certain general systemic diseases have a distinct oral expression. +Through their extensive nervous connexions with the largest of the +cranial nerves and with the sympathetic nervous system, the teeth +frequently cause irritation resulting in profound reflex nervous +phenomena, which are curable only by removal of the local tooth +disorder. Gout, lithaemia, scurvy, rickets, lead and mercurial +poisoning, and certain forms of chronic nephritis, produce dental and +oral lesions which are either pathognomonic or strongly indicative of +their several constitutional causes, and are thus of great importance in +diagnosis. The most important dental research of modern times is that +which was carried out by Professor W. D. Miller of Berlin (1884) upon +the cause of caries of the teeth, a disease said to affect the human +race more extensively than any other. Miller demonstrated that, as +previous observers had suspected, caries is of bacterial origin, and +that acids play an important rôle in the process. The disease is brought +about by a group of bacteria which develop in the mouth, growing +naturally upon the débris of starchy or carbohydrate food, producing +fermentation of the mass, with lactic acid as the end product. The +lactic acid dissolves the mineral constituent of the tooth structure, +calcium phosphate, leaving the organic matrix of the tooth exposed. +Another class of germs, the peptonising and putrefactive bacteria, then +convert the organic matter into liquid or gaseous end products. The +accuracy of the conclusions obtained from his analytic research was +synthetically proved, after the manner of Koch, by producing the disease +artificially. Caries of the teeth has been shown to bear highly +important relation to more remote or systemic diseases. Exposure and +death of the dental pulp furnishes an avenue of entrance for +disease-producing bacteria, by which invasion of the deeper tissues may +readily take place, causing necrosis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, +phlegmon and other destructive inflammations, certain of which, +affecting the various sinuses of the head, have been found to cause +meningitis, chronic empyema, metastatic abscesses in remote parts of the +body, paralysis, epilepsy and insanity. + + +Filling or stopping. + +_Operative Dentistry._--The art of dentistry is usually divided +arbitrarily into _operative dentistry_, the purpose of which is to +preserve as far as possible the teeth and associated tissues, and +_prosthetic dentistry_, the purpose of which is to supply the loss of +teeth by artificial substitutes. The filling of carious cavities was +probably first performed with lead, suggested apparently by an operation +recorded by Celsus (100 B.C.), who recommended that frail or decayed +teeth be stuffed with lead previous to extraction, in order that they +might not break under the forceps. The use of lead as a filling was +sufficiently prevalent in France during the 17th century to bring into +use the word _plombage_, which is still occasionally applied in that +country to the operation of filling. Gold as a filling material came +into general use about the beginning of the 19th century.[1] The earlier +preparations of gold were so impure as to be virtually without cohesion, +so that they were of use only in cavities which had sound walls for its +retention. In the form of rolls or tape it was forced into the +previously cleaned and prepared cavity, condensed with instruments under +heavy hand pressure, smoothed with files, and finally burnished. Tin +foil was also used to a limited extent and by the same method. +Improvements in the refining of gold for dental use brought the product +to a fair degree of purity, and, about 1855, led to the invention by Dr +Robert Arthur of Baltimore of a method by which it could be welded +firmly within the cavity. The cohesive properties of the foil were +developed by passing it through an alcohol flame, which dispelled its +surface contaminations. The gold was then welded piece by piece into a +homogeneous mass by plugging instruments with serrated points. In this +process of cold-welding, the mallet, hitherto in only limited use, was +found more efficient than hand pressure, and was rapidly developed. The +primitive mallet of wood, ivory, lead or steel, was supplanted by a +mallet in which a hammer was released automatically by a spring +condensed by pressure of the operator's hand. Then followed mallets +operated by pneumatic pressure, by the dental engine, and finally by the +electro-magnet, as utilized in 1867 by Bonwill. These devices greatly +facilitated the operation, and made possible a partial or entire +restoration of the tooth-crown in conformity with anatomical lines. + +The dental engine in its several forms is the outgrowth of the simple +drill worked by the hand of the operator. It is used in removing decayed +structure and for shaping the cavity for inserting the filling. From +time to time its usefulness has been extended, so that it is now used +for finishing fillings and polishing them, for polishing the teeth, +removing deposits from them and changing their shapes. Its latest +development, the _dento-surgical engine_, is of heavier construction and +is adapted to operations upon all of the bones, a recent addition to its +equipment being the spiral osteotome of Cryer, by which, with a minimum +shock to the patient, fenestrae of any size or shape in the brain-case +may be made, from a simple trepanning operation to the more extensive +openings required in intra-cranial operations. The rotary power may be +supplied by the foot of the operator, or by hydraulic or electric +motors. The rubber dam invented by S. C. Barnum of New York (1864) +provided a means for protecting the field of operations from the oral +fluids, and extended the scope of operations even to the entire +restoration of tooth-crowns with cohesive gold foil. Its value has been +found to be even greater than was at first anticipated. In all +operations involving the exposed dental pulp or the pulp-chamber and +root-canals, it is the only efficient method of mechanically protecting +the field of operation from invasion by disease-producing bacteria. + +The difficulty and annoyance attending the insertion of gold, its high +thermal conductivity, and its objectionable colour have led to an +increasing use of amalgam, guttapercha, and cements of zinc oxide mixed +with zinc chloride or phosphoric acid. Recently much attention has been +devoted to restorations with porcelain. A piece of platinum foil of .001 +inch thickness is burnished and pressed into the cavity, so that a +matrix is produced exactly fitting the cavity. Into this matrix is +placed a mixture of powdered porcelain and water or alcohol, of the +colour to match the tooth. The mass is carefully dried and then fused +until homogeneous. Shrinkage is counteracted by additions of porcelain +powder, which are repeatedly fused until the whole exactly fills the +matrix. After cooling, the matrix is stripped away and the porcelain is +cemented into the cavity. When the cement has hardened, the surface of +the porcelain is ground and polished to proper contour. If successfully +made, porcelain fillings are scarcely noticeable. Their durability +remains to be tested. + + +Dental therapeutics. + +Until recent times the exposure of the dental pulp inevitably led to its +death and disintegration, and, by invasion of bacteria via the pulp +canal, set up an inflammatory process which eventually caused the loss +of the entire tooth. A rational system of therapeutics, in conjunction +with proper antiseptic measures, has made possible both the conservative +treatment of the dental pulp when exposed, and the successful treatment +of pulp-canals when the pulp has been devitalized either by design or +disease. The conservation of the exposed pulp is affected by the +operation of capping. In capping a pulp, irritation is allayed by +antiseptic and sedative treatment, and a metallic cap, lined with a +non-irritant sedative paste, is applied under aseptic conditions +immediately over the point of pulp exposure. A filling of cement is +superimposed, and this, after it has hardened, is covered with a +metallic or other suitable filling. The utility of arsenious acid for +devitalizing the dental pulp was discovered by J. R. Spooner of +Montreal, and first published in 1836 by his brother Shearjashub in his +_Guide to Sound Teeth_. The painful action of arsenic upon the pulp was +avoided by the addition of various sedative drugs,--morphia, atropia, +iodoform, &c.,--and its use soon became universal. Of late years it is +being gradually supplanted by immediate surgical extirpation under the +benumbing effect of cocaine salts. By the use of cocaine also the pain +incident to excavating and shaping of cavities in tooth structure may +be controlled, especially when the cocaine is driven into the dentine by +means of an electric current. To fill the pulp-chamber and canals of +teeth after loss of the pulp, all organic remains of pulp tissue should +be removed by sterilization, and then, in order to prevent the entrance +of bacteria, and consequent infection, the canals should be perfectly +filled. Upon the exclusion of infection depends the future integrity and +comfort of the tooth. Numberless methods have been invented for the +operation. Pulpless teeth are thus preserved through long periods of +usefulness, and even those remains of teeth in which the crowns have +been lost are rendered comfortable and useful as supports for artificial +crowns, and as abutments for assemblages of crowns, known as +bridge-work. + +The discoloration of the pulpless tooth through putrefactive changes in +its organic matter were first overcome by bleaching it with chlorine. +Small quantities of calcium hypochlorite are packed into the +pulp-chamber and moistened with dilute acetic acid; the decomposition of +the calcium salt liberates chlorine _in situ_, which restores the tooth +to normal colour in a short time. The cavity is afterwards washed out, +carefully dried, lined with a light-coloured cement and filled. More +efficient bleaching agents of recent introduction are hydrogen dioxide +in a 25% solution or a saturated solution of sodium peroxide; they are +less irritating and much more convenient in application. Unlike +chlorine, these do not form soluble metallic salts which may +subsequently discolour the tooth. Hydrogen dioxide may be carried into +the tooth structure by the electric current. In which case a current of +not less than forty volts controlled by a suitable graduated resistance +is applied with the patient in circuit, the anode being a +platinum-pointed electrode in contact with the dioxide solution in the +tooth cavity, and the cathode a sponge or plate electrode in contact +with the hand or arm of the patient. The current is gradually turned on +until two or three milliamperes are indicated by a suitable ammeter. The +operation requires usually twenty to thirty minutes. + +Malposed teeth are not only unsightly but prone to disease, and may be +the cause of disease in other teeth, or of the associated tissues. The +impairment of function which their abnormal position causes has been +found to be the primary cause of disturbances of the general bodily +health; for example, enlarged tonsils, chronic pharyngitis and nasal +catarrh, indigestion and malnutrition. By the use of springs, screws, +vulcanized caoutchouc bands, elastic ligatures, &c., as the case may +require, practically all forms of dental irregularity may be corrected, +even such protrusions and retrusions of the front teeth as cause great +disfigurement of the facial contour. + + +Extraction. + +The extraction of teeth, an operation which until quite recent times was +one of the crudest procedures in minor surgery, has been reduced to +exactitude by improved instruments, designed with reference to the +anatomical relations of the teeth and their alveoli, and therefore +adapted to the several classes of teeth. The operation has been rendered +painless by the use of anaesthetics. The anaesthetic generally employed +is nitrous oxide, or laughing-gas, the use of which was discovered in +1844 by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Conn., U.S.A. Chloroform +and ether, as well as other general anaesthetics, have been employed in +extensive operations because of their more prolonged effect; but +chloroform, especially, is dangerous, owing to its effect upon the +heart, which in many instances has suddenly failed during the operation. +Ether, while less manageable than nitrous oxide, has been found to be +practically devoid of danger. The local injection of solutions of +cocaine and allied anaesthetics into the gum-tissue is extensively +practised; but is attended with danger, from the toxic effects of an +overdose upon the heart, and the local poisonous effect upon the +tissues, which lead in numerous cases to necrosis and extensive +sloughing. + + +Artificial teeth. + +_Dental Prosthesis._--The fastening of natural teeth or carved +substitutes to adjoining sound teeth by means of thread or wire preceded +their attachment to base-plates of carved wood, bone or ivory, which +latter method was practised until the introduction of swaged metallic +plates. Where the crown only of a tooth or those of several teeth were +lost, the restoration was effected by engrafting upon the prepared root +a suitable crown by means of a wooden or metallic pivot. When possible, +the new crown was that of a corresponding sound tooth taken from the +mouth of another individual; otherwise an artificial crown carved from +bone or ivory, or sometimes from the tooth of an ox, was used. To +replace entire dentures a base-plate of carved hippopotamus ivory was +constructed, upon which were mounted the crowns of natural teeth, or +later those of porcelain. The manufacture of a denture of this character +was tedious and uncertain, and required much skill. The denture was kept +in place by spiral springs attached to the buccal sides of the appliance +above and below, which caused pressure upon both jaws, necessitating a +constant effort upon the part of the unfortunate wearer to keep it in +place. Metallic swaged plates were introduced in the latter part of the +18th century. An impression of the gums was taken in wax, from which a +cast was made in plaster of Paris. With this as a model, a metallic die +of brass or zinc was prepared, upon which the plate of gold or silver +was formed, and then swaged into contact with the die by means of a +female die or counter-die of lead. The process is essentially the same +to-day, with the addition of numerous improvements in detail, which have +brought it to a high degree of perfection. The discovery, by Gardette of +Philadelphia in 1800, of the utility of atmospheric pressure in keeping +artificial dentures in place led to the abandonment of spiral springs. A +later device for enhancing the stability is the vacuum chamber, a +central depression in the upper surface of the plate, which, when +exhausted of air by the wearer, materially increases the adhesion. The +metallic base-plate is used also for supporting one or more artificial +teeth, being kept in place by metallic clasps fitting to, and partially +surrounding, adjacent sound natural teeth, the plate merely covering the +edentulous portion of the alveolar ridge. It may also be kept in place +by atmospheric adhesion, in which case the palatal vault is included, +and the vacuum chamber is utilized in the palatal portion to increase +the adhesion. + +In the construction usually practised, porcelain teeth are attached to a +gold base-plate by means of stay-pieces of gold, perforated to receive +the platinum pins baked in the body of the tooth. The stay-pieces or +backings are then soldered to the pins and to the plate by means of +high-fusing gold solder. The teeth used may be single or in sections, +and may be with or without an extension designed in form and colour to +imitate the gum of the alveolar border. Even when skillfully executed, +the process is imperfect in that the jointing of the teeth to each +other, and their adaptation to the base-plate, leaves crevices and +recesses, in which food débris and oral secretions accumulate. To +obviate these defects the enamelled platinum denture was devised. +Porcelain teeth are first attached to a swaged base-plate of pure +platinum by a stay-piece of the same metal soldered with pure gold, +after which the interstices between the teeth are filled, and the entire +surface of the plate, excepting that in contact with the palate and +alveolar border, is covered with a porcelain paste called the body, +which is modelled to the normal contour of the gums, and baked in a +muffle furnace until vitrified. It is then enamelled with a vitreous +enamel coloured in imitation of the colour of the natural gum, which is +applied and fired as before, the result being the most artistic and +hygienic denture known. This is commonly known as the continuous gum +method. Originating in France in the early part of the 19th century, and +variously improved by several experimenters, it was brought to its +present perfection by Dr John Allen of New York about 1846-1847. +Dentures supported upon cast bases of metallic alloys and of aluminium +have been employed as substitutes for the more expensive dentures of +gold and platinum, but have had only a limited use, and are less +satisfactory. + +Metallic bases were used exclusively as supports for artificial dentures +until in 1855-1856 Charles Goodyear, jun., patented in England a process +for constructing a denture upon vulcanized caoutchouc as a base. Several +modifications followed, each the subject of patented improvements. +Though the cheapness and simplicity of the vulcanite base has led to its +abuse in incompetent hands, it has on the whole been productive of much +benefit. It has been used with great success as a means of attaching +porcelain teeth to metallic bases of gold, silver and aluminium. It is +extensively used also in correcting irregular positions of the teeth, +and for making interdental splints in the treatment of fractures of the +jaws. For the mechanical correction of palatal defects causing +imperfection of deglutition and speech, which comes distinctly within +the province of the prosthetic dentist, the vulcanite base produces the +best-known apparatus. Two classes of palatal mechanism are +recognized--the obturator, a palatal plate, the function of which is to +close perforations or clefts in the hard palate, and the artificial +velum, a movable attachment to the obturator or palatal plate, which +closes the opening in the divided natural velum and, moving with it, +enables the wearer to close off the nasopharynx from the oral cavity in +the production of the guttural sounds. Vulcanite is also used for +extensive restorations of the jaws after surgical operations or loss by +disease, and in the majority of instances wholly corrects the deformity. + + +Modern methods. + +For a time vulcanite almost supplanted gold and silver as a base for +artificial denture, and developed a generation of practitioners +deficient in that high degree of skill necessary to the construction of +dentures upon metallic bases. The recent development of crown-and-bridge +work has brought about a renaissance, so that a thorough training is +more than ever necessary to successful practice in mechanical dentistry. +The simplest crown is of porcelain, and is engrafted upon a sound +natural tooth-root by means of a metallic pin of gold or platinum, +extending into the previously enlarged root-canal and cemented in place. +In another type of crown the point between the root-end and the abutting +crown-surface is encircled with a metallic collar or band, which gives +additional security to the attachment and protects the joints from +fluids or bacteria. Crowns of this character are constructed with a +porcelain facing attached by a stay-piece or backing of gold to a plate +and collar, which has been previously fitted to the root-end like a +ferrule, and soldered to a pin which projects through the ferrule into +the root-canal. The contour of the lingual surface of the crown is made +of gold, which is shaped to conform to the anatomical lines of the +tooth. The shell-crown consists of a reproduction of the crown entirely +of gold plate, filled with cement, and driven over the root-end, which +it closely encircles. The two latter kinds of crowns may be used as +abutments for the support of intervening crowns in constructing +bridge-work. When artificial crowns are supported not by natural +tooth-roots but by soldering them to abutments, they are termed dummies. +The number of dummies which may be supported upon a given number of +roots depends upon the position and character of the abutments, the +character of the alveolar tissues, the age, sex and health of the +patient, the character of the occlusion or bite, and the force exerted +in mastication. In some cases a root will not properly support more than +one additional crown; in others an entire bridge denture has been +successfully supported upon four well-placed roots. Two general classes +of bridge-work are recognized, namely, the fixed and the removable. +Removable bridge-work, though more difficult to construct, is +preferable, as it can be more thoroughly and easily cleansed. When +properly made and applied to judiciously selected cases, the bridge +denture is the most artistic and functionally perfect restoration of +prosthetic dentistry. + +The entire development of modern dentistry dates from the 19th century, +and mainly from its latter half. Beginning with a few practitioners and +no organized professional basis, educational system or literature, its +practitioners are to be found in all civilized communities, those in +Great Britain numbering about 5000; in the United States, 27,000; +France, 1600, of whom 376 are graduates; German Empire, qualified +practitioners (_Zahnärzte_), 1400; practitioners without official +qualification, 4100. Its educational institutions are numerous and well +equipped. It possesses a large periodical and standard literature in all +languages. Its practice is regulated by legislative enactment in all +countries the same as is medical practice. The business of manufacturing +and selling dentists' supplies represents an enormous industry, in +which millions of capital are invested. + + AUTHORITIES.--W. F. Litch, _American System of Dentistry_; Julius + Scheff, jun., _Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde_; Charles J. Essig, + _American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry_; Tomes, _Dental Anatomy_ + and _Dental Surgery_; W. D. Miller, _Microörganisms of the Human + Mouth_; Hopewell Smith, _Dental Microscopy_; H. H. Burchard, _Dental + Pathology, Therapeutics and Pharmacology_; F. J. S. Gorgas, _Dental + Medicine_; E. H. Angle, _Treatment of Malocclusion of the Teeth and + Fractures of the Maxillae_; G. Evans, _A Practical Treatise on + Artificial Crown-and-Bridge Work and Porcelain Dental Art_; C. N. + Johnson, _Principles and Practice of Filling Teeth, American + Text-Book of Operative Dentistry_ (3rd ed., 1905); Edward C. Kirk, + _Principles and Practice of Operative Dentistry_ (2nd ed., 1905); J. + S. Marshall, _American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry_ (edited by + C. R. Turner; 3rd ed., 1907). (E. C. K.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The filling of teeth with gold foil is recorded in the oldest + known book on dentistry, _Artzney Buchlein_, published anonymously + in 1530, in which the operation is quoted from Mesue (A.D. 857), + physician to the caliph Haroun al-Raschid. + + + + +DENTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary division of +Lancashire, England, 4½ m. N.E. from Stockport, on the London & +North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 14,934. In the township are +reservoirs for the water supply of Manchester, with a capacity of +1,860,000,000 gallons. The manufacture of felt hats is the leading +industry. Coal is extensively mined in the district. + + + + +DENVER, the capital of Colorado, U.S.A., the county-seat of Denver +county, and the largest city between Kansas City, Missouri, and the +Pacific coast, sometimes called the "Queen City of the Plains." Pop. +(1870) 4759; (1880) 35,629; (1890) 106,713; (1900), 133,859, of whom +25,301 were foreign-born and 3923 were negroes; (1910 census) 213,381. +Of the 25,301 foreign-born in 1900, 5114 were Germans; 3485, Irish; +3376, Swedes; 3344, English; 2623, English-Canadian; 1338, Russians; and +1033, Scots. Denver is an important railway centre, being served by nine +railways, of which the chief are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé; the +Chicago, Burlington & Quincy; the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific; the +Denver & Rio Grande; the Union Pacific; and the Denver, North-Western & +Pacific. + +Denver lies on the South Platte river, at an altitude exactly 1 m. above +the sea, about 15 m. from the E. base of the Rocky mountains, which +stretch along the W. horizon from N. to S. in an unbroken chain of some +175 m. Excursions may be made in all directions into the mountains, +affording beautiful scenery and interesting views of the mining camps. +Various peaks are readily accessible from Denver: Long's Peak (14,271 +ft.), Gray's Peak (14,341 ft.), Torrey Peak (14,336 ft.), Mt. Evans +(14,330 ft.), Pike's Peak (14,108 ft.), and many others of only slightly +less altitudes. The streets are excellent, broad and regular. The parks +are a fine feature of the city; by its charter a fixed percentage of all +expenditures for public improvements must be used to purchase park land. +Architectural variety and solidity are favoured in the buildings of the +city by a wealth of beautiful building stones of varied colours +(limestones, sandstones, lavas, granites and marbles), in addition to +which bricks and Roman tiles are employed. The State Capitol, built of +native granite and marble (1887-1895, cost $2,500,000), is an imposing +building. Noteworthy also are the Denver county court house; the +handsome East Denver high school; the Federal building, containing the +United States custom house and post office; the United States mint; the +large Auditorium, in which the Democratic National convention met in +1908; a Carnegie library (1908) and the Mining Exchange; and there are +various excellent business blocks, theatres, clubs and churches. Denver +has an art museum and a zoological museum. The libraries of the city +contain an aggregate of some 300,000 volumes. Denver is the seat of the +Jesuit college of the Sacred Heart (1888; in the suburbs); and the +university of Denver (Methodist, 1889), a co-educational institution, +succeeding the Colorado Seminary (founded in 1864 by John Evans), and +consisting of a college of liberal arts, a graduate school, Chamberlin +astronomical observatory and a preparatory school--these have buildings +in University Park--and (near the centre of the city) the Denver and +Gross College of Medicine, the Denver law school, a college of music in +the building of the old Colorado Seminary, and a Saturday college (with +classes specially for professional men). + +The prosperity of the city depends on that of the rich mining country +about it, on a very extensive wholesale trade, for which its situation +and railway facilities admirably fit it, and on its large manufacturing +and farming interests. The value of manufactures produced in 1900 was +$41,368,698 (increase 1890-1900, 41.5%). The value of the factory +product for 1905, however, was 3.3% less than that for 1900, though it +represented 36.6% of the product of the state as a whole. The principal +industry is the smelting and refining of lead, and the smelting works +are among the most interesting sights of the city. The value of the ore +reduced annually is about $10,000,000. Denver has also large foundries +and machine shops, flour and grist mills, and slaughtering and +meat-packing establishments. Denver is the central live-stock market of +the Rocky Mountain states. The beet sugar, fruit and other agricultural +products of the surrounding and tributary section were valued in 1906 at +about $20,000,000. The assessed valuation of property in the city in +1905 was $115,338,920 (about the true value), and the bonded debt +$1,079,595. + +At Denver the South Platte is joined by Cherry Creek, and here in +October 1858 were established on opposite sides of the creek two +bitterly rival settlements, St Charles and Auraria; the former was +renamed almost immediately Denver, after General J. W. Denver +(1818-1892), ex-governor of Kansas (which then included Colorado), and +Auraria was absorbed. Denver had already been incorporated by a +provisional local (extra legal) "legislature," and the Kansas +legislature gave a charter to a rival company which the Denver people +bought out. A city government was organized in December 1859; and +continued under a reincorporation effected by the first territorial +legislature of 1861. This body adjourned from Colorado City, nominally +the capital, to Denver, and in 1862 Golden was made the seat of +government. In 1868 Denver became the capital, but feeling in the +southern counties was then so strong against Denver that provision was +made for a popular vote on the situation of the capital five years after +Colorado should become a state. This popular vote confirmed Denver in +1881. Until 1870, when it secured a branch railway from the Union +Pacific line at Cheyenne (Wyoming), the city was on one side of the +transcontinental travel-routes. The first road was quickly followed by +the Kansas Pacific from Kansas City (1870, now also part of the Union +Pacific), the Denver & Rio Grande (1871), the Burlington system (1882), +the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé (1887), and other roads which have made +Denver's fortune. In April 1859 appeared the first number of _The Rocky +Mountain News_. The same year a postal express to Leavenworth, Kansas +(10 days, letters 25 cents an ounce) was established; and telegraph +connexion with Boston and New York ($9 for 10 words) in 1863. A private +mint was established in 1860. In the 'seventies all the facilities of a +modern city--gas, street-cars, water-works, telephones--were introduced. +Much the same might be said of a score of cities in the new West, but +none is a more striking example than Denver of marvellous growth. The +city throve on the freighting trade of the mines. In 1864 a tremendous +flood almost ruined it, and another flood in 1878, and a famous strike +in Denver and Leadville in 1879-1880 were further, but only momentary, +checks to its prosperity. As in every western city, particularly those +in mining regions whose sites attained speculative values, Denver had +grave problems with "squatters" or "land-jumpers" in her early years; +and there was the usual gambling and outlawry, sometimes extra-legally +repressed by vigilantes. Settled social conditions, however, soon +established themselves. In 1880 there was a memorable election riot +under the guise of an anti-Chinese demonstration. In the decade +1870-1880 the population increased 648.7%. The 'eighties were notable +for great real estate activity, and the population of the city increased +199.5% from 1880 to 1890. In 1882-1884 three successive annual exhibits +of a National Mining and Industrial Exposition were held. After 1890 +growth was slower but continuous. In 1902 a city-and-county of Denver +was created with extensive powers of framing its own charter, and in +1904 a charter was adopted. The constitution of the state was framed by +a convention that sat at Denver from December 1875 to March 1876; +various territorial conventions met here; and here W. J. Bryan was +nominated in 1908 for the presidency. + + + + +DEODAND (Lat. _Deo dandum_, that which is to be given to God), in +English law, was a personal chattel (any animal or thing) which, on +account of its having caused the death of a human being, was forfeited +to the king for pious uses. Blackstone, while tracing in the custom an +expiatory design, alludes to analogous Jewish and Greek laws,[1] which +required that what occasions a man's death should be destroyed. In such +usages the notion of the punishment of an animal or thing, or of its +being morally affected from having caused the death of a man, seems to +be implied. The forfeiture of the offending instrument in no way depends +on the guilt of the owner. This imputation of guilt to inanimate objects +or to the lower animals is not inconsistent with what we know of the +ideas of uncivilized races. In English law, deodands came to be regarded +as mere forfeitures to the king, and the rules on which they depended +were not easily explained by any key in the possession of the old +commentators. The law distinguished, for instance, between a thing in +motion and a thing standing still. If a horse or other animal in motion +killed a person, whether infant or adult, or if a cart ran over him, it +was forfeited as a deodand. On the other hand, if death were caused by +falling from a cart or a horse at rest, the law made the chattel a +deodand if the person killed were an adult, but not if he were below the +years of discretion. Blackstone accounts for the greater severity +against things in motion by saying that in such cases the owner is more +usually at fault, an explanation which is doubtful in point of fact, and +would certainly not account for other instances of the same tendency. +Thus, where a man's death is caused by a thing not in motion, that part +only which is the immediate cause is forfeited, as "if a man be climbing +up the wheel of a cart, and is killed by falling from it, the wheel +alone is a deodand"; whereas, if the cart were in motion, not only the +wheel but all that moves along with it (as the cart and the loading) are +forfeited. A similar distinction is to be found in Britton. Where a man +is killed by a vessel at rest the cargo is not deodand; where the vessel +is under sail, hull and cargo are both deodand. For the distinction +between the death of a child and the death of an adult Blackstone +accounts by suggesting that the child "was presumed incapable of actual +sin, and therefore needed no deodand to purchase propitiatory masses; +but every adult who died in actual sin stood in need of such atonement, +according to the humane superstition of the founders of the English +law." Sir Matthew Hale's explanation was that the child could not take +care of himself, whereon Blackstone asks why the owner should save his +forfeiture on account of the imbecility of the child, which ought to +have been an additional reason for caution. The finding of a jury was +necessary to constitute a deodand, and the investigation of the value of +the instrument by which death was caused occupied an important place +among the provisions of early English criminal law. It became a +necessary part of an indictment to state the nature and value of the +weapon employed--as, that the stroke was given by a certain penknife, of +the value of sixpence--so that the king might have his deodand. +Accidents on the high seas did not cause forfeiture, being beyond the +domain of the common law; but it would appear that in the case of ships +in fresh water the law held good. The king might grant his right to +deodands to another. In later times these forfeitures became extremely +unpopular; and juries, with the connivance of judges, found deodands of +trifling value, so as to defeat the inequitable claim. At last, by an +act of 1846 they were abolished, the date noticeably coinciding with the +introduction of railways and modern steam-engines. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Compare also the rule of the Twelve Tables, by which an animal + which had inflicted mischief might be surrendered in lieu of + compensation. + + + + +DEOGARH, the name of several towns of British India. (1) A town in the +Santal Parganas district of Bengal. Pop. (1901) 8838. It is famous for a +group of twenty-two temples dedicated to Siva, the resort of numerous +pilgrims. It is connected with the East Indian railway by a steam +tramway, 5 m. in length. (2) The headquarters of the Bamra feudatory +state in Bengal; 58 m. by road from the Bamra Road station on the +Bengal-Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901) 5702. The town, which is well laid +out, with parks and gardens, and pleasantly situated in a hollow among +hills, rapidly increased in population under the enlightened +administration of the raja, Sir Sudhal Rao, K.C.I.E. (b. 1860). It has a +state-supported high school affiliated to Calcutta University, with a +chemical and physical laboratory. (3) The chief town of the Deogarh +estate in the state of Udaipur, Rajputana, about 68 m. N.N.E. of the +city of Udaipur. It is walled, and contains a fine palace. Pop. (1901) +5384. The holder of the estate is styled _rawat_, and is one of the +first-class nobles of Mewar. (4) Deogarh Fort, the ancient Devagiri or +Deogiri (see DAULATABAD). + + + + +DÉOLS, a suburb of the French town of Châteauroux, in the department of +Indre. Pop. (1906) 2337. Déols lies to the north of Châteauroux, from +which it is separated by the Indre. It preserves a fine Romanesque tower +and other remains of the church of a famous Benedictine abbey, the most +important in Berry, founded in 917 by Ebbes the Noble, lord of Déols. A +gateway flanked by towers survives from the old ramparts of the town. +The parish church of St Stephen (15th and 16th centuries) has a +Romanesque façade and a crypt containing the ancient Christian tomb of +St Ludre and his father St Leocade, who according to tradition were +lords of the town in the 4th century. There are also interesting old +paintings of the 10th century representing the ancient abbey. The +pilgrimage to the tomb of St Ludre gave importance to Déols, which under +the name of _Vicus Dolensis_ was in existence in the Roman period. In +468 the Visigoths defeated the Gauls there, the victory carrying with it +the supremacy over the district of Berry. In the middle ages the head of +the family of Déols enjoyed the title of prince and held sway over +nearly all Lower Berry, of which the town itself was the capital. In the +10th century Raoul of Déols gave his castle to the monks of the abbey +and transferred his residence to Châteauroux. For centuries this change +did not affect the prosperity of the place, which was maintained by the +prestige of its abbey. But the burning of the abbey church by the +Protestants during the religious wars and in 1622 the suppression of the +abbey by the agency of Henry II., prince of Condé and of Déols, owing to +the corruption of the monks, led to its decadence. + + + + +DEPARTMENT (Fr. _département_, from _départir_, to separate into parts), +a division. The word is used of the branches of the administration in a +state or municipality; in Great Britain it is applied to the subordinate +divisions only of the great offices and boards of state, such as the +bankruptcy department of the Board of Trade, but in the United States +these subordinate divisions are known as "bureaus," while "department" +is used of the eight chief branches of the executive. + +A particular use of the word is that for a territorial division of +France, corresponding loosely to an English county. Previous to the +French Revolution, the local unit in France was the province, but this +division was too closely bound up with the administrative mismanagement +of the old régime. Accordingly, at the suggestion of Mirabeau, France +was redivided on entirely new lines, the thirty-four provinces being +broken up into eighty-three departments (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). The +idea was to render them as nearly as possible equal to a certain average +of size and population, though this was not always adhered to. They +derived their names principally from rivers, mountains or other +prominent geographical features. Under Napoleon the number was increased +to one hundred and thirty, but in 1815 it was reduced to eighty-six. In +1860 three new departments were created out of the newly annexed +territory of Savoy and Nice. In 1871 three departments (Bas-Rhin, +Haut-Rhin and Moselle) were lost after the German war. Of the remains of +the Haut-Rhin was formed the territory of Belfort, and the fragments of +the Moselle were incorporated in the department of Meurthe, which was +renamed Meurthe-et-Moselle, making the number at present eighty-seven. +For a complete list of the departments see FRANCE. Each department is +presided over by an officer called a prefect, appointed by the +government, and assisted by a prefectorial council (_conseil de +préfecture_). The departments are subdivided into arrondissements, each +in charge of a sub-prefect. Arrondissements are again subdivided into +cantons, and these into communes, somewhat equivalent to the English +parish (see FRANCE: _LOCAL GOVERNMENT_). + + + + +DE PERE, a city of Brown county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both sides of the +Fox river, 6 m. above its mouth, and 109 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) +3625; (1900) 4038, of whom 1025 were foreign-born; (1905, state census) +4523. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western and Chicago, Milwaukee +& St Paul railways, by interurban electric lines and by lake and river +steamboat lines, it being the head of lake navigation on the Fox river. +Two bridges here span the Fox, which is from {1/3}m. to ½m. in +width. It is a shipping and transfer point and has paper mills, machine +shops, flour mills, sash, door and blind factories, a launch and +pleasure-boat factory, and knitting works, cheese factories and dairies, +brick yards and grain elevators. There is an excellent water-power. De +Pere is the seat of St Norbert's college (Roman Catholic, 1902) and has +a public library. North of the city is located the state reformatory. On +the coming of the first European, Jean Nicolet, who visited the place in +1634-1635, De Pere was the site of a polyglot Indian settlement of +several thousand attracted by the fishing at the first rapids of the Fox +river. Here in 1670 Father Claude Allouez established the mission of St +Francis Xavier, the second in what is now Wisconsin. From the name +_Rapides des Peres_, which the French applied to the place, was derived +the name De Pere. Here Nicolas Perrot, the first French commandant in +the North-West, established his headquarters, and Father Jacques +Marquette wrote the journal of his journey to the Mississippi. A few +miles south of the city lived for many years Eleazer Williams (c. +1787-1857), the alleged "lost dauphin" Louis XVII. of France and an +authority on Indians, especially Iroquois. De Pere was incorporated as a +village in 1857, and was chartered as a city in 1883. + + + + +DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL (1834- ), American lawyer and politician, was +born in Peekskill, New York, on the 23rd of April 1834, of a Huguenot +family (originally Du Puis or De Puy). He graduated at Yale in 1856, +entered politics as a Whig--his father had been a Democrat--was admitted +to the bar in 1858, was a member of the New York Assembly in 1861-1862, +and was secretary of state of New York state in 1864-1865. He refused a +nomination to be United States minister to Japan, and through his +friendship with Cornelius and William H. Vanderbilt in 1866 became +attorney for the New York & Harlem railway, in 1869 was appointed +attorney of the newly consolidated New York Central & Hudson river +railway, of which he soon became a director, and in 1875 was made +general counsel for the entire Vanderbilt system of railways. He became +second vice-president of the New York Central & Hudson river in 1869 and +was its president in 1885-1898, and in 1898 was made chairman of the +board of directors of the Vanderbilt system. In 1872 he joined the +Liberal-Republican movement, and was nominated and defeated for the +office of lieutenant-governor of New York. In 1888 in the National +Republican convention he was a candidate for the presidential +nomination, but withdrew his name in favour of Benjamin Harrison, whose +offer to him in 1889 of the portfolio of state he refused. In 1899 he +was elected United States senator from New York state, and in 1904 was +re-elected for the term ending in 1911. His great personal popularity, +augmented by his ability as an orator, suffered considerably after 1905, +the inquiry into life insurance company methods by a committee of the +state legislature resulting in acute criticism of his actions as a +director of the Equitable Life Assurance Society and as counsel to Henry +B. Hyde and his son. Among his best-known orations are that delivered at +the unveiling of the Bartholdi statue of Liberty enlightening the World +(1886), an address at the Washington Centennial in New York (1889), and +the Columbian oration at the dedication ceremonies of the Chicago +World's Fair (1892). + + + + +DEPILATORY (from Lat. _depilare_, to pull out the _pilus_ or hair), any +substance, preparation or process which will remove superfluous hair. +For this purpose caustic alkalis, alkaline earths and also orpiment +(trisulphide of arsenic) are used, the last being somewhat dangerous. No +application is permanent in its effect, as the hair always grows again. +The only permanent method, which is, however, painful, slow in operation +and likely to leave small scars, is by the use of an electric current +for the destruction of the follicles by electrolysis. + + + + +DEPORTATION, or TRANSPORTATION, a system of punishment for crime, of +which the essential factor is the removal of the criminal to a penal +settlement outside his own country. It is to be distinguished from mere +expulsion (q.v.) from a country, though the term "deportation" is now +used in that sense in English law under the Aliens Act 1905 (see ALIEN). +Strictly, the deportation or transportation system has ceased to exist +in England, though the removal or exclusion of undesirable persons from +British territory, under various Orders in Council, is possible in +places subject to the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, and in the case of +criminals under the Extradition Acts. + + +American plantations. + +_Earlier British Transportation System._--At a time when the British +statute-book bristled with capital felonies, when the pick-pocket or +sheep-stealer was hanged out of hand, when Sir Samuel Romilly, to whose +strenuous exertions the amelioration of the penal code is in a great +measure due, declared that the laws of England were written in blood, +another and less sanguinary penalty came into great favour. The +deportation of criminals beyond the seas grew naturally out of the laws +which prescribed banishment for certain offences. The Vagrancy Act of +Elizabeth's reign contained in it the germ of transportation, by +empowering justices in quarter sessions to banish offenders and order +them to be conveyed into such parts beyond the seas as should be +assigned by the privy council. Full effect was given to this statute in +the next reign, as is proved by a letter of James I. dated 1619, in +which the king directs "a hundred dissolute persons" to be sent to +Virginia. Another act of similar tenor was passed in the reign of +Charles II., in which the term "transportation" appears to have been +first used. A further and more systematic development of the system of +transportation took place in 1617, when an act was passed by which +offenders who had escaped the death penalty were handed over to +contractors, who engaged to transport them to the American colonies. +These contractors were vested with a property in the labour of the +convicts for a certain term, generally from seven to fourteen years, and +this right they frequently sold. Labour in those early days was scarce +in the new settlements; and before the general adoption of negro slavery +there was a keen competition for felon hands. An organized system of +kidnapping prevailed along the British coasts; young lads were seized +and sold into what was practically white slavery in the American +plantations. These malpractices were checked, but the legitimate traffic +in convict labour continued, until it was ended peremptorily by the +revolt of the American colonies and the achievement of their +independence in 1776.[1] + +The British legislature, making a virtue of necessity, discovered that +transportation to the colonies was bound to be attended by various +inconveniences, particularly by depriving the kingdom of many subjects +whose labour might be useful to the community; and an act was +accordingly passed which provides that convicts sentenced to +transportation might be employed at hard labour at home. At the same +time the consideration of some scheme for their disposal was entrusted +to three eminent public men--Sir William Blackstone, Mr Eden (afterwards +Lord Auckland) and John Howard. The result of their labours was an act +for the establishment of penitentiary houses, dated 1778. This act is of +peculiar importance. It contains the first public enunciation of a +general principle of prison treatment, and shows that even at that early +date the system since nearly universally adopted was fully understood. +The object in view was thus stated. It was hoped "by sobriety, +cleanliness and medical assistance, by a regular series of labour, by +solitary confinement during the intervals of work and by due religious +instruction to preserve and amend the health of the unhappy offenders, +to inure them to habits of industry, to guard them from pernicious +company, to accustom them to serious reflection and to teach them both +the principles and practice of every Christian and moral duty." The +experience of succeeding years has added little to these the true +principles of penal discipline; they form the basis of every species of +prison system carried out since the passing of an act of 1779. + + +Australian penal settlements. + +No immediate action was taken by the committee appointed. Its members +were not in accord as to the choice of site. One was for Islington, +another for Limehouse; Howard only stipulated for some healthy place +well supplied with water and conveniently situated for supervision. He +was strongly of opinion that the penitentiary should be built by convict +labour. Howard withdrew from the commission, and new members were +appointed, who were on the eve of beginning the first penitentiary when +the discoveries of Captain Cook in the South Seas turned the attention +of the government towards these new lands. The vast territories of +Australasia promised an unlimited field for convict colonization, and +for the moment the scheme for penitentiary houses fell to the ground. +Public opinion generally preferred the idea of establishing penal +settlements at a distance from home. "There was general confidence," +says Merivale in his work on colonization, "in the favourite theory that +the best mode of punishing offenders was that which removed them from +the scene of offence and temptation, cut them off by a great gulf of +space from all their former connexions, and gave them the opportunity of +redeeming past crimes by becoming useful members of society." These +views so far prevailed that an expedition consisting of nine transports +and two men-of-war, the "first fleet" of Australian annals, sailed in +March 1787 for New South Wales. This first fleet reached Botany Bay in +January 1788, but passed on and landed at Port Jackson, where it entered +and occupied Sydney harbour. From that time forward convicts were sent +in constantly increasing numbers from England to the Antipodes. Yet the +early settlement at Sydney had not greatly prospered. The infant colony +had had a bitter struggle for existence. It had been hoped that the +community would raise its own produce and speedily become +self-supporting. But the soil was unfruitful; the convicts knew nothing +of farming. All lived upon rations sent out from home; and when convoys +with relief lingered by the way famine stared all in the face. The +colony was long a penal settlement and nothing more, peopled only by two +classes, convicts and their masters; criminal bondsmen on the one hand +who had forfeited their independence and were bound to labour without +wages for the state, on the other officials to guard and exact the due +performance of tasks. A few free families were encouraged to emigrate, +but they were lost in the mass they were intended to leaven, swamped and +outnumbered by the convicts, shiploads of whom continued to pour in year +after year. When the influx increased, difficulties as to their +employment arose. Free settlers were too few to give work to more than a +small proportion. Moreover, a new policy was in the ascendant, initiated +by Governor Macquarie, who considered the convicts and their +rehabilitation his chief care, and steadily discouraged the immigration +of any but those who "came out for their country's good." The great bulk +of the convict labour thus remained in government hands. + +This period marked the first phase in the history of transportation. The +penal colony, having triumphed over early dangers and difficulties, was +crowded with convicts in a state of semi-freedom, maintained at the +public expense and utilized in the development of the latent resources +of the country. The methods employed by Governor Macquarie were not, +perhaps, invariably the best; the time was hardly ripe as yet for the +erection of palatial buildings in Sydney, while the congregation of the +workmen in large bodies tended greatly to their demoralization. But some +of the works undertaken and carried out were of incalculable service to +the young colony; and its early advance in wealth and prosperity was +greatly due to the magnificent roads, bridges and other facilities of +inter-communication for which it was indebted to Governor Macquarie. As +time passed the criminal sewage flowing from the Old World to the New +greatly increased in volume under milder and more humane laws. Many now +escaped the gallows, and much of the overcrowding of the gaols at home +was caused by the gangs of convicts awaiting transhipment to the +Antipodes. They were packed off, however, with all convenient despatch, +and the numbers on government hands in the colonies multiplied +exceedingly, causing increasing embarrassment as to their disposal. +Moreover, the expense of the Australian convict establishments was +enormous. + + +Assignment system. + +Some change in system was inevitable, and the plan of "assignment" was +introduced; in other words, that of freely lending the convicts to any +who would relieve the authorities of the burdensome charge. By this time +free settlers were arriving in greater number, invited by a different +and more liberal policy than that of Governor Macquarie. Inducements +were especially offered to persons possessed of capital to assist in the +development of the country. Assignment developed rapidly; soon eager +competition arose for the convict hands that had been at first so +reluctantly taken. Great facilities existed for utilizing them on the +wide areas of grazing land and on the new stations in the interior. A +pastoral life, without temptations and contaminating influences, was +well suited for convicts. As the colony grew richer and more populous, +other than agricultural employers became assignees, and numerous +enterprises were set on foot. The trades and callings which minister to +the needs of all civilized communities were more and more largely +pursued. There was plenty of work for skilled convicts in the towns, and +the services of the more intelligent were highly prized. It was a great +boon to secure gratis the assistance of men specially trained as clerks, +book-keepers or handicraftsmen. Hence all manner of intrigues and +manoeuvres were afoot on the arrival of drafts and there was a +scramble for the best hands. Here at once was a palpable flaw in the +system of assignment. The lot of the convict was altogether unequal. +Some, the dull, unlettered and unskilled, were drafted up country to +heavy manual labour at which they remained, while clever expert rogues +found pleasant, congenial and often profitable employment in the towns. +The contrast was very marked from the first, but it became the more +apparent when in due course it was seen that some were still engaged in +irksome toil, while others who had come out by the same ship had already +attained to affluence and ease. For the latter transportation was no +punishment, but often the reverse. It meant too often transfer to a new +world under conditions more favourable to success, removed from the +keener competition of the old. By adroit management, too, convicts often +obtained the command of funds, the product of nefarious transactions at +home, which wives or near relatives or unconvicted accomplices presently +brought out to them. It was easy for the free new-comers to secure the +assignment of their convict friends; and the latter, although still +nominally servants and in the background, at once assumed the real +control. Another system productive of much evil was the employment of +convict clerks in positions of trust in various government offices; +convicts did much of the legal work of the colony; a convict was clerk +to the attorney general; others were schoolmasters and were entrusted +with the education of youth. + + +Evils of convict system. + +Under a system so anomalous and uncertain the main object of +transportation as a method of penal discipline and repression was in +danger of being quite overlooked. Yet the state could not entirely +abdicate its functions, although it surrendered to a great extent the +care of criminals to private persons. It had established a code of +penalties for the coercion of the ill-conducted, while it kept the worst +perforce in its own hands. The master was always at liberty to appeal to +the strong arm of the law. A message carried to a neighbouring +magistrate, often by the culprit himself, brought down the prompt +retribution of the lash. Convicts might be flogged for petty offences, +for idleness, drunkenness, turbulence, absconding and so forth. At the +out-stations some show of decorum and regularity was observed, although +the work done was generally scanty and the convicts were secretly given +to all manner of evil courses. The town convicts were worse, because +they were far less controlled. They were nominally under the +surveillance and supervision of the police, which amounted to nothing +at all. They came and went, and amused themselves after working hours, +so that Sydney and all the large towns were hotbeds of vice and +immorality. The masters as a rule made no attempt to watch over their +charges; many of them were absolutely unfitted to do so, being +themselves of low character, "emancipists" frequently, old convicts +conditionally pardoned or who had finished their terms. No effort was +made to prevent the assignment of convicts to improper persons; every +applicant got what he wanted, even though his own character would not +bear inspection. All whom the masters could not manage--the incorrigible +upon whom the lash and bread and water had been tried in vain--were +returned to government charge. These, in short, comprised the whole of +the refuse of colonial convictdom. Every man who could not agree with +his master, or who was to undergo a penalty greater than flogging or +less than capital punishment, came back to government and was disposed +of in one of three ways, (1) the road parties, (2) the chain gang, or +(3) the penal settlements. (1) In the first case, the convicts might be +kept in the vicinity of the towns or marched about the country according +to the work in hand; the labour was severe, but, owing to inefficient +supervision, never intolerable; the diet was ample and there was no +great restraint upon independence within certain wide limits. To the +slackness of control over the road parties was directly traceable the +frequent escape of desperadoes, who, defying recapture, recruited the +gangs of bushrangers which were a constant terror to the whole country. +In (2) the chain or iron gangs, as they were sometimes styled, +discipline was far more rigorous. It was maintained by the constant +presence of a military guard, and when most efficiently organized the +gang was governed by a military officer who was also a magistrate. The +work was really hard, the custody close--in hulk, stockaded barrack or +caravan; the first was at Sydney, the second in the interior, the last +when the undertaking required constant change of place. All were locked +up from sunset to sunrise; all wore heavy leg irons; and all were liable +to immediate flagellation. The convict "scourger" was one of the regular +officials attached to every chain gang. (3) The third and ultimate +receptacle was the penal settlement, to which no offenders were +transferred till all other methods of treatment had failed. These were +terrible cesspools of iniquity, so bad that it seemed, to use the words +of one who knew them well, that "the heart of a man who went to them was +taken from him and he was given that of a beast." The horrors +accumulated at Norfolk Island, Moreton Bay, Port Arthur and Tasman's +Peninsula are almost beyond description. The convicts herded together in +them were soon utterly degraded and brutalized; no wonder that reckless +despair took possession of them, that death on the gallows for murder +purposely committed, or the slow terror from starvation following escape +into surrounding wilds was often welcomed as a relief. + +The stage which transportation was now reaching and the actual condition +of affairs in the Australian colonies about this period do not appear to +have been much understood in England. Earnest and thoughtful men might +busy themselves with prison discipline at home, and the legislature +might watch with peculiar interest the results obtained from the special +treatment of a limited number of selected offenders in Millbank +penitentiary. But for the great mass of criminality deported to a +distant shore no very active concern was shown. The country for a long +time seemed satisfied with transportation. Portions of the system might +be open to criticism. Thus the Commons committee of 1832 freely +condemned the hulks at Woolwich and other arsenals in which a large +number of convicts were kept while waiting embarkation. It was reported +that the indiscriminate association of prisoners in them produced more +vice, profaneness and demoralization than in the ordinary prisons. After +dark the wildest orgies went on unchecked--dancing, fighting, gambling, +singing and so forth; it was easy to get drink and tobacco and to see +friends from outside. The labour hours were short and the tasks light; +"altogether the situation of the convict in the hulks," says the report, +"cannot be considered penal; it is a state of restriction, but hardly of +punishment." + + +Australian objections. + +But no objection was raised to transportation. It was considered by this +same committee "a most valuable expedient in the system of secondary +punishment." They only thought it necessary to suggest that exile should +be preceded by a period of severe probationary punishment in England, a +proposal which was reiterated later on and actually adopted. It was in +the country most closely affected that dissatisfaction first began to +find voice. Already in 1832 the most reputable sections of Australian +society were beginning to murmur grievously. Transportation had fostered +the growth of a strong party--that representing convict views--and these +were advocated boldly in unprincipled prints. This party, constantly +recruited from the emancipists and ticket-of-leave holders, gradually +grew very numerous, and threatened soon to swamp the honest and +untainted parts of the community. As years passed the prevalence of +crime, and the universally low tone of morality due to the convict +element, became more and more in the ascendant. At length in 1835 Judge +Burton made a loud protest, and in a charge to the grand jury of Sydney +plainly intimated that transportation must cease. While it existed, he +said, the colonies could never rise to their proper position; they could +not claim free institutions. This bold but forcible language commanded +attention. It was speedily echoed in England, and particularly by +Archbishop Whately, who argued that transportation failed in all the +leading requisites of any system of secondary punishment. Transportation +exercised no salutary terror in offenders; it was no longer exile to an +unknown inhospitable region, but to one flowing with milk and honey, +whither innumerable friends and associates had gone already. The most +glowing descriptions came back of the wealth which any clever fellow +might easily amass; stories were told and names mentioned of those who +had made ample fortunes in Australia in a few years. As a matter of fact +the convicts, or at least large numbers of them, had prospered +exceedingly. Some had incomes of twenty, thirty, even forty thousand +pounds a year. The deteriorating effects of the system were plainly +manifest on the surface from the condition of the colony,--the +profligacy of the towns, the scant reprobation of crimes and those who +had committed them. Down below, in the openly sanctioned slavery called +assignment, in the demoralizing chain gangs and in the inexpressibly +horrible penal settlements, were more abundant and more awful proofs of +the general wickedness and corruption. Moreover these appalling results +were accompanied by colossal expenditure. The cost of the colonial +convict establishments, with the passages out, amounted annually to +upwards of £300,000; another £100,000 was expended on the military +garrisons; and various items brought the whole outlay to about half a +million per annum. It may be argued that this was not a heavy price to +pay for peopling a continent and laying the foundations of a vast +Australasian empire. But that empire could never have expanded to its +present dimensions if it had depended on convict immigration alone. +There was a point, too, at which all development, all progress, would +have come to a full stop had it not been relieved of its stigma as a +penal colony. + + +Reform movement. + +That point was reached between 1835 and 1840, when a powerful party came +into existence in New South Wales, pledged to bring about the +abandonment of transportation. A strongly hostile feeling was also +gaining ground in England. In 1837 a new committee of the House of +Commons had made a patient and searching investigation into the merits +and demerits of the system and freely condemned it. The government had +no choice but to give way; it could not ignore the protests of the +colonists, backed up by such an authoritative expression of opinion. In +1840 orders were issued to suspend the deportation of criminals to New +South Wales. But what was to become of the convicts? It was impossible +to keep them at home. The hulks which might have served had also failed; +the faultiness of their internal management had been fully proved. The +committee had recommended the erection of more penitentiaries. But the +costly experiment of Millbank had been barren of results. The model +prison at Pentonville, in process of construction under the pressure of +a movement towards prison reform, could offer but limited +accommodation. A proposal was put forward to construct convict barracks +in the vicinity of the great arsenals; but this, which contained really +the germ of the present British penal system, was premature. The +government in this dilemma steered a middle course and resolved to +adhere to transportation, but under a greatly modified and it was hoped +much improved form. The colony of Van Diemen's Land, younger and less +self-reliant than its neighbour, had also endured convict immigration +but had made no protest. It was resolved to direct the whole stream of +deportation upon Van Diemen's Land, which was thus constituted one vast +colonial prison. The main principle of the new system was one of +probation; hence its name. All convicts were to pass through various +stages and degrees of punishment according to their conduct and +character. Some general depot was needed where the necessary observation +could be made, and it was found at Millbank penitentiary. Thence boys +were sent to the prison for juveniles at Parkhurst; the most promising +subjects among the adults were selected to undergo the experimental +discipline of solitude and separation at Pentonville; less hopeful cases +went to the hulks; and all adults alike passed on to the Antipodes. +Fresh stages awaited the convict on his arrival at Van Diemen's Land. +The first was limited to "lifers" and colonial convicts sentenced a +second time. It consisted in detention at one of the penal stations, +either Norfolk Island or Tasman's Peninsula, where the disgraceful +conditions already described continued unchanged to the very last. The +second stage received the largest number, who were subjected in it to +gang labour, working under restraint in various parts of the colony. +These probation stations, as they were called, were intended to +inculcate habits of industry and subordination; they were provided with +supervisors and religious instructors; and had they not been tainted by +the vicious virus brought to them by others arriving from the penal +stations, they might have answered their purpose for a time. But they +became as bad as the worst of the penal settlements and contributed +greatly to the breakdown of the whole system. The third stage and the +first step towards freedom was the concession of a pass which permitted +the convict to be at large under certain conditions to seek work for +himself; the fourth was a ticket-of-leave, the possession of which +allowed him to come and go much as he pleased; the fifth and last was +absolute pardon, with the prospects of rehabilitation. + + +Gradual abandonment. + +This scheme seemed admirable on paper; yet it failed completely when put +into practice. Colonial resources were quite unable to bear the +pressure. Within two or three years Van Diemen's Land was inundated with +convicts. Sixteen thousand were sent out in four years; the average +annual number in the colony was about 30,000, and this when there were +only 37,000 free settlers. Half the whole number of convicts remained in +government hands and were kept in the probation gangs, engaged upon +public works of great utility; but the other half, pass-holders and +ticket-of-leave men in a state of semi-freedom, could get little or no +employment. The supply greatly exceeded the demand; there were no hirers +of labour. Had the colony been as large and as prosperous as its +neighbour it could scarcely have absorbed the glut of workmen; but it +was really on the verge of bankruptcy--its finances were embarrassed, +its trades and industries at a standstill. But not only were the +convicts idle; they were utterly depraved. It was soon found that the +system which kept large bodies always together had a most pernicious +effect upon their moral condition. "The congregation of criminals in +large batches without adequate supervision meant simply wholesale, +widespread pollution," as was said at the time. These ever-present and +constantly increasing evils forced the government to reconsider its +position; and in 1846 transportation to Van Diemen's Land was +temporarily suspended for a couple of years, during which it was hoped +some relief might be afforded. The formation of a new convict colony in +North Australia had been contemplated; but the project, warmly espoused +by Mr Gladstone, then under-secretary of state for the colonies, was +presently abandoned; and it now became clear that no resumption of +transportation was possible. The measures taken to substitute other +methods of secondary punishment are set forth in the article Prison +(q.v.). + + +French practice. + +_France._--France adopted deportation for criminals as far back as 1763, +when a penal colony was founded in French Guiana and failed +disastrously. An expedition was sent there, composed of the most evil +elements of the Paris population and numbering 14,000, all of whom died. +The attempt was repeated in 1766 and with the same miserable result. +Other failures are recorded, the worst being the scheme of the +philanthropist Baron Milius, who in 1823 planned to form a community on +the banks of the Mana (French Guiana) by the marriage of exiled convicts +and degraded women, which resulted in the most ghastly horrors. The +principle of deportation was then formally condemned by publicists and +government until suddenly in 1854 it was reintroduced into the French +penal code with many high-sounding phrases. Splendid results were to be +achieved in the creation of rich colonies afar, and the regeneration of +the criminal by new openings in a new land. The only outlet available at +the moment beyond the sea was French Guiana, and it was again to be +utilized despite its pestilential climate. Thousands were exiled, more +than half to find certain death; none of the penal settlements +prospered. No return was made by agricultural development, farms and +plantations proved a dead loss under the unfavourable conditions of +labour enforced in a malarious climate and unkindly soil, and it was +acknowledged by French officials that the attempt to establish a penal +colony on the equator was utterly futile. Deportation to Guiana was not +abandoned, but instead of native-born French exiles, convicts of subject +races, Arabs, Anamites and Asiatic blacks, were sent exclusively, with +no better success as regards colonization. + +In 1864, however, it was possible to divert the stream elsewhere. New +Caledonia in the Australian Pacific was annexed to France in 1853. Ten +years later it became a new settlement for convict emigrants. A first +shipload was disembarked in 1864 at Noumea, and the foundations of the +city laid. Prison buildings were the first erected and were planted upon +the island of Nou, a small breakwater to the Bay of Noumea. Outwardly +all went well under the fostering care of the authorities. The +population steadily increased; an average total of 600 in 1867 rose in +the following year to 1554. In 1874 the convict population exceeded +5000; in 1880 it had risen to 8000; the total reached 9608 at the end of +December 1883. But from that time forward the numbers transported +annually fell, for it was found that this South Pacific island, with its +fertile soil and fairly temperate climate, by no means intimidated the +dangerous classes; and the French administration therefore resumed +deportation of French-born whites to Guiana, which was known as +notoriously unhealthy and was likely to act as a more positive +deterrent. The authorities divided their exiles between the two outlets, +choosing New Caledonia for the convicts who gave some promise of +regeneration, and sending criminals with the worst antecedents and +presumably incorrigible to the settlements on the equator. This was in +effect to hand over a fertile colony entirely to criminals. Free +immigration to New Caledonia was checked, and the colony became almost +exclusively penal. The natural growth of a prosperous colonial community +made no advance, and convict labour did little to stimulate it, the +public works, essential for development, and construction of roads were +neglected; there was no extensive clearance of lands, no steady +development of agriculture. From 1898 simple deportation practically +ceased, but the islands were full of convicts already sent, and they +still received the product of the latest invention in the criminal code +known as "relegation," a punishment directed against the recidivist or +incorrigible criminal whom no penal retribution had hitherto touched and +whom the French law felt justified in banishing for ever to the "back of +beyond." A certain period of time spent in a hard labour prison preceded +relegation, but the convicts on arrival were generally unfitted to +assist in colonization. They were for the most part decadent, morally +and physically; their labour was of no substantial value to colonists +or themselves, and there was small hope of profitable result when they +gained conditional liberation, with a concession of colonial land and a +possibility of rehabilitation by their own efforts abroad, for by their +sentence they were forbidden to hope for return to France. The +punishment of relegation was not long in favour, the number of sentences +to it fell year after year, and it has now been practically abandoned. + +_Other Countries._--Penal exile has been practised by some other +countries as a method of secondary punishment. Russia since 1823 has +directed a stream of offenders, mainly political, upon Siberia, and at +one time the yearly average sent was 18,000. The Siberian exile system, +the horrors of which cannot be exaggerated, belongs only in part to +penitentiary science, but it was very distinctly punitive and aimed at +regeneration of the individual and the development of the soil by new +settlements. Although the journey was made mostly on foot and not by sea +transport, the principle of deportation (or more exactly of removal) was +the essence of the system. The later practice, however, has been exactly +similar to transportation as originated by England and afterwards +followed by France. The penal colonization of the island of Sakhalin +reproduced the preceding methods, and the Russian convicts were conveyed +by ships through the Suez Canal to the Far East. Sakhalin was hopefully +intended as an outlet for released convicts and their rehabilitation by +their own efforts, precisely in the manner tried in Australia and New +Caledonia. The result repeated previous experiences. There was land to +reclaim, forests to cut down, marshes to drain, everything but a +temperate climate and a good will of the felon labourers to create a +prosperous colony. But the convicts would not work; a few sought to win +the right to occupy a concession of soil, but the bulk were pure +vagabonds, wandering to and fro in search of food. The agricultural +enterprise was a complete failure. The wrong sites for cultivation were +chosen, the labourers were unskilled and they handled very indifferent +tools. Want amounting to constant starvation was a constant rule; the +rations were insufficient and unwholesome, very little meat eked out +with salt fish and with entire absence of vegetables. The general tone +of morals was inconceivably low, and a universal passion for alcohol and +card-playing prevailed. According to one authority the life of the +convicts at Sakhalin was a frightful nightmare, "a mixture of debauchery +and innocence mixed with real sufferings and almost inconceivable +privations, corrupt in every one of its phases." The prisons hopelessly +ruined all who entered them, all classes were indiscriminately herded +together. It is now generally allowed that deportation, as practised, +had utterly failed, the chief reasons being the unmanageable numbers +sent and the absence of outlets for their employment, even at great +cost. + +The prisons on Sakhalin have been described as hotbeds of vice; the only +classification of prisoners is one based on the length of sentence. Some +imperfect attempt is made to separate those waiting trial from the +recidivist or hardened offender, but too often the association is +indiscriminate. Prison discipline is generally slack and ineffective, +the staff of warders, from ill-judged economy, too weak to supervise or +control. The officers themselves are of inferior stamp, drunken, +untrustworthy, overbearing, much given to "trafficking" with the +prisoners, accepting bribes to assist escape, quick to misuse and +oppress their charges. Crime of the worst description is common. + +Italy has practised deportation in planting various agricultural +colonies upon the islands to be found on her coast. They were meant to +imitate the intermediate prisons of the Irish system, where prisoners +might work out their redemption, when provisionally released. Two were +established on the islands of Pianoso and Gorgona, and there were +settlements made on Monte Christo and Capraia. They were used also to +give effect to the system of enforced residence or _domicilio coatto_. + +Portugal also has tried deportation to the African colony of Angola on a +small scale with some success, and combined it with free emigration. The +settlers have been represented as well disposed towards the convicts, +gladly obtaining their services or helping them in the matter of +security. The convict element is orderly, and, although their treatment +is "_peu repressive et relativement debonnaire_," few commit offences. + +The Andaman Islands have been utilized by the Indian government since +the mutiny (1857) for the deportation of heinous criminals (see ANDAMAN +ISLANDS). + + AUTHORITIES.--Captain A. Phillip, R.N., _The Voyage of Governor + Phillip to New South Wales_ (1790); David Collins, _Account of the + English Colony of New South Wales_ (1798); Archbishop Whately, + _Remarks on Transportation_ (1834); Herman Merivale, _Colonization + and Colonies_ (1841); d'Haussonville, _Établissements pénitentiaires + en France et aux colonies_ (1875); George Griffith, _In a Prison + Land_; Cuche, _Science et legislation pénitentiaire_ (1905); Hawes, + _The Uttermost East_ (1906). (A. G.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See J. C. Ballagh, _White Servitude in Virginia_ (Baltimore, 1895.) + + + + +DEPOSIT (Lat. _depositum_, from _deponere_, to lay down, to put in the +care of), anything laid down or separated; as in geology, any mass of +material accumulated by a natural agency (see BED), and in chemistry, a +precipitate or matter settling from a solution or suspension. In +banking, a deposit may mean, generally, a sum of money lodged in a bank +without regard to the conditions under which it is held, but more +specially money lodged with a bank on "deposit account" and acknowledged +by the banker by a "deposit receipt" given to the depositor. It is then +not drawn upon by cheque, usually bears interest at a rate varying from +time to time, and can only be withdrawn after fixed notice. Deposit is +also used in the sense of earnest or security for the performance of a +contract. In the law of mortgage the deposit of title-deeds is usual as +a security for the repayment of money advanced. Such a deposit operates +as an equitable mortgage. In the law of contract, deposit or simple +bailment is delivery or bailment of goods in trust to be kept without +recompense, and redelivered on demand (see BAILMENT). + + + + +DEPOT (from the Fr. _dépôt_, Lat. _depositum_, laid down; the French +accent marks are usually dispensed with in English), a place where +things may be stored or deposited, such as a furniture or forage depot, +the accumulation of military stores, especially in the theatre of +operations. In America the word is used of a railway station, whether +for passengers or goods; in Great Britain on railways the word, when in +use, is applied to goods stations. A particular military application is +to a depot, situated as a rule in the centre of the recruiting district +of the regiment or other unit, where recruits are received and undergo +the necessary preliminary training before joining the active troops. +Such depots are maintained in peace time by all armies which have to +supply distant or oversea garrisons; in an army raised by compulsory +service and quartered in its own country, the regiments are usually +stationed in their own districts, and on their taking the field for war +leave behind a small nucleus for the formation and training of drafts to +be sent out later. These nucleus troops are generally called depot +troops. + + + + +DEPRETIS, AGOSTINO (1813-1887), Italian statesman, was born at Mezzana +Corte, in the province of Stradella on the 31st of January 1813. From +early manhood a disciple of Mazzini and affiliated to the _Giovane +Italia_, he took an active part in the Mazzinian conspiracies and was +nearly captured by the Austrians while smuggling arms into Milan. +Elected deputy in 1848, he joined the Left and founded the journal _Il +Diritto_, but held no official position until appointed governor of +Brescia in 1859. In 1860 he went to Sicily on a mission to reconcile the +policy of Cavour (who desired the immediate incorporation of the island +in the kingdom of Italy) with that of Garibaldi, who wished to postpone +the Sicilian _plébiscite_ until after the liberation of Naples and Rome. +Though appointed pro-dictator of Sicily by Garibaldi, he failed in his +attempt. Accepting the portfolio of public works in the Rattazzi cabinet +in 1862, he served as intermediary in arranging with Garibaldi the +expedition which ended disastrously at Aspromonte. Four years later, on +the outbreak of war against Austria, he entered the Ricasoli cabinet as +minister of marine, and, by maintaining Admiral Persano in command of +the fleet, contributed to the defeat of Lissa. His apologists contend, +however, that, as an inexperienced civilian, he could not have made +sudden changes in naval arrangements without disorganizing the fleet, +and that in view of the impending hostilities he was obliged to accept +the dispositions of his predecessors. Upon the death of Rattazzi in +1873, Depretis became leader of the Left, prepared the advent of his +party to power, and was called upon to form the first cabinet of the +Left in 1876. Overthrown by Cairoli in March 1878 on the grist-tax +question, he succeeded, in the following December, in defeating Cairoli, +became again premier, but on the 3rd of July 1879 was once more +overturned by Cairoli. In November 1879 he, however, entered the Cairoli +cabinet as minister of the interior, and in May 1881 succeeded to the +premiership, retaining that office until his death on the 29th of July +1887. During the long interval he recomposed his cabinet four times, +first throwing out Zanardelli and Baccarini in order to please the +Right, and subsequently bestowing portfolios upon Ricotti, Robilant and +other Conservatives, so as to complete the political process known as +"trasformismo." A few weeks before his death he repented of his +transformist policy, and again included Crispi and Zanardelli in his +cabinet. During his long term of office he abolished the grist tax, +extended the suffrage, completed the railway system, aided Mancini in +forming the Triple Alliance, and initiated colonial policy by the +occupation of Massawa; but, at the same time, he vastly increased +indirect taxation, corrupted and destroyed the fibre of parliamentary +parties, and, by extravagance in public works, impaired the stability of +Italian finance. + + + + +DEPTFORD, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, +bounded N. by Bermondsey, E. by the river Thames and Greenwich, S. by +Lewisham and W. by Camberwell. Pop. (1901) 110,398. The name is +connected with a ford over the Ravensbourne, a stream entering the +Thames through Deptford Creek. The borough comprises only the parish of +Deptford St Paul, that of Deptford St Nicholas being included in the +borough of Greenwich. Deptford is a district of poor streets, inhabited +by a large industrial population, employed in engineering and other +riverside works. On the river front, extending into the borough of +Greenwich, are the royal victualling yard and the site of the old +Deptford dockyard. The first supplies the navy with provisions, +medicines, furniture, &c., manufactured or stored in the large +warehouses here. The dockyard ceased to be used in 1869, and was filled +up and converted into a foreign cattle market by the City Corporation. +Of public buildings the most noteworthy are St Paul's church (1730), of +classic design; the municipal buildings; and the hospital for master +mariners, maintained by the corporation of the Trinity House, which was +founded at Deptford, the old hall being pulled down in 1787. Other +institutions are the Goldsmiths' Polytechnic Institute, New Cross; and +the South-eastern fever hospital. A mansion known as Sayes Court, taken +down in 1729, was the residence of the duke of Sussex in the reign of +Elizabeth; it was occupied in the following century by John Evelyn, +author of _Sylva_, and by Peter the Great during his residence in +England in 1698. The site of its gardens is occupied by Deptford Park of +11 acres. Another open space is Telegraph Hill (9½ acres). The +parliamentary borough of Deptford returns one member. The borough +council consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 36 councillors. Area, +1562.7 acres. + + + + +DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of _deputare_, to cut off, +allot; _putare_ having the original sense of to trim, prune), one +appointed to act or govern instead of another; one who exercises an +office in another man's right, a substitute; in representative +government a member of an elected chamber. In general, the powers and +duties of a deputy are those of his principal (see also REPRESENTATION), +but the extent to which he may exercise them is dependent upon the power +delegated to him. He may be authorized to exercise the whole of his +principal's office, in which case he is a general deputy, or to act only +in some particular matter or service, when he is termed a special +deputy. In the United Kingdom various officials are specifically +empowered by statute to appoint deputies to act for them under certain +circumstances. Thus a clerk of the peace, in case of illness, incapacity +or absence, may appoint a fit person to act as his deputy. While judges +of the supreme court cannot act by deputy, county court judges and +recorders can, in cases of illness or unavoidable absence, appoint +deputies. So can registrars of county courts and returning officers at +elections. + + + + +DE QUINCEY, THOMAS (1785-1859), English author, was born at Greenheys, +Manchester, on the 15th of August 1785. He was the fifth child in a +family of eight (four sons and four daughters). His father, descended +from a Norman family, was a merchant, who left his wife and six children +a clear income of £1600 a year. Thomas was from infancy a shy, sensitive +child, with a constitutional tendency to dreaming by night and by day; +and, under the influence of an elder brother, a lad "whose genius for +mischief amounted to inspiration," who died in his sixteenth year, he +spent much of his boyhood in imaginary worlds of their own creating. The +amusements and occupations of the whole family, indeed, seem to have +been mainly intellectual; and in De Quincey's case, emphatically, "the +child was father to the man." "My life has been," he affirms in the +_Confessions_, "on the whole the life of a philosopher; from my birth I +was made an intellectual creature, and intellectual in the highest sense +my pursuits and pleasures have been." From boyhood he was more or less +in contact with a polished circle; his education, easy to one of such +native aptitude, was sedulously attended to. When he was in his twelfth +year the family removed to Bath, where he was sent to the grammar +school, at which he remained for about two years; and for a year more he +attended another public school at Winkfield, Wiltshire. At thirteen he +wrote Greek with ease; at fifteen he not only composed Greek verses in +lyric measures, but could converse in Greek fluently and without +embarrassment; one of his masters said of him, "that boy could harangue +an Athenian mob better than you or I could address an English one." +Towards the close of his fifteenth year he visited Ireland, with a +companion of his own age, Lord Westport, the son of Lord Altamont, an +Irish peer, and spent there in residence and travel some months of the +summer and autumn of the year 1800,--being a spectator at Dublin of "the +final ratification of the bill which united Ireland to Great Britain." +On his return to England, his mother having now settled at St John's +Priory, a residence near Chester, De Quincey was sent to the Manchester +grammar school, mainly in the hope of securing one of the school +exhibitions to help his expenses at Oxford. + +Discontented with the mode in which his guardians conducted his +education, and with some view apparently of forcing them to send him +earlier to college, he left this school after less than a year's +residence--ran away, in short, to his mother's house. There his mother's +brother, Colonel Thomas Penson, made an arrangement for him to have a +weekly allowance, on which he might reside at some country place in +Wales, and pursue his studies, presumably till he could go to college. +From Wales, however, after brief trial, "suffering grievously from want +of books," he went off as he had done from school, and hid himself from +guardians and friends in the world of London. And now, as he says, +commenced "that episode, or impassioned parenthesis of my life, which is +comprehended in _The Confessions of an English Opium Eater_." This +London episode extended over a year or more; his money soon vanished, +and he was in the utmost poverty; he obtained shelter for the night in +Greek Street, Soho, from a moneylender's agent, and spent his days +wandering in the streets and parks; finally the lad was reconciled to +his guardians, and in 1803 was sent to Worcester College, Oxford, being +by this time about nineteen. It was in the course of his second year at +Oxford that he first tasted opium,--having taken it to allay neuralgic +pains. De Quincey's mother had settled at Weston Lea, near Bath, and on +one of his visits to Bath, De Quincey made the acquaintance of +Coleridge; he took Mrs Coleridge to Grasmere, where he became personally +acquainted with Wordsworth. + +After finishing his career of five years at college in 1808 he kept +terms at the Middle Temple; but in 1809 visited the Wordsworths at +Grasmere, and in the autumn returned to Dove Cottage, which he had taken +on a lease. His choice was of course influenced partly by neighbourhood +to Wordsworth, whom he early appreciated;--having been, he says, the +only man in all Europe who quoted Wordsworth so early as 1802. His +friendship with Wordsworth decreased within a few years, and when in +1834 De Quincey published in _Tait's Magazine_ his reminiscences of the +Grasmere circle, the indiscreet references to the Wordsworths contained +in the article led to a complete cessation of intercourse. Here also he +enjoyed the society and friendship of Coleridge, Southey and especially +of Professor Wilson, as in London he had of Charles Lamb and his circle. +He continued his classical and other studies, especially exploring the +at that time almost unknown region of German literature, and indicating +its riches to English readers. Here also, in 1816, he married Margaret +Simpson, the "dear M----" of whom a charming glimpse is accorded to the +reader of the _Confessions_; his family came to be five sons and three +daughters. + +For about a year and a half he edited the _Westmoreland Gazette_. He +left Grasmere for London in the early part of 1820. The Lambs received +him with great kindness and introduced him to the proprietors of the +_London Magazine_. It was in this journal in 1821 that the _Confessions_ +appeared. De Quincey also contributed to _Blackwood_, to _Knight's +Quarterly Magazine_, and later to _Tait's Magazine_. His connexion with +_Blackwood_ took him to Edinburgh in 1828, and he lived there for twelve +years, contributing from time to time to the _Edinburgh Literary +Gazette_. His wife died in 1837, and the family eventually settled at +Lasswade, but from this time De Quincey spent his time in lodgings in +various places, staying at one place until the accumulation of papers +filled the rooms, when he left them in charge of the landlady and +wandered elsewhere. After his wife's death he gave way for the fourth +time in his life to the opium habit, but in 1844 he reduced his daily +quantity by a tremendous effort to six grains, and never again yielded. +He died in Edinburgh on the 8th of December 1859, and is buried in the +West Churchyard. + +During nearly fifty years De Quincey lived mainly by his pen. His +patrimony seems never to have been entirely exhausted, and his habits +and tastes were simple and inexpensive; but he was reckless in the use +of money, and had debts and pecuniary difficulties of all sorts. There +was, indeed, his associates affirm, an element of romance even in his +impecuniosity, as there was in everything about him; and the diplomatic +and other devices by which he contrived to keep clear of clamant +creditors, while scrupulously fulfilling many obligations, often +disarmed animosity, and converted annoyance into amusement. The famous +_Confessions of an English Opium Eater_ was published in a small volume +in 1822, and attracted a very remarkable degree of attention, not simply +by its personal disclosures, but by the extraordinary power of its +dream-painting. No other literary man of his time, it has been remarked, +achieved so high and universal a reputation from such merely fugitive +efforts. The only works published separately (not in periodicals) were a +novel, _Klosterheim_ (1832), and _The Logic of Political Economy_ +(1844). After his works were brought together, De Quincey's reputation +was not merely maintained, but extended. For range of thought and topic, +within the limits of pure literature, no like amount of material of such +equality of merit proceeded from any eminent writer of the day. However +profuse and discursive, De Quincey is always polished, and generally +exact--a scholar, a wit, a man of the world and a philosopher, as well +as a genius. He looked upon letters as a noble and responsible calling; +in his essay on Oliver Goldsmith he claims for literature the rank not +only of a fine art, but of the highest and most potent of fine arts; and +as such he himself regarded and practised it. He drew a broad +distinction between "the literature of _knowledge_ and the literature of +_power_," asserting that the function of the first is to _teach_, the +function of the second to _move_,--maintaining that the meanest of +authors who moves has pre-eminence over all who merely teach, that the +literature of knowledge must perish by supersession, while the +literature of power is "triumphant for ever as long as the language +exists in which it speaks." It is to this class of motive literature +that De Quincey's own works essentially belong; it is by virtue of that +vital element of power that they have emerged from the rapid oblivion of +periodicalism, and live in the minds of later generations. But their +power is weakened by their volume. + +De Quincey fully defined his own position and claim to distinction in +the preface to his collected works. These he divides into three +classes:--"_first_, that class which proposes primarily to amuse the +reader," such as the _Narratives, Autobiographic Sketches_, &c.; +"_second_, papers which address themselves purely to the understanding +as an insulated faculty, or do so primarily," such as the essays on +Essenism, the Caesars, Cicero, &c.; and finally, as a _third_ class, +"and, in virtue of their aim, as a far higher class of compositions," he +ranks those "modes of impassioned prose ranging under no precedents that +I am aware of in any literature," such as the _Confessions_ and +_Suspiria de Profundis_. The high claim here asserted has been +questioned; and short and isolated examples of eloquent apostrophe, and +highly wrought imaginative description, have been cited from Rousseau +and other masters of style; but De Quincey's power of sustaining a +fascinating and elevated strain of "impassioned prose" is allowed to be +entirely his own. Nor, in regard to his writings as a whole, will a +minor general claim which he makes be disallowed, namely, that he "does +not write without a thoughtful consideration of his subject," and also +with novelty and freshness of view. "Generally," he says, "I claim (not +arrogantly, but with firmness) the merit of rectification applied to +absolute errors, or to injurious limitations of the truth." Another +obvious quality of all his genius is its overflowing fulness of allusion +and illustration, recalling his own description of a great philosopher +or scholar--"Not one who depends simply on an infinite memory, but also +on an infinite and electrical power of combination, bringing together +from the four winds, like the angel of the resurrection, what else were +dust from dead men's bones into the unity of breathing life." It is +useless to complain of his having lavished and diffused his talents and +acquirements over so vast a variety of often comparatively trivial and +passing topics. The world must accept gifts from men of genius as they +offer them; circumstance and the hour often rule their form. Those +influences, no less than the idiosyncrasy of the man, determined De +Quincey to the illumination of such matter for speculation as seemed to +lie before him; he was not careful to search out recondite or occult +themes, though these he did not neglect,--a student, a scholar and a +recluse, he was yet at the same time a man of the world, keenly +interested in the movements of men and in the page of history that +unrolled itself before him day by day. To the discussion of things new, +as readily as of things old, aided by a capacious, retentive and ready +memory, which dispensed with reference to printed pages, he brought also +the exquisite keenness and subtlety of his highly analytic and +imaginative intellect, the illustrative stores of his vast and varied +erudition, and that large infusion of common sense which preserved him +from becoming at any time a mere _doctrinaire_, or visionary. If he did +not throw himself into any of the great popular controversies or +agitations of the day, it was not from any want of sympathy with the +struggles of humanity or the progress of the race, but rather because +his vocation was to apply to such incidents of his own time, as to like +incidents of all history, great philosophical principles and tests of +truth and power. In politics, in the party sense of that term, he would +probably have been classed as a Liberal Conservative or Conservative +Liberal--at one period of his life perhaps the former, and at a later +the latter. Originally, as we have seen, his surroundings were +aristocratic, in his middle life his associates, notably Wordsworth, +Southey and Wilson, were all Tories; but he seems never to have held the +extreme and narrow views of that circle. Though a flavour of high +breeding runs through his writings, he has no vulgar sneers at the +vulgar. As he advanced in years his views became more and more decidedly +liberal, but he was always as far removed from Radicalism as from +Toryism, and may be described as a philosophical politician, capable of +classification under no definite party name or colour. Of political +economy he had been an early and earnest student, and projected, if he +did not so far proceed with, an elaborate and systematic treatise on the +science, of which all that appears, however, are his fragmentary +_Dialogues_ on the system of Ricardo, published in the _London Magazine_ +in 1824, and _The Logic of Political Economy_ (1844). But political and +economic problems largely exercised his thoughts, and his historical +sketches show that he is constantly alive to their interpenetrating +influence. The same may be said of his biographies, notably of his +remarkable sketch of Dr Parr. Neither politics nor economics, however, +exercised an absorbing influence on his mind,--they were simply +provinces in the vast domain of universal speculation through which he +ranged "with unconfined wings." How wide and varied was the region he +traversed a glance at the titles of the papers which make up his +collected--or more properly, selected--works (for there was much matter +of evanescent interest not reprinted) sufficiently shows. Some things in +his own line he has done perfectly; he has written many pages of +magnificently mixed argument, irony, humour and eloquence, which, for +sustained brilliancy, richness, subtle force and purity of style and +effect, have simply no parallels; and he is without peer the prince of +dreamers. The use of opium no doubt stimulated this remarkable faculty +of reproducing in skilfully selected phrase the grotesque and shifting +forms of that "cloudland, gorgeous land," which opens to the +sleep-closed eye. + +To the appreciation of De Quincey the reader must bring an imaginative +faculty somewhat akin to his own--a certain general culture, and large +knowledge of books, and men and things. Otherwise much of that slight +and delicate allusion that gives point and colour and charm to his +writings will be missed; and on this account the full enjoyment and +comprehension of De Quincey must always remain a luxury of the literary +and intellectual. But his skill in narration, his rare pathos, his wide +sympathies, the pomp of his dream-descriptions, the exquisite +playfulness of his lighter dissertations, and his abounding though +delicate and subtle humour, commend him to a larger class. Though far +from being a professed humorist--a character he would have shrunk +from--there is no more expert worker in a sort of half-veiled and +elaborate humour and irony than De Quincey; but he employs those +resources for the most part secondarily. Only in one instance has he +given himself up to them unreservedly and of set purpose, namely, in the +famous "Essay on Murder considered as one of the Fine Arts," published +in _Blackwood_,--an effort which, admired and admirable though it be, is +also, it must be allowed, somewhat strained. His style, full and +flexible, pure and polished, is peculiarly his own; yet it is not the +style of a mannerist,--its charm is, so to speak, latent; the form never +obtrudes; the secret is only discoverable by analysis and study. It +consists simply in the reader's assurance of the writer's complete +mastery over all the infinite applicability and resources of the English +language. Hence involutions and parentheses, "cycle on epicycle," evolve +themselves into a stately clearness and harmony; and sentences and +paragraphs, loaded with suggestion, roll on smoothly and musically, +without either fatiguing or cloying--rather, indeed, to the surprise as +well as delight of the reader; for De Quincey is always ready to indulge +in feats of style, witching the world with that sort of noble +horsemanship which is as graceful as it is daring. + +It has been complained that, in spite of the apparently full confidences +of the _Confessions_ and _Autobiographic Sketches_, readers are left in +comparative ignorance, biographically speaking, of the man De Quincey. +Two passages in his _Confessions_ afford sufficient clues to this +mystery. In one he describes himself "as framed for love and all gentle +affections," and in another confesses to the "besetting infirmity" of +being "too much of an eudaemonist." "I hanker," he says, "too much after +a state of happiness, both for myself and others; I cannot face misery, +whether my own or not, with an eye of sufficient firmness, and am little +capable of surmounting present pain for the sake of any recessionary +benefit." His sensitive disposition dictated the ignoring in his +writings of traits merely personal to himself, as well as his +ever-recurrent resort to opium as a doorway of escape from present ill; +and prompted those habits of seclusion, and that apparently capricious +abstraction of himself from the society not only of his friends, but of +his own family, in which he from time to time persisted. He confessed to +occasional accesses of an almost irresistible impulse to flee to the +labyrinthine shelter of some great city like London or Paris,--there to +dwell solitary amid a multitude, buried by day in the cloister-like +recesses of mighty libraries, and stealing away by night to some obscure +lodging. Long indulgence in seclusion, and in habits of study the most +lawless possible in respect of regular hours or any considerations of +health or comfort,--the habit of working as pleased himself without +regard to the divisions of night or day, of times of sleeping or waking, +even of the slow procession of the seasons, had latterly so disinclined +him to the restraints, however slight, of ordinary social intercourse, +that he very seldom submitted to them. On such rare occasions, however, +as he did appear, perhaps at some simple meal with a favoured friend, or +in later years in his own small but refined domestic circle, he was the +most charming of guests, hosts or companions. A short and fragile, but +well-proportioned frame; a shapely and compact head; a face beaming with +intellectual light, with rare, almost feminine beauty of feature and +complexion; a fascinating courtesy of manner; and a fulness, swiftness +and elegance of silvery speech,--such was the irresistible "mortal +mixture of earth's mould" that men named De Quincey. He possessed in a +high degree what James Russell Lowell called "the grace of perfect +breeding, everywhere persuasive, and nowhere emphatic"; and his whole +aspect and manner exercised an undefinable attraction over every one, +gentle or simple, who came within its influence; for shy as he was, he +was never rudely shy, making good his boast that he had always made it +his "pride to converse familiarly _more socratico_ with all human +beings--man, woman and child"--looking on himself as a catholic creature +standing in an equal relation to high and low, to educated and +uneducated. He would converse with a peasant lad or a servant girl in +phrase as choice, and sentences as sweetly turned, as if his +interlocutor were his equal both in position and intelligence; yet +without a suspicion of pedantry, and with such complete adaptation of +style and topic that his talk charmed the humblest as it did the highest +that listened to it. His conversation was not a monologue; if he had the +larger share, it was simply because his hearers were only too glad that +it should be so; he would listen with something like deference to very +ordinary talk, as if the mere fact of the speaker being one of the same +company entitled him to all consideration and respect. The natural bent +of his mind and disposition, and his lifelong devotion to letters, to +say nothing of his opium eating, rendered him, it must be allowed, +regardless of ordinary obligations in life--domestic and pecuniary--to a +degree that would have been culpable in any less singularly constituted +mind. It was impossible to deal with or judge De Quincey by ordinary +standards--not even his publishers did so. Much no doubt was forgiven +him, but all that needed forgiveness is covered by the kindly veil of +time, while his merits as a master in English literature are still +gratefully acknowledged.[1] + + [BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In 1853 De Quincey began to prepare an edition of his + works, _Selections Grave and Gay_. _Writings Published and + Unpublished_ (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1853-1860), followed by a second + edition (1863-1871) with notes by James Hogg and two additional + volumes; a further supplementary volume appeared in 1878. The first + comprehensive edition, however, was printed in America (Boston, 20 + vols., 1850-1855); and the "Riverside" edition (Boston and New York, + 12 vols., 1877) is still fuller. The standard English edition is _The + Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey_ (14 vols., Edinburgh, + 1889-1890), edited by David Masson, who also wrote his biography + (1881) for the "English Men of Letters" series. The _Uncollected + Writings of Thomas De Quincey_ (London, 2 vols., 1890) contains a + preface and annotations by James Hogg; _The Posthumous Writings of + Thomas De Quincey_ (2 vols., 1891-1893) were edited by A. H. Japp + ("H. A. Page"), who wrote the standard biography, _Thomas De Quincey: + his Life and Writings_ (London, 2 vols., 2nd ed., 1879), and _De + Quincey Memorials_ (2 vols., 1891). See also Arvède Barine, + _Neurosés_ (Paris, 1898); Sir L. Stephen, _Hours in a Library_; H. S. + Salt, _De Quincey_ (1904); and _De Quincey and his Friends_ (1895), a + collection edited by James Hogg, which includes essays by Dr Hill + Burton and Shadworth Hodgson.] (J. R. F.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The above account has been corrected and amplified in some + statements of fact for this edition. Its original author, John + Ritchie Findlay (1824-1898), proprietor of _The Scotsman_ newspaper, + and the donor of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in + Edinburgh, had been intimate with De Quincey, and in 1886 published + his _Personal Recollections_ of him. + + + + +DERA GHAZI KHAN, a town and district of British India, in the Punjab. In +1901 the town had a population of 21,700. There are several handsome +mosques in the native quarter. It commands the direct approaches to the +Baluch highlands by Sakki Sarwar and Fort Monro. For many years past +both the town and cantonment have been threatened by the erosion of the +river Indus. The town was founded at the close of the 15th century and +named after Ghazi Khan, son of Haji Khan, a Baluch chieftain, who after +holding the country for the Langah sultans of Multan had made himself +independent. Together with the two other _deras_ (settlements), Dera +Ismail Khan and Dera Fateh Khan, it gave its name to the territorial +area locally and historically known as Derajat, which after many +vicissitudes came into the possession of the British after the Sikh War, +in 1849, and was divided into the two districts of Dera Ghazi Khan and +Dera Ismail Khan. + +The DISTRICT OF DERA GHAZI KHAN contains an area of 5306 sq. m. The +district is a long narrow strip of country, 198 m. in length, sloping +gradually from the hills which form its western boundary to the river +Indus on the east. Below the hills the country is high and arid, +generally level, but sometimes rolling in sandy undulations, and much +intersected by hill torrents, 201 in number. With the exceptions of two, +these streams dry up after the rains, and their influence is only felt +for a few miles below the hills. The eastern portion of the district is +at a level sufficiently low to benefit by the floods of the Indus. A +barren tract intervenes between these zones, and is beyond the reach of +the hill streams on the one hand and of the Indus on the other. Although +liable to great extremes of temperature, and to a very scanty rainfall, +the district is not unhealthy. The population in 1901 was 471,149, the +great majority being Baluch Mahommedans. The principal exports are wheat +and indigo. The only manufactures are for domestic use. There is no +railway in the district, and only 29 m. of metalled road. The Indus, +which is nowhere bridged within the district, is navigable by native +boats. The geographical boundary between the Pathan and Baluch races in +the hills nearly corresponds with the northern limit of the district. +The frontier tribes on the Dera Ghazi Khan border include the Kasranis, +Bozdars, Khosas, Lagharis, Khetvans, Gurchanis, Mazaris, Mariris and +Bugtis. The chief of these are described under their separate names. + + + + +DERA ISMAIL KHAN, a town and district in the Derajat division of the +North-West Frontier Province of India. The town is situated near the +right bank of the Indus, which is here crossed by a bridge of boats +during half the year. In 1901 it had a population of 31,737. It takes +its name from Ismail Khan, a Baluch chief who settled here towards the +end of the 15th century, and whose descendants ruled for 300 years. The +old town was swept away by a flood in 1823, and the present town stands +4 m. back from the permanent channel of the river. The native quarters +are well laid out, with a large bazaar for Afghan traders. It is the +residence of many Mahommedan gentry. The cantonment accommodates about a +brigade of troops. There is considerable through trade with Afghanistan +by the Gomal Pass, and there are local manufactures of cotton cloth +scarves and inlaid wood-work. + +The DISTRICT OF DERA ISMAIL KHAN contains an area of 3403 sq. m. It was +formerly divided into two almost equal portions by the Indus, which +intersected it from north to south. To the west of the Indus the +characteristics of the country resemble those of Dera Ghazi Khan. To the +east of the present bed of the river there is a wide tract known as the +_Kachi_, exposed to river action. Beyond this, the country rises +abruptly, and a barren, almost desert plain stretches eastwards, +sparsely cultivated, and inhabited only by nomadic tribes of herdsmen. +In 1901 the trans-Indus tract was allotted to the newly formed +North-West Frontier Province, the cis-Indus tract remaining in the +Punjab jurisdiction. The cis-Indus portions of the Dera Ismail Khan and +Bannu districts now comprise the new Punjab district of Mianiwali. In +1901 the population was 252,379, chiefly Pathan and Baluch Mahommedans. +Wheat and wool are exported. + +The Indus is navigable by native boats throughout its course of 120 m. +within the district, which is the borderland of Pathan and Baluch +tribes, the Pathan element predominating. The chief frontier tribes are +the Sheranis and Ustaranas. + + + + +DERBENT, or DERBEND, a town of Russia, Caucasia, in the province of +Daghestan, on the western shore of the Caspian, 153 m. by rail N.W. of +Baku, in 42° 4' N. and 48° 15' E. Pop. (1873) 15,739; (1897) 14,821. It +occupies a narrow strip of land beside the sea, from which it climbs up +the steep heights inland to the citadel of Naryn-kaleh, and is on all +sides except towards the east surrounded by walls built of porous +limestone. Its general aspect is Oriental, owing to the flat roofs of +its two-storeyed houses and its numerous mosques. The environs are +occupied by vineyards, gardens and orchards, in which madder, saffron +and tobacco, as well as figs, peaches, pears and other fruits, are +cultivated. Earthenware, weapons and silk and cotton fabrics are the +principal products of the manufacturing industry. To the north of the +town is the monument of the _Kirk-lar_, or "forty heroes," who fell +defending Daghestan against the Arabs in 728; and to the south lies the +seaward extremity of the Caucasian wall (50 m. long), otherwise known as +Alexander's wall, blocking the narrow pass of the Iron Gate or Caspian +Gates (_Portae Albanae_ or _Portae Caspiae_). This, when entire, had a +height of 29 ft. and a thickness of about 10 ft., and with its iron +gates and numerous watch-towers formed a valuable defence of the Persian +frontier. Derbent is usually identified with Albana, the capital of the +ancient Albania. The modern name, a Persian word meaning "iron gates," +came into use in the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century, +when the city was refounded by Kavadh of the Sassanian dynasty of +Persia. The walls and the citadel are believed to belong to the time of +Kavadh's son, Khosrau (Chosroes) Anosharvan. In 728 the Arabs entered +into possession, and established a principality in the city, which they +called Bab-el-Abwab ("the principal gate"), Bab-el-Khadid ("the iron +gate"), and Seraill-el-Dagab ("the golden throne"). The celebrated +caliph, Harun-al-Rashid, lived in Derbent at different times, and +brought it into great repute as a seat of the arts and commerce. In 1220 +it was captured by the Mongols, and in the course of the succeeding +centuries it frequently changed masters. In 1722 Peter the Great of +Russia wrested the town from the Persians, but in 1736 the supremacy of +Nadir Shah was again recognized. In 1796 Derbent was besieged by the +Russians, and in 1813 incorporated with the Russian empire. + + + + +DERBY, EARLS OF. The 1st earl of Derby was probably Robert de Ferrers +(d. 1139), who is said by John of Hexham to have been made an earl by +King Stephen after the battle of the Standard in 1138. Robert and his +descendants retained the earldom until 1266, when Robert (c. 1240-c. +1279), probably the 6th earl, having taken a prominent part in the +baronial rising against Henry III., was deprived of his lands and +practically of his title. These earlier earls of Derby were also known +as Earls Ferrers, or de Ferrers, from their surname; as earls of Tutbury +from their residence; and as earls of Nottingham because this county was +a lordship under their rule. The large estates which were taken from +Earl Robert in 1266 were given by Henry III. in the same year to his +son, Edmund, earl of Lancaster; and Edmund's son, Thomas, earl of +Lancaster, called himself Earl Ferrers. In 1337 Edmund's grandson, Henry +(c. 1299-1361), afterwards duke of Lancaster, was created earl of Derby, +and this title was taken by Edward III.'s son, John of Gaunt, who had +married Henry's daughter, Blanche. John of Gaunt's son and successor was +Henry, earl of Derby, who became king as Henry IV. in 1399. + +In October 1485 Thomas, Lord Stanley, was created earl of Derby, and the +title has since been retained by the Stanleys, who, however, have little +or no connexion with the county of Derby. Thomas also inherited the +sovereign lordship of the Isle of Man, which had been granted by the +crown in 1406 to his great-grandfather, Sir John Stanley; and this +sovereignty remained in possession of the earls of Derby till 1736, when +it passed to the duke of Atholl. + +The earl of Derby is one of the three "catskin earls," the others being +the earls of Shrewsbury and Huntingdon. The term "catskin" is possibly a +corruption of _quatre-skin_, derived from the fact that in ancient +times the robes of an earl (as depicted in some early representations) +were decorated with four rows of ermine, as in the robes of a modern +duke, instead of the three rows to which they were restricted in later +centuries. The three "catskin" earldoms are the only earldoms now in +existence which date from creations prior to the 17th century. + (A. W. H.*) + +THOMAS STANLEY, 1st earl of Derby (c. 1435-1504), was the son of Thomas +Stanley, who was created Baron Stanley in 1456 and died in 1459. His +grandfather, Sir John Stanley (d. 1414), had founded the fortunes of his +family by marrying Isabel Lathom, the heiress of a great estate in the +hundred of West Derby in Lancashire; he was lieutenant of Ireland in +1389-1391, and again in 1399-1401, and in 1405 received a grant of the +lordship of Man from Henry IV. The future earl of Derby was a squire to +Henry VI. in 1454, but not long afterwards married Eleanor, daughter of +the Yorkist leader, Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury. At the battle of +Blore Heath in August 1459 Stanley, though close at hand with a large +force, did not join the royal army, whilst his brother William fought +openly for York. In 1461 Stanley was made chief justice of Cheshire by +Edward IV., but ten years later he sided with his brother-in-law Warwick +in the Lancastrian restoration. Nevertheless, after Warwick's fall, +Edward made Stanley steward of his household. Stanley served with the +king in the French expedition of 1475, and with Richard of Gloucester in +Scotland in 1482. About the latter date he married, as his second wife, +Margaret Beaufort, mother of the exiled Henry Tudor. Stanley was one of +the executors of Edward IV., and was at first loyal to the young king +Edward V. But he acquiesced in Richard's usurpation, and retaining his +office as steward avoided any entanglement through his wife's share in +Buckingham's rebellion. He was made constable of England in succession +to Buckingham, and granted possession of his wife's estates with a +charge to keep her in some secret place at home. Richard could not well +afford to quarrel with so powerful a noble, but early in 1485 Stanley +asked leave to retire to his estates in Lancashire. In the summer +Richard, suspicious of his continued absence, required him to send his +eldest son, Lord Strange, to court as a hostage. After Henry of Richmond +had landed, Stanley made excuses for not joining the king; for his son's +sake he was obliged to temporize, even when his brother William had been +publicly proclaimed a traitor. Both the Stanleys took the field; but +whilst William was in treaty with Richmond, Thomas professedly supported +Richard. On the morning of Bosworth (August 22), Richard summoned +Stanley to join him, and when he received an evasive reply ordered +Strange to be executed. In the battle it was William Stanley who turned +the scale in Henry's favour, but Thomas, who had taken no part in the +fighting, was the first to salute the new king. Henry VII. confirmed +Stanley in all his offices, and on the 27th of October created him earl +of Derby. As husband of the king's mother Derby held a great position, +which was not affected by the treason of his brother William in February +1495. In the following July the earl entertained the king and queen with +much state at Knowsley. Derby died on the 29th of July 1504. Strange had +escaped execution in 1485, through neglect to obey Richard's orders; but +he died before his father in 1497, and his son Thomas succeeded as +second earl. An old poem called _The Song of the Lady Bessy_, which was +written by a retainer of the Stanleys, gives a romantic story of how +Derby was enlisted by Elizabeth of York in the cause of his wife's son. + + For fuller narratives see J. Gairdner's _Richard III._ and J. H. + Ramsay's _Lancaster and York_; also Seacome's _Memoirs of the House + of Stanley_ (1741). (C. L. K.) + +EDWARD STANLEY, 3rd earl of Derby (1508-1572), was a son of Thomas +Stanley, 2nd earl and grandson of the 1st earl, and succeeded to the +earldom on his father's death in May 1521. During his minority Cardinal +Wolsey was his guardian, and as soon as he came of age he began to take +part in public life, being often in the company of Henry VIII. He helped +to quell the rising in the north of England known as the Pilgrimage of +Grace in 1536; but remaining true to the Roman Catholic faith he +disliked and opposed the religious changes made under Edward VI. During +Mary's reign the earl was more at ease, but under Elizabeth his younger +sons, Sir Thomas (d. 1576) and Sir Edward Stanley (d. 1609), were +concerned in a plot to free Mary, queen of Scots, and he himself was +suspected of disloyalty. However, he kept his numerous dignities until +his death at Lathom House, near Ormskirk, on the 24th of October 1572. + +Derby's first wife was Katherine, daughter of Thomas Howard, duke of +Norfolk, by whom he had, with other issue, a son Henry, the 4th earl (c. +1531-1593), who was a member of the council of the North, and like his +father was lord-lieutenant of Lancashire. Henry was one of the +commissioners who tried Mary, queen of Scots, and was employed by +Elizabeth on other high undertakings both at home and abroad. He died on +the 25th of September 1593. His wife Margaret (d. 1596), daughter of +Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, was descended through the +Brandons from King Henry VII. Two of his sons, Ferdinando (c. +1559-1594), and William (c. 1561-1642), became in turn the 5th and 6th +earls of Derby. Ferdinando, the 5th earl (d. 1594), wrote verses, and is +eulogized by the poet Spenser under the name of Amyntas. (A. W. H.*) + +JAMES STANLEY, 7th earl of Derby (1607-1651), sometimes styled the Great +Earl of Derby, eldest son of William, 6th earl, and Elizabeth de Vere, +daughter of Edward, 17th earl of Oxford, was born at Knowsley on the +31st of January 1607. During his father's life he was known as Lord +Strange. After travelling abroad he was chosen member of parliament for +Liverpool in 1625, was created knight of the Bath on the occasion of +Charles's coronation in 1626, and was joined with his father the same +year as lieutenant of Lancashire and Cheshire and chamberlain of +Chester, and in the administration of the Isle of Man, being appointed +subsequently lord-lieutenant of North Wales. On the 7th of March 1628 he +was called up to the House of Lords as Baron Strange. He took no part in +the political disputes between king and parliament and preferred country +pursuits and the care of his estates to court or public life. +Nevertheless when the Civil War broke out in 1642, Lord Strange devoted +himself to the king's cause. His plan of securing Lancashire at the +beginning and raising troops there, which promised success, was however +discouraged by Charles, who was said to be jealous of his power and +royal lineage and who commanded his presence at Nottingham. His +subsequent attempts to recover the county were unsuccessful. He was +unable to get possession of Manchester, was defeated at Chowbent and +Lowton Moor, and in 1643 after gaining Preston failed to take Bolton and +Lancaster castles. Finally, after successfully beating off Sir William +Brereton's attack on Warrington, he was defeated at Whalley and withdrew +to York, Warrington in consequence surrendering to the enemy's forces. +In June he left for the Isle of Man to attend to affairs there, and in +the summer of 1644 he took part in Prince Rupert's successful campaign +in the north, when Lathom House, where Lady Derby had heroically +resisted the attacks of the besiegers, was relieved, and Bolton Castle +taken. He followed Rupert to Marston Moor, and after the complete defeat +of Charles's cause in the north withdrew to the Isle of Man, where he +held out for the king and offered an asylum to royalist fugitives. His +administration of the island imitated that of Strafford in Ireland. It +was strong rather than just. He maintained order, encouraged trade, +remedied some abuses, and defended the people from the exactions of the +church; but he crushed opposition by imprisoning his antagonists, and +aroused a prolonged agitation by abolishing the tenant-right and +introducing leaseholds. In July 1649 he refused scornfully terms offered +to him by Ireton. By the death of his father on the 29th of September +1642 he had succeeded to the earldom, and on the 12th of January 1650 he +obtained the Garter. He was chosen by Charles II. to command the troops +of Lancashire and Cheshire, and on the 15th of August 1651 he landed at +Wyre Water in Lancashire in support of Charles's invasion, and met the +king on the 17th. Proceeding to Warrington he failed to obtain the +support of the Presbyterians through his refusal to take the Covenant, +and on the 25th was totally defeated at Wigan, being severely wounded +and escaping with difficulty. He joined Charles at Worcester; after the +battle on the 3rd of September he accompanied him to Boscobel, and while +on his way north alone was captured near Nantwich and given quarter. He +was tried by court-martial at Chester on the 29th of September, and on +the ground that he was a traitor and not a prisoner of war under the act +of parliament passed in the preceding month, which declared those who +corresponded with Charles guilty of treason, his quarter was disallowed +and he was condemned to death. When his appeal for pardon to parliament +was rejected, though supported by Cromwell, he endeavoured to escape; +but was recaptured and executed at Bolton on the 15th of October 1651. +He was buried in Ormskirk church. Lord Derby was a man of deep religious +feeling and of great nobility of character, who though unsuccessful in +the field served the king's cause with single-minded purpose and without +expectation of reward. His political usefulness was handicapped in the +later stages of the struggle by his dislike of the Scots, whom he +regarded as guilty of the king's death and as unfit instruments of the +restoration. According to Clarendon he was "a man of great honour and +clear courage," and his defects the result of too little knowledge of +the world. Lord Derby left in MS. "A Discourse concerning the Government +of the Isle of Man" (printed in the _Stanley Papers_ and in F. Peck's +_Desiderata Curiosa_, vol. ii.) and several volumes of historical +collections, observations, devotions (_Stanley Papers_) and a +commonplace book. He married on the 26th of June 1626 Charlotte de la +Tremoille (1599-1664), daughter of Claude, duc de Thouars, and +grand-daughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange, by whom besides +four daughters he had five sons, of whom the eldest, Charles +(1628-1672), succeeded him as 8th earl. + +Charles's two sons, William, the 9th earl (c. 1655-1702), and James, the +10th earl (1664-1736), both died without sons, and consequently, when +James died in February 1736, his titles and estates passed to Sir Edward +Stanley (1689-1776), a descendant of the 1st earl. From him the later +earls were descended, the 12th earl (d. 1834) being his grandson. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ with authorities and + article in same work on Charlotte Stanley, countess of Derby; the + _Stanley Papers_, with the too laudatory memoir by F. R. Haines + (Chetham Soc. publications, vols. 62, 66, 67, 70); _Memoires_, by De + Lloyd (1668), 572; _State Trials_, v. 293-324; _Notes & Queries_, + viii. Ser. iii. 246; Seacombe's _House of Stanley_; Clarendon's + _Hist. of the Rebellion_; Gardiner's _Hist. of the Civil War and + Protectorate_; _The Land of Home Rule_, by Spencer Walpole (1893); + _Hist. of the Isle of Man_, by A. W. Moore (1900); Manx Soc. + publications, vols. 3, 25, 27. (P. C. Y.) + +EDWARD GEOFFREY SMITH STANLEY, 14th earl of Derby (1799-1869), the +"Rupert of Debate," born at Knowsley in Lancashire on the 29th of March +1799, grandson of the 12th earl and eldest son of Lord Stanley, +subsequently (1834) 13th earl of Derby (1775-1851). He was educated at +Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a +classical scholar, though he took no degree. In 1819 he obtained the +Chancellor's prize for Latin verse, the subject being "Syracuse." He +gave early promise of his future eminence as an orator, and in his youth +he used to practise elocution under the instruction of Lady Derby, his +grandfather's second wife, the actress, Elizabeth Farren. In 1820 he was +returned for Stockbridge in Hampshire, one of the nomination boroughs +whose electoral rights were swept away by the Reform Bill of 1832, +Stanley being a warm advocate of their destruction. + +His maiden speech was delivered early in the session of 1824 in the +debate on a private bill for lighting Manchester with gas. On the 6th of +May 1824 he delivered a vehement and eloquent speech against Joseph +Hume's motion for a reduction of the Irish Church establishment, +maintaining in its most conservative form the doctrine that church +property is as sacred as private property. From this time his +appearances became frequent; and he soon asserted his place as one of +the most powerful speakers in the House. Specially noticeable almost +from the first was the skill he displayed in reply. Macaulay, in an +essay published in 1834, remarked that he seemed to possess intuitively +the faculty which in most men is developed only by long and laborious +practice. In the autumn of 1824 Stanley went on an extended tour through +Canada and the United States in company with Mr Labouchere, afterwards +Lord Taunton, and Mr Evelyn Denison, afterwards Lord Ossington. In May +of the following year he married the second daughter of Edward +Bootle-Wilbraham, created Baron Skelmersdale in 1828, by whom he had a +family of two sons and one daughter who survived. + +At the general election of 1826 Stanley renounced his connection with +Stockbridge, and became the representative of the borough of Preston, +where the Derby influence was paramount. The change of seats had this +advantage, that it left him free to speak against the system of rotten +boroughs, which he did with great force during the Reform Bill debates, +without laying himself open to the charge of personal inconsistency as +the representative of a place where, according to Gay, cobblers used to +"feast three years upon one vote." In 1827 he and several other +distinguished Whigs made a coalition with Canning on the defection of +the more unyielding Tories, and he commenced his official life as +under-secretary for the colonies, but the coalition was broken up by +Canning's death in August. Lord Goderich succeeded to the premiership, +but he never was really in power, and he resigned his place after the +lapse of a few months. During the succeeding administration of the duke +of Wellington (1828-1830), Stanley and those with whom he acted were in +opposition. His robust and assertive Liberalism about this period seemed +curious afterwards to a younger generation who knew him only as the very +embodiment of Conservatism. + +By the advent of Lord Grey to power in November 1830, Stanley obtained +his first opportunity of showing his capacity for a responsible office. +He was appointed to the chief secretaryship of Ireland, a position in +which he found ample scope for both administrative and debating skill. +On accepting office he had to vacate his seat for Preston and seek +re-election; and he had the mortification of being defeated by the +Radical "orator" Hunt. The contest was a peculiarly keen one, and turned +upon the question of the ballot, which Stanley refused to support. He +re-entered the House as one of the members for Windsor, Sir Hussey +Vivian having resigned in his favour. In 1832 he again changed his seat, +being returned for North Lancashire. + +Stanley was one of the most ardent supporters of Lord Grey's Reform +Bill. Of this no other proof is needed than his frequent parliamentary +utterances, which were fully in sympathy with the popular cry "The bill, +the whole bill, and nothing but the bill." Reference may be made +especially to the speech he delivered on the 4th of March 1831 on the +adjourned debate on the second reading of the bill, which was marked by +all the higher qualities of his oratory. Apart from his connexion with +the general policy of the government, Stanley had more than enough to +have employed all his energies in the management of his own department. +The secretary of Ireland has seldom an easy task; Stanley found it one +of peculiar difficulty. The country was in a very unsettled state. The +just concession that had been somewhat tardily yielded a short time +before in Catholic emancipation had excited the people to make all sorts +of demands, reasonable and unreasonable. Undaunted by the fierce +denunciations of O'Connell, who styled him Scorpion Stanley, he +discharged with determination the ungrateful task of carrying a coercion +bill through the House. It was generally felt that O'Connell, powerful +though he was, had fairly met his match in Stanley, who, with invective +scarcely inferior to his own, evaded no challenge, ignored no argument, +and left no taunt unanswered. The title "Rupert of Debate" is peculiarly +applicable to him in connexion with the fearless if also often reckless +method of attack he showed in his parliamentary war with O'Connell. It +was first applied to him, however, thirteen years later by Sir Edward +Bulwer Lytton in _The New Timon_:-- + + "One after one the lords of time advance; + Here Stanley meets--here Stanley scorns the glance! + The brilliant chief, irregularly great, + Frank, haughty, rash,--the Rupert of debate." + +The best answer, however, which he made to the attacks of the great +agitator was not the retorts of debate, effective though these were, but +the beneficial legislation he was instrumental in passing. He +introduced and carried the first national education act for Ireland, one +result of which was the remarkable and to many almost incredible +phenomenon of a board composed of Catholics, Episcopalians and +Presbyterians harmoniously administering an efficient education scheme. +He was also chiefly responsible for the Irish Church Temporalities Act, +though the bill was not introduced into parliament until after he had +quitted the Irish secretaryship for another office. By this measure two +archbishoprics and eight bishoprics were abolished, and a remedy was +provided for various abuses connected with the revenues of the church. +As originally introduced, the bill contained a clause authorizing the +appropriation of surplus revenues to non-ecclesiastical purposes. This +had, however, been strongly opposed from the first by Stanley and +several other members of the cabinet, and it was withdrawn by the +government before the measure reached the Lords. + +In 1833, just before the introduction of the Irish Church Temporalities +Bill, Stanley had been promoted to be secretary for the colonies with a +seat in the cabinet. In this position it fell to his lot to carry the +emancipation of the slaves to a successful practical issue. The speech +which he delivered on introducing the bill for freeing the slaves in the +West Indies, on the 14th of May 1833, was one of the finest specimens of +his eloquence. + +The Irish Church question determined more than one turning-point in his +political career. The most important occasion on which it did so was in +1834, when the proposal of the government to appropriate the surplus +revenues of the church to educational purposes led to his secession from +the cabinet, and, as it proved, his complete and final separation from +the Whig party. In the former of these steps he had as his companions +Sir James Graham, the earl of Ripon and the duke of Richmond. Soon after +it occurred, O'Connell, amid the laughter of the House, described the +secession in a couplet from Canning's _Loves of the Triangles_:-- + + "Still down thy steep, romantic Ashbourne, glides + The Derby dilly carrying six insides." + +Stanley was not content with marking his disapproval by the simple act +of withdrawing from the cabinet. He spoke against the bill to which he +objected with a vehemence that showed the strength of his feeling in the +matter, and against its authors with a bitterness that he himself is +understood to have afterwards admitted to have been unseemly towards +those who had so recently been his colleagues. The course followed by +the government was "marked with all that timidity, that want of +dexterity, which led to the failure of the unpractised shoplifter." His +late colleagues were compared to "thimble-riggers at a country fair," +and their plan was "petty larceny, for it had not the redeeming +qualities of bold and open robbery." + +In the end of 1834, Lord Stanley, as he was now styled by courtesy, his +father having succeeded to the earldom in October, was invited by Sir +Robert Peel to join the short-lived Conservative ministry which he +formed after the resignation of Lord Melbourne. Though he declined the +offer for reasons stated in a letter published in the Peel memoirs, he +acted from that date with the Conservative party, and on its next +accession to power, in 1841, he accepted the office of colonial +secretary, which he had held under Lord Grey. His position and his +temperament alike, however, made him a thoroughly independent supporter +of any party to which he attached himself. When, therefore, the injury +to health arising from the late hours in the Commons led him in 1844 to +seek elevation to the Upper House in the right of his father's barony, +Sir Robert Peel, in acceding to his request, had the satisfaction of at +once freeing himself from the possible effects of his "candid +friendship" in the House, and at the same time greatly strengthening the +debating power on the Conservative side in the other. If the premier in +taking this step had any presentiment of an approaching difference on a +vital question, it was not long in being realized. When Sir Robert Peel +accepted the policy of free trade in 1846, the breach between him and +Lord Stanley was, as might have been anticipated from the antecedents of +the latter, instant and irreparable. Lord Stanley at once asserted +himself as the uncompromising opponent of that policy, and he became the +recognized leader of the Protectionist party, having Lord George +Bentinck and Disraeli for his lieutenants in the Commons. They did all +that could be done in a case in which the logic of events was against +them, though Protection was never to become more than their watchword. + +It is one of the peculiarities of English politics, however, that a +party may come into power because it is the only available one at the +time, though it may have no chance of carrying the very principle to +which it owes its organized existence. Such was the case when Lord +Derby, who had succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father in +June 1851, was called upon to form his first administration in February +1852. He was in a minority, but the circumstances were such that no +other than a minority government was possible, and he resolved to take +the only available means of strengthening his position by dissolving +parliament and appealing to the country at the earliest opportunity. The +appeal was made in autumn, but its result did not materially alter the +position of parties. Parliament met in November, and by the middle of +the following month the ministry had resigned in consequence of their +defeat on Disraeli's budget. For the six following years, during Lord +Aberdeen's "ministry of all the talents" and Lord Palmerston's +premiership, Lord Derby remained at the head of the opposition, whose +policy gradually became more generally Conservative and less +distinctively Protectionist as the hopelessness of reversing the +measures adopted in 1846 made itself apparent. In 1855 he was asked to +form an administration after the resignation of Lord Aberdeen, but +failing to obtain sufficient support, he declined the task. It was in +somewhat more hopeful circumstances that, after the defeat of Lord +Palmerston on the Conspiracy Bill in February 1858, he assumed for the +second time the reins of government. Though he still could not count +upon a working majority, there was a possibility of carrying on affairs +without sustaining defeat, which was realized for a full session, owing +chiefly to the dexterous management of Mr Disraeli in the Commons. The +one rock ahead was the question of reform, on which the wishes of the +country were being emphatically expressed, but it was not so pressing as +to require to be immediately dealt with. During the session of 1858 the +government contrived to pass two measures of very considerable +importance, one a bill to remove Jewish disabilities, and the other a +bill to transfer the government of India from the East India Company to +the crown. Next year the question of parliamentary reform had to be +faced, and, recognizing the necessity, the government introduced a bill +at the opening of the session, which, in spite of, or rather in +consequence of, its "fancy franchises," was rejected by the House, and, +on a dissolution, rejected also by the country. A vote of no confidence +having been passed in the new parliament on the 10th of June, Lord Derby +at once resigned. + +After resuming the leadership of the Opposition Lord Derby devoted much +of the leisure the position afforded him to the classical studies that +had always been congenial to him. It was his reputation for scholarship +as well as his social position that had led in 1852 to his appointment +to the chancellorship of the university of Oxford, in succession to the +duke of Wellington; and perhaps a desire to justify the possession of +the honour on the former ground had something to do with his essays in +the field of authorship. His first venture was a poetical version of the +ninth ode of the third book of Horace, which appeared in Lord +Ravensworth's collection of translations of the _Odes_. In 1862 he +printed and circulated in influential quarters a volume entitled +_Translations of Poems Ancient and Modern_, with a very modest +dedicatory letter to Lord Stanhope, and the words "Not published" on the +title-page. It contained, besides versions of Latin, Italian, French and +German poems, a translation of the first book of the _Iliad_. The +reception of this volume was such as to encourage him to proceed with +the task he had chosen as his _magnum opus_, the translation of the +whole of the _Iliad_, which accordingly appeared in 1864. + +During the seven years that elapsed between Lord Derby's second and +third administrations an industrial crisis occurred in his native +county, which brought out very conspicuously his public spirit and his +philanthropy. The destitution in Lancashire caused by the stoppage of +the cotton-supply in consequence of the American Civil War, was so great +as to threaten to overtax the benevolence of the country. That it did +not do so was probably due to Lord Derby more than to any other single +man. From the first he was the very life and soul of the movement for +relief. His personal subscription, munificent though it was, represented +the least part of his service. His noble speech at the meeting in +Manchester in December 1862, where the movement was initiated, and his +advice at the subsequent meetings of the committee, which he attended +very regularly, were of the very highest value in stimulating and +directing public sympathy. His relations with Lancashire had always been +of the most cordial description, notwithstanding his early rejection by +Preston; but it is not surprising that after the cotton famine period +the cordiality passed into a warmer and deeper feeling, and that the +name of Lord Derby was long cherished in most grateful remembrance by +the factory operatives. + +On the rejection of Earl Russell's Reform Bill in 1866, Lord Derby was +for the third time entrusted with the formation of a cabinet. Like those +he had previously formed it was destined to be short-lived, but it lived +long enough to settle on a permanent basis the question that had proved +fatal to its predecessor. The "education" of the party that had so long +opposed all reform to the point of granting household suffrage was the +work of another; but Lord Derby fully concurred in, if he was not the +first to suggest, the statesmanlike policy by which the question was +disposed of in such a way as to take it once for all out of the region +of controversy and agitation. The passing of the Reform Bill was the +main business of the session 1867. The chief debates were, of course, in +the Commons, and Lord Derby's failing powers prevented him from taking +any large share in those which took place in the Lords. His description +of the measure as a "leap in the dark" was eagerly caught up, because it +exactly represented the common opinion at the time,--the most +experienced statesmen, while they admitted the granting of household +suffrage to be a political necessity, being utterly unable to foresee +what its effect might be on the constitution and government of the +country. + +Finding himself unable, from declining health, to encounter the fatigues +of another session, Lord Derby resigned office early in 1868. The step +he had taken was announced in both Houses on the evening of the 25th of +February, and warm tributes of admiration and esteem were paid by the +leaders of the two great parties. He yielded the entire leadership of +the party as well as the premiership to Disraeli. His subsequent +appearances in public were few and unimportant. It was noted as a +consistent close to his political life that his last speech in the House +of Lords should have been a denunciation of Gladstone's Irish Church +Bill marked by much of his early fire and vehemence. A few months later, +on the 23rd of October 1869, he died at Knowsley. + +Sir Archibald Alison, writing of him when he was in the zenith of his +powers, styles him "by the admission of all parties the most perfect +orator of his day." Even higher was the opinion of Lord Aberdeen, who is +reported by _The Times_ to have said that no one of the giants he had +listened to in his youth, Pitt, Fox, Burke or Sheridan, "as a speaker, +is to be compared with our own Lord Derby, when Lord Derby is at his +best." (W. B. S.) + +EDWARD HENRY STANLEY, 15th earl of Derby (1826-1893), eldest son of the +14th earl, was educated at Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge, where +he took a high degree and became a member of the society known as the +Apostles. In March 1848 he unsuccessfully contested the borough of +Lancaster, and then made a long tour in the West Indies, Canada and the +United States. During his absence he was elected member for King's Lynn, +which he represented till October 1869, when he succeeded to the +peerage. He took his place, as a matter of course, among the +Conservatives, and delivered his maiden speech in May 1850 on the sugar +duties. Just before, he had made a very brief tour in Jamaica and South +America. In 1852 he went to India, and while travelling in that country +he was appointed under-secretary for foreign affairs in his father's +first administration. From the outset of his career he was known to be a +most Liberal Conservative, and in 1855 Lord Palmerston offered him the +post of colonial secretary. He was much tempted by the proposal, and +hurried down to Knowsley to consult his father, who called out when he +entered the room, "Hallo, Stanley! what brings you here?--Has Dizzy cut +his throat, or are you going to be married?" When the object of his +sudden appearance had been explained, the Conservative chief received +the courteous suggestion of the prime minister with anything but favour, +and the offer was declined. In his father's second administration Lord +Stanley held, at first, the office of secretary for the colonies, but +became president of the Board of Control on the resignation of Lord +Ellenborough. He had the charge of the India Bill of 1858 in the House +of Commons, became the first secretary of state for India, and left +behind him in the India Office an excellent reputation as a man of +business. After the revolution in Greece and the disappearance of King +Otho, the people most earnestly desired to have Queen Victoria's second +son, Prince Alfred, for their king. He declined the honour, and they +then took up the idea that the next best thing they could do would be to +elect some great and wealthy English noble, not concealing the hope that +although they might have to offer him a Civil List he would decline to +receive it. Lord Stanley was the prime favourite as an occupant of this +bed of thorns, and it has been said that he was actually offered the +crown. That, however, is not true; the offer was never formally made. +After the fall of the Russell government in 1866 he became foreign +secretary in his father's third administration. He compared his conduct +in that great post to that of a man floating down a river and fending +off from his vessel, as well as he could, the various obstacles it +encountered. He thought that that should be the normal attitude of an +English foreign minister, and probably under the circumstances of the +years 1866-1868 it was the right one. He arranged the collective +guarantee of the neutrality of Luxemburg in 1867, negotiated a +convention about the "Alabama," which, however, was not ratified, and +most wisely refused to take any part in the Cretan troubles. In 1874 he +again became foreign secretary in Disraeli's government. He acquiesced +in the purchase of the Suez Canal shares, a measure then considered +dangerous by many people, but ultimately most successful; he accepted +the Andrassy Note, but declined to accede to the Berlin Memorandum. His +part in the later phases of the Russo-Turkish struggle has never been +fully explained, for with equal wisdom and generosity he declined to +gratify public curiosity at the cost of some of his colleagues. A later +generation will know better than his contemporaries what were the +precise developments of policy which obliged him to resign. He kept +himself ready to explain in the House of Lords the course he had taken +if those whom he had left challenged him to do so, but from that course +they consistently refrained. Already in October 1879 it was clear enough +that he had thrown in his lot with the Liberal party, but it was not +till March 1880 that he publicly announced this change of allegiance. He +did not at first take office in the second Gladstone government, but +became secretary for the colonies in December 1882, holding this +position till the fall of that government in the summer of 1885. In 1886 +the old Liberal party was run on the rocks and went to pieces. Lord +Derby became a Liberal Unionist, and took an active part in the general +management of that party, leading it in the House of Lords till 1891, +when Lord Hartington became duke of Devonshire. In 1892 he presided over +the Labour Commission, but his health never recovered an attack of +influenza which he had in 1891, and he died at Knowsley on the 21st of +April 1893. + +During a great part of Lord Derby's life he was deflected from his +natural course by the accident of his position as the son of the leading +Conservative statesman of the day. From first to last he was at heart a +moderate Liberal. After making allowance, however, for this deflecting +agency, it must be admitted that in the highest quality of the +statesman, "aptness to be right," he was surpassed by none of his +contemporaries, or--if by anybody--by Sir George Cornewall Lewis alone. +He would have been more at home in a state of things which did not +demand from its leading statesman great popular power; he had none of +those "isms" and "prisms of fancy" which stood in such good stead some +of his rivals. He had another defect besides the want of popular power. +He was so anxious to arrive at right conclusions that he sometimes +turned and turned and turned a subject over till the time for action had +passed. One of his best lieutenants said of him in a moment of +impatience: "Lord Derby is like the God of Hegel: 'Er setzt sich, er +verneint sich, er verneint seine Negation.'" His knowledge, acquired +both from books and by the ear, was immense, and he took every +opportunity of increasing it. He retained his old university habit of +taking long walks with a congenial companion, even in London, and +although he cared but little for what is commonly known as society--the +society of crowded rooms and fragments of sentences--he very much liked +conversation. During the many years in which he was a member of "The +Club" he was one of its most assiduous frequenters, and his loss was +acknowledged by a formal resolution. His talk was generally grave, but +every now and then was lit up by dry humour. The late Lord Arthur +Russell once said to him, after he had been buying some property in +southern England: "So you still believe in land, Lord Derby." "Hang it," +he replied, "a fellow must believe in something!" He did an immense deal +of work outside politics. He was lord rector of the University of +Glasgow from 1868 to 1871, and later held the same office in that of +Edinburgh. From 1875 to 1893 he was president of the Royal Literary +Fund, and attended most closely to his duties then. He succeeded Lord +Granville as chancellor of the University of London in 1891, and +remained in that position till his death. He lived much in Lancashire, +managed his enormous estates with great skill, and did a great amount of +work as a local magnate. He married in 1870 Maria Catharine, daughter of +the 5th earl de la Warr, and widow of the 2nd marquess of Salisbury. + +The earl left no children and he was succeeded as 16th earl by his +brother Frederick Arthur Stanley (1841-1908), who had been made a peer +as Baron Stanley of Preston in 1886. He was secretary of state for war +and for the colonies and president of the board of trade; and was +governor-general of Canada from 1888 to 1893. He died on the 14th of +June 1908, when his eldest son, Edward George Villiers Stanley, became +earl of Derby. As Lord Stanley the latter had been member of parliament +for the West Houghton division of Lancashire from 1892 to 1906; he was +financial secretary to the War Office from 1900 to 1903, and +postmaster-general from 1903 to 1905. + + The best account of the 15th Lord Derby is that which was prefixed by + W. E. H. Lecky, who knew him very intimately, to the edition of his + speeches outside parliament, published in 1894. (M. G. D.) + + + + +DERBY, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., coextensive with +the township of Derby, about 10 m. W. of New Haven, at the junction of +the Housatonic and Naugatuck rivers. Pop. (1900) 7930 (2635 +foreign-born); (1910) 8991. It is served by the New York, New Haven & +Hartford railway, and by interurban electric railways. In Derby there +are an opera house, owned by the city, and a public library. Across the +Housatonic is the borough of Shelton (pop. 1910, 4807), which is closely +related, socially and industrially, to Derby, the two having a joint +board of trade. Adjoining Derby on the N. along the Naugatuck is +Ansonia. Derby, Ansonia and Shelton form one of the most important +manufacturing communities in the state; although their total population +in 1900 (23,448) was only 2.9% of the state's population, the product of +their manufactories was 7.4% of the total manufactured product of +Connecticut. Among the manufactures of Derby are pianos and organs, +woollen goods, pins, keys, dress stays, combs, typewriters, corsets, +hosiery, guns and ammunition, and foundry and machine-shop products. +Derby was settled in 1642 as an Indian trading post under the name +Paugasset, and received its present name in 1675. The date of +organization of the township is unknown. Ansonia was formed from a part +of Derby in 1889. In 1893 the borough of Birmingham, on the opposite +side of the Naugatuck, was annexed to Derby, and Derby was chartered as +a city. In the 18th century Derby was the centre of a thriving commerce +with the West Indies. Derby is the birthplace of David Humphreys +(1752-1818), a soldier, diplomatist and writer, General Washington's +aide and military secretary from 1780 until the end of the War of +Independence, the first minister of the United States to Portugal +(1790-1797) and minister to Spain in 1797-1802, and one of the "Hartford +Wits." + + See Samuel Orcutt and Ambrose Beardsley, _History of the Old Town of + Derby_ (Springfield, 1880); and the _Town Records of Derby from 1655 + to 1710_ (Derby, 1901). + + + + +DERBY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and the county +town of Derbyshire, England, 128¾ m. N.N.W. of London by the Midland +railway; it is also served by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) +94,146; (1901) 114,848. Occupying a position almost in the centre of +England, the town is situated chiefly on the western bank of the river +Derwent, on an undulating site encircled with gentle eminences, from +which flow the Markeaton and other brooks. In the second half of the +19th century the prosperity of the town was enhanced by the +establishment of the head offices and principal workshops of the Midland +Railway Company. Derby possesses several handsome public buildings, +including the town hall, a spacious range of buildings erected for the +postal and inland revenue offices, the county hall, corn exchange and +market hall. Among churches may be mentioned St Peter's a fine building +principally of Perpendicular date but with earlier portions; St +Alkmund's with its lofty spire, Decorated in style; St Andrew's, in the +same style, by Sir G. G. Scott; and All Saints', which contains a +beautiful choir-screen, good stained glass and monuments by L. F. +Roubiliac, Sir Francis Chantrey and others. The body of this church is +in classic style (1725), but the tower was built 1509-1527, and is one +of the finest in the midland counties, built in three tiers, and crowned +with battlements and pinnacles, which give it a total height of 210 ft. +The Roman Catholic church of St Mary is one of the best examples of the +work of A. W. Pugin. The Derby grammar school, one of the most ancient +in England, was placed in 1160 under the administration of the chapter +of Darley Abbey, which lay a little north of Derby. It occupies St +Helen's House, once the town residence of the Strutt family, and has +been enlarged in modern times, accommodating about 160 boys. The Derby +municipal technical college is administered by the corporation. Other +institutions include schools of science and art, public library, museum +and art gallery, the Devonshire almshouses, a remodelled foundation +inaugurated by Elizabeth, countess of Shrewsbury, in the 16th century, +and the town and county infirmary. The free library and museum +buildings, together with a recreation ground, were gifts to the town +from M. T. Bass, M.P. (d. 1884), while an arboretum of seventeen acres +was presented to the town by Joseph Strutt in 1840. + +Derby has been long celebrated for its porcelain, which rivalled that of +Saxony and France. This manufacture was introduced about 1750, and +although for a time partially abandoned, it has been revived. There are +also spar works where the fluor-spar, or Blue John, is wrought into a +variety of useful and ornamental articles. The manufacture of silk, +hosiery, lace and cotton formerly employed a large portion of the +population, and there are still numerous silk mills and elastic web +works. Silk "throwing" or spinning was introduced into England in 1717 +by John Lombe, who found out the secrets of the craft when visiting +Piedmont, and set up machinery in Derby. Other industries include the +manufacture of paint, shot, white and red lead and varnish; and there +are sawmills and tanneries. The manufacture of hosiery profited greatly +by the inventions of Jedediah Strutt about 1750. In the northern suburb +of Littlechester, there are chemical and steam boiler works. The Midland +railway works employ a large number of hands. Derby is a suffragan +bishopric in the diocese of Southwell. The parliamentary borough returns +two members. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and +forty-two councillors. Area, 3449 acres. + +Littlechester, as its name indicates, was the site of a Roman fort or +village; the site is in great part built over and the remains +practically effaced. Derby was known in the time of the heptarchy as +Northworthig, and did not receive the name of Deoraby or Derby until +after it was given up to the Danes by the treaty of Wedmore and had +become one of their five boroughs, probably ruled in the ordinary way by +an earl with twelve "lawmen" under him. Being won back among the +sweeping conquests of Æthelflæd, lady of the Mercians, in 917, it +prospered during the 10th century, and by the reign of Edward the +Confessor there were 243 burgesses in Derby. However, by 1086 this +number had decreased to 100, while 103 "manses" which used to be +assessed were waste. In spite of this the amount rendered by the town to +the lord had increased from £24 to £30. The first extant charter granted +to Derby is dated 1206 and is a grant of all those privileges which the +burgesses of Nottingham had in the time of Henry I. and Henry II., which +included freedom from toll, a gild merchant, power to elect a provost at +their will, and the privilege of holding the town at the ancient farm +with an increase of £10 yearly. The charter also provides that no one +shall dye cloth within ten leagues of Derby except in the borough. A +second charter, granted by Henry III. in 1229, limits the power of +electing a provost by requiring that he shall be removed if he be +displeasing to the king. Henry III. also granted the burgesses two other +charters, one in 1225 confirming their privileges and granting that the +_comitatus_ of Derby should in future be held on Thursdays in the +borough, the other in 1260 granting that no Jew should be allowed to +live in the town. In 1337 Edward III. on the petition of the burgesses +granted that they might have two bailiffs instead of one. Derby was +incorporated by James I. in 1611 under the name of the bailiffs and +burgesses of Derby, but Charles I. in 1637 appointed a mayor, nine +aldermen, fourteen brethren and fourteen capital burgesses. In 1680 the +burgesses were obliged to resign their charters, and received a new one, +which did not, however, alter the government of the town. Derby has been +represented in parliament by two members since 1295. In the rebellion of +1745 the young Pretender marched with his army as far south as Derby, +where the council was held which decided that he should return to +Scotland instead of going on to London. + + Among early works on Derby are W. Hutton, _History of Derby_ (London, + 1791); R. Simpson, _History and Antiquities of Derby_ (Derby, 1826). + + + + +DERBYSHIRE, a north midland county of England, bounded N. and N.E. by +Yorkshire, E. by Nottinghamshire, S.E. and S. by Leicestershire, S. and +S.W. by Staffordshire, and W. and N.W. by Cheshire. The area is 1029.5 +sq. m. The physical aspect is much diversified. The extreme south of the +county is lacking in picturesqueness, being for the most part level, +with occasional slight undulations. The Peak District of the north, on +the other hand, though inferior in grandeur to the mountainous Lake +District, presents some of the finest hill scenery in England, deriving +a special beauty from the richly wooded glens and valleys, such as those +of Castleton, Glossop, Dovedale and Millersdale. The character of the +landscape ranges from the wild moorland of the Cheshire borders or the +grey rocks of the Peak, to the park lands and woods of the Chatsworth +district. Some of the woods are noted for their fine oaks, those at +Kedleston, 3 m. from Derby, ranking among the largest and oldest in the +kingdom. From the northern hills the streams of the county radiate. +Those of the north-west belong to the Mersey, and those of the +north-east to the Don, but all the others to the Trent, which, like the +Don, falls into the Humber. The principal river is the Trent, which, +rising in the Staffordshire moorlands, intersects the southern part of +Derbyshire, and forms part of its boundary with Leicestershire. After +the Trent the most important river is the Derwent, one of its +tributaries, which, taking its rise in the lofty ridges of the High +Peak, flows southward through a beautiful valley, receiving a number of +minor streams in its course, including the Wye, which, rising near +Buxton, traverses the fine Millersdale and Monsal Dale. The other +principal rivers are the following: The Dane rises at the junction of +the three counties, Staffordshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire. The Goyt has +its source a little farther north, at the base of the same hill, and, +taking a N.N.E. direction, divides Derbyshire from Cheshire, and falls +into the Mersey. The Dove rises on the southern slope, and flows as the +boundary stream between Derbyshire and Staffordshire for nearly its +entire course. It receives several feeders, and falls into the Trent +near Repton. The Erewash is the boundary stream between Nottinghamshire +and Derbyshire. The Rother rises about Baslow, and flows into Yorkshire, +with a northerly course, joining the Don. Besides the attractions of its +scenery Derbyshire possesses, in Buxton, Matlock and Bakewell, three +health resorts in much favour on account of their medicinal springs. + +The whole northward extension of the county is occupied by the plateau +of the Peak and other plateau-like summits, the highest of which are of +almost exactly similar elevation. Thus in the extreme north Bleaklow +Hill reaches 2060 ft., while southward from this point along the axis of +main elevation are found Shelf Moss (2046 ft.), and Kinder Scout and +other summits of the Peak itself, ranging up to 2088 ft. This +plateau-mass is demarcated on the north and west by the vales of the +Etherow and Goyt, by the valley of the Derwent on the east, and in part +by that of its tributary the Noe on the south. The flanks of the plateau +are deeply scored by abrupt ravines, often known as "cloughs" (an +Anglo-Saxon word, _cloh_) watered by streams which sometimes descend +over precipitous ledges in picturesque falls, such as the Kinder +Downfall, formed by the brook of that name which rises on Kinder Scout. +The most picturesque cloughs are found on the south, descending to +Edale, and on the west. Edale is the upper part of the Noe valley, and +the narrow gorge at its head is exceedingly beautiful, as is the more +gentle scenery of the Vale of Hope, the lower part of the valley. In a +branch vale is situated Castleton (q.v.), with the ruined Peak Castle, +or Castle of the Peak, and the Peak Cavern, Blue John Mine and other +caves. The upper Derwent valley, or Derwent Dale, is narrow and well +wooded. In it, near the village of Derwent Chapel, is Derwent Hall, a +fine old mansion formerly a seat of the Newdigate family. On Derwent +Edge, above the village, are various peculiar rock formations, known by +such names as the Salt-cellar. Ashopton, another village lower down the +dale, is a favourite centre, and here the main valley is joined by Ashop +Dale, a bold defile in its upper part, penetrating the heart of the +Peak. + +The well-known high road crossing the plateau from east to west, between +the lower Derwent valley, Bakewell, Buxton and Macclesfield, shows the +various types of scenery characteristic of the limestone hill-country of +Derbyshire south of the Peak itself. The lower Derwent valley, about +Chatsworth, Rowsley, Darley and Matlock, is open, fertile and well +wooded. The road leads up the tributary valley of the Wye, which after +Bakewell quickly narrows, and in successive portions is known as Monsal +Dale, Millersdale (which the main road does not touch), Chee Dale and +Wye Dale. On the flanks of these beautiful dales bold cliffs and +bastions of limestone stand out among rich woods. Near the mouth of the +valley, about Stanton, the fantastic effects of weathering on the +limestone are especially well seen, as in Rowtor Rocks and Robin Hood's +Stride, and in the same locality are a remarkable number of tumuli and +other early remains, and the Hermitage, a cave containing sacred +carvings. From Buxton the road ascends over the high moors, here open +and grassy in contrast to the heather of the Peak, and shortly after +crossing the county boundary, reaches the head of the pass well known by +the name of an inn, the Cat and Fiddle, at its highest point, 1690 ft. + +South of Buxton the elevations along the main axis decrease, thus Axe +Edge reaches 1600 ft., and this height is nowhere exceeded as the hills +sink to the plain valley of the Trent. The dales and ravines which +ramify among the limestone heights are characteristic and beautiful, and +the valley of the Dove (q.v.) or Dovedale, on the border with +Staffordshire, is as famous as any of the northern dales. Swallow-holes +or waterworn caverns are common in many parts of the limestone region. +The hills east of the Derwent are nowhere so high as those to the +west--Margley Hill reaches 1793 ft., Howden Edge 1787 ft. and Derwent +Moors 1505 ft. The plateau type is maintained. The valley of the Derwent +provides the most attractive scenery in the southern part of the +county, from Matlock southward by Heage, Belper and Duffield to Derby. + + _Geology._--Five well-contrasted types of scenery in Derbyshire are + clearly traceable to as many varieties of rock; the bleak dry uplands + of the north and east, with deep-cut ravines and swift clear streams, + are due to the great mass of Mountain Limestone; round the limestone + boundary are the valleys with soft outlines in the Pendleside Shales; + these are succeeded by the rugged moorlands, covered with heather and + peat, which are due to the Millstone Grit series; eastward lies the + Derbyshire Coalfield with its gently moulded grass-covered hills; + southward is the more level tract of red Triassic rocks. The + principal structural feature is the broad anticline, its axis running + north and south, which has brought up the Carboniferous Limestone; + this uplifted region is the southern extremity of the Pennine Range. + The Carboniferous or "Mountain" Limestone is the oldest formation in + the county; its thickness is not known, but it is certainly over 2000 + ft.; it is well exposed in the numerous narrow gorges cut by the + Derwent and its tributaries and by the Dove on the Staffordshire + border. Ashwood Dale, Chee Dale, Millersdale, Monsal Dale and the + valley at Matlock are all flanked by abrupt sides of this rock. It is + usually a pale, thick-bedded rock, sometimes blue and occasionally, + as at Ashford, black. In some places, e.g. Thorpe Cloud, it is highly + fossiliferous, but it is usually somewhat barren except for abundant + crinoids and smaller organisms. It is polished in large slabs at + Ashford, where crinoidal, black and "rosewood" marbles are produced. + Volcanic rocks, locally called "Toadstone," are represented in the + limestones by intrusive sills and flows of dolerite and by necks of + agglomerate, notably near Tideswell, Millersdale and Matlock. Beds + and nodules of chert are abundant in the upper parts of the + limestone; at Bakewell it is quarried for use in the Potteries. At + some points the limestone has been dolomitized; near Bonsall it has + been converted into a granular silicified rock. A series of black + shales with nodular limestones, the Pendleside series, rests upon the + Mountain Limestone on the east, south and north-west; much of the + upper course of the Derwent has been cut through these soft beds. Mam + Tor, or the Shivering Mountain, is made of these shales. Next in + upward sequence is a thick mass of sandstones, grits and shales--the + Millstone Grit series. On the west side these extend from Blacklow + Hill to Axe Edge; on the east, from Derwent Edge to near Derby; + outlying masses form the rough moorland on Kinder Scout and the + picturesque tors near Stanton-by-Youlgreave. A small patch of + Millstone Grit and Limestone occurs in the south of the county about + Melbourne and Ticknall. The Coal Measures repose upon the Millstone + Grit; the largest area of these rocks lies on the east, where they + are conterminous with the coalfields of Yorkshire and Nottingham. A + small tract, part of the Leicestershire coalfield, lies in the + south-east corner, and in the north-west corner a portion of the + Lancashire coalfield appears about New Mills and Whaley Bridge. They + yield valuable coals, clays, marls and ganister. East of Bolsover, + the Coal Measures are covered unconformably by the Permian breccias + and magnesian limestone. Flanking the hills between Ashbourne and + Quarndon are red beds of Bunter marl, sandstone and conglomerate; + they also appear at Morley, east of the Derwent, and again round the + small southern coalfield. Most of the southern part of the county is + occupied by Keuper marls and sandstones, the latter yield good + building stone; and at Chellaston the gypsum beds in the former are + excavated on a large scale. Much of the Triassic area is covered + superficially by glacial drift and alluvium of the Trent. Local + boulders as well as northern erratics are found in the valley of the + Derwent. The bones of Pleistocene mammals, the rhinoceros, mammoth, + bison, hyaena, &c., have been found at numerous places, often in + caves and fissures in the limestones, e.g. at Castleton, Wirksworth + and Creswell. At Doveholes the Pleiocene _Mastodon_ has been + reported. Galena and other lead ores are abundant in veins in the + limestone, but they are now only worked on a large scale at Mill + Close, near Winster; calamine, zinc, blende, barytes, calcite and + fluor-spar are common. A peculiar variety of the last named, called + "Blue John," is found only near Castleton; at the same place occurs + the remarkable elastic bitumen, "elaterite." Limestone is quarried at + Buxton, Millersdale and Matlock for lime, fluxing and chemical + purposes. Good sandstone is obtained from the Millstone Grit at + Stancliffe, Tansley and Whatstandwell. Calcareous tufa or travertine + occurs in the valley of Matlock and elsewhere, and in some places is + still being deposited by springs. Large pits containing deposits of + white sand, clay and pebbles are found in the limestone at Longcliff, + Newhaven and Carsington. + +_Climate._--From the elevation which it attains in its northern division +the county is colder and is rainier than other midland counties. Even in +summer cold and thick fogs are often seen hanging over the rivers, and +clinging to the lower parts of the hills, and hoar-frosts are by no +means unknown even in June and July. The winters in the uplands are +generally severe, and the rainfall heavy. At Buxton, at an elevation of +about 1000 ft., the mean temperature in January is 34.9° F., and in July +57.5°, the mean annual being 45.4°. These conditions contrast with those +at Derby, in the southern lowland, where the figures are respectively +37.5°, 61.2° and 48.8°, while intermediate conditions are found at +Belper, 9 m. higher up the Derwent valley, where the figures are 36.3°, +59.9° and 47.3°. The contrasts shown by the mean annual rainfall are +similarly marked. Thus at Woodhead, lying high in the extreme north, it +is 52.03 in., at Buxton 49.33 in., at Matlock, in the middle part of the +Derwent valley, 35.2 in., and at Derby 24.35 in. + +_Agriculture._--A little over seven-tenths of the total area of the +county is under cultivation. Among the higher altitudes of north +Derbyshire, where the soil is poor and the climate harsh, grain is +unable to flourish, while even in the more sheltered parts of this +region the harvest is usually belated. In such districts sheep farming +is chiefly practised, and there is a considerable area of heath pasture. +Farther south, heavy crops of wheat, turnips and other cereals and green +crops are not uncommon, while barley is cultivated about Repton and +Gresley, and also in the east of the county, in order to supply the +Burton breweries. A large part of the Trent valley is under permanent +pasture, being devoted to cattle-feeding and dairy-farming. This +industry has prospered greatly, and the area of permanent pasture +encroaches continually upon that of arable land. Derbyshire cheeses are +exported or sent to London in considerable quantities; and cheese fairs +are held in various parts of the county, as at Ashbourne and Derby. A +feature of the upland districts is the total absence of hedges, and the +substitution of limestone walls, put together without any mortar or +cement. + +_Other Industries._--The manufactures of Derbyshire are both numerous +and important, embracing silks, cotton hosiery, iron, woollen +manufactures, lace, elastic web and brewing. For many of these this +county has long been famous, especially for that of silk, which is +carried on to a large extent in Derby, as well as in Belper and +Duffield. Derby is also celebrated for its china, and silk-throwing is +the principal industry of the town. Elastic web weaving by power looms +is carried on to a great extent, and the manufacture of lace and net +curtains, gimp trimmings, braids and cords. In the county town and +neighbourhood are several important chemical and colour works; and in +various parts of the county, as at Belper, Cromford, Matlock, Tutbury, +are cotton-spinning mills, as well as hosiery and tape manufactories. +The principal works of the Midland Railway Company are at Derby. The +principal mineral is coal. Ironstone is not extensively wrought, but, on +account of the abundant supply of coal, large quantities are imported +for smelting purposes. There are smelting furnaces in several districts, +as at Alfreton, Chesterfield, Derby, Ilkeston. Besides lead, gypsum and +zinc are raised, to a small extent; and for the quarrying of limestone +Derbyshire is one of the principal English counties. The east and the +extreme south-west parts are the principal industrial districts. + +_Communications._--The chief railway serving the county is the Midland, +the south, east and north being served by its main line and branches. In +the north-east and north the Great Central system touches the county; in +the west the North Staffordshire and a branch of the London & +North-Western; while a branch of the Great Northern serves Derby and +other places in the south. The Trent & Mersey canal crosses the southern +part of the county, and there is a branch canal (the Derby) connecting +Derby with this and with the Erewash canal, which runs north from the +Trent up the Erewash valley. From it there is a little-used branch (the +Cromford canal) to Matlock. + +_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is +658,885 acres, with a population in 1891 of 528,033, and 1901 of +620,322. The area of the administrative county is 652,272 acres. The +county contains six hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Chesterfield +(pop. 27,185), Derby, a county borough and the county town (114,848), +Glossop (21,526), Ilkeston (25,384). The other urban districts are +Alfreton (17,505), Alvaston and Boulton (1279), Ashbourne (4039), +Bakewell (2850), Baslow and Bubnell (797), Belper (10,934), Bolsover +(6844) Bonsall (1360), Brampton and Walton (2698), Buxton (10,181), Clay +Cross (8358), Dronfield (3809), Fairfield (2969), Heage (2889), Heanor +(16,249), Long Eaton (13,045), Matlock (5979), Matlock Bath and Scarthin +Nick (1810), Newbold and Dunston (5986), New Mills (7773), North Darley +(2756), Ripley (10,111), South Darley (788), Swadlincote (18,014), +Whittington (9416), Wirksworth (3807). Among other towns may be +mentioned Ashover (2426), Barlborough (2056), Chapel-en-le-Frith (4626), +Clowne (3896), Crich (3063), Killamarsh (3644), Staveley (11,420), +Whitwell (3380). The county is in the Midland circuit, and assizes are +held at Derby. It has one court of quarter sessions and is divided into +fifteen petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Derby, Chesterfield +and Glossop have separate commissions of the peace, and that of Derby +has also a separate court of quarter sessions. The total number of civil +parishes is 314. The county is mainly in the diocese of Southwell, with +small portions in the dioceses of Peterborough and Lichfield, and +contains 255 ecclesiastical parishes or districts. The parliamentary +divisions of the county are High Peak, North-Eastern, Chesterfield, Mid, +Ilkeston, Southern and Western, each returning one member, while the +parliamentary borough of Derby returns two members. + +_History._--The earliest English settlements in the district which is +now Derbyshire were those of the West Angles, who in the course of their +northern conquests in the 6th century pushed their way up the valleys of +the Derwent and the Dove, where they became known as the Pecsaetan. +Later the district formed the northern division of Mercia, and in 848 +the Mercian witenagemot assembled at Repton. In the 9th century the +district suffered frequently from the ravages of the Danes, who in 874 +wintered at Repton and destroyed its famous monastery, the burial-place +of the kings of Mercia. Derby under Guthrum was one of the five Danish +burghs, but in 917 was recovered by Æthelflæd. In 924 Edward the Elder +fortified Bakewell, and in 942 Edmund regained Derby, which had fallen +under the Danish yoke. Barrows of the Saxon period are numerous in +Wirksworth hundred and the Bakewell district, among the most remarkable +being White-low near Winster and Bower's-low near Tissington. There are +Saxon cemeteries at Stapenhill and Foremark Hall. + +Derbyshire probably originated as a shire in the time of Æthelstan, but +for long it maintained a very close connexion with Nottinghamshire, and +the Domesday Survey gives a list of local customs affecting the two +counties alike. The two shire-courts sat together for the Domesday +Inquest, and the counties were united under one sheriff until the time +of Elizabeth. The villages of Appleby, Oakthorpe, Donisthorpe, +Stretton-en-le-Field, Willesley, Chilcote and Measham were reckoned as +part of Derbyshire in 1086, although separated from it by the +Leicestershire parishes of Over and Nether Seat. + +The early divisions of the county were known as wapentakes, five being +mentioned in Domesday, while 13th-century documents mention seven +wapentakes, corresponding with the six present hundreds, except that +Repton and Gresley were then reckoned as separate divisions. In the 14th +century the divisions were more frequently described as hundreds, and +Wirksworth alone retained the designation wapentake until modern times. +Ecclesiastically the county constituted an archdeaconry in the diocese +of Lichfield, comprising the six deaneries of Derby, Ashbourne, High +Peak, Castillar, Chesterfield and Repington. In 1884 it was transferred +to the newly formed diocese of Southwell. The assizes for +Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire were held at Nottingham until the reign +of Henry III., when they were held alternately at Nottingham and Derby +until 1569, after which the Derbyshire assizes were held at Derby. The +court of the Honour of Peverel, held at Basford in Nottinghamshire, +which formerly exercised jurisdiction in the hundreds of Scarsdale, the +Peak and Wirksworth, was abolished in 1849. The miners of Derbyshire +formed an independent community under the jurisdiction of a steward and +barmasters, who held two Barmote courts (q.v.) every year. The forests +of Peak and Duffield had their separate courts and officers, the justice +seat of the former being in an extra-parochial part at equal distances +from Castleton, Tideswell and Bowden, while the pleas of Duffield Forest +were held at Tutbury. Both were disafforested in the 17th century. + +The greatest landholder in Derbyshire at the time of the Domesday Survey +was Henry de Ferrers, who owned almost the whole of the modern hundred +of Appletree. The Ferrers estates were forfeited by Robert, earl of +Derby, in the reign of Henry III. Another great Domesday landholder was +William Peverel, the historic founder of Peak Castle, whose vast +possessions were known as the Honour of Peverel. In 1155 the younger +Peverel was disinherited for poisoning the earl of Chester, and his +estates forfeited to the crown. Few Englishmen retained estates of any +importance after the Conquest, but one, Elfin, an under-tenant of Henry +de Ferrers, not only held a considerable property but was the ancestor +of the Derbyshire family of Brailsford. The families of Shirley and +Gresley can also boast an unbroken descent from Domesday tenants. + +During the rebellion of Prince Henry against Henry II. the castles of +Tutbury and Duffield were held against the king, and in the civil wars +of John's reign Bolsover and Peak Castles were garrisoned by the +rebellious barons. In the Barons' War of the reign of Henry III. the +earl of Derby was active in stirring up feeling in the county against +the king, and in 1266 assembled a considerable force, which was defeated +by the king's party at Chesterfield. At the time of the Wars of the +Roses discontent was rife in Derbyshire, and riots broke out in 1443, +but the county did not lend active support to either party. On the +outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th century, the county at first +inclined to support the king, who received an enthusiastic reception +when he visited Derby in 1642, but by the close of 1643 Sir John Gell of +Hopton had secured almost the whole county for the parliament. Derby, +however, was always royalist in sympathy, and did not finally surrender +till 1646; in 1659 it rebelled against Richard Cromwell, and in 1745 +entertained the young Pretender. + +Derbyshire has always been mainly a mining and manufacturing county, +though the rich land in the south formerly produced large quantities of +corn. The lead mines were worked by the Romans, and the Domesday Survey +mentions lead mines at Wirksworth, Matlock, Bakewell, Ashford and Crich. +Iron has also been produced in Derbyshire from an early date, and coal +mines were worked at Norton and Alfreton in the beginning of the 14th +century. The woollen industry flourished in the county before the reign +of John, when an exclusive privilege of dyeing cloth was conceded to the +burgesses of Derby. Thomas Fuller writing in 1662 mentions lead, malt +and ale as the chief products of the county, and the Buxton waters were +already famous in his day. The 18th century saw the rise of numerous +manufactures. In 1718 Sir Thomas and John Lombe set up an improved +silk-throwing machine at Derby, and in 1758 Jedediah Strutt introduced a +machine for making ribbed stockings, which became famous as the "Derby +rib." In 1771 Sir Richard Arkwright set up one of his first cotton mills +in Cromford, and in 1787 there were twenty-two cotton mills in the +county. The Derby porcelain or china manufactory was started about 1750. + +From 1295 until the Reform Act of 1832 the county and town of Derby each +returned two members to parliament. From this latter date the county +returned four members in two divisions until the act of 1868, under +which it returned six members for three divisions. + +_Antiquities._--Monastic remains are scanty, but there are interesting +portions of a priory incorporated with the school buildings at Repton. +The village church of Beauchief Abbey, near Dronfield, is a remnant of +an abbey founded c. 1175 by Robert Fitzranulf. It has a stately +transitional Norman tower, and three fine Norman arches. Dale Abbey, +near Derby, was founded early in the 13th century for the +Premonstratensian order. The ruins are scanty, but the east window is +preserved, and the present church incorporates remains of the ancient +rest-house for pilgrims. The church has a peculiar music gallery, +entered from without. The abbey church contained famous stained glass, +and some of this is preserved in the neighbouring church at Morley. +Derbyshire is rich in ecclesiastical architecture as a whole. The +churches are generally of various styles. The chancel of the church at +Repton is assigned to the second half of the 10th century, though +subsequently altered, and the crypt beneath is supposed to be earlier +still; its roof is supported by four round pillars, and it is +approached by two stairways. Other remains of pre-Conquest date are the +chancel arches in the churches of Marston Montgomery and of Sawley; and +the curiously carved font in Wilne church is attributed to the same +period. Examples of Norman work are frequent in doorways, as in the +churches of Allestree and Willington near Repton, while a fine tympanum +is preserved in the modern church of Findern. There is a triple-recessed +doorway, with arcade above, in the west end of Bakewell church, and +there is another fine west doorway in Melbourne church, a building +principally of the late Norman period, with central and small western +towers. In restoring this church curious mural paintings were +discovered. At Steetley, near Worksop, is a small Norman chapel, with +apse, restored from a ruinous condition; Youlgrave church, a building of +much general interest, has Norman nave pillars and a fine font of the +same period, and Normanton church has a peculiar Norman corbel table. +The Early English style is on the whole less well exemplified in the +county, but Ashbourne church, with its central tower and lofty spire, +contains beautiful details of this period, notably the lancet windows in +the Cockayne chapel. + +The parish churches of Dronfield, Hathersage (with some notable stained +glass), Sandiacre and Tideswell exemplify the Decorated period; the last +is a particularly stately and beautiful building, with a lofty and +ornate western tower and some good early brasses. The churches of +Dethic, Wirksworth and Chesterfield are typical of the Perpendicular +period; that of Wirksworth contains noteworthy memorial chapels, +monuments and brasses, and that of Chesterfield is celebrated for its +crooked spire. + +The remains of castles are few; the ancient Bolsover Castle is replaced +by a castellated mansion of the 17th century; of the Norman Peak Castle +near Castleton little is left; of Codnor Castle in the Erewash valley +there are picturesque ruins of the 13th century. Among ancient mansions +Derbyshire possesses one of the most famous in England in Haddon Hall, +of the 15th century. Wingfield manor house is a ruin dating from the +same century. Hardwick Hall is a very perfect example of Elizabethan +building; ruins of the old Tudor hall stand near by. Other Elizabethan +examples are Barlborough and Tissington Halls. + +The village of Tissington is noted for the maintenance of an old custom, +that of "well-dressing." On the Thursday before Easter a special church +service is celebrated, and the wells are beautifully ornamented with +flowers, prayers being offered at each. The ceremony has been revived +also in several other Derbyshire villages. + + See Davies, _New Historical and Descriptive View of Derbyshire_ + (Belper, 1811); D. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_, vol. v. (London, 1817); + Maunder, _Derbyshire Miners' Glossary_ (Bakewell, 1824); R. Simpson, + _Collection of Fragments illustrative of the History of Derbyshire_ + (1826); S. Glover, _History and Gazetteer of the County of Derby_, + ed. T. Noble, part 1 of vols. i. and ii. (Derby, 1831-1833); T. + Bateman, _Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire_ (London, 1848); + L. Jewitt, _Ballads and Songs of Derbyshire_ (London, 1867); J. C. + Cox, _Notes on the Churches of Derbyshire_ (Chester, 1875), and + _Three Centuries of Derbyshire Annals_ (2 vols., London, 1890); R. N. + Worth, _Derby_, in "Popular County Histories" (London, 1886); J. P. + Yeatman, _Feudal History of the County of Derby_ (3 vols., London, + 1886-1895); _Victoria County History, Derbyshire_. See also _Notts + and Derbyshire Notes and Queries_. + + + + +DEREHAM (properly EAST DEREHAM), a market town in the Mid parliamentary +division of Norfolk, England, 122 m. N.N.E. from London by the Great +Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5545. The church of St +Nicholas is a cruciform Perpendicular structure with a beautiful central +tower, and some portions of earlier date. It contains a monument to +William Cowper, who came to live here in 1796, and the Congregational +chapel stands on the site of the house where the poet spent his last +days. Dereham is an important agricultural centre with works for the +manufacture of agricultural implements, iron foundries and a malting +industry. + + + + +DERELICT (from Lat. _derelinquere_, to forsake), in law, property thrown +away or abandoned by the owner in such a manner as to indicate that he +intends to make no further claim to it. The word is used more +particularly with respect to property abandoned at sea (see WRECK), but +it is also applied in other senses; for example, land gained from the +sea by receding of the water is termed _dereliction_. Land gained +gradually and slowly by dereliction belongs to the owner of the +adjoining land, but in the case of sudden or considerable dereliction +the land belongs to the Crown. This technical use of the term +"dereliction" is to be distinguished from the more general modern sense, +dereliction or abandonment of duty, which implies a culpable failure or +neglect in moral or legal obligation. + + + + +DERENBOURG, JOSEPH (1811-1895), Franco-German orientalist. He was a +considerable force in the educational revival of Jewish education in +France. He made great contributions to the knowledge of Saadia, and +planned a complete edition of Saadia's works in Arabic and French. A +large part of this work appeared during his lifetime. He also wrote an +_Essai sur l'histoire et la géographie de la Palestine_ (Paris, 1867). +This was an original contribution to the history of the Jews and Judaism +in the time of Christ, and has been much used by later writers on the +subject (e.g. by Schürer). He also published in collaboration with his +son Hartwig, _Opuscules et traités d'Abou-'l-Walîd_ (with translation, +1880); _Deux Versions hébraïques du livre de Kalilâh et Dimnah_ (1881), +and a Latin translation of the same story under the title _Joannis de +Capua directorium vitae humanae_ (1889); _Commentaire de Maimonide sur +la Mischnah Seder Tohorot_ (Berlin, 1886-1891); and a second edition of +S. de Sacy's _Séances de Hariri_. He died on the 29th of July 1895, at +Ems. + +His son, HARTWIG DERENBOURG (1844-1908), was born in Paris on the 17th +of June 1844. He was educated at Göttingen and Leipzig. Subsequently he +studied Arabic at the École des Langues Orientales. In 1879 he was +appointed professor of Arabic, and in 1886 professor of Mahommedan +Religion, at the École des Hautes Études in Paris. He collaborated with +his father in the great edition of Saadia and the edition of +Abu-'l-Walîd, and also produced a number of important editions of other +Arabic writers. Among these are _Le Dîwân de Nâbiqa Dhoby[=a]n[=i]_; _Le +Livre de Sîbawaihi_ (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1889); _Chrestomathie +élémentaire de l'arabe littéral_ (in collaboration with Spiro, 1885; 2nd +ed., 1892); _Ousâma ibn Mounkidh, un émir syrien_ (1889); _Ousâma ibn +Mounkidh, préface du livre du bâton_ (with trans., 1887); _Al-Fákhrî_ +(1895); _Oumâra du Gémen_ (1897), a catalogue of Arabic MSS. in the +Escorial (vol. i., 1884). + + + + +DERG, LOUGH, a lake of Ireland, on the boundary of the counties Galway, +Clare and Tipperary. It is an expansion of the Shannon, being the lowest +lake on that river, and is 23 m. long and generally from 1 to 3 m. +broad. It lies where the Shannon leaves the central plain of Ireland and +flows between the hills which border the plain. While the northerly +shores of the lake, therefore, are flat, the southern are steep and +picturesque, being backed by the Slieve Aughty, Slieve Bernagh and Arra +Mountains. Ruined churches and fortresses are numerous on the eastern +shore, and on Iniscaltra Island are a round tower and remains of five +churches. + +Another LOUGH DERG, near Pettigo in Donegal, though small, is famous as +the traditional scene of St Patrick's purgatory. In the middle ages its +pilgrimages had a European reputation, and they are still observed +annually by many of the Irish from June 1 to August 15. The hospice, +chapels, &c., are on Station Island, and there is a ruined monastery on +Saints' Island. + + + + +DERHAM, WILLIAM (1657-1735), English divine, was born at Stoulton, near +Worcester, on the 26th of November 1657. He was educated at Blockley, in +his native county, and at Trinity College, Oxford. In 1682 he became +vicar of Wargrave, in Berkshire; and in 1689 he was preferred to the +living of Upminster, in Essex. In 1696 he published his _Artificial +Clockmaker_, which went through several editions. The best known of his +subsequent works are _Physico-Theology_, published in 1713; +_Astro-Theology_, 1714; and _Christo-Theology_, 1730. The first two of +these books were teleological arguments for the being and attributes of +God, and were used by Paley nearly a century later. In 1702 Derham was +elected fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1716 was made a canon of +Windsor. He was Boyle lecturer in 1711-1712. His last work, entitled A +_Defence of the Church's Right in Leasehold Estates_, appeared in 1731. +He died on the 5th of April 1735. Besides the works published in his own +name, Derham, who was keenly interested in natural history, contributed +a variety of papers to the _Transactions of the Royal Society, revised +the Miscellanea Curiosa_, edited the correspondence of John Ray and +Eleazar Albin's _Natural History_, and published some of the MSS. of +Robert Hooke, the natural philosopher. + + + + +D'ERLON, JEAN BAPTISTE DROUET, COUNT (1765-1844), marshal of France, was +born at Reims on the 29th of July 1765. He entered the army as a private +soldier in 1782, was discharged after five years' service, re-entered it +in 1792, and rose rapidly to the rank of an officer. From 1794 to 1796 +he was aide-de-camp to General Lefebvre. He did good service in the +campaigns of the revolutionary wars and in 1799 attained the rank of +general of brigade. In the campaign of that year he was engaged in the +Swiss operations under Masséna. In 1800 he fought under Moreau at +Hohenlinden. As a general of division he took part in Napoleon's +campaigns of 1805 and 1806, and rendered excellent service at Jena. He +was next engaged under Lefebvre in the siege of Danzig and negotiated +the terms of surrender; after this he rejoined the field army and fought +at Friedland (1807), receiving a severe wound. After this battle he was +made grand officer of the Legion of Honour, was created Count d'Erlon +and received a pension. For the next six years d'Erlon was almost +continuously engaged as commander of an army corps in the Peninsular +War, in which he added greatly to his reputation as a capable general. +At the pass of Maya in the Pyrenees he inflicted a defeat upon Lord +Hill's troops, and in the subsequent battles of the 1814 campaign he +distinguished himself further. After the first Restoration he was named +commander of the 16th military division, but he was soon arrested for +conspiring with the Orléans party, to which he was secretly devoted. He +escaped, however, and gave in his adhesion to Napoleon, who had returned +from Elba. The emperor made him a peer of France, and gave him command +of the I. army corps, which formed part of the Army of the North. In the +Waterloo campaign d'Erlon's corps formed part of Ney's command on the +16th of June, but, in consequence of an extraordinary series of +misunderstandings, took part neither at Ligny nor at Quatre Bras (see +WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). He was not, however, held to account by Napoleon, +and as the latter's practice in such matters was severe to the verge of +injustice, it may be presumed that the failure was not due to d'Erlon. + +He was in command of the right wing of the French army throughout the +great battle of the 18th of June, and fought in the closing operations +around Paris. At the second Restoration d'Erlon fled into Germany, only +returning to France after the amnesty of 1825. He was not restored to +the service until the accession of Louis Philippe, in whose interests he +had engaged in several plots and intrigues. As commander of the 12th +military division (Nantes), he suppressed the legitimist agitation in +his district and caused the arrest of the duchess of Berry (1832). His +last active service was in Algeria, of which country he was made +governor-general in 1834 at the age of seventy. He returned to France +after two years, and was made marshal of France shortly before his death +at Paris on the 25th of January 1844. + + + + +DERMOT MAC MURROUGH (d. 1171), Irish king of Leinster, succeeded his +father in the principality of the Hui Cinsellaigh (1115) and eventually +in the kingship of Leinster. The early events of his life are obscure; +but about 1152 we find him engaged in a feud with O Ruairc, the lord of +Breifne (Leitrim and Cavan). Dermot abducted the wife of O Ruairc more +with the object of injuring his rival than from any love of the lady. +The injured husband called to his aid Roderic, the high king (aird-righ) +of Connaught; and in 1166 Dermot fled before this powerful coalition to +invoke the aid of England. Obtaining from Henry II. a licence to enlist +allies among the Welsh marchers, Dermot secured the aid of the Clares +and Geraldines. To Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and head of the +house of Clare, Dermot gave his daughter Eva in marriage; and on his +death was succeeded by the earl in Leinster. The historical importance +of Dermot lies in the fact that he was the means of introducing the +English into Ireland. Through his aid the towns of Waterford, Wexford +and Dublin had already become English colonies before the arrival of +Henry II. in the island. + + See _The Song of Dermot and the Earl, an old French Poem_ (by M. + Regan?), ed. with trans. by G. H. Orpen, 1892; Kate Norgate, _England + under the Angevin Kings_, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +DERNA (anc. _Darnis-Zarine_), a town on the north coast of Africa and +capital of the eastern half of the Ottoman province of Bengazi or Barca. +Situated below the eastern butt of Jebel Akhdar on a small but rich +deltaic plain, watered by fine perennial springs, it has a growing +population and trade, the latter being mainly in fruits grown in its +extensive palm gardens, and in hides and wool brought down by the nomads +from the interior. If the port were better there would be more rapid +expansion. The bay is open from N.W. round to S.E. and often +inaccessible in winter and spring, and the steamers of the _Nav. Gen. +Italiana_ sometimes have to pass without calling. The population has +recovered from the great plague epidemic of 1821 and reached its former +figure of about 7000. A proportion of it is of Moorish stock, of +Andalusian origin, which emigrated in 1493; the descendants preserve a +fine facial type. The sheikhs of the local Bedouin tribes have houses in +the place, and a Turkish garrison of about 250 men is stationed in +barracks. There is a lighthouse W. of the bay. A British consular agent +is resident and the Italians maintain a vice-consul. The names Darnis +and Zarine are philologically identical and probably refer to the same +place. No traces are left of the ancient town except some rock tombs. +Darnis continued to be of some importance in early Moslem times as a +station on the Alexandria-Kairawan road, and has served on more than one +occasion as a base for Egyptian attacks on Cyrenaica and Tripolitana. In +1805 the government of the United States, having a quarrel with the dey +of Tripoli on account of piracies committed on American shipping, landed +a force to co-operate in the attack on Derna then being made by Sidi +Ahmet, an elder brother of the dey. This force, commanded by William +Eaton (q.v.), built a fort, whose ruins and rusty guns are still to be +seen, and began to improve the harbour; but its work quickly came to an +end with the conclusion of peace. After 1835 Derna passed under direct +Ottoman control, and subsequently served as the point whence the sultan +exerted a precarious but increasing control over eastern Cyrenaica and +Marmarica. It is now in communication by wireless telegraphy with Rhodes +and western Cyrenaica. It is the only town, or even large village, +between Bengazi and Alexandria (600 m.) (D. G. H.) + + + + +DÉROULÈDE, PAUL (1846- ), French author and politician, was born in +Paris on the 2nd of September 1846. He made his first appearance as a +poet in the pages of the _Revue nationale_, under the pseudonym of Jean +Rebel, and in 1869 produced at the Théâtre Français a one-act drama in +verse entitled _Juan Strenner_. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War +he enlisted as a private, was wounded and taken prisoner at Sedan, and +sent to Breslau, but effected his escape. He then served under Chanzy +and Bourbaki, took part in the latter's disastrous retreat to +Switzerland, and fought against the Commune in Paris. After attaining +the rank of lieutenant, he was forced by an accident to retire from the +army. He published in 1872 a number of patriotic poems (_Chants du +soldat_), which enjoyed unbounded popularity. This was followed in 1875 +by another collection, _Nouveaux Chants du soldat_. In 1877 he produced +a drama in verse called _L'Hetman_, which derived a passing success from +the patriotic fervour of its sentiments. For the exhibition of 1878 he +wrote a hymn, _Vive la France_, which was set to music by Gounod. In +1880 his drama in verse, _La Moäbite_, which had been accepted by the +Théâtre Français, was forbidden by the censor on religious grounds. In +1882 M. Déroulède founded the _Ligue des patriotes_, with the object of +furthering France's "revanche" against Germany. He was one of the first +advocates of a Franco-Russian alliance, and as early as 1883 undertook a +journey to Russia for the furtherance of that object. On the rise of +General Boulanger, M. Déroulède attempted to use the _Ligue des +patriotes_, hitherto a non-political organization, to assist his cause, +but was deserted by a great part of the league and forced to resign his +presidency. Nevertheless he used the section that remained faithful to +him with such effect that the government found it necessary in 1889 to +decree its suppression. In the same year he was elected to the chamber +as member for Angoulême. He was expelled from the chamber in 1890 for +his disorderly interruptions during debate. He did not stand at the +elections of 1893, but was re-elected in 1898, and distinguished himself +by his violence as a nationalist and anti-Dreyfusard. After the funeral +of President Faure, on the 23rd of February 1899, he endeavoured to +persuade General Roget to lead his troops upon the Élysée. For this he +was arrested, but on being tried for treason was acquitted (May 31). On +the 12th of August he was again arrested and accused, together with +André Buffet, Jules Guérin and others, of conspiracy against the +republic. After a long trial before the high court, he was sentenced, on +the 4th of January 1900, to ten years' banishment from France, and +retired to San Sebastian. In 1901, he was again brought prominently +before the public by a quarrel with his Royalist allies, which resulted +in an abortive attempt to arrange a duel with M. Buffet in Switzerland. +In November 1905, however, the law of amnesty enabled him to return to +France. + +Besides the works already mentioned, he published _Le Sergent_, in the +_Théâtre de campagne_ (1880); _De l'éducation nationale_ (1882); +_Monsieur le Uhlan et les trois couleurs_ (1884); _Le Premier grenadier +de France; La Tour d'Auvergne_ (1886); _Le Livre de la ligue des +patriotes_ (1887); _Refrains militaires_ (1888); _Histoire d'amour_ +(1890); a pamphlet entitled _Désarmement?_ (1891); _Chants du paysan_ +(1894); _Poésies Militaires_ (1896) and _Messire du Guesclin, drame en +vers_ (1895); _La mort de Hoche. Cinq actes en prose_ (1897); _La Plus +belle fille du monde, conte dialogué en vers libres_ (1898). + + + + +DERRICK, a sort of crane (q.v.); the name is derived from that of a +famous early 17th-century Tyburn hangman, and was originally applied as +a synonym. + + + + +DERRING-DO, valour, chivalrous conduct, or "desperate courage," as it is +defined by Sir Walter Scott. The word in its present accepted +substantival form is a misconstruction of the verbal substantive +_dorryng_ or _durring_, daring, and _do_ or _don_, the present +infinitive of "do," the phrase _dorryng do_ thus meaning "daring to do." +It is used by Chaucer in _Troylus_, and by Lydgate in the _Chronicles of +Troy_. Spenser in the _Shepherd's Calendar_ first adapted _derring-do_ +as a substantive meaning "manhood and chevalrie," and this use was +revived by Scott, through whom it came into vogue with writers of +romance. + + + + +DE RUYTER, MICHAEL ADRIANZOON (1607-1676), Dutch naval officer, was born +at Flushing on the 24th of March 1607. He began his seafaring life at +the age of eleven as a cabin boy, and in 1636 was entrusted by the +merchants of Flushing with the command of a cruiser against the French +pirates. In 1640 he entered the service of the States, and, being +appointed rear-admiral of a fleet fitted out to assist Portugal against +Spain, specially distinguished himself at Cape St Vincent, on the 3rd of +November 1641. In the following year he left the service of the States, +and, until the outbreak of war with England in 1652, held command of a +merchant vessel. In 1653 a squadron of seventy vessels was despatched +against the English, under the command of Admiral Tromp. Ruyter, who +accompanied the admiral in this expedition, seconded him with great +skill and bravery in the three battles which were fought with the +English. He was afterwards stationed in the Mediterranean, where he +captured several Turkish vessels. In 1659 he received a commission to +join the king of Denmark in his war with the Swedes. As a reward of his +services, the king of Denmark ennobled him and gave him a pension. In +1661 he grounded a vessel belonging to Tunis, released forty Christian +slaves, made a treaty with the Tunisians, and reduced the Algerine +corsairs to submission. From his achievements on the west coast of +Africa he was recalled in 1665 to take command of a large fleet which +had been organized against England, and in May of the following year, +after a long contest off the North Foreland, he compelled the English to +take refuge in the Thames. On the 7th of June 1672 he fought a drawn +battle with the combined fleets of England and France, in Southwold or +Sole Bay, and after the fight he convoyed safely home a fleet of +merchantmen. His valour was displayed to equal advantage in several +engagements with the French and English in the following year. In 1676 +he was despatched to the assistance of Spain against France in the +Mediterranean, and, receiving a mortal wound in the battle on the 21st +of April off Messina, died on the 29th at Syracuse. A patent by the king +of Spain, investing him with the dignity of duke, did not reach the +fleet till after his death. His body was carried to Amsterdam, where a +magnificent monument to his memory was erected by command of the +states-general. + + See _Life_ of De Ruyter by Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687), and by Klopp + (2nd ed., Hanover, 1858). + + + + +DERVISH, a Persian word, meaning "seeking doors," i.e. "beggar," and +thus equivalent to the Arabic _faq[=i]r_ (fakir). Generally in Islam it +indicates a member of a religious fraternity, whether mendicant or not; +but in Turkey and Persia it indicates more exactly a wandering, begging +religious, called, in Arabic-speaking countries, more specifically a +_faqir_. With important differences, the dervish fraternities may be +compared to the regular religious orders of Roman Christendom, while the +Ulema (q.v.) are, also with important differences, like the secular +clergy. The origin and history of the mystical life in Islam, which led +to the growth of the order of dervishes, are treated under +[S.][=U]FI'ISM It remains to treat here more particularly of (1) the +dervish fraternities, and (2) the [S.][=u]f[=i] hierarchy. + +1. _The Dervish Fraternities._--In the earlier times, the relation +between devotees was that of master and pupil. Those inclined to the +spiritual life gathered round a revered sheikh (_murshid_, "guide," +_ustadh_, _pir_, "teacher"), lived with him, shared his religious +practices and were instructed by him. In time of war against the +unbelievers, they might accompany him to the threatened frontier, and +fight under his eye. Thus _mur[=a]bit_, "one who pickets his horse on a +hostile frontier," has become the marabout (q.v.) or dervish of French +Algeria; and _ribat_, "a frontier fort," has come to mean a monastery. +The relation, also, might be for a time only. The pupil might at any +time return to the world, when his religious education and training were +complete. On the death of the master the memory of his life and sayings +might go down from generation to generation, and men might boast +themselves as pupils of his pupils. Continuous corporations to +perpetuate his name were slow in forming. Ghazali himself, though he +founded, taught and ruled a [S.][=u]f[=i] cloister (_kh[=a]nq[=a]h_) at +Tus, left no order behind him. But 'Ad[=i] al-Hakk[=a]r[=i], who founded +a cloister at Mosul and died about 1163, was long reverenced by the +'Adawite Fraternity, and in 1166 died 'Abd al-Q[=a]dir al-Jil[=a]n[=i], +from whom the Q[=a]dirite order descends, one of the greatest and most +influential to this day. The troublous times of the break up of the +Seljuk rule may have been a cause in this, as, with St Benedict, the +crumbling Roman empire. Many existing fraternities, it is true, trace +their origin to saints of the third, second and even first Moslem +centuries, but that is legend purely. Similar is the tendency to claim +all the early pious Moslems as good [S.][=u]f[=i]s; collections of +[S.][=u]f[=i] biography begin with the ten to whom Mahomet promised +Paradise. So, too, the ultimate origin of fraternities is assigned to +either Ali or Abu Bekr, and in Egypt all are under the rule of a direct +descendant of the latter. + +To give a complete list of these fraternities is quite impossible. +Commonly, thirty-two are reckoned, but many have vanished or have been +suppressed, and there are sub-orders innumerable. Each has a "rule" +dating back to its founder, and a ritual which the members perform when +they meet together in their convent (_kh[=a]nq[=a]h_, _z[=a]wiya_, +_takya_). This may consist simply in the repetition of sacred phrases, +or it may be an elaborate performance, such as the whirlings of the +dancing dervishes, the Mevlevites, an order founded by Jel[=a]l +ud-D[=i]n ar-R[=u]m[=i], the author of the great Persian mystical poem, +the _Mesnevi_, and always ruled by one of his descendants. Jel[=a]l +ud-D[=i]n was an advanced pantheist, and so are the Mevlevites, but that +seems only to earn them the dislike of the Ulema, and not to affect +their standing in Islam. They are the most broad-minded and tolerant of +all. There are also the performances of the Rif[=a]'ites or "howling +dervishes." In ecstasy they cut themselves with knives; eat live coals +and glass, handle red-hot iron and devour serpents. They profess +miraculous healing powers, and the head of the Sa'dites, a sub-order, +used, in Cairo, to ride over the bodies of his dervishes without hurting +them, the so-called D[=o]seh (_dausa_). These different abilities are +strictly regulated. Thus, one sub-order may eat glass and another may +eat only serpents. Another division is made by their attitude to the law +of Islam. When a dervish is in a state of ecstasy (_majdh[=u]b_), he is +supposed to be unconscious of the actions of his body. Reputed saints, +therefore, can do practically anything, as their souls will be supposed +to be out of their bodies and in the heavenly regions. They may not only +commit the vilest of actions, but neglect in general the ceremonial and +ritual law. This goes so far that in Persia and Turkey dervish orders +are classified as _b[=a]-shar'_, "with law," and _b[=i]-shar'_, "without +law." The latter are really antinomians, and the best example of them is +the Bakhtashite order, widely spread and influential in Turkey and +Albania and connected by legend with the origin of the Janissaries. The +Qalandarite order is known to all from the "Calenders" of the _Thousand +and One Nights_. They separated from the Bakhtashites and are under +obligation of perpetual travelling. The Senussi (Senussia) were the last +order to appear, and are distinguished from the others by a severely +puritanic and reforming attitude and strict orthodoxy, without any +admixture of mystical slackness in faith or conduct. Each order is +distinguished by a peculiar garb. Candidates for admission have to pass +through a noviciate, more or less lengthy. First comes the _'ahd_, or +initial covenant, in which the neophyte or _mur[=i]d_, "seeker," repents +of his past sins and takes the sheikh of the order he enters as his +guide (_murshid_) for the future. He then enters upon a course of +instruction and discipline, called a "path" (_tar[=i]qa_), on which he +advances through diverse "stations" (_maq[=a]m[=a]t_) or "passes" +(_'aqab[=a]t_) of the spiritual life. There is a striking resemblance +here to the gnostic system, with its seven Archon-guarded gates. On +another side, it is plain that the sheikh, along with ordinary +instruction of the novice, also hypnotizes him and causes him to see a +series of visions, marking his penetration of the divine mystery. The +part that hypnosis and autohypnosis, conscious and unconscious, has +played here cannot easily be overestimated. The Mevlevites seem to have +the most severe noviciate. Their aspirant has to labour as a lay +servitor of the lowest rank for 1001 days--called the _k[=a]rr[=a] +kolak_, or "jackal"--before he can be received. For one day's failure he +must begin again from the beginning. + +But besides these full members there is an enormous number of lay +adherents, like the tertiaries of the Franciscans. Thus, nearly every +religious man of the Turkish Moslem world is a lay member of one order +or another, under the duty of saying certain prayers daily. Certain +trades, too, affect certain orders. Most of the Egyptian Q[=a]dirites, +for example, are fishermen and, on festival days, carry as banners nets +of various colours. On this side, the orders bear a striking resemblance +to lodges of Freemasons and other friendly societies, and points of +direct contact have even been alleged between the more pantheistic and +antinomian orders, such as the Bakhtashite, and European Freemasonry. On +another side, just as the _dhikrs_ of the early ascetic mystics suggest +comparison with the class-meetings of the early Methodists, so these +orders are the nearest approach in Islam to the different churches of +Protestant Christendom. They are the only ecclesiastical organization +that Islam has ever known, but it is a multiform organization, +unclassified internally or externally. They differ thus from the Roman +monastic orders, in that they are independent and self-developing, each +going its own way in faith and practice, limited only by the universal +conscience (_ijm[=a]'_, "agreement": see MAHOMMEDAN LAW) of Islam. +Strange doctrines and moral defects may develop, but freedom is saved, +and the whole people of Islam can be reached and affected. + +2. _Saints and the [S.][=u]f[=i] Hierarchy._--That an elaborate doctrine +of wonder-working saints should have grown up in Islam may, at first +sight, appear an extreme paradox. It can, however, be conditioned and +explained. First, Mahomet left undoubted loop-holes for a minor +inspiration, legitimate and illegitimate. Secondly, the [S.][=u]f[=i]s, +under various foreign influences, developed these to the fullest. +Thirdly, just as the Christian church has absorbed much of the mythology +of the supposed exterminated heathen religions into its cult of local +saints, so Islam, to an even higher degree, has been overlaid and almost +buried by the superstitions of the peoples to which it has gone. Their +religious and legal customs have completely overcome the direct commands +of the Koran, the traditions from Mahomet and even the "Agreement" of +the rest of the Moslem world (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). The first step in +this, it is true, was taken by Mahomet himself when he accepted the +Meccan pilgrimage and the Black Stone. The worship of saints, therefore, +has appeared everywhere in Islam, with an absolute belief in their +miracles and in the value of their intercession, living or dead. + +Further, there appeared very early in Islam a belief that there was +always in existence some individual in direct intercourse with God and +having the right and duty of teaching and ruling all mankind. This +individual might be visible or invisible; his right to rule continued. +This is the basis of the Ism[=a]'[=i]lite and Sh[=i]'ite positions (see +MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION and MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS). The [S.][=u]f[=i]s +applied this idea of divine right to the doctrine of saints, and +developed it into the [S.][=u]f[=i] hierarchy. This is a single, great, +invisible organization, forming a saintly board of administration, by +which the invisible government of the world is supposed to be carried +on. Its head is called the _Qu[t.]b_ (Axis); he is presumably the +greatest saint of the time, is chosen by God for the office and given +greater miraculous powers and rights of intercession than any other +saint enjoys. He wanders through the world, often invisible and always +unknown, performing the duties of his office. Under him there is an +elaborate organization of _wal[=i]s_, of different ranks and powers, +according to their sanctity and faith. The term _wal[=i]_ is applied to +a saint because of Kor. x. 63, "Ho! the _wal[=i]s_ of God; there is no +fear upon them, nor do they grieve," where _wal[=i]_ means "one who is +near," friend or favourite. + +In the fraternities, then, all are dervishes, cloistered or lay; those +whose faith is so great that God has given them miraculous powers--and +there are many--are _wal[=i]s_; begging friars are _fakirs_. All forms +of life--solitary, monastic, secular, celibate, married, wandering, +stationary, ascetic, free--are open. Their theology is some form of +S[=u]fi'ism. + + AUTHORITIES.--The bibliography of this subject is very large, and the + following only a selection:--(1) _On Dervishes._ In Egypt, Lane's + _Modern Egyptians_, chaps. x., xx., xxiv., xxv.; in Turkey, D'Ohsson, + _Tableau général de l'emp. othoman_, ii. (Paris, 1790); _Turkey in + Europe_ by "Odysseus" (London, 1900); in Persia, E. G. Browne, _A + Year among the Persians_ (1893), in Morocco, T. H. Weir, _Sheikhs of + Morocco_ (Edinburgh, 1904); B. Meakin, _The Moors_ (London, 1902), + chap. xix.; in Central Asia, all Vambéry's books of travel and + history. In general, Hughes, _Dict. of Islam_, s.v. "Faqir"; Depont + and Cappolani, _Les Confréries religieuses musulmanes_ (Alger, 1897); + J. P. Brown, _The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism_ (London, + 1868). (2) _On Saints._ I. Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_, ii. + 277 ff., and "De l'ascétisme aux premiers temps de l'Islam" in _Revue + de l'histoire des religions_, vol. xxxvii. pp. 134 ff.; Lane, _Modern + Egyptians_, chap. x.; _Arabian Nights_, chap. iii. note 63; Vollers + in _Zeitsch. d. morgenländ. Gesellsch._ xliii. 115 ff. (D. B. MA.) + + + + +DERWENT (Celtic _Dwr-gent_, clear water), the name of several English +rivers. (1) The Yorkshire Derwent collects the greater part of the +drainage of the North Yorkshire moors, rising in their eastern part. A +southern head-stream, however, rises in the Yorkshire Wolds near Filey, +little more than a mile from the North Sea, from which it is separated +by a morainic deposit, and thus flows in an inland direction. The early +course of the Derwent lies through a flat open valley between the North +Yorkshire moors and the Yorkshire Wolds, the upper part of which is +known as the Carrs, when the river follows an artificial drainage cut. +It receives numerous tributaries from the moors, then breaches the low +hills below Malton in a narrow picturesque valley, and debouches upon +the central plain of Yorkshire. Its direction, hitherto westerly and +south-westerly from the Carrs, now becomes southerly, and it flows +roughly parallel to the Ouse, which it joins near Barmby-on-the-Marsh, +in the level district between Selby and the head of the Humber estuary, +after a course, excluding minor sinuosities, of about 70 m. As a +tributary of the Ouse it is included in the Humber basin. It is tidal up +to Sutton-upon-Derwent, 15 m. from the junction with the Ouse, and is +locked up to Malton, but the navigation is little used. A canal leads +east from the tidal water to the small market town of Pocklington. + +(2) The Derbyshire Derwent rises in Bleaklow Hill north of the Peak and +traverses a narrow dale, which, with those of such tributary streams as +the Noe, watering Hope Valley, and the Wye, is famous for its beauty +(see DERBYSHIRE). The Derwent flows south past Chatsworth, Matlock and +Belper and then, passing Derby, debouches upon a low plain, and turns +south-eastward, with an extremely sinuous course, to join the Trent near +Sawley. Its length is about 60 m. It falls in all some 1700 ft. (from +Matlock 200 ft.), and no part is navigable, save certain reaches at +Matlock and elsewhere for pleasure boats. + +(3) The Cumberland Derwent rises below Great End in the Lake District, +draining Sprinkling and Sty Head tarns, and flows through Borrowdale, +receiving a considerable tributary from Lang Strath. It then drains the +lakes of Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite, after which its course, +hitherto N. and N.N.W., turns W. and W. by S. past Cockermouth to the +Irish Sea at Workington. The length is about 34 m., and the fall about +2000 ft. (from Derwentwater 244 ft.); the waters are usually beautifully +clear, and the river is not navigable. At a former period this stream +must have formed one large lake covering the whole area which includes +Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite; between which a flat alluvial plain is +formed of the deposits of the river Greta, which now joins the Derwent +from the east immediately below Derwentwater, and the Newlands Beck, +which enters Bassenthwaite. In time of high flood this plain is said to +have been submerged, and the two lakes thus reunited. + +(4) A river Derwent rises in the Pennines near the borders of +Northumberland and Durham, and, forming a large part of the boundary +between these counties, takes a north-easterly course of 30 m. to the +Tyne, which it joins 3 m. above Newcastle. + + + + +DERWENTWATER, EARL OF, an English title borne by the family of +Radclyffe, or Radcliffe, from 1688 to 1716 when the 3rd earl was +attainted and beheaded, and claimed by his descendants, adherents of the +exiled house of Stewart, from that date until the death of the last male +heir in 1814. Sir Francis Radclyffe, 3rd baronet (1625-1697), was the +lineal descendant of Sir Nicholas Radclyffe, who acquired the extensive +Derwentwater estates in 1417 through his marriage with the heiress of +John de Derwentwater, and of Sir Francis Radclyffe, who was made a +baronet in 1619. In 1688 Sir Francis was created Viscount Radclyffe and +earl of Derwentwater by James II., and dying in 1697 was succeeded as +2nd earl by his eldest son Edward (1655-1705), who had married Lady Mary +Tudor (d. 1726), a natural daughter of Charles II. The 2nd earl died in +1705, and was succeeded by his eldest son James (1689-1716), who was +born in London on the 28th of June 1689, and was brought up at the court +of the Stewarts in France as companion to Prince James Edward, the old +Pretender. In 1710 he came to reside on his English estates, and in July +1712 was married to Anna Maria (d. 1723), daughter of Sir John Webb, +baronet, of Odstock, Wiltshire. Joining without any hesitation in the +Stewart rising of 1715, Derwentwater escaped arrest owing to the +devotion of his tenantry, and in October, with about seventy followers, +he joined Thomas Forster at Green-rig. Like Forster the earl was lacking +in military experience, and when the rebels capitulated at Preston he +was conveyed to London and impeached. Pleading guilty at his trial he +was attainted and condemned to death. Great efforts were made to obtain +a mitigation of the sentence, but the government was obdurate, and +Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 24th of February 1716, +declaring on the scaffold his devotion to the Roman Catholic religion +and to King James III. The earl was very popular among his tenantry and +in the neighbourhood of his residence, Dilston Hall. His gallant bearing +and his sad fate have been celebrated in song and story, and the _aurora +borealis_, which shone with exceptional brightness on the night of his +execution, is known locally as "Lord Derwentwater's lights." He left an +only son John, who, in spite of his father's attainder, assumed the +title of earl of Derwentwater, and who died unmarried in 1731; and a +daughter Alice Mary (d. 1760), who married in 1732 Robert James, 8th +Baron Petre (1713-1742). + +On the death of John Radclyffe in 1731 his uncle Charles (1693-1746), +the only surviving son of the 2nd earl, took the title of earl of +Derwentwater. Charles Radclyffe had shared the fate of his brother, the +3rd earl, at Preston in November 1715, and had been condemned to death +for high treason; but, more fortunate than James, he had succeeded in +escaping from prison, and had joined the Stewarts on the Continent. In +1724 he married Charlotte Maria (d. 1755), in her own right countess of +Newburgh, and after spending some time in Rome, he was captured by an +English ship in November 1745 whilst proceeding to join Charles Edward, +the young Pretender, in Scotland. Condemned to death under his former +sentence he was beheaded on the 8th of December 1746. His eldest son, +James Bartholomew (1725-1786), who had shared his father's imprisonment, +then claimed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and on his mother's +death in 1755 became 3rd earl of Newburgh. His only son and successor, +Anthony James (1757-1814), died without issue in 1814, when the title +became extinct _de facto_ as well as _de jure_. Many of the forfeited +estates in Northumberland and Cumberland had been settled upon Greenwich +Hospital, and in 1749 a sum of £30,000 had been raised upon them for the +benefit of the earl of Newburgh. The present representative of the +Radclyffe family is Lord Petre, and in 1874 the bodies of the first +three earls of Derwentwater were reburied in the family vault of the +Petres at Thorndon, Essex. + +In 1865 a woman appeared in Northumberland who claimed to be a +grand-daughter of the 4th earl and, as there were no male heirs, to be +countess of Derwentwater and owner of the estates. She said the 4th earl +had not died in 1731 but had married and settled in Germany. Her story +aroused some interest, and it was necessary to eject her by force from +Dilston Hall. + + See R. Patten, _History of the Late Rebellion_ (London, 1717); W. S. + Gibson, _Dilston Hall, or Memoirs of James Radcliffe, earl of + Derwentwater_ (London, 1848-1850); G. E. C(okayne), _Complete + Peerage_ (Exeter, 1887-1898); and _Dictionary of National Biography_, + vol. xlvii. (London, 1896). + + + + +DERWENTWATER, a lake of Cumberland, England, in the northern part of the +celebrated Lake District (q.v. for the physical relations of the lake +with the district at large). It is of irregular figure, approaching to +an oval, about 3 m. in length and from ½ m. to 1¼ m. in breadth. The +greatest depth is 70 ft. The lake is seen at one view, within an +amphitheatre of mountains of varied outline, overlooked by others of +greater height. Several of the lesser elevations near the lake are +especially famous as view-points, such as Castle Head, Walla Crag, +Ladder Brow and Cat Bells. The shores are well wooded, and the lake is +studded with several islands, of which Lord's Island, Derwent Isle and +St Herbert's are the principal. Lord's Island was the residence of the +earls of Derwentwater. St Herbert's Isle receives its name from having +been the abode of a holy man of that name mentioned by Bede as +contemporary with St Cuthbert of Farne Island in the 7th century. +Derwent Isle, about six acres in extent, contains a handsome residence +surrounded by lawns, gardens and timber of large growth. The famous +Falls of Lodore, at the upper end of the lake, consist of a series of +cascades in the small Watendlath Beck, which rushes over an enormous +pile of protruding crags from a height of nearly 200 ft. The "Floating +Island" appears at intervals on the upper portion of the lake near the +mouth of the beck. This singular phenomenon is supposed to owe its +appearance to an accumulation of gas, formed by the decay of vegetable +matter, detaching and raising to the surface the matted weeds which +cover the floor of the lake at this point. The river Derwent (q.v.) +enters the lake from the south and leaves it on the north, draining it +through Bassenthwaite lake, to the Irish Sea. To the north-east of the +lake lies the town of Keswick. + + + + +DES ADRETS, FRANÇOIS DE BEAUMONT, BARON (c. 1512-1587), French +Protestant leader, was born in 1512 or 1513 at the château of La Frette +(Isère). During the reign of Henry II. of France he served with +distinction in the royal army and became colonel of the "legions" of +Dauphiné, Provence and Languedoc. In 1562, however, he joined the +Huguenots, not from religious conviction but probably from motives of +ambition and personal dislike of the house of Guise. His campaign +against the Catholics in 1562 was eminently successful. In June of that +year Des Adrets was master of the greater part of Dauphiné. But his +brilliant military qualities were marred by his revolting atrocities. +The reprisals he exacted from the Catholics after their massacres of the +Huguenots at Orange have left a dark stain upon his name. The garrisons +that resisted him were butchered with every circumstance of brutality, +and at Montbrison, in Forez, he forced eighteen prisoners to precipitate +themselves from the top of the keep. Having alienated the affections of +the Huguenots by his pride and violence, he entered into communication +with the Catholics, and declared himself openly in favour of +conciliation. On the 10th of January 1563 he was arrested on suspicion +by some Huguenot officers and confined in the citadel of Nîmes. He was +liberated at the edict of Amboise in the following March, and, +distrusted alike by Huguenots and Catholics, retired to the château of +La Frette, where he died, a Catholic, on the 2nd of February 1587. + + AUTHORITIES.--J. Roman, _Documents inédits sur le baron des Adrets_ + (1878); and memoirs and histories of the time. See also Guy Allard, + _Vie de François de Beaumont_ (1675); l'abbé J. C. Martin, _Histoire + politique et militaire de François de Beaumont_ (1803); Eugène and + Émile Haag, _La France protestante_ (2nd ed., 1877 seq.). + + + + +DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS CHARLES ANTOINE (1768-1800), French general, +was born of a noble though impoverished family. He received a military +education at the school founded by Marshal d'Effiat, and entered the +French royal army. During the first six years of his service the young +officer devoted himself assiduously to duty and the study of his +profession, and at the outbreak of the Revolution threw himself +whole-heartedly into the cause of liberty. In spite of the pressure put +upon him by his relatives, he refused to "emigrate," and in 1792 is +found serving on Broglie's staff. The disgrace of this general nearly +cost young Desaix his life, but he escaped the guillotine, and by his +conspicuous services soon drew upon himself the favour of the Republican +government. Like many other members of the old ruling classes who had +accepted the new order of things, the instinct of command, joined to +native ability, brought Desaix rapidly to high posts. By 1794 he had +attained the rank of general of division. In the campaign of 1795 he +commanded Jourdan's right wing, and in Moreau's invasion of Bavaria in +the following year he held an equally important command. In the retreat +which ensued when the archduke Charles won the battles of Amberg and +Würzburg (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS) Desaix commanded Moreau's +rearguard, and later the fortress of Kehl, with the highest distinction, +and his name became a household word, like those of Bonaparte, Jourdan, +Hoche, Marceau and Kléber. Next year his initial successes were +interrupted by the Preliminaries of Leoben, and he procured for himself +a mission into Italy in order to meet General Bonaparte, who spared no +pains to captivate the brilliant young general from the almost rival +camps of Germany. Provisionally appointed commander of the "Army of +England," Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary +force intended for Egypt. It was his division which bore the brunt of +the Mameluke attack at the battle of the Pyramids, and he crowned his +reputation by his victories over Murad Bey in Upper Egypt. Amongst the +fellaheen he acquired the significant appellation of the "Just Sultan." +When his chief handed over the command to Kléber and prepared to return +to France, Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany the +future emperor. But, from various causes, it was many months before he +could join the new Consul. The campaign of 1800 was well on its way to +the climax when Desaix at last reported himself for duty in Italy. He +was immediately assigned to the command of a corps of two infantry +divisions. Three days later (June 14), detached, with Boudet's division, +at Rivalta, he heard the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the +initiative he marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonaparte's +staff officer, who had come to recall him, half way on the route. He +arrived with Boudet's division at the moment when the Austrians were +victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, "There is yet time to win +another battle!" he led his three regiments straight against the enemy's +centre. At the moment of victory Desaix was killed by a musket ball. +Napoleon paid a just tribute to the memory of one of the most brilliant +soldiers of that brilliant time by erecting the monuments of Desaix on +the Place Dauphinè and the Place des Victoires in Paris. + + See F. Martha-Beker, Comte de Mons, _Le Général L. C. A. Desaix_ + (Paris, 1852). + + + + +DÉSAUGIERS, MARC ANTOINE MADELEINE (1772-1827), French dramatist and +song-writer, son of Marc Antoine Désaugiers, a musical composer, was +born at Fréjus (Var) on the 17th of November 1772. He studied at the +Mazarin college in Paris, where he had for one of his teachers the +critic Julien Louis Geoffroy. He entered the seminary Saint Lazare with +a view to the priesthood, but soon gave up his intention. In his +nineteenth year he produced in collaboration with his father a light +opera (1791) adapted from the _Médecin malgré lui_ of Molière. + +During the Revolution he emigrated to St Domingo, and during the negro +revolt he was made prisoner, barely escaping with his life. He took +refuge in the United States, where he supported himself by teaching the +piano. In 1797 he returned to his native country, and in a very few +years he became famous as a writer of comedies, operas and vaudevilles, +which were produced in rapid succession at the Théâtre des Variétés and +the Vaudeville. He also wrote convivial and satirical songs, which, +though different in character, can only worthily be compared with those +of Béranger. He was at one time president of the _Caveau_, a convivial +society whose members were then chiefly drawn from literary circles. He +had the honour of introducing Béranger as a member. In 1815 Désaugiers +succeeded Pierre Yves Barré as manager of the Vaudeville, which +prospered under his management until, in 1820, the opposition of the +Gymnase proved too strong for him, and he resigned. He died in Paris on +the 9th of August 1827. + +Among his pieces maybe mentioned _Le Valet d'emprunt_ (1807); _Monsieur +Vautour_ (1811); and _Le Règne d'un terme et le terme d'un règne_, aimed +at Napoleon. + + An edition of Désaugiers' _Chansons et Poésies diverses_ appeared in + 1827. A new selection with a notice by Alfred de Bougy appeared in + 1858. See also Sainte-Beuve's _Portraits contemporains_, vol. v. + + + + +DESAULT, PIERRE JOSEPH (1744-1795), French anatomist and surgeon, was +born at Magny-Vernois (Haute Saône) on the 6th of February 1744. He was +destined for the church, but his own inclination was towards the study +of medicine; and, after learning something from the barber-surgeon of +his native village, he was settled as an apprentice in the military +hospital of Belfort, where he acquired some knowledge of anatomy and +military surgery. Going to Paris when about twenty years of age, he +opened a school of anatomy in the winter of 1766, the success of which +excited the jealousy of the established teachers and professors, who +endeavoured to make him give up his lectures. In 1776 he was admitted a +member of the corporation of surgeons; and in 1782 he was appointed +surgeon-major to the hospital _De la Charité_. Within a few years he was +recognized as one of the leading surgeons of France. The clinical school +of surgery which he instituted at the Hôtel Dieu attracted great numbers +of students, not only from every part of France but also from other +countries; and he frequently had an audience of about 600. He introduced +many improvements into the practice of surgery, as well as into the +construction of various surgical instruments. In 1791 he established a +_Journal de chirurgerie_, edited by his pupils, which was a record of +the most interesting cases that had occurred in his clinical school, +with the remarks which he had made upon them in the course of his +lectures. But in the midst of his labours he became obnoxious to some of +the revolutionists, and he was, on some frivolous charge, denounced to +the popular sections. After being twice examined, he was seized on the +28th of May 1793, while delivering a lecture, carried away from his +theatre, and committed to prison in the Luxembourg. In three days, +however, he was liberated, and permitted to resume his functions. He +died in Paris on the 1st of June 1795, the story that his death was +caused by poison being disproved by the autopsy carried out by his +pupil, M. F. X. Bichat. A pension was settled on his widow by the +republic. Together with François Chopart (1743-1795) he published a +_Traité des maladies chirurgicales_ (1779), and Bichat published a +digest of his surgical doctrines in _OEuvres chirurgicales de Desault_ +(1798-1799). + + + + +DES BARREAUX, JACQUES VALLÉE, SIEUR (1602-1673), French poet, was born +in Paris in 1602. His great-uncle, Geoffroy-Vallée, had been hanged in +1574 for the authorship of a book called _Le Fléau de la foy_. His +nephew appears to have inherited his scepticism, which on one occasion +nearly cost him his life. The peasants of Touraine attributed to the +presence of the unbeliever an untimely frost that damaged the vines, and +proposed to stone him. His authorship of the sonnet on "Pénitence," by +which he is generally known, has been disputed. He had the further +distinction of being the first of the lovers of Marion Delorme. He died +at Chalon-sur-Saône on the 9th of May 1673. + + See _Poésies de Des Barreaux_ (1904), edited by F. Lachèvre. + + + + +DESBOROUGH, JOHN (1608-1680), English soldier and politician, son of +James Desborough of Eltisley, Cambridgeshire, and of Elizabeth Hatley of +Over, in the same county, was baptized on the 13th of November 1608. He +was educated for the law. On the 23rd of June 1636 he married Eltisley +Jane, daughter of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon, and sister of the +future Protector. He took an active part in the Civil War when it broke +out, and showed considerable military ability. In 1645 he was present as +major in the engagement at Langport on the 10th of July, at Hambleton +Hill on the 4th of August, and on the 10th of September he commanded the +horse at the storming of Bristol. Later he took part in the operations +round Oxford. In 1648 as colonel he commanded the forces at Great +Yarmouth. He avoided all participation in the trial of the king in June +1649, being employed in the settlement of the west of England. He fought +at Worcester as major-general and nearly captured Charles II. near +Salisbury. After the establishment of the Commonwealth he was chosen, on +the 17th of January 1652, a member of the committee for legal reforms. +In 1653 he became a member of the Protectorate council of state, and a +commissioner of the treasury, and was appointed one of the four generals +at sea and a commissioner for the army and navy. In 1654 he was made +constable of St Briavel's Castle in Gloucestershire. Next year he was +appointed major-general over the west. He had been nominated a member of +Barebones' parliament in 1653, and he was returned to the parliament of +1654 for Cambridgeshire, and to that of 1656 for Somersetshire. In July +1657 he became a member of the privy council, and in 1658 he accepted a +seat in Cromwell's House of Lords. In spite of his near relationship to +the Protector's family, he was one of the most violent opponents of the +assumption by Cromwell of the royal title, and after the Protector's +death, instead of supporting the interests and government of his nephew +Richard Cromwell, he was, with Fleetwood, the chief instigator and +organizer of the hostility of the army towards his administration, and +forced him by threats and menaces to dissolve his parliament in April +1659. He was chosen a member of the council of state by the restored +Rump, and made colonel and governor of Plymouth, but presenting with +other officers a seditious petition from the army council, on the 5th of +October, was about a week later dismissed. After the expulsion of the +Rump by Fleetwood on the 13th of October he was chosen by the officers +a member of the new administration and commissary-general of the horse. +The new military government, however, rested on no solid foundation, and +its leaders quickly found themselves without any influence. Desborough +himself became an object of ridicule, his regiment even revolted against +him, and on the return of the Rump he was ordered to quit London. At the +restoration he was excluded from the act of indemnity but not included +in the clause of pains and penalties extending to life and goods, being +therefore only incapacitated from public employment. Soon afterwards he +was arrested on suspicion of conspiring to kill the king and queen, but +was quickly liberated. Subsequently he escaped to Holland, where he +engaged in republican intrigues. Accordingly he was ordered home, in +April 1666, on pain of incurring the charge of treason, and obeying was +imprisoned in the Tower till February 1667, when he was examined before +the council and set free. Desborough died in 1680. By his first wife, +Cromwell's sister, he had one daughter and seven sons; he married a +second wife in April 1658 whose name is unrecorded. Desborough was a +good soldier and nothing more; and his only conception of government was +by force and by the army. His rough person and manners are the constant +theme of ridicule in the royalist ballads, and he is caricatured in +Butler's _Hudibras_ and in the _Parable of the Lion and Fox_. + + + + +DESCARTES, RENÉ (1596-1650), French philosopher, was born at La Haye, in +Touraine, midway between Tours and Poitiers, on the 31st of March 1596, +and died at Stockholm on the 11th of February 1650. The house where he +was born is still shown, and a _métairie_ about 3 m. off retains the +name of Les Cartes. His family on both sides was of Poitevin descent. +Joachim Descartes, his father, having purchased a commission as +counsellor in the parlement of Rennes, introduced the family into that +demi-noblesse of the robe which, between the bourgeoisie and the high +nobility, maintained a lofty rank in French society. He had three +children, a son who afterwards succeeded to his father in the parlement, +a daughter who married a M. du Crevis, and René, after whose birth the +mother died. + + +Early years. + +Descartes, known as Du Perron, from a small estate destined for his +inheritance, soon showed an inquisitive mind. From 1604 to 1612 he +studied at the school of La Flêche, which Henry IV. had lately founded +and endowed for the Jesuits. He enjoyed exceptional privileges; his +feeble health excused him from the morning duties, and thus early he +acquired the habit of reflection in bed, which clung to him throughout +life. Even then he had begun to distrust the authority of tradition and +his teachers. Two years before he left school he was selected as one of +the twenty-four who went forth to receive the heart of Henry IV. as it +was borne to its resting-place at La Flêche. At the age of sixteen he +went home to his father, who was now settled at Rennes, and had married +again. During the winter of 1612 he completed his preparations for the +world by lessons in horsemanship and fencing; and then started as his +own master to taste the pleasures of Parisian life. Fortunately he went +to no perilous lengths; the worst we hear of is a passion for gaming. +Here, too, he made the acquaintance of Claude Mydorge, one of the +foremost mathematicians of France, and renewed an early intimacy with +Marin Mersenne (q.v.), now Father Mersenne, of the order of Minim +friars. The withdrawal of Mersenne in 1614 to a post in the provinces +was the signal for Descartes to abandon social life and shut himself up +for nearly two years in a secluded house of the faubourg St Germain. +Accident betrayed the secret of his retirement; he was compelled to +leave his mathematical investigations, and to take part in +entertainments, where the only thing that chimed in with his theorizing +reveries was the music. French politics were at that time characterized +by violence and intrigue to such an extent that Paris was no fit place +for a student, and there was little honourable prospect for a soldier. +Accordingly, in May 1617, Descartes set out for the Netherlands and took +service in the army of Prince Maurice of Orange. At Breda he enlisted as +a volunteer, and the first and only pay which he accepted he kept as a +curiosity through life. There was a lull in the war, and the +Netherlands was distracted by the quarrels of Gomarists and Arminians. +During the leisure thus arising, Descartes one day had his attention +drawn to a placard in the Dutch tongue; as the language, of which he +never became perfectly master, was then strange to him, he asked a +bystander to interpret it into either French or Latin. The stranger, +Isaac Beeckman, principal of the college of Dort, offered to do so into +Latin, if the inquirer would bring him a solution of the problem,--for +the advertisement was one of those challenges which the mathematicians +of the age were accustomed to throw down to all comers, daring them to +discover a geometrical mystery known as they fancied to themselves +alone. Descartes promised and fulfilled; and a friendship grew up +between him and Beeckman--broken only by the dishonesty of the latter, +who in later years took credit for the novelty contained in a small +essay on music (_Compendium Musicae_) which Descartes wrote at this +period and entrusted to Beeckman.[1] + +After spending two years in Holland as a soldier in a period of peace, +Descartes, in July 1619, attracted by the news of the impending struggle +between the house of Austria and the Protestant princes, consequent upon +the election of the palatine of the Rhine to the kingdom of Bohemia, set +out for upper Germany, and volunteered into the Bavarian service. The +winter of 1619, spent in quarters at Neuburg on the Danube, was the +critical period in his life. Here, in his warm room (_dans un poêle_), +he indulged those meditations which afterwards led to the _Discourse of +Method_. It was here that, on the eve of St Martin's day, he "was filled +with enthusiasm, and discovered the foundations of a marvellous +science." He retired to rest with anxious thoughts of his future career, +which haunted him through the night in three dreams that left a deep +impression on his mind. The date of his philosophical conversion is thus +fixed to a day. But as yet he had only glimpses of a logical method +which should invigorate the syllogism by the co-operation of ancient +geometry and modern algebra. For during the year that elapsed before he +left Swabia (and whilst he sojourned at Neuburg and Ulm), and amidst his +geometrical studies, he would fain have gathered some knowledge of the +mystical wisdom attributed to the Rosicrucians; but the Invisibles, as +they called themselves, kept their secret. He was present at the battle +of Weisser Berg (near Prague), where the hopes of the elector palatine +were blasted (November 8, 1620), passed the winter with the army in +southern Bohemia, and next year served in Hungary under Karl Bonaventura +de Longueval, Graf von Buquoy or Boucquoi (1571-1621). On the death of +this general Descartes quitted the imperial service, and in July 1621 +began a peaceful tour through Moravia, the borders of Poland, Pomerania, +Brandenburg, Holstein and Friesland, from which he reappeared in +February 1622 in Belgium, and betook himself directly to his father's +home at Rennes in Brittany. + +At Rennes Descartes found little to interest him; and, after he had +visited the maternal estate of which his father now put him in +possession, he went to Paris, where he found the Rosicrucians the topic +of the hour, and heard himself credited with partnership in their +secrets. A short visit to Brittany enabled him, with his father's +consent, to arrange for the sale of his property in Poitou. The proceeds +were invested in such a way at Paris as to bring him in a yearly income +of between 6000 and 7000 francs (equal now to more than £500). Towards +the end of the year Descartes was on his way to Italy. The natural +phenomena of Switzerland, and the political complications in the +Valtellina, where the Catholic inhabitants had thrown off the yoke of +the Grisons and called in the Papal and Spanish troops to their +assistance, delayed him some time; but he reached Venice in time to see +the ceremony of the doge's wedlock with the Adriatic. After paying his +vows at Loretto, he came to Rome, which was then on the eve of a year of +jubilee--an occasion which Descartes seized to observe the variety of +men and manners which the city then embraced within its walls. In the +spring of 1625 he returned home by Mont Cenis, observing the +avalanches,[2] instead of, as his relatives hoped, securing a post in +the French army in Piedmont. + +For an instant Descartes seems to have concurred in the plan of +purchasing a post at Châtellerault, but he gave up the idea, and settled +in Paris (June 1625), in the quarter where he had sought seclusion +before. By this time he had ceased to devote himself to pure +mathematics, and in company with his friends Mersenne and Mydorge was +deeply interested in the theory of the refraction of light, and in the +practical work of grinding glasses of the best shape suitable for +optical instruments. But all the while he was engaged with reflections +on the nature of man, of the soul and of God, and for a while he +remained invisible even to his most familiar friends. But their +importunity made a hermitage in Paris impossible; a graceless friend +even surprised the philosopher in bed at eleven in the morning +meditating and taking notes. In disgust, Descartes started for the west +to take part in the siege of La Rochelle, and entered the city with the +troops (October 1628). A meeting at which he was present after his +return to Paris decided his vocation. He had expressed an opinion that +the true art of memory was not to be gained by technical devices, but by +a philosophical apprehension of things; and the cardinal de Berulle, the +founder of the Congregation of the Oratory, was so struck by the tone of +the remarks as to impress upon the speaker the duty of spending his life +in the examination of truth. Descartes accepted the philosophic mission, +and in the spring of 1629 he settled in Holland. His financial affairs +he had entrusted to the care of the abbé Picot, and as his literary and +scientific representative he adopted Mersenne. + +Till 1649 Descartes lived in Holland. Thrice only did he revisit +France--in 1644, 1647 and 1648. The first of these occasions was in +order to settle family affairs after the death of his father in 1640. +The second brief visit, in 1647, partly on literary, partly on family +business, was signalized by the award of a pension of 3000 francs, +obtained from the royal bounty by Cardinal Mazarin. The last visit in +1648 was less fortunate. A royal order summoned him to France for new +honours--an additional pension and a permanent post--for his fame had by +this time gone abroad, and it was the age when princes sought to attract +genius and learning to their courts. But when Descartes arrived, he +found Paris rent asunder by the civil war of the Fronde. He paid the +costs of his royal parchment, and left without a word of reproach. The +only other occasions on which he was out of the Netherlands were in +1630, when he made a flying visit to England to observe for himself some +alleged magnetic phenomena, and in 1634, when he took an excursion to +Denmark. + +During his residence in Holland he lived at thirteen different places, +and changed his abode twenty-four times. In the choice of these spots +two motives seem to have influenced him--the neighbourhood of a +university or college, and the amenities of the situation. Among these +towns were Franeker in Friesland, Harderwyk, Deventer, Utrecht, Leiden, +Amersfoort, Amsterdam, Leeuwarden in Friesland. His favourite residences +were Endegeest, Egmond op den Hoef and Egmond the Abbey (west of +Zaandam). + +The time thus spent seems to have been on the whole happy, even allowing +for warm discussions with the mathematicians and metaphysicians of +France, and for harassing controversies in the Netherlands. Friendly +agents--chiefly Catholic priests--were the intermediaries who forwarded +his correspondence from Dort, Haarlem, Amsterdam and Leiden to his +proper address, which he kept completely secret; and Father Mersenne +sent him objections and questions. His health, which in his youth had +been bad, improved. "I sleep here ten hours every night," he writes from +Amsterdam, "and no care ever shortens my slumber." "I take my walk every +day through the confusion of a great multitude with as much freedom and +quiet as you could find in your rural avenues."[3] At his first coming +to Franeker he arranged to get a cook acquainted with French cookery; +but, to prevent misunderstanding, it may be added that his diet was +mainly vegetarian, and that he rarely drank wine. New friends gathered +round him who took a keen interest in his researches. Once only do we +find him taking an interest in the affairs of his neighbours,--to ask +pardon from the government for a homicide.[4] He continued the +profession of his religion. Sometimes from curiosity he went to the +ministrations of anabaptists,[5] to hear the preaching of peasants and +artisans. He carried few books to Holland with him, but a Bible and the +_Summa_ of Thomas Aquinas were amongst them.[6] One of the +recommendations of Egmond the Abbey was the free exercise there allowed +to the Catholic religion. At Franeker his house was a small château, +"separated by a moat from the rest of the town, where the mass could be +said in safety."[7] And one motive in favour of accepting an invitation +to England lay in the alleged leanings of Charles I. to the older +church. + +The best account of Descartes's mental history during his life in +Holland is contained in his letters, which extend over the whole period, +and are particularly frequent in the latter half. The majority of them +are addressed to Mersenne, and deal with problems of physics, musical +theory (in which he took a special interest), and mathematics. Several +letters between 1643 and 1649 are addressed to the princess Elizabeth, +the eldest daughter of the ejected elector palatine, who lived at The +Hague, where her mother maintained the semblance of a royal court. The +princess was obliged to quit Holland, but kept up a philosophical +correspondence with Descartes. It is to her that the _Principles of +Philosophy_ were dedicated; and in her alone, according to Descartes, +were united those generally separated talents for metaphysics and for +mathematics which are so characteristically co-operative in the +Cartesian system. Two Dutch friends, Constantijn Huygens (von +Zuylichem), father of the more celebrated Huygens, and Hoogheland, +figure amongst the correspondents, not to mention various savants, +professors and churchmen (particularly Jesuits). + +His residence in the Netherlands fell in the most prosperous and +brilliant days of the Dutch state, under the stadtholdership of +Frederick Henry (1625-1647). Abroad its navigators monopolized the +commerce of the world, and explored unknown seas; at home the Dutch +school of painting reached its acme in Rembrandt (1607-1669); and the +philological reputation of the country was sustained by Grotius, Vossius +and the elder Heinsius. And yet, though Rembrandt's "Nightwatch" is +dated the very year after the publication of the _Meditations_, not a +word in Descartes breathes of any work of art or historical learning. +The contempt of aesthetics and erudition is characteristic of the most +typical members of what is known as the Cartesian school, especially +Malebranche. Descartes was not in any strict sense a reader. His wisdom +grew mainly out of his own reflections and experiments. The story of his +disgust when he found that Queen Christina devoted some time every day +to the study of Greek under the tuition of Vossius is at least true in +substance.[8] It gives no evidence of science, he remarks, to possess a +tolerable knowledge of the Roman tongue, such as once was possessed by +the populace of Rome.[9] In all his travels he studied only the +phenomena of nature and human life. He was a spectator rather than an +actor on the stage of the world. He entered the army, merely because the +position gave a vantage-ground from which to make his observations. In +the political interests which these contests involved he took no part; +his favourite disciple, the princess Elizabeth, was the daughter of the +banished king, against whom he had served in Bohemia; and Queen +Christina, his second royal follower, was the daughter of Gustavus +Adolphus. + +Thus Descartes is a type of that spirit of science to which erudition +and all the heritage of the past seem but elegant trifling. The science +of Descartes was physics in all its branches, but especially as applied +to physiology. Science, he says, may be compared to a tree; metaphysics +is the root, physics is the trunk, and the three chief branches are +mechanics, medicine and morals,--the three applications of our +knowledge to the outward world, to the human body, and to the conduct of +life.[10] + +Such then was the work that Descartes had in view in Holland. His +residence was generally divided into two parts--one his workshop for +science, the other his reception-room for society. "Here are my books," +he is reported to have told a visitor, as he pointed to the animals he +had dissected. He worked hard at his book on refraction, and dissected +the heads of animals in order to explain imagination and memory, which +he considered physical processes.[11] But he was not a laborious +student. "I can say with truth," he writes to the princess +Elizabeth,[12] "that the principle which I have always observed in my +studies, and which I believe has helped me most to gain what knowledge I +have, has been never to spend beyond a very few hours daily in thoughts +which occupy the imagination, and a very few hours yearly in those which +occupy the understanding, and to give all the rest of my time to the +relaxation of the senses and the repose of the mind." But his +expectations from the study of anatomy and physiology went a long way. +"The conservation of health," he writes in 1646, "has always been the +principal end of my studies."[13] In 1629 he asks Mersenne to take care +of himself "till I find out if there is any means of getting a medical +theory based on infallible demonstrations, which is what I am now +inquiring."[14] Astronomical inquiries in connexion with optics, +meteorological phenomena, and, in a word, the whole field of natural +laws, excited his desire to explain them. His own observation, and the +reports of Mersenne, furnished his data. Of Bacon's demand for +observation and collection of facts he is an imitator; and he wishes (in +a letter of 1632) that "some one would undertake to give a history of +celestial phenomena after the method of Bacon, and describe the sky +exactly as it appears at present, without introducing a single +hypothesis."[15] + +He had several writings in hand during the early years of his residence +in Holland, but the main work of this period was a physical doctrine of +the universe which he termed _The World_. Shortly after his arrival he +writes to Mersenne that it will probably be finished in 1633, but +meanwhile asks him not to disclose the secret to his Parisian friends. +Already anxieties appear as to the theological verdict upon two of his +fundamental views--the infinitude of the universe, and the earth's +rotation round the sun.[16] But towards the end of year 1633 we find him +writing as follows:--"I had intended sending you my _World_ as a New +Year's gift, and a fortnight ago I was still minded to send you a +fragment of the work, if the whole of it could not be transcribed in +time. But I have just been at Leyden and Amsterdam to ask after +Galileo's cosmical system as I imagined I had heard of its being printed +last year in Italy. I was told that it had been printed, but that every +copy had been at the same time burnt at Rome, and that Galileo had been +himself condemned to some penalty."[17] He has also seen a copy of +Galileo's condemnation at Liége (September 20, 1633), with the words +"although he professes that the [Copernican] theory was only adopted by +him as a hypothesis." His friend Beeckman lent him a copy of Galileo's +work, which he glanced through in his usual manner with other men's +books; he found it good, and "failing more in the points where it +follows received opinions than where it diverges from them."[18] The +consequence of these reports of the hostility of the church led him to +abandon all thoughts of publishing. _The World_ was consigned to his +desk; and although doctrines in all essential respects the same +constitute the physical portion of his _Principia_, it was not till +after the death of Descartes that fragments of the work, including _Le +Monde_, or a treatise on light, and the physiological tracts _L'Homme_ +and _La Formation du foetus_, were given to the world by his admirer +Claude Clerselier (1614-1684) in 1664. Descartes was not disposed to be +a martyr; he had a sincere respect for the church, and had no wish to +begin an open conflict with established doctrines. + +In 1636 Descartes had resolved to publish some specimens of the fruits +of his method, and some general observations on its nature which, under +an appearance of simplicity, might sow the good seed of more adequate +ideas on the world and man. "I should be glad," he says, when talking of +a publisher,[19] "if the whole book were printed in good type, on good +paper, and I should like to have at least 200 copies for distribution. +The book will contain four essays, all in French, with the general title +of 'Project of a Universal science, capable of raising our nature to its +highest perfection; also Dioptrics, Meteors and Geometry, wherein the +most curious matters which the author could select as a proof of the +universal science which he proposes are explained in such a way that +even the unlearned may understand them.'" The work appeared anonymously +at Leiden (published by Jean Maire) in 1637, under the modest title of +_Essais philosophiques_; and the project of a universal science becomes +the _Discours de la méthode pour bien conduire sa raison et chercher la +vérité dans les sciences_. In 1644 it appeared in a Latin version, +revised by Descartes, as _Specimina philosophica_. A work so widely +circulated by the author naturally attracted attention, but in France it +was principally the mathematicians who took it up, and their criticisms +were more pungent than complimentary. Fermat, Roberval and Desargues +took exception in their various ways to the methods employed in the +geometry, and to the demonstrations of the laws of refraction given in +the Dioptrics and Meteors. The dispute on the latter point between +Fermat and Descartes was continued, even after the philosopher's death, +as late as 1662. In the youthful Dutch universities the effect of the +essays was greater. + + +Spread of Cartesianism. + +The first public teacher of Cartesian views was Henri Renery, a Belgian, +who at Deventer and afterwards at Utrecht had introduced the new +philosophy which he had learned from personal intercourse with +Descartes. Renery only survived five years at Utrecht, and it was +reserved for Heinrich Regius (van Roy)--who in 1638 had been appointed +to the new chair of botany and theoretical medicine at Utrecht, and who +visited Descartes at Egmond in order more thoroughly to learn his +views--to throw down the gauntlet to the adherents of the old methods. +With more eloquence than judgment, he propounded theses bringing into +relief the points in which the new doctrines clashed with the old. The +attack was opened by Gisbert Voët, foremost among the orthodox +theological professors and clergy of Utrecht. In 1639 he published a +series of arguments against atheism, in which the Cartesian views were +not obscurely indicated as perilous for the faith, though no name was +mentioned. Next year he persuaded the magistracy to issue an order +forbidding Regius to travel beyond the received doctrine. The +magisterial views seem to have prevailed in the professoriate, which +formally in March 1642 expressed its disapprobation of the new +philosophy as well as of its expositors. As yet Descartes was not +directly attacked. Voët now issued, under the name of Martin Schoock, +one of his pupils, a pamphlet with the title of _Methodus novae +philosophiae Renati Descartes_, in which atheism and infidelity were +openly declared to be the effect of the new teaching. Descartes replied +to Voët directly in a letter, published at Amsterdam in 1643. He was +summoned before the magistrates of Utrecht to defend himself against +charges of irreligion and slander. What might have happened we cannot +tell; but Descartes threw himself on the protection of the French +ambassador and the prince of Orange, and the city magistrates, from whom +he vainly demanded satisfaction in a dignified letter,[20] were snubbed +by their superiors. About the same time (April 1645) Schoock was +summoned before the university of Groningen, of which he was a member, +and forthwith disavowed the more abusive passages in his book. So did +the effects of the _odium theologicum_, for the meanwhile at least, die +away. + + +Discourse of Method, and Meditations. + +In the _Discourse of Method_ Descartes had sketched the main points in +his new views, with a mental autobiography which might explain their +origin, and with some suggestions as to their applications. His second +great work,. _Meditations on the First Philosophy_, which had been begun +soon after his settlement in the Netherlands, expounded in more detail +the foundations of his system, laying especial emphasis on the priority +of mind to body, and on the absolute and ultimate dependence of mind as +well as body on the existence of God. In 1640 a copy of the work in +manuscript was despatched to Paris, and Mersenne was requested to lay it +before as many thinkers and scholars as he deemed desirable, with a view +to getting their views upon its argument and doctrine. Descartes soon +had a formidable list of objections to reply to. Accordingly, when the +work was published at Paris in August 1641, under the title of +_Meditationes de prima philosophia ubi de Dei existentia et animae +immortalitate_ (though it was in fact not the _immortality_ but the +_immateriality_ of the mind, or, as the second edition described it, +_animae humanae a corpore distinctio_, which was maintained), the title +went on to describe the larger part of the book as containing various +objections of learned men, with the replies of the author. These +objections in the first edition are arranged under six heads: the first +came from Caterus, a theologian of Louvain; the second and sixth are +anonymous criticisms from various hands; whilst the third, fourth and +fifth belong respectively to Hobbes, Arnauld and Gassendi. In the second +edition appeared the seventh--objections from Père Bourdin, a Jesuit +teacher of mathematics in Paris; and subsequently another set of +objections, known as those of _Hyperaspistes_, was included in the +collection of Descartes's letters. The anonymous objections are very +much the statement of common-sense against philosophy; those of Caterus +criticize the Cartesian argument from the traditional theology of the +church; those of Arnauld are an appreciative inquiry into the bearings +and consequences of the meditations for religion and morality; while +those of Hobbes (q.v.) and Gassendi--both somewhat senior to Descartes +and with a dogmatic system of their own already formed--are a keen +assault upon the spiritualism of the Cartesian position from a generally +"sensational" standpoint. The criticisms of the last two are the +criticisms of a hostile school of thought; those of Arnauld are the +difficulties of a possible disciple. + + +The Principia. + +In 1644 the third great work of Descartes, the _Principia philosophiae_, +appeared at Amsterdam. Passing briefly over the conclusions arrived at +in the _Meditations_, it deals in its second, third and fourth parts +with the general principles of physical science, especially the laws of +motion, with the theory of vortices, and with the phenomena of heat, +light, gravity, magnetism, electricity, &c., upon the earth. This work +exhibits some curious marks of caution. Undoubtedly, says Descartes, the +world was in the beginning created in all its perfection. "But yet as it +is best, if we wish to understand the nature of plants or of men, to +consider how they may by degrees proceed from seeds, rather than how +they were created by God in the beginning of the world, so, if we can +excogitate some extremely simple and comprehensible principles, out of +which, as if they were seeds, we can prove that stars, and earth and all +this visible scene could have originated, although we know full well +that they never did originate in such a way, we shall in that way +expound their nature far better than if we merely described them as they +exist at present."[21] The Copernican theory is rejected in name, but +retained in substance. The earth, or other planet, does not actually +move round the sun; yet it is carried round the sun in the subtle matter +of the great vortex, where it lies in equilibrium,--carried like the +passenger in a boat, who may cross the sea and yet not rise from his +berth. + +In 1647 the difficulties that had arisen at Utrecht were repeated on a +smaller scale at Leiden. There the Cartesian innovations had found a +patron in Adrian Heerebord, and were openly discussed in theses and +lectures. The theological professors took the alarm at passages in the +_Meditations_; an attempt to prove the existence of God savoured, as +they thought, of atheism and heresy. When Descartes complained to the +authorities of this unfair treatment,[22] the only reply was an order by +which all mention of the name of Cartesianism, whether favourable or +adverse, was forbidden in the university. This was scarcely what +Descartes wanted, and again he had to apply to the prince of Orange, +whereupon the theologians were asked to behave with civility, and the +name of Descartes was no longer proscribed. But other annoyances were +not wanting from unfaithful disciples and unsympathetic critics. The +_Instantiae_ of Gassendi appeared at Amsterdam in 1644 as a reply to the +reply which Descartes had published of his previous objections; and the +publication by Heinrich Regius of his work on physical philosophy +(_Fundamenta physices_, 1646) gave the world to understand that he had +ceased to be a thorough adherent of the philosophy which he had so +enthusiastically adopted. + +It was about 1648 that Descartes lost his friends Mersenne and Mydorge +by death. The place of Mersenne as his Parisian representative was in +the main taken by Claude Clerselier (the French translator of the +Objections and Responses), whom he had become acquainted with in Paris. +Through Clerselier he came to know Pierre Chanut, who in 1645 was sent +as French ambassador to the court of Sweden. Queen Christina was not yet +twenty, and took a lively if a somewhat whimsical interest in literary +and philosophical culture. Through Chanut, with whom she was on terms of +familiarity, she came to hear of Descartes, and a correspondence which +the latter nominally carried on with the ambassador was in reality +intended for the eyes of the queen. The correspondence took an ethical +tone. It began with a long letter on love in all its aspects (February +1647),[23] a topic suggested by Chanut, who had been discussing it with +the queen; and this was soon followed by another to Christina herself on +the chief good. An essay on the passions of the mind (_Passions de +l'âme_), which had been written originally for the princess Elizabeth, +in development of some ethical views suggested by the _De vita beata_ of +Seneca, was enclosed at the same time for Chanut. It was a draft of the +work published in 1650 under the same title. Philosophy, particularly +that of Descartes, was becoming a fashionable _divertissement_ for the +queen and her courtiers, and it was felt that the presence of the sage +himself was necessary to complete the good work of education. An +invitation to the Swedish court was urged upon Descartes, and after much +hesitation accepted; a vessel of the royal navy was ordered to wait upon +him, and in September 1649 he left Egmond for the north. + + +Death. + +The position on which he entered at Stockholm was unsuited for a man who +wished to be his own master. The young queen wanted Descartes to draw up +a code for a proposed academy of the sciences, and to give her an hour +of philosophic instruction every morning at five. She had already +determined to create him a noble, and begun to look out an estate in the +lately annexed possessions of Sweden on the Pomeranian coast. But these +things were not to be. His friend Chanut fell dangerously ill; and +Descartes, who devoted himself to attend in the sick-room, was obliged +to issue from it every morning in the chill northern air of January, and +spend an hour in the palace library. The ambassador recovered, but +Descartes fell a victim to the same disease, inflammation of the lungs. +The last time he saw the queen was on the 1st of February 1650, when he +handed to her the statutes he had drawn up for the proposed academy. On +the 11th of February he died. The queen wished to bury him at the feet +of the Swedish kings, and to raise a costly mausoleum in his honour; but +these plans were overruled, and a plain monument in the Catholic +cemetery was all that marked the place of his rest. Sixteen years after +his death the French treasurer d'Alibert made arrangements for the +conveyance of the ashes to his native land; and in 1667 they were +interred in the church of Ste Geneviève du Mont, the modern Pantheon. In +1819, after being temporarily deposited in a stone sarcophagus in the +court of the Louvre during the Revolutionary epoch, they were +transferred to St Germain-des-Près, where they now repose between +Montfaucon and Mabillon. A monument was raised to his memory at +Stockholm by Gustavus III.; and a modern statue has been erected to him +at Tours, with an inscription on the pedestal: "Je pense, donc je suis." + +Descartes never married, and had little of the amorous in his +temperament. He has alluded to a childish fancy for a young girl with a +slight obliquity of vision; but he only mentions it _à propos_ of the +consequent weakness which led him to associate such a defect with +beauty.[24] In person he was small, with large head, projecting brow, +prominent nose, and eyes wide apart, with black hair coming down almost +to his eyebrows. His voice was feeble. He usually dressed in black, with +unobtrusive propriety. + +_Philosophy._--The end of all study, says Descartes, in one of his +earliest writings, ought to be to guide the mind to form true and sound +judgments on every thing that may be presented to it.[25] The sciences +in their totality are but the intelligence of man; and all the details +of knowledge have no value save as they strengthen the understanding. +The mind is not for the sake of knowledge, but knowledge for the sake of +the mind. This is the reassertion of a principle which the middle ages +had lost sight of--that knowledge, if it is to have any value, must be +intelligence, and not erudition. + + +Mathematics. + +But how is intelligence, as opposed to erudition, possible? The answer +to that question is the method of Descartes. That idea of a method grew +up with his study of geometry and arithmetic,--the only branches of +knowledge which he would allow to be "made sciences." But they did not +satisfy his demand for intelligence. "I found in them," he says, +"different propositions on numbers of which, after a calculation, I +perceived the truth; as for the figures, I had, so to speak, many truths +put before my eyes, and many others concluded from them by analogy; but +it did not seem to me that they told my mind with sufficient clearness +why the things were as I was shown, and by what means their discovery +was attained."[26] The mathematics of which he thus speaks included the +geometry of the ancients, as it had been handed down to the modern +world, and arithmetic with the developments it had received in the +direction of algebra. The ancient geometry, as we know it, is a +wonderful monument of ingenuity--a series of _tours de force_, in which +each problem to all appearance stands alone, and, if solved, is solved +by methods and principles peculiar to itself. Here and there particular +curves, for example, had been obliged to yield the secret of their +tangent; but the ancient geometers apparently had no consciousness of +the general bearings of the methods which they so successfully applied. +Each problem was something unique; the elements of transition from one +to another were wanting; and the next step which mathematics had to make +was to find some method of reducing, for instance, all curves to a +common notation. When that was found, the solution of one problem would +immediately entail the solution of all others which belonged to the same +series as itself. + +The arithmetical half of mathematics, which had been gradually growing +into algebra, and had decidedly established itself as such in the _Ad +logisticen speciosam notae priores_ of François Vieta (1540-1603), +supplied to some extent the means of generalizing geometry. And the +algebraists or arithmeticians of the 16th century, such as Luca Pacioli +(Lucas de Borgo), Geronimo or Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), and Niccola +Tartaglia (1506-1559), had used geometrical constructions to throw light +on the solution of particular equations. But progress was made +difficult, in consequence of the clumsy and irregular nomenclature +employed. With Descartes the use of exponents as now employed for +denoting the powers of a quantity becomes systematic; and without some +such step by which the homogeneity of successive powers is at once +recognized, the binomial theorem could scarcely have been detected. The +restriction of the early letters of the alphabet to known, and of the +late letters to unknown, quantities is also his work. In this and other +details he crowns and completes, in a form henceforth to be dominant for +the language of algebra, the work of numerous obscure predecessors, such +as Étienne de la Roche, Michael Stifel or Stiefel (1487-1567), and +others. + +Having thus perfected the instrument, his next step was to apply it in +such a way as to bring uniformity of method into the isolated and +independent operations of geometry. "I had no intention,"[27] he says in +the _Method_, "of attempting to master all the particular sciences +commonly called mathematics; but as I observed that, with all +differences in their objects, they agreed in considering merely the +various relations or proportions subsisting among these objects, I +thought it best for my purpose to consider these relations in the most +general form possible, without referring them to any objects in +particular except such as would most facilitate the knowledge of them. +Perceiving further, that in order to understand these relations I should +sometimes have to consider them one by one, and sometimes only to bear +them in mind or embrace them in the aggregate, I thought that, in order +the better to consider them individually, I should view them as +subsisting between straight lines, than which I could find no objects +more simple, or capable of being more distinctly represented to my +imagination and senses; and on the other hand that, in order to retain +them in the memory or embrace an aggregate of many, I should express +them by certain characters, the briefest possible." Such is the basis of +the algebraical or modern analytical geometry. The problem of the curves +is solved by their reduction to a problem of straight lines; and the +locus of any point is determined by its distance from two given straight +lines--the axes of co-ordinates. Thus Descartes gave to modern geometry +that abstract and general character in which consists its superiority to +the geometry of the ancients. In another question connected with this, +the problem of drawing tangents to any curve, Descartes was drawn into a +controversy with Pierre (de) Fermat (1601-1663), Gilles Persone de +Roberval (1602-1675), and Girard Desargues (1593-1661). Fermat and +Descartes agreed in regarding the tangent to a curve as a secant of that +curve with the two points of intersection coinciding, while Roberval +regarded it as the direction of the composite movement by which the +curve can be described. Both these methods, differing from that now +employed, are interesting as preliminary steps towards the method of +fluxions and the differential calculus. In pure algebra Descartes +expounded and illustrated the general methods of solving equations up to +those of the fourth degree (and believed that his method could go +beyond), stated the law which connects the positive and negative roots +of an equation with the changes of sign in the consecutive terms, and +introduced the method of indeterminate coefficients for the solution of +equations.[28] These innovations have been attributed on inadequate +evidence to other algebraists, e.g. William Oughtred (1575-1660) and +Thomas Harriot (1560-1621). + +The _Geometry_ of Descartes, unlike the other parts of his essays, is +not easy reading. It dashes at once into the middle of the subjects with +the examination of a problem which had baffled the ancients, and seems +as if it were tossed at the heads of the French geometers as a +challenge. An edition of it appeared subsequently, with notes by his +friend Florimond de Beaune (1601-1652), calculated to smooth the +difficulties of the work. All along mathematics was regarded by +Descartes rather as the envelope than the foundation of his method; and +the "universal mathematical science" which he sought after was only the +prelude of a universal science of all-embracing character.[29] + + +Descartes' method. + +The method of Descartes rests upon the proposition that all the objects +of our knowledge fall into series, of which the members are more or less +known by means of one another. In every such series or group there is a +dominant element, simple and irresoluble, the standard on which the rest +of the series depends, and hence, so far as that group or series is +concerned, absolute. The other members of the group are relative and +dependent, and only to be understood as in various degrees subordinate +to the primitive conception. The characteristic by which we recognize +the fundamental element in a series is its intuitive or self-evident +character; it is given by "the evident conception of a healthy and +attentive mind so clear and distinct that no doubt is left."[30] Having +discovered this prime or absolute member of the group, we proceed to +consider the degrees in which the other members enter into relation with +it. Here deduction comes into play to show the dependence of one term +upon the others; and, in the case of a long chain of intervening links, +the problem for intelligence is so to enunciate every element, and so +to repeat the connexion that we may finally grasp all the links of the +chain in one. In this way we, as it were, bring the causal or primal +term and its remotest dependent immediately together, and raise a +derivative knowledge into one which is primary and intuitive. Such are +the four points of Cartesian method:--(1) Truth requires a clear and +distinct conception of its object, excluding all doubt; (2) the objects +of knowledge naturally fall into series or groups; (3) in these groups +investigation must begin with a simple and indecomposable element, and +pass from it to the more complex and relative elements; (4) an +exhaustive and immediate grasp of the relations and interconnexion of +these elements is necessary for knowledge in the fullest sense of that +word.[31] + +"There is no question," he says in anticipation of Locke and Kant, "more +important to solve than that of knowing what human knowledge is and how +far it extends." "This is a question which ought to be asked at least +once in their lives by all who seriously wish to gain wisdom. The +inquirer will find that the first thing to know is intellect, because on +it depends the knowledge of all other things. Examining next what +immediately follows the knowledge of pure intellect, he will pass in +review all the other means of knowledge, and will find that they are two +(or three), the imagination and the senses (and the memory). He will +therefore devote all his care to examine and distinguish these three +means of knowledge; and seeing that truth and error can, properly +speaking, be only in the intellect, and that the two other modes of +knowledge are only occasions, he will carefully avoid whatever can lead +him astray."[32] This separation of intellect from sense, imagination +and memory is the cardinal precept of the Cartesian logic; it marks off +clear and distinct (i.e. adequate and vivid) from obscure, fragmentary +and incoherent conceptions. + + +Fundamental principles of philosophy. + +The _Discourse of Method_ and the _Meditations_ apply what the _Rules +for the Direction of the Mind_ had regarded in particular instances to +our conceptions of the world as a whole. They propose, that is, to find +a simple and indecomposable point, or absolute element, which gives to +the world and thought their order and systematization. The grandeur of +this attempt is perhaps unequalled in the annals of philosophy. The +three main steps in the argument are the veracity of our thought when +that thought is true to itself, the inevitable uprising of thought from +its fragmentary aspects in our habitual consciousness to the infinite +and perfect existence which God is, and the ultimate reduction of the +material universe to extension and local movement. There are the central +dogmas of logic, metaphysics and physics, from which start the +subsequent inquiries of Locke, Leibnitz and Newton. They are also the +direct antitheses to the scepticism of Montaigne and Pascal, to the +materialism of Gassendi and Hobbes, and to the superstitious +anthropomorphism which defaced the reawakening sciences of nature. +Descartes laid down the lines on which modern philosophy and science +were to build. But himself no trained metaphysician, and unsusceptible +to the lessons of history, he gives but fragments of a system which are +held together, not by their intrinsic consistency, but by the vigour of +his personal conviction transcending the weaknesses and collisions of +his several arguments. "All my opinions," he says, "are so conjoined, +and depend so closely upon one another, that it would be impossible to +appropriate one without knowing them all."[33] Yet every disciple of +Cartesianism seems to disprove the dictum by his example. + + +Cogito ergo sum. + +The very moment when we begin to think, says Descartes, when we cease to +be merely receptive, when we draw back and fix our attention on any +point whatever of our belief,--that moment doubt begins. If we even stop +for an instant to ask ourselves how a word ought to be spelled, the +deeper we ponder that one word by itself the more hopeless grows the +hesitation. The doubts thus awakened must not be stifled, but pressed +systematically on to the point, if such a point there be, where doubt +confutes itself. The doubt as to the details is natural; it is no less +natural to have recourse to authority to silence the doubt. The remedy +proposed by Descartes is (while not neglecting our duties to others, +ourselves and God) to let doubt range unchecked through the whole fabric +of our customary convictions. One by one they refuse to render any +reasonable account of themselves; each seems a mere chance, and the +whole tends to elude us like a mirage which some malignant power creates +for our illusion. Attacked in detail, they vanish one after another into +as many teasing spectra of uncertainty. We are seeking from them what +they cannot give. But when we have done our worst in unsettling them, we +come to an ultimate point in the fact that it is _we_ who are doubting, +_we_ who are thinking. We may doubt that we have hands or feet, that we +sleep or wake, and that there is a world of material things around us; +but we cannot doubt that we are doubting. We are certain that we are +thinking, and in so far as we are thinking we are. _Je pense, donc je +suis._ In other words, the criterion of truth is a clear and distinct +conception, excluding all possibility of doubt. + +The fundamental point thus established is the veracity of consciousness +when it does not go beyond itself, or does not postulate something which +is external to itself. At this point Gassendi arrested Descartes and +addressed his objections to him as pure intelligence,--_O mens!_ But +even this _mens_, or mind, is but a point--we have found no guarantee as +yet for its continuous existence. The analysis must be carried deeper, +if we are to gain any further conclusions. + + +Nature of God. + +Amongst the elements of our thought there are some which we can make and +unmake at our pleasure; there are others which come and go without our +wish; there is also a third class which is of the very essence of our +thinking, and which dominates our conceptions. We find that all our +ideas of limits, sorrows and weaknesses presuppose an infinite, perfect +and ever-blessed something beyond them and including them,--that all our +ideas, in all their series, converge to one central idea, in which they +find their explanation. The formal fact of thinking is what constitutes +our being; but this thought leads us back, when we consider its concrete +contents, to the necessary pre-supposition on which our ideas depend, +the permanent cause on which they and we as conscious beings depend. We +have therefore the idea of an infinite, perfect and all-powerful +being--an idea which cannot be the creation of ourselves, and must be +given by some being who really possesses all that we in idea attribute +to him. Such a being he identifies with God. But the ordinary idea of +God can scarcely be identified with such a conception. "The majority of +men," he says himself, "do not think of God as an infinite and +incomprehensible being, and as the sole author from whom all things +depend; they go no further than the letters of his name."[34] "The +vulgar almost imagine him as a finite thing." The God of Descartes is +not merely the creator of the material universe; he is also the father +of all truth in the intellectual world. "The metaphysical truths," he +says, "styled eternal have been established by God, and, like the rest +of his creatures, depend entirely upon him. To say that these truths are +independent of him is to speak of God as a Jupiter or a Saturn,--to +subject him to Styx and the Fates."[35] The laws of thought, the truths +of number, are the decrees of God. The expression is anthropomorphic, no +less than the dogma of material creation; but it is an attempt to affirm +the unity of the intellectual and the material world. Descartes +establishes a philosophic monotheism,--by which the medieval polytheism +of substantial forms, essences and eternal truths fades away before God, +who is the ruler of the intellectual world no less than of the kingdom +of nature and of grace. + +To attach a clear and definite meaning to the Cartesian doctrine of God, +to show how much of it comes from the Christian theology and how much +from the logic of idealism, how far the conception of a personal being +as creator and preserver mingles with the pantheistic conception of an +infinite and perfect something which is all in all, would be to go +beyond Descartes and to ask for a solution of difficulties of which he +was scarcely aware. It seems impossible to deny that the tendency of +his principles and his arguments is mainly in the line of a metaphysical +absolute, as the necessary completion and foundation of all being and +knowledge. Through the truthfulness of that God as the author of all +truth he derives a guarantee for our perceptions in so far as these are +clear and distinct. And it is in guaranteeing the veracity of our clear +and distinct conceptions that the value of his deduction of God seems in +his own estimate to rest. All conceptions which do not possess these two +attributes--of being vivid in themselves and discriminated from all +others--cannot be true. But the larger part of our conceptions are in +such a predicament. We think of things not in the abstract elements of +the things themselves, but in connexion with, and in language which +presupposes, other things. Our idea of body, e.g., involves colour and +weight, and yet when we try to think carefully, and without assuming +anything, we find that we cannot attach any distinct idea to these terms +when applied to body. In truth therefore these attributes do not belong +to body at all; and if we go on in the same way testing the received +qualities of matter, we shall find that in the last resort we understand +nothing by it but extension, with the secondary and derivative +characters of divisibility and mobility. + +But it would again be useless to ask how extension as the characteristic +attribute of matter is related to mind which thinks, and how God is to +be regarded in reference to extension. The force of the universe is +swept up and gathered in God, who communicates motion to the parts of +extension, and sustains that motion from moment to moment; and in the +same way the force of mind has really been concentrated in God. Every +moment one expects to find Descartes saying with Hobbes that man's +thought has created God, or with Spinoza and Malebranche that it is God +who really thinks in the apparent thought of man. After all, the +metaphysical theology of Descartes, however essential in his own eyes, +serves chiefly as the ground for constructing his theory of man and of +the universe. His fundamental hypothesis relegates to God all forces in +their ultimate origin. Hence the world is left open for the free play of +mechanics and geometry. The disturbing conditions of will, life and +organic forces are eliminated from the problem; he starts with the clear +and distinct idea of extension, figured and moved, and thence by +mathematical laws he gives a hypothetical explanation of all things. +Such explanation of physical phenomena is the main problem of Descartes, +and it goes on encroaching upon territories once supposed proper to the +mind. Descartes began with the certainty that we are thinking beings; +that region remains untouched; but up to its very borders the mechanical +explanation of nature reigns unchecked. + + +Physical theory. + +The physical theory, in its earlier form in _The World_, and later in +the _Principles of Philosophy_ (which the present account follows), +rests upon the metaphysical conclusions of the _Meditations_. It +proposes to set forth the genesis of the existing universe from +principles which can be plainly understood, and according to the +acknowledged laws of the transmission of movement. The idea of force is +one of those obscure conceptions which originate in an obscure region, +in the sense of muscular power. The true physical conception is motion, +the ultimate ground of which is to be sought in God's infinite power. +Accordingly the quantity of movement in the universe, like its mover, +can neither increase nor diminish. The only circumstance which physics +has to consider is the transference of movement from one particle to +another, and the change of its direction. Man himself cannot increase +the sum of motion; he can only alter its direction. The whole conception +of force may disappear from a theory of the universe; and we can adopt a +geometrical definition of motion as the shifting of one body from the +neighbourhood of those bodies which immediately touch it, and which are +assumed to be at rest, to the neighbourhood of other bodies. Motion, in +short, is strictly locomotion, and nothing else. + +Descartes has laid down three laws of nature, and seven secondary laws +regarding impact. The latter are to a large extent incorrect. The first +law affirms that every body, so far as it is altogether unaffected by +extraneous causes, always perseveres in the same state of motion or of +rest; and the second law that simple or elementary motion is always in a +straight line.[36] These doctrines of inertia, and of the composite +character of curvilinear motion, were scarcely apprehended even by +Kepler or Galileo; but they follow naturally from the geometrical +analysis of Descartes. + + +Theory of vortices. + +Extended body has no limits to its extent, though the power of God has +divided it in lines discriminating its parts in endless ways. The +infinite universe is infinitely full of matter. Empty space, as +distinguished from material extension, is a fictitious abstraction. +There is no such thing really as a vacuum, any more than there are atoms +or ultimate indivisible particles. In both these doctrines of _à priori_ +science Descartes has not been subverted, but, if anything, corroborated +by the results of experimental physics; for the so-called atoms of +chemical theory already presuppose, from the Cartesian point of view, +certain aggregations of the primitive particles of matter. Descartes +regards matter as uniform in character throughout the universe; he +anticipates, as it were, from his own transcendental ground, the +revelations of spectrum analysis as applied to the sun and stars. We +have then to think of a full universe of matter (and matter = extension) +divided and figured with endless variety, and set (and kept) in motion +by God; and any sort of division, figure and motion will serve the +purposes of our supposition as well as another. "Scarcely any +supposition,"[37] he says, "can be made from which the same result, +though possibly with greater difficulty, might not be deduced by the +same laws of nature; for since, in virtue of these laws, matter +successively assumes all the forms of which it is capable, if we +consider these forms in order, we shall at one point or other reach the +existing form of the world, so that no error need here be feared from a +false supposition." As the movement of one particle in a closely-packed +universe is only possible if all other parts move simultaneously, so +that the last in the series steps into the place of the first; and as +the figure and division of the particles varies in each point in the +universe, there will inevitably at the same instant result throughout +the universe an innumerable host of more or less circular movements, and +of vortices or whirlpools of material particles varying in size and +velocity. Taking for convenience a limited portion of the universe, we +observe that in consequence of the circular movement, the particles of +matter have their corners pared off by rubbing against each other; and +two species of matter thus arise,--one consisting of small globules +which continue their circular motion with a (centrifugal) tendency to +fly off from the centre as they swing round the axis of rotation, while +the other, consisting of the fine dust--the filings and parings of the +original particles--gradually becoming finer and finer, and losing its +velocity, tends (centripetally) to accumulate in the centre of the +vortex, which has been gradually left free by the receding particles of +globular matter. This finer matter which collects in the centre of each +vortex is the _first_ matter of Descartes--it constitutes the sun or +star. The spherical particles are the _second_ matter of Descartes, and +their tendency to propel one another from the centre in straight lines +towards the circumference of each vortex is what gives rise to the +phenomenon of light radiating from the central star. This second matter +is atmosphere or firmament, which envelops and revolves around the +central accumulation of first matter. + +A third form of matter is produced from the original particles. As the +small filings produced by friction seek to pass through the interstices +between the rapidly revolving spherical particles in the vortex, they +are detained and become twisted and channelled in their passage, and +when they reach the edge of the inner ocean of solar dust they settle +upon it as the froth and foam produced by the agitation of water gathers +upon its surface. These form what we term spots in the sun. In some +cases they come and go, or dissolve into an aether round the sun; but in +other cases they gradually increase until they form a dense crust round +the central nucleus. In course of time the star, with its expansive +force diminished, suffers encroachments from the neighbouring vortices, +and at length they catch it up. If the velocity of the decaying star be +greater than that of any part of the vortex which has swept it up, it +will ere long pass out of the range of that vortex, and continue its +movement from one to another. Such a star is a comet. But in other cases +the encrusted star settles in that portion of the revolving vortex which +has a velocity equivalent to its own, and so continues to revolve in the +vortex, wrapped in its own firmament. Such a reduced and impoverished +star is a planet; and the several planets of our solar system are the +several vortices which from time to time have been swept up by the +central sun-vortex. The same considerations serve to explain the moon +and other satellites. They too were once vortices, swallowed up by some +other, which at a later day fell a victim to the sweep of our sun. + +Such in mere outline is the celebrated theory of _vortices_, which for +about twenty years after its promulgation reigned supreme in science, +and for much longer time opposed a tenacious resistance to rival +doctrines. It is one of the grandest hypotheses which ever have been +formed to account by mechanical processes for the movements of the +universe. While chemistry rests in the acceptance of ultimate +heterogeneous elements, the vortex-theory assumed uniform matter through +the universe, and reduced cosmical physics to the same principles as +regulate terrestrial phenomena. It ended the old Aristotelian +distinction between the sphere beneath the moon and the starry spaces +beyond. It banished the spirits and genii, to which even Kepler had +assigned the guardianship of the planetary movements; and, if it +supposes the globular particles of the envelope to be the active force +in carrying the earth round the sun, we may remember that Newton himself +assumed an aether for somewhat similar purposes. The great argument on +which the Cartesians founded their opposition to the Newtonian doctrine +was that attraction was an occult quality, not wholly intelligible by +the aid of mere mechanics. The Newtonian theory is an analysis of the +elementary movements which in their combination determine the planetary +orbits, and gives the formula of the proportions according to which they +act. But the Cartesian theory, like the later speculations of Kant and +Laplace, proposes to give a hypothetical explanation of the +circumstances and motions which in the normal course of things led to +the state of things required by the law of attraction. In the judgment +of D'Alembert the Cartesian theory was the best that the observations of +the age admitted; and "its explanation of gravity was one of the most +ingenious hypotheses which philosophy ever imagined." That the +explanation fails in detail is undoubted: it does not account for the +ellipticity of the planets; it would place the sun, not in one focus, +but in the centre of the ellipse; and it would make gravity directed +towards the centre only under the equator. But these defects need not +blind us to the fact that this hypothesis made the mathematical progress +of Hooke, Borelli and Newton much more easy and certain. Descartes +professedly assumed a simplicity in the phenomena which they did not +present. But such a hypothetical simplicity is the necessary step for +solving the more complex problems of nature. The danger lies not in +forming such hypotheses, but in regarding them as final, or as more than +an attempt to throw light upon our observation of the phenomena. In +doing what he did, Descartes actually exemplified that reduction of the +processes of nature to mere transposition of the particles of matter, +which in different ways was a leading idea in the minds of Bacon, Hobbes +and Gassendi. The defects of Descartes lie rather in his apparently +imperfect apprehension of the principle of movements uniformly +accelerated which his contemporary Galileo had illustrated and insisted +upon, and in the indistinctness which attaches to his views of the +transmission of motion in cases of impact. It should be added that the +modern theory of vortex-atoms (Lord Kelvin's) to explain the +constitution of matter has but slight analogy with Cartesian doctrine, +and finds a parallel, if anywhere, in a modification of that doctrine by +Malebranche. + + +Optical theories. + +Besides the last two parts of the _Principles of Philosophy_, the +physical writings of Descartes include the _Dioptrics_ and _Meteors_, as +well as passages in the letters. His optical investigations are perhaps +the subject in which he most contributed to the progress of science; +and the lucidity of exposition which marks his _Dioptrics_ stands +conspicuous even amid the generally luminous style of his works. Its +object is a practical one, to determine by scientific considerations the +shape of lens best adapted to improve the capabilities of the telescope, +which had been invented not long before. The conclusions at which he +arrives have not been so useful as he imagined, in consequence of the +mechanical difficulties. But the investigation by which he reaches them +has the merit of first prominently publishing and establishing the law +of the refraction of light. Attempts have been made, principally founded +on some remarks of Huygens, to show that Descartes had learned the +principles of refraction from the manuscript of a treatise by Willebrord +Snell, but the facts are uncertain; and, so far as Descartes founds his +optics on any one, it is probably on the researches of Kepler. In any +case the discovery is to some extent his own, for his proof of the law +is founded upon the theory that light is the propagation of the aether +in straight lines from the sun or luminous body to the eye (see LIGHT). +Thus he approximates to the wave theory of light, though he supposed +that the transmission of light was instantaneous. The chief of his other +contributions to optics was the explanation of the rainbow--an +explanation far from complete, since the unequal refrangibility of the +rays of light was yet undiscovered--but a decided advance upon his +predecessors, notably on the _De radiis visus et lucis_ (1611) of +Marc-Antonio de Dominis, archbishop of Spalato. + +If Descartes had contented himself with thus explaining the phenomena of +gravity, heat, magnetism, light and similar forces by means of the +molecular movements of his vortices, even such a theory would have +excited admiration. But he did not stop short in the region of what is +usually termed physics. Chemistry and biology are alike swallowed up in +the one science of physics, and reduced to a problem of mechanism. This +theory, he believed, would afford an explanation of every phenomenon +whatever, and in nearly every department of knowledge he has given +specimens of its power. But the most remarkable and daring application +of the theory was to account for the phenomena of organic life, +especially in animals and man. "If we possessed a thorough knowledge," +he says,[38] "of all the parts of the seed of any species of animal +(e.g. man), we could from that alone, by reasons entirely mathematical +and certain, deduce the whole figure and conformation of each of its +members, and, conversely, if we knew several peculiarities of this +conformation, we could from these deduce the nature of its seed." The +organism in this way is regarded as a machine, constructed from the +particles of the seed, which in virtue of the laws of motion have +arranged themselves (always under the governing power of God) in the +particular animal shape in which we see them. The doctrine of the +circulation of the blood, which Descartes adopted from Harvey, supplied +additional arguments in favour of his mechanical theory, and he probably +did much to popularize the discovery. A fire without light, compared to +the heat which gathers in a haystack when the hay has been stored before +it was properly dry--heat, in short, as an agitation of the +particles--is the motive cause of the contraction and dilatations of the +heart. Those finer particles of the blood which become extremely +rarefied during this process pass off in two directions--one portion, +and the least important in the theory, to the organs of generation, the +other portion to the cavities of the brain. There not merely do they +serve to nourish the organ, they also give rise to a fine ethereal flame +or wind through the action of the brain upon them, and thus form the +so-called "animal" spirits. From the brain these spirits are conveyed +through the body by means of the nerves, regarded by Descartes as +tubular vessels, resembling the pipes conveying the water of a spring to +act upon the mechanical appliances in an artificial fountain. The nerves +conduct the animal spirits to act upon the muscles, and in their turn +convey the impressions of the organs to the brain. + + +Automatism. + +Man and the animals as thus described are compared to automata, and +termed machines. The vegetative and sensitive souls which the +Aristotelians had introduced to break the leap between inanimate matter +and man are ruthlessly swept away; only one soul, the rational, remains, +and that is restricted to man. One hypothesis supplants the various +principles of life; the rule of absolute mechanism is as complete in the +animal as in the cosmos. Reason and thought, the essential quality of +the soul, do not belong to the brutes; there is an impassable gulf fixed +between man and the lower animals. The only sure sign of reason is the +power of language--i.e. of giving expression to general ideas; and +language in that sense is not found save in man. The cries of animals +are but the working of the curiously-contrived machine, in which, when +one portion is touched in a certain way, the wheels and springs +concealed in the interior perform their work, and, it may be, a note +supposed to express joy or pain is evolved; but there is no +consciousness or feeling. "The animals act naturally and by springs, +like a watch."[39] "The greatest of all the prejudices we have retained +from our infancy is that of believing that the beasts think."[40] If the +beasts can properly be said to see at all, "they see as we do when our +mind is distracted and keenly applied elsewhere; the images of outward +objects paint themselves on the retina, and possibly even the +impressions made in the optic nerves determine our limbs to different +movements, but we feel nothing of it all, and move as if we were +automata."[41] The sentience of the animal to the lash of his tyrant is +not other than the sensitivity of the plant to the influences of light +and heat. It is not much comfort to learn further from Descartes that +"he denies life to no animal, but makes it consist in the mere heat of +the heart. Nor does he deny them feeling in so far as it depends on the +bodily organs."[42] + +Descartes, with an unusual fondness for the letter of Scripture, quotes +oftener than once in support of this monstrous doctrine. the dictum, +"the blood is the life"; and he remarks, with some sarcasm possibly, +that it is a comfortable theory for the eaters of animal flesh. And the +doctrine found acceptance among some whom it enabled to get rid of the +difficulties raised by Montaigne and those who allowed more difference +between animal and animal than between the higher animals and man. It +also encouraged vivisection--a practice common with Descartes +himself.[43] The recluses of Port Royal seized it eagerly, discussed +automatism, dissected living animals in order to show to a morbid +curiosity the circulation of the blood, were careless of the cries of +tortured dogs, and finally embalmed the doctrine in a syllogism of their +logic,--No matter thinks; every soul of beast is matter: therefore no +soul of beast thinks. + + +Relation of mind and body. + +But whilst all the organic processes in man go on mechanically, and +though by reflex action he may repel attack unconsciously, still the +first affirmation of the system was that man was essentially a thinking +being; and, while we retain this original dictum, it must not be +supposed that the mind is a mere spectator, or like the boatman in the +boat. Of course a unity of nature is impossible between mind and body so +described. And yet there is a unity of composition, a unity so close +that the compound is "really one and in a sense indivisible." You cannot +in the actual man cut soul and body asunder; they interpenetrate in +every member. But there is one point in the human frame--a point midway +in the brain, single and free, which may in a special sense be called +the seat of the mind. This is the so-called conarion, or pineal gland, +where in a minimized point the mind on one hand and the vital spirits on +the other meet and communicate. In that gland the mystery of creation is +concentrated; thought meets extension and directs it; extension moves +towards thought and is perceived. Two clear and distinct ideas, it +seems, produce an absolute mystery. Mind, driven from the field of +extension, erects its last fortress in the pineal gland. In such a state +of despair and destitution there is no hope for spiritualism, save in +God; and Clauberg, Geulincx and Malebranche all take refuge under the +shadow of his wings to escape the tyranny of extended matter. + + +Psychology. + +In the psychology of Descartes there are two fundamental modes of +thought,--perception and volition. "It seems to me," he says, "that in +receiving such and such an idea the mind is passive, and that it is +active only in volition; that its ideas are put in it partly by the +objects which touch the senses, partly by the impressions in the brain, +and partly also by the dispositions which have preceded in the mind +itself and by the movements of its will."[44] The will, therefore, as +being more originative, has more to do with true or false judgments than +the understanding. Unfortunately, Descartes is too lordly a philosopher +to explain distinctly what either understanding or will may mean. But we +gather that in two directions our reason is bound up with bodily +conditions, which make or mar it, according as the will, or central +energy of thought, is true to itself or not. In the range of perception, +intellect is subjected to the material conditions of sense, memory and +imagination; and in infancy, when the will has allowed itself to assent +precipitately to the conjunctions presented to it by these material +processes, thought has become filled with obscure ideas. In the moral +sphere the passions or emotions (which Descartes reduces to the six +primitive forms of admiration, love, hatred, desire, joy and sadness) +are the perceptions or sentiments of the mind, caused and maintained by +some movement of the vital spirits, but specially referring to the mind +only. The presentation of some object of dread, for example, to the eye +has or may have a double effect. On one hand the animal spirits +"reflected"[45] from the image formed on the pineal gland proceed +through the nervous tubes to make the muscles turn the back and lift the +feet, so as to escape the cause of the terror. Such is the reflex and +mechanical movement independent of the mind. But, on the other hand, the +vital spirits cause a movement in the gland by which the mind perceives +the affection of the organs, learns that something is to be loved or +hated, admired or shunned. Such perceptions dispose the mind to pursue +what nature dictates as useful. But the estimate of goods and evils +which they give is indistinct and unsatisfactory. The office of reason +is to give a true and distinct appreciation of the values of goods and +evils; or firm and determinate judgments touching the knowledge of good +and evil are our proper arms against the influence of the passions.[46] +We are free, therefore, through knowledge: _ex magna luce in intellectu +sequitur magna propensio in voluntate_, and _omnis peccans est +ignorans_. "If we clearly see that what we are doing is wrong, it would +be impossible for us to sin, so long as we saw it in that light."[47] +Thus the highest liberty, as distinguished from mere indifference, +proceeds from clear and distinct knowledge, and such knowledge can only +be attained by firmness and resolution, i.e. by the continued exercise +of the will. Thus in the perfection of man, as in the nature of God, +will and intellect must be united. For thought, will is as necessary as +understanding. And innate ideas therefore are mere capacities or +tendencies,--possibilities which apart from the will to think may be +regarded as nothing at all. + +_The Cartesian School._--The philosophy of Descartes fought its first +battles and gained its first triumphs in the country of his adoption. In +his lifetime his views had been taught in Utrecht and Leiden. In the +universities of the Netherlands and of lower Germany, as yet free from +the conservatism of the old-established seats of learning, the new +system gained an easy victory over Aristotelianism, and, as it was +adapted for lectures and examinations, soon became almost as scholastic +as the doctrines it had supplanted. At Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, +Franeker, Breda, Nimeguen, Harderwyk, Duisburg and Herborn, and at the +Catholic university of Louvain, Cartesianism was warmly expounded and +defended in seats of learning, of which many are now left desolate, and +by adherents whose writings have for the most part long lost interest +for any but the antiquary. + + +Holland. + +The Cartesianism of Holland was a child of the universities, and its +literature is mainly composed of commentaries upon the original texts, +of theses discussed in the schools, and of systematic expositions of +Cartesian philosophy for the benefit of the student. Three names stand +out in this Cartesian professoriate,--Wittich, Clauberg and Geulincx. +Christoph Wittich (1625-1687), professor at Duisburg and Leiden, is a +representative of the moderate followers who professed to reconcile the +doctrines of their school with the faith of Christendom and to refute +the theology of Spinoza. Johann Clauberg (q.v.) commented clause by +clause upon the _Meditations_ of Descartes; but he specially claims +notice for his work _De corporis et animae in homine conjunctione_, +where he maintains that the bodily movements are merely procatarctic +causes (i.e. antecedents, but not strictly causes) of the mental action, +and sacrifices the independence of man to the omnipotence of God. The +same tendency is still more pronounced in Arnold Geulincx (q.v.). With +him the reciprocal action of mind and body is altogether denied; they +resemble two clocks, so made by the artificer as to strike the same hour +together. The mind can act only upon itself; beyond that limit, the +power of God must intervene to make any seeming interaction possible +between body and soul. Such are the half-hearted attempts at consistency +in Cartesian thought, which eventually culminate in the pantheism of +Spinoza (see CARTESIANISM). + +Descartes occasionally had not scrupled to interpret the Scriptures +according to his own tenets, while still maintaining, when their letter +contradicted him, that the Bible was not meant to teach the sciences. +Similar tendencies are found amongst his followers. Whilst Protestant +opponents put him in the list of atheists like Vanini, and the Catholics +held him as dangerous as Luther or Calvin, there were zealous adherents +who ventured to prove the theory of vortices in harmony with the book of +Genesis. It was this rationalistic treatment of the sacred writings +which helped to confound the Cartesians with the allegorical school of +John Cocceius, as their liberal doctrines in theology justified the +vulgar identification of them with the heresies of Socinian and +Arminian. The chief names in this advanced theology connected with +Cartesian doctrines are Ludwig Meyer, the friend and editor of Spinoza, +author of a work termed _Philosophia scripturae interpres_ (1666); +Balthasar Bekker, whose _World Bewitched_ helped to discredit the +superstitious fancies about the devil; and Spinoza, whose _Tractatus +theologico-politicus_ is in some respects the classical type of rational +criticism up to the present day. Against this work and the _Ethics_ of +Spinoza the orthodox Cartesians (who were in the majority), no less than +sceptical hangers-on like Bayle, raised an all but universal howl of +reprobation, scarcely broken for about a century. + + +France. + +In France Cartesianism won society and literature before it penetrated +into the universities. Clerselier (the friend of Descartes and his +literary executor), his son-in-law Rohault (who achieved that +relationship through his Cartesianism), and others, opened their houses +for readings to which the intellectual world of Paris--its learned +professors not more than the courtiers and the fair sex,--flocked to +hear the new doctrines explained, and possibly discuss their value. +Grand seigneurs, like the prince of Condé, the duc de Nevers and the +marquis de Vardes, were glad to vary the monotony of their feudal +castles by listening to the eloquent rehearsals of Malebranche or Regis. +And the salons of Mme de Sévigné, of her daughter Mme de Grignan, and of +the duchesse de Maine for a while gave the questions of philosophy a +place among the topics of polite society, and furnished to Molière the +occasion of his _Femmes savantes_. The Château of the duc de Luynes, the +translator of the _Meditations_, was the home of a Cartesian club, that +discussed the questions of automatism and of the composition of the sun +from filings and parings, and rivalled Port Royal in its vivisections. +The cardinal de Retz in his leisurely age at Commercy found amusement in +presiding at disputations between the more moderate Cartesians and Don +Robert Desgabets, who interpreted Descartes in an original way of his +own. Though rejected by the Jesuits, who found peripatetic formulae a +faithful weapon against the enemies of the church, Cartesianism was +warmly adopted by the Oratory, which saw in Descartes something of St +Augustine, by Port Royal, which discovered a connexion between the new +system and Jansenism, and by some amongst the Benedictines and the order +of Ste Geneviève. + +The popularity which Cartesianism thus gained in the social and literary +circles of the capital was largely increased by the labours of +Pierre-Sylvain Regis (1632-1707). On his visit to Toulouse in 1665, with +a mission from the Cartesian chiefs, his lectures excited boundless +interest; ladies threw themselves with zeal and ability into the study +of philosophy; and Regis himself was made the guest of the civic +corporation. In 1671 scarcely less enthusiasm was roused in Montpellier; +and in 1680 he opened a course of lectures at Paris, with such +acceptance that hearers had to take their seats in advance. Regis, by +removing the paradoxes and adjusting the metaphysics to the popular +powers of apprehension, made Cartesianism popular, and reduced it to a +regular system. + +But a check was at hand. Descartes, in his correspondence with the +Jesuits, had shown an almost cringing eagerness to have their powerful +organization on his side. Especially he had written to Père Mesland, one +of the order, to show how the Catholic doctrine of the eucharist might +be made compatible with his theories of matter. But his undue haste to +arrange matters with the church only served to compromise him more +deeply. Unwise admirers and malicious opponents exaggerated the +theological bearings of his system in this detail; and the efforts of +the Jesuits succeeded in getting the works of Descartes, in November +1663, placed upon the index of prohibited books,--_donec corrigantur_. +Thereupon the power of church and state enforced by positive enactments +the passive resistance of old institutions to the novel theories. In +1667, the oration at the interment was forbidden by royal order. In +1669, when the chair of philosophy at the Collège Royal fell vacant, one +of the four selected candidates had to sustain a thesis against "the +pretended new philosophy of Descartes." In 1671 the archbishop of Paris, +by the king's order, summoned the heads of the university to his +presence, and enjoined them to take stricter measures against +philosophical novelties dangerous to the faith. In 1673 a decree of the +parlement against Cartesian and other unlicensed theories was on the +point of being issued, and was only checked in time by the appearance of +a burlesque mandamus against the intruder Reason, composed by Boileau +and some of his brother-poets. Yet in 1675 the university of Angers was +empowered to repress all Cartesian teaching within its domain, and +actually appointed a commission charged to look for such heresies in the +theses and the students' note-books of the college of Anjou belonging to +the Oratory. In 1677 the university of Caen adopted not less stringent +measures against Cartesianism. And so great was the influence of the +Jesuits, that the congregation of St Maur, the canons of Ste Geneviève, +and the Oratory laid their official ban on the obnoxious doctrines. From +the real or fancied _rapprochements_ between Cartesianism and Jansenism, +it became for a while impolitic, if not dangerous, to avow too loudly a +preference for Cartesian theories. Regis was constrained to hold back +for ten years his _System of Philosophy_; and when it did appear, in +1690, the name of Descartes was absent from the title-page. There were +other obstacles besides the mild persecutions of the church. Pascal and +other members of Port Royal openly expressed their doubts about the +place allowed to God in the system; the adherents of Gassendi met it by +resuscitating atoms; and the Aristotelians maintained their substantial +forms as of old; the Jesuits argued against the arguments for the being +of God, and against the theory of innate ideas; whilst Pierre Daniel +Huet (1630-1721), bishop of Avranches, once a Cartesian himself, made a +vigorous onslaught on the contempt in which his former comrades held +literature and history, and enlarged on the vanity of all human +aspirations after rational truth. + +The greatest and most original of the French Cartesians was Malebranche +(q.v.). His _Recherche de la vérité_, in 1674, was the baptism of the +system into a theistic religion which borrowed its imagery from +Augustine; it brought into prominence the metaphysical base which Louis +Delaforge, Jacques Rohault and Regis had neither cared for nor +understood. But this doctrine was a criticism and a divergence, no less +than a consequence, from the principles in Descartes; and it brought +upon Malebranche the opposition, not merely of the Cartesian +physicists, but also of Arnauld, Fénelon and Bossuet, who found, or +hoped to find, in the _Meditations_, as properly understood, an ally for +theology. Popular enthusiasm, however, was with Malebranche, as twenty +years before it had been with Descartes; he was the fashion of the day; +and his disciples rapidly increased both in France and abroad. + +In 1705 Cartesianism was still subject to prohibitions from the +authorities; but in a project of new statutes, drawn up for the faculty +of arts at Paris in 1720, the _Method_ and _Meditations_ of Descartes +were placed beside the _Organon_ and the _Metaphysics_ of Aristotle as +text-books for philosophical study. And before 1725, readings, both +public and private, were given from Cartesian texts in some of the +Parisian colleges. But when this happened, Cartesianism was no longer +either interesting or dangerous; its theories, taught as ascertained and +verified truths, were as worthless as the systematic verbiage which +preceded them. Already antiquated, it could not resist the wit and +raillery with which Voltaire, in his _Lettres sur les Anglais_ (1728), +brought against it the principles and results of Locke and Newton. The +old Cartesians, Jean Jacques Dortous de Mairan (1678-1771) and +especially Fontenelle, with his _Théorie des tourbillons_ (1752), +struggled in vain to refute Newton by styling attraction an occult +quality. Fortunately the Cartesian method had already done its service, +even where the theories were rejected. The Port Royalists, Pierre Nicole +(1625-1695) and Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694), had applied it to grammar +and logic; Jean Domat or Daumat (1625-1696) and Henri François +Daugesseau (1668-1751) to jurisprudence; Fontenelle, Charles Perrault +(1628-1703) and Jean Terrasson (1670-1750) to literary criticism, and a +worthier estimate of modern literature. Though it never ceased to +influence individual thinkers, it had handed on to Condillac its +popularity with the masses. A Latin abridgment of philosophy, dated +1784, tells us that the innate ideas of Descartes are founded on no +arguments, and are now universally abandoned. The ghost of innate ideas +seems to be all that it had left. + + +Germany. + +In Germany a few Cartesian lecturers taught at Leipzig and Halle, but +the system took no root, any more than in Switzerland, where it had a +brief reign at Geneva after 1669. In Italy the effects were more +permanent. What is termed the iatro-mechanical school of medicine, with +G. A. Borelli (1608-1679) as its most notable name, entered in a way on +the mechanical study of anatomy suggested by Descartes, but was probably +much more dependent upon the positive researches of Galileo. At Naples +there grew up a Cartesian school, of which the best known members are +Michel Angelo Fardella (1650-1708) and Cardinal Gerdil (1718-1802), both +of whom, however, attached themselves to the characteristic views of +Malebranche. + + +England. + +In England Cartesianism took but slight hold. Henry More, who had given +it a modified sympathy in the lifetime of the author, became its +opponent in later years; and Cudworth differed from it in most essential +points. Antony Legrand, from Douai, attempted to introduce it into +Oxford, but failed. He is the author of several works, amongst others a +system of Cartesian philosophy, where a chapter on "Angels" revives the +methods of the schoolmen. His chief opponent was Samuel Parker +(1640-1688), bishop of Oxford, who, in his attack on the irreligious +novelties of the Cartesian, treats Descartes as a fellow-criminal in +infidelity with Hobbes and Gassendi. Rohault's version of the Cartesian +physics was translated into English; and Malebranche found an ardent +follower in John Norris (1667-1711). Of Cartesianism towards the close +of the 17th century the only remnants were an overgrown theory of +vortices, which received its death-blow from Newton, and a dubious +phraseology anent innate ideas, which found a witty executioner in +Locke. + +For an account of the metaphysical doctrines of Descartes, in their +connexions with Malebranche and Spinoza, see CARTESIANISM. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--I. _Editions and Translations._--The collected works + of Descartes were published in Latin in 8 vols. at Amsterdam + (1670-1683), in 7 vols. at Frankfort (1697) and in 9 vols. by Elzevir + (1713); in French in 13 vols. (Paris, 1724-1729), republished by + Victor Cousin (Paris, 1824-1826) in 11 vols., and again under the + authority of the minister of public instruction by C. Adam and P. + Tannery (1897 foll.). These include his so-called posthumous works. + _The Rules for the Direction of the Mind_, _The Search for Truth by + the Light of Nature_, and other unimportant fragments, published (in + Latin) in 1701. In 1859-1860 Foucher de Careil published in two parts + some unedited writings of Descartes from copies taken by Leibnitz + from the original papers. Six editions of the _Opera philosophica_ + appeared at Amsterdam between 1650 and 1678; a two-volume edition at + Leipzig in 1843; there are also French editions, _OEuvres + philosophiques_, by A. Garnier, 3 vols. (1834-1835), and L. + Aimé-Martin (1838) and _OEuvres morales et philosophiques_ by + Aimé-Martin with an introduction on life and works by Amedée Prévost + (Paris, 1855); _OEuvres choisies_ (1850) by Jules Simon. A complete + French edition of the collected works was begun in the Romance + Library (1907 foll.). German translations by J. H. von Kirchmann + under the title _Philosophische Werke_ (with biography, &c., Berlin, + 1868; 2nd ed., 1882-1891), by Kuno Fischer, _Die Hauptschriften zur + Grundlegung seiner Philosophie_ (1863), with introduction by Ludwig + Fischer (1892). There are also numerous editions and translations of + separate works, especially the _Method_, in French, German, Italian, + Spanish and Hungarian. There are English translations by J. Veitch, + _Method, Meditations and Selections from the Principles_ (1850-1853; + 11th ed., 1897; New York, 1899); by H. A. P. Torrey (New York, 1892). + + II. _Biographical._--A. Baillet, _La Vie de M. Des Cartes_ (Paris, + 1691; Eng. trans., 1692), exhaustive but uncritical; notices in the + editions of Garnier and Aimé-Martin; A. Hoffmann, _René Descartes_ + (1905); Elizabeth S. Haldane, _Descartes, his Life and Times_ (1905), + containing full bibliography; A. Barbier, _René Descartes, sa + famille, son lieu de naissance_, &c. (1901); Richard Lowndes, _René + Descartes, his Life and Meditations_ (London, 1878); J. P. Mahaffy, + _Descartes_ (1902), with an appendix on Descartes's mathematical work + by Frederick Purser; Victor de Swarte, _Descartes directeur + spirituel_ (Paris, 1904), correspondence with the Princess Palatine; + C. J. Jeannel, _Descartes et la princesse palatine_ (Paris, 1869); + _Lettres de M. Descartes_, ed. Claude Clerselier (1657). A useful + sketch of recent biographies is to be found in _The Edinburgh Review_ + (July 1906). + + III. _Philosophy._--Beside the histories of philosophy, the article + CARTESIANISM, and the above works, consult J. B. Bordas-Demoulini _Le + Cartésianisme_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1874); J. P. Damiron, _Histoire de la + philosophie du XVII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1846); C. B. Renouvier, _Manuel + de philosophie moderne_ (Paris, 1842); V. Cousin, _Fragments + philosophiques_, vol. ii. (3rd ed., Paris, 1838), _Fragments de + philosophie cartésienne_ (Paris, 1845), and in the _Journal des + savants_ (1860-1861); F. Bouillier, _Hist. de la philosophie + cartésienne_ (Paris, 1854), 2 vols., and _Hist. et critique de la + révolution cartésienne_ (Paris, 1842); J. Millet, _Descartes, sa vie, + ses travaux, ses découvertes avant 1637_ (Paris, 1867), and _Hist. de + Descartes depuis 1637_ (Paris, 1870); L. Liard, _Descartes_ (Paris, + 1882); A. Fouillée, _Descartes_ (Paris, 1893); _Revue de métaphysique + et de morale_ (July, 1896, Descartes number); Norman Smith, _Studies + in the Cartesian Philosophy_ (1902); R. Keussen, _Bewusstsein und + Erkenntnis bei Descartes_ (1906); A. Kayserling, _Die Idee der + Kausalität in den Lehren der Occasionalisten_ (1896); J. Iverach, + _Descartes, Spinoza and the New Philosophy_ (1904); R. Joerges, _Die + Lehre von den Empfindungen bei Descartes_ (1901); Kuno Fischer, + _Hist. of Mod. Phil. Descartes and his School_ (Eng. trans., 1887); + B. Christiansen, _Das Urteil bei Descartes_ (1902); E. Boutroux, + "Descartes and Cartesianism" in _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iv. + (1906), chap. 27, with a very full bibliography, pp. 950-953; P. + Natorp, _Descartes' Erkenntnisstheorie_ (Marburg, 1882); L. A. + Prévost-Paradol, _Les Moralistes français_ (Paris, 1865); C. + Schaarschmidt, _Descartes und Spinoza_ (Bonn, 1850); R. Adamson, _The + Development of Modern Philosophy_ (Edinburgh, 1903); J. Müller, _Der + Begriff der sittlichen Unvollkommenheit bei Descartes und Spinoza_ + (1890); J. H. von Kirchmann, _R. Descartes' Prinzipien der Philos._ + (1863); G. Touchard, _La Morale de Descartes_ (1898); Lucien + Lévy-Bruhl, _Hist. of Mod. Philos. in France_ (Eng. trans., 1899), + pp. 1-76. + + IV. _Science and Mathematics._--F. Cajori, _History of Mathematics_ + (London, 1894); M. Cantor, _Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der + Mathematik_ (Leipzig, 1894-1901); Sir Michael Foster, _Hist. of + Physiol. during the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries_ + (1901); Duboux, _La Physique de Descartes_ (Lausanne, 1881); G. H. + Zeuthen, _Geschichte der Mathematik im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert_ + (1903); Chasles, _Aperçu historique sur l'origine et le développement + des méthodes en géométrie_ (3rd ed., 1889). (W. W.; X.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It was only published after the author's death; and of it, besides + the French version, there exists an English translation "by a Person + of Quality." + + [2] _OEuvres_, v. 255. + + [3] Ib. vi. 199. + + [4]: _OEuvres_, viii. 59. + + [5] Ib. viii. 173. + + [6] Ib. viii. 181. + + [7] Ib. vi. 123. + + [8] Ib. x. 375. + + [9] Ib. ix. 6. + + [10] Ib. iii. 24. + + [11] Ib. vi. 234. + + [12] Ib. ix. 131. + + [13] Ib. ix. 341. + + [14] Ib. vi. 89. + + [15] Ib. vi. 210. + + [16] Ib. vi. 73. + + [17] Ib. vi. 239. + + [18] Ib. vi. 248. + + [19] _OEuvres_, vi. 276. + + [20] Ib. ix. 250. + + [21] _Princip._ L. iii. S. 45. + + [22] _OEuvres_, x. 26. + + [23] _OEuvres_, x. 3. + + [24] Ib. x. 53. + + [25] _Regulae_, _OEuvres_, xi. 202. + + [26] _OEuvres_, xi. 219. + + [27] _Disc. de méthode_, part ii. + + [28] _Géométrie_, book iii. + + [29] _OEuvres_, xi. 224. + + [30] Ib. xi. 212. + + [31] _Disc. de méthode_, part. ii. + + [32] _OEuvres_, xi. 243. + + [33] Ib. vii. 381. + + [34] _OEuvres_, vi. 132. + + [35] Ib. vi. 109. + + [36] _Princip._ part ii. 37. + + [37] Ib. part iii. 47. + + [38] _OEuvres_, iv. 494. + + [39] Ib. ix. 426. + + [40] Ib. x. 204. + + [41] Ib. vi. 339. + + [42] Ib. x. 208. + + [43] Ib. iv. 452 and 454. + + [44] _OEuvres_, ix. 166. + + [45] _Passions de l'âme_, 36. + + [46] Ib. 48. + + [47] _OEuvres_, ix. 170. + + + + +DESCHAMPS, ÉMILE (1791-1871), French poet and man of letters, was born +at Bourges on the 20th of February 1791. The son of a civil servant, he +adopted his father's career, but as early as 1812 he distinguished +himself by an ode, _La Paix conquise_, which won the praise of Napoleon. +In 1818 he collaborated with Henri de Latouche in two verse comedies, +_Selmours de Florian_ and _Le Tour de faveur_. He and his brother were +among the most enthusiastic disciples of the _cénacle_ gathered round +Victor Hugo, and in July 1823 Émile founded with his master the _Muse +française_, which during the year of its existence was the special +organ of the romantic party. His _Études françaises et étrangères_ +(1828) were preceded by a preface which may be regarded as one of the +manifestos of the romanticists. The versions of Shakespeare's _Romeo and +Juliet_ (1839) and of _Macbeth_ (1844), important as they were in the +history of the romantic movement, were never staged. He was the author +of several libretti, among which may be mentioned the _Roméo et +Juliette_ of Berlioz. The list of his more important works is completed +by his two volumes of stories, _Contes physiologiques_ (1854) and +_Réalités fantastiques_ (1854). He died at Versailles in April 1871. His +_OEuvres complètes_ were published in 1872-1874 (6 vols.). + +His brother, Antoine François Marie, known as ANTONY DESCHAMPS, was born +in Paris on the 12th of March 1800 and died at Passy on the 29th of +October 1869. Like his brother, he was an ardent romanticist, but his +production was limited by a nervous disorder, which has left its mark on +his melancholy work. He translated the _Divina Commedia_ in 1829, and +his poems, _Dernières Paroles_ and _Résignation_, were republished with +his brother's in 1841. + + + + +DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE, called MOREL (1346?-1406?), French poet, was born +at Vertus in Champagne about 1346. He studied at Reims, where he is said +to have received some lessons in the art of versification from Guillaume +de Machaut, who is stated to have been his uncle. From Reims he +proceeded about 1360 to the university of Orleans to study law and the +seven liberal arts. He entered the king's service as royal messenger +about 1367, and was sent on missions to Bohemia, Hungary and Moravia. In +1372 he was made _huissier d'armes_ to Charles V. He received many other +important offices, was _bailli_ of Valois, and afterwards of Senlis, +squire to the Dauphin, and governor of Fismes. In 1380 his patron, +Charles V., died, and in the same year the English burnt down his house +at Vertus. In his childhood he had been an eye-witness of the English +invasion of 1358; he had been present at the siege of Reims and seen the +march on Chartres; he had witnessed the signing of the treaty of +Bretigny; he was now himself a victim of the English fury. His violent +hatred of the English found vent in numerous appeals to carry the war +into England, and in the famous prophecy[1] that England would be +destroyed so thoroughly that no one should be able to point to her +ruins. His own misfortunes and the miseries of France embittered his +temper. He complained continually of poverty, railed against women and +lamented the woes of his country. His last years were spent on his +_Miroir de mariage_, a satire of 13,000 lines against women, which +contains some real comedy. The mother-in-law of French farce has her +prototype in the _Miroir_. + +The historical and patriotic poems of Deschamps are of much greater +value. He does not, like Froissart, cast a glamour over the miserable +wars of the time but gives a faithful picture of the anarchy of France, +and inveighs ceaselessly against the heavy taxes, the vices of the +clergy and especially against those who enrich themselves at the expense +of the people. The terrible ballad with the refrain "_Sà, de l'argent; +sà, de l'argent_" is typical of his work. Deschamps excelled in the use +of the ballade and the chant royal. In each of these forms he was the +greatest master of his time. In ballade form he expressed his regret for +the death of Du Guesclin, who seems to have been the only man except his +patron, Charles V., for whom he ever felt any admiration. One of his +ballades (No. 285) was sent with a copy of his works to Geoffrey +Chaucer, whom he addresses with the words:-- + + "Tu es d'amours mondains dieux en Albie + Et de la Rose en la terre Angélique." + +Deschamps was the author of an _Art poétique_, with the title of _L'Art +de dictier et de fere chancons, balades, virelais et rondeaulx_. Besides +giving rules for the composition of the kinds of verse mentioned in the +title he enunciates some curious theories on poetry. He divides music +into music proper and poetry. Music proper he calls artificial on the +ground that everyone could by dint of study become a musician; poetry he +calls natural because he says it is not an art that can be acquired but +a gift. He lays immense stress on the harmony of verse, because, as was +the fashion of his day, he practically took it for granted that all +poetry was to be sung. + +The work of Deschamps marks an important stage in the history of French +poetry. With him and his contemporaries the long, formless narrations of +the _trouvères_ give place to complicated and exacting kinds of verse. +He was perhaps by nature a moralist and satirist rather than a poet, and +the force and truth of his historical pictures gives him a unique place +in 14th-century poetry. M. Raynaud fixes the date of his death in 1406, +or at latest, 1407. Two years earlier he had been relieved of his charge +as _bailli_ of Senlis, his plain-spoken satires having made him many +enemies at court. + + His _OEuvres complètes_ were edited (10 vols., 1878-1901) for the + _Société des anciens textes français_ by Queux de Saint-Hilaire and + Gaston Raynaud. A supplementary volume consists of an Introduction by + G. Raynaud. See also Dr E. Hoeppner, _Eustache Deschamps_ + (Strassburg, 1904). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] "_De la prophécie Merlin sur la destruction d'Angleterre qui doit + brief advenir_" (_OEuvres_, No. 211). + + + + +DESCHANEL, PAUL EUGÈNE LOUIS (1856- ), French statesman, son of Émile +Deschanel (1819-1904), professor at the Collège de France and senator, +was born at Brussels, where his father was living in exile (1851-1859), +owing to his opposition to Napoleon III. Paul Deschanel studied law, and +began his career as secretary to Deshayes de Marcère (1876), and to +Jules Simon (1876-1877). In October 1885 he was elected deputy for Eure +and Loire. From the first he took an important place in the chamber, as +one of the most notable orators of the Progressist Republican group. In +January 1896 he was elected vice-president of the chamber, and +henceforth devoted himself to the struggle against the Left, not only in +parliament, but also in public meetings throughout France. His addresses +at Marseilles on the 26th of October 1896, at Carmaux on the 27th of +December 1896, and at Roubaix on the 10th of April 1897, were triumphs +of clear and eloquent exposition of the political and social aims of the +Progressist party. In June 1898 he was elected president of the chamber, +and was re-elected in 1901, but rejected in 1902. Nevertheless he came +forward brilliantly in 1904 and 1905 as a supporter of the law on the +separation of church and state. He was elected a member of the French +Academy in 1899, his most notable works being _Orateurs et hommes +d'état_ (1888), _Figures de femmes_ (1889), _La Décentralization_ +(1895), _La Question sociale_ (1898). + + + + +DES CLOIZEAUX, ALFRED LOUIS OLIVIER LEGRAND (1817-1897), French +mineralogist, was born at Beauvais, in the department of Oise, on the +17th of October 1817. He became professor of mineralogy at the École +Normale Supérieure and afterwards at the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle in +Paris. He studied the geysers of Iceland, and wrote also on the +classification of some of the eruptive rocks; but his main work +consisted in the systematic examination of the crystals of numerous +minerals, in researches on their optical properties and on the subject +of polarization. He wrote specially on the means of determining the +different felspars. He was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological +Society of London in 1886. He died in May 1897. His best-known books are +_Leçons de cristallographie_ (1861); _Manuel de minéralogie_ (2 vols., +Paris, 1862, 1874 and 1893). + + + + +DESCLOIZITE, a rare mineral species consisting of basic lead and zinc +vanadate, (Pb, Zn)_2(OH)V0_4, crystallizing in the orthorhombic +system and isomorphous with olivenite. It was discovered by A. Damour in +1854, and named by him in honour of the French mineralogist Des +Cloizeaux. It occurs as small prismatic or pyramidal crystals, usually +forming drusy crusts and stalactitic aggregates; also as fibrous +encrusting masses with a mammillary surface. The colour is deep +cherry-red to brown or black, and the crystals are transparent or +translucent with a greasy lustre; the streak is orange-yellow to brown; +specific gravity 5.9 to 6.2; hardness 3½. A variety known as +cuprodescloizite is dull green in colour; it contains a considerable +amount of copper replacing zinc and some arsenic replacing vanadium. +Descloizite occurs in veins of lead ores in association with +pyromorphite, vanadinite, wulfenite, &c. Localities are the Sierra de +Cordoba in Argentina, Lake Valley in Sierra county, New Mexico, Arizona, +Phoenixville in Pennsylvania, and Kappel (Eisen-Kappel) near Klagenfurt +in Carinthia. + +Other names which have been applied to this species are vanadite, +tritochorite and ramirite; the uncertain vanadates eusynchite, araeoxene +and dechenite are possibly identical with it. + + + + +DESCRIPTIVE POETRY, the name given to a class of literature, which may +be defined as belonging mainly to the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries in +Europe. From the earliest times, all poetry which was not subjectively +lyrical was apt to indulge in ornament which might be named descriptive. +But the critics of the 17th century formed a distinction between the +representations of the ancients and those of the moderns. We find +Boileau emphasizing the statement that, while Virgil _paints_, Tasso +_describes_. This may be a useful indication for us in defining not what +should, but what in practice has been called "descriptive poetry." It is +poetry in which it is not imaginative passion which prevails, but a +didactic purpose, or even something of the instinct of a sublimated +auctioneer. In other words, the landscape, or architecture, or still +life, or whatever may be the object of the poet's attention, is not used +as an accessory, but is itself the centre of interest. It is, in this +sense, not correct to call poetry in which description is only the +occasional ornament of a poem, and not its central subject, descriptive +poetry. The landscape or still life must fill the canvas, or, if human +interest is introduced, that must be treated as an accessory. Thus, in +the _Hero and Leander_ of Marlowe and in the _Alastor_ of Shelley, +description of a very brilliant kind is largely introduced, yet these +are not examples of what is technically called "descriptive poetry," +because it is not the strait between Sestos and Abydos, and it is not +the flora of a tropical glen, which concentrates the attention of the +one poet or of the other, but it is an example of physical passion in +the one case and of intellectual passion in the other, which is +diagnosed and dilated on. On the other hand Thomson's _Seasons_, in +which landscape takes the central place, and Drayton's _Polyolbion_, +where everything is sacrificed to a topographical progress through +Britain, are strictly descriptive. + +It will be obvious from this definition that the danger ahead of all +purely descriptive poetry is that it will lack intensity, that it will +be frigid, if not dead. Description for description's sake, especially +in studied verse, is rarely a vitalized form of literature. It is +threatened, from its very conception, with languor and coldness; it must +exercise an extreme art or be condemned to immediate sterility. Boileau, +with his customary intelligence, was the first to see this, and he +thought that the danger might be avoided by care in technical execution. +His advice to the poets of his time was:-- + + "Soyez riches et pompeux dans vos descriptions; + C'est-là qu'il faut des vers étaler l'élégance," + +and:-- + + "De figure sans nombre égayez votre ouvrage; + Que toute y fasse aux yeux une riante image," + +and in verses of brilliant humour he mocked the writer who, too full of +his subject, and describing for description's sake, will never quit his +theme until he has exhausted it:-- + + "Fuyez de ces auteurs l'abondance stérile + Et ne vous chargez point d'un détail inutile." + +This is excellent advice, but Boileau's humorous sallies do not quite +meet the question whether such purely descriptive poetry as he +criticizes is legitimate at all. + +In England had appeared the famous translation (1592-1611), by Josuah +Sylvester, of the _Divine Weeks and Works_ of Du Bartas, containing such +lines as those which the juvenile Dryden admired so much:-- + + "But when winter's keener breath began + To crystallize the Baltic ocëan, + To glaze the lakes, and bridle up the floods, + And perriwig with wool the bald-pate woods." + +There was also the curious physiological epic of Phineas Fletcher, _The +Purple Island_ (1633). But on the whole it was not until French +influences had made themselves felt on English poetry, that +description, as Boileau conceived it, was cultivated as a distinct art. +The _Cooper's Hill_ (1642) of Sir John Denham may be contrasted with the +less ambitious _Penshurst_ of Ben Jonson, and the one represents the new +no less completely than the other does the old generation. If, however, +we examine _Cooper's Hill_ carefully, we perceive that its aim is after +all rather philosophical than topographical. The Thames is described +indeed, but not very minutely, and the poet is mainly absorbed in moral +reflections. Marvell's long poem on the beauties of Nunappleton comes +nearer to the type. But it is hardly until we reach the 18th century +that we arrive, in English literature, at what is properly known as +descriptive poetry. This was the age in which poets, often of no mean +capacity, began to take such definite themes as a small country estate +(Pomfret's _Choice_, 1700), the cultivation of the grape (Gay's _Wine_, +1708), a landscape (Pope's _Windsor Forest_, 1713), a military +manoeuvre (Addison's _Campaign_, 1704), the industry of an +apple-orchard (Philip's _Cyder_, 1708) or a piece of topography +(Tickell's _Kensington Gardens_, 1722), as the sole subject of a lengthy +poem, generally written in heroic or blank verse. These _tours de force_ +were supported by minute efforts in miniature-painting, by touch applied +to touch, and were often monuments of industry, but they were apt to +lack personal interest, and to suffer from a general and deplorable +frigidity. They were infected with the faults which accompany an +artificial style; they were monotonous, rhetorical and symmetrical, +while the uniformity of treatment which was inevitable to their plan +rendered them hopelessly tedious, if they were prolonged to any great +extent. + +This species of writing had been cultivated to a considerable degree +through the preceding century, in Italy and (as the remarks of Boileau +testify) in France, but it was in England that it reached its highest +importance. The classic of descriptive poetry, in fact, the specimen +which the literature of the world presents which must be considered as +the most important and the most successful, is _The Seasons_ (1726-1730) +of James Thomson (q.v.). In Thomson, for the first time, a poet of +considerable eminence appeared, to whom external nature was all +sufficient, and who succeeded in conducting a long poem to its close by +a single appeal to landscape, and to the emotions which it directly +evokes. Coleridge, somewhat severely, described _The Seasons_ as the +work of a good rather than of a great poet, and it is an indisputable +fact that, at its very best, descriptive poetry fails to awaken the +highest powers of the imagination. A great part of Thomson's poem is +nothing more nor less than a skilfully varied catalogue of natural +phenomena. The famous description of twilight in "the fading +many-coloured woods" of autumn may be taken as an example of the highest +art to which purely descriptive poetry has ever attained. It is obvious, +even here, that the effect of these rich and sonorous lines, in spite of +the splendid effort of the artist, is monotonous, and leads us up to no +final crisis of passion or rapture. Yet Thomson succeeds, as few other +poets of his class have succeeded, in producing nobly-massed effects and +comprehensive beauties such as were utterly unknown to his predecessors. +He was widely imitated in England, especially by Armstrong, by Akenside, +by Shenstone (in _The Schoolmistress_, 1742), by the anonymous author of +_Albania_, 1737, and by Goldsmith (in _The Deserted Village_, 1770). No +better example of the more pedestrian class of descriptive poetry could +be found than the last-mentioned poem, with its minute and Dutch-like +painting:-- + + "How often have I paused on every charm: + The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm; + The never-failing brook, the busy mill, + The decent church that topped the neighbouring hill: + The hawthorn-bush, with seats beneath the shade. + For talking age and whispering lovers made." + +On the continent of Europe the example of Thomson was almost immediately +fruitful. Four several translations of _The Seasons_ into French +contended for the suffrages of the public, and J. F. de Saint-Lambert +(1716-1803) imitated Thomson in _Les Saisons_ (1769), a poem which +enjoyed popularity for half a century, and of which Voltaire said that +it was the only one of its generation which would reach posterity. +Nevertheless, as Madame du Deffand told Walpole, Saint-Lambert is +"_froid, fade et faux,_" and the same may be said of J. A. Roucher +(1745-1794), who wrote _Les Mois_ in 1779, a descriptive poem famous in +its day. The Abbé Jacques Delille (1738-1813), perhaps the most +ambitious descriptive poet who has ever lived, was treated as a Virgil +by his contemporaries; he published _Les Géorgiques_ in 1769, _Les +Jardins_ in 1782, and _L'Homme des champs_ in 1803, but he went furthest +in his brilliant, though artificial, _Trois règnes de la nature_ (1809), +which French critics have called the masterpiece of this whole school of +descriptive poetry. Delille, however, like Thomson before him, was +unable to avoid monotony and want of coherency. Picture follows picture, +and no progress is made. The satire of Marie Joseph Chénier, in his +famous and witty _Discours sur les poèmes descriptifs_, brought the +vogue of this species of poetry to an end. + +In England, again, Wordsworth, who treated the genius of Thomson with +unmerited severity, revived descriptive poetry in a form which owed more +than Wordsworth realized to the model of _The Seasons_. In _The +Excursion_ and _The Prelude_, as well as in many of his minor pieces, +Wordsworth's philosophical and moral intentions cannot prevent us from +perceiving the large part which pure description takes; and the same may +be said of much of the early blank verse of S. T. Coleridge. Since their +day, however, purely descriptive poetry has gone more and more +completely out of fashion, and its place has been taken by the richer +and directer effects of such prose as that of Ruskin in English, or of +Fromentin and Pierre Loti in French. It is almost impossible in +descriptive verse to obtain those vivid and impassioned appeals to the +imagination which are of the very essence of genuine poetry, and it is +unlikely that descriptive poetry, as such, will again take a prominent +place in living literature. (E. G.) + + + + +DESERT, a term somewhat loosely employed to describe those parts of the +land surface of the earth which do not produce sufficient vegetation to +support a human population. Few areas of large extent in any part of the +world are absolutely devoid of vegetation, and the transition from +typical desert conditions is often very gradual and ill-defined. +("Desert" comes from Lat. _deserere_, to abandon; distinguish "desert," +merit, and "dessert," fruit eaten after dinner, from _de_ and _servier_, +to serve.) + +Deserts are conveniently divided into two classes according to the +causes which give rise to the desert conditions. In "cold deserts" the +want of vegetation is wholly due to the prevailing low temperature, +while in "hot deserts" the surface is unproductive because, on account +of high temperature and deficient rainfall, evaporation is largely in +excess of precipitation. Cold deserts accordingly occur in high +latitudes (see TUNDRA and POLAR REGIONS). Hot desert conditions are +primarily found along the tropical belts of high atmospheric pressure in +which the conditions of warmth and dryness are most fully realized, and +on their equatorial sides, but the zonal arrangement is considerably +modified in some regions by the monsoonal influence of elevated land. +Thus we have in the northern hemisphere the Sahara desert, the deserts +of Arabia, Iran, Turan, Takla Makan and Gobi, and the desert regions of +the Great Basin in North America; and in the southern hemisphere the +Kalahari desert in Africa, the desert of Australia, and the desert of +Atacama in South America. Where the line of elevated land runs east and +west, as in Asia, the desert belt tends to be displaced into higher +latitudes, and where the line runs north and south, as in Africa, +America and Australia, the desert zone is cut through on the windward +side of the elevation and the arid conditions intensified on the lee +side. Desert conditions also arise from local causes, as in the case of +the Indian desert situated in a region inaccessible to either of the two +main branches of the south-west monsoon. + +Although rivers rising in more favoured regions may traverse deserts on +their way to the sea, as in the case of the Nile and the Colorado, the +fundamental physical condition of an arid area is that it contributes +nothing to the waters of the ocean. The rainfall chiefly occurs in +violent cloud-bursts, and the soluble matter in the soil is carried down +by intermittent streams to salt lakes around which deposits are formed +as evaporation takes place. The land forms of a desert are exceedingly +characteristic. Surface erosion is chiefly due to rapid changes of +temperature through a wide range, and to the action of wind transferring +sand and dust, often in the form of "dunes" resembling the waves of the +sea. Dry valleys, narrow and of great depth, with precipitous sides, and +ending in "cirques," are probably formed by the intense action of the +occasional cloud-bursts. + +When water can be obtained and distributed over an arid region by +irrigation, the surface as a rule becomes extremely productive. Natural +springs give rise to oases at intervals and make the crossing of large +deserts possible. Where a river crosses a desert at a level near that of +the general surface, irrigation can be carried on with extremely +profitable results, as has been done in the valley of the Nile and in +parts of the Great Basin of North America; in cases, however, where the +river has cut deeply and flows far below the general surface, irrigation +is too expensive. Much has been done in parts of Australia by means of +artesian wells. + + For a general account of deserts see Professor Johannes Walther, _Das + Gesetz der Wüstenbildung_ (Berlin, 1900), in which many references to + other original authorities will be found. (H. N. D.) + + + + +DESERTION, the act of forsaking or abandoning; more particularly, the +wilful abandonment of an employment or of duty, in violation of a legal +or moral obligation. + +The offence of naval or military desertion is constituted when a man +absents himself with the intention either of not returning or of +escaping some important service, such as embarkation for foreign +service, or service in aid of the civil power. In the United Kingdom +desertion has always been recognized by the civil law, and until 1827 (7 +& 8 Geo. IV. c. 28) was a felony punishable by death. It was +subsequently dealt with by the various Mutiny Acts, which were replaced +by the Army Act 1881, renewed annually by the Army (Annual) Act. By § 12 +of the act every person subject to military law who deserts or attempts +to desert, or who persuades or procures any person to desert, shall, on +conviction by court martial, if he committed the offence when on active +service or under orders for active service, be liable to suffer death, +or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. When the offence is +committed under any other circumstances, the punishment for the first +offence is imprisonment, and for the second or any subsequent offence +penal servitude or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. § 44 +contains a scale of punishments, and §§ 175-184 an enumeration of +persons subject to military law. By § 153 any person who persuades a +soldier to desert or aids or assists him or conceals him is liable, on +conviction, to be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, for not more +than six months. § 154 makes provision for the apprehension of +deserters. § 161 lays down that where a soldier has served continuously +in an exemplary manner for not less than three years in any corps of +regular forces he is not to be tried or punished for desertion which has +occurred before the commencement of the three years. Desertion from the +regular forces can only be tried by a military court, but in the case of +the militia and reserve forces desertion can be tried by a civil court. +The Army Act of 1881 made a welcome distinction between actual +desertion, as defined at the commencement of this article, and the +quitting one regiment in order to enlist in another. This offence is now +separately dealt with as fraudulent enlistment; formerly, it was termed +"desertion and fraudulent enlistment," and the statistics of desertion +proper were consequently and erroneously magnified. The gross total of +desertions in the British Army in an average year (1903-1904) was nearly +4000, or 1.4% of the average strength of the army, but owing to men +rejoining from desertion, fraudulent enlistment, &c., the net loss was +no more than 1286, i.e. less than .5%. The army of the United States +suffers very severely from desertion, and very few deserters rejoin or +are recaptured (see _Journal of the Roy. United Service Inst._, December +1905, p. 1469). In the year 1900-1901, 3110 men deserted (4.3% of +average strength); in 1901-1902, 4667 (or 5.9%); in 1904-1905, 6553 (or +6.8%); and in 1905-1906, 6258 out of less than 60,000 men, or 7.4%. + +In all armies desertion while on active service is punishable by death; +on the continent of Europe, owing to the system of compulsory service, +desertion is infrequent, and takes place usually when the deserter +wishes to leave his country altogether. It was formerly the practice in +the English army to punish a man convicted of desertion by tattooing on +him the letter "D" to prevent his re-enlistment, but this has been long +abandoned in deference to public opinion, which erroneously adopted the +idea that the "marking" was effected by red-hot irons or in some other +manner involving torture. The Navy Discipline Act 1866, and the Naval +Deserters Act 1847, contain similar provisions to the Army Act of 1881 +for dealing with desertions from the navy. In the United States navy the +term "straggling" is applied to absence without leave, where the +probability is that the person does not intend to desert. The United +States government offers a monetary reward of between $20 and $30 for +the arrest and delivery of deserters from the army and navy. + +In the British merchant service the offence of desertion is defined as +the abandonment of duty by quitting the ship before the termination of +the engagement, without justification, and with the intention of not +returning. + +Desertion is also the term applied to the act by which a man abandons +his wife and children, or either of them. Desertion of a wife is a +matrimonial offence; under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, a decree of +judicial separation may be obtained in England by either husband or wife +on the ground of desertion, without cause, for two years and upwards +(see also DIVORCE). + +For the desertion of children see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; INFANT. + (T. A. I.) + + + + +DES ESSARTS, EMMANUEL ADOLPHE (1839- ), French poet and man of letters, +was born at Paris on the 5th of February 1839. His father, Alfred +Stanislas Langlois des Essarts (d. 1893), was a poet and novelist of +considerable reputation. The son was educated at the École Normale +Supérieure, and became a teacher of rhetoric and finally professor of +literature at Dijon and at Clermont. His works are: _Poésies +parisiennes_ (1862), a volume of light verse on trifling subjects; _Les +Élévations_ (1864), philosophical poems; _Origines de la poésie lyrique +en France au XVI^e siècle_ (1873); _Du génie de Chateaubriand_ (1876); +_Poèmes de la Révolution_ (1879); _Pallas Athéné_ (1887); _Portraits de +maîtres_ (1888), &c. + + + + +DESFONTAINES, RENÉ LOUICHE (1750-1833), French botanist, was born at +Tremblay (Île-et-Vilaine) on the 14th of February 1750. After graduating +in medicine at Paris, he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences +in 1783. In the same year he set out for North Africa, on a scientific +exploring expedition, and on his return two years afterwards brought +with him a large collection of plants, animals, &c., comprising, it is +said, 1600 species of plants, of which about 300 were described for the +first time. In 1786 he was nominated to the post of professor at the +Jardin des Plantes, vacated in his favour by his friend, L. G. +Lemonnier. His great work, _Flora Atlantica sive historia plantarum quae +in Atlante, agro Tunetano el Algeriensi crescunt_, was published in 2 +vols. 4to in 1798, and he produced in 1804 a _Tableau de l'école +botanique du muséum d'histoire naturelle de Paris_, of which a third +edition appeared in 1831, under the new title _Catalogus plantarum horti +regii Parisiensis_. He was also the author of many memoirs on vegetable +anatomy and physiology, descriptions of new genera and species, &c., one +of the most important being a "Memoir on the Organization of the +Monocotyledons." He died at Paris on the 16th of November 1833. His +Barbary collection was bequeathed to the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, +and his general collection passed into the hands of the English +botanist, Philip Barker Webb. + + + + +DESFORGES, PIERRE JEAN BAPTISTE CHOUDARD (1746-1806), French dramatist +and man of letters, natural son of Dr Antoine Petit, was born in Paris +on the 15th of September 1746. He was educated at the Collège Mazarin +and the Collège de Beauvais, and at his father's desire began the study +of medicine. Dr Petit's death left him dependent on his own resources, +and after appearing on the stage of the Comédie Italienne in Paris he +joined a troupe of wandering actors, whom he served in the capacity of +playwright. He married an actress, and the two spent three years in St +Petersburg, where they were well received. In 1782 he produced at the +Comédie Italienne an adaptation of Fielding's novel with the title _Tom +Jones à Londres_. His first great success was achieved with _L'Épreuve +villageoise_ (1785) to the music of Grétry. _La Femme jalouse_, a +five-act comedy in verse (1785), _Joconde_ (1790) for the music of Louis +Jaden, _Les Époux divorcés_ (1799), a comedy, and other pieces followed. +Desforges was one of the first to avail himself of the new facilities +afforded under the Revolution for divorce and re-marriage. The curious +record of his own early indiscretions in _Le Poète, ou mémoires d'un +homme de lettres écrits par lui-même_ (4 vols., 1798) is said to have +been undertaken at the request of Madame Desforges. He died in Paris on +the 13th of August 1806. + + + + +DESGARCINS, MAGDELEINE MARIE [LOUISE] (1769-1797), French actress, was +born at Mont Dauphin (Hautes Alpes). In her short career she became one +of the greatest of French tragédiennes, the associate of Talma, with +whom she nearly always played. Her début at the Comédie Française +occurred on the 24th of May 1788, in _Bajazet_, with such success that +she was at once made _sociétaire_. She was one of the actresses who left +the Comédie Française in 1791 for the house in the rue Richelieu, soon +to become the Théâtre de la République, and there her triumphs were no +less--in _King Lear_, _Othello_, La Harpe's _Mélanie et Virginie_, &c. +Her health, however, failed, and she died insane, in Paris, on the 27th +of October 1797. + + + + +DESHAYES, GÉRARD PAUL (1795-1875), French geologist and conchologist, +was born at Nancy on the 13th of May 1797, his father at that time being +professor of experimental physics in the École Centrale of the +department of la Meurthe. He studied medicine at Strassburg, and +afterwards took the degree of _bachelier ès lettres_ in Paris in 1821; +but he abandoned the medical profession in order to devote himself to +natural history. For some time he gave private lessons on geology, and +subsequently became professor of natural history in the Muséum +d'Histoire Naturelle. He was distinguished for his researches on the +fossil mollusca of the Paris Basin and of other Tertiary areas. His +studies on the relations of the fossil to the recent species led him as +early as 1829 to conclusions somewhat similar to those arrived at by +Lyell, to whom Deshayes rendered much assistance in connexion with the +classification of the Tertiary system into Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. +He was one of the founders of the Société Géologique de France. In 1839 +he began the publication of his _Traité élémentaire de conchyliologie_, +the last part of which was not issued until 1858. In the same year +(1839) he went to Algeria for the French Government, and spent three +years in explorations in that country. His principal work, which +resulted from the collections he made, _Mollusques de l'Algérie_, was +issued (incomplete) in 1848. In 1870 the Wollaston medal of the +Geological Society of London was awarded to him. He died at Boran on the +9th of June 1875. His publications included _Description des coquilles +fossiles des environs de Paris_ (2 vols. and atlas, 1824-1837); +_Description des animaux sans vertèbres découverts dans le bassin de +Paris_ (3 vols. and atlas, 1856-1866); _Catalogue des mollusques de +l'île la Réunion_ (1863). + + + + +DESHOULIÈRES, ANTOINETTE DU LIGIER DE LA GARDE (1638-1694), French poet, +was born in Paris on the 1st of January 1638. She was the daughter of +Melchior du Ligier, sieur de la Garde, _maître d'hôtel_ to the queens +Marie de' Medici and Anne of Austria. She received a careful and very +complete education, acquiring a knowledge of Latin, Spanish and Italian, +and studying prosody under the direction of the poet Jean Hesnault. At +the age of thirteen she married Guillaume de Boisguerin, seigneur +Deshoulières, who followed the prince of Condé as lieutenant-colonel of +one of his regiments to Flanders about a year after the marriage. Madame +Deshoulières returned for a time to the house of her parents, where she +gave herself to writing poetry and studying the philosophy of Gassendi. +She rejoined her husband at Rocroi, near Brussels, where, being +distinguished for her personal beauty, she became the object of +embarrassing attentions on the part of the prince of Condé. Having made +herself obnoxious to the government by her urgent demand for the +arrears of her husband's pay, she was imprisoned in the château of +Wilworden. After a few months she was freed by her husband, who attacked +the château at the head of a small band of soldiers. An amnesty having +been proclaimed, they returned to France, where Madame Deshoulières soon +became a conspicuous personage at the court of Louis XIV. and in +literary society. She won the friendship and admiration of the most +eminent literary men of the age--some of her more zealous flatterers +even going so far as to style her the tenth muse and the French +Calliope. Her poems were very numerous, and included specimens of nearly +all the minor forms, odes, eclogues, idylls, elegies, chansons, ballads, +madrigals, &c. Of these the idylls alone, and only some of them, have +stood the test of time, the others being entirely forgotten. She wrote +several dramatic works, the best of which do not rise to mediocrity. Her +friendship for Corneille made her take sides for the _Phèdre_ of Pradon +against that of Racine. Voltaire pronounced her the best of women French +poets; and her reputation with her contemporaries is indicated by her +election as a member of the Academy of the Ricovrati of Padua and of the +Academy of Arles. In 1688 a pension of 2000 livres was bestowed upon her +by the king, and she was thus relieved from the poverty in which she had +long lived. She died in Paris on the 17th February 1694. Complete +editions of her works were published at Paris in 1695, 1747, &c. These +include a few poems by her daughter, Antoine Thérèse Deshoulières +(1656-1718), who inherited her talent. + + + + +DESICCATION (from the Lat. _desiccare_, to dry up), the operation of +drying or removing water from a substance. It is of particular +importance in practical chemistry. If a substance admits of being heated +to say 100°, the drying may be effected by means of an air-bath, which +is simply an oven heated by gas or by steam. Otherwise a _desiccator_ +must be employed; this is essentially a closed vessel in which a +hygroscopic substance is placed together with the substance to be dried. +The process may be accelerated by exhausting the desiccator; this +so-called vacuum desiccation is especially suitable for the +concentration of aqueous solutions of readily decomposable substances. +Of the hygroscopic substances in common use, phosphoric anhydride, +concentrated sulphuric acid, and dry potassium hydrate are almost equal +in power; sodium hydrate and calcium chloride are not much behind. + +Two common types of desiccator are in use. In one the absorbent is +placed at the bottom, and the substance to be dried above. Hempel +pointed out that the efficiency would be increased by inverting this +arrangement, since water vapour is lighter than air and consequently +rises. Liquids are dried either by means of the desiccator, or, as is +more usual, by shaking with a substance which removes the water. Fused +calcium chloride is the commonest absorbent; but it must not be used +with alcohols and several other compounds, since it forms compounds with +these substances. Quicklime, barium oxide, and dehydrated copper +sulphate are especially applicable to alcohol and ether; the last traces +of water may be removed by adding metallic sodium and distilling. Gases +are dried by leading them through towers or tubes containing an +appropriate drying material. The experiments of H. B. Baker on the +influence of moisture on chemical combination have shown the difficulty +of removing the last traces of water. + +In chemical technology, apparatus on the principle of the laboratory +air-bath are mainly used. Crystals and precipitates, deprived of as much +water as possible by centrifugal machines or filter-presses, are +transported by means of a belt, screw, or other form of conveyer, on to +trays staged in brick chambers heated directly by flue gases or steam +pipes; the latter are easily controlled, and if the steam be superheated +a temperature of 300° and over may be maintained. In some cases the +material traverses the chamber from the coolest to the hottest part on a +conveyer or in wagons. Rotating cylinders are also used; the material to +be dried being placed inside, and the cylinder heated by a steam jacket +or otherwise. + + + + +DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO (1428-1464), Italian sculptor, was born at +Settignano, a village on the southern slope of the hill of Fiesole, +still surrounded by the quarries of sandstone of which the hill is +formed, and inhabited by a race of "stone-cutters." Desiderio was for a +short time a pupil of Donatello, whom, according to Vasari, he assisted +in the work on the pedestal of David, and he seems to have worked also +with Mino da Fiesole, with the delicate and refined style of whose works +those of Desiderio seem to have a closer affinity than with the perhaps +more masculine tone of Donatello. Vasari particularly extols the +sculptor's treatment of the figures of women and children. It does not +appear that Desiderio ever worked elsewhere than at Florence; and it is +there that those who are interested in the Italian sculpture of the +Renaissance must seek his few surviving decorative and monumental works, +though a number of his delicately carved marble busts of women and +children are to be found in the museums and private collections of +Germany and France. The most prominent of his works are the tomb of the +secretary of state, Marsuppini, in Santa Croce, and the great marble +tabernacle of the Annunciation in San Lorenzo, both of which belong to +the latter period of Desiderio's activity; and the cherubs' heads which +form the exterior frieze of the Pazzi Chapel. Vasari mentions a marble +bust by Desiderio of Marietta degli Strozzi, which for many years was +held to be identical with a very beautiful bust bought in 1878 from the +Strozzi family for the Berlin Museum. This bust is now, however, +generally acknowledged to be the work of Francesco Laurana; whilst +Desiderio's bust of Marietta has been recognized in another marble +portrait acquired by the Berlin Museum in 1842. The Berlin Museum also +owns a coloured plaster bust of an Urbino lady by Desiderio, the model +for which is in the possession of the earl of Wemyss. Other important +busts by the master are in the Bargello, Florence, the Louvre in Paris, +the collections of M. Figdor and M. Benda in Vienna, and of M. Dreyfus +in Paris. Like most of Donatello's pupils, Desiderio worked chiefly in +marble, and not a single work in bronze has been traced to his hand. + + See Wilhelm Bode, _Die italienische Plastik_ (Berlin, 1893). + + + + +DESIDERIUS, the last king of the Lombards, is chiefly known through his +connexion with Charlemagne. He was duke of Tuscany and became king of +the Lombards after the death of Aistulf in 756. Seeking, like his +predecessors, to extend the Lombard power in Italy, he came into +collision with the papacy, and about 772 the new pope, Adrian I., +implored the aid of Charlemagne against him. Other causes of quarrel +already existed between the Frankish and the Lombard kings. In 770 +Charlemagne had married a daughter of Desiderius; but he soon put this +lady away, and sent her back to her father. Moreover, Gerberga, the +widow of Charlemagne's brother Carloman, had sought the protection of +the Lombard king after her husband's death in 771; and in return for the +slight cast upon his daughter, Desiderius had recognized Gerberga's sons +as the lawful Frankish kings, and had attacked Adrian for refusing to +crown them. Such was the position when Charlemagne led his troops across +the Alps in 773, took the Lombard capital, Ticinum, the modern Pavia, in +June 774, and added the kingdom of Lombardy to his own dominions. +Desiderius was carried to France, where he died, and his son, Adalgis, +spent his life in futile attempts to recover his father's kingdom. The +name of Desiderius appears in the romances of the Carolingian period. + + See S. Abel, _Untergang des Langobardenreichs_ (Göttingen, 1859); and + _Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen_ (Leipzig, + 1865); L. M. Hartmann, _Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter_ (Gotha, + 1903); and Paulus Diaconus, _Historia Langobardorum_, edited by L. + Bethmann and G. Waitz (Hanover, 1878). + + + + +DESIGN (Fr. _dessin_, drawing; Lat. _designare_, to mark out), in the +arts, a drawing, more especially when made as a guide for the execution +of work; that side of drawing which deals with arrangement rather than +representation; and generally, by analogy, a deliberate planning, +scheming or purpose. Modern use has tended to associate design with the +word "original" in the sense of new or abnormal. The end of design, +however, is properly utility, fitness and delight. If a discovery, it +should be a discovery of what seems inevitable, an inspiration arising +out of the conditions, and parallel to invention in the sciences. The +faculty of design has best flourished when an almost spontaneous +development was taking place in the arts, and while certain classes of +arts, more or less noble, were generally demanded and the demand +copiously satisfied, as in the production of Greek vases, Byzantine +mosaics, Gothic cathedrals, and Renaissance paintings. Thus where a +"school of design" arises there is much general likeness in the products +but also a general progress. The common experience--"tradition"--is a +part of each artist's stock in trade; and all are carried along in a +stream of continuous exploration. Some of the arts, writing, for +instance, have been little touched by conscious originality in design, +all has been progress, or, at least, change, in response to conditions. +Under such a system, in a time of progress, the proper limitations react +as intensity; when limitations are removed the designer has less and +less upon which to react, and unconditioned liberty gives him nothing at +all to lean on. Design is response to needs, conditions and aspirations. +The Greeks so well understood this that they appear to have consciously +restrained themselves to the development of selected types, not only in +architecture and literature, but in domestic arts, like pottery. Design +with them was less the new than the true. + +For the production of a school of design it is necessary that there +should be a considerable body of artists working together, and a large +demand from a sympathetic public. A process of continuous development is +thus brought into being which sustains the individual effort. It is +necessary for the designer to know familiarly the processes, the +materials and the skilful use of the tools involved in the productions +of a given art, and properly only one who practises a craft can design +for it. It is necessary to enter into the traditions of the art, that +is, to know past achievements. It is necessary, further, to be in +relation with nature, the great reservoir of ideas, for it is from it +that fresh thought will flow into all forms of art. These conditions +being granted, the best and most useful meaning we can give to the word +design is exploration, experiment, consideration of possibilities. +Putting too high a value on originality other than this is to restrict +natural growth from vital roots, in which true originality consists. To +take design in architecture as an example, we have rested too much on +definite precedent (a different thing from living tradition) and, on the +other hand, hoped too much from newness. Exploration of the +possibilities in arches, vaults, domes and the like, as a chemist or a +mathematician explores, is little accepted as a method in architecture +at this time, although in antiquity it was by such means that the great +master-works were produced: the Pantheon, Santa Sophia, Durham and +Amiens cathedrals. The same is true of all forms of design. Of course +the genius and inspiration of the individual artist is not here ignored, +but assumed. What we are concerned with is a mode of thought which shall +make it most fruitful. (W. R. L.) + + + + +DESIRE, in popular usage, a term for a wishing or longing for something +which one has not got. For its technical use see PSYCHOLOGY. The word is +derived through the French from Lat. _desiderare_, to long or wish for, +to miss. The substantive _desiderium_ has the special meaning of desire +for something one has once possessed but lost, hence regret or grief. +The usual explanation of the word is to connect it with _sidus_, star, +as in _considerare_, to examine the stars with attention, hence, to look +closely at. If this is so, the history of the transition in meaning is +unknown. J. B. Greenough (_Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_, i. +96) has suggested that the word is a military slang term. According to +this theory _desiderare_ meant originally to miss a soldier from the +ranks at roll-call, the root being that seen in _sedere_, to sit, +_sedes_, seat, place, &c. + + + + +DESK (from Lat. _discus_, quoit, in med. sense of "table," cf. "dish" +and Ger. _Tisch_, table, from same source), any kind of flat or sloping +table for writing or reading. Its earliest shape was probably that with +which we are familiar in pictures of the monastic _scriptorium_--rather +high and narrow with a sloping slab. The primitive desk had little +accommodation for writing materials, and no storage room for papers; +drawers, cupboards and pigeon-holes were the evolution of periods when +writing grew common, and when letters and other documents requiring +preservation became numerous. It was long the custom to secure papers +in chests or cabinets, whereas the modern desk serves the double purpose +of a writing-table and a storehouse for documents. The first development +from the early stall-like desk consisted of the addition of a drawer; +then the table came to be supported upon legs or columns, which, as in +the many beautiful examples constructed by Boulle and his school, were +often of elaborate grace. Eventually the legs were replaced by a series +of superimposed drawers forming pedestals--hence the familiar pedestal +writing-table. + +For a long period there were two distinct contemporary forms of +desk--the table and the bureau or escritoire. The latter shape attained +a popularity so great that, especially in England and America, it was +found even in houses in which there was little occasion for writing. The +English-speaking people of the 18th century were amazingly fond of +pieces of furniture which served a double or triple purpose. The +bureau--the word is the French generic appellation for a desk--derives +its name from the material with which it was originally covered (Fr. +_bure_, woollen cloth). It consists of an upright carcass sloping inward +at the top, and provided with long drawers below. The upper part is +fitted with small drawers and pigeon-holes, and often with secret +places, and the writing space is formed by a hinged slab supported on +runners; when not in use this slab closes up the sloping top. During the +18th century innumerable thousands of these bureaux were made on both +sides of the Atlantic--indeed, if we except tables and chairs, no piece +of old furniture is more common. In the first part of that period they +were usually of oak, but when mahogany was introduced into Europe it +speedily ousted the heavier-looking wood. Its deep rich colour and the +high polish of which it was capable added appreciably to its ornamental +appearance. While the pigeon-holes and small drawers were used for +papers, the long drawers were often employed for purposes other than +literary. In time the bureau-secretaire became a bureau-bookcase, the +glazed shelves, which were often a separate erection, resting upon the +top of the bureau. The cabinetmakers of the second half of the 18th +century, the period of the greatest _floraison_ of this combination, +competed with each other in devising elegant frets for the glass fronts. +Solid and satisfying to the eye, if somewhat severe in form, the +mahogany bureau was usually an exceedingly presentable piece of +furniture. Occasionally it had a _bombé_ front which mitigated its +severity; this was especially the case in the Dutch varieties, which +were in a measure free adaptations of the French Louis Quinze _commode_. +These Dutch bureaux, and the English ones made in imitation of them, +were usually elaborately inlaid with floral designs in coloured woods; +but whereas the Batavian marquetry was often rough and crude, the +English work was usually of considerable excellence. Side by side with +this form of writing apparatus was one variety or another of the +writing-table proper. In so far as it is possible to generalize upon +such a detail it would appear that the bureau was the desk of the yeoman +and what we now call the lower middle class, and that the slighter and +more table-like forms were preferred by those higher in the social +scale. This probably means no more than that while the one class +preserved the old English affection for the solid and heavy furniture +which would last for generations, those who were more free to follow the +fashions and fancies of their time were, as the pecuniarily easy classes +always have been, ready to abandon the old for the new. + +Just about the time when the flat table with its drawers in a single +row, or in nests serving as pedestals, was finally assuming its familiar +modern shape, an invention was introduced which was destined eventually, +so far as numbers and convenience go, to supersede all other forms of +desk. This was the cylinder-top writing-table. Nothing is known of the +originator of this device, but it is certain that if not French himself +he worked in France. The historians of French furniture agree in fixing +its introduction about the year 1750, and we know that a desk worked on +this principle was in the possession of the French crown in the year +1760. Even in its early days the cylinder took more than one form. It +sometimes consisted of a solid piece of curved wood, and sometimes of a +tambour frame--that is to say, of a series of narrow jointed strips of +wood mounted on canvas; the revolving shutters of a shop-front are an +adaptation of the idea. For a long period, however, the cylinder was +most often solid, and remained so until the latter part of the 19th +century, when the "American roll-top desk" began to be made in large +numbers. This is indeed the old French form with a tambour cylinder, and +it is now the desk that is most frequently met with all over the world +for commercial purposes. Its popularity is due to its large +accommodation, and to the facility with which the closing of the +cylinder conceals all papers, and automatically locks every drawer. To +France we owe not only the invention of this ubiquitous form, but the +construction of many of the finest and most historic desks that have +survived--the characteristic marquetry writing-tables of the Boulle +period, and the gilded splendours of that of Louis Quinze have never +been surpassed in the history of furniture. Indeed, the "Bureau du roi" +which was made for Louis XV. is the most famous and magnificent piece of +furniture that, so far as we know, was ever constructed. This desk, +which is now one of the treasures of the Louvre, was the work of several +artist-artificers, chief among whom were Oeben and Riesener--Oeben, it +may be added here as a matter of artistic interest, became the +grandfather of Eugene Delacroix. The bureau is signed "Riesener fa. 1769 +à l'Arsenal de Paris," but it has been established that, however great +may have been the share of its construction which fell to him, the +conception was that of Oeben. The work was ordered in 1760; it would +thus appear that nine years were consumed in perfecting it, which is not +surprising when we learn from the detailed account of its construction +that the work began with making a perfect miniature model followed by +one of full size. The "bureau du roi" is a large cylinder desk +elaborately inlaid in marquetry of woods, and decorated with a wonderful +and ornate series of mounts consisting of mouldings, plaques, vases and +statuettes of gilt bronze cast and chased. These bronzes are the work of +Duplessis, Winant and Hervieux. The desk, which shows plainly the +transition between the Louis Quinze and Louis Seize styles, is as +remarkable for the boldness of its conception as for the magnificent +finish of its details. Its lines are large, flowing and harmonious, and +although it is no longer exactly as it left the hands of its makers +(Oeben died before it was finished) the alterations that have been made +have hardly interfered with the general effect. For the head of the king +for whom it was made that of Minerva in a helmet was substituted under +his successor. The ciphers of Louis XV. have been removed and replaced +by Sèvres plaques, and even the key which bore the king's initial +crowned with laurels and palm leaves, with his portrait on the one side, +and the fleur de lys on the other, has been interfered with by an +austere republicanism. Yet no tampering with details can spoil the +monumental nobility of this great conception. (J. P.-B.) + + + + +DESLONGCHAMPS, JACQUES AMAND EUDES- (1794-1867), French naturalist and +palaeontologist, was born at Caen in Normandy on the 17th of January +1794. His parents, though poor, contrived to give him a good education, +and he studied medicine in his native town to such good effect that in +1812 he was appointed assistant-surgeon in the navy, and in 1815 surgeon +assistant major to the military hospital of Caen. Soon afterwards he +proceeded to Paris to qualify for the degree of doctor of surgery, and +there the researches and teachings of Cuvier attracted his attention to +subjects of natural history and palaeontology. In 1822 he was elected +surgeon to the board of relief at Caen, and while he never ceased to +devote his energies to the duties of this post, he sought relaxation in +geological studies. Soon he discovered remains of _Teleosaurus_ in one +of the Caen quarries, and he became an ardent palaeontologist. He was +one of the founders of the museum of natural history at Caen, and acted +as honorary curator; he was likewise one of the founders of the +_Sociétié linnéenne de Normandie_ (1823), to the transactions of which +society he communicated papers on _Teleosaurus_, _Poekilopleuron_ +(_Megalosaurus_), on Jurassic mollusca and brachiopoda. In 1825 he +became professor of zoology to the faculty of sciences, and in 1847, +dean. He died on the 17th of January 1867. + +His son EUGÈNE EUDES-DESLONGCHAMPS (1830-1889), French palaeontologist, +was born in 1830. He succeeded his father about the year 1856 as +professor of zoology at the faculty of sciences at Caen, and in 1861 he +became also professor of geology and dean. After the death of his father +in 1867, he devoted himself to the completion of a memoir on the +Teleosaurs: the joint labours being embodied in his _Prodrome des +Téléosauriens du Calvados_. To the Société Linnéenne de Normandie he +contributed memoirs on Jurassic brachiopods, on the geology of the +department of La Manche (1856), of Calvados (1856-1863), on the _Terrain +callovien_ (1859), on _Nouvelle-Calédonie_ (1864), and _Études sur les +étages jurassiques inférieurs de la Normandie_ (1864). His work _Le Jura +normand_ was issued in 1877-1878 (incomplete). He died at Château +Matthieu, Calvados, on the 21st of December 1889. + + + + +DESMAISEAUX, PIERRE (1673-1745); French writer, was born at Saillat, +probably in 1673. His father, a minister of the reformed church, had to +leave France on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and took refuge +in Geneva, where Pierre was educated. Bayle gave him an introduction to +the 3rd Lord Shaftesbury, with whom, in 1699, he came to England, where +he engaged in literary work. He remained in close touch with the +religious refugees in England and Holland, and constantly in +correspondence with the leading continental savants and writers, who +were in the habit of employing him to conduct such business as they +might have in England. In 1720 he was elected a fellow of the Royal +Society. Among his works are _Vie de St Evremond_ (1711), _Vie de +Boileau-Despréaux_ (1712), _Vie de Bayle_ (1730). He also took an active +part in preparing the _Bibliothèque raisonnée des ouvrages de l'Europe_ +(1728-1753), and the _Bibliothèque britannique_ (1733-1747), and edited +a selection of St Evremond's writings (1706). Part of Desmaiseaux's +correspondence is preserved in the British Museum, and other letters are +in the royal library at Copenhagen. He died on the 11th of July 1745. + + + + +DESMAREST, NICOLAS (1725-1815), French geologist, was born at Soulaines, +in the department of Aube, on the 16th of September 1725. Of humble +parentage, he was educated at the college of the Oratorians of Troyes +and Paris. Taking full advantage of the instruction he received, he was +able to support himself by teaching, and to continue his studies +independently. Buffon's _Theory of the Earth_ interested him, and in +1753 he successfully competed for a prize by writing an essay on the +ancient connexion between England and France. This attracted much +attention, and ultimately led to his being employed in studying and +reporting on manufactures in different countries, and in 1788 to his +appointment as inspector-general of the manufactures of France. He +utilized his journeys, travelling on foot, so as to add to his knowledge +of the earth's structure. In 1763 he made observations in Auvergne, +recognizing that the prismatic basalts were old lava streams, comparing +them with the columns of the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, and referring +them to the operations of extinct volcanoes. It was not, however, until +1774 that he published an essay on the subject, accompanied by a +geological map, having meanwhile on several occasions revisited the +district. He then pointed out the succession of volcanic outbursts and +the changes the rocks had undergone through weathering and erosion. As +remarked by Sir A. Geikie, the doctrine of the origin of valleys by the +erosive action of the streams which flow through them was first clearly +taught by Desmarest. An enlarged and improved edition of his map of the +volcanic region of Auvergne was published after his death, in 1823, by +his son ANSELME GAËTAN DESMAREST (1784-1838), who was distinguished as a +zoologist, and author of memoirs on recent and fossil crustacea. He died +in Paris on the 20th of September 1815. + + See _The Founders of Geology_, by Sir A. Geikie (1897), pp. 48-78. + (H. B. Wo.) + + + + +DESMARETS (or DESMARETZ), JEAN, SIEUR DE SAINT-SORLIN (1595-1676), +French dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris in 1595. +When he was about thirty he was introduced to Richelieu, and became one +of the band of writers who carried out the cardinal's literary ideas. +Desmarets's own inclination was to novel-writing, and the success of his +romance _Ariane_ in 1631 led to his formal admission to the circle that +met at the house of Valentine Conrart and later developed into the +Académie Française. Desmarets was its first chancellor. It was at +Richelieu's request that he began to write for the theatre. In this kind +he produced a comedy long regarded as a masterpiece, _Les Visionnaires_ +(1637); a prose-tragedy, _Érigone_ (1638); and _Scipion_ (1639), a +tragedy in verse. His success led to official preferment, and he was +made _conseiller du roi_, _contrôleur-général de l'extraordinaire des +guerres_, and secretary-general of the fleet of the Levant. His long +epic _Clovis_ (1657) is noteworthy because Desmarets rejected the +traditional pagan background, and maintained that Christian imagery +should supplant it. With this standpoint he contributed several works in +defence of the moderns in the famous quarrel between the Ancients and +Moderns. In his later years Desmarets devoted himself chiefly to +producing a quantity of religious poems, of which the best-known is +perhaps his verse translation of the _Office de la Vierge_ (1645). He +was a violent opponent of the Jansenists, against whom he wrote a +_Réponse à l'insolente apologie de Port-Royal ..._ (1666). He died in +Paris on the 28th of October 1676. + + See also H. Rigault, _Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des + modernes_ (1856), pp. 80-103. + + + + +DESMARETS, NICOLAS, SIEUR DE MAILLEBOIS (1648-1721), French statesman, +was born in Paris on the 10th of September 1648. His mother was the +sister of J. B. Colbert, who took him into his offices as a clerk. He +became counsellor to the parlement in 1672, master of requests in 1674 +and intendant of finances in 1678. In these last functions he had to +treat with the financiers for the coinage of new silver pieces of four +sous. After Colbert's death he was involved in the legal proceedings +taken against those financiers who had manufactured coins of bad alloy. +The prosecution, conducted by the members of the family of Le Tellier, +rivals of the Colberts, presented no proof against Desmarets. +Nevertheless he was stripped of his offices and exiled to his estates by +the king, on the 23rd of December 1683. In March 1686 he was authorized +to return to Paris, and again entered into relations with the +controllers-general of finance, to whom he furnished for more than ten +years remarkable memoirs on the economic situation in France. As early +as 1687 he showed the necessity for radical reforms in the system of +taxation, insisting on the ruin of the people and the excessive expenses +of the king. By these memoirs he established his claim to a place among +the great economists of the time, Vauban, Boisguilbert and the comte de +Boulainvilliers. When in September 1699 Chamillart was named +controller-general of finances, he took Desmarets for counsellor; and +when he created the two offices of directors of finances, he gave one to +Desmarets (October 22, 1703). Henceforth Desmarets was veritable +minister of finance. Louis XIV. had long conversations with him. Madame +de Maintenon protected him. The economists Vauban and Boisguilbert +exchanged long conversations with him. When Chamillart found his double +functions too heavy, and retaining the ministry of war resigned that of +finance in 1708, Desmarets succeeded him. The situation was exceedingly +grave. The ordinary revenues of the year 1708 amounted to 81,977,007 +livres, of which 57,833,233 livres had already been spent by +anticipation, and the expenses to meet were 200,251,447 livres. In 1709 +a famine reduced still more the returns from taxes. Yet Desmarets's +reputation renewed the credit of the state, and financiers consented to +advance money they had refused to the king. The emission of paper money, +and a reform in the collection of taxes, enabled him to tide over the +years 1709 and 1710. Then Desmarets decided upon an "extreme and violent +remedy," to use his own expression,--an income tax. His "tenth" was +based on Vauban's plan; but the privileged classes managed to avoid it, +and it proved no better than other expedients. Nevertheless Louis XIV. +managed to meet the most urgent expenses, and the deficit of 1715, about +350,000,000 livres, was much less than it would have been had it not +been for Desmarets's reforms. The honourable peace which Louis was +enabled to conclude at Utrecht with his enemies was certainly due to the +resources which Desmarets procured for him. + +After the death of Louis XIV. Desmarets was dismissed by the regent +along with all the other ministers. He withdrew to his estates. To +justify his ministry he addressed to the regent a _Compte rendu_, which +showed clearly the difficulties he had to meet. His enemies even, like +Saint Simon, had to recognize his honesty and his talent. He was +certainly, after Colbert, the greatest finance minister of Louis XIV. + + See Forbonnais, _Recherches et considérations sur les finances de la + France_ (2 vols., Basel, 1758); Montyon, _Particularités et + observations sur les ministres des finances de la France_ (Paris, + 1812); De Boislisle, _Correspondance des contrôleurs-généraux des + finances_ (3 vols., Paris, 1873-1897); and the same author's + "Desmarets et l'affaire des pièces de quatre sols" in the appendix to + the seventh volume of his edition of the _Mémoires de Saint-Simon_. + (E. Es.) + + + + +DES MOINES, the capital and the largest city of Iowa, U.S.A., and the +county-seat of Polk county, in the south central part of the state, at +the confluence of the Raccoon with the Des Moines river. Pop. (1890) +50,093; (1900) 62,139, of whom 7946 were foreign-born, including 1907 +from Sweden and 1432 from Germany; (1910 census) 86,368. Des Moines is +served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, +the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the +Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Wabash, the Minneapolis & St Louis, +and the Des Moines, Iowa Falls & Northern railways; also by several +interurban electric lines. The chief building in Des Moines is the State +Capitol, erected at a cost of about $3,000,000; other important +buildings are the public library (containing, in 1908, 40,415 volumes), +the court house, the post office, the Iowa State Historical building, a +large auditorium and two hospitals. As a manufacturing centre the city +has considerable importance. Among the leading products are those of the +furnaces, foundries and machine shops, flour and grist mills, planing +mills, creameries, bridge and iron works, publishing houses and a +packing house; and brick, tile, pottery, patent medicines, furniture, +caskets, tombstones, carriages, farm machinery, Portland cement, glue, +gloves and hosiery. The value of the factory product in 1905 was +$15,084,958, an increase of 79.7% in five years. The city is in one of +the most productive coal regions of the state, has a large jobbing +trade, and is an important centre for the insurance business. The Iowa +state fair is held here annually. In 1908 this city had a park system of +750 acres. Des Moines is the seat of Des Moines College, a Baptist +institution, co-educational, founded in 1865 (enrolment, 1907-1908, +214); of Drake University (co-educational; founded in 1881 by the +Disciples of Christ; now non-sectarian), with colleges of liberal arts, +law, medicine, dental surgery and of the Bible, a conservatory of music, +and a normal school, in which are departments of oratory and commercial +training, and having in 1907-1908 1764 students, of whom 520 were in the +summer school only; of the Highland Park College, founded in 1890; of +Grand View College (Danish Lutheran), founded in 1895; and of the +Capital City commercial college (founded 1884). A new city charter, +embodying what has become known as the "Des Moines Plan" of municipal +government, was adopted in 1907. It centralizes power in a council of +five (mayor and four councilmen), nominated at a non-partisan primary +and voted for on a non-partisan ticket by the electors of the entire +city, ward divisions having been abolished. Elections are biennial. +Other city officers are chosen by the council, and city employees are +selected by a civil service commission of three members, appointed by +the council. The mayor is superintendent of the department of public +affairs, and each of the other administrative departments (accounts and +finances, public safety, streets and public improvements, and parks and +public property) is under the charge of one of the councilmen. After +petition signed by a number of voters not less than 25% of the number +voting at the preceding municipal election, any member of the council +may be removed by popular vote, to which all public franchises must be +submitted, and by which the council may be compelled to pass any law or +ordinance. + +A fort called Fort Des Moines was established on the site of the city in +1843 to protect the rights of the Sacs and Foxes. In 1843 the site was +opened to settlement by the whites; in 1851 Des Moines was incorporated +as a town; in 1857 it was first chartered as a city, and, for the +purpose of a more central location, the seat of government was removed +hither from Iowa City. A fort was re-established here by act of Congress +in 1900 and named Fort Des Moines. It is occupied by a full regiment of +cavalry. The name of the city was taken from that of the river, which in +turn is supposed to represent a corruption by the French of the original +Indian name, _Moingona_,--the French at first using the abbreviation +"moin," and calling the river "_la rivière des moins_" and then, the +name having become associated with the Trappist monks, changing it into +"_la rivière des moines_." + + + + +DESMOND, GERALD FITZGERALD, 15TH EARL OF (d. 1583), Irish leader, was +son of James, 14th earl, by his second wife More O'Carroll. His father +had agreed in January 1541, as one of the terms of his submission to +Henry VIII., to send young Gerald to be educated in England. At the +accession of Edward VI. proposals to this effect were renewed; Gerald +was to be the companion of the young king. Unfortunately for the +subsequent peace of Munster these projects were not carried out. The +Desmond estates were held by a doubtful title, and claims on them were +made by the Butlers, the hereditary enemies of the Geraldines, the 9th +earl of Ormonde having married Lady Joan Fitzgerald, daughter and +heiress-general of the 11th earl of Desmond. On Ormonde's death she +proposed to marry Gerald Fitzgerald, and eventually did so, after the +death of her second husband, Sir Francis Bryan. The effect of this +marriage was a temporary cessation of open hostility between the +Desmonds and her son, Thomas Butler, 10th earl of Ormonde. + +Gerald succeeded to the earldom in 1558; he was knighted by the lord +deputy Sussex, and did homage at Waterford. He soon established close +relations with his namesake Gerald Fitzgerald, 11th earl of Kildare +(1525-1585), and with Shane O'Neill. In spite of an award made by Sussex +in August 1560 regulating the matters in dispute between Ormonde and the +Fitzgeralds, the Geraldine outlaws were still plundering their +neighbours. Desmond neglected a summons to appear at Elizabeth's court +for some time on the plea that he was at war with his uncle Maurice. +When he did appear in London in May 1562 his insolent conduct before the +privy council resulted in a short imprisonment in the Tower. He was +detained in England until 1564, and soon after his return his wife's +death set him free from such restraint as was provided by her Butler +connexion. He now raided Thomond, and in Waterford he sought to enforce +his feudal rights on Sir Maurice Fitzgerald of Decies, who invoked the +help of Ormonde. The two nobles thereupon resorted to open war, fighting +a battle at Affane on the Blackwater, where Desmond was defeated and +taken prisoner. Ormonde and Desmond were bound over in London to keep +the peace, being allowed to return early in 1566 to Ireland, where a +royal commission was appointed to settle the matters in dispute between +them. Desmond and his brother Sir John of Desmond were sent over to +England, where they surrendered their lands to the queen after a short +experience of the Tower. In the meanwhile Desmond's cousin, James +Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, caused himself to be acclaimed captain of +Desmond in defiance of Sidney, and in the evident expectation of +usurping the earldom. He sought to give the movement an ultra-Catholic +character, with the idea of gaining foreign assistance, and allied +himself with John Burke, son of the earl of Clanricarde, with Connor +O'Brien, earl of Thomond, and even secured Ormonde's brother, Sir Edmund +Butler, whom Sidney had offended. Piers and Edward Butler also joined +the rebellion, but the appearance of Sidney and Ormonde in the +south-west was rapidly followed by the submission of the Butlers. Most +of the Geraldines were subjugated by Humphrey Gilbert, but Fitzmaurice +remained in arms, and in 1571 Sir John Perrot undertook to reduce him. +Perrot hunted him down, and at last on the 23rd of February 1573 he made +formal submission at Kilmallock, lying prostrate on the floor of the +church by way of proving his sincerity. + +Against the advice of the queen's Irish counsellors Desmond was allowed +to return to Ireland in 1573, the earl promising not to exercise +palatinate jurisdiction in Kerry until his rights to it were proved. He +was detained for six months in Dublin, but in November slipped through +the hands of the government, and within a very short time had reduced +to a state of anarchy the province which Perrot thought to have pacified +by his severities. Edward Fitzgerald, brother of the earl of Kildare, +and lieutenant of the queen's pensioners in London, was sent to +remonstrate with Desmond, but accomplished nothing. Desmond asserted +that none but Brehon law should be observed between Geraldines; and +Fitzmaurice seized Captain George Bourchier, one of Elizabeth's officers +in the west. Essex met the earl near Waterford in July, and Bourchier +was surrendered, but Desmond refused the other demands made in the +queen's name. A document offering £500 for his head, and £1000 to any +one who would take him alive, was drawn up but was vetoed by two members +of the council. On the 18th of July 1574 the Geraldine chiefs signed the +"Combination" promising to support the earl unconditionally; shortly +afterwards Ormonde and the lord deputy, Sir William Fitzwilliam, marched +on Munster, and put Desmond's garrison at Derrinlaur Castle to the +sword. Desmond submitted at Cork on the 2nd of September, handing over +his estates to trustees. Sir Henry Sidney visited Munster in 1575, and +affairs seemed to promise an early restoration of order. But Fitzmaurice +had fled to Brittany in company with other leading Geraldines, John +Fitzgerald, seneschal of Imokilly, who had held Ballymartyr against +Sidney in 1567, and Edmund Fitzgibbon, the son of the White Knight who +had been attainted in 1571. He intrigued at the French and Spanish +courts for a foreign invasion of Ireland, and at Rome met the adventurer +Stucley, with whom he projected an expedition which was to make a nephew +of Gregory XIII. king of Ireland. In 1579 he landed in Smerwick Bay, +where he was joined later by some Spanish soldiers at the Fort del Ore. +His ships were captured on the 29th of July and he himself was slain in +a skirmish while on his way to Tipperary. Nicholas Sanders, the papal +legate who had accompanied Fitzmaurice, worked on Desmond's weakness, +and sought to draw him into open rebellion. Desmond had perhaps been +restrained before by jealousy of Fitzmaurice; his indecisions ceased +when on the 1st of November Sir William Pelham proclaimed him a traitor. +The sack of Youghal and Kinsale by the Geraldines was speedily followed +by the successes of Ormonde and Pelham acting in concert with Admiral +Winter. In June 1581 Desmond had to take to the woods, but he maintained +a considerable following for some time, which, however, in June 1583, +when Ormonde set a price on his head, was reduced to four persons. Five +months later, on the 11th of November, he was seized and murdered by a +small party of soldiers. His brother Sir John of Desmond had been caught +and killed in December 1581, and the seneschal of Imokilly had +surrendered on the 14th of June 1583. After his submission the seneschal +acted loyally, but his lands excited envy; he was arrested in 1587, and +died in Dublin Castle two days later. + +By his second marriage with Eleanor Butler, the 15th earl left two sons, +the elder of whom, James, 16th earl (1570-1601), spent most of his life +in prison. After an unsuccessful attempt in 1600-1601 to recover his +inheritance he returned to England, where he died, the title becoming +extinct. + + See G. E. C(okayne,) _Complete Peerage_; R. Bagwell, _Ireland under + the Tudors_ (1885-1890); _Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters_ (ed. + J. O'Donovan, 1851); and the article FITZGERALD. + + + + +DESMOND (_Des-Mumha_), an ancient territorial division of Ireland, +covering the eastern part of the modern Co. Kerry and the western part +of Co. Cork. Its creation as a kingdom is placed in the year 248, when +Oliol Olum, king of Munster, divided his territory between his two sons, +giving Desmond to Eoghan, and Thomond or North Munster to Cormac. In +1329 Maurice Fitzthomas or Fitzgerald (d. 1356), lord of Decies and +Desmond, was created 1st earl of Desmond by Edward III.; like other +earls created about that time he ruled his territory as a palatinate, +and his family acquired enormous powers and a large measure of +independence. Meanwhile native kings continued to reign in a restricted +territory until 1596. In 1583 came the attainder of Gerald Fitzgerald, +15th earl of Desmond (q.v.), and in 1586 an act of parliament declared +the forfeiture of the Desmond estates to the crown. In 1571 a commission +provided for the formation of Desmond into a county, and it was +regarded as such for a few years, but by the beginning of the 17th +century it was joined to Co. Kerry. + +In 1619 the title of earl of Desmond was conferred on Richard Preston, +Lord Dingwall, at whose death in 1628 it again became extinct. It was +then bestowed on George Feilding, second son of William, earl of +Denbigh, who had held the reversion of the earldom from 1622. His son +William Feilding succeeded as earl of Denbigh in 1675, and thenceforward +the title of Desmond was held in conjunction with that honour. + + + + +DESMOSCOLECIDA, a group of minute marine worm-like creatures. The body +tapers towards each end and is marked by a number of well-defined +ridges. These ridges resemble on a small scale those which surround the +body of a _Porocephalus_ (Linguatulida), and like them have no segmental +significance. Their number varies in the different species. The head +bears four setae, and some of the ridges bear a pair either dorsally or +ventrally. The setae are movable. Two pigment spots between the fourth +and fifth ridges are regarded as eyes. The Desmoscolecida move by +looping their bodies like geometrid caterpillars or leeches, as well as +by creeping on their setae. The mouth is terminal, and leads into a +muscular oesophagus which opens into a straight intestine terminating in +an anus, which is said to be dorsal in position. The sexes are distinct. +The testis is single, and its duct opens into the intestine and is +provided with two chitinous spicules. The ovary is also single, opening +independently and anterior to the anus. The nervous system is as yet +unknown. + +[Illustration: + + From _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. ii., "Worms," &c., by + permission of Macmillian & Co. Ltd. + + Female _Desmoscolex elongatus_ Panceri, ventral view. a, Ovary. (From + Panceri.)] + +There are several species. _D. minutus_ Clap. has been met with in the +English Channel. Others are _D. nematoides_ Greef, _D. adelphus_ Greef, +_D. chaetogaster_ Greef, _D. elongatus_ Panceri, _D. lanuginosa_ +Panceri. _Trichoderma oxycaudatum_ Greef is 0.3 mm. long, and is also a +"ringed creature with long hair-like bristles." The male has two +spicules, and there is some doubt as to whether it should be placed with +the Desmoscolecida or with the Nematoda. With regard to the systematic +position of the group, it certainly comes nearest--especially in the +structure of its reproductive organs--to the Nematoda. We still, +however, are very ignorant of the internal anatomy of these forms, and +until we know more it is impossible to arrive at a very definite +conclusion as to their position in the animal kingdom. + + See Panceri, _Atti Acc. Napoli._ vii. (1878); Greef, _Arch. Naturg._ + 35 (i.) (1869), p. 112. (A. E. S.) + + + + +DESMOULINS, LUCIE SIMPLICE CAMILLE BENOIST (1760-1794), French +journalist and politician, who played an important part in the French +Revolution, was born at Guise, in Picardy, on the 2nd of March 1760. His +father was lieutenant-general of the _bailliage_ of Guise, and through +the efforts of a friend obtained a _bourse_ for his son, who at the age +of fourteen left home for Paris, and entered the college of Louis le +Grand. In this school, in which Robespierre was also a bursar and a +distinguished student, Camille Desmoulins laid the solid foundation of +his learning. Destined by his father for the law, at the completion of +his legal studies he was admitted an advocate of the parlement of Paris +in 1785. His professional success was not great; his manner was violent, +his appearance unattractive, and his speech impaired by a painful +stammer. He indulged, however, his love for literature, was closely +observant of public affairs, and thus gradually prepared himself for +the main duties of his life--those of a political _littérateur_. + +In March 1789 Desmoulins began his political career. Having been +nominated deputy from the _bailliage_ of Guise, he appeared at Laon as +one of the commissioners for the election of deputies to the +States-General summoned by royal edict of January 24th. Camille heralded +its meeting by his _Ode to the States-General_. It is, moreover, highly +probable that he was the author of a radical pamphlet entitled _La +Philosophie au peuple français_, published in 1788, the text of which is +not known. His hopes of professional success were now scattered, and he +was living in Paris in extreme poverty. He, however, shared to the full +the excitement which attended the meeting of the States-General. As +appears from his letters to his father, he watched with exultation the +procession of deputies at Versailles, and with violent indignation the +events of the latter part of June which followed the closing of the +Salle des Menus to the deputies who had named themselves the National +Assembly. It is further evident that Desmoulins was already +sympathizing, not only with the enthusiasm, but also with the fury and +cruelty, of the Parisian crowds. + +The sudden dismissal of Necker by Louis XVI. was the event which brought +Desmoulins to fame. On the 12th of July 1789 Camille, leaping upon a +table outside one of the cafés in the garden of the Palais Royal, +announced to the crowd the dismissal of their favourite. Losing, in his +violent excitement, his stammer, he inflamed the passions of the mob by +his burning words and his call "To arms!" "This dismissal," he said, "is +the tocsin of the St Bartholomew of the patriots." Drawing, at last, two +pistols from under his coat, he declared that he would not fall alive +into the hands of the police who were watching his movements. He +descended amid the embraces of the crowd, and his cry "To arms!" +resounded on all sides. This scene was the beginning of the actual +events of the Revolution. Following Desmoulins the crowd surged through +Paris, procuring arms by force; and on the 13th it was partly organized +as the Parisian militia which was afterwards to be the National Guard. +On the 14th the Bastille was taken. + +Desmoulins may be said to have begun on the following day that public +literary career which lasted till his death. In May and June 1789 he had +written _La France libre_, which, to his chagrin, his publisher refused +to print. The taking of the Bastille, however, and the events by which +it was preceded, were a sign that the times had changed; and on the 18th +of July Desmoulins's work was issued. Considerably in advance of public +opinion, it already pronounced in favour of a republic. By its erudite, +brilliant and courageous examination of the rights of king, of nobles, +of clergy and of people, it attained a wide and sudden popularity; it +secured for the author the friendship and protection of Mirabeau, and +the studied abuse of numerous royalist pamphleteers. Shortly afterwards, +with his vanity and love of popularity inflamed, he pandered to the +passions of the lower orders by the publication of his _Discours de la +lanterne aux Parisiens_ which, with an almost fiendish reference to the +excesses of the mob, he headed by a quotation from St John, _Qui male +agit odit lucem_. Camille was dubbed "Procureur-général de la lanterne." + +In November 1789 Desmoulins began his career as a journalist by the +issue of the first number of a weekly publication, _Les Révolutions de +France et de Brabant_. The title of the publication changed after the +73rd number. It ceased to appear at the end of July 1791.[1] + +Success attended the _Révolutions_ from its first to its last number, +Camille was everywhere famous, and his poverty was relieved. These +numbers are valuable as an exhibition not so much of events as of the +feelings of the Parisian people; they are adorned, moreover, by the +erudition, the wit and the genius of the author, but they are +disfigured, not only by the most biting personalities and the defence +and even advocacy of the excesses of the mob, but by the entire absence +of the forgiveness and pity for which the writer was afterwards so +eloquently to plead. + +Desmoulins was powerfully swayed by the influence of more vigorous +minds; and for some time before the death of Mirabeau, in April 1791, he +had begun to be led by Danton, with whom he remained associated during +the rest of his life. In July 1791 Camille appeared before the +municipality of Paris as head of a deputation of petitioners for the +deposition of the king. In that month, however, such a request was +dangerous; there was excitement in the city over the presentation of the +petition, and the private attacks to which Desmoulins had often been +subject were now followed by a warrant for the arrest of himself and +Danton. Danton left Paris for a little; Desmoulins, however, remained +there, appearing occasionally at the Jacobin club. Upon the failure of +this attempt of his opponents, Desmoulins published a pamphlet, _Jean +Pierre Brissot démasqué_, which abounded in the most violent +personalities. This pamphlet, which had its origin in a petty squabble, +was followed in 1793 by a _Fragment de l'histoire secrète de la +Révolution_, in which the party of the Gironde, and specially Brissot, +were most mercilessly attacked. Desmoulins took an active part on the +10th of August and became secretary to Danton, when the latter became +minister of justice. On the 8th of September he was elected one of the +deputies for Paris to the National Convention, where, however, he was +not successful as an orator. He was of the party of the "Mountain," and +voted for the abolition of royalty and the death of the king. With +Robespierre he was now more than ever associated, and the _Histoire des +Brissotins_, the fragment above alluded to, was inspired by the +arch-revolutionist. The success of the _brochure_, so terrible as to +send the leaders of the Gironde to the guillotine, alarmed Danton and +the author. Yet the role of Desmoulins during the Convention was of but +secondary importance. + +In December 1793 was issued the first number of the _Vieux Cordelier_, +which was at first directed against the Hébertists and approved of by +Robespierre, but which soon formulated Danton's idea of a committee of +clemency. Then Robespierre turned against Desmoulins and took advantage +of the popular indignation roused against the Hébertists to send them to +death. The time had come, however, when Saint Just and he were to turn +their attention not only to _les enragés_, but to _les indulgents_--the +powerful faction of the Dantonists. On the 7th of January 1794 +Robespierre, who on a former occasion had defended Camille when in +danger at the hands of the National Convention, in addressing the +Jacobin club counselled not the expulsion of Desmoulins, but the burning +of certain numbers of the _Vieux Cordelier_. Camille sharply replied +that he would answer with Rousseau,--"burning is not answering," and a +bitter quarrel thereupon ensued. By the end of March not only were +Hébert and the leaders of the extreme party guillotined, but their +opponents, Danton, Desmoulins and the best of the moderates, were +arrested. On the 31st the warrant of arrest was signed and executed, and +on the 3rd, 4th and 5th of April the trial took place before the +Revolutionary Tribunal. It was a scene of terror not only to the accused +but to judges and to jury. The retorts of the prisoners were notable. +Camille on being asked his age, replied, "I am thirty-three, the age of +the _sans-culotte_ Jesus, a critical age for every patriot." This was +false; he was thirty-four.[2] The accused were prevented from defending +themselves; a decree of the Convention denied them the right of speech. +Armed with this and the false report of a spy, who charged the wife of +Desmoulins with conspiring for the escape of her husband and the ruin of +the republic, Fouquier-Tinville by threats and entreaties obtained from +the jury a sentence of death. It was passed in absence of the accused, +and their execution was appointed for the same day. + +Since his arrest the courage of Camille had miserably failed. He had +exhibited in the numbers of the _Vieux Cordelier_ almost a disregard of +the death which he must have known hovered over him. He had with +consummate ability exposed the terrors of the Revolution, and had +adorned his pages with illustrations from Tacitus, the force of which +the commonest reader could feel. In his last number, the seventh, which +his publisher refused to print, he had dared to attack even Robespierre, +but at his trial it was found that he was devoid of physical courage. He +had to be torn from his seat ere he was removed to prison, and as he sat +next to Danton in the tumbrel which conveyed them to the guillotine, the +calmness of the great leader failed to impress him. In his violence, +bound as he was, he tore his clothes into shreds, and his bare shoulders +and breast were exposed to the gaze of the surging crowd. Of the fifteen +guillotined together, including among them Marie Jean Hérault de +Séchelles, François Joseph Westermann and Pierre Philippeaux, Desmoulins +died third; Danton, the greatest, died last. + +On the 29th of December 1790 Camille had married Lucile Duplessis, and +among the witnesses of the ceremony are observed the names of Brissot, +Pétion and Robespierre. The only child of the marriage, Horace Camille, +was born on the 6th of July 1792. Two days afterwards Desmoulins brought +it into notice by appearing with it before the municipality of Paris to +demand "the formal statement of the civil estate of his son." The boy +was afterwards pensioned by the French government, and died in Haiti in +1825. Lucile, Desmoulins's accomplished and affectionate wife, was, a +few days after her husband, and on a false charge, condemned to the +guillotine. She astonished all onlookers by the calmness with which she +braved death (April 13, 1794). + + See J. Claretie, _OEuvres de Camille Desmoulins avec une étude + biographique ..._ &c. (Paris, 1874), and _Camille Desmoulins, Lucile + Desmoulins, étude sur les Dantonistes_ (Paris, 1875; Eng. trans., + London, 1876); F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la + Convention_ (Paris, 1905, 2nd ed.): G. Lenôtre, "La Maison de Camille + Desmoulins" (_Le Temps_, March 25, 1899). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In April 1792 Desmoulins founded with Stanislas Fréron a new + journal, _La Tribune des patriotes_, but only four numbers appeared. + + [2] This is borne out by the register of his birth and baptism, and + by words in his last letter to his wife,--"I die at thirty-four." + The dates (1762-1794) given in so many biographies of Desmoulins are + certainly inaccurate. + + + + +DESNOYERS, JULES PIERRE FRANÇOIS STANISLAS (1800-1887), French geologist +and archaeologist, was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou, in the department of +Eure-et-Loir, on the 8th of October 1800. Becoming interested in geology +at an early age, he was one of the founders of the Société Géologique de +France in 1830. In 1834 he was appointed librarian of the Museum of +Natural History in Paris. His contributions to geological science +comprise memoirs on the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata of the +Paris Basin and of Northern France, and other papers relating to the +antiquity of man, and to the question of his co-existence with extinct +mammalia. His separate books were _Sur la Craie et sur les terrains +tertiaires du Cotentin_ (1825), _Recherches géologiques et historiques +sur les cavernes_ (1845). He died in 1887. + + + + +DESOR, PIERRE JEAN ÉDOUARD (1811-1882), Swiss geologist, was born at +Friedrichsdorf, near Frankfort-on-Main, on the 13th of February 1811. +Associated in early years with Agassiz he studied palaeontology and +glacial phenomena, and in company with J. D. Forbes ascended the +Jungfrau in 1841. Desor afterwards became professor of geology in the +academy at Neuchâtel, continued his studies on the structure of +glaciers, but gave special attention to the study of Jurassic +Echinoderms. He also investigated the old lake-habitations of +Switzerland, and made important observations on the physical features of +the Sahara. Having inherited considerable property he retired to Combe +Varin in Val Travers. He died at Nizza on the 23rd of February 1882. His +chief publications were: _Synopsis des Échinides fossiles_ (1858), _Aus +Sahara_ (1865), _Der Gebirgsbau der Alpen_ (1865), _Die Pfahlbauten des +Neuenburger Sees_ (1866), _Échinologie helvétique_ (2 vols., 1868-1873, +with P. de Loriol). + + + + +DE SOTO, a city of Jefferson county, Missouri, U.S.A., on Joachim Creek, +42 m. S.S.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 3960; (1900) 5611 (332 being +foreign-born and 364 negroes); (1910) 4721. It is served by the St. +Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railway, which has extensive repair +shops here. About 2½ m. from De Soto is the Bochert mineral spring. In +De Soto are Mount St Clement's College (Roman Catholic, 1900), a +theological seminary of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer under +the charge of the Redemptorist Fathers, and a Young Men's Christian +Association building. De Soto is in a good agricultural and +fruit-growing region, which produces Indian corn, apples, plums, pears +and small fruit. Lead and zinc are mined in the vicinity and shipped +from the city in considerable quantities; and among the city's +manufactures are shoes, flour and agricultural implements. The +municipality owns the water-works, the water supply of which is +furnished by artesian wells. De Soto was laid out in 1855 and was +incorporated in 1869. + + + + +DESPARD, EDWARD MARCUS (1751-1803), Irish conspirator, was born in +Queen's Co., Ireland, in 1751. In 1766 he entered the British navy, was +promoted lieutenant in 1772, and stationed at Jamaica, where he soon +proved himself to have considerable engineering talent. He served in the +West Indies with credit, being promoted captain after the San Juan +expedition (1779), then made governor of the Mosquito Shore and the Bay +of Honduras, and in 1782 commander of a successful expedition against +the Spanish possessions on the Black river. In 1784 he took over the +administration of Yucatan. Upon frivolous charges he was suspended by +Lord Grenville, and recalled to England. From 1790 to 1792 these charges +were held over him, and when dismissed no compensation was forthcoming. +His complaints caused him to be arrested in 1798; and with a short +interval he remained in gaol until 1800. By that time Despard was +desperate, and engaged in a plot to seize the Tower of London and Bank +of England and assassinate George III. The whole idea was patently +preposterous, but Despard was arrested, tried before a special +commission, found guilty of high treason, and, with six of his +fellow-conspirators, sentenced in 1803 to be hanged, drawn and +quartered. These were the last men to be so sentenced in England. +Despard was executed on the 21st of February 1803. + +His eldest brother, JOHN DESPARD (1745-1829), had a long and +distinguished career in the British army; gazetted an ensign in 1760, he +was promoted through the various intermediate grades and became general +in 1814. His most active service was in the American War of +Independence, during which he was twice made prisoner. + + + + +DESPENSER, HUGH LE (d. 1265), chief justiciar of England, first plays an +important part in 1258, when he was prominent on the baronial side in +the Mad Parliament of Oxford. In 1260 the barons chose him to succeed +Hugh Bigod as justiciar, and in 1263 the king was further compelled to +put the Tower of London in his hands. On the outbreak of civil war he +joined the party of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and led the +Londoners when they sacked the manor-house of Isleworth, belonging to +Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans. Having fought at Lewes +(1264) he was made governor of six castles after the battle, and was +then appointed one of the four arbitrators to mediate between Simon de +Montfort and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester. He was summoned to +Simon de Montfort's parliament in 1264, and acted as justiciar +throughout the earl's dictatorship. Despenser was killed at Evesham in +August 1265. + + See C. Bémont, _Simon de Montfort_ (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in + _Owens College Historical Essays_, pp. 76 ff. (Manchester, 1902). + + + + +DESPENSER, HUGH LE (1262-1326), English courtier, was a son of the +English justiciar who died at Evesham. He fought for Edward I. in Wales, +France and Scotland, and in 1295 was summoned to parliament as a baron. +Ten years later he was sent by the king to Pope Clement V. to secure +Edward's release from the oaths he had taken to observe the charters in +1297. Almost alone Hugh spoke out for Edward II.'s favourite, Piers +Gaveston, in 1308; but after Gaveston's death in 1312 he himself became +the king's chief adviser, holding power and influence until Edward's +defeat at Bannockburn in 1314. Then, hated by the barons, and especially +by Earl Thomas of Lancaster, as a deserter from their party, he was +driven from the council, but was quickly restored to favour and loaded +with lands and honours, being made earl of Winchester in 1322. Before +this time Hugh's son, the younger Hugh le Despenser, had become +associated with his father, and having been appointed the king's +chamberlain was enjoying a still larger share of the royal favour. About +1306 this baron had married Eleanor (d. 1337), one of the sisters and +heiresses of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, who was slain at +Bannockburn; and after a division of the immense Clare lands had been +made in 1317 violent quarrels broke out between the Despensers and the +husbands of the other heiresses, Roger of Amory and Hugh of Audley. +Interwoven with this dispute was another between the younger Despenser +and the Mowbrays, who were supported by Humphrey Bohun, earl of +Hereford, about some lands in Glamorganshire. Fighting having begun in +Wales and on the Welsh borders, the English barons showed themselves +decidedly hostile to the Despensers, and in 1321 Edward II. was obliged +to consent to their banishment. While the elder Hugh left England the +younger one remained; soon the king persuaded the clergy to annul the +sentence against them, and father and son were again at court. They +fought against the rebellious barons at Boroughbridge, and after +Lancaster's death in 1322 they were practically responsible for the +government of the country, which they attempted to rule in a moderate +and constitutional fashion. But their next enemy, Queen Isabella, was +more formidable, or more fortunate, than Lancaster. Returning to England +after a sojourn in France in 1326 the queen directed her arms against +her husband's favourites. The elder Despenser was seized at Bristol, +where he was hanged on the 27th of October 1326, and the younger was +taken with the king at Llantrisant and hanged at Hereford on the 24th of +November following. The attainder against the Despensers was reversed in +1398. The intense hatred with which the barons regarded the Despensers +was due to the enormous wealth which had passed into their hands, and to +the arrogance and rapacity of the younger Hugh. + +The younger Despenser left two sons, Hugh (1308-1349), and Edward, who +was killed at Vannes in 1342. + +The latter's son EDWARD LE DESPENSER (d. 1375) fought at the battle of +Poitiers, and then in Italy for Pope Urban V.; he was a patron of +Froissart, who calls him _le grand sire Despensier_. His son, THOMAS LE +DESPENSER (1373-1400), the husband of Constance (d. 1416), daughter of +Edmund of Langley, duke of York, supported Richard II. against Thomas of +Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, and the other lords appellant in 1397, +when he himself was created earl of Gloucester, but he deserted the king +in 1399. Then, degraded from his earldom for participating in +Gloucester's death, Despenser joined the conspiracy against Henry IV., +but he was seized and was executed by a mob at Bristol in January 1400. + +The elder Edward le Despenser left another son, HENRY (c. 1341-1406), +who became bishop of Norwich in 1370. In early life Henry had been a +soldier, and when the peasants revolted in 1381 he took readily to the +field, defeated the insurgents at North Walsham, and suppressed the +rising in Norfolk with some severity. More famous, however, was the +militant bishop's enterprise on behalf of Pope Urban VI., who in 1382 +employed him to lead a crusade in Flanders against the supporters of the +anti-pope Clement VII. He was very successful in capturing towns until +he came before Ypres, where he was checked, his humiliation being +completed when his army was defeated by the French and decimated by a +pestilence. Having returned to England the bishop was impeached in +parliament and was deprived of his lands; Richard II., however, stood by +him, and he soon regained an influential place in the royal council, and +was employed to defend his country on the seas. Almost alone among his +peers Henry remained true to Richard in 1399; he was then imprisoned, +but was quickly released and reconciled with the new king, Henry IV. He +died on the 23rd of August 1406. Despenser was an active enemy of the +Lollards, whose leader, John Wycliffe, had fiercely denounced his +crusade in Flanders. + +The barony of Despenser, called out of abeyance in 1604, was held by the +Fanes, earls of Westmorland, from 1626 to 1762; by the notorious Sir +Francis Dashwood from 1763 to 1781; and by the Stapletons from 1788 to +1891. In 1891 it was inherited, through his mother, by the 7th Viscount +Falmouth. + + + + +DES PÉRIERS, BONAVENTURE (c. 1500-1544), French author, was born of a +noble family at Arnay-le-duc in Burgundy at the end of the 15th century. +The circumstances of his education are uncertain, but he became a good +classical scholar, and was attached to various noble houses in the +capacity of tutor. In 1533 or 1534 Des Périers visited Lyons, then the +most enlightened town of France, and a refuge for many liberal scholars +who might elsewhere have had to suffer for their opinions. He gave some +assistance to Robert Olivetan and Lefèvre d'Étaples in the preparation +of the vernacular version of the Old Testament, and to Étienne Dolet in +the _Commentarii linguae latinae_. In 1536 he put himself under the +protection of Marguerite d'Angoulême, queen of Navarre, who made him her +_valet-de-chambre_. He acted as the queen's secretary, and transcribed +the _Heptaméron_ for her. It is probable that his duties extended beyond +those of a mere copyist, and some writers have gone so far as to say +that the _Heptaméron_ was his work. The free discussions permitted at +Marguerite's court encouraged a licence of thought as displeasing to the +Calvinists as to the Catholics. This free inquiry became scepticism in +Bonaventure's _Cymbalum Mundi ..._ (1537), and the queen of Navarre +thought it prudent to disavow the author, though she continued to help +him privately until 1541. The book consisted of four dialogues in +imitation of Lucian. Its allegorical form did not conceal its real +meaning, and, when it was printed by Morin, probably early in 1538, the +Sorbonne secured the suppression of the edition before it was offered +for sale. The dedication provides a key to the author's intention: +_Thomas du Clevier (or Clenier) à son ami Pierre Tryocan_ was recognized +by 19th-century editors to be an anagram for _Thomas l'Incrédule à son +ami Pierre Croyant_. The book was reprinted in Paris in the same year. +It made many bitter enemies for the author. Henri Estienne called it +_détestable_, and Étienne Pasquier said it deserved to be thrown into +the fire with its author if he were still living. Des Périers prudently +left Paris, and after some wanderings settled at Lyons, where he lived +in poverty, until in 1544 he put an end to his existence by falling on +his sword. In 1544 his collected works were printed at Lyons. The +volume, _Recueil des oeuvres de feu Bonaventure des Périers_, included +his poems, which are of small merit, the _Traité des quatre vertus +cardinales après Sénèque_, and a translation of the _Lysis_ of Plato. In +1558 appeared at Lyons the collection of stories and fables entitled the +_Nouvelles récréations et joyeux devis_. It is on this work that the +claim put forward for Des Périers as one of the early masters of French +prose rests. Some of the tales are attributed to the editors, Nicholas +Denisot and Jacques Pelletier, but their share is certainly limited to +the later ones. The book leaves something to be desired on the score of +morality, but the stories never lack point and are models of simple, +direct narration in the vigorous and picturesque French of the 16th +century. + + His _OEuvres françaises_ were published by Louis Lacour (Paris, 2 + vols., 1856). See also the preface to the _Cymbalum Mundi ..._ (ed. + F. Franck, 1874); A. Cheneviere, _Bonaventure Despériers, sa vie, ses + poésies_ (1885); and P. Toldo, _Contributo allo studio della novella + francese del XV. e XVI. secolo_ (Rome, 1895). + + + + +DESPORTES, PHILIPPE (1546-1606), French poet, was born at Chartres in +1546. As secretary to the bishop of Le Puy he visited Italy, where he +gained a knowledge of Italian poetry afterwards turned to good account. +On his return to France he attached himself to the duke of Anjou, and +followed him to Warsaw on his election as king of Poland. Nine months in +Poland satisfied the civilized Desportes, but in 1574 his patron became +king of France as Henry III. He showered favours on the poet, who +received, in reward for the skill with which he wrote occasional poems +at the royal request, the abbey of Tiron and four other valuable +benefices. A good example of the light and dainty verse in which +Desportes excelled is furnished by the well-known _villanelle_ with the +refrain "Qui premier s'en repentira," which was on the lips of Henry, +duke of Guise, just before his tragic death. Desportes was above all an +imitator. He imitated Petrarch, Ariosto, Sannazaro, and still more +closely the minor Italian poets, and in 1604 a number of his plagiarisms +were exposed in the _Rencontres des Muses de France et d'ltalie_. As a +sonneteer he showed much grace and sweetness, and English poets borrowed +freely from him. In his old age Desportes acknowledged his +ecclesiastical preferment by a translation of the Psalms remembered +chiefly for the brutal _mot_ of Malherbe: "Votre potage vaut mieux que +vos psaumes." Desportes died on the 5th of October 1606. He had +published in 1573 an edition of his works including _Diane_, _Les Amours +d'Hippolyte_, _Élégies_, _Bergeries_, _OEuvres chrétiennes_, &c. + +An edition of his _OEuvres_, by Alfred Michiels, appeared in 1858. + + + + +DESPOT (Gr. [Greek: despotês], lord or master; the origin of the first +part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with [Greek: +posis], husband, Lat. _potens_, powerful), in Greek usage the master of +a household, hence the ruler of slaves. It was also used by the Greeks +of their gods, as was the feminine form [Greek: despoina]. It was, +however, principally applied by the Greeks to the absolute monarchs of +the eastern empires with which they came in contact; and it is in this +sense that the word, like its equivalent "tyrant," is in current usage +for an absolute sovereign whose rule is not restricted by any +constitution. In the Roman empire of the East "despot" was early used as +a title of honour or address of the emperor, and was given by Alexius I. +(1081-1118) to the sons, brothers and sons-in-law of the emperor +(Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ed. Bury, vol. vi. 80). It does not seem +that the title was confined to the heir-apparent by Alexius II. (see +Selden, _Titles of Honour_, part ii. chap. i. s. vi.). Later still it +was adopted by the vassal princes of the empire. This gave rise to the +name "despotats" as applied to these tributary states, which survived +the break-up of the empire in the independent "despotats" of Epirus, +Cyprus, Trebizond, &c. Under Ottoman rule the title was preserved by the +despots of Servia and of the Morea, &c. The early use of the term as a +title of address for ecclesiastical dignitaries survives in its use in +the Greek Church as the formal mode of addressing a bishop. + + + + +DES PRÉS, JOSQUIN (c. 1445-1521), also called DEPRÉS or DESPREZ, and by +a latinized form of his name, JODOCUS PRATENSIS or A PRATO, French +musical composer, was born, probably in Condé in the Hennegau, about +1445. He was a pupil of Ockenheim, and himself one of the most learned +musicians of his time. In spite of his great fame, the accounts of his +life are vague and the dates contradictory. Fétis contributed greatly +towards elucidating the doubtful points in his _Biographie universelle_. +In his early youth Josquin seems to have been a member of the choir of +the collegiate church at St Quentin; when his voice changed he went +(about 1455) to Ockenheim to take lessons in counterpoint; afterwards he +again lived at his birthplace for some years, till Pope Sixtus IV. +invited him to Rome to teach his art to the musicians of Italy, where +musical knowledge at that time was at a low ebb. In Rome Des Prés lived +till the death of his protector (1484), and it was there that many of +his works were written. His reputation grew rapidly, and he was +considered by his contemporaries to be the greatest master of his age. +Luther, who was a good judge, is credited with the saying that "other +musicians do with notes what they can, Josquin what he likes." The +composer's journey to Rome marks in a manner the transference of the art +from its Gallo-Belgian birthplace to Italy, which for the next two +centuries remained the centre of the musical world. To Des Prés and his +pupils Arcadelt, Mouton and others, much that is characteristic in +modern music owes its rise, particularly in their influence upon Italian +developments under Palestrina. After leaving Rome Des Prés went for a +time to Ferrara, where the duke Hercules I. offered him a home; but +before long he accepted an invitation of King Louis XII. of France to +become the chief singer of the royal chapel. According to another +account, he was for a time at least in the service of the emperor +Maximilian I. The date of his death has by some writers been placed as +early as 1501. But this is sufficiently disproved by the fact of one of +his finest compositions, _A Dirge (Déploration) for Five Voices_, being +written to commemorate the death of his master Ockenheim, which took +place after 1512. The real date of Josquin's decease has since been +settled as the 27th of August 1521. He was at that time a canon of the +cathedral of Condé (see Victor Delzant's _Sépultures de Flandre_, No. +118). + + The most complete list of his compositions--consisting of masses, + motets, psalms and other pieces of sacred music--will be found in + Fétis. The largest collection of his MS. works, containing no less + than twenty masses, is in the possession of the papal chapel in Rome. + In his lifetime Des Prés was honoured as an eminent composer, and the + musicians of the 16th century are loud in his praise. During the 17th + and 18th centuries his value was ignored, nor does his work appear in + the collections of Martini and Paolucci. Burney was the first to + recover him from oblivion, and Forkel continued the task of + rehabilitation. Ambros furnishes the most exhaustive account of his + achievements. An admirable account of Josquin's art, from the rare + point of view of a modern critic who knows how to allow for modern + difficulties, will be found in the article "Josquin," in Grove's + _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, new ed. vol. ii. The _Répertoire + des chanteurs de St Gervais_ contains an excellent modern edition of + Josquin's _Miserere_. + + + + +DESPRÈS, SUZANNE (1875- ), French actress, was born at Verdun, and +trained at the Paris Conservatoire, where in 1897 she obtained the first +prize for comedy, and the second for tragedy. She then became associated +with, and subsequently married, Aurelien Lugné-Poë (b. 1870), the +actor-manager, who had founded a new school of modern drama, +_L'OEuvre_, and she had a brilliant success in several plays produced +by him. In succeeding years she played at the Gymnase and at the Porte +Saint-Martin, and in 1902 made her début at the Comédie Française, +appearing in _Phèdre_ and other important parts. + + + + +DESRUES, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS (1744-1777), French poisoner, was born at +Chartres in 1744, of humble parents. He went to Paris to seek his +fortune, and started in business as a grocer. He was known as a man of +great piety and devotion, and his business was reputed to be a +flourishing one, but when, in 1773, he gave up his shop, his finances, +owing to personal extravagance, were in a deplorable condition. +Nevertheless he entered into negotiations with a Madame de la Mothe for +the purchase from her of a country estate, and, when the time came for +the payment of the purchase money, invited her to stay with him in Paris +pending the transfer. While she was still his guest, he poisoned first +her and then her son, a youth of sixteen. Then, having forged a receipt +for the purchase money, he endeavoured to obtain possession of the +property. But by this time the disappearance of Madame de la Mothe and +her son had aroused suspicion. Desrues was arrested, the bodies of his +victims were discovered, and the crime was brought home to him. He was +tried, found guilty and condemned to be torn asunder alive and burned. +The sentence was carried out (1777), Desrues repeating hypocritical +protestations of his innocence to the last. The whole affair created a +great sensation at the time, and as late as 1828 a dramatic version of +it was performed in Paris. + + + + +DESSAIX, JOSEPH MARIE, COUNT (1764-1834), French general, was born at +Thonon in Savoy on the 24th of September 1764. He studied medicine, took +his degree at Turin, and then went to Paris, where in 1789 he joined the +National Guard. In 1791 he tried without success to raise an _émeute_ in +Savoy, in 1792 he organized the "Legion of the Allobroges," and in the +following years he served at the siege of Toulon, in the Army of the +Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Army of Italy. He was captured at Rivoli, +but was soon exchanged. In the spring of 1798 Dessaix was elected a +member of the Council of Five Hundred. He was one of the few in that +body who opposed the _coup d'état_ of the 18th Brumaire (November 9, +1799). In 1803 he was promoted general of brigade, and soon afterwards +commander of the Legion of Honour. He distinguished himself greatly at +the battle of Wagram (1809), and was about this time promoted general of +division and named grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1810 +was made a count. He took part in the expedition to Russia, and was +twice wounded. For several months he was commandant of Berlin, and +afterwards delivered the department of Mont Blanc from the Austrians. +After the first restoration Dessaix held a command under the Bourbons. +He nevertheless joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days, and in 1816 he was +imprisoned for five months. The rest of his life was spent in +retirement. He died on the 26th of October 1834. + + See _Le Général Dessaix, sa vie politique et militaire_, by his + nephew Joseph Dessaix (Paris, 1879). + + + + +DESSAU, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Anhalt, on the left +bank of the Mulde, 2 m. from its confluence with the Elbe, 67 m. S.W. +from Berlin and at the junction of lines to Cöthen and Zerbst. Pop. +(1905) 55,134. Apart from the old quarter lying on the Mulde, the town +is well built, is surrounded by pleasant gardens and contains many +handsome streets and spacious squares. Among the latter is the Grosse +Markt with a statue of Prince Leopold I. of Anhalt-Dessau, "the old +Dessauer." Of the six churches, the Schlosskirche, adorned with +paintings by Lucas Cranach, in one of which ("The Last Supper") are +portraits of several reformers, is the most interesting. The ducal +palace, standing in extensive grounds, contains a collection of +historical curiosities and a gallery of pictures, which includes works +by Cimabue, Lippi, Rubens, Titian and Van Dyck. Among other buildings +are the town hall (built 1899-1900), the palace of the hereditary +prince, the theatre, the administration offices, the law courts, the +Amalienstift, with a picture gallery, several high-grade schools, a +library of 30,000 volumes and an excellently appointed hospital. There +are monuments to the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn (born here in 1729), +to the poet Wilhelm Müller, father of Professor Max Müller, also a +native of the place, to the emperor William I., and an obelisk +commemorating the war of 1870-71. The industries of Dessau include the +production of sugar, which is the chief manufacture, woollen, linen and +cotton goods, carpets, hats, leather, tobacco and musical instruments. +There is also a considerable trade in corn and garden produce. In the +environs are the ducal villas of Georgium and Luisium, the gardens of +which, as well as those of the neighbouring town of Wörlitz, are much +admired. + +Dessau was probably founded by Albert the Bear; it had attained civic +rights as early as 1213. It first began to grow into importance at the +close of the 17th century, in consequence of the religious emancipation +of the Jews in 1686, and of the Lutherans in 1697. + + See Würdig, _Chronik der Stadt Dessau_ (Dessau, 1876). + + + + +DESSEWFFY, AUREL, COUNT (1808-1842), Hungarian journalist and +politician, eldest son of Count József Dessewffy and Eleonora Sztaray, +was born at Nagy-Mihály, county Zemplén, Hungary. Carefully educated at +his father's house, he was accustomed to the best society of his day. +While still a child he could declaim most of the _Iliad_ in Greek +without a book, and read and quoted Tacitus with enthusiasm. Under the +noble influence of Ferencz Kazinczy he became acquainted with the chief +masterpieces of European literature in their original tongues. He was +particularly fond of the English, and one of his early idols was Jeremy +Bentham. He regularly accompanied his father to the diets of which he +was a member, followed the course of the debates, of which he kept a +journal, and made the acquaintance of the great Széchenyi, who +encouraged his aspirations. On leaving college, he entered the royal +aulic chancellery, and in 1832 was appointed secretary of the royal +stadtholder at Buda. The same year he turned his attention to politics +and was regarded as one of the most promising young orators of the day, +especially during the sessions of the diet of 1832-1836, when he had the +courage to oppose Kossuth. At the Pressburg diet in 1840 Dessewffy was +already the leading orator of the more enlightened and progressive +Conservatives, but incurred great unpopularity for not going far enough, +with the result that he was twice defeated at the polls. But his +reputation in court circles was increasing; he was appointed a member of +the committee for the reform of the criminal law in 1840; and, the same +year with a letter of recommendation from Metternich in his pocket, +visited England and France, Holland and Belgium, made the acquaintance +of Thiers and Heine in Paris, and returned home with an immense and +precious store of practical information. He at once proceeded to put +fresh life into the despondent and irresolute Conservative party, and +the Magyar aristocracy, by gallantly combating in the _Világ_ the +opinions of Kossuth's paper, the _Pesti Hírlap_. But the multiplicity of +his labours was too much for his feeble physique, and he died on the 9th +of February 1842, at the very time when his talents seemed most +indispensable. + + See _Aus den Papieren des Grafen Aurel Dessewffy_ (Pest, 1843); + _Memorial Wreath to Count Aurel Dessewffy_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1857); + _Collected Works of Count Dessewffy, with a Biography_ (Hung.), + (Budapest, 1887). (R. N. B.) + + + + +DESSOIR, LUDWIG (1810-1874), German actor, whose name was originally +Leopold Dessauer, was born on the 15th of December 1810 at Posen, the +son of a Jewish tradesman. He made his first appearance on the stage +there in 1824 in a small part. After some experience at the theatre in +Posen and on tour, he was engaged at Leipzig from 1834 to 1836. Then he +was attached to the municipal theatre of Breslau, and in 1837 appeared +at Prague, Brünn, Vienna and Budapest, where he accepted an engagement +which lasted until 1839. He succeeded Karl Devrient at Karlsruhe, and +went in 1847 to Berlin, where he acted Othello and Hamlet with such +extraordinary success that he received a permanent engagement at the +Hof-theater. From 1849 to 1872, when he retired on a pension, he played +110 parts, frequently on tour, and in 1853 acting in London. He died on +the 30th of December 1874 in Berlin. Dessoir was twice married; his +first wife, Theresa, a popular actress (1810-1866), was separated from +him a year after marriage; his second wife went mad on the death of her +child. By his first wife Dessoir had one son, the actor Ferdinand +Dessoir (1836-1892). In spite of certain physical disabilities Ludwig +Dessoir's genius raised him to the first rank of actors, especially as +interpreter of Shakespeare's characters. G. H. Lewes placed Dessoir's +Othello above that of Kean, and the _Athenaeum_ preferred him in this +part to Brooks or Macready. + + + + +DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE (1680-1754), French dramatist, whose real name was +Néricault, was born at Tours in April 1680. When he was nineteen years +of age he became secretary to M. de Puysieux, the French ambassador in +Switzerland. In 1716 he was attached to the French embassy in London, +where he remained for six years under the abbé Dubois. He contracted +with a Lancashire lady, Dorothea Johnston, a marriage which was not +avowed for some years. He drew a picture later of his own domestic +circumstances in _Le Philosophe marié_ (1726). On his return to France +(1723) he was elected to the Academy, and in 1727 he acquired +considerable estates, the possession of which conferred the privileges +of nobility. He spent his later years at his château of Fortoiseau near +Melun, dying on the 4th of July 1754. His early comedies were: _Le +Curieux Impertinent_ (1710), _L'Ingrat_ (1712), _L'Irrésolu_ (1713) and +_Le Médisant_ (1715). The best of these is _L'Irrêsolu_, in which +Dorante, after hesitating throughout the play between Julie and +Célimène, marries Julie, but concludes the play with the reflection:-- + + "J'aurais mieux fait, je crois, d'épouser Célimène." + +After eleven years of diplomatic service Destouches returned to the +stage with the _Philosophe marié_ (1727), followed in 1732 by his +masterpiece _Le Glorieux_, a picture of the struggle then beginning +between the old nobility and the wealthy _parvenus_ who found their +opportunity in the poverty of France. Destouches wished to revive the +comedy of character as understood by Molière, but he thought it +desirable that the moral should be directly expressed. This moralizing +tendency spoilt his later comedies. Among them may be mentioned: _Le +Tambour nocturne_ (1736), _La Force du naturel_ (1750) and _Le +Dissipateur_ (1736). + + His works were issued in collected form in 1755, 1757, 1811 and, in a + limited edition (6 vols.), 1822. + + + + +DESTRUCTORS. The name destructors is applied by English municipal +engineers to furnaces, or combinations of furnaces, commonly called +"garbage furnaces" in the United States, constructed for the purpose of +disposing by burning of town refuse, which is a heterogeneous mass of +material, including, besides general household and ash-bin refuse, small +quantities of garden refuse, trade refuse, market refuse and often +street sweepings. The mere disposal of this material is not, however, by +any means the only consideration in dealing with it upon the destructor +system. For many years past scientific experts, municipal engineers and +public authorities have been directing careful attention to the +utilization of refuse as fuel for steam production, and such progress in +this direction has been made that in many towns its calorific value is +now being utilized daily for motive-power purposes. On the other hand, +that proper degree of caution which is obtained only by actual +experience must be exercised in the application of refuse fuel to +steam-raising. When its value as a low-class fuel was first recognized, +the idea was disseminated that the refuse of a given population was of +itself sufficient to develop the necessary steam-power for supplying +that population with the electric light. The economical importance of a +combined destructor and electric undertaking of this character naturally +presented a somewhat fascinating stimulus to public authorities, and +possibly had much to do with the development both of the adoption of the +principle of dealing with refuse by fire, and of lighting towns by +electricity. However true this phase of the question may be as the +statement of a theoretical scientific fact, experience so far does not +show it to be a basis upon which engineers may venture to calculate, +although, as will be seen later, under certain circumstances of +equalized load, which must be considered upon their merits in each case, +a well-designed destructor plant can be made to perform valuable +commercial service to an electric or other power-using undertaking. +Further, when a system, thermal or otherwise, for the storage of energy +can be introduced and applied in a trustworthy and economical manner, +the degree of advantage to be derived from the utilization of the waste +heat from destructors will be materially enhanced. + + +Composition and quantity of refuse. + +The composition of house refuse, which must obviously affect its +calorific value, varies considerably in different localities, according +to the condition, habits and pursuits of the people. Towns situated in +coal-producing districts invariably yield a refuse richer in unconsumed +carbon than those remote therefrom. It is also often found that the +refuse from different parts of the same town varies considerably--that +from the poorest quarters frequently proving of greater calorific value +than that from those parts occupied by the rich and middle classes. This +has been attributed to the more extravagant habits of the working +classes in neglecting to sift the ashes from their fires before +disposing of them in the ash-bin. In Bermondsey, for example, the refuse +has been found to possess an unusually high calorific value, and this +experience is confirmed in other parts of the metropolis. Average refuse +consists of breeze (cinder and ashes), coal and coke, fine dust, +vegetable and animal matters, straw, shavings, cardboard, bottles, tins, +iron, bones, broken crockery and other matters in very variable +proportions according to the character of the district from which it is +collected. In London the quantity of house refuse amounts approximately +to 1¼ million tons per annum, which is equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 +cwt. per head per annum, or to from 200 to 250 tons per 1000 of the +population per annum. Statistics, however, vary widely in different +districts. In the vicinity of the metropolis the amount varies from 2.5 +cwt. per head per annum at Leyton to 3.5 cwt. at Hornsey, and to as much +as 7 cwt. at Ealing. In the north of England the total house refuse +collected, exclusive of street sweepings, amounts on the average to 8 +cwt. per head per annum. Speaking generally, throughout the country an +amount of from 5 cwt. to 10 cwt. per head per annum should be allowed +for. A cubic yard of ordinary house refuse weighs from 12¼ to 15 cwt. +Shop refuse is lighter, frequently containing a large proportion of +paper, straw and other light wastes. It sometimes weighs as little as 7¼ +cwt. per cubic yard. A load, by which refuse is often estimated, varies +in weight from 15 cwt. to 1½ tons. + + +Refuse disposal. + +The question how a town's refuse shall be disposed of must be considered +both from a commercial and a sanitary point of view. Various methods +have been practised. Sometimes the household ashes, &c., are mixed with +pail excreta, or with sludge from a sewage farm, or with lime, and +disposed of for agricultural purposes, and sometimes they are conveyed +in carts or by canal to outlying and country districts, where they are +shot on waste ground or used to fill up hollows and raise the level of +marshland. Such plans are economical when suitable outlets are +available. To take the refuse out to sea in hopper barges and sink it in +deep water is usually expensive and frequently unsatisfactory. At +Bermondsey, for instance, the cost of barging is about 2s. 9d. a ton, +while the material may be destroyed by fire at a cost of from 10d. to +1s. a ton, exclusive of interest and sinking fund on the cost of the +works. In other cases, as at Chelsea and various dust contractors' +yards, the refuse is sorted and its ingredients are sold; the fine dust +may be utilized in connexion with manure manufactories, the pots and +pans employed in forming the foundations of roads, and the cinders and +vegetable refuse burnt to generate steam. In the Arnold system, carried +out in Philadelphia and other American towns, the refuse is sterilized +by steam under pressure, the grease and fertilizing substances being +extracted at the same time; while in other systems, such as those of +Weil and Porno, and of Defosse, distillation in closed vessels is +practised. But the destructor system, in which the refuse is burned to +an innocuous clinker in specially constructed furnaces, is that which +must finally be resorted to, especially in districts which have become +well built up and thickly populated. + + +Types of destructors. + +Various types of furnaces and apparatus have from time to time been +designed, and the subject has been one of much experiment and many +failures. The principal towns in England which took the lead in the +adoption of the refuse destructor system were Manchester, Birmingham, +Leeds, Heckmondwike, Warrington, Blackburn, Bradford, Bury, Bolton, +Hull, Nottingham, Salford, Ealing and London. Ordinary furnaces, built +mostly by dust contractors, began to come into use in London and in the +north of England in the second half of the 19th century, but they were +not scientifically adapted to the purpose, and necessitated the +admixture of coal or other fuel with the refuse to ensure its cremation. +The Manchester corporation erected a furnace of this description about +the year 1873, and Messrs Mead & Co. made an unsatisfactory attempt in +1870 to burn house refuse in closed furnaces at Paddington. In 1876 +Alfred Fryer erected his destructor at Manchester, and several other +towns adopted this furnace shortly afterwards. Other furnaces were from +time to time brought before the public, among which may be mentioned +those of Pearce and Lupton, Pickard, Healey, Thwaite, Young, Wilkinson, +Burton, Hardie, Jacobs and Odgen. In addition to these the "Beehive" and +the "Nelson" destructors became well known. The former was introduced by +Stafford and Pearson of Burnley, and one was erected in 1884 in the +parish yard at Richmond, Surrey, but the results being unsatisfactory, +it was closed during the following year. The "Nelson" furnace, patented +in 1885 by Messrs Richmond and Birtwistle, was erected at +Nelson-in-Marsden, Lancashire, but being very costly in working was +abandoned. The principal types of destructors now in use are those of +Fryer, Whiley, Horsfall, Warner, Meldrum, Beaman and Deas, Heenan and +Froude, and the "Sterling" destructor erected by Messrs Hughes and +Stirling. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Fryer's Destructor.] + + + Fryer's. + + The general arrangement of the destructor patented[1] by Alfred Fryer + in 1876 is illustrated in fig. 1. An installation upon this principle + consists of a number of furnaces or cells, usually arranged in pairs + back to back, and enclosed in a rectangular block of brickwork having + a flat top, upon which the house refuse is tipped from the carts. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Horsfall's Improved Destructor.] + + A large main flue, which also forms the dust chamber, is placed + underneath the furnace hearths. The Fryer furnace ordinarily burns + from 4 to 6 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. It will be observed + that the outlets for the products of combustion are placed at the + back near the refuse feed opening, an arrangement which is imperfect + in design, inasmuch as while a charge of refuse is burning upon the + furnace bars the charge which is to follow lies on the dead hearth + near the outlet flue. Here it undergoes drying and partial + decomposition, giving off offensive empyreumatic vapours which pass + into the flue without being exposed to sufficient heat to render them + entirely inoffensive. The serious nuisances thus produced in some + instances led to the introduction of a second furnace, or "cremator," + patented by C. Jones of Ealing in 1885, which was placed in the main + flue leading to the chimney-shaft, for the purpose of resolving the + organic matters present in the vapour, but the greatly increased cost + of burning due to this device led to its abandonment in many cases. + This type of cell was largely used during the early period of the + history of destructors, but has to a considerable extent given place + to furnaces of more modern design. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3. - Meldrum's Destructor at Darwen] + + + Whiley's. + + A furnace[2] patented in 1891 by Mr Henry Whiley, superintendent of + the scavenging department of the Manchester corporation, is automatic + in its action and was designed primarily with a view to saving + labour--the cells being fed, stoked and clinkered automatically. + There is no drying hearth, and the refuse carts tip direct into a + shoot or hopper at the back which conducts the material directly on + to movable eccentric grate bars. These automatically traverse the + material forward into the furnace, and finally push it against a + flap-door which opens and allows it to fall out. This apparatus is + adapted for dealing with screened rather than unscreened refuse, + since it suffers from the objection that the motion of the bars tends + to allow fine particles to drop through unburnt. Some difficulty has + been experienced from the refuse sticking in the hopper, and + exception may also be taken to the continual flapping of the door + when the clinker passes out, as cold air is thereby admitted into the + furnace. As in the Fryer cell, the outlet for the products of + combustion into the main flue is close to the point where the crude + refuse is fed into the furnace, and the escape of unburnt vapours is + thus facilitated. Forced draught is applied by means of a Roots + blower. The Manchester corporation has 28 cells of this type in use, + and the approximate amount of refuse burnt per cell per 24 hours is + from 6 to 8 tons at a cost per ton for labour of 3.47 pence. + + + Horsfall's. + + Horsfall's destructor[3] (fig. 2) is a high-temperature furnace of + modern type which has been adopted largely in Great Britain and on + the continent of Europe. In it some of the general features of the + Fryer cell are retained, but the details differ considerably from + those of the furnaces already described. Important points in the + design are the arrangement of the flues and flue outlets for the + products of combustion, and the introduction of a blast duct through + which air is forced into a closed ash-pit. The feeding-hole is + situated at the back of and above the furnace, while the flue opening + for the emission of the gaseous products is placed at the front of + the furnace over the dead plate; thus the gases distilled from the + raw refuse are caused to pass on their way to the main flue over the + hottest part of the furnace and through the flue opening in the + red-hot reverberatory arch. The steam jet, which plays an important + part in the Horsfall furnace, forces air into the closed ash-pit at a + pressure of about ¾ to 1 in. of water, and in this way a temperature + varying from 1500° to 2000° F., as tested by a thermo-electric + pyrometer, is maintained in the main flue. In a battery of cells the + gases from each are delivered into one main flue, so that a uniform + temperature is maintained therein sufficiently high to prevent + noxious vapours from reaching the chimney. The cells being charged + and clinkered in rotation, when the fire in one is green, in the + others it is at its hottest, and the products of combustion do not + reach the boiler surfaces until after they have been mixed in the + main flue. The cast iron boxes which are provided at the sides of the + furnaces, and through which the blast air is conveyed on its way to + the grate, prevent the adhesion of clinker to the side walls of the + cells, and very materially preserve the brickwork, which otherwise + becomes damaged by the tools used to remove the clinker. The wide + clinkering doors are suspended by counterbalance weights and open + vertically. The rate of working of these cells varies from 8 tons per + cell per 24 hours at Oldham to 10 tons per cell at Bradford, where + the furnaces are of a later type. The cost of labour in stoking and + clinkering is about 6d. per ton of the refuse treated at Bradford, + and 9d. per ton at Oldham, where the rate of wages is higher. + Well-constructed and properly-worked plants of this type should give + rise to no nuisance, and may be located in populous neighbourhoods + without danger to the public health or comfort. Installations were + put down at Fulham (1901), Hammerton Street, Bradford (1900), West + Hartlepool (1904), and other places, and the surplus power generated + is employed in the production of electric energy. + + + Warner's. + + Warner's destructor,[4] known as the "Perfectus," is, in general + arrangement, similar to Fryer's, but differs in being provided with + special charging hoppers, dampers in flues, dust-catching + arrangements, rocking grate bars and other improvements. The refuse + is tipped into feeding-hoppers, consisting of rectangular cast iron + boxes over which plates are placed to prevent the escape of smoke and + fumes. At the lower portion of the feeding-hopper is a flap-door + working on an axis and controlled by an iron lever from the tipping + platform. When refuse is to be fed into the furnace the lever is + thrown over, the contents of the hopper drop on to the sloping + firebrick hearth beneath, and the door is at once closed again. The + door should be kept open as short a time as possible in order to + prevent the admission of cold air into the furnace at the back end, + since this leads to the lowering of the temperature of the cells and + main flue, and also to paper and other light refuse being carried + into the flues and chimney. The flues of each furnace are provided + with dampers, which are closed during the process of clinkering in + order to keep up the heat. The cells are each 5 ft. wide and 11 ft. + deep, the rearmost portion consisting of a firebrick drying hearth, + and the front of rocking grate bars upon which the combustion takes + place. The crown of each cell is formed of a reverberatory firebrick + arch having openings for the emission of the products of combustion. + The flap dampers which are fitted to these openings are operated by + horizontal spindles passing through the brickwork to the front of the + cell, where they are provided with levers or handles; thus each cell + can be worked independently of the others. With the view of + increasing the steam-raising capabilities of the furnace, forced + draught is sometimes applied and a tubular boiler is placed close to + the cells. The amount of refuse consumed varies from 5 tons to 8 tons + per cell per 24 hours. At Hornsey, where 12 cells of this type are in + use, the cost of labour for burning the refuse is 9½d. per ton. + + + Meldrum's + + The Meldurm "Simplex" destructor (fig. 3), a type of furnace which + yields good steam-raising results, is in successful operation at + Rochdale, Hereford, Darwen, Nelson, Plumstead and Woolwich, at each + of which towns the production of steam is an important consideration. + Cells have also been laid down at Burton, Hunstanton, Blackburn and + Shipley, and more recently at Burnley, Cleckheaton, Lancaster, + Nelson, Sheerness and Weymouth. In general arrangement the destructor + differs considerably from those previously described. The grates are + placed side by side without separation except by dead plates, but, in + order to localize the forced draught, the ash-pit is divided into + parts corresponding with the different grate areas. Each ash-pit is + closed air-tight by a cast iron plate, and is provided with an + air-tight door for removing the fine ash. Two patent Meldrum + steam-jet blowers are provided for each furnace, supplying any + required pressure of blast up to 6 in. water column, though that + usually employed does not exceed 1½ in. The furnaces are designed for + hand-feeding from the front, but hopper-feeding can be applied if + desirable. The products of combustion either pass away from the back + of each fire-grate into a common flue leading to boilers and the + chimney-shaft, or are conveyed sideways over the various grates and a + common fire-bridge to the boilers or chimney. The heat in the gases, + after passing the boilers, is still further utilized to heat the air + supplied to the furnaces, the gases being passed through an air + heater or continuous regenerator consisting of a number of cast iron + pipes from which the air is delivered through the Meldrum "blowers" + at a temperature of about 300° F. That a high percentage (15 to + 18%) of CO_2 is obtained in the furnaces proves a small excess of + free oxygen, and no doubt explains the high fuel efficiency obtained + by this type of destructor. High-pressure boilers of ample capacity + are provided for the accumulation during periods of light load of a + reserve of steam, the storage being obtained by utilizing the + difference between the highest and lowest water-levels and the + difference between the maximum and working steam-pressure. Patent + locking fire-bars, to prevent lifting when clinkering, are used in + the furnace and have a good life. At Rochdale the Meldrum furnaces + consume from 53 lb. to 66 lb. of refuse per square foot of grate + area per hour, as compared with 22.4 lb. per square foot in a + low-temperature destructor burning 6 tons per cell per 24 hours with + a grate area of 25 sq. ft. The evaporative efficiency of the Rochdale + furnaces varies from 1.39 lb. to 1.87 lb. of water (actual) per 1 + lb. of refuse burned, and an average steam-pressure of about 114 + lb. per square inch is maintained. The cost of labour and + supervision amounts to 10d. per ton of refuse dealt with. A + Lancashire boiler (22 ft. by 6 ft. 6 in.) at the Sewage Outfall + Works, Hereford, evaporates with refuse fuel 2980 lb. of water per + hour, equal to 149 indicated horse-power. About 54 lb. of refuse are + burnt per square foot of grate area per hour with an evaporation of + 1.82 lb. of water per pound of refuse. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton.] + + + Beaman and Deas. + + The Beaman and Deas destructor[5] (fig. 4) has attracted much + attention from public authorities, and successful installations are + in operation at Warrington, Dewsbury, Leyton, Canterbury, Llandudno, + Colne, Streatham, Rotherhithe, Wimbledon, Bolton and elsewhere. Its + essential features include a level-fire grate with ordinary type + bars, a high-temperature combustion chamber at the back of the cells, + a closed ash-pit with forced draught, provision for the admission of + a secondary air-supply at the fire-bridge, and a firebrick hearth + sloping at an angle of about 52°. From the refuse storage platform + the material is fed into a hopper mouth about 18 in. square, and + slides down the firebrick hearth, supported by T-irons, to the grate + bars, over which it is raked and spread with the assistance of long + rods manipulated through clinkering doors placed at the sides of the + cells. A secondary door in the rear of the cell facilitates the + operation. The fire-bars, spaced only 3/32 in. apart, are of the + ordinary stationary type. Vertically, under the fire-bridge, is an + air-conduit, from the top of which lead air blast pipes 12 in. in + diameter discharging into a hermetically closed ash-pit under the + grate area. The air is supplied from fans (Schiele's patent) at a + pressure of from 1½ to 2 in. of water, and is controlled by means of + baffle valves worked by handles on either side of the furnace, + conveniently placed for the attendant. The forced draught tends to + keep the bars cool and lessen wear and tear. The fumes from the + charge drying on the hearth pass through the fire and over the + red-hot fire-bridge, which is perforated longitudinally with + air-passages connected with a small flue leading from a grated + opening on the face of the brickwork outside; in this way an + auxiliary supply of heated oxygen is fed into the combustion chamber. + This chamber, in which a temperature approaching 2000° F. is + attained, is fitted with large iron doors, sliding with balance + weights, which allow the introduction of infected articles, bad meat, + &c., and also give access for the periodical removal of fine ash from + the flues. The high temperatures attained are utilized by installing + one boiler, preferably of the Babcock & Wilcox water-tube type, for + each pair of cells, so that the gases, on their way from the + combustion chamber to the main flue, pass three times between the + boiler tubes. A secondary furnace is provided under the boiler for + raising steam by coal, if required, when the cells are out of use. + The grate area of each cell is 25 sq. ft., and the consumption varies + from 16 up to 20 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. In a 24-hours' + test made by the superintendent of the cleansing department, Leeds, + at the Warrington installation, the quantity of water evaporated per + pound of refuse was 1.14 lb., the average temperature in the + combustion chamber 2000° F. by copper-wire test, and the average air + pressure with forced draught 2½ in. (water-gauge). At Leyton, which + has a population of over 100,000, an 8-cell plant of this type is + successfully dealing with house refuse and filter press cakes of + sewage sludge from the sewage disposal works adjoining, and even with + material of this low calorific value the total steam-power produced + is considerable. Each cell burns about 16 tons of the mixture in 24 + hours and develops about 35 indicated horse-power continuously, at an + average steam-pressure in the boilers of 105 lb. The cost of labour + at Leyton for burning the mixed refuse is about 1s. 7d. per ton; at + Llandudno, where four cells were laid down in connexion with the + electric-light station in 1898, it is 1s. 3¼d., and at Warrington + 9½d. per ton of refuse consumed. Combustion is complete, and the + destructor may be installed in populous districts without nuisance to + the inhabitants. Further patents (Wilkie's improvements) have been + obtained by Meldrum Brothers (Manchester) in connexion with this + destructor. + + + Heenan. + + The Heenan furnaces are in operation at Farnworth, Gloucester, + Barrow-in-Furness, Northampton, Mansfield, Wakefield, Blackburn, + Levenshulme, Kings Norton, Worthing, Birmingham and other places, and + are now dealing with over 1200 tons of refuse per day. The general + arrangement of this destructor somewhat resembles that of the Meldrum + type. The cells intercommunicate, and the mechanical mixture of the + gases arising from the furnace grates of the various cells is sought + by the introduction of a special design of reverberatory arch + overlying the grates. The standard arrangement of this destructor + embodies all modern arrangements for high-temperature refuse + destruction and steam-power generation. + + + Sterling. + + Destructors of the "Sterling" type, combined with electric-power + generating stations, are installed at Hackney (1901), Bermondsey + (1902) and Frederiksberg (1903)--the first-named plant being probably + the most powerful combined destructor and electricity station yet + erected. In these modern stations the recognized requirements of an + up-to-date refuse-destruction plant have been well considered and + good calorific results are also obtained. + + In addition to the above-described destructors, other forms have been + introduced from time to time, but adopted to a less degree; amongst + these may be mentioned Baker's destructor, Willshear's, Hanson's + Utilizer, Mason's Gasifier, the Bennett-Phythian, Cracknell's + (Melbourne, Victoria), Coltman's (Loughborough), Willoughby's, and + Healey's improved destructors. On the continent of Europe systems for + the treatment of refuse have also been devised. Among these may be + mentioned those of M. Defosse and M. Helouis. The former has + endeavoured to burn the refuse in large quantities by using a forced + draught and only washing the smoke.[6] Helouis has extended the + operation by using the heat from the combustion of the refuse for + drying and distilling the material which is brought gradually on to + the grate. + + + Destructor accessories. + + Boulnois and Brodie's improved charging tank is a labour-saving + apparatus consisting of a wrought iron truck, 5 ft. wide by 3 ft. + deep, and of sufficient length to hold not less than 12 hours supply + for the two cells which it serves. The truck, which moves along a + pair of rails across the top of the destructor, may be worked by one + man. It is divided into compartments holding a charge of refuse in + each, and is provided with a pair of doors in the bottom, opening + downwards, which are supported by a series of small wheels running on + a central rail. A special feeding opening in the reverberatory arch + of the cell of the width of the truck, situated over the drying + hearth, is formed by a firebrick arch fitted into a frame capable of + being moved backwards and forwards by means of a lever. The charging + truck, when empty, is brought under the tipping platform, and the + carts tip directly into it. When one of the cells has to be fed, the + truck is moved along, so that one of the divisions is immediately + over the feeding opening, and the wheel holding up the bottom doors + rests upon the central rail, which is continued over the movable + covering arch. Then the movable arch is rolled back, the doors are + released, and the contents are discharged into the cell, so that no + handling of the refuse is required from tipping to feeding. This + apparatus is in operation at Liverpool, Shoreditch, Cambridge and + elsewhere. + + Various forms of patent movable fire-bars have been employed in + destructor furnaces. Among these may be mentioned Settle's,[7] + Vicar's,[8] Riddle's rocking bars,[9] Horsfall's self-feeding + apparatus,[10] and Healey's movable bars;[11] but complicated movable + arrangements are not to be recommended, and experience greatly + favours the use of a simple stationary type of fire-bar. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Leyton Destructor. Block Plan, showing + general arrangement of the Works.] + + A dust-catching apparatus has been designed and erected at Edinburgh, + by the Horsfall Furnace Syndicate, in order to overcome difficulties + in regard to the escape of flue dust, &c., from the destructor + chimney. Externally, it appears a large circular block of brickwork, + 18 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. 7 in. high, connected with the main + flue, and situated between the destructor cells and the boiler. + Internally it consists of a spiral flue traversing the entire + circumference and winding upwards to the top of the chamber. There is + an interior well or chamber 6 ft. diameter by 12 ft. high, having a + domed top, and communicating with the outer spiral flue by four ports + at the top of the chamber. Dust traps, baffle walls and cleaning + doors are also provided for the retention and subsequent weekly + removal of the flue dust. The apparatus forms a large reservoir of + heat maintained at a steady temperature of from 1500º to 1800° F., + and is useful in keeping up steam in the boiler at an equable + pressure for a long period. It requires no attention, and has proved + successful for its purpose. + + Travelling cranes for transporting refuse and feeding cells are + sometimes employed at destructor stations, as, for example, at + Hamburg. Here the transportation of the refuse is effected by means + of specially constructed water-tight iron wagons, containing + detachable boxes provided with two double-flap doors at the top for + loading, and one flap-door at the back for unloading. There are + thirty-six furnaces of the Horsfall type placed in two ranks, each + arranged in three blocks of six in the large furnace hall. An + electric crane running above each rank lifts the boxes off the wagons + and carries them to the feeding-hole of each well. Here the box is + tipped up by an electric pulley and emptied on to the furnace + platform. When the travelling crane is used, the carts (four-wheeled) + bringing the refuse may be constructed so that the body of the + carriage can be taken off the wheels, lifted up and tipped direct + over the furnace as required, and returned again to its frame. The + adoption of the travelling crane admits of the reduction in size of + the main building, as less platform space for unloading refuse carts + is required; the inclined roadway may also be dispensed with. Where a + destructor site will not admit of an inclined roadway and platform, + the refuse may be discharged from the collecting carts into a lift; + and thence elevated into the feeding-bins. + + Other accessory plant in use at most modern destructor stations + includes machinery for the removal, crushing and various means of + utilization of the residual clinker, stoking tools, air heaters or + regenerators for the production of hot-air blast to the furnaces, + superheaters and thermal storage arrangements for equalizing the + output of power from the station during the 24-hours' day. + + +Working of destructors. + +The general arrangement of a battery of refuse cells at a destructor +station is illustrated by fig. 5. The cells are arranged either side by +side, with a common main flue in the rear, or back to back with the main +flue placed in the centre and leading to a tall chimney-shaft. The +heated gases on leaving the cells pass through the combustion chamber +into the main flue, and thence go forward to the boilers, where their +heat is absorbed and utilized. Forced draught, or in many cases, hot +blast, is supplied from fans through a conduit commanding the whole of +the cells. An inclined roadway, of as easy gradient as circumstances +will admit, is provided for the conveyance of the refuse to the tipping +platform, from which it is fed through feed-holes into the furnaces. In +the installation of a destructor, the choice of suitable plant and the +general design of the works must be largely dependent upon local +requirements, and should be entrusted to an engineer experienced in +these matters. The following primary considerations, however, may be +enumerated as materially affecting the design of such works:-- + + (a) The plant must be simple, easily worked without stoppages, and + without mechanical complications upon which stokers may lay the blame + for bad results. (b) It must be strong, must withstand variations of + temperature, must not be liable to get out of order, and should admit + of being readily repaired. (c) It must be such as can be easily + understood by stokers or firemen of average intelligence, so that the + continuous working of the plant may not be disorganized by change of + workmen. (d) A sufficiently high temperature must be attained in the + cells to reduce the refuse to an entirely innocuous clinker, and all + fumes or gases should pass either through an adjoining red-hot cell + or through a chamber whose temperature is maintained by the ordinary + working of the destructor itself at a degree sufficient to exclude + the possibility of the escape of any unconsumed gases, vapours or + particles. The temperature may vary between 1500° and 2000°. (e) The + plant must be so worked that while some of the cells are being + recharged, others are at a glowing red heat, in order that a high + temperature may be uniformly maintained. (f) The design of the + furnaces must admit of clinkering and recharging being easily and + quickly performed, the furnace doors being open for a minimum of time + so as to obviate the inrush of cold air to lower the temperature ... + + (_Continued in volume 8, slice 3, page 109._) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Patent No. 3125 (1876). + + [2] Patent No. 8271 (1891). + + [3] Patents No. 8999 (1887); No. 14,709 (1888); No. 22,531 (1891). + + [4] Patent No. 18,719 (1888). + + [5] Patents No. 15,598 (1893) and 23,712 (1893); also Beaman and + Deas Sludge Furnace, Patent No. 13,029 (1894). + + [6] _Compte Rendu des Travaux de la Société des Ingénieurs Civils de + France_, folio 775 (June 1897). + + [7] Patent No. 15,482 (1885). + + [8] Patents No. 1955 (1867) and No. 378 (1879). + + [9] Patent No. 4896 (1891). + + [10] Patent No. 20,207 (1892). + + [11] Patents No. 18,398 (1892) and No. 12,990 (1892). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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