diff options
Diffstat (limited to '30685-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/30685-h.htm | 18362 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img105.jpg | bin | 0 -> 98190 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img106a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 106315 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img106b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 99712 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img107.jpg | bin | 0 -> 86342 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img108.jpg | bin | 0 -> 119232 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img24.jpg | bin | 0 -> 175162 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img24full.png | bin | 0 -> 389278 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img46.jpg | bin | 0 -> 15717 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img46a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 18715 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img47.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6441 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img47a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2704 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img47b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6535 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img48.jpg | bin | 0 -> 19140 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img48a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8151 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img49.jpg | bin | 0 -> 20024 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img49a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7490 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 30685-h/images/img99.jpg | bin | 0 -> 11726 bytes |
18 files changed, 18362 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/30685-h/30685-h.htm b/30685-h/30685-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7bc7aab --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/30685-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,18362 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume VIII slice II - Demijohn to Destructors. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; line-height: 1.4em; } + p { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; } + p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; } + + h2,h3 { text-align: center; } + hr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; } + hr.art { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 4em } + hr.foot {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; } + + table.reg { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both; } + table.nobctr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } + table.math0 { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both; } + + td { white-space: nowrap; } + td.norm { white-space: normal; } + td.denom { border-top: 1px solid black; } + + td.tc1 { padding-right: 0; padding-left: 0; text-align: center; } + td.tc2 { padding-right: 0; padding-left: 0; text-align: right; } + td.tc5 { padding-right: 0; padding-left: 0; text-align: left; } + td.tc5a { padding-right: 0; padding-left: 1em; text-align: left; } + + td.caption { font-size: 0.8em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + table p { margin: 0;} + + a:link, a:visited, link {text-decoration:none} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em;} + .center {text-align: center; } + .grk {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;} + .uni {font-style: normal; font-family: "Lucinda Sans Unicode", "Code2000", "DejaVu Sans"; } + + .sp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.7em;} + .su {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.7em;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0; + padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; } + span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em; + font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; } + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; } + .fn { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5; + text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; } + span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;} + span.spc { padding-left: 2em; } + + div.poem {margin: .75em 5% 0em 5%; } + div.poemr {margin: .75em 5% 0em 5%; font-size: 90%; } + p.poem {font-size: 92%; margin-top: .6em; margin-left: 6em; text-indent: -4em;} + + div.poem p, div.poemr p {margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; } + div.poem p.ind03, div.poemr p.ind03 {text-indent: -4.4em;} + + .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figleft1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figcenter {margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;} + .figcenter1 {margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 1.5em;} + + .above {position: relative; bottom: 0.6ex; font-size: 60%;} + .below {position: relative; top: 0.1ex; font-size: 60%;} + .bold {font-weight: bold; } + + div.condenced { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; } + div.condenced span.sidenote {font-size: 90%} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 8, Slice 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 2 + "Demijohn" to "Destructor" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 15, 2009 [EBook #30685] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + + +<hr /> +<h3>VOLUME VIII slice II<br /><br /> +Demijohn to Destructor</h3> +<hr /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + + + + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>1</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMIJOHN,</span> a glass bottle or jar with a large round body and +narrow neck, encased in wicker-work and provided with handles. +The word is also used of an erthenware jar, similarly covered +with wicker. The capacity of a demijohn varies from two to +twelve gallons, but the common size contains five gallons. +According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the word is an adaptation +of a French <i>Dame Jeanne</i>, or Dame Jane, an application +of a personal name to an object which is not uncommon; cf. the +use of “Toby” for a particular form of jug and the many uses +of the name “Jack.”</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMISE,</span> an Anglo-French legal term (from the Fr. <i>démettre</i>, +Lat. <i>dimittere</i>, to send away) for a transfer of an estate, especially +by lease. The word has an operative effect in a lease implying a +covenant for “quiet enjoyment” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord and Tenant</a></span>). +The phrase “demise of the crown” is used in English law to +signify the immediate transfer of the sovereignty, with all its +attributes and prerogatives, to the successor without any interregnum +in accordance with the maxim “the king never dies.” +At common law the death of the sovereign <i>eo facto</i> dissolved +parliament, but this was abolished by the Representation of the +People Act 1867, § 51. Similarly the common law doctrine that +all offices held under the crown determined at its demise has +been negatived by the Demise of the Crown Act 1901. “Demise” +is thus often used loosely for death or decease.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMIURGE</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dêmiourgos">δημιουργός</span>, from <span class="grk" title="dêmios">δήμιος</span>, of or for the people, +and <span class="grk" title="ergon">ἒργον</span>, work), a handicraftsman or artisan. In Homer the +word has a wide application, including not only hand-workers +but even heralds and physicians. In Attica the demiurgi formed +one of the three classes (with the Eupatridae and the geomori, +georgi or agroeci) into which the early population was divided +(cf. Arist. <i>Ath. Pol.</i> xiii. 2). They represented either a class of the +whole population, or, according to Busolt, a commercial nobility +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eupatridae</a></span>). In the sense of “worker for the people” +the word was used throughout the Peloponnese, with the exception +of Sparta, and in many parts of Greece, for a higher +magistrate. The demiurgi among other officials represent Elis +and Mantineia at the treaty of peace between Athens, Argos, Elis +and Mantineia in 420 B.C. (Thuc. v. 47). In the <a href="#artlinks">Achaean League</a> +(q.v.) the name is given to ten elective officers who presided +over the assembly, and Corinth sent “Epidemiurgi” every year +to Potidaea, officials who apparently answered to the Spartan +harmosts. In Plato <span class="grk" title="dêmiourgos">δημιουργός</span> is the name given to the “creator +of the world” (<i>Timaeus</i>, 40) and the word was so adopted by +the Gnostics (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gnosticism</a></span>).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMMIN,</span> a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, on the +navigable river Peene (which in the immediate neighbourhood +receives the Trebel and the Tollense), 72 m. W.N.W. of Stettin, +on the Berlin-Stralsund railway. Pop. (1905) 12,541. It has +manufactures of textiles, besides breweries, distilleries and +tanneries, and an active trade in corn and timber.</p> + +<p>The town is of Slavonian origin and of considerable antiquity, +and was a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne. It +was besieged by a German army in 1148, and captured by Henry +the Lion in 1164. In the Thirty Years’ War Demmin was the +object of frequent conflicts, and even after the peace of Westphalia +was taken and retaken in the contest between the electoral +prince and the Swedes. It passed to Prussia in 1720, and its +fortifications were dismantled in 1759. In 1807 several engagements +took place in the vicinity between the French and Russians.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMOCHARES</span> (c. 355-275 B.C.), nephew of Demosthenes, +Athenian orator and <span class="correction" title="changed from stateman">statesman</span>, was one of the few distinguished +Athenians in the period of decline. He is first heard of in 322, +when he spoke in vain against the surrender of Demosthenes +and the other anti-Macedonian orators demanded by Antipater. +During the next fifteen years he probably lived in exile. On the +restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307 +he occupied a prominent position, but was banished in 303 +for having ridiculed the decree of Stratocles, which contained +a fulsome eulogy of Demetrius. He was recalled in 298, and +during the next four years<a name="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> fortified and equipped the city with +provisions and ammunition. In 296 (or 295) he was again +banished for having concluded an alliance with the Boeotians, +and did not return until 287 (or 286). In 280 he induced the +Athenians to erect a public monument in honour of his uncle with +a suitable inscription. After his death (some five years later) +the son of Demochares proposed and obtained a decree (Plutarch, +<i>Vitae decem oratorum</i>, p. 851) that a statue should be erected in +his honour, containing a record of his public services, which seem +to have consisted in a reduction of public expenses, a more +prudent management of the state finances (after his return in +287) and successful begging missions to the rulers of Egypt and +Macedonia. Although a friend of the Stoic Zeno, Demochares +regarded all other philosophers as the enemies of freedom, and +in 306 supported the proposal of one Sophocles, advocating their +expulsion from Attica. According to Cicero (<i>Brutus</i>, 83) Demochares +was the author of a history of his own times, written in +an oratorical rather than a historical style. As a speaker +he was noted for his freedom of language (<i>Parrhesiastes</i>, Seneca, +<i>De ira</i>, iii. 23). He was violently attacked by Timaeus, but found +a strenuous defender in Polybius (xii. 13).</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See also Plutarch, <i>Demosthenes</i>, 30, <i>Demetrius</i>, 24, <i>Vitae decem +oratorum</i>, p. 847; J. G. Droysen’s essay on Demochares in <i>Zeitschrift +für die Altertumswissenschaft</i> (1836), Nos. 20, 21.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the “four years’ war” and the chronological questions involved, +see C. W. Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec.</i> ii. 445.</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMOCRACY</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dêmokratia">δημοκρατία</span>, from <span class="grk" title="dêmos">δῆμος</span>, the people, i.e. +the commons, and <span class="grk" title="kratos">κράτος</span>, rule), in political science, that form +of government in which the people rules itself, either directly, +as in the small city-states of Greece, or through representatives. +According to Aristotle, democracy is the perverted form of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2"></a>2</span> +third form of government, which he called <span class="grk" title="politeia">πολιτεία</span>, “polity” +or “constitutional government,” the rule of the majority of the +free and equal citizens, as opposed to monarchy and aristocracy, +the rule respectively of an individual and of a minority consisting +of the best citizens (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Government</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aristocracy</a></span>). +Aristotle’s restriction of “democracy” to <i>bad</i> popular government, +i.e. mob-rule, or, as it has sometimes been called, +“ochlocracy” (<span class="grk" title="ochlos">ὂχλος</span>, mob), was due to the fact that the +Athenian democracy had in his day degenerated far below the +ideals of the 5th century, when it reached its zenith under Pericles. +Since Aristotle’s day the word has resumed its natural meaning, +but democracy in modern times is a very different thing from +what it was in its best days in Greece and Rome. The Greek +states were what are known as “city-states,” the characteristic +of which was that all the citizens could assemble together in the +city at regular intervals for legislative and other purposes. This +sovereign assembly of the people was known at Athens as the +<a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a> (q.v.), at Sparta as the <a href="#artlinks">Apella</a> (q.v.), at Rome variously +as the Comitia Centuriata or the Concilium Plebis (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comitia</a></span>). +Of representative government in the modern sense there is +practically no trace in Athenian history, though certain of the +magistrates (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>) had a quasi-representative character. +Direct democracy is impossible except in small states. +In the second place the qualification for citizenship was rigorous; +thus Pericles restricted citizenship to those who were the sons of +an Athenian father, himself a citizen, and an Athenian mother +(<span class="grk" title="ex amphoin astoin">ἐξ ἀμφόῖν ἀστοῖν</span>). This system excluded not only all the slaves, +who were more numerous than the free population, but also +resident aliens, subject allies, and those Athenians whose descent +did not satisfy this criterion (<span class="grk" title="tô genei mê katharoi">τῷ γένει μὴ καθαροί</span>). The Athenian +democracy, which was typical in ancient Greece, was a highly +exclusive form of government.</p> + +<p>With the growth of empire and nation states this narrow +parochial type of democracy became impossible. The population +became too large and the distance too great for regular assemblies +of qualified citizens. The rigid distinction of citizens and non-citizens +was progressively more difficult to maintain, and new +criteria of citizenship came into force. The first difficulty has +been met by various forms of representative government. The +second problem has been solved in various ways in different +countries; moderate democracies have adopted a low property +qualification, while extreme democracy is based on the extension +of citizenship to all adult persons with or without distinction +of sex. The essence of modern representative government +is that the people does not govern itself, but periodically +elects those who shall govern on its behalf (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Government</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Representation</a></span>).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMOCRATIC PARTY,</span> originally <span class="sc">Democratic-Republican +Party</span>, the oldest of existing political parties in the United States. +Its origin lay in the principles of local self-government and +repugnance to social and political aristocracy established as +cardinal tenets of American colonial democracy, which by the +War of Independence, which was essentially a democratic movement, +became the basis of the political institutions of the nation. +The evils of lax government, both central and state, under the +Confederation caused, however, a marked anti-democratic +reaction, and this united with the temperamental conservatism +of the framers of the constitution of 1787 in the shaping of that +conservative instrument. The influences and interests for and +against its adoption took form in the groupings of Federalists +and Anti-Federalists, and these, after the creation of the new +government, became respectively, in underlying principles, and, +to a large extent, in personnel, the <a href="#artlinks">Federalist party</a> (q.v.) and +the Democratic-Republican party.<a name="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The latter, organized by +Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the Federalists dominated by +Alexander Hamilton, was a real party by 1792. The great service +of attaching to the constitution a democratic bill of rights belongs +to the Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republican party, +although this was then amorphous. The Democratic-Republican +party gained full control of the government, save the judiciary, +in 1801, and controlled it continuously thereafter until 1825. +No political “platforms” were then known, but the writings +of Jefferson, who dominated his party throughout this period, +take the place of such. His inaugural address of 1801 is a famous +statement of democratic principles, which to-day are taken for +granted only because, through the party organized by him to +secure their success, they became universally accepted as the +ideal of American institutions. In all the colonies, says John +Adams, “a court and a country party had always contended”; +Jefferson’s followers believed sincerely that the Federalists were +a new court party, and monarchist. Hence they called themselves +“Republicans” as against monarchists,—standing also, incidentally, +for states’ rights against the centralization that monarchy +(or any approach to it) implied; and “Democrats” as against +aristocrats,—standing for the “common rights of Englishmen,” +the “rights of man,” the levelling of social ranks and the widening +of political privileges. In the early years of its history—and +during the period of the French Revolution and afterwards—the +Republicans sympathized with the French as against the +British, the Federalists with the British as against the French.</p> + +<p>Devotion to abstract principles of democracy and liberty, and +in practical politics a strict construction of the constitution, +in order to prevent an aggrandizement of national power at the +expense of the states (which were nearer popular control) or the +citizens, have been permanent characteristics of the Democratic +party as contrasted with its principal opponents; but neither +these nor any other distinctions have been continuously or +consistently true throughout its long course.<a name="FnAnchor_2b" href="#Footnote_2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> After 1801 the +commercial and manufacturing nationalistic<a name="FnAnchor_3b" href="#Footnote_3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> elements of the +Federalist party, being now dependent on Jefferson for protection, +gradually went over to the Republicans, especially after the War +of 1812; moreover, administration of government naturally +developed in Republican ranks a group of broad-constructionists. +These groups fused, and became an independent party.<a name="FnAnchor_4b" href="#Footnote_4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> They +called themselves <i>National</i> Republicans, while the Jacksonian +Republicans soon came to be known simply as Democrats.<a name="FnAnchor_5b" href="#Footnote_5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +Immediately afterward followed the tremendous victory of the +Jacksonians in 1828,—a great advance in radical democracy +over the victory of 1800. In the interval the Federalist party +had disappeared, and practically the entire country, embracing +Jeffersonian democracy, had passed through the school of the +Republican party. It had established the power of the “people” +in the sense of that word in present-day American politics. Bills +of rights in every state constitution protected the citizen; some +state judges were already elective; very soon the people came +to nominate their presidential candidates in national conventions, +and draft their party platforms through their convention +representatives.<a name="FnAnchor_6b" href="#Footnote_6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> After the National Republican scission +the Democratic party, weakened thereby in its nationalistic +tendencies, and deprived of the leadership of Jackson, fell +quickly under the control of its Southern adherents and became +virtually sectional in its objects. Its states’ rights doctrine was +turned to the defence of slavery. In thus opposing anti-slavery +sentiment—inconsistently, alike as regarded the “rights of man” +and constitutional construction, with its original and permanent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"></a>3</span> +principles—it lost morale and power. As a result of the contest +over Kansas it became fatally divided, and in 1860 put forward +two presidential tickets: one representing the doctrine of +Jefferson Davis that the constitution recognized slave-property, +and therefore the national government must protect slavery in +the territories; the other representing Douglas’s doctrine that +the inhabitants of a territory might virtually exclude slavery by +“unfriendly legislation.” The combined popular votes for the +two tickets exceeded that cast by the new, anti-slavery Republican +party (the second of the name) for Lincoln; but the election was +lost. During the ensuing Civil War such members of the party +as did not become War Democrats antagonized the Lincoln +administration, and in 1864 made the great blunder of pronouncing +the war “a failure.” Owing to Republican errors in reconstruction +and the scandals of President Grant’s administration, +the party gradually regained its strength and morale, until, +having largely subordinated Southern questions to economic +issues, it cast for Tilden for president in 1876 a popular vote +greater than that obtained by the Republican candidate, Hayes, +and gained control of the House of Representatives. The +Electoral Commission, however, made Hayes president, and the +quiet acceptance of this decision by the Democratic party did +it considerable credit.</p> + +<p>Since 1877 the Southern states have been almost solidly +Democratic; but, except on the negro question, such unanimity +among Southern whites has been, naturally, factitious; and by +no means an unmixed good for the party. Apart from the +“Solid South,” the period after 1875 is characterized by two +other party difficulties. The first was the attempt from 1878 to +1896 to “straddle” the silver issue;<a name="FnAnchor_7b" href="#Footnote_7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the second, an attempt +after 1896 to harmonize general elements of conservatism and +radicalism within the party. In 1896 the South and West gained +control of the organization, and the national campaigns of +1896 and 1900 were fought and lost mainly on the issue of +“free silver,” which, however, was abandoned before 1904. +After 1898 “imperialism,” to which the Democrats were hostile, +became another issue. Finally, after 1896, there became very +apparent in the party a tendency to attract the radical elements +of society in the general re-alignment of parties taking place +on industrial-social issues; the Democratic party apparently +attracting, in this readjustment, the “radicals” and the +“masses” as in the time of Jefferson and Jackson. In this +process, in the years 1896-1900, it took over many of the principles +and absorbed, in large part, the members of the radical third-party +of the “Populists,” only to be confronted thereupon by the +growing strength of Socialism, challenging it to a farther radical +widening of its programme. From 1860 to 1908 it elected but a +single president (Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897).<a name="FnAnchor_8b" href="#Footnote_8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +All American parties accepted long ago in theory “Jeffersonian +democracy”; but the Democratic party has been “the political +champion of those elements of the [American] democracy which +are most democratic. It stands nearest the people.”<a name="FnAnchor_9b" href="#Footnote_9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a> It may +be noted that the Jeffersonian Republicans did not attempt to +democratize the constitution itself. The choice of a president +was soon popularized, however, in effect; and the popular +election of United States senators is to-day a definite Democratic +tenet.<a name="FnAnchor_10b" href="#Footnote_10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—For an exposition of the party’s principles see +Thomas Jefferson, <i>Writings</i>, ed. by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York, +1892-1899); J. P. Foley (ed.), <i>The Jeffersonian Cyclopaedia</i> (New +York, 1900); and especially the <i>Campaign Text-Books</i> of more recent +times, usually issued by the national Democratic committee in +alternate years, and M. Carey, <i>The Democratic Speaker’s Handbook</i> +(Cincinnati, 1868). For a hostile criticism of the party, see +W. D. Jones, <i>Mirror of Modern Democracy</i>; <i>History of the Democratic +Party from 1825 to 1861</i> (New York, 1864); Jonathan Norcross, <i>History +of Democracy Considered as a Party-Name and a Political Organization</i> +(New York, 1883); J. H. Patton, <i>The Democratic Party: Its +Political History and Influence</i> (New York, 1884). Favourable +treatises are R. H. Gillet, <i>Democracy in the United States</i> (New York, +1868); and George Fitch, <i>Political Facts: an Historical Text-Book +of the Democratic and Other Parties</i> (Baltimore, 1884). See also, +for general political history, Thomas H. Benton, <i>Thirty Years’ View</i> +(2 vols., New York, 1854-1856, and later editions); James G. Blaine, +<i>Twenty Years of Congress</i> (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1893); +S. S. Cox, <i>Three Decades of Federal Legislation</i> (Providence, 1885); +S. P. Orth, <i>Five American Politicians: a Study in the Evolution of +American Politics</i> (Cleveland, 1906), containing sketches of four +Democratic leaders—Burr, De Witt Clinton, Van Buren and Douglas; +J. Macy, <i>Party Organization and Machinery</i> (New York, 1904); +J. H. Hopkins, <i>History of Political Parties in the United States</i> +(New York, 1900); E. S. Stanwood, <i>History of the Presidency</i> +(last ed., Boston, 1904); J. P. Gordy, <i>History of Political Parties</i>, i. +(New York, 1900); H. J. Ford, <i>Rise and Growth of American Politics</i> +(New York, 1898); Alexander Johnston, <i>History of American Politics</i> +(New York, 1900, and later editions); C. E. Merriam, <i>A History +of American Political Theories</i> (New York, 1903), containing +chapters on the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian Democracy; +and James A. Woodburn, <i>Political Parties and Party Problems in +the United States</i> (New York, 1903).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The prefix “Democratic” was not used by Jefferson; it became +established, however, and official.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2b" href="#FnAnchor_2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Under the rubric of “strict construction” fall the greatest +struggles in the party’s history: those over the United States Bank, +over tariffs—for protection or for “revenue” only—over “internal +improvements,” over issues of administrative economy in providing +for the “general welfare,” &c. The course of the party +has frequently been inconsistent, and its doctrines have shown, +absolutely considered, progressive latitudinarianism.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3b" href="#FnAnchor_3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> “Nationalistic” is used here and below, not in the sense of a +general nationalistic spirit, such as that of Jackson, but to indicate +the centralizing tendency of a broad construction of constitutional +powers in behalf of commerce and manufactures.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4b" href="#FnAnchor_4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Standing for protective tariffs, internal improvements, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5b" href="#FnAnchor_5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> It should be borne in mind, however, that the Democratic party +of Jackson was not strictly <i>identical</i> with the Democratic-Republican +party of Jefferson,—and some writers date back the origin of the +present Democratic party only to 1828-1829.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6b" href="#FnAnchor_6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The Democratic national convention of 1832 was preceded by an +Anti-Masonic convention of 1830 and by the National-Republican +convention of 1831; but the Democratic platform of 1840 was the +first of its kind.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7b" href="#FnAnchor_7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The attitude of the Republican party was no less inconsistent +and evasive.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8b" href="#FnAnchor_8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> It controlled the House of Representatives from 1874 to 1894 +except in 1880-1882 and 1888-1890; but except for a time in +Cleveland’s second term, there were never simultaneously a +Democratic president and a Democratic majority in Congress.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9b" href="#FnAnchor_9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Professor A. D. Morse in <i>International Monthly</i>, October 1900. +He adds, “It has done more to Americanize the foreigner than all +other parties.” (It is predominant in the great cities of the country.)</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10b" href="#FnAnchor_10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> In connexion with the prevalent popular tendency to regard the +president as a people’s tribune, it may be noted that a strong presidential +veto is, historically, peculiarly a Democratic contribution, +owing to the history of Jackson’s (compare Cleveland’s) administration.</p> +</div> +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMOCRITUS,</span> probably the greatest of the Greek physical +philosophers, was a native of Abdera in Thrace, or as some say—probably +wrongly—of Miletus (Diog. Laërt. ix. 34). Our +knowledge of his life is based almost entirely on tradition of an +untrustworthy kind. He seems to have been born about 470 or +460 B.C., and was, therefore, an older contemporary of Socrates. +He inherited a considerable property, which enabled him to +travel widely in the East in search of information. In Egypt +he settled for seven years, during which he studied the mathematical +and physical systems of the ancient schools. The +extent to which he was influenced by the Magi and the Eastern +astrologists is a matter of pure conjecture. He returned from +his travels impoverished; one tradition says that he received +500 talents from his fellow-citizens, and that a public funeral was +decreed him. Another tradition states that he was regarded as +insane by the Abderitans, and that Hippocrates was summoned +to cure him. Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died at the age +of ninety; others make him as much as twenty years older. +His works, according to Diogenes Laërtius, numbered seventy-two, +and were characterized by a purity of style which compares +favourably with that of Plato. The absurd epithet, the +“laughing philosopher,” applied to him by some unknown and +very superficial thinker, may possibly have contributed in +some measure to the fact that his importance was for centuries +overlooked. It is interesting, however, to notice that Bacon +(<i>De Principiis</i>) assigns to him his true place in the history of +thought, and points out that both in his own day and later +“in the times of Roman learning” he was spoken of in terms +of the highest praise. In the variety of his knowledge, and in +the importance of his influence on both Greek and modern +speculation he was the Aristotle of the 5th century, while the +sanity of his metaphysical theory has led many to regard him +as the equal, if not the superior, of Plato.</p> + +<p>His views may be treated under the following heads:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Atoms and Cosmology</i> (adopted in part at least from +the doctrines of Leucippus, though the relations between the +two are hopelessly obscure). While agreeing with the Eleatics +as to the eternal sameness of Being (nothing can arise out of +nothing; nothing can be reduced to nothing), Democritus +followed the physicists in denying its oneness and immobility. +Movement and plurality being necessary to explain the phenomena +of the universe and impossible without space (not-Being), +he asserted that the latter had an equal right with Being +to be considered existent. Being is the Full (<span class="grk" title="plêres">πλῆρες</span>, <i>plenum</i>); +not-Being is the Void (<span class="grk" title="kenon">κενόν</span>, <i>vacuum</i>), the infinite space in which +moved the infinite number of atoms into which the single Being +of the Eleatics was broken up. These atoms are eternal and +invisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>4</span> +diminished (hence the name <span class="grk" title="atomos">ἄτομος</span>, “indivisible”); absolutely +full and incompressible, they are without pores and entirely fill +the space they occupy; homogeneous, differing only in figure +(as A from N), arrangement (as AN from NA), position (as N is +Z on its side), magnitude (and consequently in weight, although +some authorities dispute this). But while the atoms thus differ +in quantity, their differences of quality are only apparent, due +to the impressions caused on our senses by different configurations +and combinations of atoms. A thing is only hot or cold, sweet +or bitter, hard or soft by convention (<span class="grk" title="nomô">νόμῳ</span>); the only things +that exist in reality (<span class="grk" title="eteê">ἐτεῇ</span>) are the atoms and the void. Locke’s +distinction between primary and secondary qualities is here +anticipated. Thus, the atoms of water and iron are the same, +but those of the former, being smooth and round, and therefore +unable to hook on to one another, roll over and over like small +globes, whereas the atoms of iron, being rough, jagged and +uneven, cling together and form a solid body. Since all +phenomena are composed of the same eternal atoms (just as a +tragedy and a comedy contain the same letters) it may be said +that nothing comes into being or perishes in the absolute sense +of the words (cf. the modern “indestructibility of matter” and +“conservation of energy”), although the compounds of the atoms +are liable to increase and decrease, appearance and disappearance—in +other words, to birth and death. As the atoms are eternal +and uncaused, so is motion; it has its origin in a preceding +motion, and so on <i>ad infinitum</i>. For the Love and Hate of +Empedocles and the <i>Nous</i> (Intelligence) of Anaxagoras, Democritus +substituted fixed and necessary laws (not chance; that is +a misrepresentation due chiefly to Cicero). Everything can be +explained by a purely mechanical (but not fortuitous) system, +in which there is no room for the idea of a providence or an +intelligent cause working with a view to an end. The origin of +the universe was explained as follows. An infinite number of +atoms was carried downwards through infinite space. The +larger (and heavier), falling with greater velocity, overtook and +collided with the smaller (and lighter), which were thereby forced +upwards. This caused various lateral and contrary movements, +resulting in a whirling movement (<span class="grk" title="dinê">δίνη</span>) resembling the rotation +of Anaxagoras, whereby similar atoms were brought together +(as in the winnowing of grain) and united to form larger bodies +and worlds. Atoms and void being infinite in number and +extent, and motion having always existed, there must always +have been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar +atoms, in various stages of growth and decay.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Soul.</i>—Democritus devoted considerable attention to +the structure of the human body, the noblest portion of which +he considered to be the soul, which everywhere pervades it, a +psychic atom being intercalated between two corporeal atoms. +Although, in accordance with his principles, Democritus was +bound to regard the soul as material (composed of round, +smooth, specially mobile atoms, identified with the fire-atoms +floating in the air), he admitted a distinction between it and the +body, and is even said to have looked upon it as something +divine. These all-pervading soul atoms exercise different functions +in different organs; the head is the seat of reason, the heart of +anger, the liver of desire. Life is maintained by the inhalation +of fresh atoms to replace those lost by exhalation, and when +respiration, and consequently the supply of atoms, ceases, the +result is death. It follows that the soul perishes with, and in the +same sense as, the body.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Perception.</i>—Sensations are the changes produced in the +soul by external impressions, and are the result of contact, since +every action of one body (and all representations are corporeal +phenomena) upon another is of the nature of a shock. Certain +emanations (<span class="grk" title="aporrhoai, aporrhoiai">ἀποῤῥοαί, ἀπόῤῥοιαι</span>) or images (<span class="grk" title="eidôla">εἴδωλα</span>), consisting of +subtle atoms, thrown off from the surface of an object, penetrate +the body through the pores. On the principle that like acts upon +like, the particular senses are only affected by that which +resembles them. We see by means of the eye alone, and hear by +means of the ear alone, these organs being best adapted to receive +the images or sound currents. The organs are thus merely +conduits or passages through which the atoms pour into the soul. +The eye, for example, is damp and porous, and the act of seeing +consists in the reflection of the image (<span class="grk" title="deikelon">δείκελον</span>) mirrored on the +smooth moist surface of the pupil. To the interposition of air +is due the fact that all visual images are to some extent blurred. +At the same time Democritus distinguished between obscure +(<span class="grk" title="skotiê">σκοτίη</span>) cognition, resting on sensation alone, and genuine +(<span class="grk" title="gnêsiê">γνησίη</span>), which is the result of inquiry by reason, and is concerned +with atoms and void, the only real existences. This +knowledge, however, he confessed was exceedingly difficult to +attain.</p> + +<p>It is in Democritus first that we find a real attempt to explain +colour. He regards black, red, white and green as primary. +White is characteristically smooth, i.e. casting no shadow, even, +flat; black is uneven, rough, shadowy and so on. The other +colours result from various mixtures of these four, and are +infinite in number. Colour itself is not objective; it is found not +in the ultimate <i>plenum</i> and <i>vacuum</i>, but only in derived objects +according to their physical qualities and relations.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Theology.</i>—The system of Democritus was altogether anti-theistic. +But, although he rejected the notion of a deity taking +part in the creation or government of the universe, he yielded +to popular prejudice so far as to admit the existence of a class +of beings, of the same form as men, grander, composed of very +subtle atoms, less liable to dissolution, but still mortal, dwelling +in the upper regions of air. These beings also manifested themselves +to man by means of images in dreams, communicated with +him, and sometimes gave him an insight into the future. Some +of them were benevolent, others malignant. According to +Plutarch, Democritus recognized one god under the form of a +fiery sphere, the soul of the world, but this idea is probably +of later origin. The popular belief in gods was attributed by +Democritus to the desire to explain extraordinary phenomena +(thunder, lightning, earthquakes) by reference to superhuman +agency.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Ethics.</i>—Democritus’s moral system—the first collection of +ethical precepts which deserves the name—strongly resembles +the negative side of the system of Epicurus. The <i>summum +bonum</i> is the maximum of pleasure with the minimum of pain. +But true pleasure is not sensual enjoyment; it has its principle +in the soul. It consists not in the possession of wealth or flocks +and herds, but in good humour, in the just disposition and constant +tranquillity of the soul. Hence the necessity of avoiding +extremes; too much and too little are alike evils. True happiness +consists in taking advantage of what one has and being +content with it (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Fragments edited by F. Mullach (1843) with +commentary and in his <i>Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum</i>, i. (1860). +See also H. Ritter and L. Preller, <i>Historia philosophiae</i> (chap. i. ad +fin.); P. Lafaist (Lafaye), <i>Dissertation sur la philosophie atomistique</i> +(1833); L. Liard, <i>De Democrito philosopho</i> (Paris, 1873); +H. C. Liepmann, <i>Die Leucipp-Democritischen Atome</i> (Leipzig, 1886); +F. A. Lange, <i>Geschichte des Materialismus</i> (Eng. trans. by E. C. Thomas, +1877); G. Hart, <i>Zur Seelen- und Erkenntnislehre des Democritus</i> +(Leipzig, 1886); P. Natorp, <i>Die Ethika des Demokritos</i> (Marburg, +1893); A. Dyroff, <i>Demokritstudien</i> (Leipzig, 1899); among general +works C. A. Brandis, <i>Gesch. d. Entwickelungen d. griech. Philosophie</i> +(Bonn, 1862-1864); Ed. Zeller, <i>Pre-Socratic Philosophy</i> (Eng. trans., +London, 1881); for his theory of sense-perception see especially +J. I. Beare, <i>Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition</i> (Oxford, 1906).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMOGEOT, JACQUES CLAUDE</span> (1808-1804), French man +of letters, was born in Paris on the 5th of July 1808. He was +professor of rhetoric at the lycée Saint Louis, and subsequently +assistant professor at the Sorbonne. He wrote many detached +papers on various literary subjects, and two reports on +secondary education in England and Scotland in collaboration +with H. Montucci. His reputation rests on his excellent <i>Histoire +de la littérature française depuis ses origines jusqu’à nos jours</i> +(1851), which has passed through many subsequent editions. +He was also the author of a <i>Tableau de la littérature française au +XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1859), and of a work (3 vols., 1880-1883) on the +influence of foreign literatures on the development of French +literature. He died in Paris in 1894.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMOGRAPHY</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="dêmos">δῆμος</span>, people, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span>, to +write), the science which deals with the statistics of health and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"></a>5</span> +disease, of the physical, intellectual, physiological and economical +aspects of births, marriages and mortality. The first to employ +the word was Achille Guillard in his <i>Éléments de statistique +humaine ou démographie comparée</i> (1855), but the meaning which +he attached to it was merely that of the science which treats +of the condition, general movement and progress of population +in civilized countries, i.e. little more than what is comprised in +the ordinary vital statistics, gleaned from census and registration +reports. The word has come to have a much wider meaning +and may now be defined as that branch of statistics which deals +with the life-conditions of peoples.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM</span> (1667-1754), English mathematician +of French extraction, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, on the +26th of May 1667. He belonged to a French Protestant family, +and was compelled to take refuge in England at the revocation of +the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Having laid the foundation of his +mathematical studies in France, he prosecuted them further in +London, where he read public lectures on natural philosophy for +his support. The <i>Principia mathematica</i> of Sir Isaac Newton, +which chance threw in his way, caused him to prosecute his +studies with vigour, and he soon became distinguished among +first-rate mathematicians. He was among the intimate personal +friends of Newton, and his eminence and abilities secured his +admission into the Royal Society of London in 1697, and afterwards +into the Academies of Berlin and Paris. His merit was +so well known and acknowledged by the Royal Society that they +judged him a fit person to decide the famous contest between +Newton and G. W. Leibnitz (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infinitesimal Calculus</a></span>). +The life of Demoivre was quiet and uneventful. His old age was +spent in obscure poverty, his friends and associates having +nearly all passed away before him. He died at London, on the +27th of November 1754.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>The <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> contain several of his papers. He +also published some excellent works, such as <i>Miscellanea analytica +de seriebus et quadraturis</i> (1730), in 4to. This contained some elegant +and valuable improvements on then existing methods, which have +themselves, however, long been superseded. But he has been more +generally known by his <i>Doctrine of Chances, or Method of Calculating +the Probabilities of Events at Play</i>. This work was first printed in +1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. It was reprinted in +1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition +was afterwards published with additions in 1756. He also published +a <i>Treatise on Annuities</i> (1725), which has passed through several +revised and corrected editions.</p> + +<p>See C. Hutton, <i>Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary</i> (1815). +For <i>Demoivre’s Theorem</i> see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trigonometry: Analytical.</a></span></p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMONETIZATION</span>, a term employed in monetary science in +two different senses. (a) The depriving or divesting of a metal +of its standard monetary value. From 1663 to 1717 silver was +the standard of value in England and gold coins passed at their +market value. The debasement and underrating of the silver +coinage insensibly brought about the demonetization of silver +in England as a standard of value and the substitution of gold. +During the latter half of the 19th century, the tremendous +depreciation of silver, owing to its continually increasing production, +and consequently the impossibility of preserving any +ratio of stability between it and gold, led to the abandonment or +demonetization of the metal as a standard and to its use merely +as token money. (b) The withdrawal of coin from circulation, as, +for example, in England that of all pre-Victorian gold coins under +the provisions of the Coinage Act 1889, and the royal proclamation +of the 22nd of November 1890.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMONOLOGY</span> (<span class="grk" title="Daimôn">Δαίμων</span>, demon, genius, spirit), the branch +of the science of religions which relates to superhuman beings +which are not gods. It deals both with benevolent beings which +have no circle of worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below +the rank of gods, and with malevolent beings of all kinds. It may +be noted that the original sense of “demon” was a benevolent +being; but in English the name now connotes malevolence; in +German it has a neutral sense, e.g. <i>Korndämonen</i>. Demons, +when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to either of the +classes of spirits recognized by primitive <a href="#artlinks">animism</a> (q.v.); that is +to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable souls, or +discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body; a sharp +distinction is often drawn between these two classes, notably +by the Melanesians, the West Africans and others; the Arab +<i>jinn</i>, for example, are not reducible to modified human souls; +at the same time these classes are frequently conceived as producing +identical results, e.g. diseases.</p> + +<p>Under the head of demons are classified only such spirits as +are believed to enter into relations with the human race; the +term therefore includes (1) human souls regarded as genii or +familiars, (2) such as receive a cult (for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ancestor +Worship</a></span>), and (3) ghosts or other malevolent revenants; +excluded are souls conceived as inhabiting another world. But +just as gods are not necessarily spiritual, demons may also be +regarded as corporeal; vampires for example are sometimes +described as human heads with appended entrails, which issue +from the tomb to attack the living during the night watches. +The so-called Spectre Huntsman of the Malay Peninsula is said +to be a man who scours the firmament with his dogs, vainly +seeking for what he could not find on earth—a buck mouse-deer +pregnant with male offspring; but he seems to be a living man; +there is no statement that he ever died, nor yet that he is a +spirit. The incubus and succubus of the middle ages are sometimes +regarded as spiritual beings; but they were held to give +very real proof of their bodily existence. It should, however, +be remembered that primitive peoples do not distinguish clearly +between material and immaterial beings.</p> + +<p><i>Prevalence of Demons.</i>—According to a conception of the +world frequently found among peoples of the lower cultures, +all the affairs of life are supposed to be under the control of +spirits, each ruling a certain element or even object, and themselves +in subjection to a greater spirit. Thus, the Eskimo are +said to believe in spirits of the sea, earth and sky, the winds, +the clouds and everything in nature. Every cove of the seashore, +every point, every island and prominent rock has its guardian +spirit. All are of the malignant type, to be propitiated only by +acceptable offerings from persons who desire to visit the locality +where it is supposed to reside. A rise in culture often results in +an increase in the number of spiritual beings with whom man +surrounds himself. Thus, the Koreans go far beyond the +Eskimo and number their demons by thousands of billions; +they fill the chimney, the shed, the living-room, the kitchen, +they are on every shelf and jar; in thousands they waylay +the traveller as he leaves his home, beside him, behind him, +dancing in front of him, whirring over his head, crying out +upon him from air, earth and water.</p> + +<p>Especially complicated was the ancient Babylonian demonology; +all the petty annoyances of life—a sudden fall, a headache, +a quarrel—were set down to the agency of fiends; all the stronger +emotions—love, hate, jealousy and so on—were regarded as the +work of demons; in fact so numerous were they, that there were +special fiends for various parts of the human body—one for the +head, another for the neck, and so on. Similarly in Egypt at the +present day the <i>jinn</i> are believed to swarm so thickly that it is +necessary to ask their permission before pouring water on the +ground, lest one should accidentally be soused and vent his +anger on the offending human being. But these beliefs are far +from being confined to the uncivilized; Greek philosophers like +Porphyry, no less than the fathers of the Church, held that the +world was pervaded with spirits; side by side with the belief in +witchcraft, we can trace through the middle ages the survival of +primitive animistic views; and in our own day even these beliefs +subsist in unsuspected vigour among the peasantry of the more +uneducated European countries. In fact the ready acceptance +of spiritualism testifies to the force with which the primitive +animistic way of looking at things appealed to the white races +in the middle of the last century.</p> + +<p><i>Character of Spiritual World.</i>—The ascription of malevolence +to the world of spirits is by no means universal. In West Africa +the Mpongwe believe in local spirits, just as do the Eskimo; but +they are regarded as inoffensive in the main; true, the passer-by +must make some trifling offering as he nears their place of +abode; but it is only occasionally that mischievous acts, such as +the throwing down of a tree on a passer-by, are, in the view of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>6</span> +natives, perpetuated by the Ombuiri. So too, many of the spirits +especially concerned with the operations of nature are conceived +as neutral or even benevolent; the European peasant fears the +corn-spirit only when he irritates him by trenching on his domain +and taking his property by cutting the corn; similarly, there is +no reason why the more insignificant personages of the pantheon +should be conceived as malevolent, and we find that the <i>Petara</i> +of the Dyaks are far from indiscriminating and malignant, though +disease and death are laid at their door.</p> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—Besides the distinctions of human and non-human, +hostile and friendly, the demons in which the lower races +believe are classified by them according to function, each class +with a distinctive name, with extraordinary minuteness, the list +in the case of the Malays running to several score. They have, +for example, a demon of the waterfall, a demon of wild-beast +tracks, a demon which interferes with snares for wild-fowl, a +baboon demon, which takes possession of dancers and causes them +to perform wonderful feats of climbing, &c. But it is impossible +to do more than deal with a few types, which will illustrate the +main features of the demonology of savage, barbarous and semi-civilized +peoples.</p> + +<p>(a) Natural causes, either of death or of disease, are hardly, +if at all, recognized by the uncivilized; everything is attributed +to spirits or magical influence of some sort. The spirits which +cause disease may be human or non-human and their influence is +shown in more than one way; they may enter the body of the +victim (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Possession</a></span>), and either dominate his mind as well +as his body, inflict specific diseases, or cause pains of various +sorts. Thus the Mintra of the Malay Peninsula have a demon +corresponding to every kind of disease known to them; the +Tasmanian ascribed a gnawing pain to the presence within him +of the soul of a dead man, whom he had unwittingly summoned +by mentioning his name and who was devouring his liver; the +Samoan held that the violation of a food tabu would result in the +animal being formed within the body of the offender and cause +his death. The demon theory of disease is still attested by some +of our medical terms; epilepsy (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epilêpsis">ἐπίληψις</span>, seizure) points +to the belief that the patient is possessed. As a logical consequence +of this view of disease the mode of treatment among +peoples in the lower stages of culture is mainly magical; they +endeavour to propitiate the evil spirits by sacrifice, to expel them +by spells, &c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exorcism</a></span>), to drive them away by blowing, &c.; +conversely we find the Khonds attempt to keep away smallpox +by placing thorns and brushwood in the paths leading to places +decimated by that disease, in the hope of making the disease +demon retrace his steps. This theory of disease disappeared +sooner than did the belief in possession; the energumens +(<span class="grk" title="energoumenoi">ἐνεργούμενοι</span>) of the early Christian church, who were under +the care of a special clerical order of exorcists, testify to a belief +in possession; but the demon theory of disease receives no recognition; +the energumens find their analogues in the converts +of missionaries in China, Africa and elsewhere. Another way in +which a demon is held to cause disease is by introducing itself into +the patient’s body and sucking his blood; the Malays believe +that a woman who dies in childbirth becomes a <i>langsuir</i> and +sucks the blood of children; victims of the lycanthrope are +sometimes said to be done to death in the same way; and it is +commonly believed in Africa that the wizard has the power of +killing people in this way, probably with the aid of a familiar.</p> + +<p>(b) One of the primary meanings of <span class="grk" title="daimôn">δαίμων</span> is that of genius +or familiar, tutelary spirit; according to Hesiod the men of the +golden race became after death guardians or watchers over +mortals. The idea is found among the Romans also; they +attributed to every man a genius who accompanied him through +life. A Norse belief found in Iceland is that the <i>fylgia</i>, a genius +in animal form, attends human beings; and these animal +guardians may sometimes be seen fighting; in the same way the +Siberian shamans send their animal familiars to do battle instead +of deciding their quarrels in person. The animal guardian reappears +in the <i>nagual</i> of Central America (see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Totemism</a></span>), +the <i>yunbeai</i> of some Australian tribes, the <i>manitou</i> of the +Red Indian and the bush soul of some West African tribes; +among the latter the link between animal and human being +is said to be established by the ceremony of the blood bond. +Corresponding to the animal guardian of the ordinary man, we +have the familiar of the witch or wizard. All the world over it is +held that such people can assume the form of animals; sometimes +the power of the shaman is held to depend on his being +able to summon his familiar; among the Ostiaks the shaman’s +coat was covered with representations of birds and beasts; two +bear’s claws were on his hands; his wand was covered with +mouse-skin; when he wished to divine he beat his drum till a +black bird appeared and perched on his hut; then the shaman +swooned, the bird vanished, and the divination could begin. +Similarly the Greenland <i>angekok</i> is said to summon his <i>torngak</i> +(which may be an ancestral ghost or an animal) by drumming; +he is heard by the bystanders to carry on a conversation and +obtain advice as to how to treat diseases, the prospects of good +weather and other matters of importance. The familiar, who is +sometimes replaced by the devil, commonly figured in witchcraft +trials; and a statute of James I. enacted that all persons invoking +an evil spirit or consulting, covenanting with, entertaining, +employing, feeding or rewarding any evil spirit should be guilty +of felony and suffer death. In modern spiritualism the familiar +is represented by the “guide,” corresponding to which we have +the theosophical “guru.”</p> + +<p>(c) The familiar is sometimes an ancestral spirit, and here we +touch the fringe of the cult of the dead (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ancestor +Worship</a></span>). Especially among the lower races the dead are +regarded as hostile; the Australian avoids the grave even of a +kinsman and elaborate ceremonies of mourning are found amongst +most primitive peoples, whose object seems to be to rid the living +of the danger they run by association with the ghost of the dead. +Among the Zulu the spirits of the dead are held to be friendly or +hostile, just as they were in life; on the Congo a man after death +joins the good or bad spirits according as his life has been good +or bad. Especially feared among many peoples are the souls +of those who have committed suicide or died a violent death; +the woman who dies in childbed is held to become a demon of +the most dangerous kind; even the unburied, as restless, dissatisfied +spirits, are more feared than ordinary ghosts. Naturally +spirits of these latter kinds are more valuable as familiars than +ordinary dead men’s souls. We find many recipes for securing +their aid. In the Malay Peninsula the blood of a murdered man +must be put in a bottle and prayers said over; after seven days +of this worship a sound is heard and the operator puts his finger +into the bottle for the polong, as the demon is called, to suck; +it will fly through the air in the shape of an exceedingly diminutive +female figure, and is always preceded by its pet, the pelesit, in +the shape of a grasshopper. In Europe a similar demon is said +to be obtainable from a cock’s egg. In South Africa and India, +on the other hand, the magician digs up a dead body, especially +of a child, to secure a familiar. The evocation of spirits, especially +in the form of necromancy, is an important branch of the demonology +of many peoples; and the peculiarities of trance mediumship, +which seem sufficiently established by modern research, +go far to explain the vogue of this art. It seems to have been +common among the Jews, and the case of the witch of Endor is +narrated in a way to suggest something beyond fraud; in the +book of magic which bears the name of Dr Faustus may be found +many of the formulae for raising demons; in England may be +mentioned especially Dr Dee as one of the most famous of those +who claimed before the days of modern <a href="#artlinks">spiritualism</a> (q.v.) to +have intercourse with the unseen world and to summon demons +at his will. Sometimes the spirits were summoned to appear +as did the phantoms of the Greek heroes to Odysseus; sometimes +they were called to enter a crystal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystal-Gazing</a></span>); +sometimes they are merely asked to declare the future or communicate +by moving external objects without taking a visible +form; thus among the Karens at the close of the burial ceremonies +the ghost of the dead man, which is said to hover round +till the rites are completed, is believed to make a ring swing +round and snap the string from which it hangs.</p> + +<p>(d) The vampire is a particular form of demon which calls for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>7</span> +some notice. In the Malay Peninsula, parts of Polynesia, &c., +it is conceived as a head with attached entrails, which issues, it +may be from the grave, to suck the blood of living human beings. +According to the Malays a <i>penanggalan</i> (vampire) is a living +witch, and can be killed if she can be caught; she is especially +feared in houses where a birth has taken place and it is the +custom to hang up a bunch of thistle in order to catch her; she +is said to keep vinegar at home to aid her in re-entering her own +body. In Europe the Slavonic area is the principal seat of +vampire beliefs, and here too we find, as a natural development, +that means of preventing the dead from injuring the living have +been evolved by the popular mind. The corpse of the vampire, +which may often be recognized by its unnaturally ruddy and +fresh appearance, should be staked down in the grave or its head +should be cut off; it is interesting to note that the cutting off of +heads of the dead was a neolithic burial rite.</p> + +<p>(e) The vampire is frequently blended in popular idea with +the <a href="#artlinks">Poltergeist</a> (q.v.) or knocking spirit, and also with the werwolf +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lycanthropy</a></span>).</p> + +<p>(f) As might be expected, dream demons are very common; +in fact the word “nightmare” (A.S. <i>mær</i>, spirit, elf) preserves +for us a record of this form of belief, which is found right down +to the lowest planes of culture. The Australian, when he suffers +from an oppression in his sleep, says that Koin is trying to throttle +him; the Caribs say that Maboya beats them in their sleep; +and the belief persists to this day in some parts of Europe; +horses too are said to be subject to the persecutions of demons, +which ride them at night. Another class of nocturnal demons +are the incubi and succubi, who are said to consort with human +beings in their sleep; in the Antilles these were the ghosts of the +dead; in New Zealand likewise ancestral deities formed liaisons +with females; in the Samoan Islands the inferior gods were +regarded as the fathers of children otherwise unaccounted for; +the Hindus have rites prescribed by which a companion nymph +may be secured. The question of the real existence of incubi and +succubi, whom the Romans identified with the fauns, was gravely +discussed by the fathers of the church; and in 1418 Innocent VIII. +set forth the doctrine of lecherous demons as an indisputable +fact; and in the history of the Inquisition and of trials for witchcraft +may be found the confessions of many who bore witness +to their reality. In the <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i> Burton assures +us that they were never more numerous than in A.D. 1600.</p> + +<p>(g) Corresponding to the personal tutelary spirit (supra, b) we +have the genii of buildings and places. The Romans celebrated +the birthday of a town and of its genius, just as they celebrated +that of a man; and a snake was a frequent form for this kind of +demon; when we compare with this the South African belief that +the snakes which are in the neighbourhood of the kraal are the +incarnations of the ancestors of the residents, it seems probable +that some similar idea lay at the bottom of the Roman belief; to +this day in European folklore the house snake or toad, which lives +in the cellar, is regarded as the “life index” or other self of the +father of the house; the death of one involves the death of the +other, according to popular belief. The assignment of genii to +buildings and gates is connected with an important class of +sacrifices; in order to provide a tutelary spirit, or to appease +chthonic deities, it was often the custom to sacrifice a human +being or an animal at the foundation of a building; sometimes we +find a similar guardian provided for the frontier of a country or of +a tribe. The house spirit is, however, not necessarily connected +with this idea. In Russia the <i>domovoi</i> (house spirit) is an +important personage in folk-belief; he may object to certain +kinds of animals, or to certain colours in cattle; and must, +generally speaking, be propitiated and cared for. Corresponding +to him we have the drudging goblin of English folklore.</p> + +<p>(h) It has been shown above how the animistic creed postulates +the existence of all kinds of local spirits, which are sometimes +tied to their habitats, sometimes free to wander. Especially +prominent in Europe, classical, medieval and modern, and in +East Asia, is the spirit of the lake, river, spring, or well, often +conceived as human, but also in the form of a bull or horse; the +term Old Nick may refer to the water-horse Nök. Less specialized +in their functions are many of the figures of modern folklore, +some of whom have perhaps replaced some ancient goddess, +e.g. Frau Holda; others, like the Welsh Pwck, the Lancashire +boggarts or the more widely found Jack-o’-Lantern (Will o’ the +Wisp), are sprites who do no more harm than leading the +wanderer astray. The banshee is perhaps connected with +ancestral or house spirits; the Wild Huntsman, the Gabriel +hounds, the Seven Whistlers, &c., are traceable to some actual +phenomenon; but the great mass of British goblindom cannot +now be traced back to savage or barbarous analogues. Among +other local sprites may be mentioned the kobolds or spirits of the +mines. The fairies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fairy</a></span>), located in the fairy knolls by the +inhabitants of the Shetlands, may also be put under this head.</p> + +<p>(i) The subject of plant souls is referred to in connexion with +<a href="#artlinks">animism</a> (q.v.); but certain aspects of this phase of belief +demand more detailed treatment. Outside the European area +vegetation spirits of all kinds seem to be conceived, as a rule, as +anthropomorphic; in classical Europe, and parts of the Slavonic +area at the present day, the tree spirit was believed to have the +form of a goat, or to have goats’ feet.</p> + +<p>Of special importance in Europe is the conception of the +so-called “corn spirit”; W. Mannhardt collected a mass of +information proving that the life of the corn is supposed to exist +apart from the corn itself and to take the form, sometimes of an +animal, sometimes of a man or woman, sometimes of a child. +There is, however, no proof that the belief is animistic in the +proper sense. The animal which popular belief identified with +the corn demon is sometimes killed in the spring in order to +mingle its blood or bones with the seed; at harvest-time it is +supposed to sit in the last corn and the animals driven out from it +are sometimes killed; at others the reaper who cuts the last ear +is said to have killed the “wolf” or the “dog,” and sometimes +receives the name of “wolf” or “dog” and retains it till the next +harvest. The corn spirit is also said to be hiding in the barn till +the corn is threshed, or it may be said to reappear at midwinter, +when the farmer begins to think of his new year of labour and +harvest. Side by side with the conception of the corn spirit as +an animal is the anthropomorphic view of it; and this element +must have predominated in the evolution of the cereal deities +like Demeter; at the same time traces of the association of gods +and goddesses of corn with animal embodiments of the corn spirit +are found.</p> + +<p>(j) In many parts of the world, and especially in Africa, is +found the conception termed the “otiose creator”; that is to +say, the belief in a great deity, who is the author of all that exists +but is too remote from the world and too high above terrestrial +things to concern himself with the details of the universe. As +a natural result of this belief we find the view that the operations +of nature are conducted by a multitude of more or less obedient +subordinate deities; thus, in Portuguese West Africa the +Kimbunda believe in Suku-Vakange, but hold that he has committed +the government of the universe to innumerable <i>kilulu</i> +good and bad; the latter kind are held to be far more numerous, +but Suku-Vakange is said to keep them in order by occasionally +smiting them with his thunderbolts; were it not for this, man’s +lot would be insupportable.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the gods of an older religion degenerate into the +demons of the belief which supersedes it. A conspicuous example +of this is found in the attitude of the Hebrew prophets to the gods +of the nations, whose power they recognize without admitting +their claim to reverence and sacrifice. The same tendency is seen +in many early missionary works and is far from being without +influence even at the present day. In the folklore of European +countries goblindom is peopled by gods and nature-spirits of an +earlier heathendom. We may also compare the Persian <i>devs</i> +with the Indian <i>devas</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Expulsion of Demons.</i>—In connexion with demonology mention +must be made of the custom of expelling ghosts, spirits or evils +generally. Primitive peoples from the Australians upwards +celebrate, usually at fixed intervals, a driving out of hurtful +influences. Sometimes, as among the Australians, it is merely +the ghosts of those who have died in the year which are thus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"></a>8</span> +driven out; from this custom must be distinguished another, +which consists in dismissing the souls of the dead at the close of +the year and sending them on their journey to the other world; +this latter custom seems to have an entirely different origin and +to be due to love and not fear of the dead. In other cases it is +believed that evil spirits generally or even non-personal evils +such as sins are believed to be expelled. In these customs +originated perhaps the scapegoat, some forms of <a href="#artlinks">sacrifice</a> (q.v.) +and other cathartic ceremonies.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>; Frazer, <i>Golden Bough</i>; +Skeat, <i>Malay Magic</i>; Bastian, <i>Der Mensch in der Geschichte</i>; +Callaway, <i>Religion of the Amazulu</i>; Hild, <i>Étude sur les démons</i>; +Welcker, <i>Griechische Götterlehre</i>, i. 731; <i>Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.</i> +xxvi. 79; Calmet, <i>Dissertation sur les esprits</i>; Maury, <i>La Magie</i>; +L. W. King, <i>Babylonian Magic</i>; Lenormant, <i>La Magie chez les +Chaldéens</i>; R. C. Thompson, <i>Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia</i>; +Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>; Roskoff, <i>Geschichte des Teufels</i>; Sibly, +<i>Illustration of the Occult Sciences</i>; Scott, <i>Demonology</i>; Pitcairn, +<i>Scottish Criminal Trials</i>; <i>Jewish Quarterly Rev.</i> viii. 576, &c.; +Horst, <i>Zauberbibliothek</i>; <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, s.v. “Demonology.” +See also bibliography to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Possession</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Animism</a></span> and other articles.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS</span> (1806-1871), English mathematician +and logician, was born in June 1806, at Madura, in the +Madras presidency. His father, Colonel John De Morgan, was +employed in the East India Company’s service, and his grandfather +and great-grandfather had served under Warren Hastings. +On the mother’s side he was descended from James Dodson, F.R.S., +author of the <i>Anti-logarithmic Canon</i> and other mathematical +works of merit, and a friend of Abraham Demoivre. Seven +months after the birth of Augustus, Colonel De Morgan brought +his wife, daughter and infant son to England, where he left +them during a subsequent period of service in India, dying in +1816 on his way home.</p> + +<p>Augustus De Morgan received his early education in several +private schools, and before the age of fourteen years had learned +Latin, Greek and some Hebrew, in addition to acquiring much +general knowledge. At the age of sixteen years and a half he +entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied mathematics, +partly under the tuition of Sir G. B. Airy. In 1825 he gained a +Trinity scholarship. De Morgan’s love of wide reading somewhat +interfered with his success in the mathematical tripos, in +which he took the fourth place in 1827. He was prevented from +taking his M.A. degree, or from obtaining a fellowship, by his +conscientious objection to signing the theological tests then +required from masters of arts and fellows at Cambridge.</p> + +<p>A career in his own university being closed against him, he +entered Lincoln’s Inn; but had hardly done so when the establishment, +in 1828, of the university of London, in Gower Street, +afterwards known as University College, gave him an opportunity +of continuing his mathematical pursuits. At the early age of +twenty-two he gave his first lecture as professor of mathematics +in the college which he served with the utmost zeal and success +for a third of a century. His connexion with the college, indeed, +was interrupted in 1831, when a disagreement with the governing +body caused De Morgan and some other professors to resign their +chairs simultaneously. When, in 1836, his successor was accidentally +drowned, De Morgan was requested to resume the +professorship.</p> + +<p>In 1837 he married Sophia Elizabeth, daughter of William +Frend, a Unitarian in faith, a mathematician and actuary in +occupation, a notice of whose life, written by his son-in-law, +will be found in the <i>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical +Society</i> (vol. v.). They settled in Chelsea (30 Cheyne Row), where +in later years Mrs De Morgan had a large circle of intellectual +and artistic friends.</p> + +<p>As a teacher of mathematics De Morgan was unrivalled. He +gave instruction in the form of continuous lectures delivered +extempore from brief notes. The most prolonged mathematical +reasoning, and the most intricate formulae, were given with +almost infallible accuracy from the resources of his extraordinary +memory. De Morgan’s writings, however excellent, give little +idea of the perspicuity and elegance of his viva voce expositions, +which never failed to fix the attention of all who were worthy +of hearing him. Many of his pupils have distinguished themselves, +and, through Isaac Todhunter and E. J. Routh, he had +an important influence on the later Cambridge school. For +thirty years he took an active part in the business of the Royal +Astronomical Society, editing its publications, supplying obituary +notices of members, and for eighteen years acting as one of the +honorary secretaries. He was also frequently employed as consulting +actuary, a business in which his mathematical powers, +combined with sound judgment and business-like habits, fitted +him to take the highest place.</p> + +<p>De Morgan’s mathematical writings contributed powerfully +towards the progress of the science. His memoirs on the +“Foundation of Algebra,” in the 7th and 8th volumes of the +<i>Cambridge Philosophical Transactions</i>, contain some of the most +important contributions which have been made to the philosophy +of mathematical method; and Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, in the +preface to his <i>Lectures on Quaternions</i>, refers more than once to +those papers as having led and encouraged him in the working +out of the new system of quaternions. The work on <i>Trigonometry +and Double Algebra</i> (1849) contains in the latter part a +most luminous and philosophical view of existing and possible +systems of symbolic calculus. But De Morgan’s influence on +mathematical science in England can only be estimated by a +review of his long series of publications, which commence, in +1828, with a translation of part of Bourdon’s <i>Elements of Algebra</i>, +prepared for his students. In 1830 appeared the first edition of +his well-known <i>Elements of Arithmetic</i>, which did much to raise +the character of elementary training. It is distinguished by a +simple yet thoroughly philosophical treatment of the ideas of +number and magnitude, as well as by the introduction of new +abbreviated processes of computation, to which De Morgan +always attributed much practical importance. Second and third +editions were called for in 1832 and 1835; a sixth edition was +issued in 1876. De Morgan’s other principal mathematical +works were <i>The Elements of Algebra</i> (1835), a valuable but somewhat +dry elementary treatise; the <i>Essay on Probabilities</i> (1838), +forming the 107th volume of <i>Lardner’s Cyclopaedia</i>, which forms +a valuable introduction to the subject; and <i>The Elements of +Trigonometry and Trigonometrical Analysis, preliminary to the +Differential Calculus</i> (1837). Several of his mathematical works +were published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, +of which De Morgan was at one time an active member. +Among these may be mentioned the <i>Treatise on the Differential +and Integral Calculus</i> (1842); the <i>Elementary Illustrations of the +Differential and Integral Calculus</i>, first published in 1832, but +often bound up with the larger treatise; the essay, <i>On the Study +and Difficulties of Mathematics</i> (1831); and a brief treatise on +<i>Spherical Trigonometry</i> (1834). By some accident the work on +probability in the same series, written by Sir J. W. Lubbock and +J. Drinkwater-Bethune, was attributed to De Morgan, an error +which seriously annoyed his nice sense of bibliographical accuracy. +For fifteen years he did all in his power to correct the mistake, +and finally wrote to <i>The Times</i> to disclaim the authorship. (See +<i>Monthly Notices</i> of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxvi. +p. 118.) Two of his most elaborate treatises are to be found in the +<i>Encyclopaedia metropolitana</i>, namely the articles on the Calculus +of Functions, and the Theory of Probabilities. De Morgan’s minor +mathematical writings were scattered over various periodicals. +A list of these and other papers will be found in the <i>Royal +Society’s Catalogue</i>, which contains forty-two entries under the +name of De Morgan.</p> + +<p>In spite, however, of the excellence and extent of his mathematical +writings, it is probably as a logical reformer that De +Morgan will be best remembered. In this respect he stands +alongside of his great contemporaries Sir W. R. Hamilton and +George Boole, as one of several independent discoverers of the +all-important principle of the quantification of the predicate. +Unlike most mathematicians, De Morgan always laid much stress +upon the importance of logical training. In his admirable papers +upon the modes of teaching arithmetic and geometry, originally +published in the <i>Quarterly Journal of Education</i> (reprinted in <i>The +Schoolmaster</i>, vol ii.), he remonstrated against the neglect of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>9</span> +logical doctrine. In 1839 he produced a small work called <i>First +Notions of Logic</i>, giving what he had found by experience to be +much wanted by students commencing with <i>Euclid</i>. In October +1846 he completed the first of his investigations, in the form of a +paper printed in the <i>Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical +Society</i> (vol. viii. No. 29). In this paper the principle of the +quantified predicate was referred to, and there immediately +ensued a memorable controversy with Sir W. R. Hamilton regarding +the independence of De Morgan’s discovery, some communications +having passed between them in the autumn of 1846. The +details of this dispute will be found in the original pamphlets, +in the <i>Athenaeum</i> and in the appendix to De Morgan’s <i>Formal +Logic</i>. Suffice it to say that the independence of De Morgan’s +discovery was subsequently recognized by Hamilton. The eight +forms of proposition adopted by De Morgan as the basis of his +system partially differ from those which Hamilton derived +from the quantified predicate. The general character of De +Morgan’s development of logical forms was wholly peculiar and +original on his part.</p> + +<p>Late in 1847 De Morgan published his principal logical treatise, +called <i>Formal Logic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and +Probable</i>. This contains a reprint of the <i>First Notions</i>, an elaborate +development of his doctrine of the syllogism, and of the +numerical definite syllogism, together with chapters of great +interest on probability, induction, old logical terms and fallacies. +The severity of the treatise is relieved by characteristic touches +of humour, and by quaint anecdotes and allusions furnished from +his wide reading and perfect memory. There followed at +intervals, in the years 1850, 1858, 1860 and 1863, a series of four +elaborate memoirs on the “Syllogism,” printed in volumes ix. +and x. of the <i>Cambridge Philosophical Transactions</i>. These +papers taken together constitute a great treatise on logic, +in which he substituted improved systems of notation, and +developed a new logic of relations, and a new onymatic system +of logical expression. In 1860 De Morgan endeavoured to render +their contents better known by publishing a <i>Syllabus of a +Proposed System of Logic</i>, from which may be obtained a good +idea of his symbolic system, but the more readable and interesting +discussions contained in the memoirs are of necessity omitted. +The article “Logic” in the <i>English Cyclopaedia</i> (1860) completes +the list of his logical publications.</p> + +<p>Throughout his logical writings De Morgan was led by the idea +that the followers of the two great branches of exact science, +logic and mathematics, had made blunders,—the logicians in +neglecting mathematics, and the mathematicians in neglecting +logic. He endeavoured to reconcile them, and in the attempt +showed how many errors an acute mathematician could detect +in logical writings, and how large a field there was for discovery. +But it may be doubted whether De Morgan’s own system, +“horrent with mysterious spiculae,” as Hamilton aptly described +it, is fitted to exhibit the real analogy between quantitative and +qualitative reasoning, which is rather to be sought in the logical +works of Boole.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>Perhaps the largest part, in volume, of De Morgan’s writings remains +still to be briefly mentioned; it consists of detached articles +contributed to various periodical or composite works. During the +years 1833-1843 he contributed very largely to the first edition of +the <i>Penny Cyclopaedia</i>, writing chiefly on mathematics, astronomy, +physics and biography. His articles of various length cannot be +less in number than 850, and they have been estimated to constitute +a sixth part of the whole <i>Cyclopaedia</i>, of which they formed perhaps +the most valuable portion. He also wrote biographies of Sir Isaac +Newton and Edmund Halley for Knight’s <i>British Worthies</i>, various +notices of scientific men for the <i>Gallery of Portraits</i>, and for the uncompleted +<i>Biographical Dictionary</i> of the Useful Knowledge Society, +and at least seven articles in Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman +Biography</i>. Some of De Morgan’s most interesting and useful minor +writings are to be found in the <i>Companions to the British Almanack</i>, to +which he contributed without fail one article each year from 1831 up +to 1857 inclusive. In these carefully written papers he treats a great +variety of topics relating to astronomy, chronology, decimal coinage, +life assurance, bibliography and the history of science. Most of +them are as valuable now as when written.</p> + +<p>Among De Morgan’s miscellaneous writings may be mentioned his +<i>Explanation of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere</i>, 1836, including +a description of the maps of the stars, published by the Useful Knowledge +Society; his <i>Treatise on the Globes, Celestial and Terrestrial</i>, 1845, +and his remarkable <i>Book of Almanacks</i> (2nd edition, 1871), which +contains a series of thirty-five almanacs, so arranged with indices of +reference, that the almanac for any year, whether in old style or new, +from any epoch, ancient or modern, up to A. D. 2000, may be found +without difficulty, means being added for verifying the almanac and +also for discovering the days of new and full moon from 2000 B. C. up +to A. D. 2000. De Morgan expressly draws attention to the fact that +the plan of this book was that of L. B. Francoeur and J. Ferguson, +but the plan was developed by one who was an unrivalled master of +all the intricacies of chronology. The two best tables of logarithms, +the small five-figure tables of the Useful Knowledge Society (1839 and +1857), and Shroen’s Seven Figure-Table (5th ed., 1865), were printed +under De Morgan’s superintendence. Several works edited by him +will be found mentioned in the <i>British Museum Catalogue</i>. He made +numerous anonymous contributions through a long series of years +to the <i>Athenaeum</i>, and to <i>Notes and Queries</i>, and occasionally to +<i>The North British Review</i>, <i>Macmillan’s Magazine</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>Considerable labour was spent by De Morgan upon the subject +of decimal coinage. He was a great advocate of the pound and mil +scheme. His evidence on this subject was sought by the Royal +Commission, and, besides constantly supporting the Decimal +Association in periodical publications, he published several separate +pamphlets on the subject.</p> + +<p>One marked characteristic of De Morgan was his intense and yet +reasonable love of books. He was a true bibliophile and loved to +surround himself, as far as his means allowed, with curious and rare +books. He revelled in all the mysteries of watermarks, title-pages, +colophons, catch-words and the like; yet he treated bibliography +as an important science. As he himself wrote, “the most worthless +book of a bygone day is a record worthy of preservation; like a +telescopic star, its obscurity may render it unavailable for most +purposes; but it serves, in hands which know how to use it, to determine +the places of more important bodies.” His evidence before +the Royal Commission on the British Museum in 1850 (Questions +5704*-5815,* 6481-6513, and 8966-8967), should be studied by all +who would comprehend the principles of bibliography or the art of +constructing a catalogue, his views on the latter subject corresponding +with those carried out by Panizzi in the <i>British Museum Catalogue</i>. +A sample of De Morgan’s bibliographical learning is to be found in +his account of <i>Arithmetical Books, from the Invention of Printing</i> +(1847), and finally in his <i>Budget of Paradoxes</i>. This latter work +consists of articles most of which were originally published in the +Athenaeum, describing the various attempts which have been made +to invent a perpetual motion, to square the circle, or to trisect the +angle; but De Morgan took the opportunity to include many curious +bits gathered from his extensive reading, so that the <i>Budget</i>, as reprinted +by his widow (1872), with much additional matter prepared +by himself, forms a remarkable collection of scientific <i>ana</i>. De +Morgan’s correspondence with contemporary scientific men was very +extensive and full of interest. It remains unpublished, as does also +a large mass of mathematical tracts which he prepared for the use +of his students, treating all parts of mathematical science, and +embodying some of the matter of his lectures. De Morgan’s library +was purchased by Lord Overstone, and presented to the university +of London.</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1866 his life became clouded by the circumstances which led +him to abandon the institution so long the scene of his labours. +The refusal of the council to accept the recommendation of the +senate, that they should appoint an eminent Unitarian minister +to the professorship of logic and mental philosophy, revived all +De Morgan’s sensitiveness on the subject of sectarian freedom; +and, though his feelings were doubtless excessive, there is no +doubt that gloom was thrown over his life, intensified in 1867 by +the loss of his son George Campbell De Morgan, a young man of +the highest scientific promise, whose name, as De Morgan +expressly wished, will long be connected with the London +Mathematical Society, of which he was one of the founders. +From this time De Morgan rapidly fell into ill-health, previously +almost unknown to him, dying on the 18th of March 1871. An +interesting and truthful sketch of his life will be found in the +<i>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</i> for the 9th of +February 1872, vol. xxii. p. 112, written by A. C. Ranyard, who +says, “He was the kindliest, as well as the most learned of men—benignant +to every one who approached him, never forgetting the +claims which weakness has on strength.”</p> + +<p>De Morgan left no published indications of his opinions on +religious questions, in regard to which he was extremely reticent. +He seldom or never entered a place of worship, and declared that +he could not listen to a sermon, a circumstance perhaps due to +the extremely strict religious discipline under which he was +brought up. Nevertheless there is reason to believe that he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"></a>10</span> +was of a deeply religious disposition. Like M. Faraday and +Sir I. Newton he entertained a confident belief in Providence, +founded not on any tenuous inference, but on personal +feeling. His hope of a future life also was vivid to the last.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to omit a reference to his witty sayings, some +specimens of which are preserved in Dr Sadler’s most interesting +<i>Diary of Henry Crabb Robinson</i> (1869), which also contains a +humorous account of H. C. R. by De Morgan. It may be +added that De Morgan was a great reader and admirer of +Dickens; he was also fond of music, and a fair performer on +the flute.</p> +<div class="author">(W. S. J.)</div> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">William Frend De Morgan</span> (b. 1839), first became +known in artistic circles as a potter, the “De Morgan” tiles +being remarkable for his rediscovery of the secret of some beautiful +colours and glazes. But later in life he became even better +known to the literary world by his novels, <i>Joseph Vance</i> (1906), +<i>Alice for Short</i> (1907), <i>Somehow Good</i> (1908) and <i>It Never Can +Happen Again</i> (1909), in which the influence of Dickens and of +his own earlier family life were conspicuous.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMOSTHENES,</span> the great Attic orator and statesman, was +born in 384 (or 383) B.C. His father, who bore the same name, +was an Athenian citizen belonging to the deme of Paeania. His +mother, Cleobule, was the daughter of Gylon, a citizen who had +been active in procuring the protection of the kings of Bosporus +for the Athenian colony of Nymphaeon in the Crimea, and whose +wife was a native of that region. On these grounds the adversaries +of Demosthenes, in after-days, used absurdly to taunt him with +a traitorous or barbarian ancestry. The boy had a bitter foretaste +of life. He was seven years old when his father died, +leaving property (in a manufactory of swords, and another of +upholstery) worth about £3500, which, invested as it seems to +have been (20% was not thought exorbitant), would have +yielded rather more than £600 a year, £300 a year was a very +comfortable income at Athens, and it was possible to live decently +on a tenth of it. Nicias, a very rich man, had property equivalent, +probably, to not more than £4000 a year. Demosthenes was born +then, to a handsome, though not a great fortune. But his +guardians—two nephews of his father, Aphobus and Demophon, +and one Therippides—abused their trust, and handed over to +Demosthenes, when he came of age, rather less than one-seventh +of his patrimony, perhaps between £50 and £60 a year. +Demosthenes, after studying with <a href="#artlinks">Isaeus</a> (q.v.)—then the great +master of forensic eloquence and of Attic law, especially in will +cases<a name="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a>—brought an action against Aphobus, and gained a verdict +for about £2400. But it does not appear that he got the money; +and, after some more fruitless proceedings against Onetor, +the brother-in-law of Aphobus, the matter was dropped,—not, +however, before his relatives had managed to throw a public +burden (the equipment of a ship of war) on their late ward, +whereby his resources were yet further straitened. He now +became a professional writer of speeches or pleas (<span class="grk" title="logographos">λογογράφος</span>) +for the law courts, sometimes speaking himself. Biographers +have delighted to relate how painfully Demosthenes made himself +a tolerable speaker,—how, with pebbles in his mouth, he +tried his lungs against the waves, how he declaimed as he ran up +hill, how he shut himself up in a cell, having first guarded himself +against a longing for the haunts of men by shaving one side of +his head, how he wrote out Thucydides eight times, how he was +derided by the Assembly and encouraged by a judicious actor who +met him moping about the Peiraeus. He certainly seems to have +been the reverse of athletic (the stalwart Aeschines upbraids him +with never having been a sportsman), and he probably had some +sort of defect or impediment in his speech as a boy. Perhaps the +most interesting fact about his work for the law courts is that +he seems to have continued it, in some measure, through the most +exciting parts of his great political career. The speech for +Phormio belongs to the same year as the plea for Megalopolis. +The speech against Boeotus “Concerning the Name” comes +between the First Philippic and the First Olynthiac. The speech +against Pantaenetus comes between the speech “On the Peace” +and the Second Philippic.</p> + +<p>The political career of Demosthenes, from his first direct +contact with public affairs in 355 B.C. to his death in 322, has +an essential unity. It is the assertion, in successive +<span class="sidenote">Political career and creed.</span> +forms adapted to successive moments, of unchanging +principles. Externally, it is divided into the chapter +which precedes and the chapter which follows +Chaeronea. But its inner meaning, the secret of its indomitable +vigour, the law which harmonizes its apparent contrasts, cannot +be understood unless it is regarded as a whole. Still less can it +be appreciated in all its large wisdom and sustained self-mastery +if it is viewed merely as a duel between the ablest champion and +the craftiest enemy of Greek freedom. The time indeed came +when Demosthenes and Philip stood face to face as representative +antagonists in a mortal conflict. But, for Demosthenes, the +special peril represented by Philip, the peril of subjugation to +Macedon, was merely a disastrous accident. Philip happened +to become the most prominent and most formidable type of a +danger which was already threatening Greece before his baleful +star arose. As Demosthenes said to the Athenians, if the +Macedonian had not existed, they would have made another +Philip for themselves. Until Athens recovered something of its +old spirit, there must ever be a great standing danger, not for +Athens only, but for Greece,—the danger that sooner or later, in +some shape, from some quarter—no man could foretell the hour, +the manner or the source—barbarian violence would break up +the gracious and undefiled tradition of separate Hellenic life.</p> + +<p>What was the true relation of Athens to Greece? The answer +which he gave to this question is the key to the life of +Demosthenes. Athens, so Demosthenes held, was the natural +head of Greece. Not, however, as an empress holding subject +or subordinate cities in a dependence more or less compulsory. +Rather as that city which most nobly expressed the noblest +attributes of Greek political existence, and which, by her preeminent +gifts both of intellect and of moral insight, was primarily +responsible, everywhere and always, for the maintenance of those +attributes in their integrity. Wherever the cry of the oppressed +goes up from Greek against Greek, it was the voice of Athens +which should first remind the oppressor that Hellene differed +from barbarian in postponing the use of force to the persuasions +of equal law. Wherever a barbarian hand offered wrong to any +city of the Hellenic sisterhood, it was the arm of Athens which +should first be stretched forth in the holy strength of Apollo the +Averter. Wherever among her own children the ancient loyalty +was yielding to love of pleasure or of base gain, there, above all, +it was the duty of Athens to see that the central hearth of Hellas +was kept pure. Athens must never again seek “empire” in the +sense which became odious under the influence of Cleon and +Hyperbolus,—when, to use the image of Aristophanes, the allies +were as Babylonian slaves grinding in the Athenian mill. Athens +must never permit, if she could help it, the re-establishment of +such a domination as Sparta exercised in Greece from the battle +of Aegospotami to the battle of Leuctra. Athens must aim +at leading a free confederacy, of which the members should be +bound to her by their own truest interests. Athens must seek +to deserve the confidence of all Greeks alike.</p> + +<p>Such, in the belief of Demosthenes, was the part which Athens +must perform if Greece was to be safe. But reforms must be +effected before Athens could be capable of such a part. The evils +to be cured were different phases of one malady. Athens had +long been suffering from the profound decay of public spirit. +Since the early years of the Peloponnesian War, the separation +of Athenian society from the state had been growing more and +more marked. The old type of the eminent citizen, who was at +once statesman and general, had become almost extinct. Politics +were now managed by a small circle of politicians. Wars were +conducted by professional soldiers whose troops were chiefly +mercenaries, and who were usually regarded by the politicians +<span class="sidenote">Theoric fund.</span> +either as instruments or as enemies. The mass of the +citizens took no active interest in public affairs. But, +though indifferent to principles, they had quickly sensitive +partialities for men, and it was necessary to keep them in +good humour. Pericles had introduced the practice of giving a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>11</span> +small bounty from the treasury to the poorer citizens, for the purpose +of enabling them to attend the theatre at the great festivals,—in +other words, for the purpose of bringing them under the +concentrated influence of the best Attic culture. A provision +eminently wise for the age of Pericles easily became a mischief +when the once honourable name of “demagogue” began to +mean a flatterer of the mob. Before the end of the Peloponnesian +War the festival-money (<i>theoricon</i>) was abolished. A few +years after the restoration of the democracy it was again introduced. +But until 354 B.C. it had never been more than a gratuity, +of which the payment depended on the treasury having a surplus. +In 354 B.C. Eubulus became steward of the treasury. He was +an able man, with a special talent for finance, free from all taint +of personal corruption, and sincerely solicitous for the honour +of Athens, but enslaved to popularity, and without principles +of policy. His first measure was to make the festival-money a +permanent item in the budget. Thenceforth this bounty was in +reality very much what Demades afterwards called it,—the +cement (<span class="grk" title="kolla">κόλλα</span>) of the democracy.</p> + +<p>Years before the danger from Macedon was urgent, Demosthenes +had begun the work of his life,—the effort to lift the spirit +of Athens, to revive the old civic loyalty, to rouse the +<span class="sidenote">Forensic speeches in Public causes.</span> +city into taking that place and performing that part +which her own welfare as well as the safety of Greece +prescribed. His formally political speeches must never +be considered apart from his forensic speeches in public causes. +The Athenian procedure against the proposer of an unconstitutional +law—i.e. of a law incompatible with existing laws—had a +direct tendency to make the law court, in such cases, a political +arena. The same tendency was indirectly exerted by the +tolerance of Athenian juries (in the absence of a presiding expert +like a judge) for irrelevant matter, since it was usually easy for a +speaker to make capital out of the adversary’s political antecedents. +But the forensic speeches of Demosthenes for public +causes are not only political in this general sense. They are +documents, as indispensable as the Olynthiacs or Philippics, +for his own political career. Only by taking them along with the +formally political speeches, and regarding the whole as one +unbroken series, can we see clearly the full scope of the task +which he set before him,—a task in which his long resistance to +Philip was only the most dramatic incident, and in which his +real achievement is not to be measured by the event of +Chaeronea.</p> + +<p>A forensic speech, composed for a public cause, opens the +political career of Demosthenes with a protest against a signal +abuse. In 355 B.C., at the age of twenty-nine, he wrote the +speech “Against Androtion.” This combats on legal grounds a +proposal that the out-going senate should receive the honour of a +golden crown. In its larger aspect, it is a denunciation of the +corrupt system which that senate represented, and especially of +the manner in which the treasury had been administered by +Aristophon. In 354 B.C. Demosthenes composed and spoke the +oration “Against Leptines,” who had effected a slender saving +for the state by the expedient of revoking those hereditary +exemptions from taxation which had at various times been +conferred in recognition of distinguished merit. The descendants +of Harmodius and Aristogeiton alone had been excepted from +the operation of the law. This was the first time that the voice +of Demosthenes himself had been heard on the public concerns +of Athens, and the utterance was a worthy prelude to the career +of a statesman. He answers the advocates of the retrenchment +by pointing out that the public interest will not ultimately be +served by a wholesale violation of the public faith. In the same +year he delivered his first strictly political speech, “On the Navy +Boards” (Symmories). The Athenians, irritated by the support +which Artaxerxes had lately given to the revolt of their allies, +and excited by rumours of his hostile preparations, were feverishly +eager for a war with Persia. Demosthenes urges that such an +enterprise would at present be useless; that it would fail to unite +Greece; that the energies of the city should be reserved for a real +emergency; but that, before the city can successfully cope with +any war, there must be a better organization of resources, and, +first of all, a reform of the navy, which he outlines with characteristic +lucidity and precision.</p> + +<p>Two years later (352 B.C.) he is found dealing with a more +definite question of foreign policy. Sparta, favoured by the +depression of Thebes in the Phocian War, was threatening +Megalopolis. Both Sparta and Megalopolis sent embassies to +Athens. Demosthenes supported Megalopolis. The ruin of +Megalopolis would mean, he argued, the return of Spartan +domination in the Peloponnesus. Athenians must not favour +the tyranny of any one city. They must respect the rights of all +the cities, and thus promote unity based on mutual confidence. +In the same year Demosthenes wrote the speech “Against +Timocrates,” to be spoken by the same Diodorus who had before +prosecuted Androtion, and who now combated an attempt to +screen Androtion and others from the penalties of embezzlement. +The speech “Against Aristocrates,” also of 352 B.C., reproves that +foreign policy of feeble makeshifts which was now popular at +Athens. The Athenian tenure of the Thracian Chersonese partly +depended for its security on the good-will of the Thracian prince +Cersobleptes. Charidemus, a soldier of fortune who had already +played Athens false, was now the brother-in-law and the favourite +of Cersobleptes. Aristocrates proposed that the person of +Charidemus should be invested with a special sanctity, by the +enactment that whoever attempted his life should be an outlaw +from all dominions of Athens. Demosthenes points out that +such adulation is as futile as it is fulsome. Athens can secure +the permanence of her foreign possessions only in one way—by +being strong enough to hold them.</p> + +<p>Thus, between 355 and 352, Demosthenes had laid down +the main lines of his policy. Domestic administration must be +purified. Statesmen must be made to feel that they +<span class="sidenote">Principles of policy.</span> +are responsible to the state. They must not be allowed +to anticipate judgment on their deserts by voting each +other golden crowns. They must not think to screen misappropriation +of public money by getting partisans to pass new +laws about state-debtors. Foreign policy must be guided by a +larger and more provident conception of Athenian interests. +When public excitement demands a foreign war, Athens must not +rush into it without asking whether it is necessary, whether it +will have Greek support, and whether she herself is ready for it. +When a strong Greek city threatens a weak one, and seeks to +purchase Athenian connivance with the bribe of a border-town, +Athens must remember that duty and prudence alike command +her to respect the independence of all Greeks. When it is proposed, +by way of insurance on Athenian possessions abroad, to +flatter the favourite of a doubtful ally, Athens must remember +that such devices will not avail a power which has no army +except on paper, and no ships fit to leave their moorings.</p> + +<p>But the time had gone by when Athenians could have tranquil +leisure for domestic reform. A danger, calling for prompt action, +had at last come very near. For six years Athens had +<span class="sidenote">Athens and Philip.</span> +been at war with Philip on account of his seizure of +Amphipolis. Meanwhile he had destroyed Potidaea +and founded Philippi. On the Thracian coasts he had +become master of Abdera and Maronea. On the Thessalian coast +he had acquired Methone. In a second invasion of Thessaly, +he had overthrown the Phocians under Onomarchus, and had +advanced to Thermopylae, to find the gates of Greece closed +against him by an Athenian force. He had then marched +to Heraeon on the Propontis, and had dictated a peace to +Cersobleptes. He had formed an alliance with Cardia, Perinthus +and Byzantium. Lastly, he had begun to show designs on the +great Confederacy of Olynthus, the more warlike Miletus of +the North. The First Philippic of Demosthenes was spoken in +351 B.C. The Third Philippic—the latest of the extant political +speeches—was spoken in 341 B.C. Between these he delivered +eight political orations, of which seven are directly concerned +with Philip. The whole series falls into two great divisions. +The first division comprises those speeches which were spoken +against Philip while he was still a foreign power threatening +Greece from without. Such are the First Philippic and the three +orations for Olynthus. The second division comprises the speeches +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>12</span> +spoken against Philip when, by admission to the Amphictyonic +Council, he had now won his way within the circle of the Greek +states, and when the issue was no longer between Greece and +Macedonia, but between the Greek and Macedonian parties in +Greece. Such are the speech “On the Peace,” the speech “On +the Embassy,” the speech “On the Chersonese,” the Second and +Third Philippics.</p> + +<p>The First Philippic, spoken early in 351 B.C., was no sudden +note of alarm drawing attention to an unnoticed peril. On the +contrary, the Assembly was weary of the subject. For +<span class="sidenote">First Philippic.</span> +six years the war with Philip had been a theme of barren +talk. Demosthenes urges that it is time to do something, +and to do it with a plan. Athens fighting Philip has fared, +he says, like an amateur boxer opposed to a skilled pugilist. +The helpless hands have only followed blows which a trained eye +should have taught them to parry. An Athenian force must be +stationed in the north, at Lemnos or Thasos. Of 2000 infantry +and 200 cavalry at least one quarter must be Athenian citizens +capable of directing the mercenaries.</p> + +<p>Later in the same year Demosthenes did another service to the +cause of national freedom. Rhodes, severed by its own act from +the Athenian Confederacy, had since 355 been virtually subject +to Mausolus, prince (<span class="grk" title="dynastês">δυνάστης</span>) of Caria, himself a tributary of +Persia. Mausolus died in 351, and was succeeded by his widow +Artemisia. The democratic party in Rhodes now appealed to +Athens for help in throwing off the Carian yoke. Demosthenes +supported their application in his speech “For the Rhodians.” +No act of his life was a truer proof of statesmanship. He failed. +But at least he had once more warned Athens that the cause of +political freedom was everywhere her own, and that, wherever +that cause was forsaken, there a new danger was created both for +Athens and for Greece.</p> + +<p>Next year (350) an Athenian force under Phocion was sent to +Euboea, in support of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria, against the +faction of Cleitarchus. Demosthenes protested against +<span class="sidenote">Euboean War.</span> +spending strength, needed for greater objects, on the +local quarrels of a despot. Phocion won a victory at +Tamynae. But the “inglorious and costly war” entailed an +outlay of more than £12,000 on the ransom of captives alone, +and ended in the total destruction of Athenian influence throughout +Euboea. That island was now left an open field for the +intrigues of Philip. Worst of all, the party of Eubulus not only +defeated a proposal, arising from this campaign, for applying the +festival-money to the war-fund, but actually carried a law making +it high treason to renew the proposal. The degree to which +political enmity was exasperated by the Euboean War may be +judged from the incident of Midias, an adherent of Eubulus, +and a type of opulent rowdyism. Demosthenes was choragus +of his tribe, and was wearing the robe of that sacred office at +the great festival in the theatre of Dionysus, when Midias struck +him on the face. The affair was eventually compromised. The +speech “Against Midias” written by Demosthenes for the trial +(in 349) was neither spoken nor completed, and remains, as few +will regret, a sketch.</p> + +<p>It was now three years since, in 352, the Olynthians had sent +an embassy to Athens, and had made peace with their only sure +ally. In 350 a second Olynthian embassy had sought +<span class="sidenote">Olynthiacs.</span> +and obtained Athenian help. The hour of Olynthus +had indeed come. In 349 Philip opened war against +the Chalcidic towns of the Olynthian League. The First and +Second Olynthiacs of Demosthenes were spoken in that year in +support of sending one force to defend Olynthus and another to +attack Philip. “Better now than later,” is the thought of the +First Olynthiac. The Second argues that Philip’s strength is +overrated. The Third—spoken in 348—carries us into the midst +of action.<a name="FnAnchor_2c" href="#Footnote_2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It deals with practical details. The festival-fund +must be used for the war. The citizens must serve in person. +A few months later, Olynthus and the thirty-two towns of the +confederacy were swept from the earth. Men could walk over +their sites, Demosthenes said seven years afterwards, without +knowing that such cities had existed. It was now certain that +Philip could not be stopped outside of Greece. The question +was, What point within Greece shall he be allowed to reach?</p> + +<p>Eubulus and his party, with that versatility which is the +privilege of political vagueness, now began to call for a congress +of the allies to consider the common danger. They found a +brilliant interpreter in Aeschines, who, after having been a tragic +actor and a clerk to the assembly, had entered political life with +the advantages of a splendid gift for eloquence, a fine presence, +a happy address, a ready wit and a facile conscience. While +his opponents had thus suddenly become warlike, Demosthenes +had become pacific. He saw that Athens must have time to +collect strength. Nothing could be gained, meanwhile, by going +on with the war. Macedonian sympathizers at Athens, of whom +Philocrates was the chief, also favoured peace. Eleven envoys, +including Philocrates, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, were sent +to Philip in February 346 B.C. After a debate at Athens, peace +<span class="sidenote">Peace between Philip and Athens.</span> +was concluded with Philip in April. Philip on the one +hand, Athens and her allies on the other, were to keep +what they respectively held at the time when the peace +was ratified. But here the Athenians made a fatal +error. Philip was bent on keeping the door of Greece open. +Demosthenes was bent on shutting it against him. Philip was +now at war with the people of Halus in Thessaly. Thebes had +for ten years been at war with Phocis. Here were two distinct +chances for Philip’s armed intervention in Greece. But if the +Halians and the Phocians were included in the peace, Philip +could not bear arms against them without violating the peace. +Accordingly Philip insisted that they should not be included. +Demosthenes insisted they should be included. They were +not included. The result followed speedily. The same envoys +were sent a second time to Philip at the end of April 346 for +the purpose of receiving his oaths in ratification of the peace. +It was late in June before he returned from Thrace to Pella—thus +gaining, under the terms, all the towns that he had taken meanwhile. +He next took the envoys with him through Thessaly to +Thermopylae. There—at the invitation of Thessalians and +Thebans—he intervened in the Phocian War. Phalaecus +<span class="sidenote">End of Phocian War.</span> +surrendered. Phocis was crushed. Philip took its +place in the Amphictyonic Council, and was thus +established as a Greek power in the very centre, at the +sacred hearth, of Greece. The right of precedence in +consultation of the oracle (<span class="grk" title="promanteia">προμαντεία</span>) was transferred from +Athens to Philip. While indignant Athenians were clamouring for +the revocation of the peace, Demosthenes upheld it in his speech +“On the Peace” in September. It ought never to have been +made on such terms, he said. But, having been made, it had +better be kept. “If we went to war now, where should we find +allies? And after losing Oropus, Amphipolis, Cardia, Chios, Cos, +Rhodes, Byzantium, shall we fight about the shadow of Delphi?”</p> + +<p>During the eight years between the peace of Philocrates and +the battle of Chaeronea, the authority of Demosthenes steadily +grew, until it became first predominant and then paramount. He +had, indeed, a melancholy advantage. Each year his argument +was more and more cogently enforced by the logic of facts. In +344 he visited the Peloponnesus for the purpose of counteracting +Macedonian intrigue. Mistrust, he told the Peloponnesian +cities, is the safeguard of free communities against tyrants. +Philip lodged a formal complaint at Athens. Here, as elsewhere, +the future master of Greece reminds us of Napoleon on the eve of +the first empire. He has the same imperturbable and persuasive +effrontery in protesting that he is doing one thing at the moment +when his energies are concentrated on doing the opposite. +Demosthenes replied in the Second Philippic. “If,” he +<span class="sidenote">Second Philippic.</span> +said, “Philip is the friend of Greece, we are doing +wrong. If he is the enemy of Greece, we are doing +right. Which is he? I hold him to be our enemy, because +everything that he has hitherto done has benefited himself and +hurt us.” The prosecution of Aeschines for malversation on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13"></a>13</span> +embassy (commonly known as <i>De falsa legatione</i>), which was +brought to an issue in the following year, marks the moral +strength of the position now held by Demosthenes. When the +gravity of the charge and the complexity of the evidence are +considered, the acquittal of Aeschines by a narrow majority +must be deemed his condemnation. The speech “On the +Affairs of the Chersonese” and the Third Philippic were the +crowning efforts of Demosthenes. Spoken in the same year, +341 B.C., and within a short space of each other, they must be +taken together. The speech “On the Affairs of the Chersonese” +regards the situation chiefly from an Athenian point of view. +“If the peace means,” argues Demosthenes, “that Philip can +seize with impunity one Athenian possession after another, but +that Athenians shall not on their peril touch aught that belongs +to Philip, where is the line to be drawn? We shall go to war, I +am told, when it is necessary. If the necessity has not come +<span class="sidenote">Third Philippic.</span> +yet, when will it come?” The Third Philippic surveys +a wider horizon. It ascends from the Athenian to the +Hellenic view. Philip has annihilated Olynthus and +the Chalcidic towns. He has ruined Phocis. He has frightened +Thebes. He has divided Thessaly. Euboea and the Peloponnesus +are his. His power stretches from the Adriatic to +the Hellespont. Where shall be the end? Athens is the last +hope of Greece. And, in this final crisis, Demosthenes was the +embodied energy of Athens. It was Demosthenes who went to +Byzantium, brought the estranged city back to the Athenian +alliance, and snatched it from the hands of Philip. It was +Demosthenes who, when Philip had already seized Elatea, +hurried to Thebes, who by his passionate appeal gained one last +chance, the only possible chance, for Greek freedom, who broke +down the barrier of an inveterate jealousy, who brought Thebans +to fight beside Athenians, and who thus won at the eleventh +hour a victory for the spirit of loyal union which took away +at least one bitterness from the unspeakable calamity of +Chaeronea.</p> + +<p>But the work of Demosthenes was not closed by the ruin of his +cause. During the last sixteen years of his life (338-322) he +rendered services to Athens not less important, and +<span class="sidenote">Municipal activity.</span> +perhaps more difficult, than those which he had +rendered before. He was now, as a matter of course, +foremost in the public affairs of Athens. In January 337, at the +annual winter Festival of the Dead in the Outer Ceramicus, he +spoke the funeral oration over those who had fallen at Chaeronea. +He was member of a commission for strengthening the fortifications +of the city (<span class="grk" title="teichopoios">τειχοποιός</span>). He administered the festival-fund. +During a dearth which visited Athens between 330 and 326 he +was charged with the organization of public relief. In 324 he was +chief (<span class="grk" title="architheoros">ἀρχιθέωρος</span>) of the sacred embassy to Olympia. Already, +in 336, Ctesiphon had proposed that Demosthenes should receive +a golden crown from the state, and that his extraordinary merits +should be proclaimed in the theatre at the Great Dionysia. The +proposal was adopted by the senate as a bill (<span class="grk" title="probouleuma">προβοούλευμα</span>); +but it must be passed by the Assembly before it could become +an act (<span class="grk" title="psêphisma">ψήφισμα</span>). To prevent this, Aeschines gave notice, in 336, +that he intended to proceed against Ctesiphon for having proposed +an unconstitutional measure. For six years Aeschines avoided +action on this notice. At last, in 330, the patriotic party felt +strong enough to force him to an issue. Aeschines spoke the +speech “Against Ctesiphon,” an attack on the whole public life +of Demosthenes. Demosthenes gained an overwhelming victory +for himself and for the honour of Athens in the most finished, the +most splendid and the most pathetic work of ancient eloquence—the +immortal oration “On the Crown.”</p> + +<p>In the winter of 325-324 Harpalus, the receiver-general of +Alexander in Asia, fled to Greece, taking with him 8000 mercenaries, +and treasure equivalent to about a million and +<span class="sidenote">Affair of Harpalus.</span> +a quarter sterling. On the motion of Demosthenes +he was warned from the harbours of Attica. Having +left his troops and part of his treasure at Taenarum, he again +presented himself at the Peiraeus, and was now admitted. He +spoke fervently of the opportunity which offered itself to those +who loved the freedom of Greece. All Asia would rise with Athens +to throw off the hated yoke. Fiery patriots like Hypereides were +in raptures. For zeal which could be bought Harpalus had other +persuasions. But Demosthenes stood firm. War with Alexander +would, he saw, be madness. It could have but one result,—some +indefinitely worse doom for Athens. Antipater and Olympias +presently demanded the surrender of Harpalus. Demosthenes +opposed this. But he reconciled the dignity with the loyalty of +Athens by carrying a decree that Harpalus should be arrested, +and that his treasure should be deposited in the Parthenon, to be +held in trust for Alexander. Harpalus escaped from prison. The +amount of the treasure, which Harpalus had stated as 700 talents, +proved to be no more than 350. Demosthenes proposed that the +Areopagus should inquire what had become of the other 350. +Six months, spent in party intrigues, passed before the Areopagus +gave in their report (<span class="grk" title="apophasis">ἀπόφασις</span>). The report inculpated +nine persons. Demosthenes headed the list of the accused. +Hypereides was among the ten public prosecutors. Demosthenes +was condemned, fined fifty talents, and, in default of +payment, imprisoned. After a few days he escaped from prison +to Aegina, and thence to Troezen. Two things in this obscure +affair are beyond reasonable doubt. First, that Demosthenes +was not bribed by Harpalus. The hatred of the Macedonian +party towards Demosthenes, and the fury of those vehement +patriots who cried out that he had betrayed their best opportunity, +combined to procure his condemnation, with the help, +probably, of some appearances which were against him. +Secondly, it can hardly be questioned that, by withstanding the +hot-headed patriots at this juncture, Demosthenes did heroic +service to Athens.</p> + +<p>Next year (323 B.C.) Alexander died. Then the voice of Demosthenes, +calling Greece to arms, rang out like a trumpet. Early +in August 322 the battle of Crannon decided the +<span class="sidenote">End of Lamian War.</span> +Lamian War against Greece. Antipater demanded, as +the condition on which he would refrain from besieging +Athens, the surrender of the leading patriots. Demades +moved the decree of the Assembly by which Demosthenes, +Hypereides, and some others were condemned to death as +<span class="sidenote">Demosthenes condemned.</span> +traitors. On the 20th of Boedromion (September 16) +322, a Macedonian garrison occupied Munychia. It +was a day of solemn and happy memories, a day +devoted, in the celebration of the Great Mysteries, to +sacred joy,—the day on which the glad procession of the Initiated +returned from Eleusis to Athens. It happened, however, to have +another association, more significant than any ironical contrast +for the present purpose of Antipater. It was the day on which, +thirteen years before, Alexander had punished the rebellion of +Thebes with annihilation.</p> + +<p>The condemned men had fled to Aegina. Parting there from +Hypereides and the rest, Demosthenes went on to Calauria, a +small island off the coast of Argolis. In Calauria there +<span class="sidenote">Flight to Calauria.</span> +was an ancient temple of Poseidon, once a centre of +Minyan and Ionian worship, and surrounded with a +peculiar sanctity as having been, from time immemorial, an +inviolable refuge for the pursued. Here Demosthenes sought +asylum. Archias of Thurii, a man who, like Aeschines, had begun +life as a tragic actor, and who was now in the pay of Antipater, +soon traced the fugitive, landed in Calauria, and appeared before +the temple of Poseidon with a body of Thracian spearmen. +Plutarch’s picturesque narrative bears the marks of artistic +elaboration. Demosthenes had dreamed the night before that +he and Archias were competing for a prize as tragic actors; the +house applauded Demosthenes; but his chorus was shabbily +equipped, and Archias gained the prize. Archias was not the +man to stick at sacrilege. In Aegina, Hypereides and the others +had been taken from the shrine of Aeacus. But he hesitated to +violate an asylum so peculiarly sacred as the Calaurian temple. +Standing before its open door, with his Thracian soldiers around +him, he endeavoured to prevail on Demosthenes to quit the holy +precinct. Antipater would be certain to pardon him. Demosthenes +sat silent, with his eyes fixed on the ground. At last, as +the emissary persisted in his bland persuasions, he looked up and +said,—“Archias, you never moved me by your acting, and you +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"></a>14</span> +will not move me now by your promises.” Archias lost his temper, +and began to threaten. “Now,” rejoined Demosthenes, “you +speak like a real Macedonian oracle; before you were acting. +Wait a moment, then, till I write to my friends.” With these +words, Demosthenes withdrew into the inner part of the temple,—still +visible, however, from the entrance. He took out a roll of +paper, as if he were going to write, put the pen to his mouth, and +bit it, as was his habit in composing. Then he threw his head +back, and drew his cloak over it. The Thracian spearmen, who +were watching him from the door, began to gibe at his cowardice. +<span class="sidenote">Death.</span> +Archias went in to him, encouraged him to rise, +repeated his old arguments, talked to him of reconciliation +with Antipater. By this time Demosthenes felt that the +poison which he had sucked from the pen was beginning to work. +He drew the cloak from his face, and looked steadily at Archias. +“Now you can play the part of Creon in the tragedy as soon as +you like,” he said, “and cast forth my body unburied. But I, +O gracious Poseidon, quit thy temple while I yet live; Antipater +and his Macedonians have done what they could to pollute it.” +He moved towards the door, calling to them to support his +tottering steps. He had just passed the altar of the god, when he +fell, and with a groan gave up the ghost (October 322 B.C.).</p> + +<p>As a statesman, Demosthenes needs no epitaph but his own +words in the speech “On the Crown,”—<i>I say that, if the event had +been manifest to the whole world beforehand, not even then +<span class="sidenote">Political character.</span> +ought Athens to have forsaken this course, if Athens had +any regard for her glory, or for her past, or for the ages to +come.</i> The Persian soldier in Herodotus, following Xerxes to +foreseen ruin, confides to his fellow-guest at the banquet that the +bitterest pain which man can know is <span class="grk" title="polla phroneonta mêdenoss krateein">πολλὰ +φρονέοντα μηδενὸς κρατέειν</span>,—complete, but helpless, prescience. In the grasp of a +more inexorable necessity, the champion of Greek freedom was +borne onward to a more tremendous catastrophe than that which +strewed the waters of Salamis with Persian wrecks and the field of +Plataea with Persian dead; but to him, at least, it was given to +proclaim aloud the clear and sure foreboding that filled his soul, +to do all that true heart and free hand could do for his cause, and, +though not to save, yet to encourage, to console and to ennoble. +As the inspiration of his life was larger and higher than the mere +courage of resistance, so his merit must be regarded as standing +altogether outside and above the struggle with Macedon. The +great purpose which he set before him was to revive the public +spirit, to restore the political vigour, and to re-establish the +Panhellenic influence of Athens,—never for her own advantage +merely, but always in the interest of Greece. His glory is, that +while he lived he helped Athens to live a higher life. Wherever +the noblest expressions of her mind are honoured, wherever the +large conceptions of Pericles command the admiration of statesmen, +wherever the architect and the sculptor love to dwell on the +masterpieces of Ictinus and Pheidias, wherever the spell of ideal +beauty or of lofty contemplation is exercised by the creations of +Sophocles or of Plato, there it will be remembered that the spirit +which wrought in all these would have passed sooner from among +men, if it had not been recalled from a trance, which others were +content to mistake for the last sleep, by the passionate breath of +Demosthenes.</p> + +<p>The orator in whom artistic genius was united, more perfectly +than in any other man, with moral enthusiasm and with intellectual +grasp, has held in the modern world the same +<span class="sidenote">Oratory.</span> +rank which was accorded to him in the old; but he +cannot enjoy the same appreciation. Macaulay’s ridicule has +rescued from oblivion the criticism which pronounced the +eloquence of Chatham to be more ornate than that of Demosthenes, +and less diffuse than that of Cicero. Did the critic, asks +Macaulay, ever hear any speaking that was less ornamented than +that of Demosthenes, or more diffuse than that of Cicero? Yet +the critic’s remark was not so pointless as Macaulay thought +it. Sincerity and intensity are, indeed, to the modern reader, +the most obvious characteristics of Demosthenes. His style is, +on the whole, singularly free from what we are accustomed to +regard as rhetorical embellishment. Where the modern orator +would employ a wealth of imagery, or elaborate a picture in +exquisite detail, Demosthenes is content with a phrase or a +word. Burke uses, in reference to Hyder Ali, the same image +which Demosthenes uses in reference to Philip. “Compounding +all the materials of fury, havoc, desolation, into one black cloud, +he hung for a while on the declivity of the mountains. Whilst +the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on this +menacing meteor, which darkened all their horizon, it suddenly +burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains +of the Carnatic.” Demosthenes forbears to amplify. “The +people gave their voice, and the danger which hung upon our +borders went by like a cloud.” To our modern feeling, the +eloquence of Demosthenes exhibits everywhere a general stamp +of earnest and simple strength. But it is well to remember the +charge made against the style of Demosthenes by a contemporary +Greek orator, and the defence offered by the best Greek +critic of oratory. Aeschines reproached the diction of Demosthenes +with excess of elaboration and adornment (<span class="grk" title="periergia">περιεργία</span>). +Dionysius, in reply, admits that Demosthenes does at times +depart from simplicity,—that his style is sometimes elaborately +ornate and remote from the ordinary usage. But, he adds, +Demosthenes adopts this manner where it is justified by the +elevation of his theme. The remark may serve to remind us of +our modern disadvantage for a full appreciation of Demosthenes. +The old world felt, as we do, his moral and mental greatness, his +fire, his self-devotion, his insight. But it felt also, as we can +never feel, the versatile perfection of his skill. This it was that +made Demosthenes unique to the ancients. The ardent patriot, +the far-seeing statesman, were united in his person with the consummate +and unapproachable artist. Dionysius devoted two +special treatises to Demosthenes,—one on his language and style +(<span class="grk" title="lektikos topos">λεκτικὸς τόπος</span>), the other on his treatment of subject-matter +(<span class="grk" title="pragmatikos topos">πραγματικὸς τόπος</span>). The latter is lost. The former is one of +the best essays in literary criticism which antiquity has +bequeathed to us. The idea which it works out is that Demosthenes +has perfected Greek prose by fusing in a glorious harmony +the elements which had hitherto belonged to separate types. +The austere dignity of Antiphon, the plain elegance of Lysias, +the smooth and balanced finish of that middle or normal character +which is represented by Isocrates, have come together in +Demosthenes. Nor is this all. In each species he excels the +specialists. He surpasses the school of Antiphon in perspicuity, +the school of Lysias in verve, the school of Isocrates in variety, in +felicity, in symmetry, in pathos, in power. Demosthenes has at +command all the discursive brilliancy which fascinates a festal +audience. He has that power of concise and lucid narration, of +terse reasoning, of persuasive appeal, which is required by the +forensic speaker. His political eloquence can worthily image +the majesty of the state, and enforce weighty counsels with lofty +and impassioned fervour. A true artist, he grudged no labour +which could make the least part of his work more perfect. +Isocrates spent ten years on the <i>Panegyricus</i>. After Plato’s +death, a manuscript was found among his papers with the first +eight words of the <i>Republic</i> arranged in several different orders. +What wonder, then, asks the Greek critic, if the diligence of +Demosthenes was no less incessant and minute? “To me,” +he says, “it seems far more natural that a man engaged in composing +political discourses, imperishable memorials of his power, +should neglect not even the smallest details, than that the +veneration of painters and sculptors, who are darkly showing +forth their manual tact and toil in a corruptible material, should +exhaust the refinements of their art on the veins, on the feathers, +on the down of the lip, and the like niceties.”</p> + +<p>More than half of the sixty-one speeches extant under the name +of Demosthenes are certainly or probably spurious. The results +to which the preponderance of opinion leans are given +<span class="sidenote">Works.</span> +in the following table. Those marked a were already +rejected or doubted in antiquity; those marked m, first in +modern times:<a name="FnAnchor_3c" href="#Footnote_3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="page15"></a>15</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6">I. DELIBERATIVE SPEECHES.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Genuine.</span></td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">14.</td> + <td class="tc5a">On the Navy Boards</td> + <td class="tc2">354</td> + <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">16.</td> + <td class="tc5a">For the People of Megalopolis</td> + <td class="tc2">352</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">4.</td> + <td class="tc5a">First Philippic</td> + <td class="tc2">351</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">15.</td> + <td class="tc5a">For the Rhodians</td> + <td class="tc2">351</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">1.</td> + <td class="tc5a">First Olynthiac</td> + <td class="tc2">349</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">2.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Second Olynthiac</td> + <td class="tc2">349</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">3.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Third Olynthiac</td> + <td class="tc2">348</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">5.</td> + <td class="tc5a">On the Peace</td> + <td class="tc2">346</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">6.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Second Philippic</td> + <td class="tc2">344</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">8.</td> + <td class="tc5a">On the Affairs of the Chersonese</td> + <td class="tc2">341</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">9.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Third Philippic</td> + <td class="tc2">341</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Spurious.</span></td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">7.</td> + <td class="tc5a">On Halonnesus (by Hegesippus)</td> + <td class="tc2">342</td> + <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><i>Rhetorical Forgeries</i>.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">17.</td> + <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">On the Treaty with Alexander.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">10.</td> + <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">Fourth Philippic.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">11.</td> + <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">Answer to Philip’s Letter.<a name="FnAnchor_4c" href="#Footnote_4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">12.</td> + <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">Philip’s Letter.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">13.</td> + <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">On the Assessment (<span class="grk" title="syntxis">ρύντξις</span>).</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6">II. FORENSIC SPEECHES.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">A. In Public Causes.</span></td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Genuine.</span></td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">22.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In (<span class="grk" title="kata">κατά</span>) Androtionem</td> + <td class="tc2">355</td> + <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">20.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra (<span class="grk" title="pros">πρός</span>) Leptinem</td> + <td class="tc2">354</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">24.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Timocratem</td> + <td class="tc2">352</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">23.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Aristocratem</td> + <td class="tc2">352</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">21.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Midiam</td> + <td class="tc2">349</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">19.</td> + <td class="tc5a">On the Embassy</td> + <td class="tc2">343</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">18.</td> + <td class="tc5a">On the Crown</td> + <td class="tc2">330</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Spurious.</span></td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">58.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Theocrinem</td> + <td class="tc2">339</td> + <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">25, 26.</td> + <td class="tc5a" colspan="3">In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical forgeries).</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">B. In Private Causes.</span></td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Genuine.</span></td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">27, 28.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Aphobum I. et II.</td> + <td class="tc2">364</td> + <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or. </td> + <td class="tc2">30, 31.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Onetora I. et II.</td> + <td class="tc2">362</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">41.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Spudiam</td> + <td class="tc2">?</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">55.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Calliclem</td> + <td class="tc2">?</td> + <td class="tc1"> </td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">54.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Cononem</td> + <td class="tc2">356</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">36.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Pro Phormione</td> + <td class="tc2">352</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">39.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Boeotum de Nomine</td> + <td class="tc2">350</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc2" colspan="2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">37.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Pantaenetum</td> + <td class="tc2">346-5</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">38.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Nausimachum et Diopithem</td> + <td class="tc2">?</td> + <td class="tc1"> </td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6">SPURIOUS.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="center" colspan="6">(<i>The first eight of the following are given by Schäfer to Apollodorus.</i>)</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">52.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Callippum.</td> + <td class="tc2">369-8</td> + <td class="tc1">B.C.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">53.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Nicostratum</td> + <td class="tc2">after 368</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">49.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Timotheum</td> + <td class="tc2">362</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">50.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Polyclem</td> + <td class="tc2">357</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">47.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Evergum et Mnesibulum</td> + <td class="tc2">356</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">45, 46.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Stephanum I. et II.</td> + <td class="tc2">351</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">59.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Neaeram</td> + <td class="tc2">349[343-0, Blass]</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">51.</td> + <td class="tc5a">On the Trierarchic Crown by Cephisodotus?)</td> + <td class="tc2">360-359</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">43.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Macartatum</td> + <td class="tc2">?</td> + <td class="tc1"> </td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">48.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Olympiodorum.</td> + <td class="tc2">after 343</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">44.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Leocharem</td> + <td class="tc2">?</td> + <td class="tc1"> </td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">35.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Lacritum</td> + <td class="tc2">341</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">42.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Phaenippum</td> + <td class="tc2">?</td> + <td class="tc1"> </td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">32.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Zenothemin</td> + <td class="tc2">?</td> + <td class="tc1"> </td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">34.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Phormionem</td> + <td class="tc2">?</td> + <td class="tc1"> </td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">29.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Aphobum pro Phano</td> + <td class="tc2"> </td> + <td class="tc1"> </td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">40.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Boeotum de Dote</td> + <td class="tc2">347</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">57.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Eubulidem</td> + <td class="tc2">346-5</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(m)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">33.</td> + <td class="tc5a">Contra Apaturium</td> + <td class="tc2">?</td> + <td class="tc1"> </td> </tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc5">(a)</td> + <td class="tc2">Or.</td> + <td class="tc2">56.</td> + <td class="tc5a">In Dionysodorum</td> + <td class="tc2">not before 322-1</td> + <td class="tc1">"</td> </tr> + +</table></div> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>Or. 60 (<span class="grk" title="epitaphios">ἐπιτάφιος</span>) and Or. 61 (<span class="grk" title="erôtikos">ἐρωτικός</span>) are works of rhetoricians. +The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used by the +composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of Aeschines. +The 56 <span class="grk" title="prooimia">προοίμια</span>, exordia or sketches for political speeches, are by +various hands and of various dates.<a name="FnAnchor_5c" href="#Footnote_5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> They are valuable as being +compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from other classical models.</p> +</div> + +<p>The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared +only with the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous +appreciation, recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfection. +Dionysius, the closest and most penetrating of his ancient +critics, exhausts the language of admiration in showing how +Demosthenes united and elevated whatever had been best in +earlier masters of the Greek idiom. Hermogenes, in his works +<span class="sidenote">Literary history of Demosthenes.</span> +on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes as <span class="grk" title="ho rhêtôr">ὁ ῥήτωρ</span>, <i>the</i> +orator. The writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows +no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes +has risen. From his own younger contemporaries, +Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded their theory of rhetoric +in large part on his practice, down to the latest Byzantines, the +consent of theorists, orators, antiquarians, anthologists, lexicographers, +offered the same unvarying homage to Demosthenes. +His work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian, +Basilicus, Aelius, Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to his +speeches were drawn up by rhetoricians so distinguished as +Numenius and Libanius. Accomplished men of letters, such as +Julius Vestinus and Aelius Dionysius, selected from his writings +choice passages for declamation or perusal, of which fragments +are incorporated in the miscellany of Photius and the lexicons +of Harpocration, Pollux and Suidas. It might have been +anticipated that the purity of a text so widely read and so +renowned would, from the earliest times, have been guarded with +jealous care. The works of the three great dramatists had been +thus protected, about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension. +But no such good fortune befell the works of Demosthenes. +Alexandrian criticism was chiefly occupied with poetry. The +titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed, registered, with +those of the other orators, in the catalogues (<span class="grk" title="rhêtorikoi pinakes">ῥητορικοὶ πίνακες</span>) +of Alexandria and Pergamum. But no thorough attempt was +made to separate the authentic works from those spurious works +which had even then become mingled with them. Philosophical +schools which, like the Stoic, felt the ethical interest of Demosthenes, +cared little for his language. The rhetoricians who +imitated or analysed his style cared little for the criticism of his +text. Their treatment of it had, indeed, a direct tendency to +falsify it. It was customary to indicate by marks those passages +which were especially useful for study or imitation. It then +became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt or interweave such +passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes, wrote on +<span class="grk" title="metabolai kai metapoiêseis tôn Dêmosthenous chôriôn">μεταβολαὶ +καὶ μεταποιήσεις τῶν +Δημοσθένους χωρίων</span>, “adaptations +or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes.” Such +manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions +in the original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed +on the thought, sentiment and style of Demosthenes, comparatively +little care was bestowed on his subject-matter. He was +studied more on the moral and the formal side than on the real +side. An incorrect substitution of one name for another, a reading +which gave an impossible date, insertions of spurious laws or +decrees, were points which few readers would stop to notice. +Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demosthenes +were the most universally popular of the classical prose-writers, +the text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps +of all, was also the least pure. His more careful students at +length made an effort to arrest the process of corruption. +Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical recension, and called +<span class="grk" title="Attikiana (antigrapha)">Ἀττικιανά (ἀντίγραφα)</span>, came to be distinguished from the +vulgates, or <span class="grk" title="dêmôdeis ekdoseis">δημώδεις ἐκδόσεις</span>.</p> + +<p>Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes—upwards of +170 in number—one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This +is <i>Parisinus</i> Σ 2934, of the 10th century. A comparison +<span class="sidenote">Manuscripts.</span> +of this MS. with the extracts of Aelius, +Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third Philippic +favours the view that it is derived from an <span class="grk" title="Attikianon">Ἀττικιανόν</span>, whereas +the <span class="grk" title="dêmôdeis ekdoseis">δημώδεις ἐκδόσεις</span>, used by Hermogenes and by the +rhetoricians generally, have been the chief sources of our other +manuscripts. The collation of this manuscript by Immanuel +Bekker first placed the textual criticism of Demosthenes on a +sound footing. Not only is this manuscript nearly free from +interpolations, but it is the sole voucher for many excellent +readings. Among the other MSS., some of the most important +are—<i>Marcianus</i> 416 F, of the 10th (or 11th) century, the basis +of the Aldine edition; <i>Augustanus</i> I. (N 85), derived from the +last, and containing scholia to the speeches on the Crown and the +Embassy, by Ulpian, with some by a younger writer, who was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>16</span> +perhaps Moschopulus; <i>Parisinus</i> Υ; <i>Antverpiensis</i> Ω—the last +two comparatively free from additions. The fullest authority +on the MSS. is J. T. Vömel, <i>Notitia codicum Demosth</i>., and +Prolegomena Critica to his edition published at Halle (1856-1857), +pp. 175-178.<a name="FnAnchor_6c" href="#Footnote_6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p>The extant scholia on Demosthenes are for the most part poor. +Their staple consists of Byzantine erudition; and their value +depends chiefly on what they have preserved of older +<span class="sidenote">Scholia.</span> +criticism. They are better than usual for the <span class="grk" title="Peri stephanou, Kata Timokratous"> +Περὶ στεφάνου, Κατὰ Τιμοκράτους</span>; +best for the <span class="grk" title="Peri parapresbeias">Περὶ παραπρεσβείας</span>. +The Greek commentaries ascribed to Ulpian are especially +defective on the historical side, and give little essential aid. +Editions:—C. W. Müller, in <i>Orat. Att.</i> ii. (1847-1858); <i>Scholia +Graeca in Demosth. ex cod. aucta et emendata</i> (Oxon., 1851; in +W. Dindorf’s ed.).</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>Editio princeps</i> (Aldus, Venice, 1504); J. J. +Reiske (with notes of J. Wolf, J. Taylor, J. Markland, &c., 1770-1775); +revised edition of Reiske by G. H. Schäfer (1823-1826); +I. Bekker, in <i>Oratores Attici</i> (1823-1824), the first edition based on +codex Σ (see above); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and +H. Sauppe (1850); W. Dindorf (in Teubner series, 1867, 4th ed. by +F. Blass, 1885-1889); H. Omont, facsimile edition of codex Σ +(1892-1893); S. H. Butcher in Oxford <i>Scriptorum Classicorum +Bibliotheca</i> (1903 foll.); W. Dindorf (9 vols., Oxford, 1846-1851), +with notes of previous commentators and Greek scholia; R. Whiston +(political speeches) with introductions and notes (1859-1868). For +a select list of the numerous English and foreign editions and translations +of separate speeches see J. B. Mayor, <i>Guide to the Choice of +Classical Books</i> (1885, suppt. 1896). Mention may here be made of +<i>De corona</i> by W. W. Goodwin (1901, ed. min., 1904); W. H. Simcox +(1873, with Aeschines <i>In Ctesiphontem</i>); and P. E. Matheson +(1899); <i>Leptines</i> by J. E. Sandys (1890); <i>De falsa legatione</i> by +R. Shilleto (4th ed., 1874); <i>Select Private Orations</i> by J. E. Sandys and +F. A. Paley (3rd ed., 1898, 1896); <i>Midias</i> by W. W. Goodwin (1906). +C. R. Kennedy’s complete translation is a model of scholarly finish, +and the appendices on Attic law, &c., are of great value. There are +indices to Demosthenes by J. Reiske (ed. G. H. Schäfer, 1823); +S. Preuss (1892). Among recent papyrus finds are fragments of a +special lexicon to the <i>Aristocratea</i> and a commentary by Didymus +(ed. H. Diels and W. Schubart, 1904). Illustrative literature: A. D. +Schäfer, <i>Demosthenes und seine Zeit</i> (2nd ed., 1885-1887), a masterly +and exhaustive historical work; F. Blass, <i>Die attische Beredsamkeit</i> +(1887-1898); W. J. Brodribb, “Demosthenes” in <i>Ancient Classics +for English Readers</i> (1877); S. H. Butcher, <i>Introduction to the Study +of Demosthenes</i> (1881); C. G. Böhnecke, <i>Demosthenes, Lykurgos, +Hyperides, und ihr Zeitalter</i> (1864); A. Bouillé, <i>Histoire de Démosthène</i> +(2nd ed., 1868); J. Girard, <i>Études sur l’éloquence attique</i> (1874); +M. Croiset, <i>Des idées morales dans l’Éloquence politique de Démosthène</i> +(1874); A. Hug, <i>Demosthenes als politischer Denker</i> (1881); +L. Brédit, <i>L’Éloquence politique en Grèce</i> (2nd ed., 1886); A. Bougot, +<i>Rivalité d’Eschine et Démosthène</i> (1891). For fuller bibliographical +information consult R. Nicolai, <i>Griechische Literaturgeschichte</i> +(1881); W. Engelmann, <i>Scriptores Graeci</i> (1881); G. Hüttner in +C. Bursian’s <i>Jahresbericht</i>, li. (1889).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. C. J.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Jebb’s <i>Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos</i>, vol. ii. p. 267 f.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2c" href="#FnAnchor_2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest; but +the question of the order of the First and Second has been much +discussed. See Grote (<i>History of Greece</i>, chap. 88, appendix), who +prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, <i>Die attische Beredsamkeit</i>, +iii. p. 319.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3c" href="#FnAnchor_3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The dates agree in the main with those given by A. D. Schäfer +in <i>Demosthenes und seine Zeit</i> (2nd ed., 1885-1887), and by F. Blass +in <i>Die attische Beredsamkeit</i> (1887-1898), who regards thirty-three +(or possibly thirty-five) of the speeches as genuine.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4c" href="#FnAnchor_4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Or. 11 and 12 are probably both by Anaximenes of Lampsacus.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5c" href="#FnAnchor_5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> According to Blass, the second and third epistles and the <i>exordia</i> +are genuine.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6c" href="#FnAnchor_6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See also H. Usener in <i>Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft der +Wissenschaften zu Göttingen</i>, p. 188 (1892); J. H. Lipsius, “Zur Textcritik +des Demosthenes” in <i>Berichte ... der Königl. Sächsischen +Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften</i> (1893) with special reference to the +papyrus finds at the end of the 19th century; E. Bethe, <i>Demosthenis +scriptorum corpus</i> (1893).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMOTIC</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dêmotikos">δημοτικός</span>, of or belonging to the people), a +term, meaning popular, specially applied to that cursive script +of the ancient Egyptian language used for business and literary +purposes,—for the people. It is opposed to “hieratic” (Gr. +<span class="grk" title="hieratikos">ἱερατικός</span>, of or belonging to the priests), the script, an abridged +form of the hieroglyphic, used in transcribing the religious texts. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writing</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: II., <i>Ancient</i>, D. <i>Language and Writing.</i>)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMOTICA,</span> or <span class="sc">Dimotica</span>, a town of European Turkey, in the +vilayet of Adrianople; on the Maritza valley branch of the +Constantinople-Salonica railway, about 35 m. S. of Adrianople. +Pop. (1905) about 10,000. Demotica is built at the foot of a +conical hill on the left bank of the river Kizildeli, near its junction +with the Maritza. It was formerly the seat of a Greek archbishop, +and besides the ancient citadel and palace on the summit +of the hill contains several Greek churches, mosques and public +baths. In the middle ages, when it was named Didymotichos, +it was one of the principal marts of Thrace; in modern times +it has regained something of its commercial importance, and +exports pottery, linen, silk and grain. These goods are sent +to Dédéagatch for shipment. Demotica was the birthplace of the +Turkish sultan Bayezid I. (1347); after the battle of Poltava, +Charles XII. of Sweden resided here from February 1713 to +October 1714.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMPSTER, THOMAS</span> (1579-1625), Scottish scholar and +historian, was born at Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, the son of +Thomas Dempster of Muresk, Auchterless and Killesmont, +sheriff of Banff and Buchan. According to his own account, +he was the twenty-fourth of twenty-nine children, and was early +remarkable for precocious talent. He obtained his early education +in Aberdeenshire, and at ten entered Pembroke Hall, +Cambridge; after a short while he went to Paris, and, driven +thence by the plague, to Louvain, whence by order of the pope +he was transferred with several other Scottish students to the +papal seminary at Rome. Being soon forced by ill health to +leave, he went to the English college at Douai, where he remained +three years and took his M.A. degree. While at Douai he wrote +a scurrilous attack on Queen Elizabeth, which caused a riot +among the English students. But, if his truculent character +was thus early displayed, his abilities were no less conspicuous; +and, though still in his teens, he became lecturer on the +Humanities at Tournai, whence, after but a short stay, he returned +to Paris, to take his degree of doctor of canon law, and become +regent of the college of Navarre. He soon left Paris for Toulouse, +which in turn he was forced to leave owing to the hostility of the +city authorities, aroused by his violent assertion of university +rights. He was now elected professor of eloquence at the +university or academy of Nîmes, but not without a murderous +attack upon him by one of the defeated candidates and his +supporters, followed by a suit for libel, which, though he ultimately +won his case, forced him to leave the town. A short +engagement in Spain, as tutor to the son of Marshal de Saint Luc, +was terminated by another quarrel; and Dempster now returned +to Scotland with the intention of asserting a claim to his father’s +estates. Finding his relatives unsympathetic, and falling into +heated controversy with the Presbyterian clergy, he made no +long stay, but returned to Paris, where he remained for seven +years, becoming professor in several colleges successively. At +last, however, his temporary connexion with the collège de +Beauvais was ended by a feat of arms which proved him as stout +a fighter with his sword as with his pen; and, since his victory +was won over officers of the king’s guard, it again became +expedient for him to change his place of residence. The dedication +of his edition of Rosinus’ <i>Antiquitatum Romanorum corpus +absolutissimum</i> to King James I. had won him an invitation +to the English court; and in 1615 he went to London. His +reception by the king was flattering enough; but his hopes of +preferment were dashed by the opposition of the Anglican clergy +to the promotion of a papist. He left for Rome, where, after a +short imprisonment on suspicion of being a spy, he gained the +favour of Pope Paul V., through whose influence with Cosimo II., +grand duke of Tuscany, he was appointed to the professorship of +the Pandects at Pisa. He had married while in London, but ere +long had reason to suspect his wife’s relations with a certain +Englishman. Violent accusations followed, indignantly repudiated; +a diplomatic correspondence ensued, and a demand was +made, and supported by the grand duke, for an apology, which +the professor refused to make, preferring rather to lose his chair. +He now set out once more for Scotland, but was intercepted by +the Florentine cardinal Luigi Capponi, who induced him to +remain at Bologna as professor of Humanity. This was the most +distinguished post in the most famous of continental universities, +and Dempster was now at the height of his fame. Though his +<i>Roman Antiquities</i> and <i>Scotia illustrior</i> had been placed on the +Index pending correction, Pope Urban VIII. made him a knight +and gave him a pension. He was not, however, to enjoy his +honours long. His wife eloped with a student, and Dempster, +pursuing the fugitives in the heat of summer, caught a fever, and +died at Bologna on the 6th of September 1625.</p> + +<p>Dempster owed his great position in the history of scholarship +to his extraordinary memory, and to the versatility which made +him equally at home in philology, criticism, law, biography and +history. His style is, however, often barbarous; and the obvious +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>17</span> +defects of his works are due to his restlessness and impetuosity, +and to a patriotic and personal vanity which led him in Scottish +questions into absurd exaggerations, and in matters affecting +his own life into an incurable habit of romancing. The best +known of his works is the <i>Historia ecclesiastica gentis Scotorum</i> +(Bologna, 1627). In this book he tries to prove that Bernard +(Sapiens), Alcuin, Boniface and Joannes Scotus Erigena were +all Scots, and even Boadicea becomes a Scottish author. This +criticism is not applicable to his works on antiquarian subjects, +and his edition of Benedetto Accolti’s <i>De bello a Christianis +contra barbaros</i> (1623) has great merits.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>A portion of his Latin verse is printed in the first volume (pp. 306-354) +of <i>Delitiae poëtarum Scotorum</i> (Amsterdam, 1637).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMURRAGE</span> (from “demur,” Fr. <i>demeurer</i>, to delay, +derived from Lat. <i>mora</i>), in the law of merchant shipping, the +sum payable by the freighter to the shipowner for detention of +the vessel in port beyond the number of days allowed for the +purpose of loading or unloading (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Affreightment: under +<i>Charter-parties</i></a></span>). The word is also used in railway law for the +charge on detention of trucks; and in banking for the charge +per ounce made by the Bank of England in exchanging coin +or notes for bullion.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEMURRER</span> (from Fr. <i>demeurer</i>, to delay, Lat. <i>morari</i>), in +English law, an objection taken to the sufficiency, in point of +law, of the pleading or written statement of the other side. In +equity pleading a demurrer lay only against the bill, and not +against the answer; at common law any part of the pleading +could be demurred to. On the passing of the Judicature Act +of 1875 the procedure with respect to demurrers in civil cases +was amended, and, subsequently, by the Rules of the Supreme +Court, Order XXV. demurrers were abolished and a more +summary process for getting rid of pleadings which showed +no reasonable cause of action or defence was adopted, called +proceedings in lieu of demurrer. Demurrer in criminal cases +still exists, but is now seldom resorted to. Demurrers are still +in constant use in the United States. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Answer</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pleading</a></span>.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENAIN,</span> a town of northern France in the department of +Nord, 8 m. S.W. of Valenciennes by steam tramway. A mere +village in the beginning of the 19th century, it rapidly increased +from 1850 onwards, and, according to the census of 1906, possessed +22,845 inhabitants, mainly engaged in the coal mines and iron-smelting +works, to which it owes its development. There are +also breweries, manufactories of machinery, sugar and glass. +A school of commerce and industry is among the institutions. +Denain has a port on the left bank of the Scheldt canal. Its +vicinity was the scene of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by +Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by Prince Eugène; +and the battlefield is marked by a monolithic monument +inscribed with the verses of Voltaire:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> +<p class="ind03">“Regardez dans Denain l’audacieux Villars</p> +<p>Disputant le tonnerre à l’aigle des Césars.”</p> +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENBIGH, WILLIAM FEILDING,</span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (d. 1643), son +of Basil Feilding<a name="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire, and +of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Walter Aston, was educated +at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and knighted in 1603. He +married Susan, daughter of Sir George Villiers, sister of the +future duke of Buckingham, and on the rise of the favourite +received various offices and dignities. He was appointed <i>custos +rotulorum</i> of Warwickshire, and master of the great wardrobe +in 1622, and created baron and viscount Feilding in 1620, and +earl of Denbigh on the 14th of September 1622. He attended +Prince Charles on the Spanish adventure, served as admiral in +the unsuccessful expedition to Cadiz in 1625, and commanded the +disastrous attempt upon Rochelle in 1628, becoming the same +year a member of the council of war, and in 1633 a member of the +council of Wales. In 1631 Lord Denbigh visited the East. On +the outbreak of the Civil War he served under Prince Rupert +and was present at Edgehill. On the 3rd of April 1643 during +Rupert’s attack on Birmingham he was wounded and died from +the effects on the 8th, being buried at Monks Kirby in Warwickshire. +His courage, unselfishness and devotion to duty are much +praised by Clarendon.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See E. Lodge, <i>Portraits</i> (1850), iv. 113; J. Nichols, <i>Hist. of +Leicestershire</i> (1807), iv. pt. 1, 273; Hist. MSS. <i>Comm Ser.</i> 4th Rep. +app. 254; <i>Cal. of State Papers, Dom.; Studies in Peerage and Family +History</i>, by J. H. Round (1901), 216.</p> +</div> + +<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Basil Feilding</span>, 2nd earl of Denbigh (c. 1608-1675), +was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was +summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Feilding in March +1629. After seeing military service in the Netherlands he was +sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to Venice, where he +remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out Feilding, +unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among +the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and, +having become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made commander-in-chief +of the Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and +the neighbouring counties, and lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire. +During the year 1644 he was fairly active in the field, but in some +quarters he was distrusted and he resigned his command after +the passing of the self-denying ordinance in April 1645. At +Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners appointed +to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at +Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge +Denbigh declared privately that he regretted the position in +which he found himself, and expressed his willingness to serve +Charles I. He supported the army in its dispute with the +parliament, but he would take no part in the trial of Charles I. +Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a +member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former +associates grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded +as a royalist. In 1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz. +Although four times married he left no issue when he died on the +28th of November 1675.</p> + +<p>His titles devolved on his nephew <span class="sc">William Feilding</span> (1640-1685), +son and heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding +of Lecaghe, Viscount Callan and earl of Desmond), and the +earldom of Desmond has been held by his descendants to the +present day in conjunction with the earldom of Denbigh.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The descent of the Feildings from the house of Habsburg, through +the counts of Laufenburg and Rheinfelden, long considered authentic, +and immortalized by Gibbon, has been proved to have been based on +forged documents. See J. H. Round, <i>Peerage and Family History</i> +(1901).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENBIGH</span> (<i>Dinbych</i>), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin +and Wrexham) contributory parliamentary borough, market +town and county town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches +of the London & North Western and the Great Western railways. +Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle, surrounding the hill with a +double wall, was built, in Edward I.’s reign, by Henry de Lacy, +earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received its first charter. +The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main gateway is a +niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but more +probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton +Moor, Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the +Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor. +The chief buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating +perhaps from the 13th century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a +free grammar school (1527); an orphan girl school (funds left by +Thomas Howel to the Drapers’ Co., in Henry VII.’s reign); +the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, +enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church (begun +by Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or “rows,” such as +those of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of +St Marcella. The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and +Elwy. The inhabitants of Denbigh are chiefly occupied in +the timber trade, butter-making, poultry-farming, bootmaking, +tanning and quarrying (lime, slate and paving-stones). The +borough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the peace, but +no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been +known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper, +<i>Baner</i>, being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at +Bodelwyddan, &c., coal is worked.</p> + +<p>The old British tower and castle were called <i>Castell caled +fryn yn Rhôs</i>, the “castle of the hard hill in Rhôs.” <i>Din</i> in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"></a>18</span> +<i>Dinbych</i> means a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle. +Historically, David (<i>Dafydd</i>), brother of the last Llewelyn, was +here (<i>aet.</i> Edward I.) perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who +built the castle (<i>aet.</i> Edward I.), given to the Mortimers and to +Leicester (under Edward III. and Elizabeth, respectively).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENBIGHSHIRE</span> (<i>Dinbych</i>), a county of N. Wales, bounded +N. by the Irish Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint +and Shropshire, S. by Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by +Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the N. coast, within the +Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and Llandulas, +is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a change +in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is +partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The +surface of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified. +In the N.W. are the bleak Hiraethog (“longing”) hills, sloping W. +to the Conwy and E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and +Abergele bays, on the S. the Yspytty (Lat. <i>Hospitium</i>) and +Llangwm range, between Denbigh and Merioneth. From this +watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr and Alwen, +tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (<i>Dyfrdwy</i>). Some of +the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those +of the Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon +(<i>Rhiwabon</i>) hills and the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals; +the Berwyn to Offa’s Dyke (<i>Wâl Offa</i>) is wild and barren, +except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and Ceiriog. One feeder of +the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout fall), another +rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry bare-hill), +the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both lakes +and streams.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>-The geology of the county is full of interest, as it +develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the +Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which +extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo +formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of +shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive +felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just +within the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y-coed +and in the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the +limestone fringe at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian +covers the entire mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but +verging on its western slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may +be traced southward in a continuous line from the mouth of the +Conway as far as Llanddewi Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near +Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are abundantly fossiliferous. On its +eastern slope a narrow broken band of the Old Red, or what may be +a conglomeratic basement bed of the Carboniferous Limestone series, +crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this +the Carboniferous Limestone extends from Llanymynach, its extreme +southern point, to the Cyrnybrain fault, and there forks into two +divisions that terminate respectively in the Great Orme’s Head and +in Talargoch, and are separated from each other by the denuded +shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale of Clwyd the limestone +underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the eastern division it is +itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of Ruabon and Minera, and by +a long reach of the Coal Measures which near Wrexham are 4½ m. +in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of the red marly beds +succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but now regarded as +belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between this and the +Dee the ground is occupied—as in the Vale of Clwyd—by the New +Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the whole +of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with glacial drift. +On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and Plâs Heaton, +the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone districts, +have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, hippopotamus +and other extinct mammals.</p> + +<p>Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone +below, lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable +fireclays and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures +about Wrexham.</p> +</div> + +<p>The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and +black cattle are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England +and sale in London. Oats and turnips, rather than wheat, +barley and potatoes, occupy the tilled land. The county is +fairly wooded. There are several important farmers’ clubs (the +Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the Cerrig y +druidion, &c.). The London & North-Western railway (Holyhead +line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together +with the lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon), +via Ruthin and Corwen, Wrexham with Connah’s Quay (Great +Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great +Western and Great Central railways) have opened up the county. +Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the Holyhead road from +London, well built and passing through fine scenery. At Nantglyn +paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen) slabs and +slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog. There +is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn +Rhiwabon yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit. +Chirk, Ruabon and Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera +is the principal lead mine. There is much brick and pottery clay. +The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite factory. Llangollen and +Llansantffraid (St Bridgit’s) have woollen manufactures.</p> + +<p>The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a population +in 1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county +is 426,084 acres. The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining +centre and N. Wales military centre, with a fine church; +Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held (here are a grammar +school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt); Llangollen +and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The +Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of: +Denbigh (pop. 6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham +(14,966). The county has two parliamentary divisions. The +urban districts are: Abergele and Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay +and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and Llanrwst (2645). +Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being held +at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate +commissions of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts. +The ancient county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains +seventy-five ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a +parish.</p> + +<p>The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the +lordships of Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog, +which are roughly the Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway +and Clwyd, and the lordships of Bromfield, Yale (<i>Iâl</i>, open land) +and Chirkland, the old possessions of Gruffydd ap Madoc, +<i>arglwydd</i> (lord) of Dinas Brân. Cefn (Elwy Valley) limestone +caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros, +lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c.; Plâs Heaton cave, the glutton; +Pont Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that +of Rhosdigre); Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, “platycnemic +(skeleton) men of Denbighshire” (like those of Perthi Chwareu). +Clawdd Coch has traces of the Romans; so also Penygaer +and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva (Chester) to +Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Heriri (<i>Tomen +y mur</i>). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and +Pentrefoelas (near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis +“Eliseg’s pillar” tells of Brochmael and the Cairlegion (Chester) +struggle against Æthelfrith’s invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613, +while Offa’s dike goes back to the Mercian advance. Near +and parallel to Offa’s is the shorter and mysterious Watt’s +dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle comparatively +untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has cloisters; +Wrexham, the Brynffynnon “nunnery”; and at both are +collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast +rood lofts and screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait +brasses and monuments; Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford +and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd), stained glass. Near Abergele, +known for its sea baths, is the <i>ogof</i> (or cave), traditionally the +refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his capture by Bolingbroke +in 1399.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See J. Williams, <i>Denbigh</i> (1856), and T. F. Tout, <i>Welsh Shires</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENDERA,</span> a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle +of the great westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here +was the ancient city of Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the +sixth of Upper Egypt, and the principal seat of the worship of +Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess of love and joy. The old +Egyptian name of Tentyra was written ’In·t (Ant), but the pronunciation +of it is unknown: in later days it was ’In·t-t-ntr·t, +“ant of the goddess,” pronounced Ni-tentôri, whence <span class="grk" title="Tentyra, Tentyris">Τέντυρα, Τέντυρις</span>. +The temple of Hathor was built in the 1st century B.C., +being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and finished +by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19"></a>19</span> +rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850 +ft., contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone +gateways, in the north and the east sides, built by Domitian. +Another smaller enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also +of the Roman period.</p> + +<p>The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a +colonnaded court in front of the present façade, and pylon towers +at the entrance; but these were never built, probably for lack +of funds. The building, which is of sandstone, measures about +300 ft. from front to back, and consists of two oblong rectangles; +the foremost, placed transversely to the other, is the great +hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and loftiest part of the +temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising about one-third +of the whole structure; the façade has six columns with +heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great +columns. The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall +with six columns, and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary +chambers. The sanctuary is surrounded by a corridor into which +the chambers open: on the west side is an apartment forming a +court and kiosk for the celebration of the feast of the New +Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of the +temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several +chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out, +the whole of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions +in crowded characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the +decoration is even carried into a remarkable series of hidden +passages and chambers or crypts made in the solid walls for the +reception of its most valuable treasures. The architectural style +is dignified and pleasing in design and proportions. The interior +of the building has been completely cleared: from the outside, +however, its imposing effect is quite lost, owing to the mounds +of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of the entrance +is a “Birth House” for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and +behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign +of Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date +back to a remote time: the work of some of the early builders +is in fact referred to in the inscriptions on the present structure. +Petrie’s excavation of the cemetery behind the temple enclosures +revealed burials dating from the fourth dynasty onwards, the +most important being mastables of the period from the sixth +to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited a peculiar +degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture.</p> + +<p>The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a considerable +literature before their late origin was established by +Champollion in 1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof, +was removed in 1820 to the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. +Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra VI. occur amongst the +sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they are purely +conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu, +the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears +sometimes as the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill +displayed by the Tentyrites in capturing the crocodile is referred +to by Strabo and other Greek writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth +satire, takes as his text a religious riot between the Tentyrites +and the neighbouring Ombites, in the course of which an unlucky +Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by the opposite party. +The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south of Edfu, +where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that +opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was +another Ombos, venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See A. Mariette, <i>Dendérah</i> (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880); +W. M. F. Petrie, <i>Denderah</i> (1900); <i>Nagada</i> and <i>Ballas</i> (1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(<span class="sc">F. Ll. G.</span>)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENDROCOMETES</span> (so named by F. Stein), a genus of +suctorian Infusoria, characterized by the repeatedly branched +attached body; each of the lobes of the body gives off a few +retractile tentacles. It is parasitic on the gills of the so-called +freshwater shrimp <i>Gammarus pulex</i>.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>For its conjugation see Sydney H. Hickson, in <i>Quarterly Journ. of +Microsc. Science</i>, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENE-HOLES,</span> the name given to certain caves or excavations +in England, which have been popularly supposed to be due to the +Danes or some other of the early northern invaders of the country. +The common spelling “Dane hole” is adduced as evidence of +this, and individual names, such as Vortigern’s Caves at Margate, +and Canute’s Gold Mine near Bexley, naturally follow the same +theory. The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo-Saxon +<i>den</i>, a hole or valley. There are many underground +excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent +in the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found +chiefly in those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks +of the Thames. With one exception there are no recorded +specimens farther east than those of the Grays Thurrock district, +situated in Hangman’s Wood, on the north, and one near +Rochester on the south side of the river.</p> + +<p>The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably +the same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter +falling, on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated, +obviously, by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but, +although chalk could have been obtained close at hand within +a few feet, or even inches, from the surface, a depth of from +45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic feature. It is believed +that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but as these would +be of a perishable nature there are no available data of any +value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a +domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls +frequently contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule +there is only one chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath +each shaft. From this excessive height it has been inferred that +the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even +hiding-places. In some cases the chamber is extended, the roof +being supported by pillars of chalk left standing. A rare specimen +of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend. In this case +the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate +aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries +are found connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering +labyrinth, a careful scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence +that they are the work of a people of a much later period than +that of the chambers, or, as they become in these cases, the +halls of the galleries.</p> + +<p>Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of +Kent and Essex, but the most important groups have been found +at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey Wood +and Bexley, and at Gravesend. Those at Bexley and Grays +Thurrock are the most valuable still existing.</p> + +<p>It is generally found that the tool work on the roof or ceiling +is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position +could be maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes +near the roof show that, in all probability, they were made +by bone or horn picks. And numerous bone picks have been +discovered in Essex and Kent. These pick-holes are amongst +the most valuable data for the study of dene-holes, and have +assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-Roman +times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been discovered +in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing the +date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations. +Pliny mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, “where +they branched out like the veins of mines.” This has been used +in support of the theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the +extraction of chalk; but no known dene-hole branches out in this +way. Chrétien de Troyes has a passage on underground caves in +Britain which may have reference to dene-holes, and tradition of +the 14th century treated the dene-holes of Grays as the fabled +gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the 1st century.</p> + +<p>Vortigern’s Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which +have been adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and +excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different +parts of the walls.</p> + +<p>Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to +the smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was +common not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the +river as Barking Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these +ready-made hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous +to descend, were so utilized.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page20"></a>20</span> +There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been +originally excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw-wells +for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) storehouses +for grain. For several reasons it is unlikely that they were +used as habitations, although they may have been used occasionally +as hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is +equally improbable that they were used for the extraction of +chalk. The chief reasons against this theory are that chalk +could have been obtained outcropping close by, and that every +trace of loose chalk has been removed from the vicinity of the +holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not descend +to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about +14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still +further. The last of the three possible uses for which these +prehistoric excavations were designed is usually accepted as +the most probable. Silos, or underground storehouses, are well +known in the south of Europe and Morocco. It is supposed that +the grain was stored in the ear and carefully protected from +damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the +chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been put +forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One +other theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were +made in order to get flints for implements, but this is quite +impossible, as a careful examination of a few examples will show.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>Further reference may be made to <i>Essex Dene-holes</i> by T. V. Holmes +and W. Cole; to <i>The Archaeological Journal</i> (1882); the <i>Transactions</i> +of the Essex Field Club; <i>Archaeologia Cantiana</i>, &c.; <i>Dene-holes</i> +by F. W. Reader, in <i>Old Essex</i>, ed. A. C. Kelway (1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. P.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENGUE</span> (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring +in warm climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever, +accompanied by rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with +severe headache and erythema. After a few days a crisis is +reached and an interval of two or three days is followed by a +slighter return of fever and pain and an eruption resembling +measles, the most marked characteristic of the disease. The +disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of extreme +weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is +known of the aetiology of “dengue.” The virus is probably +similar to that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated +by an intermediary culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic, +though at intervals it appears to be pandemic and in certain +districts almost endemic. The area over which the disease ranges +may be stated generally to be between 32° 47′ N. and 23° 23′ S. +Throughout this area “dengue” is constantly epidemic. The +earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in 1779-1780 +in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have +been those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and +the southern states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending +practically over the whole of the tropical portions of the East and +reaching as far as China. In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak +spread along the shores of the Aegean and over nearly the whole +of Asia Minor. Perhaps “dengue” is most nearly endemic in +equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has +usually been identified with the Spanish <i>dengue</i>, meaning stiff or +prim behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suitable +to the curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the +disease, similar to the name “dandy-fever” which was given to +it by the negroes. According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> +(quoting Dr Christie in <i>The Glasgow Medical Journal</i>, September +1881), both “dengue” and “dandy” are corruptions of the +Swahili word <i>dinga</i> or <i>denga</i>, meaning a sudden attack of cramp, +the Swahili name for the disease being <i>ka-dinga pepo</i>.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See Sir Patrick Manson, <i>Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases +of Warm Climates</i> (1903).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENHAM, DIXON</span> (1786-1828), English traveller in West +Central Africa, was born in London on the 1st of January 1786. +He was educated at Merchant Taylors’ School, and was articled +to a solicitor, but joined the army in 1811. First in the 23rd +Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the 54th foot, he served +in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and Belgium, and +received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join +Dr Oudney and <a href="#artlinks">Hugh Clapperton</a> (q.v.), who had been sent by the +British government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined +the expedition at Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised +escort not forthcoming, Denham, whose energy was boundless, +started for England to complain of the “duplicity” of the pasha +of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers after him with +promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached +Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and +Murzuk was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition +made its way across the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February +1823. Here Denham, against the wish of Oudney and Clapperton, +accompanied a slave-raiding expedition into the Mandara highlands +south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated, and Denham +barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set +out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained +behind. He explored the western, south and south-eastern +shores of Lake Chad, and the lower courses of the rivers Waube, +Logone and Shari. In August 1824, Clapperton having returned +and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the return journey +to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted +lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of +liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra +Leone, but after administering the colony for five weeks died of +fever at Freetown on the 8th of May 1828.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See <i>Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central +Africa in the years 1822-1824</i> (London, 1826), the greater part of +which is written by Denham; <i>The Story of Africa</i>, vol. i. chap. xiii. +(London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENHAM, SIR JOHN</span> (1615-1669), English poet, only son of +Sir John Denham (1559-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer +in Ireland, was born in Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father +became baron of the exchequer in England, and removed to +London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631 the future +poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, +Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln’s Inn, where he was, says +John Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit. +The reputation he had gained at Oxford of being the “dreamingest +young fellow” gave way to a scandalous reputation for +gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton, and seems to have +lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he wrote his +paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656 +as <i>The Destruction of Troy</i>, with an excellent verse essay on the +art of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract +against gambling, <i>The Anatomy of Play</i> (printed 1651), designed +to assure his father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into +his fortune he squandered it at play. It was a surprise to everyone +when in 1642 he suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, “broke +out like the Irish rebellion, three score thousand strong, when no +one was aware, nor in the least expected it,” by publishing <i>The +Sophy</i>, a tragedy in five acts, the subject of which was drawn +from Sir Thomas Herbert’s travels. At the beginning of the Civil +War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was appointed +governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and +speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent +as a prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king +at Oxford.</p> + +<p>In 1642 appeared <i>Cooper’s Hill</i>, a poem describing the Thames +scenery round his home at Egham. The first edition was +anonymous: subsequent editions show numerous alterations, +and the poem did not assume its final form until 1655. This +famous piece, which was Pope’s model for his <i>Windsor Forest</i>, was +not new in theme or manner, but the praise which it received was +well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham expressed +his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the +taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor, +but these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not +of the nature of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote +many squibs against the roundheads. One of the few serious +pieces belonging to this period is the short poem “On the Earl +of Strafford’s Trial and Death.”</p> + +<p>From this time Denham was much in Charles I.’s confidence. +He was entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and +from the king when he was in the custody of the parliament, a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>21</span> +duty which he discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but +in 1648 he was suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and +thought it wiser to cross the Channel. He helped in the removal +of the young duke of York to Holland, and for some time he +served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris, being entrusted by her +with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent to Poland in +company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II. They +succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled +court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite +without resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of +Pembroke at Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham +should restrict himself to some place of residence to be selected +by himself at a distance of not less than 20 m. from London; +subsequently he obtained from the Protector a licence to live at +Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport to travel abroad with +the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham’s services +were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His +qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe +to regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence +and peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal “Panegyric +upon Sir John Denham’s Recovery from his Madness.” He +eventually secured the services of Christopher Wren as deputy-surveyor. +In 1660 he was also made a knight of the Bath.</p> + +<p>In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret, +daughter of Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de +Gramont, a beautiful girl of eighteen. She soon became known +as the mistress of the duke of York, and the scandal, according +to common report, shattered the poet’s reason. While Denham +was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was said, by a cup of +chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the crime, +but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was +that Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however, +was found in the examination after Lady Denham’s death. +Denham survived her for two years, dying at his house near +Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on the 23rd in Westminster +Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote the bitter +political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War entitled +“Directions to a Painter,” and “Fresh Directions,” continuing +Edmund Waller’s “Instructions to a Painter.” The printer of +these poems, with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell, +was sentenced to stand in the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his +beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>Denham’s poems include, beside those already given, a verse +paraphrase of Cicero’s <i>Cato major</i>, and a metrical version of the +Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly +praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called <i>Cooper’s Hill</i> +“the exact standard of good writing,” and Pope in his <i>Windsor +Forest</i> called him “majestic Denham.” His collected poems with a +dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions +followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers’ (1810) and other collections +of the English poets. His political satires were printed with +some of Rochester’s and Marvell’s in <i>Bibliotheca curiosa</i>, vol. i. +(Edinburgh, 1885).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DÉNIA,</span> a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante; +on the Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Carcagente. +Pop. (1900) 12,431. Dénia occupies the seaward slopes +of a hill surmounted by a ruined castle, and divided by a narrow +valley on the south from the limestone ridge of Mongó (2500 ft.), +which commands a magnificent view of the Balearic Islands and +the Valencian coast. The older houses of Dénia are characterized +by their flat Moorish roofs (<i>azoteas</i>) and view-turrets (<i>miradores</i>), +while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are also visible near the +harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of local commerce, +many of the older quarters were modernized at the +beginning of the 20th century. Nails, and woollen, linen and +esparto grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a +brisk export trade in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned +to Great Britain or the United States. Baltic timber and +British coal are largely imported. The harbour bay, which is +well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater, contains only a small +space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand on three sides. +In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons; about +half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying +agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports.</p> + +<p>Dénia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae +(Ampurias in Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early +date; but its Greek name of <i>Hemeroskopeion</i> was soon superseded +by the Roman <i>Dianium</i>. In the 1st century B.C., Sertorius +made it the naval headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and, +as its name implies, it was already famous for its temple of Diana, +built in imitation of that at Ephesus. The site of this temple can +be traced at the foot of the castle hill. Dénia was captured by +the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253 belonged successively to +the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia. According to an +ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose at this +period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased. +After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its prosperity +dwindled away, and only began to revive in the 19th +century. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), +Dénia was thrice besieged; and in 1813 the citadel was held for +five months by the French against the allied British and Spanish +forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100 men, and compelled +to surrender, on honourable terms.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENIKER, JOSEPH</span> (1852-<span class="spc"> </span>) French naturalist and +anthropologist, was born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia, +on the 6th of March 1852. After receiving his education at the +university and technical institute of St Petersburg, he adopted +engineering as a profession, and in this capacity travelled extensively +in the petroleum districts of the Caucasus, in Central +Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in 1876, he +studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural +science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural +History Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological +works mention may be made of <i>Recherches anatomiques et embryologiques +sur les singes anthropoides</i> (1886); <i>Étude sur les Kalmouks</i> +(1883); <i>Les Ghiliaks</i> (1883); and <i>Races et peuples de la +terre</i> (1900). He became one of the chief editors of the <i>Dictionnaire +de géographie universelle</i>, and published many papers in the +anthropological and zoological journals of France.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENILIQUIN,</span> a municipal town of Townsend county, New +South Wales, Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m. +by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of +the town is chiefly connected with the interests of the sheep +and cattle farmers of the Riverina district, a plain country, in +the main pastoral, but suited in some parts for cultivation. +Deniliquin has a well-known public school.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENIM</span> (an abbreviation of <i>serge de Nîmes</i>), the name originally +given to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled +cloth made in various colours, usually of cotton, and used for +overalls, &c.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA</span> (1731-1813), Italian +historian, was born at Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was +educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In 1753 he was appointed to the +chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was soon compelled by the +influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In 1756 he graduated +as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a theological +treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and rhetoric +in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his <i>Delle revoluzioni +d’Italia</i>, the work on which his reputation is mainly +founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its +successive volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied +his foes and stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the +Great’s invitation, he went to Berlin, where he remained for many +years, in the course of which he published his <i>Vie et règne de +Frédéric II</i> (Berlin, 1788) and <i>La Prusse littéraire sous Frédéric +II</i> (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791). His <i>Delle revoluzioni della +Germania</i> was published at Florence in 1804, in which year he +went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the invitation of +Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1805 his <i>Tableau de la Haute +Italie, et des Alpes qui l’entourent</i>. He died there on the 5th of +December 1813.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENIS</span> (<span class="sc">Dionysius</span>), <span class="bold">SAINT,</span> first bishop of Paris, patron saint +of France. According to Gregory of Tours (<i>Hist. Franc.</i> i. 30), +he was sent into Gaul at the time of the emperor Decius. He +suffered martyrdom at the village of Catulliacus, the modern St +Denis. His tomb was situated by the side of the Roman road, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22"></a>22</span> +where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l’Estrée, which existed +until the 18th century. In the 5th century the clergy of the +diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625 +Dagobert, son of Lothair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at +some distance from the basilica, the monastery where the greater +number of the kings of France have been buried. The festival of +St Denis is celebrated on the 9th of October. With his name are +already associated in the <i>Martyrologium Hieronymianum</i> the +priest Rusticus and the deacon Eleutherius. Other traditions—of +no value—are connected with the name of St Denis. A false +interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently dating from 724, +represented St Denis as having received his mission from Pope +Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian +(81-96). Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the 9th +century, identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the +Areopagite (mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens +(Eusebius, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> iii. 4. 10, iv. 23. 3), and naturally attributed +to him the celebrated writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St +Denis is generally represented carrying his head in his hands.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, Octobris, iv. 696-987; <i>Bibliotheca hagiographica +graeca</i>, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); <i>Bibliotheca hagiographica +latina</i>, No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, <i>Les Origines de +Saint-Denis</i>, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris, 1896); Cahier, +<i>Caractéristiques des saints</i>, p. 761 (Paris, 1867). (<span class="sc">H. De.</span>)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL</span> (1729-1800), +Austrian poet, was born at Schärding on the Inn, on the 27th +of September 1729. He was brought up by the Jesuits, entered +their order, and in 1759 was appointed professor in the +Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In 1784, after the +suppression of the college, he was made second custodian of +the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian. +He died on the 29th of September 1800. A warm admirer of +Klopstock, he was one of the leading members of the group of +so-called “bards”; and his original poetry, published under the +title <i>Die Lieder Sineds des Barden</i> (1772), shows all the extravagances +of the “bardic” movement. He is best remembered +as the translator of <i>Ossian</i> (1768-1769; also published together +with his own poems in 5 vols. as <i>Ossians und Sineds Lieder</i>, 1784). +More important than either his original poetry or his translations +were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the literature +of North Germany; his <i>Sammlung kürzerer Gedichte aus den +neuern Dichtern Deutschlands</i>, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this +respect invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical +compilations, <i>Grundriss der Bibliographie und Bücherkunde</i> +(1774), <i>Grundriss der Literaturgeschichte</i> (1776), <i>Einleitung in +die Bücherkunde</i> (1777) and <i>Wiens Buchdruckergeschichte bis 1560</i> +(1782).</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><i>Ossians und Sineds</i> Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791; but +a selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol. +48 (1884) of Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>. His <i>Literarischer +Nachlass</i> was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2 vols.). +See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, <i>Michael Denis</i> (1881).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY</span> (1805-1896), English churchman, +brother of John Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of +the House of Commons 1857-1872; Viscount Ossington), was +born at Ossington, Notts, on the 11th of December 1805, and +educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828 he was +elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor, +during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon, +he became rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became +a prebendary of Sarum in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 1851 +he was preferred to the valuable living of East Brent, Somerset, +and in the same year was made archdeacon of Taunton. For +many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme High +Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding +all “progressive” movements in education or theology as +abomination, and vehemently repudiating the “higher criticism” +from the days of <i>Essays and Reviews</i> (1860) to those of <i>Lux +Mundi</i> (1890). In 1853 he resigned his position as examining +chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing to his pronounced +eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a neighbouring +clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison was +condemned by the archbishops’ court at Bath (1856); but on +appeal the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this +judgment on a technical plea. The result was to make Denison +a keen champion of the ritualistic school. He edited <i>The Church +and State Review</i> (1862-1865). Secular state education and the +“conscience clause” were anathema to him. Until the end of +his life he remained a protagonist in theological controversy and +a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism; but the +sharpest religious or political differences never broke his personal +friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for +which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest +festivals. He died on the 21st of March 1896.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR</span> (1839-<span class="spc"> </span>), Canadian soldier +and publicist, was born in Toronto on the 31st of August 1839. +In 1861 he was called to the bar, and was from 1865-1867 a +member of the city council. From the first he took a prominent +part in the organization of the military forces of Canada, becoming +a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He saw +active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the +rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct +of the Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in +1869-70, he abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully +contested Algoma in the Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained +free from party ties. In 1877 he was appointed police magistrate +of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one of the founders of the +“Canada First” party, which did much to shape the national +aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter +of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great +Britain and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal +Society of Canada, and was president of the section dealing with +English history and literature. The best known of his military +works is his <i>History of Modern Cavalry</i> (London, 1877), which +was awarded first prize by the Russian government in an open +competition and has been translated into German, Russian and +Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences under the +title of <i>Soldiering in Canada</i>.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENISON,</span> a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about +2½ m. from the S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas. +Pop. (1890) 10,958; (1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes; +(1910 census) 13,632. It is served by the Houston & Texas +Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Texas & Pacific, and +the St Louis & San Francisco (’Frisco System) railways, and is +connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line. Denison +is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known +as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier’s academy (Roman +Catholic). It is chiefly important as a railway centre, as a +collecting and distributing point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs +and poultry, and general farming products of the surrounding +region, and as a wholesale and jobbing market for the upper +Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and among its +manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and foundry +products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its +factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47.0% more than +in 1900. Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of +the construction of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway to +this point in 1872, and was named in honour of George Denison +(1822-1876), a director of the railway; it became a city in 1891, +and in 1907 adopted the commission form of government.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENIZEN</span> (derived through the Fr. from Lat. <i>de intus</i>, “from +within,” i.e. as opposed to “foreign”), an alien who obtains +by letters patent (<i>ex donatione regis</i>) certain of the privileges of +a British subject. He cannot be a member of the privy council +or of parliament, or hold any civil or military office of trust, or +take a grant of land from the crown. The Naturalization Act +1870 provides that nothing therein contained shall affect the +grant of any letters of denization by the sovereign.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENIZLI</span> (anc. <i><a href="#artlinks">Laodicea</a> (q.v.) ad Lycum</i>), chief town of a +sanjak of the Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft. +Pop. about 17,000. It is beautifully situated at the foot of Baba +Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus), +and is connected by a branch line with the station of Gonjeli +on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the place of Laodicea +when that town was deserted during the wars between the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>23</span> +Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174. +It had become a fine Moslem city in the 14th century, and was +then called Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered +products of its Greek inhabitants. The delightful gardens of +Denizli have obtained for it the name of the “Damascus of +Anatolia.”</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENMAN, THOMAS,</span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1779-1854), English judge, +was born in London, the son of a well-known physician, on the +23rd of July 1779. He was educated at Eton and St John’s +College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1800. Soon after +leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806 he was called to the +bar at Lincoln’s Inn, and at once entered upon practice. His +success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a position at +the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord +Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of +the Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of +the counsel for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords +was very powerful, and some competent judges even considered +it not inferior to Brougham’s. It contained one or two daring +passages, which made the king his bitter enemy, and retarded +his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818 he was +returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the +Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for +Nottingham, for which place he continued to sit till his elevation +to the bench in 1832. His liberal principles had caused his +exclusion from office till in 1822 he was appointed common +serjeant by the corporation of London. In 1830 he was made +attorney-general under Lord Grey’s administration. Two years +later he was made lord chief justice of the King’s Bench, and +in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most +celebrated for his decision in the important privilege case of +<i>Stockdale</i> v. <i>Hansard</i> (9 Ad. & El. I.; 11 Ad. & El. 253), but +he was never ranked as a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned +his chief justiceship and retired into private life. He died on +the 26th of September 1854, his title continuing in the direct line.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Hon. George Denman</span> (1819-1896), his fourth son, was +also a distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen’s Bench +from 1872 till his death in 1896.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See Memoir of <i>Thomas, first Lord Denman</i>, by Sir Joseph Arnould +(2 vols., 1873); E. Manson, <i>Builders of our Law</i> (1904).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENMARK</span> (<i>Danmark</i>), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying +part of a peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic +and North Seas, in the middle latitudes of the eastern coast. +The kingdom lies between 54° 33′ and 57° 45′ N. and between +8° 4′ 54″ and 12° 47′ 25″ E., exclusive of the island of Bornholm, +which, as will be seen, is not to be included in the Danish archipelago. +The peninsula is divided between Denmark and Germany +(Schleswig-Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and +the greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. <i>Jylland</i>). Its northern +part is actually insular, divided from the mainland by the +Limfjord or Liimfjord, which communicates with the North Sea +to the west and the Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though +broad and possessing lacustrine characteristics to the west, has +only very narrow entrances. The connexion with the North Sea +dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds Jutland to the north +and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the Baltic by the +Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric peninsula +in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western +Sweden.</p> + +<p>There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is +uniformly low, the highest elevation in the whole country, the +Himmelbjerg near Aarhus in eastern Jutland, being little more +than 500 ft. above the sea. Denmark, however, is nowhere low +in the sense in which Holland is; the country is pleasantly +diversified, and rises a little at the coast even though it remains +flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the south-eastern +part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and meadows, +and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the western +and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to a +wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending +towards the sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain +charm even about these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be +said that Denmark is wanting in natural beauty of a quiet +order. Lakes, though small, are numerous; the largest are the +Arresö and the Esromsö in Zealand, and the chain of lakes in +the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river +in Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not +exceeding 80 m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech-woods, +are extremely beautiful. The coasts are generally low +and sandy; the whole western shore of Jutland is a succession +of sand ridges and shallow lagoons, very dangerous to shipping. +In many places the sea has encroached; even in the 19th +century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last +twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to +secure the coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand +dunes, from 500 yds. to 7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of +this coast for about 200 m. Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low, +sandy point, stretches far into the northern sea, dividing the +Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western side the coast is +bolder and less inhospitable; there are several excellent havens, +especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere, however, very +high, except at one or two points in Jutland, and at the eastern +extremity of Möen, where limestone cliffs occur.</p> + +<p>Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the +geographical description of which is given under that heading. +Out of the total area of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland, +including the small islands adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and +the insular part of the kingdom (including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m. +The islands may be divided into two groups, consisting of the +two principal islands Fünen and Zealand, and the lesser islands +attendant on each. Fünen (Dan. <i>Fyen</i>), in form roughly an oval +with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated from +Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide in the north, but +averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and +known as the Little Belt. Fünen, geologically a part of southern +Jutland, has similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of +fertile meadows, the typical beech-forests clothing the low hills +and the presence of numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial +signs of likeness. Several islands, none of great extent, lie off +the west coast of Fünen in the Little Belt; off the south, however, +an archipelago is enclosed by the long narrow islands of +Aerö (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.), including in a +triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge, Avernakö, +Dreiö, Turö and others. These are generally fertile and well +cultivated. Aeröskjöbing and Rudkjöbing, on Aerö and +Langeland respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is +the great castle of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the 13th +century. The chief towns of Fünen itself are all coastal. Odense +is the principal town, lying close to a great inlet behind the +peninsula of Hindsholm on the north-east, known as Odense +Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for the steam-ferry to +Korsör in Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks the +southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a +fjord of the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the +crossing of the Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of +the fortifications which were stormed by John of Ranzau in +1535; Middelfart is a seaside resort near the narrowest reach +of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small port on the north coast. +All these towns are served by railways radiating from Odense. +The strait crossed by the Nyborg-Korsör ferry is the Great Belt +which divides the Fünen from the Zealand group, and is continued +south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight +eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt, +named from an island 15 m. in length, with several large villages, +which lies somewhat apart from the main archipelago.</p> + +<p>Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. <i>Sjaelland</i>), measuring 82 m. N. +to S. by 68 E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line +indented by fjords and projecting into long spits or promontories, +may be considered as the nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it +contains the capital, Copenhagen, and such important towns as +Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsör, Naestved and Elsinore (Helsingör). +Its topography is described in detail under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zealand</a></span>. Its +attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of itself, +only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"></a>24</span> +coast of Möen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island +formed three separate isles in 1100, and the village of Borre, now +2 m. inland, was the object of an attack by a fleet from Lübeck +in 1510. On Falster is the port of Nykjöbing, and from Gjedser, +the extreme southern point of Denmark, communication is +maintained with Warnemünde in Germany (29 m.). From +Nykjöbing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to +Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other +towns are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the +14th century, Saxkjöbing and Rödby. The island of Bornholm +lies 86 m. E. of the nearest point of the archipelago, and as it +belongs geologically to Sweden (from which it is distant only +22 m.) must be considered to be physically an appendage rather +than an internal part of the kingdom of Denmark.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere +formed by the so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish +geologists call the Boulder Sand. The former, as is well known, +owes its origin to the action of ice on the mountains of Norway +in the Glacial period. It is unstratified; but by the action of +water on it, stratified deposits have been formed, some of clay, +containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very extensive +ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost everywhere +the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of Jutland, +a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but really +sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder +formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period, +which in many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs +on the sea-coast. Much of the Danish chalk, including the well-known +limestone of Faxe, belongs to the highest or “Danian” +subdivision of the Cretaceous period. In the south-western +parts a succession of strata, described as the Brown Coal or +Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the boulder +clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which occur +in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations +come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the +southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost +portion of the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay +lies immediately on the primitive rock, except in the south-western +corner of the island, where a series of strata appear belonging to +the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, the +true Coal formation, &c., being absent. Some parts of Denmark +are supposed to have been finally raised out of the sea towards +the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the country +did not appear above the water till about the close of the Glacial +period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a +large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though +slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction +from Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island +of Fyen, a little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea-beaches, +marked by accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones, +&c., have been noticed as much as 20 ft. above the present level. +But the upheaval does not seem to affect all parts equally. +Even in historic times it has vastly changed the aspect and +configuration of the country.</p> + +<p><i>Climate, Flora, Fauna.</i>—The climate of Denmark does not +differ materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude; +but whilst the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so +that most of the evergreens which adorn an English garden in the +winter cannot be grown in the open in Denmark. During thirty +years the annual mean temperature varied from 43.88° F. to +46.22° in different years and different localities, the mean +average for the whole country being 45.14°. The islands have, +upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland. The +mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to +March, are 33.26°, 31.64°, 31.82°, and 33.98° respectively, or for +the whole winter 32.7°; that of the summer, June to August, +59.2°, but considerable irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an +average on twenty days in each of the four winter months, but +only on two days in either October or May. A fringe of ice +generally lines the greater part of the Danish coasts on the eastern +side for some time during the winter, and both the Sound and the +Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In some +winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of sledges +passing between Copenhagen and Malmö. The annual rainfall +varies between 21.58 in. and 27.87 in. in different years and +different localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland; +while the small island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual +rainfall of only 15.78 in. More than half the rainfall occurs +from July to November, the wettest month being September, with +an average of 2.95 in.; the driest month is April, with an +average of 1.14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent in the summer. +South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and from +September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which +is particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds +prevail from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the +north of Jutland, a cold and dry N.W. wind called <i>skai</i> prevails +in May and June, and is exceedingly destructive to vegetation; +while along the west coast of the peninsula similar effects are +produced by a salt mist, which carries its influence from 15 to +30 m. inland.</p> + +<p>The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might +be anticipated in a country of such simple physical structure. +The ordinary forms of the north of Europe grow freely in the mild +air and protected soil of the islands and the eastern coast; while +on the heaths and along the sandhills on the Atlantic side there +flourish a number of distinctive species. The Danish forest is +almost exclusively made up of beech, a tree which thrives better +in Denmark than in any other country of Europe. The oak and +ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were abundant +in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost +universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient +origin, for in the first half of the 17th century the oak was still +the characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark +except under careful cultivation, which, however, is largely +practised in <a href="#artlinks">Jutland</a> (q.v.). But again, abundant traces of +ancient extensive forests of fir and pine are found in the numerous +peat bogs which supply a large proportion of the fuel locally used. +In Bornholm, it should be mentioned, the flora is more like that +of Sweden; not the beech, but the pine, birch and ash are the +most abundant trees.</p> + +<p>The wild animals and birds of Denmark are those of the rest +of central Europe. The larger quadrupeds are all extinct; even +the red deer, formerly so abundant that in a single hunt in +Jutland in 1593 no less than 1600 head of deer were killed, is now +only to be met with in preserves. In the prehistoric “kitchen-middens” +(<i>kjökkenmödding</i>) and elsewhere, however, vestiges are +found which prove that the urochs, the wild boar, the beaver, +the bear and the wolf all existed subsequently to the arrival of +man. The usual domestic animals are abundantly found in +Denmark, with the exception of the goat, which is uncommon. +The sea fisheries are of importance. Oysters are found in some +places, but have disappeared from many localities, where their +abundance in ancient times is proved by their shell moulds on the +coast. The Gudenaa is the only salmon river in Denmark.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr> <td class="figcenter1"> <a href="images/img24full.png"> + <img src="images/img24.jpg" + style="border:0; width:538px; height:750px" + alt="Denmark" title="Denmark" /></a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Denmark in 1901 was +2,449,540. It was 929,001 in 1801, showing an increase during +the century in the proportion of 1 to 2.63. In 1901 the average +density of the population of Denmark was 165.2 to the square +mile, but varied much in the different parts. Jutland showed +an average of only 109 inhabitants per square mile, whilst on the +islands, which had a total population of 1,385,537, the average +stood at 272.95, owing, on the one hand, to the fact that large +tracts in the interior of Jutland are almost uninhabited, and on +the other to the fact that the capital of the country, with its proportionately +large population, is situated on the island of Zealand. +The percentages of urban and rural population are respectively +about 38 and 62. A notable movement of the population to the +towns began about the middle of the 19th century, and increased +until very near its end. It was stronger on the islands, where the +rural population increased by 5.3% only in eleven years, whereas +in Jutland the increase of the rural population between 1890 and +1901 amounted to 12.0%. Here, however, peculiar circumstances +contributed to the increase, as successful efforts have +been made to render the land fruitful by artificial means. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"></a>25</span> +Danes are a yellow-haired and blue-eyed Teutonic race of +middle stature, bearing traces of their kinship with the northern +Scandinavian peoples. Their habits of life resemble those of the +North Germans even more than those of the Swedes. The independent +tenure of the land by a vast number of small farmers, +who are their own masters, gives an air of carelessness, almost of +truculence, to the well-to-do Danish peasants. They are generally +slow of speech and manner, and somewhat irresolute, but +take an eager interest in current politics, and are generally fairly +educated men of extreme democratic principles. The result of +a fairly equal distribution of wealth is a marked tendency towards +equality in social intercourse. The townspeople show a bias in +favour of French habits and fashions. The separation from +the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more than +half German, intensified the national character; the Danes are +intensely patriotic; and there is no portion of the Danish +dominions except perhaps in the West Indian islands, where +a Scandinavian language is not spoken. The preponderance of +the female population over the male is approximately as 1052 to +1000. The male sex remains in excess until about the twentieth +year, from which age the female sex preponderates in increasing +ratio with advancing age. The percentage of illegitimacy is high +as a whole, although in some of the rural districts it is very low. +But in Copenhagen 20% of the births are illegitimate. Between +the middle and the end of the 19th century the rate of mortality +decreased most markedly for all ages. During the last decade of +the century it ranged between 19.5 per thousand in 1891 and +15.1 in 1898 (17.4 in 1900). Emigration for some time in the +19th century at different periods, both in its early part and towards +its close, seriously affected the population of Denmark. But in +the last decade it greatly diminished. Thus in 1892 the number +of emigrants to Transatlantic places rose to 10,422 but in 1900 +it was only 3570. The great bulk of them go to the United States; +next in favour is Canada.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The roads of Denmark form an extensive +and well-maintained system. The railway system is also fairly +complete, the state owning about three-fifths of the total mileage, +which amounts to some 2000. Two lines enter Denmark from +Schleswig across the frontier. The main Danish lines are as +follows. From the frontier a line runs east by Fredericia, across +the island of Fünen by Odense and Nyborg, to Korsör on Zealand, +and thence by Roskilde to Copenhagen. The straits between +Fredericia and Middelfart and between Nyborg and Korsör are +crossed by powerful steam-ferries which are generally capable of +conveying a limited number of railway wagons. This system is +also in use on the line which runs south from Roskilde to the island +of Falster, from the southernmost point of which, Gjedser, ferry-steamers +taking railway cars serve Warnemünde in Germany. +The main lines in Jutland run (a) along the eastern side north +from Fredericia by Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg and +Hjörring, to Frederikshavn, and (b) along the western side from +Esbjerg by Skjerne and Vemb, and thence across the peninsula +by Viborg to Langaa on the eastern line. The lines are generally +of standard gauge (4 ft. 8½ in.), but there is also a considerable +mileage of light narrow-gauge railways. Besides the numerous +steam-ferries which connect island and island, and Jutland with +the islands, and the Gjedser-Warnemünde route, a favourite +passenger line from Germany is that between Kiel and Korsör, +while most of the German Baltic ports have direct connexion with +Copenhagen. With Sweden communications are established by +ferries across the Sound between Copenhagen and Malmö and +Landskrona, and between Elsinore (Helsingör) and Helsingborg. +The postal department maintains a telegraph and telephone +service.</p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—The main source of wealth in Denmark is agriculture, +which employs about two-fifths of the entire population. +Most of the land is freehold and cultivated by the owner himself, +and comparatively little land is let on lease except very large +holdings and glebe farms. The independent small farmer +(<i>bönder</i>) maintains a hereditary attachment to his ancestral +holding. There is also a class of cottar freeholders (<i>junster</i>). +Fully 74% of the total area of the country is agricultural land. +Of this only about one-twelfth is meadow land. The land under +grain crops is not far short of one-half the remainder, the principal +crops being oats, followed by barley and rye in about equal +quantities, with wheat about one-sixth that of barley and hardly +one-tenth that of oats. Beet is extensively grown. During the +last forty years of the 19th century dairy-farming was greatly +developed in Denmark, and brought to a high degree of perfection +by the application of scientific methods and the best machinery, +as well as by the establishment of joint dairies. The Danish +government has assisted this development by granting money +for experiments and by a rigorous system of inspection for the +prevention of adulteration. The co-operative system plays an +important part in the industries of butter-making, poultry-farming +and the rearing of swine.</p> + +<p>Rabbits, which are not found wild in Denmark, are bred for +export. Woods cover fully 7% of the area, and their preservation +is considered of so much importance that private owners are +under strict control as regards cutting of timber. The woods +consist mostly of beech, which is principally used for fuel, but +pines were extensively planted during the 19th century. Allusion +has been made already to the efforts to plant the extensive heaths +in <a href="#artlinks">Jutland</a> (q.v.) with pine-trees.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Rates and taxes on land are mostly levied according +to a uniform system of assessment, the unit of which is +called a <i>Tonde Hartkorn</i>. The Td. Htk., as it is usually abbreviated, +has further subdivision, and is intended to correspond to +the same value of land throughout the country. The Danish +measure for land is a <i>Tonde Land</i> (Td. L.), which is equal to 1.363 +statute acres. Of the best ploughing land a little over 6 Td. L., +or about 8 acres, go to a Td. Htk., but of unprofitable land a Td. +Htk. may represent 300 acres or more. On the islands and in the +more fertile part of Jutland the average is about 10 Td. L., or +13½ acres. Woodland, tithes, &c., are also assessed to Td. Htk. +for fiscal purposes. In the island of Bornholm, the assessment +is somewhat different, though the general state of agricultural +holdings is the same as in other parts. The selling value of land +has shown a decrease in modern times on account of the agricultural +depression. A homestead with land assessed less than +1 Td. Htk. is legally called a <i>Huus</i> or <i>Sted</i>, i.e. cottage, whilst +a farm assessed at 1 Td. Htk. or more is called <i>Gaard</i>, i.e. farm. +Farms of between 1 and 12 Td. Htk. are called <i>Bondergaarde</i>, or +peasant farms, and are subject to the restriction that such a holding +cannot lawfully be joined to or entirely merged into another. +They may be subdivided, and portions may be added to another +holding, but the homestead, with a certain amount of land, must +be preserved as a separate holding for ever. The seats of the +nobility and landed gentry are called <i>Herregaarde</i>. The peasants +hold about 73% of all the land according to its value. As regards +their size about 30% are assessed from 1 to 4 Td. Htk.; about +33% from 4 to 8 Td. Htk.; the remainder at about 8 Td. Htk. +An annual sum is voted by parliament out of which loans are +granted to cottagers who desire to purchase small freehold plots.</p> + +<p>The fishery along the coasts of Denmark is of some importance +both on account of the supply of food obtained thereby for the +population of the country, and on account of the export; but the +good fishing grounds, not far from the Danish coast, particularly +in the North Sea, are mostly worked by the fishing vessels of other +nations, which are so numerous that the Danish government is +obliged to keep gun-boats stationed there in order to prevent +encroachments on territorial waters.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—The mineral products of Denmark are +unimportant. It is one of the poorest countries of Europe in +this particular. It is rich, however, in clays, while in the island +of Bornholm there are quarries of freestone and marble. The +factories of Denmark supply mainly local needs. The largest are +those engaged in the construction of engines and iron ships. The +manufacture of woollens and cotton, the domestic manufacture +of linen in Zealand, sugar refineries, paper mills, breweries, and +distilleries may also be mentioned. The most notable manufacture +is that of porcelain. The nucleus of this industry was a +factory started in 1772, by F. H. Müller, for the making of china +out of Bornholm clay. In 1779 it passed into the hands of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"></a>26</span> +state, and has remained there ever since, though there are +also private factories. Originally the Copenhagen potters +imitated the Dresden china made at Meissen, but they later produced +graceful original designs. The creations of Thorvaldsen +have been largely repeated and imitated in this ware. Trade-unionism +flourishes in Denmark, and strikes are of frequent +occurrence.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—Formerly the commercial legislation of Denmark +was to such a degree restrictive that imported manufactures had +to be delivered to the customs, where they were sold by public +auction, the proceeds of which the importer received from the +custom-houses after a deduction was made for the duty. To this +restriction, as regards foreign intercourse, was added a no less +injurious system of inland duties impeding the commerce of the +different provinces with each other. The want of roads also, +and many other disadvantages, tended to keep down the development +of both commerce and industry. During the 19th century, +however, several commercial treaties were concluded between +Denmark and the other powers of Europe, which made the +Danish tariff more regular and liberal.</p> + +<p>The vexed question, of many centuries’ standing, concerning +the claim of Denmark to levy dues on vessels passing through the +<a href="#artlinks">Sound</a> (q.v.), was settled by the abolition of the dues in 1857. +The commerce of Denmark is mainly based on home production +and home consumption, but a certain quantity of goods is imported +with a view to re-exportation, for which the free port and +bonded warehouses at Copenhagen give facilities. In modern +times the value of Danish commerce greatly increased, being +doubled in the last twenty years of the 19th century, and exceeding +a total of fifty millions sterling. The value of export is +exceeded as a whole by that of import in the proportion, roughly, +of 1 to 1.35. By far the most important articles of export may be +classified as articles of food of animal origin, a group which covers +the vast export trade in the dairy produce, especially butter, for +which Denmark is famous. The value of the butter for export +reaches nearly 40% of the total value of Danish exports. A +small proportion of the whole is imported chiefly from Russia +(also Siberia) and Sweden and re-exported as of foreign origin. +The production of margarine is large, but not much is exported, +margarine being largely consumed in Denmark instead of +butter, which is exported. Next to butter the most important +article of Danish export is bacon, and huge quantities of eggs +are also exported. Exports of less value, but worthy of special +notice, are vegetables and wool, bones and tallow, also dairy +machinery, and finally cement, the production of which is a +growing industry. The classes of articles of food of animal +origin, and living animals, are the only ones of which the +exportation exceeds the importation; with regard to all other +goods, the reverse is the case. In the second of these classes the +most important export is home-bred horned cattle. The trade +in live sheep and swine, which was formerly important, has mostly +been converted into a dead-meat trade. A proportionally large +importation of timber is caused by the scarcity of native timber +suitable for building purposes, the plantations of firs and pines +being insufficient to produce the quantity required, and the +quality of the wood being inferior beyond the age of about forty +years. The large importation of coal, minerals and metals, and +goods made from them is likewise caused by the natural poverty +of the country in these respects.</p> + +<p>Denmark carries on its principal import trade with Germany, +Great Britain and the United States of America, in this order, +the proportions being about 30, 20 and 16% respectively of the +total. Its principal export trade is with Great Britain, Germany +and Sweden, the percentage of the whole being 60, 18 and 10. +With Russia, Norway and France (in this order) general trade is +less important, but still large. A considerable proportion of +Denmark’s large commercial fleet is engaged in the carrying +trade between foreign, especially British, ports.</p> + +<p>Under a law of the 4th of May 1907 it was enacted that the +metric system of weights and measures should come into official +use in three years from that date, and into general use in +five years.</p> + +<p><i>Money and Banking.</i>—The unit of the Danish monetary system, +as of the Swedish and Norwegian, is the <i>krone</i> (crown), equal to +1s. 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">3</span>d., which is divided into 100 <i>öre</i>; consequently 7½ öre are +equal to one penny. Since 1873 gold has been the standard, and +gold pieces of 20 and 10 kroner are coined, but not often met with, +as the public prefers bank-notes. The principal bank is the +National Bank at Copenhagen, which is the only one authorized +to issue notes. These are of the value of 10, 50, 100 and 500 kr. +Next in importance are the Danske Landmands Bank, the +Handels Bank and the Private Bank, all at Copenhagen. The +provincial banks are very numerous; many of them are at the +same time savings banks. Their rate of interest, with few exceptions, +is 3½ to 4%. There exist, besides, in Denmark several +mutual loan associations (<i>Kreditforeninger</i>), whose business is +the granting of loans on mortgage. Registration of mortgages +is compulsory in Denmark, and the system is extremely simple, a +fact which has been of the greatest importance for the improvement +of the country. There are comparatively large institutions +for insurance of all kinds in Denmark. The largest office for life +insurance is a state institution. By law of the 9th of April 1891 +a system of old-age pensions was established for the benefit of +persons over sixty years of age.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—Denmark is a limited monarchy, according to +the law of 1849, revised in 1866. The king shares his power with +the parliament (<i>Rigsdag</i>), which consists of two chambers, the +<i>Landsthing</i> and the <i>Folkething</i>, but the constitution contains no +indication of any difference in their attributes. The Landsthing, +or upper house, however, is evidently intended to form the conservative +element in the constitutional machinery. While the +114 members of the Folkething (House of Commons) are elected +for three years in the usual way by universal suffrage, 12 out of +the 66 members of the Landsthing are life members nominated +by the crown. The remaining 54 members of the Landsthing are +returned for eight years according to a method of proportionate +representation by a body of deputy electors. Of these deputies +one-half are elected in the same way as members of the Folkething, +without any property qualification for the voters; the +other half of the deputy electors are chosen in the towns by those +who during the last preceding year were assessed on a certain +minimum of income, or paid at least a certain amount in rates +and taxes. In the rural districts the deputy electors returned by +election are supplemented by an equal number of those who have +paid the highest amounts in taxes and county rates together. +In this manner a representation is secured for fairly large +minorities, and what is considered a fair share of influence on +public affairs given to those who contribute the most to the needs +of the state. The franchise is held by every male who has reached +his thirtieth year, subject to independence of public charity and +certain other circumstances. A candidate for either house of the +Rigsdag must have passed the age of twenty-five. Members are +paid ten kroner each day of the session and are allowed travelling +expenses. The houses meet each year on the first Monday in +October. The constitutional theory of the Folkething is that of +one member for every 16,000 inhabitants. The Faeröe islands, +which form an integral part of the kingdom of Denmark in the +wider sense, are represented in the Danish parliament, but not +the other dependencies of the Danish crown, namely Iceland, +Greenland and the West Indian islands of St Thomas, St John +and St Croix. The budget is considered by the Folkething at the +beginning of each session. The revenue and expenditure average +annually about £4,700,000. The principal items of revenue are +customs and excise, land and house tax, stamps, railways, legal +fees, the state lottery and death duties. A considerable reserve +fund is maintained to meet emergencies. The public debt is +about £13,500,000 and is divided into an internal debt, bearing +interest generally at 3½%, and a foreign debt (the larger), with +interest generally at 3%. The revenue and expenditure of the +Faeröes are included in the budget for Denmark proper, but +Iceland and the West Indies have their separate budgets. The +Danish treasury receives nothing from these possessions; on the +contrary, Iceland receives an annual grant, and the West Indian +islands have been heavily subsidized by the Danish finances to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"></a>27</span> +assist the sugar industry. The administration of <a href="#artlinks">Greenland</a> +(q.v.) entails an annual loss which is posted on the budget of the +ministry of finances. The state council (<i>Statsraad</i>) includes the +presidency of the council and ministries of war, and marine, +foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, public institution and +ecclesiastical, agriculture and public works.</p> + +<p><i>Local Government.</i>—For administrative purposes the country is +divided into eighteen counties (<i>Amter</i>, singular <i>Amt</i>), as follows. +(1) Covering the islands of Zealand and lesser adjacent islands, +Copenhagen, Frederiksborg, Holbaek, Sorö, Praestö. (2) Covering +the islands of Laaland and Falster, Maribo. (3) Covering +Fünen, Langeland and adjacent islets, Svendborg, Odense. +(4) On the mainland, Hjörring, Aalborg, Thisted, Ringkjöbing, +Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle, Ribe. (5) Bornholm. The +principal civil officer in each of these is the <i>Amtmand</i>. Local +affairs are managed by the <i>Amstraad</i> and <i>Sogneraad</i>, corresponding +to the English county council and parish council. These +institutions date from 1841, but they have undergone several +modifications since. The members of these councils are elected +on a system similar to that applied to the elections for the +Landsthing. The same is the case with the provincial town +councils. That of Copenhagen is elected by those who are rated +on an income of at least 400 kroner (£22). The burgomasters are +appointed by the crown, except at Copenhagen, where they are +elected by the town council, subject to royal approbation. The +financial position of the municipalities in Denmark is generally +good. The ordinary budget of Copenhagen amounts to about +£1,100,000 a year.</p> + +<p><i>Justice.</i>—For the administration of justice Denmark is +divided into <i>herreds</i> or hundreds; as, however, they are mostly +of small extent, several are generally served by one judge +(<i>herredsfoged</i>); the townships are likewise separate jurisdictions, +each with a <i>byfoged</i>. There are 126 such local judges, each of +whom deals with all kinds of cases arising in his district, and +is also at the head of the police. There are two intermediary +Courts of Appeal (<i>Overret</i>), one in Copenhagen, another in +Viborg; the Supreme Court of Appeal (<i>Höjesteret</i>) sits at Copenhagen. +In the capital the different functions are more divided. +There is also a Court of Commerce and Navigation, on which +leading members of the trading community serve as assessors. +In the country, Land Commissions similarly constituted deal with +many questions affecting agricultural holdings. A peculiarity +of the Danish system is that, with few exceptions, no civil cause +can be brought before a court until an attempt has been made +at effecting an amicable settlement. This is mostly done by +so-called Committees of Conciliation, but in some cases by the +court itself before commencing formal judicial proceedings. In +this manner three-fifths of all the causes are settled, and many +which remain unsettled are abandoned by the plaintiffs. +Sanitary matters are under the control of a Board of Health. +The whole country is divided into districts, in each of which a +medical man is appointed with a salary, who is under the obligation +to attend to poor sick and assist the authorities in medical +matters, inquests, &c. The relief of the poor is well organized, +mostly on the system of out-door relief. Many workhouses have +been established for indigent persons capable of work. There are +also many almshouses and similar institutions.</p> + +<p><i>Army and Navy.</i>—The active army consists of a life guard +battalion and 10 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, infantry, +5 cavalry regiments of 3 squadrons each, 12 field batteries (now +re-armed with a Krupp Q.F. equipment), 3 battalions of fortress +artillery and 6 companies of engineers, with in addition various +local troops and details. The peace strength of permanent +troops, without the annual contingent of recruits, is about +13,500 officers and men, the annual contingent of men trained +two or three years with the colours about 22,500, and the annual +contingent of special reservists (men trained for brief periods) +about 17,000. Thus the number of men maintained under arms +(without calling up the reserves) is as high as 75,000 during +certain periods of the year and averages nearly 60,000. Reservists +who have definitively left the colours are recalled for short +refresher trainings, the number of men so trained in 1907 being +about 80,000. The field army on a war footing, without depot +troops, garrison troops and reservists, would be about 50,000 +strong, but by constituting new cadres at the outbreak of war +and calling up the reserves it could be more than doubled, and as +a matter of fact nearly 120,000 men were with the colours in the +manœuvre season in 1907. The term of service is eight years in +the active army and its reserves and eight years in the second +line. The armament of the infantry is the Krag-jorgensen of +.314 in. calibre, model 1889, that of the field artillery a 7.5 cm. +Krupp Q.F. equipment, model 1902. The navy consists of 6 +small battleships, 3 coast defence armour-clads, 5 protected +cruisers, 5 gun-boats, and 24 torpedo craft.</p> + +<p><i>Religion.</i>—The national or state church of Denmark is officially +styled “Evangelically Reformed,” but is popularly described +as Lutheran. The king must belong to it. There is complete +religious toleration, but though most of the important Christian +communities are represented their numbers are very small. The +Mormon apostles for a considerable time made a special raid upon +the Danish peasantry and a few hundreds profess this faith. +There are seven dioceses, Fünen, Laaland and Falster, Aarhus, +Aalborg, Viborg and Ribe, while the primate is the bishop +of Zealand, and resides at Copenhagen, but his cathedral is at +Roskilde. The bishops have no political function by reason of +their office, although they may, and often do, take a prominent +part in politics. The greater part of the pastorates comprise +more than one parish. The benefices are almost without exception +provided with good residences and glebes, and the tithes, &c., +generally afford a comfortable income. The bishops have fixed +salaries in lieu of tithes appropriated by the state.</p> + +<p><i>Education and Arts.</i>—The educational system of Denmark is +maintained at a high standard. The instruction in primary schools +is gratuitous. Every child is bound to attend the parish school at +least from the seventh to the thirteenth year, unless the parents +can prove that it receives suitable instruction in other ways. +The schools are under the immediate control of school boards +appointed by the parish councils, but of which the incumbent of +the parish is <i>ex-officio</i> member; superior control is exercised by +the Amtmand, the rural dean, and the bishop, under the Minister +for church and education. Secondary public schools are provided +in towns, in which moderate school fees are paid. There are also +public grammar-schools. Nearly all schools are day-schools. +There are only two public schools, which, though on a much +smaller scale, resemble the great English schools, namely, +those of Sorö and Herlufsholm, both founded by private munificence. +Private schools are generally under a varying measure +of public control. The university is at <a href="#artlinks">Copenhagen</a> (q.v.). +Amongst numerous other institutions for the furtherance of +science and training of various kinds may be mentioned the large +polytechnic schools; the high school for agriculture and veterinary +art; the royal library; the royal society of sciences; +the museum of northern antiquities; the society of northern +antiquaries, &c. The art museums of Denmark are not considerable, +except the museum of Thorvaldsen, at Copenhagen, but +much is done to provide first-rate training in the fine arts and +their application to industry through the Royal Academy of Arts, +and its schools. Finally, it may be mentioned that a sum +proportionately large is available from public funds and regular +parliamentary grants for furthering science and arts by temporary +subventions to students, authors, artists and others of insufficient +means, in order to enable them to carry out particular works, to +profit by foreign travel, &c. The principal scientific societies +and institutions are detailed under Copenhagen. During the +earlier part of the 19th century not a few men could be mentioned +who enjoyed an exceptional reputation in various departments +of science, and Danish scientists continue to contribute their full +share to the advancement of knowledge. The society of sciences, +that of northern antiquaries, the natural history and the botanical +societies, &c., publish their transactions and proceedings, +but the <i>Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift</i>, of which 14 volumes with +259 plates were published (1861-1884), and which was in the +foremost rank in its department, ceased with the death in +1884 of the editor, the distinguished zoologist, I. C. Schiödte. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>28</span> +Another extremely valuable publication of wide general interest, +the <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, is published by the commission for +the exploration of Greenland. What may be called the modern +“art” current, with its virtues and vices, is as strong in Denmark +as in England. Danish sculpture will be always famous, if only +through the name of Thorvaldsen. In architecture the prevailing +fashion is a return to the style of the first half of the 17th century, +called the Christian IV. style; but in this branch of art no +marked excellence has been obtained.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—J. P. Trap, <i>Statistisk Topographisk Beskrivelse af +Kongeriget Danmark</i> (Copenhagen, 1859-1860, 3 vols., 2nd ed., 1872-1879); +V. Falbe-Hansen and W. Scharling, <i>Danmarks Statistik</i> +(Copenhagen, 1878-1891, 6 vols.). (Various writers) <i>Vort Folk i +det nittende Aarhundrede</i> (Copenhagen, 1899 et seq.), illustrated; +J. Carlsen, H. Olrik and C. N. Starcke, <i>Le Danemark</i> (Copenhagen, +1900), 700 pp.; illustrated, published in connexion with the Paris +Exhibition. <i>Statistisk Aarbog</i> (1896, &c.). Annual publication, +and other publications of Statens Statistiske Bureau, Copenhagen; +<i>Annuaire météorologique</i>, Danish Meteorological Institution, Copenhagen; +E. Löffler, <i>Dänemarks Natur and Volk</i> (Copenhagen, 1905); +Margaret Thomas, <i>Denmark Past and Present</i> (London, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. A. G.; O. J. R. H.)</div> + +<p class="center sc">History</p> + +<p><i>Ancient.</i>—Our earliest knowledge of Denmark is derived +from Pliny, who speaks of three islands named “Skandiai,” a +name which is also applied to Sweden. He says nothing about +the inhabitants of these islands, but tells us more about the +Jutish peninsula, or Cimbric Chersonese as he calls it. He +places the Saxons on the neck, above them the Sigoulones, +Sabaliggoi and Kobandoi, then the Chaloi, then above them the +Phoundousioi, then the Charondes and finally the Kimbroi. +He also mentions the three islands called Alokiai, at the northern +end of the peninsula. This would point to the fact that the +Limfjord was then open at both ends, and agree with Adam of +Bremen (iv. 16), who also speaks of three islands called Wendila, +Morse and Thud. The Cimbri and Charydes are mentioned in +the <i>Monumentum Ancyranum</i> as sending embassies to Augustus +in A.D. 5. The Promontorium Cimbrorum is spoken of in Pliny, +who says that the Sinus Codanus lies between it and Mons +Saevo. The latter place is probably to be found in the high-lying +land on the N.E. coast of Germany, and the Sinus Codanus +must be the S.W. corner of the Baltic, and not the whole sea. +Pomponius Mela says that the Cimbri and Teutones dwelt on the +Sinus Codanus, the latter also in Scandinavia (or Sweden). The +Romans believed that these Cimbri and Teutones were the same +as those who invaded Gaul and Italy at the end of the 2nd century +B.C. The Cimbri may probably be traced in the province of +Aalborg, formerly known as Himmerland; the Teutones, with +less certainty, may be placed in Thyth or Thyland, north of the +Limfjord. No further reference to these districts is found till +towards the close of the migration period, about the beginning of +the 6th century, when the <a href="#artlinks">Heruli</a> (q.v.), a nation dwelling in or +near the basin of the Elbe, were overthrown by the Langobardi. +According to Procopius (<i>Bellum Gothicum</i>, ii. 15), a part of them +made their way across the “desert of the Slavs,” through the +lands of the Warni and the Danes to Thoule (i.e. Sweden). This +is the first recorded use of the name “Danes.” It occurs again +in Gregory of Tours (<i>Historiae Francorum</i>, iii. 3) in connexion +with an irruption of a Götish (loosely called Danish) fleet into the +Netherlands (c. 520). From this time the use of the name is +fairly common. The heroic poetry of the Anglo-Saxons may +carry the name further back, though probably it is not very +ancient, at all events on the mainland.</p> + +<p>According to late Danish tradition Denmark now consisted +of Vitheslaeth (i.e. Zealand, Möen, Falster and Laaland), +Jutland (with Fyen) and Skaane. Jutland was acquired by +Dan, the eponymous ancestor of the Danes. He also won +Skaane, including the modern provinces of Halland, Kristianstad, +Malmöhus and Blekinge, and these remained part of Denmark +until the middle of the 17th century. These three divisions +always remained more or less distinct, and the Danish kings had +to be recognized at Lund, Ringsted and Viborg, but Zealand +was from time immemorial the centre of government, and Lejre +was the royal seat and national sanctuary. According to tradition +this dates from the time of Skiöldr, the eponymous ancestor of the +Danish royal family of Skiöldungar. He was a son of Othin and +husband of the goddess Gefjon, who created Zealand. Anglo-Saxon +tradition also speaks of Scyld (i.e. Skiöldr), who was +regarded as the ancestor of both the Danish and English royal +families, and it represented him as coming as a child of unknown +origin in a rudderless boat. There can be little doubt that from +a remote antiquity Zealand had been a religious sanctuary, +and very probably the god Nerthus was worshipped here by the +Angli and other tribes as described in Tacitus (<i>Germania</i>, c. 40). +The Lejre sanctuary was still in existence in the time of Thietmar +of Merseburg (i. 9), at the beginning of the 11th century.</p> + +<p>In Scandinavian tradition the next great figure is Fróðe the +peace-king, but it is not before the 5th century that we meet with +the names of any kings which can be regarded as definitely +historical. In <i>Beowulf</i> we hear of a Danish king Healfdene, +who had three sons, Heorogar, Hrothgar and Halga. The hero +Beowulf comes to the court of Hrothgar from the land of the +Götar, where Hygelac is king. This Hygelac is undoubtedly to +be identified with the Chochilaicus, king of the Danes (really +Götar) who, as mentioned above, made a raid against the Franks +c. 520. Beowulf himself won fame in this campaign, and by the +aid of this definite chronological datum we can place the reign +of Healfdene in the last half of the 5th century, and that of +Hrothgar’s nephew Hrothwulf, son of Halga, about the middle +of the 6th century. Hrothgar and Halga correspond to Saxo’s +Hroar and Helgi, while Hrothwulf is the famous Rolvo or +Hrólfr Kraki of Danish and Norse saga. There is probably some +historical truth in the story that Heoroweard or Hiörvarðr was +responsible for the death of Hrólfr Kraki. Possibly a still earlier +king of Denmark was Sigarr or Sigehere, who has won lasting +fame from the story of his daughter Signy and her lover +Hagbarðr.</p> + +<p>From the middle of the 6th to the beginning of the 8th century +we know practically nothing of Danish history. There are +numerous kings mentioned in Saxo, but it is impossible to identify +them historically. We have mention at the beginning of the +8th century of a Danish king Ongendus (cf. O. E. Ongenþeow) +who received a mission led by St Willibrord, and it was probably +about this time that there flourished a family of whom tradition +records a good deal. The founder of this line was Ivarr Viðfaðmi +of Skaane, who became king of Sweden. His daughter Auðr +married one Hroerekr and became the mother of Haraldr +Hilditönn. The genealogy of Haraldr is given differently in Saxo, +but there can be no doubt of his historical existence. In his time +it is said that the land was divided into four kingdoms—Skaane, +Zealand, Fyen and Jutland. After a reign of great splendour +Haraldr met his death in the great battle of Bråvalla (Bravík in +Östergötland), where he was opposed by his nephew Ring, king +of Sweden.</p> + +<p>The battle probably took place about the year 750. Fifty +years later the Danes begin to be mentioned with comparative +frequency in continental annals. From 777-798 we have mention +of a certain Sigifridus as king of the Danes, and then in 804 his +name is replaced by that of one Godefridus, This Godefridus +is the Godefridus-Guthredus of Saxo, and is to be identified also +with Guðröðr the Yngling, king in Vestfold in Norway. He came +into conflict with Charlemagne, and was preparing a great +expedition against him when he was killed by one of his own +followers (c. 810). He was succeeded by his brother Hemmingus, +but the latter died in 812 and there was a disputed succession. +The two claimants were “Sigefridus nepos Godefridi regis” +and “Anulo nepos Herioldi quondam regis” (i.e. probably +Haraldr Hilditönn). A great battle took place in which both +claimants were slain, but the party of Anulo (O.N. Áli) were +victorious and appointed as kings Anulo’s brothers Herioldus +and Reginfridus. They soon paid a visit to Vestfold, “the +extreme district of their realm, whose peoples and chief men were +refusing to be made subject to them,” and on their return had +trouble with the sons of Godefridus. The latter expelled them +from their kingdom, and in 814 Reginfridus fell in a vain attempt +to regain it. Herioldus now received the support of the emperor, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29"></a>29</span> +and after several unsuccessful attempts a compromise was +effected in 819 when the parties agreed to share the realm. +In 820 Herioldus was baptized at Mainz and received from the +emperor a grant of Riustringen in N.E. Friesland. In 827 he +was expelled from his kingdom, but St Anskar, who had been sent +with Herioldus to preach Christianity, remained at his post. In +836 we find one Horic as king of the Danes; he was probably +a son of Godefridus. During his reign there was trouble with +the emperor as to the overlordship of Frisia. In the meantime +Herioldus remained on friendly terms with Lothair and received +a further grant of Walcheren and the neighbouring districts. +In 850 Horic was attacked by his own nephews and compelled +to share the kingdom with them, while in 852 Herioldus was +charged with treachery and slain by the Franks. In 854 a revolution +took place in Denmark itself. Horic’s nephew Godwin, +returning from exile with a large following of Northmen, overthrew +his uncle in a three days’ battle in which all members +of the royal house except one boy are said to have perished. +This boy now became king as “Horicus junior.” Of his reign +we know practically nothing. The next kings mentioned are +Sigafrid and Halfdane, who were sons of the great Viking leader +Ragnarr Loðbrok. There is also mention of a third king named +Godefridus. The exact chronology and relationship of these +kings it is impossible to determine, but we know that Healfdene +died in Scotland in 877, while Godefridus was treacherously +slain by Henry of Saxony in 885. During these and the next +few years there is mention of more than one king of the names +Sigefridus and Godefridus: the most important event associated +with their names is that two kings Sigefridus and Godefridus fell +in the great battle on the Dyle in 891.</p> + +<p>We now have the names of several kings, Heiligo, Olaph (of +Swedish origin), and his sons Chnob and Gurth. Then come a +Danish ruler Sigeric, followed by Hardegon, son of Swein, coming +from Norway. At some date after 916 we find mention of one +“Hardecnuth Urm” ruling among the Danes. Adam of Bremen, +from whom these details come, was himself uncertain whether +“so many kings or rather tyrants of the Danes ruled together or +succeeded one another at short intervals.” Hardecnuth Urm +is to be identified with the famous Gorm the old, who married +Thyra Danmarkarbót: their son was Harold Bluetooth.</p> +<div class="author">(<span class="sc">A. Mw.</span>)</div> + +<p><i>Medieval and Modern.</i>—Danish history first becomes authentic +at the beginning of the 9th century. The Danes, the southernmost +branch of the Scandinavian family, referred to by Alfred +(c. 890) as occupying Jutland, the islands and Scania, were, in +777, strong enough to defy the Frank empire by harbouring +its fugitives. Five years later we find a Danish king, Sigfrid, +among the princes who assembled at Lippe in 782 to make +their submission to Charles the Great. About the same +time Willibrord, from his see at Utrecht, made an unsuccessful +attempt to convert the “wild Danes.” These three salient +facts are practically the sum of our knowledge of early Danish +history previous to the Viking period. That mysterious upheaval, +most generally attributed to a love of adventure, stimulated by +the pressure of over-population, began with the ravaging of +Lindisfarne in 793, and virtually terminated with the establishment +of Rollo in Normandy (911). There can be little doubt +that the earlier of these expeditions were from Denmark, though +the term Northmen was originally applied indiscriminately to all +these terrible visitants from the unknown north. The rovers +who first chastened and finally colonized southern England and +Normandy were certainly Danes.</p> + +<p>The Viking raids were one of the determining causes of the +establishment of the feudal monarchies of western Europe, +but the untameable freebooters were themselves finally +<span class="sidenote">Conversion of the Danes.</span> +subdued by the Church. At first sight it seems curious +that Christianity should have been so slow to reach +Denmark. But we must bear in mind that one very +important consequence of the Viking raids was to annihilate the +geographical remoteness which had hitherto separated Denmark +from the Christian world. Previously to 793 there lay between +Jutland and England a sea which no keel had traversed within +the memory of man. The few and peaceful traders who explored +those northern waters were careful never to lose sight of the +Saxon, Frisian and Frankish shores during their passage. Nor +was communication with the west by land any easier. For generations +the obstinately heathen Saxons had lain, a compact and +impenetrable mass, between Scandinavia and the Frank empire, +nor were the measures adopted by Charles the Great for the +conversion of the Saxons to the true faith very much to the +liking of their warlike Danish neighbours on the other side. +But by the time that Charles had succeeded in “converting” +the Saxons, the Viking raids were already at their height, and +though generally triumphant, necessity occasionally taught the +Northmen the value of concessions. Thus it was the desire +to secure his Jutish kingdom which induced Harold Klak, in +826, to sail up the Rhine to Ingelheim, and there accept +baptism, with his wife, his son Godfred and 400 of his suite, +acknowledging the emperor as his overlord, and taking back +with him to Denmark the missionary monk Ansgar. Ansgar +preached in Denmark from 826 to 861, but it was not till after +the subsidence of the Viking raids that Adaldag, archbishop +of Hamburg, could open a new and successful mission, which +resulted in the erection of the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ribe and +Aarhus (c. 948), though the real conversion of Denmark must be +dated from the baptism of King Harold Bluetooth (960).</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Danish monarchy was attempting to aggrandize +itself at the expense of the Germans, the Wends who then +occupied the Baltic littoral as far as the Vistula, and +<span class="sidenote">Danish expansion.</span> +the other Scandinavian kingdoms. Harold Bluetooth +(940-986) subdued German territory south of the +Eider, extended the <i>Danevirke</i>, Denmark’s great line of defensive +fortifications, to the south of Schleswig and planted the military +colony of Julin or Jomsborg, at the mouth of the Oder. Part of +Norway was first seized after the united Danes and Swedes had +defeated and slain King Olaf Trygvessön at the battle of Svolde +(1000); and between 1028 and 1035 Canute the Great added the +whole kingdom to his own; but the union did not long survive +him. Equally short-lived was the Danish dominion in England, +which originated in a great Viking expedition of King Sweyn I.</p> + +<p>The period between the death of Canute the Great and the +accession of Valdemar I. was a troublous time for Denmark. +The kingdom was harassed almost incessantly, and +<span class="sidenote">Consolidation of the kingdom under the Valdemars, 1157-1251.</span> +more than once partitioned, by pretenders to the throne, +who did not scruple to invoke the interference of the +neighbouring monarchs, and even of the heathen +Wends, who established themselves for a time on +the southern islands. Yet, throughout this chaos, one +thing made for future stability, and that was the +growth and consolidation of a national church, which culminated +in the erection of the archbishopric of Lund (c. 1104) and +the consequent ecclesiastical independence of Denmark. The +third archbishop of Lund was Absalon (1128-1201), Denmark’s +first great statesman, who so materially assisted Valdemar I. +(1157-1182) and Canute VI. (1182-1202) to establish the +dominion of Denmark over the Baltic, mainly at the expense +of the Wends. The policy of Absalon was continued on a still +vaster scale by Valdemar II. (1202-1241), at a time when the +German kingdom was too weak and distracted to intervene to +save its seaboard; but the treachery of a vassal and the loss of +one great battle sufficed to plunge this unwieldy, unsubstantial +empire in the dust. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valdemar</a></span> I., II., and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Absalon</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Yet the age of the Valdemars was one of the most glorious in +Danish history, and it is of political importance as marking a +turning-point. Favourable circumstances had, from the first, +given the Danes the lead in Scandinavia. They held the richest +and therefore the most populous lands, and geographically +they were nearer than their neighbours to western civilization. +Under the Valdemars, however, the ancient patriarchal system +was merging into a more complicated development, of separate +estates. The monarchy, now dominant, and far wealthier than +before, rested upon the support of the great nobles, many of +whom held their lands by feudal tenure, and constituted the +royal <i>Raad</i>, or council. The clergy, fortified by royal privileges, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>30</span> +had also risen to influence; but celibacy and independence of the +civil courts tended to make them more and more of a separate +caste. Education was spreading. Numerous Danes, lay as well +as clerical, regularly frequented the university of Paris. There +were signs too of the rise of a vigorous middle class, due to the +extraordinary development of the national resources (chiefly +the herring fisheries, horse-breeding and cattle-rearing) and the +foundation of gilds, the oldest of which, the <i>Edslag</i> of Schleswig, +dates from the early 12th century. The <i>bonder</i>, or yeomen, were +prosperous and independent, with well-defined rights. Danish +territory extended over 60,000 sq. kilometres, or nearly double +its present area; the population was about 700,000; and 160,000 +men and 1400 ships were available for national defence.</p> + +<p>On the death of Valdemar II. a period of disintegration ensued. +Valdemar’s son, Eric Plovpenning, succeeded him as king; but +his near kinsfolk also received huge appanages, and +<span class="sidenote">Period of disintegration.</span> +family discords led to civil wars. Throughout the +13th and part of the 14th century, the struggle raged +between the Danish kings and the Schleswig dukes; +and of six monarchs no fewer than three died violent deaths. +Superadded to these troubles was a prolonged struggle for +supremacy between the popes and the crown, and, still more +serious, the beginning of a breach between the kings and nobles, +which had important constitutional consequences. The prevalent +disorder had led to general lawlessness, in consequence of which +the royal authority had been widely extended; and a strong +opposition gradually arose which protested against the abuses +of this authority. In 1282 the nobles extorted from King Eric +Glipping the first <i>Haandfaestning</i>, or charter, which recognized +the <i>Danehof</i>, or national assembly, as a regular branch of the +administration and gave guarantees against further usurpations. +Christopher II. (1319-1331) was constrained to grant another +charter considerably reducing the prerogative, increasing the +privileges of the upper classes, and at the same time reducing the +burden of taxation. But aristocratic licence proved as mischievous +as royal incompetence; and on the death of Christopher II. +the whole kingdom was on the verge of dissolution. Eastern +Denmark was in the hands of one magnate; another magnate +held Jutland and Fünen in pawn; the dukes of Schleswig were +practically independent of the Danish crown; the Scandian provinces +had (1332) surrendered themselves to Sweden.</p> + +<p>It was reserved for another Valdemar (<a href="#artlinks">Valdemar IV</a>., q.v.) to +reunite and weld together the scattered members of his heritage. +His long reign (1340-1375) resulted in the re-establishment +<span class="sidenote">Valdemar IV., 1340-1375.</span> +of Denmark as the great Baltic power. It is also +a very interesting period of her social and constitutional +development. This great ruler, who had to fight, year +after year, against foreign and domestic foes, could, nevertheless, +always find time to promote the internal prosperity of his much +afflicted country. For the dissolution of Denmark, during the +long anarchy, had been internal as well as external. The whole +social fabric had been convulsed and transformed. The monarchy +had been undermined. The privileged orders had aggrandized +themselves at the expense of the community. The yeoman class +had sunk into semi-serfdom. In a word, the natural cohesion of +the Danish nation had been loosened and there was no security +for law and justice. To make an end of this universal lawlessness +Valdemar IV. was obliged, in the first place, to re-establish the +royal authority by providing the crown with a regular and certain +income. This he did by recovering the alienated royal demesnes +in every direction, and from henceforth the annual <i>landgilde</i>, or +rent, paid by the royal tenants, became the monarch’s principal +source of revenue. Throughout his reign Valdemar laboured +incessantly to acquire as much land as possible. Moreover, the +old distinction between the king’s private estate and crown +property henceforth ceases; all such property was henceforth +regarded as the hereditary possession of the Danish crown.</p> + +<p>The national army was also re-established on its ancient +footing. Not only were the magnates sharply reminded that they +held their lands on military tenure, but the towns were also made +to contribute both men and ships, and peasant levies, especially +archers, were recruited from every parish. Everywhere indeed +Valdemar intervened personally. The smallest detail was not +beneath his notice. Thus he invented nets for catching wolves +and built innumerable water-mills, “for he would not let the +waters run into the sea before they had been of use to the +community.” Under such a ruler law and order were speedily re-established. +The popular tribunals regained their authority, and +a supreme court of justice, <i>Det Kongelige Retterting</i>, presided over +by Valdemar himself, not only punished the unruly and guarded +the prerogatives of the crown, but also protected the weak and +defenceless from the tyranny of the strong. Nor did Valdemar +hesitate to meet his people in public and periodically render an +account of his stewardship. He voluntarily resorted to the old +practice of summoning national assemblies, the so-called <i>Danehof</i>. +At the first of these assemblies held at Nyborg, Midsummer Day +1314, the bishops and councillors solemnly promised that the +commonalty should enjoy all the ancient rights and privileges +conceded to them by Valdemar II., and the wise provision that +the <i>Danehof</i> should meet annually considerably strengthened its +authority. The keystone to the whole constitutional system was +“King Valdemar’s Charter” issued in May 1360 at the <i>Rigsmöde</i>, +or parliament, held at Kalundborg in May 1360. This charter +was practically an act of national pacification, the provisions +of which king and people together undertook to enforce for the +benefit of the commonweal.</p> + +<p>The work of Valdemar was completed and consolidated by +his illustrious daughter Margaret (1375-1412), whose crowning +achievement was the Union of Kalmar (1397), whereby +<span class="sidenote">The Union of Kalmar, 1397.</span> +she sought to combine the three northern kingdoms +into a single state dominated by Denmark. In any +case Denmark was bound to be the only gainer by +the Union. Her population was double that of the two other +kingdoms combined, and neither Margaret nor her successors +observed the stipulations that each country should retain its own +laws and customs and be ruled by natives only. In both Norway +and Sweden, therefore, the Union was highly unpopular. The +Norwegian aristocracy was too weak, however, seriously to +endanger the Union at any time, but Sweden was, from the +first, decidedly hostile to Margaret’s whole policy. Nevertheless +during her lifetime the system worked fairly well; but her pupil +and successor, Eric of Pomerania, was unequal to the burden +of empire and embroiled himself both with his neighbours and +his subjects. The Hanseatic League, whose political ascendancy +had been shaken by the Union, enraged by Eric’s efforts to bring +in the Dutch as commercial rivals, as well as by the establishment +of the Sound tolls, materially assisted the Holsteiners in +their twenty-five years’ war with Denmark (1410-35), and +Eric VII. himself was finally deposed (1439) in favour of his +nephew, Christopher of Bavaria.</p> + +<p>The deposition of Eric marks another turning-point in Danish +history. It was the act not of the people but of the <i>Rigsraad</i> +(Senate), which had inherited the authority of the +<span class="sidenote">Growth of the power of the nobles.</span> +ancient <i>Danehof</i> and, after the death of Margaret, +grew steadily in power at the expense of the crown. +As the government grew more and more aristocratic, +the position of the peasantry steadily deteriorated. It is under +Christopher that we first hear, for instance, of the <i>Vornedskab</i>, or +patriarchal control of the landlords over their tenants, a system +which degenerated into rank slavery. In Jutland, too, after +the repression, in 1441, of a peasant rising, something very like +serfdom was introduced.</p> + +<p>On the death of Christopher III. without heirs, in 1448, the +Rigsraad elected his distant cousin, Count Christian of Oldenburg, +king; but Sweden preferred Karl Knutsson (Charles +<span class="sidenote">Break-up of the Union.</span> +“VIII.”), while Norway finally combined with Denmark, +at the conference of Halmstad, in a double +election which practically terminated the Union, +though an agreement was come to that the survivor of the two +kings should reign over all three kingdoms. Norway, subsequently, +threw in her lot definitively with Denmark. Dissensions +resulting in interminable civil wars had, even before the Union, +exhausted the resources of the poorest of the three northern +realms; and her ruin was completed by the ravages of the Black +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>31</span> +Death, which wiped out two-thirds of her population. Unfortunately, +too, for Norway’s independence, the native gentry had +gradually died out, and were succeeded by immigrant Danish +fortune-hunters; native burgesses there were none, and the +peasantry were mostly thralls; so that, excepting the clergy, +there was no patriotic class to stand up for the national +liberties.</p> + +<p>Far otherwise was it in the wealthier kingdom of Sweden. Here +the clergy and part of the nobility were favourable to the Union; +but the vast majority of the people hated it as a foreign usurpation. +Matters were still further complicated by the continual +interference of the Hanseatic League; and Christian I. (1448-1481) +and Hans (1481-1513), whose chief merit it is to have +founded the Danish fleet, were, during the greater part of their +reigns, only nominally kings of Sweden. Hans also received +in fief the territory of Dietmarsch from the emperor, but, in +attempting to subdue the hardy Dietmarschers, suffered a +crushing defeat in which the national banner called “Danebrog” +fell into the enemy’s hands (1500). Moreover, this defeat led to a +successful rebellion in Sweden, and a long and ruinous war with +Lübeck, terminated by the peace of Malmö, 1512. It was during +this war that a strong Danish fleet dominated the Baltic for the +first time since the age of the Valdemars.</p> + +<p>On the succession of Hans’s son, Christian II. (1513-1523), +Margaret’s splendid dream of a Scandinavian empire seemed, +finally, about to be realized. The young king, a man +<span class="sidenote">Christian II., 1513-1523.</span> +of character and genius, had wide views and original +ideas. Elected king of Denmark and Norway, he succeeded +in subduing Sweden by force of arms; but +he spoiled everything at the culmination of his triumph by the +hideous crime and blunder known as the Stockholm massacre, +which converted the politically divergent Swedish nation into the +irreconcilable foe of the unional government (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Christian +II.</a></span>). Christian’s contempt of nationality in Sweden is the more +remarkable as in Denmark proper he sided with the people +against the aristocracy, to his own undoing in that age of privilege +and prejudice. His intentions, as exhibited to his famous +<i>Landelove</i> (National Code), were progressive and enlightened to +an eminent degree; so much so, indeed, that they mystified +the people as much as they alienated the patricians; but his +actions were often of revolting brutality, and his whole career +was vitiated by an incurable double-mindedness which provoked +general distrust. Yet there is no doubt that Christian II. was +a true patriot, whose ideal it was to weld the three northern +kingdoms into a powerful state, independent of all foreign +influences, especially of German influence as manifested in the +commercial tyranny of the Hansa League. His utter failure was +due, partly to the vices of an undisciplined temperament, and +partly to the extraordinary difficulties of the most inscrutable +period of European history, when the shrewdest heads were at +fault and irreparable blunders belonged to the order of the day. +That period was the period of the Reformation, which profoundly +affected the politics of Scandinavia. Christian II. had always +subordinated religion to politics, and was Papist or Lutheran +according to circumstances. But, though he treated the Church +more like a foe than a friend and was constantly at war with the +Curia, he retained the Catholic form of church worship and never +seems to have questioned the papal supremacy. On the flight of +Christian II. and the election of his uncle, Frederick I. (1523-1533), +<span class="sidenote">Frederick I., 1523-1533. The Reformation.</span> +the Church resumed her jurisdiction and everything +was placed on the old footing. The newly +elected and still insecure German king at first remained +neutral; but in the autumn of 1525 the current of +Lutheranism began to run so strongly in Denmark as +to threaten to whirl away every opposing obstacle. This novel +and disturbing phenomenon was mainly due to the zeal and +eloquence of the ex-monk Hans Tausen and his associates, or +disciples, Peder Plad and Sadolin; and, in the autumn of 1526, +Tausen was appointed one of the royal chaplains. The three +ensuing years were especially favourable for the Reformation, +as during that time the king had unlooked-for opportunities for +filling the vacant episcopal sees with men after his own heart, +and at heart he was a Lutheran. The reformation movement in +Denmark was further promoted by Schleswig-Holstein influence. +Frederick’s eldest son Duke Christian had, since 1527, resided at +Haderslev, where he collected round him Lutheran teachers +from Germany, and made his court the centre of the propaganda +of the new doctrine. On the other hand, the Odense Recess of +the 20th of August 1527, which put both confessions on a footing +of equality, remained unrepealed; and so long as it remained in +force, the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishops, and, consequently, +their authority over the “free preachers” (whose ambition +convulsed all the important towns of Denmark and aimed +at forcibly expelling the Catholic priests from their churches) +remained valid, to the great vexation of the reformers. The +inevitable ecclesiastical crisis was still further postponed by the +superior stress of two urgent political events—Christian II.’s +invasion of Norway (1531) and the outbreak, in 1533, of +<span class="sidenote">The Count’s War, 1533-36.</span> +“<i>Grevens fejde</i>,” or “The Count’s War” (1534-36), +the count in question being Christopher of Oldenburg, +great-nephew of King Christian I., whom Lübeck and +her allies, on the death of Frederick I., raised up +against Frederick’s son Christian III. The Catholic +party and the lower orders generally took the part of Count +Christopher, who acted throughout as the nominee of the captive +Christian II., while the Protestant party, aided by the Holstein +dukes and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sided with Christian III. +The war ended with the capture of Copenhagen by the forces of +Christian III., on the 29th of July 1536, and the triumph of so +devoted a Lutheran sealed the fate of the Roman Catholic +Church in Denmark, though even now it was necessary for the +victorious king to proceed against the bishops and their friends +by a <i>coup d’état</i>, engineered by his German generals the Rantzaus. +The Recess of 1536 enacted that the bishops should forfeit their +temporal and spiritual authority, and that all their property +should be transferred to the crown for the good of the commonwealth. +In the following year a Church ordinance, based upon +the canons of Luther, Melanchthon and Bugenhagen, was drawn +up, submitted to Luther for his approval, and promulgated on +the 2nd of September 1537. On the same day seven “superintendents,” +including Tausen and Sadolin, all of whom had +worked zealously for the cause of the Reformation, were +consecrated in place of the dethroned bishops. The position of +the superintendents and of the reformed church generally was +consolidated by the Articles of Ribe in 1542, and the constitution +of the Danish church has practically continued the same to the +present day. But Catholicism could not wholly or immediately +be dislodged by the teaching of Luther. It had struck deep +roots into the habits and feelings of the people, and traces of its +survival were distinguishable a whole century after the triumph +of the Reformation. Catholicism lingered longest in the cathedral +chapters. Here were to be found men of ability proof against +the eloquence of Hans Tausen or Peder Plad and quite capable +of controverting their theories—men like Povl Helgesen, for +instance, indisputably the greatest Danish theologian of his day, +a scholar whose voice was drowned amidst the clash of conflicting +creeds.</p> + +<p>Though the Reformation at first did comparatively little for +education,<a name="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and the whole spiritual life of Denmark was poor and +feeble in consequence for at least a generation afterwards, +<span class="sidenote">Effects of the Reformation.</span> +the change of religion was of undeniable, if +temporary, benefit to the state from the political +point of view. The enormous increase of the royal +revenue consequent upon the confiscation of the property of the +Church could not fail to increase the financial stability of the +monarchy. In particular the suppression of the monasteries +benefited the crown in two ways. The old church had, indeed, +frequently rendered the state considerable financial aid, but such +voluntary assistance was, from the nature of the case, casual +and arbitrary. Now, however, the state derived a fixed and +certain revenue from the confiscated lands; and the possession +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>32</span> +of immense landed property at the same time enabled the +crown advantageously to conduct the administration. The +gross revenue of the state is estimated to have risen threefold. +Before the Reformation the annual revenue from land averaged +400,000 bushels of corn; after the confiscations of Church +property it averaged 1,200,000 bushels. The possession of a +full purse materially assisted the Danish government in its +domestic administration, which was indeed epoch-making. It +enabled Christian III. to pay off his German mercenaries +immediately after the religious <i>coup d’état</i> of 1536. It enabled +him to prosecute shipbuilding with such energy that, by 1550, +the royal fleet numbered at least thirty vessels, which were +largely employed as a maritime police in the pirate-haunted +Baltic and North Seas. It enabled him to create and +remunerate adequately a capable official class, which proved +its efficiency under the strictest supervision, and ultimately +produced a whole series of great statesmen and admirals like +Johan Friis, Peder Oxe, Herluf Trolle and Peder Skram. It is +not too much to say that the increased revenue derived from the +appropriation of Church property, intelligently applied, gave +<span class="sidenote">European influence of Denmark, 1544-1626.</span> +Denmark the hegemony of the North during the +latter part of Christian III.’s reign, the whole reign +of Frederick II. and the first twenty-five years of the +reign of Christian IV., a period embracing, roughly +speaking, eighty years (1544-1626). Within this period +Denmark was indisputably the leading Scandinavian +power. While Sweden, even after the advent of Gustavus Vasa, +was still of but small account in Europe, Denmark easily held +her own in Germany and elsewhere, even against Charles V., and +was important enough, in 1553, to mediate a peace between the +emperor and Saxony. Twice during this period Denmark and +Sweden measured their strength in the open field, on the first +occasion in the “Scandinavian Seven Years’ War” (1562-70), +on the second in the “Kalmar War” (1611-13), and on both +occasions Denmark prevailed, though the temporary advantage +she gained was more than neutralized by the intense feeling of +hostility which the unnatural wars, between the two kindred +peoples of Scandinavia, left behind them. Still, the fact remains +that, for a time, Denmark was one of the great powers of Europe. +Frederick II., in his later years (1571-1588), aspired to the +dominion of all the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts, +and before he died he was able to enforce the rule that all foreign +ships should strike their topsails to Danish men-of-war as a token +of his right to rule the northern seas. Favourable political +circumstances also contributed to this general acknowledgment +of Denmark’s maritime greatness. The power of the Hansa had +gone; the Dutch were enfeebled by their contest with Spain; +England’s sea-power was yet in the making; Spain, still the +greatest of the maritime nations, was exhausting her resources +in the vain effort to conquer the Dutch. Yet more even than to +felicitous circumstances, Denmark owed her short-lived greatness +to the great statesmen and administrators whom Frederick II. +succeeded in gathering about him. Never before, since the age +of Margaret, had Denmark been so well governed, never before +had she possessed so many political celebrities nobly emulous for +the common good.</p> + +<p>Frederick II. was succeeded by his son Christian IV. (April 4, +1588), who attained his majority on the 17th of August 1596, at +the age of nineteen. The realm which Christian IV. was +<span class="sidenote">Denmark at the accession of Christian IV., 1588.</span> +to govern had undergone great changes within the last +two generations. Towards the south the boundaries of +the Danish state remained unchanged. Levensaa and +the Eider still separated Denmark from the Empire. +Schleswig was recognized as a Danish fief, in contradistinction +to Holstein, which owed vassalage to the Empire. The +“kingdom” stretched as far as Kolding and Skedborg, where +the “duchy” began; and this duchy since its amalgamation +with Holstein by means of a common <i>Landtag</i>, and especially +since the union of the dual duchy with the kingdom on almost +equal terms in 1533, was, in most respects, a semi-independent +state, Denmark, moreover, like Europe in general, was, politically, +on the threshold of a transitional period. During the whole +course of the 16th century the monarchical form of government +was in every large country, with the single exception of Poland, +rising on the ruins of feudalism. The great powers of the late +16th and early 17th centuries were to be the strong, highly +centralized, hereditary monarchies, like France, Spain and +Sweden. There seemed to be no reason why Denmark also should +not become a powerful state under the guidance of a powerful +monarchy, especially as the sister state of Sweden was developing +into a great power under apparently identical conditions. Yet, +while Sweden was surely ripening into the dominating power of +northern Europe, Denmark had as surely entered upon a period +of uninterrupted and apparently incurable decline. What was +the cause of this anomaly? Something of course must be allowed +for the superior and altogether extraordinary genius of the great +princes of the house of Vasa; yet the causes of the decline +of Denmark lay far deeper than this. They may roughly be +summed up under two heads: the inherent weakness of an +elective monarchy, and the absence of that public spirit which +is based on the intimate alliance of ruler and ruled. Whilst +Gustavus Vasa had leaned upon the Swedish peasantry, in other +words upon the bulk of the Swedish nation, which was and +continued to be an integral part of the Swedish body-politic, +Christian III. on his accession had crushed the middle and lower +classes in Denmark and reduced them to political insignificance. +Yet it was not the king who benefited by this blunder. The +Danish monarchy since the days of Margaret had continued to be +purely elective; and a purely elective monarchy at that stage of +the political development of Europe was a mischievous anomaly. +It signified in the first place that the crown was not the highest +power in the state, but was subject to the aristocratic <i>Rigsraad</i>, +or council of state. The <i>Rigsraad</i> was the permanent owner of the +realm and the crown-lands; the king was only their temporary +administrator. If the king died before the election of his +successor, the <i>Rigsraad</i> stepped into the king’s place. Moreover, +an elective monarchy implied that, at every fresh succession, the +king was liable to be bound by a new <i>Haandfaestning</i>, or charter. +The election itself might, and did, become a mere formality; +but the condition precedent of election, the acceptance of +the charter, invariably limiting the royal authority, remained a +reality. This period of aristocratic rule, which dates practically +from the accession of Frederick I. (1523), and lasted for nearly +a century and a half, is known in Danish history as <i>Adelsvaelde</i>, +or rule of the nobles.</p> + +<p>Again, the king was the ruler of the realm, but over a very +large portion of it he had but a slight control. The crown-lands +and most of the towns were under his immediate jurisdiction, +but by the side of the crown-lands lay the estates of the nobility, +which already comprised about one-half of the superficial area +of Denmark, and were in many respects independent of the central +government both as regards taxation and administration. In a +word, the monarchy had to share its dominion with the nobility; +and the Danish nobility in the 16th century was one of the most +exclusive and selfish aristocracies in Europe, and already far +advanced in decadence. Hermetically sealing itself from any +intrusion from below, it deteriorated by close and constant intermarriage; +and it was already, both morally and intellectually, +below the level of the rest of the nation. Yet this very aristocracy, +whose claim to consideration was based not upon its own +achievements but upon the length of its pedigrees, insisted upon +an amplification of its privileges which endangered the economical +and political interests of the state and the nation. The time was +close at hand when a Danish magnate was to demonstrate that he +preferred the utter ruin of his country to any abatement of his +own personal dignity.</p> + +<p>All below the king and the nobility were generally classified +together as “subjects.” Of these lower orders the clergy stood +first in the social scale. As a spiritual estate, indeed, it had +ceased to exist at the Reformation, though still represented in the +<i>Rigsdag</i> or diet. Since then too it had become quite detached +from the nobility, which ostentatiously despised the teaching +profession. The clergy recruited themselves therefore from +the class next below them, and looked more and more to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33"></a>33</span> +crown for help and protection as they drew apart from +the gentry, who, moreover, as dispensers of patronage, lost no +opportunity of appropriating church lands and cutting down +tithes.</p> + +<p>The burgesses had not yet recovered from the disaster of +“Grevens fejde”; but while the towns had become more +dependent on the central power, they had at the same time been +released from their former vexatious subjection to the local magnates, +and could make their voices heard in the <i>Rigsdag</i>, where +they were still, though inadequately, represented. Within the +Estate of Burgesses itself, too, a levelling process had begun. +The old municipal patriciate, which used to form the connecting +link between the <i>bourgeoisie</i> and the nobility, had disappeared, +and a feeling of common civic fellowship had taken its place. +All this tended to enlarge the political views of the burgesses, and +was not without its influence on the future. Yet, after all, the +prospects of the burgesses depended mainly on economic conditions; +and in this respect there was a decided improvement, +due to the increasing importance of money and commerce all +over Europe, especially as the steady decline of the Hanse towns +immediately benefited the trade of Denmark-Norway; Norway +by this time being completely merged in the Danish state, +and ruled from Copenhagen. There can, indeed, be no doubt +that the Danish and Norwegian merchants at the end of the +16th century flourished exceedingly, despite the intrusion and +competition of the Dutch and the dangers to neutral shipping +arising from the frequent wars between England, Spain and +the Netherlands.</p> + +<p>At the bottom of the social ladder lay the peasants, whose +condition had decidedly deteriorated. Only in one respect had +they benefited by the peculiar conditions of the 16th century: +the rise in the price of corn without any corresponding rise in the +land-tax must have largely increased their material prosperity. +Yet the number of peasant-proprietors had diminished, while +the obligations of the peasantry generally had increased; and, +still worse, their obligations were vexatiously indefinite, varying +from year to year and even from month to month. They +weighed especially heavily on the so-called <i>Ugedasmaend</i>, who +were forced to work two or three days a week in the demesne +lands. This increase of villenage morally depressed the peasantry, +and widened still further the breach between the yeomanry and +the gentry. Politically its consequences were disastrous. While +in Sweden the free and energetic peasant was a salutary power +in the state, which he served with both mind and plough, the +Danish peasant was sinking to the level of a bondman. While +the Swedish peasants were well represented in the Swedish +<i>Riksdag</i>, whose proceedings they sometimes dominated, the +Danish peasantry had no political rights or privileges whatever.</p> + +<p>Such then, briefly, was the condition of things in Denmark +when, in 1588, Christian IV. ascended the throne. Where so much +was necessarily uncertain and fluctuating, there was +<span class="sidenote">Christian IV., 1588-1648.</span> +room for an almost infinite variety of development. +Much depended on the character and personality of +the young prince who had now taken into his hands +the reins of government, and for half a century was to guide the +destinies of the nation. In the beginning of his reign the hand +of the young monarch, who was nothing if not energetic, made +itself felt in every direction. The harbours of Copenhagen, +Elsinore and other towns were enlarged; many decaying towns +were abolished and many new ones built under more promising +conditions, including Christiania, which was founded in August +1624, on the ruins of the ancient city of Oslo. Various attempts +were also made to improve trade and industry by abolishing the +still remaining privileges of the Hanseatic towns, by promoting +a wholesale immigration of skilful and well-to-do Dutch traders +and handicraftsmen into Denmark under most favourable +conditions, by opening up the rich fisheries of the Arctic seas, +and by establishing joint-stock chartered companies both in the +East and the West Indies. Copenhagen especially benefited by +Christian IV.’s commercial policy. He enlarged and embellished +it, and provided it with new harbours and fortifications; in short, +did his best to make it the worthy capital of a great empire. +But it was in the foreign policy of the government that the royal +influence was most perceptible. Unlike Sweden, Denmark had +remained outside the great religious-political movements which +were the outcome of the Catholic reaction; and the peculiarity +of her position made her rather hostile than friendly to the other +Protestant states. The possession of the Sound enabled her to +close the Baltic against the Western powers; the possession of +Norway carried along with it the control of the rich fisheries +which were Danish monopolies, and therefore a source of irritation +to England and Holland. Denmark, moreover, was above +all things a Scandinavian power. While the territorial expansion +of Sweden in the near future was a matter of necessity, Denmark +had not only attained, but even exceeded, her natural limits. +Aggrandizement southwards, at the expense of the German +empire, was becoming every year more difficult; and in every +other direction she had nothing more to gain. Nay, more, +Denmark’s possession of the Scanian provinces deprived Sweden +of her proper geographical frontiers. Clearly it was Denmark’s +wisest policy to seek a close alliance with Sweden in their common +interests, and after the conclusion of the “Kalmar War” the +two countries did remain at peace for the next thirty-one years. +But the antagonistic interests of the two countries in Germany +during the Thirty Years’ War precipitated a fourth contest +between them (1643-45), in which Denmark would have been +utterly ruined but for the heroism of King Christian IV. and his +command of the sea during the crisis of the struggle. Even so, +<span class="sidenote">First losses of territory.</span> +by the peace of Brömsebro (February 8, 1645) +Denmark surrendered the islands of Oesel and Gotland +and the provinces of Jemteland and Herjedal (in +Norway) definitively, and Halland for thirty years. +The freedom from the Sound tolls was by the same treaty also +extended to Sweden’s Baltic provinces.</p> + +<p>The peace of Brömsebro was the first of the long series +of treaties, extending down to our own days, which mark the +progressive shrinkage of Danish territory into an irreducible +minimum. Sweden’s appropriation of Danish soil had begun, +and at the same time Denmark’s power of resisting the encroachments +of Sweden was correspondingly reduced. The Danish +national debt, too, had risen enormously, while the sources of +future income and consequent recuperation had diminished +or disappeared. The Sound tolls, for instance, in consequence of +the treaties of Brömsebro and Kristianopel (by the latter treaty +very considerable concessions were made to the Dutch) had sunk +from 400,000 to 140,000 rix-dollars. The political influence of +the crown, moreover, had inevitably been weakened, and the +conduct of foreign affairs passed from the hands of the king +<span class="sidenote">Frederick III., 1648-1670.</span> +into the hands of the <i>Rigsraad</i>. On the accession +of Frederick III. (1648-1670) moreover, the already +diminished royal prerogative was still further curtailed +by the <i>Haandfaestning</i>, or charter, which he was +compelled to sign. Fear and hatred of Sweden, and the never +abandoned hope of recovering the lost provinces, animated king +and people alike; but it was Denmark’s crowning misfortune +that she possessed at this difficult crisis no statesman of the first +rank, no one even approximately comparable with such competitors +as Charles X. of Sweden or the “Great Elector” +Frederick William of Brandenburg. From the very beginning +of his reign Frederick III. was resolved upon a rupture at the +first convenient opportunity, while the nation was, if possible, +even more bellicose than the king. The apparently insuperable +difficulties of Sweden in Poland was the feather that turned the +scale; on the 1st of June 1657, Frederick III. signed the manifesto +justifying a war which was never formally declared and brought +Denmark to the very verge of ruin. The extraordinary details +of this dramatic struggle will be found elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frederick +III.</a></span>, king of Denmark, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charles X.</a></span>, king of Sweden); +<span class="sidenote">Peace of Roskilde, 1658.</span> +suffice it to say that by the peace of Roskilde +(February 26, 1658), Denmark consented to cede the +three Scanian provinces, the island of Bornholm and +the Norwegian provinces of Baahus and Trondhjem; +to renounce all anti-Swedish alliances and to exempt all Swedish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>34</span> +vessels, even when carrying foreign goods, from all tolls. These +terrible losses were somewhat retrieved by the subsequent +treaty of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660) concluded by the Swedish +regency with Frederick III. after the failure of Charles X.’s +second war against Denmark, a failure chiefly owing to the +heroic defence of the Danish capital (1658-60). By this treaty +<span class="sidenote">Treaty of Copenhagen, 1660.</span> +Sweden gave back the province of Trondhjem and the +isle of Bornholm and released Denmark from the most +onerous of the obligations of the treaty of Roskilde. +In fact the peace of Copenhagen came as a welcome +break in an interminable series of disasters and humiliations. +Anyhow, it confirmed the independence of the Danish state. +On the other hand, if Denmark had emerged from the war with +her honour and dignity unimpaired, she had at the same time +tacitly surrendered the dominion of the North to her Scandinavian +rival.</p> + +<p>But the war just terminated had important political consequences, +which were to culminate in one of the most curious and +interesting revolutions of modern history. In the first +<span class="sidenote">Hereditary monarchy established, 1660.</span> +place, it marks the termination of the <i>Adelsvaelde</i>, or +rule of the nobility. By their cowardice, incapacity, +egotism and treachery during the crisis of the struggle, +the Danish aristocracy had justly forfeited the respect +of every other class of the community, and emerged from the +war hopelessly discredited. On the other hand, Copenhagen, +proudly conscious of her intrinsic importance and of her inestimable +services to the country, whom she had saved from annihilation +by her constancy, now openly claimed to have a voice in public +affairs. Still higher had risen the influence of the crown. The +courage and resource displayed by Frederick III. in the extremity +of the national danger had won for “the least expansive of +monarchs” an extraordinary popularity.</p> + +<p>On the 10th of September 1660, the <i>Rigsdag</i>, which was to +repair the ravages of the war and provide for the future, was +opened with great ceremony in the <i>Riddersaal</i> of the castle +of Copenhagen. The first bill laid before the Estates by the +government was to impose an excise tax on the principal articles +of consumption, together with subsidiary taxes on cattle, poultry, +&c., in return for which the abolition of all the old direct taxes +was promised. The nobility at first claimed exemption from +taxation altogether, while the clergy and burgesses insisted upon +an absolute equality of taxation. There were sharp encounters +between the presidents of the contending orders, but the position +of the Lower Estates was considerably prejudiced by the dissensions +of its various sections. Thus the privileges of the bishops +and of Copenhagen profoundly irritated the lower clergy and +the unprivileged towns, and made a cordial understanding +impossible, till Hans Svane, bishop of Copenhagen, and Hans +Nansen the burgomaster, who now openly came forward as the +leader of the reform movement, proposed that the privileges +which divided the non-noble Estates should be abolished. In +accordance with this proposal, the two Lower Estates, on the +16th of September, subscribed a memorandum addressed to the +<i>Rigsraad</i>, declaring their willingness to renounce their privileges, +provided the nobility did the same; which was tantamount to a +declaration that the whole of the clergy and burgesses had made +common cause against the nobility. The opposition so formed +took the name of the “Conjoined Estates.” The presentation +of the memorial provoked an outburst of indignation. But the +nobility soon perceived the necessity of complete surrender. +On the 30th of September the First Estate abandoned its former +standpoint and renounced its privileges, with one unimportant +reservation.</p> + +<p>The struggle now seemed to be ended, and the financial +question having also been settled, the king, had he been so +minded, might have dismissed the Estates. But the still more +important question of reform was now raised. On the 17th of +September the burgesses introduced a bill proposing a new +constitution, which was to include local self-government in the +towns, the abolition of serfdom, and the formation of a national +army. It fell to the ground for want of adequate support; but +another proposition, the fruit of secret discussion between the +king and his confederates, which placed all fiefs under the control +of the crown as regards taxation, and provided for selling and +letting them to the highest bidder, was accepted by the Estate +of burgesses. The significance of this ordinance lay in the fact +that it shattered the privileged position of the nobility, by +abolishing the exclusive right to the possession of fiefs. What +happened next is not quite clear. Our sources fail us, and we are +at the mercy of doubtful rumours and more or less unreliable +anecdotes. We have a vision of intrigues, mysterious conferences, +threats and bribery, dimly discernible through a shifting mirage +of tradition.</p> + +<p>The first glint of light is a letter, dated the 23rd of September, +from Frederick III. to Svane and Nansen, authorizing them to +communicate the arrangements already made to reliable men, +and act quickly, as “if the others gain time they may possibly +gain more.” The first step was to make sure of the city train-bands: +of the garrison of Copenhagen the king had no doubt. +The headquarters of the conspirators was the bishop’s palace +near <i>Vor Frue</i> church, between which and the court messages +were passing continually, and where the document to be adopted +by the Conjoined Estates took its final shape. On the 8th of +October the two burgomasters, Hans Nansen and Kristoffer +Hansen, proposed that the realm of Denmark should be made +over to the king as a hereditary kingdom, without prejudice to +the privileges of the Estates; whereupon they proceeded to Brewer’s +Hall, and informed the Estate of burgesses there assembled +of what had been done. A fiery oration from Nansen dissolved +some feeble opposition; and simultaneously Bishop Svane +carried the clergy along with him. The so-called “Instrument,” +now signed by the Lower Estates, offered the realm to the king +and his house as a hereditary monarchy, by way of thank-offering +mainly for his courageous deliverance of the kingdom during +the war; and the <i>Rigsraad</i> and the nobility were urged to +notify the resolution to the king, and desire him to maintain +each Estate in its due privileges, and to give a written counter-assurance +that the revolution now to be effected was for the sole +benefit of the state. Events now moved forward rapidly. On +the 10th of October a deputation from the clergy and burgesses +proceeded to the Council House where the <i>Rigsraad</i> were deliberating, +to demand an answer to their propositions. After +a tumultuous scene, the aristocratic <i>Raad</i> rejected the “Instrument” +altogether, whereupon the deputies of the commons proceeded +to the palace and were graciously received by the king, +who promised them an answer next day. The same afternoon +the guards in the streets and on the ramparts were doubled; on +the following morning the gates of the city were closed, powder +and bullets were distributed among the city train-bands, who +were bidden to be in readiness when the alarm bell called them, +and cavalry was massed on the environs of the city. The same +afternoon the king sent a message to the <i>Rigsraad</i> urging them +to declare their views quickly, as he could no longer hold himself +responsible for what might happen. After a feeble attempt +at a compromise the <i>Raad</i> gave way. On the 13th of October +it signed a declaration to the effect that it associated itself +still with the Lower Estates in the making over of the kingdom, +as a hereditary monarchy, to his majesty and his heirs male and +female. The same day the king received the official communication +of this declaration and the congratulation of the burgomasters. +Thus the ancient constitution was transformed; and +Denmark became a monarchy hereditary in Frederick III. and +his posterity.</p> + +<p>But although hereditary sovereignty had been introduced, the +laws of the land had not been abolished. The monarch was +specifically now a sovereign overlord, but he had not been +absolved from his obligations towards his subjects. Hereditary +sovereignty <i>per se</i> was not held to signify unlimited dominion, +still less absolutism. On the contrary, the magnificent gift of +the Danish nation to Frederick III. was made under express +conditions. The “Instrument” drawn up by the Lower +Estates implied the retention of all their rights; and the king, +in accepting the gift of a hereditary crown, did not repudiate +the implied inviolability of the privileges of the donors. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>35</span> +Unfortunately everything had been left so vague, that it was +an easy matter for ultra-royalists like Svane and Nansen to +ignore the privileges of the Estates, and even the Estates +themselves.</p> + +<p>On the 14th of October a committee was summoned to the +palace to organize the new government. The discussion turned +mainly upon two points, (1) whether a new oath of homage should +be taken to the king, and (2) what was to be done with the +<i>Haandfaestning</i> or royal charter. The first point was speedily +decided in the affirmative, and, as to the second, it was ultimately +decided that the king should be released from his oath and the +charter returned to him; but a rider was added suggesting that +he should, at the same time, promulgate a Recess providing for +his own and his people’s welfare. Thus Frederick III. was not +left absolutely his own master; for the provision regarding a +Recess, or new constitution, showed plainly enough that such +a constitution was expected, and, once granted, would of course +have limited the royal power.</p> + +<p>It now only remained to execute the resolutions of the committee. +On the 17th of October the charter, which the king had +sworn to observe twelve years before, was solemnly handed back +to him at the palace, Frederick III. thereupon promising to rule +as a Christian king to the satisfaction of all the Estates of the +realm. On the following day the king, seated on the topmost +step of a lofty tribune surmounted by a baldaquin, erected in the +midst of the principal square of Copenhagen, received the public +homage of his subjects of all ranks, in the presence of an immense +concourse, on which occasion he again promised to rule “as a +Christian hereditary king and gracious master,” and, “as soon as +possible, to prepare and set up” such a constitution as should +secure to his subjects a Christian and indulgent sway. The +ceremony concluded with a grand banquet at the palace. After +dinner the queen and the clergy withdrew; but the king remained. +An incident now occurred which made a strong impression on all +present. With a brimming beaker in his hand, Frederick III. +went up to Hans Nansen, drank with him and drew him aside. +They communed together in a low voice for some time, till the +burgomaster, succumbing to the influence of his potations, +fumbled his way to his carriage with the assistance of some of +his civic colleagues. Whether Nansen, intoxicated by wine +and the royal favour, consented on this occasion to sacrifice the +privileges of his order and his city, it is impossible to say; but +it is significant that, from henceforth, we hear no more of the +Recess which the more liberal of the leaders of the lower +orders had hoped for when they released Frederick III. from +the obligations of the charter.</p> + +<p>We can follow pretty plainly the stages of the progress from +a limited to an absolute monarchy. By an act dated the 10th +of January 1661, entitled “Instrument, or pragmatic +<span class="sidenote">Establishment of absolute rule.</span> +sanction,” of the king’s hereditary right to the kingdoms +of Denmark and Norway, it was declared that +all the prerogatives of majesty, and “all regalia as an +absolute sovereign lord,” had been made over to the king. Yet, +even after the issue of the “Instrument,” there was nothing, +strictly speaking, to prevent Frederick III. from voluntarily +conceding to his subjects some share in the administration. +Unfortunately the king was bent upon still further emphasizing +the plenitude of his power. At Copenhagen his advisers were +busy framing drafts of a <i>Lex Regia Perpetua</i>; and the one +which finally won the royal favour was the famous <i>Kongelov</i>, or +“King’s Law.”</p> + +<p>This document was in every way unique. In the first place +it is remarkable for its literary excellence. Compared with the +barbarous macaronic jargon of the contemporary official language +it shines forth as a masterpiece of pure, pithy and original +Danish. Still more remarkable are the tone and tenor of this +royal law. The <i>Kongelov</i> has the highly dubious honour of being +the one written law in the civilized world which fearlessly carries +out absolutism to the last consequences. The monarchy is declared +to owe its origin to the surrender of the supreme authority +by the Estates to the king. The maintenance of the indivisibility +of the realm and of the Christian faith according to the +Augsburg Confession, and the observance of the <i>Kongelov</i> itself, +are now the sole obligations binding upon the king. The supreme +spiritual authority also is now claimed; and it is expressly stated +that it becomes none to crown him; the moment he ascends the +throne, crown and sceptre belong to him of right. Moreover, +par. 26 declares guilty of <i>lèse-majesté</i> whomsoever shall in any +way usurp or infringe the king’s absolute authority. In the +following reign the ultra-royalists went further still. In their +eyes the king was not merely autocratic, but sacrosanct. Thus +before the anointing of Christian V. on the 7th of June 1671, a +ceremony by way of symbolizing the new autocrat’s humble +submission to the Almighty, the officiating bishop of Zealand +delivered an oration in which he declared that the king was God’s +immediate creation, His vicegerent on earth, and that it was the +bounden duty of all good subjects to serve and honour the +celestial majesty as represented by the king’s terrestrial majesty. +The <i>Kongelov</i> is dated and subscribed the 14th of November +1665, but was kept a profound secret, only two initiated persons +knowing of its existence until after the death of Frederick III., +one of them being Kristoffer Gabel, the king’s chief intermediary +during the revolution, and the other the author and custodian +of the <i>Kongelov</i>, Secretary Peder Schumacher, better known as +Griffenfeldt. It is significant that both these confidential agents +were plebeians.</p> + +<p>The revolution of 1660 was certainly beneficial to Norway. +With the disappearance of the <i>Rigsraad</i>, which, as representing +the Danish crown, had hitherto exercised sovereignty +<span class="sidenote">Effects of the revolution of 1660.</span> +over both kingdoms, Norway ceased to be a subject +principality. The sovereign hereditary king stood in +exactly the same relations to both kingdoms; and +thus, constitutionally, Norway was placed on an equality with +Denmark, united with but not subordinate to it. It is clear +that the majority of the Norwegian people hoped that the +revolution would give them an administration independent +of the Danish government; but these expectations were not +realised. Till the cessation of the Union in 1814, Copenhagen +continued to be the headquarters of the Norwegian administration; +both kingdoms had common departments of state; and +the common chancery continued to be called the Danish chancery. +On the other hand the condition of Norway was now greatly +improved. In January 1661 a land commission was appointed +to investigate the financial and economical conditions of the +kingdoms; the fiefs were transformed into counties; the nobles +were deprived of their immunity from taxation; and in July +1662 the Norwegian towns received special privileges, including +the monopoly of the lucrative timber trade.</p> + +<p>The <i>Enevaelde</i>, or absolute monarchy, also distinctly benefited +the whole Danish state by materially increasing its reserve of +native talent. Its immediate consequence was to throw open +every state appointment to the middle classes; and the middle +classes of that period, with very few exceptions, monopolized the +intellect and the energy of the nation. New blood of the best +quality nourished and stimulated the whole body politic. Expansion +and progress were the watchwords at home, and abroad +<span class="sidenote">Christian V., 1670-1699.</span> +it seemed as if Denmark were about to regain her +former position as a great power. This was especially +the case during the brief but brilliant administration +of Chancellor Griffenfeldt. Then, if ever, Denmark +had the chance of playing once more a leading part in international +politics. But Griffenfeldt’s difficulties, always serious, +were increased by the instability of the European situation, +depending as it did on the ambition of Louis XIV. Resolved to +conquer the Netherlands, the French king proceeded, first of all, +to isolate her by dissolving the Triple Alliance. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Griffenfeldt</a></span>.) In April 1672 a treaty was concluded +between France and Sweden, on condition that France should not +include Denmark in her system of alliances without the consent +of Sweden. This treaty showed that Sweden weighed more in +the French balances than Denmark. In June 1672 a French +army invaded the Netherlands; whereupon the elector of +Brandenburg contracted an alliance with the emperor Leopold, +to which Denmark was invited to accede; almost simultaneously +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36"></a>36</span> +the States-General began to negotiate for a renewal of the recently +expired Dano-Dutch alliance.</p> + +<p>In these circumstances it was as difficult for Denmark to +remain neutral as it was dangerous for her to make a choice. +An alliance with France would subordinate her to +<span class="sidenote">Denmark in the Great Northern War.</span> +Sweden; an alliance with the Netherlands would expose +her to an attack from Sweden. The Franco-Swedish +alliance left Griffenfeldt no choice but to accede to the +opposite league, for he saw at once that the ruin of the +Netherlands would disturb the balance of power in the north by +giving an undue preponderance to England and Sweden. But +Denmark’s experience of Dutch promises in the past was not +reassuring; so, while negotiating at the Hague for a renewal of +the Dutch alliance, he at the same time felt his way at Stockholm +towards a commercial treaty with Sweden. His Swedish mission +proved abortive, but, as he had anticipated, it effectually accelerated +the negotiations at the Hague, and frightened the Dutch +into unwonted liberality. In May 1673 a treaty of alliance was +signed by the ambassador of the States-General at Copenhagen, +whereby the Netherlands pledged themselves to pay Denmark +large subsidies in return for the services of 10,000 men and +twenty warships, which were to be held in readiness in case the +United Provinces were attacked by another enemy besides +France. Thus, very dexterously, Griffenfeldt had succeeded in +gaining his subsidies without sacrificing his neutrality.</p> + +<p>His next move was to attempt to detach Sweden from France; +but, Sweden showing not the slightest inclination for a <i>rapprochement</i>, +Denmark was compelled to accede to the anti-French +league, which she did by the treaty of Copenhagen, of January +1674, thereby engaging to place an army of 20,000 in the field +when required; but here again Griffenfeldt safeguarded himself +to some extent by stipulating that this provision was not to be +operative till the allies were attacked by a fresh enemy. When, +in December 1674, a Swedish army invaded Prussian Pomerania, +Denmark was bound to intervene as a belligerent, but Griffenfeldt +endeavoured to postpone this intervention as long as +possible; and Sweden’s anxiety to avoid hostilities with her +southern neighbour materially assisted him to postpone the evil +day. He only wanted to gain time, and he gained it. To the last +he endeavoured to avoid a rupture with France even if he broke +with Sweden; but he could not restrain for ever the foolish +impetuosity of his own sovereign, Christian V., and his fall in +the beginning of 1676 not only, as he had foreseen, involved +Denmark in an unprofitable war, but, as his friend and disciple, +Jens Juel, well observed, relegated her henceforth to the humiliating +position of an international catspaw. Thus at the peace of +Fontainebleau (September 2, 1679) Denmark, which had borne +the brunt of the struggle in the Baltic, was compelled by the +inexorable French king to make full restitution to Sweden, the +treaty between the two northern powers being signed at Lund +on the 26th of September. Freely had she spent her blood and +her treasure, only to emerge from the five years’ contest exhausted +and empty-handed.</p> + +<p>By the peace of Fontainebleau Denmark had been sacrificed +to the interests of France and Sweden; forty-one years later she +was sacrificed to the interests of Hanover and Prussia by the +peace of Copenhagen (1720), which ended the Northern War so +far as the German powers were concerned. But it would not +have terminated advantageously for them at all, had not the +powerful and highly efficient Danish fleet effectually prevented +the Swedish government from succouring its distressed German +provinces, and finally swept the Swedish fleets out of the northern +waters. Yet all the compensation Denmark received for her +inestimable services during a whole decade was 600,000 rix-dollars! +The bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, the province of +Farther Pomerania and the isle of Rügen which her armies had +actually conquered, and which had been guaranteed to her by a +whole catena of treaties, went partly to the upstart electorate +of Hanover and partly to the upstart kingdom of Prussia, both of +which states had been of no political importance whatever at the +beginning of the war of spoliation by which they were, ultimately, +to profit so largely and so cheaply.</p> + +<p>The last ten years of the reign of Christian V.’s successor, +Frederick IV. (1699-1730), were devoted to the nursing and +development of the resources of the country, which had +<span class="sidenote">Frederick IV., 1699-1730.</span> +suffered only less severely than Sweden from the effects +of the Great Northern War. The court, seriously pious, +did much for education. A wise economy also contributed +to reduce the national debt within manageable limits, and +in the welfare of the peasantry Frederick IV. took a deep interest. +In 1722 serfdom was abolished in the case of all peasants in the +royal estates born after his accession.</p> + +<p>The first act of Frederick’s successor, Christian VI. (1730-1746), +was to abolish the national militia, which had been an intolerable +burden upon the peasantry; yet the more pressing +<span class="sidenote">Christian VI., 1730-1746.</span> +agrarian difficulties were not thereby surmounted, +as had been hoped. The price of corn continued +to fall; the migration of the peasantry assumed +alarming proportions; and at last, “to preserve the land” as +well as to increase the defensive capacity of the country, the +national militia was re-established by the decree of the 4th of +February 1733, which at the same time bound to the soil all +peasants between the age of nine and forty. Reactionary as the +measure was it enabled the agricultural interest, on which the +prosperity of Denmark mainly depended, to tide over one of the +most dangerous crises in its history; but certainly the position +of the Danish peasantry was never worse than during the reign +of the religious and benevolent Christian VI.</p> + +<p>Under the peaceful reign of Christian’s son and successor, +Frederick V. (1746-1766), still more was done for commerce, +industry and agriculture. To promote Denmark’s +<span class="sidenote">Frederick V., 1746-1766.</span> +carrying trade, treaties were made with the Barbary +States, Genoa and Naples; and the East Indian +Trading Company flourished exceedingly. On the +other hand the condition of the peasantry was even worse under +Frederick V. than it had been under Christian VI., the <i>Stavnsbaand</i>, +or regulation which bound all males to the soil, being +made operative from the age of four. Yet signs of a coming +amelioration were not wanting. The theory of the physiocrats +now found powerful advocates in Denmark; and after 1755, when +the press censorship was abolished so far as regarded political +economy and agriculture, a thorough discussion of the whole +agrarian question became possible. A commission appointed +in 1757 worked zealously for the repeal of many agricultural +abuses; and several great landed proprietors introduced hereditary +leaseholds, and abolished the servile tenure.</p> + +<p>Foreign affairs during the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian +VI. were left in the capable hands of J. H. E. Bernstorff, who +aimed at steering clear of all foreign complications and preserving +inviolable the neutrality of Denmark. This he succeeded in +doing, in spite of the Seven Years’ War and of the difficulties +attending the thorny Gottorp question in which Sweden and +Russia were equally interested. The same policy was victoriously +pursued by his nephew and pupil Andreas Bernstorff, an +even greater man than the elder Bernstorff, who controlled the +foreign policy of Denmark from 1773 to 1778, and again from +<span class="sidenote">Christian VII., 1766-1808.</span> +1784 till his death in 1797. The period of the younger +Bernstorff synchronizes with the greater part of the +long reign of Christian VII. (1766-1808), one of the +most eventful periods of modern Danish history. The +king himself was indeed a semi-idiot, scarce responsible for his +actions, yet his was the era of such striking personalities as +the brilliant charlatan Struensee, the great philanthropist and +reformer C. D. F. Reventlow, the ultra-conservative Ove +Hoegh-Guldberg, whose mission it was to repair the damage done +by Struensee, and that generation of alert and progressive spirits +which surrounded the young crown prince Frederick, whose first +act, on taking his seat in the council of state, at the age of +sixteen, on the 4th of April 1784, was to dismiss Guldberg.</p> + +<p>A fresh and fruitful period of reform now began, lasting till +nearly the end of the century, and interrupted only by the brief +but costly war with Sweden in 1788. The emancipation of +the peasantry was now the burning question of the day, and +the whole matter was thoroughly ventilated. Bernstorff and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>37</span> +crown prince were the most zealous advocates of the peasantry +in the council of state; but the honour of bringing the whole +peasant question within the range of practical politics undoubtedly +belongs to C. D. F. <a href="#artlinks">Reventlow</a> (q.v.). Nor was the +reforming principle limited to the abolition of serfdom. In 1788 +the corn trade was declared free; the Jews received civil rights; +and the negro slave trade was forbidden. In 1796 a special +ordinance reformed the whole system of judicial procedure, +making it cheaper and more expeditious; while the toll ordinance +of the 1st of February 1797 still further extended the principle +of free trade. Moreover, until two years after Bernstorff’s death +in 1797, the Danish press enjoyed a larger freedom of speech than +the press of any other absolute monarchy in Europe, so much so +that at last Denmark became suspected of favouring Jacobin +views. But in September 1799 under strong pressure from +the Russian emperor Paul, the Danish government forbade +anonymity, and introduced a limited censorship.</p> + +<p>It was Denmark’s obsequiousness to Russia which led to the +first of her unfortunate collisions with Great Britain. In 1800 +the Danish government was persuaded by the tsar +<span class="sidenote">Denmark and Great Britain in the Napoleonic Wars.</span> +to accede to the second Armed Neutrality League, +which Russia had just concluded with Prussia and +Sweden. Great Britain retaliated by laying an +embargo on the vessels of the three neutral powers, +and by sending a considerable fleet to the Baltic under +the command of Parker and Nelson. Surprised and unprepared +though they were, the Danes, nevertheless, on the 2nd of April +1801, offered a gallant resistance; but their fleet was destroyed, +their capital bombarded, and, abandoned by Russia, they were +compelled to submit to a disadvantageous peace.</p> + +<p>The same vain endeavour of Denmark to preserve her neutrality +led to the second breach with England. After the peace of Tilsit +there could be no further question of neutrality. Napoleon had +determined that if Great Britain refused to accept Russia’s +mediation, Denmark, Sweden and Portugal were to be forced to +close their harbours to her ships and declare war against her. +It was the intention of the Danish government to preserve its +neutrality to the last, although, on the whole, it preferred an +alliance with Great Britain to a league with Napoleon, and was +even prepared for a breach with the French emperor if he pressed +her too hardly. The army had therefore been assembled in +Holstein, and the crown prince regent was with it. But the +British government did not consider Denmark strong enough to +resist France, and Canning had private trustworthy information +of the designs of Napoleon, upon which he was bound to act. He +sent accordingly a fleet, with 30,000 men on board, to the Sound +to compel Denmark, by way of security for her future conduct, +to unite her fleet with the British fleet. Denmark was offered +an alliance, the complete restitution of her fleet after the war, a +guarantee of all her possessions, compensation for all expenses, +and even territorial aggrandizement.</p> + +<p>Dictatorially presented as they were, these terms were liberal +and even generous; and if a great statesman like Bernstorff +had been at the head of affairs in Copenhagen, he would, no +doubt, have accepted them, even if with a wry face. But the +prince regent, if a good patriot, was a poor politician, and +invincibly obstinate. When, therefore, in August 1807, Gambier +arrived in the Sound, and the English plenipotentiary Francis +James Jackson, not perhaps the most tactful person that could +have been chosen, hastened to Kiel to place the British demands +before the crown prince, Frederick not only refused to negotiate, +but ordered the Copenhagen authorities to put the city in the best +state of defence possible. Taking this to be tantamount to a +declaration of war, on the 16th of August the British army +landed at Vedbäck; and shortly afterwards the Danish capital +was invested. Anything like an adequate defence was hopeless; +<span class="sidenote">Loss of Norway. Treaty of Kiel, 1814.</span> +a bombardment began which lasted from the 2nd of +September till the 5th of September, and ended with +the capitulation of the city and the surrender of the +fleet intact, the prince regent having neglected to give +orders for its destruction. After this Denmark, unwisely, but +not unnaturally, threw herself into the arms of Napoleon and +continued to be his faithful ally till the end of the war. She was +punished for her obstinacy by being deprived of Norway, which +she was compelled to surrender to Sweden by the terms of the +treaty of Kiel (1814), on the 14th of January, receiving by way +of compensation a sum of money and Swedish Pomerania, with +Rügen, which were subsequently transferred to Prussia in exchange +for the duchy of Lauenburg and 2,000,000 rix-dollars.</p> + +<p>On the establishment of the German Confederation in 1815, +Frederick VI. acceded thereto as duke of Holstein, but refused +to allow Schleswig to enter it, on the ground that Schleswig was +an integral part of the Danish realm.</p> + +<p>The position of Denmark from 1815 to 1830 was one of great +difficulty and distress. The loss of Norway necessitated considerable +reductions of expenditure, but the economies +<span class="sidenote">Denmark after 1815.</span> +actually practised fell far short of the requirements of +the diminished kingdom and its depleted exchequer; +while the agricultural depression induced by the enormous fall in +the price of corn all over Europe caused fresh demands upon +the state, and added 10,000,000 rix-dollars to the national debt +before 1835. The last two years of the reign of Frederick VI. +(1838-1839) were also remarkable for the revival of political life, +provincial consultative assemblies being established for Jutland, +the Islands, Schleswig and Holstein, by the ordinance of the 28th +of May 1831. But these consultative assemblies were regarded +as insufficient by the Danish Liberals, and during the last years +of Frederick VI. and the whole reign of his successor, Christian +VIII. (1839-1848), the agitation for a free constitution, +<span class="sidenote">Constitutional agitation. Beginnings of the Schleswig-Holstein Question.</span> +both in Denmark and the duchies, continued to grow +in strength, in spite of press prosecutions and other +repressive measures. The rising national feeling in +Germany also stimulated the separatist tendencies +of the duchies; and “Schleswig-Holsteinism,” as +it now began to be called, evoked in Denmark the +counter-movement known as <i>Eiderdansk-politik</i>, +i.e. the policy of extending Denmark to the Eider and +obliterating German Schleswig, in order to save Schleswig +from being absorbed by Germany. This division of national +sentiment within the monarchy, complicated by the approaching +extinction of the Oldenburg line of the house of +Denmark, by which, in the normal course under the Salic law, +the succession to Holstein would have passed away from the +Danish crown, opened up the whole complicated Schleswig-Holstein +Question with all its momentous consequences. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein Question</a></span>.) Within the monarchy itself, +during the following years, “Schleswig-Holsteinism” and +“Eiderdanism” faced each other as rival, mutually exacerbating +forces; and the efforts of succeeding governments to solve the +insoluble problem broke down ever on the rock of nationalist +passion and the interests of the German powers. The unionist +<span class="sidenote">Unionist Constitution of 1848, and war with Prussia.</span> +constitution, devised by Christian VIII., and promulgated +by his successor, Frederick VII. (1848-1863), +on the 28th of January 1848, led to the armed intervention +of Prussia, at the instance of the new German +parliament at Frankfort; and, though with the help +of Russian and British diplomacy, the Danes were +ultimately successful, they had to submit, in 1851, to the +government of Holstein by an international commission consisting +of three members, Prussian, Austrian and Danish respectively.</p> + +<p>Denmark, meanwhile, had been engaged in providing herself +with a parliament on modern lines. The constitutional rescript +of the 28th of January 1848 had been withdrawn in favour of an +electoral law for a national assembly, of whose 152 members +38 were to be nominated by the king and to form an Upper +House (<i>Landsting</i>), while the remainder were to be elected by +the people and to form a popular chamber (<i>Folketing</i>). The +<i>Bondevenlige</i>, or philo-peasant party, which objected to the king’s +right of nomination and preferred a one-chamber system, now +separated from the National Liberals on this point. But the +National Liberals triumphed at the general election; fear of +reactionary tendencies finally induced the Radicals to accede to +the wishes of the majority; and on the 5th of June 1849 the new +constitution received the royal sanction.</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="page38"></a>38</p> + +<p>At this stage Denmark’s foreign relations prejudicially affected +her domestic politics. The Liberal Eiderdansk party was for +dividing Schleswig into three distinct administrative +<span class="sidenote">Germany and the Danish duchies.</span> +belts, according as the various nationalities predominated +(language rescripts of 1851), but German sentiment +was opposed to any such settlement and, still worse, +the great continental powers looked askance on the new Danish +constitution as far too democratic. The substance of the notes +embodying the exchange of views, in 1851 and 1852, between the +German great powers and Denmark, was promulgated, on the +28th of January 1852, in the new constitutional decree which, +together with the documents on which it was founded, was known +<span class="sidenote">Convention of 1852.</span> +as the Conventions of 1851 and 1852. Under this +arrangement each part of the monarchy was to have +local autonomy, with a common constitution for +common affairs. Holstein was now restored to +Denmark, and Prussia and Austria consented to take part in the +conference of London, by which the integrity of Denmark was +upheld, and the succession to the whole monarchy settled on +Prince Christian, youngest son of Duke William of +Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, and husband of Louise of +Hesse, the niece of King Christian VIII. The “legitimate” +heir to the duchies, under the Salic law, Duke Christian of +Sonderburg-Augustenburg, accepted the decision of the London +conference in consideration of the purchase by the Danish +government of his estates in Schleswig.</p> + +<p>On the 2nd of October 1855 was promulgated the new common +constitution, which for two years had been the occasion of a +fierce contention between the Conservatives and the +<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1855.</span> +Radicals. It proved no more final than its predecessors. +The representatives of the duchies in the new common +<i>Rigsraad</i> protested against it, as subversive of the Conventions +of 1851 and 1852; and their attitude had the support +of the German powers. In 1857, <a href="#artlinks">Carl Christian Hall</a> (q.v.) became +prime minister. After putting off the German powers by seven +years of astute diplomacy, he realized the impossibility of carrying +out the idea of a common constitution and, on the 30th of March +1862, a royal proclamation was issued detaching Holstein as far +as possible from the common monarchy. Later in the year he +<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1863 and accession of Christian IX.</span> +introduced into the <i>Rigsraad</i> a common constitution +for Denmark and Schleswig, which was carried through +and confirmed by the council of state on the 13th of +November 1863. It had not, however, received the +royal assent when the death of Frederick VII. brought +the “Protocol King” Christian IX. to the throne. +Placed between the necessity of offending his new subjects or +embroiling himself with the German powers, Christian chose the +remoter evil and, on the 18th of November, the new constitution +became law. This once more opened up the whole question in an +acute form. Frederick, son of Christian of Augustenburg, refusing +to be bound by his father’s engagements, entered Holstein +and, supported by the Estates and the German diet, proclaimed +himself duke. The events that followed: the occupation of the +<span class="sidenote">Prusso-Danish War of 1864, and cession of the duchies.</span> +duchies by Austria and Prussia, the war of 1864, +gallantly fought by the Danes against overwhelming +odds, and the astute diplomacy by which Bismarck +succeeded in ultimately gaining for Prussia the seaboard +so essential for her maritime power, are dealt with +elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein Question</a></span>). For +Denmark the question was settled when, by the peace +of Vienna (October 30, 1864), the duchies were irretrievably +lost to her. At the peace of Prague, which terminated the +Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Napoleon III. procured the insertion +in the treaty of paragraph v., by which the northern +districts of Schleswig were to be reunited to Denmark when the +majority of the population by a free vote should so desire; but +when Prussia at last thought fit to negotiate with Denmark +on the subject, she laid down conditions which the Danish +government could not accept. Finally, in 1878, by a separate +agreement between Austria and Prussia, paragraph v. was +rescinded.</p> + +<p>The salient feature of Danish politics during subsequent years +was the struggle between the two <i>Tings</i>, the <i>Folketing</i> or Lower +House, and the <i>Landsting</i>, or Upper House of the +<span class="sidenote">Constitutional struggles in Denmark since 1866.</span> +<i>Rigsdag</i>. This contest began in 1872, when a combination +of all the Radical parties, known as the +“United Left,” passed a vote of want of confidence +against the government and rejected the budget. +Nevertheless, the ministry, supported by the <i>Landsting</i>, +refused to resign; and the crisis became acute when, in 1875, +J. B. Estrup became prime minister. Perceiving that the coming +struggle would be essentially a financial one, he retained the +ministry of finance in his own hands; and, strong in the support +of the king, the <i>Landsting</i>, and a considerable minority in the +country itself, he devoted himself to the double task of establishing +the political parity of the <i>Landsting</i> with the <i>Folketing</i> and +strengthening the national armaments, so that, in the event of +a war between the European great powers, Denmark might be +able to defend her neutrality.</p> + +<p>The Left was willing to vote 30,000,000 crowns for +extraordinary military expenses, exclusive of the fortifications +of Copenhagen, on condition that the amount should be raised +by a property and income tax; and, as the elections of 1875 had +given them a majority of three-fourths in the popular chamber, +they spoke with no uncertain voice. But the Upper House +steadily supported Estrup, who was disinclined to accept any +such compromise. As an agreement between the two houses on +the budget proved impossible, a provisional financial decree was +issued on the 12th of April 1877, which the Left stigmatized as a +breach of the constitution. But the difficulties of the ministry +were somewhat relieved by a split in the Radical party, still +further accentuated by the elections of 1879, which enabled +Estrup to carry through the army and navy defence bill and +the new military penal code by leaning alternately upon one or +the other of the divided Radical groups.</p> + +<p>After the elections of 1881, which brought about the reamalgamation +of the various Radical sections, the opposition presented +a united front to the government, so that, from 1882 onwards, +legislation was almost at a standstill. The elections of 1884 +showed clearly that the nation was also now on the side of the +Radicals, 83 out of the 102 members of the <i>Folketing</i> belonging +to the opposition. Still Estrup remained at his post. He had +underestimated the force of public opinion, but he was conscientiously +convinced that a Conservative ministry was necessary to +Denmark at this crisis. When therefore the <i>Rigsdag</i> rejected +the budget, he advised the king to issue another provisional +financial decree. Henceforth, so long as the <i>Folketing</i> refused to +vote supplies, the ministry regularly adopted these makeshifts. +In 1886 the Left, having no constitutional means of dismissing +the Estrup ministry, resorted for the first time to negotiations; +but it was not till the 1st of April 1894 that the majority of the +<i>Folketing</i> could arrive at an agreement with the government and +the <i>Landsting</i> as to a budget which should be retrospective and +sanction the employment of the funds so irregularly obtained for +military expenditure. The whole question of the provisional +financial decrees was ultimately regularized by a special resolution +of the <i>Rigsdag</i>; and the retirement of the Estrup ministry in +August 1894 was the immediate result of the compromise.</p> + +<p>In spite of the composition of 1894, the animosity between +<i>Folketing</i> and <i>Landsting</i> continues to characterize Danish politics, +and the situation has been complicated by the division of both +Right and Left into widely divergent groups. The elections of +1895 resulted in an undeniable victory of the extreme Radicals; +and the budget of 1895-1896 was passed only at the last moment +by a compromise. The session of 1896-1897 was remarkable for +a <i>rapprochement</i> between the ministry and the “Left Reform +Party,” caused by the secessions of the “Young Right,” which led +to an unprecedented event in Danish politics—the voting of the +budget by the Radical <i>Folketing</i> and its rejection by the Conservative +<i>Landsting</i> in May 1897; whereupon the ministry resigned +in favour of the moderate Conservative Hörring cabinet, which +induced the Upper House to pass the budget. The elections of +1898 were a fresh defeat for the Conservatives, and in the autumn +session of the same year, the <i>Folketing</i>, by a crushing majority of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>39</span> +85 to 12, rejected the military budget. The ministry was +saved by a mere accident—the expulsion of Danish agitators +from North Schleswig by the German government, which evoked +a passion of patriotic protest throughout Denmark, and united +all parties, the war minister declaring in the <i>Folketing</i>, during +the debate on the military budget (January 1899), that the +armaments of Denmark were so far advanced that any great +power must think twice before venturing to attack her. The +chief event of the year 1899 was the great strike of 40,000 +artisans, which cost Denmark 50,000,000 crowns, and brought +about a reconstruction of the cabinet in order to bring in, as +minister of the interior, Ludwig Ernest Bramsen, the great +specialist in industrial matters, who succeeded (September 2-4) +in bringing about an understanding between workmen and +employers. The session 1900-1901 was remarkable for the +further disintegration of the Conservative party still in office +(the Sehested cabinet superseded the Hörring cabinet on the +27th of April 1900) and the almost total paralysis of parliament, +caused by the interminable debates on the question of taxation +reform. The crisis came in 1901. Deprived of nearly all its +supporters in the <i>Folketing</i>, the Conservative ministry resigned, +and King Christian was obliged to assent to the formation of +a “cabinet of the Left” under Professor Deuntzer. Various +reforms were carried, but the proposal to sell the Danish islands +in the West Indies to the United States fell through. During +these years the relations between Denmark and the German +empire improved, and in the country itself the cause of social +democracy made great progress. In January 1906 King Christian +ended his long reign, and was succeeded by his son Frederick VIII. +At the elections of 1906 the government lost its small absolute +majority, but remained in power with support from the Moderates +and Conservatives. It was severely shaken, however, when +Herr A. Alberti, who had been minister of justice since 1901, +and was admitted to be the strongest member of the cabinet, was +openly accused of nepotism and abuse of the power of his position. +These charges gathered weight until the minister was forced to +resign in July 1908, and in September he was arrested on a charge +of forgery in his capacity as director of the Zealand Peasants’ +Savings Bank. The ministry, of which Herr Jens Christian +Christensen was head, was compelled to resign in October. The +effect of these revelations was profound not only politically, but +also economically; the important export trade in Danish butter, +especially, was adversely affected, as Herr Alberti had been +interested in numerous dairy companies.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—I. <span class="sc">General History.</span> <i>Danmarks Riges +Historie</i> (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); R. Nisbet Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i> +(Cambridge, 1905); H. Weitemeyer, <i>Denmark</i> (London, 1901); +Adolf Ditley Jörgensen, <i>Historiske Afhandlinger</i> (Copenhagen, 1898); +<i>ib. Fortaellinger af Nordens Historie</i> (Copenhagen, 1892). II. <span class="sc">Early +And Medieval History.</span> Saxo, <i>Gesta Danorum</i> (Strassburg, 1886); +<i>Repertorium diplomaticum regni Danici mediaevalis</i> (Copenhagen, +1894); Ludvig Holberg, <i>Konge og Danehof</i> (Copenhagen, 1895); +Poul Frederik Barford, <i>Danmarks Historie 1319-1536</i> (Copenhagen, +1885); <i>ib. 1536-1670</i> (Copenhagen, 1891). III. <span class="sc">16th to 19th +Century.</span> Philip P. Munch, <i>Kobstadstyrelsen i Danmark</i> (Copenhagen, +1900); Peter Edvard Holm, <i>Danmark Norges indre Historie, +1660-1720</i> (Copenhagen, 1885-1886); <i>ib. Danmark Norges Historie, +1720-1814</i> (Copenhagen, 1891-1894); Sören Bloch Thrige, <i>Danmarks +Historie i vort Aarhundrede</i> (Copenhagen, 1888); Marcus +Rubin, <i>Frederick VI.’s Tid fra Kielerfreden</i> (Copenhagen, 1895); +Christian Frederick von Holten, <i>Erinnerungen; Der deutsch-dänische +Krieg</i> (Stuttgart, 1900); Niels Peter Jensen, <i>Den anden slesvigske +Krig</i> (Copenhagen, 1900); S. N. Mouritsen, <i>Vor Forfatnings Historie</i> +(Copenhagen, 1894); Carl Frederik Vilhelm Mathildus Rosenberg, +<i>Danmark i Aaret 1848</i> (Copenhagen, 1891). See also the special +bibliographies appended to the biographies of the Danish kings +and statesmen.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<p class="center sc">Literature</p> + +<p>The present language of Denmark is derived directly from +the same source as that of Sweden, and the parent of both is the +old Scandinavian (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scandinavian Languages</a></span>). In Iceland +this tongue, with some modifications, has remained in use, and +until about 1100 it was the literary language of the whole of +Scandinavia. The influence of Low German first, and High +German afterwards, has had the effect of drawing modern Danish +constantly farther from this early type. The difference began to +show itself in the 12th century. R. K. Rask, and after him +N. M. Petersen, have distinguished four periods in the development +of the language, The first, which has been called Oldest +Danish, dating from about 1100 and 1250, shows a slightly +changed character, mainly depending on the system of inflections. +In the second period, that of Old Danish, bringing us down to +1400, the change of the system of vowels begins to be settled, +and masculine and feminine are mingled in a common gender. +An indefinite article has been formed, and in the conjugation of +the verb a great simplicity sets in. In the third period, 1400-1530, +the influence of German upon the language is supreme, and +culminates in the Reformation. The fourth period, from 1530 to +about 1680, completes the work of development, and leaves the +language as we at present find it.</p> + +<p>The earliest work known to have been written in Denmark was +a Latin biography of Knud the Saint, written by an English monk +Ælnoth, who was attached to the church of St Alban in Odense +where King Knud was murdered. Denmark produced several +Latin writers of merit. Anders Sunesen (d. 1228) wrote a long +poem in hexameters, <i>Hexaëmeron</i>, describing the creation. +Under the auspices of Archbishop Absalon the monks of Sorö +began to compile the annals of Denmark, and at the end of the +12th century Svend Aagesen, a cleric of Lund, compiled from +Icelandic sources and oral tradition his <i>Compendiosa historia +regum Daniae</i>. The great <a href="#artlinks">Saxo Grammaticus</a> (q.v.) wrote his +<i>Historia Danica</i> under the same patronage.</p> + +<p>It was not till the 16th century that literature began to be +generally practised in the vernacular in Denmark. The oldest +laws which are still preserved date from the beginning of the 13th +century, and many different collections are in existence.<a name="FnAnchor_2e" href="#Footnote_2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> A +single work detains us in the 13th century, a treatise on medicine<a name="FnAnchor_3e" href="#Footnote_3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +by Henrik Harpestreng, who died in 1244. The first royal edict +written in Danish is dated 1386; and the Act of Union at Kalmar, +written in 1397, is the most important piece of the vernacular of +the 14th century. Between 1300 and 1500, however, it is supposed +that the <i>Kjaempeviser</i>, or Danish ballads, a large collection +of about 500 epical and lyrical poems, were originally composed, +and these form the most precious legacy of the Denmark of the +middle ages, whether judged historically or poetically. We know +nothing of the authors of these poems, which treat of the heroic +adventures of the great warriors and lovely ladies of the chivalric +age in strains of artless but often exquisite beauty. Some of the +subjects are borrowed in altered form from the old mythology, +while a few derive from Christian legend, and many deal with +national history. The language in which we receive these ballads, +however, is as late as the 16th or even the 17th century, but it +is believed that they have become gradually modernized in the +course of oral tradition. The first attempt to collect the ballads +was made in 1591 by Anders Sörensen Vedel (1542-1616), who +published 100 of them. Peder Syv printed 100 more in 1695. +In 1812-1814 an elaborate collection in five volumes appeared +at Christiania, edited by W. H. F. Abrahamson, R. Nyerup +and K. M. Rahbek. Finally, Svend Grundtvig produced an +exhaustive edition, <i>Danmarks gamle Folkeviser</i> (Copenhagen, +1853-1883, 5 vols.), which was supplemented (1891) by A. Olrik.</p> + +<p>In 1490, the first printing press was set up at Copenhagen, by +Gottfried of Gemen, who had brought it from Westphalia; and +five years later the first Danish book was printed. This was the +famous <i>Rimkrönike</i><a name="FnAnchor_4e" href="#Footnote_4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a>; a history of Denmark in rhymed Danish +verse, attributed by its first editor to Niels (d. 1481); a monk of +the monastery of Sorö. It extends to the death of Christian I., +in 1481, which may be supposed to be approximately the date +of the poem. In 1479 the university of Copenhagen had been +founded. In 1506 the same Gottfried of Gemen published a +famous collection of proverbs, attributed to Peder Laale. +Mikkel, priest of St Alban’s Church in Odense, wrote three sacred +poems, <i>The Rose-Garland of Maiden Mary</i>, <i>The Creation</i> and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>40</span> +<i>Human Life</i>, which came out together in 1514, shortly before +his death. The popular <i>Lucidarius</i> also appeared in the vulgar +tongue.</p> + +<p>These few productions appeared along with innumerable works +in Latin, and dimly heralded a Danish literature. It was the +Reformation that first awoke the living spirit in the popular +tongue. <a href="#artlinks">Christiern Pedersen</a> (q.v.; 1480-1554) was the first man +of letters produced in Denmark. He edited and published, at +Paris in 1514, the Latin text of the old chronicler, Saxo Grammaticus; +he worked up in their present form the beautiful half-mythical +stories of <i>Karl Magnus</i> (Charlemagne) and <i>Holger +Danske</i> (Ogier the Dane). He further translated the +Psalms of David and the New Testament, printed in 1529, and +finally—in conjunction with Bishop Peder Palladius—the Bible, +which appeared in 1550. Hans Tausen, the bishop of Ribe +(1494-1561), continued Pedersen’s work, but with far less +literary talent. He may, however, be considered as the greatest +orator and teacher of the Reformation movement. He wrote a +number of popular hymns, partly original, partly translations; +translated the Pentateuch from the Hebrew; and published +(1536) a collection of sermons embodying the reformed doctrine +and destined for the use of clergy and laity.</p> + +<p>The Catholic party produced one controversialist of striking +ability, Povel Helgesen<a name="FnAnchor_5e" href="#Footnote_5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (b. c. 1480), also known as Paulus +Eliae. He had at first been inclined to the party of reform, +but when Luther broke definitely with the papal authority he +became a bitter opponent. His most important polemical work +is an answer (1528) to twelve questions on the religious question +propounded by Gustavus I. of Sweden. He is also supposed to be +the author of the <i>Skiby Chronicle</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_6e" href="#Footnote_6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> in which he does not confine +himself to the duties of a mere annalist, but records his personal +opinion of people and events. Vedel, by the edition of the +<i>Kjaempeviser</i> which is mentioned above, gave an immense +stimulus to the progress of literature. He published an excellent +translation of Saxo Grammaticus in 1575. The first edition of +a Danish <i>Reineke Fuchs</i>, by Herman Weigere, appeared at +Lübeck in 1555, and the first authorized Psalter in 1559. Arild +Huitfeld wrote <i>Chronicle of the Kingdom of Denmark</i>, printed in +ten volumes, between 1595 and 1604.</p> + +<p>There are few traces of dramatic effort in Denmark before +the Reformation; and many of the plays of that period may be +referred to the class of school comedies. Hans Sthen, a lyrical +poet, wrote a morality entitled <i>Kortvending</i> (“Change of Fortune”), +which is really a collection of monologues to be delivered +by students. The anonymous <i>Ludus de Sancto Kanuto</i><a name="FnAnchor_7e" href="#Footnote_7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> (c. 1530) +which in spite of its title, is written in Danish, is the earliest +Danish national drama. The burlesque drama assigned to +Christian Hansen, <i>The Faithless Wife</i>, is the only one of its +kind that has survived. But the best of these old dramatic +authors was a priest of Viborg, Justesen Ranch (1539-1607), +who wrote <i>Kong Salomons Hylding</i> (“The Crowning of King +Solomon”) (1585), <i>Samsons Faengsel</i> (“The Imprisonment of +Samson”), which includes lyrical passages which have given it +claims to be considered the first Danish opera, and a farce, <i>Karrig +Niding</i> (“The Miserly Miscreant”). Beside these works Ranch +wrote a famous moralizing poem, entitled “A new song, of the +nature and song of certain birds, in which many vices are punished, +and many virtues praised.” Peder Clausen<a name="FnAnchor_8e" href="#Footnote_8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (1545-1614), +a Norwegian by birth and education, wrote a <i>Description of +Norway</i>, as well as an admirable translation of Snorri Sturlason’s +<i>Heimskringla</i>, published ten years after Clausen’s death. The +father of Danish poetry, Anders Kristensen Arrebo (1587-1637), +was bishop of Trondhjem, but was deprived of his see for immorality. +He was a poet of considerable genius, which is most +brilliantly shown in an imitation of Du Bartas’s <i>Divine Semaine</i>, +the <i>Hexaëmeron</i>, a poem on the creation, in six books, which did +not appear till 1661. He also made a translation of the Psalms.</p> + +<p>He was followed by Anders Bording (1619-1677), a cheerful +occasional versifier, and by Thöger Reenberg (1656-1742), a poet +of somewhat higher gifts, who lived on into a later age. Among +prose writers should be mentioned the grammarian Peder Syv,<a name="FnAnchor_9e" href="#Footnote_9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +(1631-1702); Bishop Erik Pontoppidan (1616-1678), whose +<i>Grammatica Danica</i>, published in 1668, is the first systematic +analysis of the language; Birgitta Thott (1610-1662), a lady +who translated Seneca (1658); and Leonora Christina Ulfeld, +daughter of Christian IV., who has left a touching account of +her long imprisonment in her <i>Jammersminde</i>. Ole Worm (1588-1654), +a learned pedagogue and antiquarian, preserved in his +<i>Danicorum monumentorum libri sex</i> (Copenhagen, 1643) the +descriptions of many antiquities which have since perished or +been lost.</p> + +<p>In two spiritual poets the advancement of the literature of +Denmark took a further step. Thomas Kingo<a name="FnAnchor_10e" href="#Footnote_10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> (1634-1703) was +the first who wrote Danish with perfect ease and grace. He was +a Scot by descent, and retained the vital energy of his ancestors +as a birthright. In 1677 he became bishop in Fünen, where +he died in 1703. His <i>Winter Psalter</i> (1689), and the so-called +<i>Kingo’s Psalter</i> (1699), contained brilliant examples of lyrical +writing, and an employment of language at once original and +national. Kingo had a charming fancy, a clear sense of form and +great rapidity and variety of utterance. Some of his very best +hymns are in the little volume he published in 1681, and hence +the old period of semi-articulate Danish may be said to close with +this eventful decade, which also witnessed the birth of Holberg. +The other great hymn-writer was Hans Adolf Brorson (1694-1764), +who published in 1740 a great psalm-book at the king’s +command, in which he added his own to the best of Kingo’s. +Both these men held high posts in the church, one being bishop +of Fünen and the other of Ribe; but Brorson was much inferior +to Kingo in genius. With these names the introductory period +of Danish literature ends. The language was now formed, and +was being employed for almost all the uses of science and philosophy.</p> + +<p><a href="#artlinks">Ludvig Holberg</a> (q.v.; 1684-1754) may be called the founder +of modern Danish literature. His various works still retain their +freshness and vital attraction. As an historian his style was terse +and brilliant, his spirit philosophical, and his data singularly +accurate. He united two unusual gifts, being at the same time +the most cultured man of his day, and also in the highest degree +a practical person, who clearly perceived what would most rapidly +educate and interest the uncultivated. In his thirty-three +dramas, sparkling comedies in prose, more or less in imitation of +Molière, he has left his most important positive legacy to literature. +Nor in any series of comedies in existence is decency so +rarely sacrificed to a desire for popularity or a false sense of wit.</p> + +<p>Holberg founded no school of immediate imitators, but his +stimulating influence was rapid and general. The university +of Copenhagen, which had been destroyed by fire in 1728, was +reopened in 1742, and under the auspices of the historian Hans +Gram (1685-1748), who founded the Danish Royal Academy of +Sciences, it inspired an active intellectual life. Gram laid the +foundation of critical history in Denmark. He brought to bear +on the subject a full knowledge of documents and sources. His +best work lies in his annotated editions of the older chroniclers. +In 1744 Jakob Langebek (1710-1775) founded the Society for +the Improvement of the Danish Language, which opened the field +of philology. He began the great collection of <i>Scriptores rerum +Danicarum medii aevi</i> (9 vols., Copenhagen, 1772-1878). In +jurisprudence Andreas Höier (1690-1739) represented the new +impulse, and in zoology <a href="#artlinks">Erik Pontoppidan</a> (q.v.), the younger. +This last name represents a lifelong activity in many branches +of literature. From Holberg’s college of Sorö, two learned +professors, Jens Schelderup Sneedorff (1724-1764) and Jens Kraft +(1720-1765), disseminated the seeds of a wider culture. All +these men were aided by the generous and enlightened patronage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>41</span> +of Frederick V. A little later on, the German poet Klopstock +settled in Copenhagen, bringing with him the prestige of his great +reputation, and he had a strong influence in Germanizing +Denmark. He founded, however, the Society for the Fine Arts, +and had it richly endowed. The first prize offered was won by +Christian Braumann Tullin (1728-1765) for his beautiful poem +of <i>May-day</i>. Tullin, a Norwegian by birth, represents the first +accession of a study of external nature in Danish poetry; he was +an ardent disciple of the English poet Thomson. Christian +Falster (1690-1752) wrote satires of some merit, but most of his +work is in Latin. The <i>New Heroic Poems</i> of Jörgen Sorterup are +notable as imitations of the old folk-literature. Ambrosius Stub<a name="FnAnchor_11e" href="#Footnote_11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> +(1705-1758) was a lyrist of great sweetness, born before his due +time, whose poems, not published till 1771, belong to a later age +than their author.</p> + +<p><i>The Lyrical Revival.</i>—Between 1742 and 1749, that is to say, +at the very climax of the personal activity of Holberg, several +poets were born, who were destined to enrich the language with +its first group of lyrical blossoms. Of these the two eldest, +Wessel and Ewald, were men of extraordinary genius, and +destined to fascinate the attention of posterity, not only by the +brilliance of their productions, but by the suffering and brevity +of their lives. <a href="#artlinks">Johannes Ewald</a> (q.v.; 1743-1781) was not only +the greatest Danish lyrist of the 18th century, but he had few +rivals in the whole of Europe. As a dramatist, pure and simple, +his bird-like instinct of song carried him too often into a sphere +too exalted for the stage; but he has written nothing that is +not stamped with the exquisite quality of distinction. Johan +Herman Wessel<a name="FnAnchor_12e" href="#Footnote_12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> (1742-1785) excited even greater hopes in his +contemporaries, but left less that is immortal behind him. After +the death of Holberg, the affectation of Gallicism had reappeared +in Denmark; and the tragedies of Voltaire, with their stilted +rhetoric, were the most popular dramas of the day. Johan +Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), a young writer who did better things +later on, gave the finishing touch to the exotic absurdity by +bringing out a wretched piece called <i>Zarina</i>, which was hailed by +the press as the first original Danish tragedy, although Ewald’s +exquisite <i>Rolf Krage</i>, which truly merited that title, had appeared +two years before. Wessel, who up to that time had only been +known as the president of a club of wits, immediately wrote +<i>Love without Stockings</i> (1772), in which a plot of the most abject +triviality is worked out in strict accordance with the rules of +French tragedy, and in most pompous and pathetic Alexandrines. +The effect of this piece was magical; the Royal Theatre ejected +its cuckoo-brood of French plays, and even the Italian opera. +It was now essential that every performance should be national, +and in the Danish language. To supply the place of the opera, +native musicians, and especially J. P. E. Hartmann, set the +dramas of Ewald and others, and thus the Danish school of +music originated. Johan Nordahl Brun’s best work is to be +found in his patriotic songs and his hymns. He became bishop +of Bergen in 1803.</p> + +<p>Of the other poets of the revival the most important were born +in Norway. Nordahl Brun, Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Claus +Fasting (1746-1791), who edited a brilliant aesthetic journal, <i>The +Critical Observer</i>, Christian H. Pram<a name="FnAnchor_13e" href="#Footnote_13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> (1756-1821), author of +<i>Staerkodder</i>, a romantic epic, based on Scandinavian legend, and +Edvard Storm (1749-1794), were associates and mainly fellow-students +at Copenhagen, where they introduced a style peculiar +to themselves, and distinct from that of the true Danes. Their +lyrics celebrated the mountains and rivers of the magnificent +country they had left; and, while introducing images and +scenery unfamiliar to the inhabitants of monotonous Denmark, +they enriched the language with new words and phrases. This +group of writers is now claimed by the Norwegians as the founders +of a Norwegian literature; but their true place is certainly among +the Danes, to whom they primarily appealed. They added +nothing to the development of the drama, except in the person +of N. K. Bredal (1733-1778), who became director of the Royal +Danish Theatre, and the writer of some mediocre plays.</p> + +<p>To the same period belong a few prose writers of eminence. +Werner Abrahamson (1744-1812) was the first aesthetic critic +Denmark produced. Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was +eminent in many branches of science, but especially as a medical +writer. Ove Mailing (1746-1829) was an untiring collector of +historical data, which he annotated in a lively style. Two +historians of more definite claim on our attention are Peter +Frederik Suhm (1728-1798), whose <i>History of Denmark</i> (11 vols., +Copenhagen, 1782-1812) contains a mass of original material, +and Ove Guldberg (1731-1808). In theology Christian Bastholm +(1740-1819) and Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), bishop of +Zealand, a Norwegian by birth, demand a reference. But the +only really great prose-writer of the period was the Norwegian, +Niels Treschow (1751-1833), whose philosophical works are +composed in an admirably lucid style, and are distinguished +for their depth and originality.</p> + +<p>The poetical revival sank in the next generation to a more +mechanical level. The number of writers of some talent was very +great, but genius was wanting. Two intimate friends, Jonas +Rein (1760-1821) and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), attempted, with +indifferent success, to continue the tradition of the Norwegian +group. Thomas Thaarup (1749-1821) was a fluent and eloquent +writer of occasional poems, and of homely dramatic idylls. The +early death of Ole Samsöe (1759-1796) prevented the development +of a dramatic talent that gave rare promise. But while +poetry languished, prose, for the first time, began to flourish +in Denmark. Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was a pleasing +novelist, a dramatist of some merit, a pathetic elegist, and a witty +song-writer; he was also a man full of the literary instinct, and +through a long life he never ceased to busy himself with editing +the works of the older poets, and spreading among the people a +knowledge of Danish literature through his magazine, <i>Minerva</i>, +edited in conjunction with C. H. Pram. Peter Andreas Heiberg +(1758-1841) was a political and aesthetic critic of note. He was +exiled from Denmark in company with another sympathizer with +the principles of the French Revolution, Malte Conrad Brunn +(1775-1826), who settled in Paris, and attained a world-wide +reputation as a geographer. O. C. Olufsen (1764-1827) was a +writer on geography, zoology and political economy. Rasmus +Nyerup (1759-1829) expended an immense energy in the compilation +of admirable works on the history of language and literature. +From 1778 to his death he exercised a great power in the statistical +and critical departments of letters. The best historian of this +period, however, was Engelstoft (1774-1850), and the most +brilliant theologian Bishop Mynster (1775-1854). In the annals +of modern science Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) is a name +universally honoured. He explained his inventions and described +his discoveries in language so lucid and so characteristic that he +claims an honoured place in the literature of the country of whose +culture, in other branches, he is one of the most distinguished +ornaments.</p> + +<p>On the threshold of the romantic movement occurs the name +of <a href="#artlinks">Jens Baggesen</a> (q.v.; 1764-1826), a man of great genius, +whose work was entirely independent of the influences around +him. Jens Baggesen is the greatest comic poet that Denmark +has produced; and as a satirist and witty lyrist he has no rival +among the Danes. In his hands the difficulties of the language +disappear; he performs with the utmost ease extraordinary +<i>tours de force</i> of style. His astonishing talents were wasted on +trifling themes and in a fruitless resistance to the modern spirit +in literature.</p> + +<p><i>Romanticism.</i>—With the beginning of the 19th century the new +light in philosophy and poetry, which radiated from Germany +through all parts of Europe, found its way into Denmark also. +In scarcely any country was the result so rapid or so brilliant. +There arose in Denmark a school of poets who created for themselves +a reputation in all parts of Europe, and would have done +honour to any nation or any age. The splendid cultivation of +metrical art threw other branches into the shade; and the epoch +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42"></a>42</span> +of which we are about to speak is eminent above all for mastery +over verse. The swallow who heralded the summer was a +German by birth, Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt<a name="FnAnchor_14e" href="#Footnote_14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a> (1769-1826), +who came over to Copenhagen from Pomerania, and +prepared the way for the new movement. Since Ewald no one +had written Danish lyrical verse so exquisitely as Schack von +Staffeldt, and the depth and scientific precision of his thought +won him a title which he has preserved, of being the first philosophic +poet of Denmark. The writings of this man are the +deepest and most serious which Denmark had produced, and at +his best he yields to no one in choice and skilful use of expression. +This sweet song of Schack von Staffeldt’s, however, was early +silenced by the louder choir that one by one broke into music +around him. It was <a href="#artlinks">Adam Gottlob Öhlenschläger</a> (q.v.; 1779-1850), +the greatest poet of Denmark, who was to bring about +the new romantic movement. In 1802 he happened to meet the +young Norwegian Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), who had just +returned from a scientific tour in Germany, full of the doctrines +of Schelling. Under the immediate direction of Steffens, +Öhlenschläger began an entirely new poetic style, and destroyed +all his earlier verses. A new epoch in the language began, and the +rapidity and matchless facility of the new poetry was the wonder +of Steffens himself. The old Scandinavian mythology lived in the +hands of Öhlenschläger exactly as the classical Greek religion was +born again in Keats. He aroused in his people the slumbering +sense of their Scandinavian nationality.</p> + +<p>The retirement of Öhlenschläger comparatively early in life, +left the way open for the development of his younger contemporaries, +among whom several had genius little inferior to +his own. Steen Steensen Blicher (1782-1848) was a Jutlander, +and preserved all through life the characteristics of his sterile and +sombre fatherland. After a struggling youth of great poverty, +he published, in 1807-1809, a translation of Ossian; in 1814 a +volume of lyrical poems; and in 1817 he attracted considerable +attention by his descriptive poem of <i>The Tour in Jutland</i>. His +real genius, however, did not lie in the direction of verse; and +his first signal success was with a story, <i>A Village Sexton’s Diary</i>, +in 1824, which was rapidly followed by other tales, descriptive of +village life in Jutland, for the next twelve years. These were +collected in five volumes (1833-1836). His masterpiece is a collection +of short stories, called <i>The Spinning Room</i>. He also produced +many national lyrics of great beauty. But it was Blicher’s use of +<i>patois</i> which delighted his countrymen with a sense of freshness +and strength. They felt as though they heard Danish for the first +time spoken in its fulness. The poet Aarestrup (in 1848) declared +that Blicher had raised the Danish language to the dignity of +Icelandic. Blicher is a stern realist, in many points akin to +Crabbe, and takes a singular position among the romantic +idealists of the period, being like them, however, in the love of +precise and choice language, and hatred of the mere commonplaces +of imaginative writing.<a name="FnAnchor_15e" href="#Footnote_15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p> + +<p><a href="#artlinks">Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig</a> (q.v.; 1783-1872), like +Öhlenschläger, learned the principles of the German romanticism +from the lips of Steffens. He adopted the idea of introducing the +Old Scandinavian element into art, and even into life, still more +earnestly than the older poet. <a href="#artlinks">Bernhard Severin Ingemann</a> +(q.v.; 1789-1862) contributed to Danish literature historical +romances in the style of Sir Walter Scott. <a href="#artlinks">Johannes Carsten +Hauch</a> (q.v.; 1790-1872) first distinguished himself as a disciple +of Öhlenschläger, and fought under him in the strife against the +old school and Baggesen. But the master misunderstood the +disciple; and the harsh repulse of Öhlenschläger silenced Hauch +for many years. He possessed, however, a strong and fluent +genius, which eventually made itself heard in a multitude of +volumes, poems, dramas and novels. All that Hauch wrote is +marked by great qualities, and by distinction; he had a native +bias towards the mystical, which, however, he learned to keep +in abeyance.</p> + +<p><a href="#artlinks">Johan Ludvig Heiberg</a> (q.v.; 1791-1860) was a critic who +ruled the world of Danish taste for many years. His mother, +the Baroness <a href="#artlinks">Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd</a> (q.v.; 1773-1856), wrote +a large number of anonymous novels. Her knowledge of life, +her sparkling wit and her almost faultless style, make these +short stories masterpieces of their kind.</p> + +<p>Christian Hviid Bredahl (1784-1860) produced six volumes +of <i>Dramatic Scenes</i><a name="FnAnchor_16e" href="#Footnote_16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> (1819-1833) which, in spite of their many +brilliant qualities, were little appreciated at the time. Bredahl +gave up literature in despair to become a peasant farmer, and +died in poverty.</p> + +<p>Ludvig Adolf Bödtcher (1793-1874) wrote a single volume of +lyrical poems, which he gradually enlarged in succeeding editions. +He was a consummate artist in verse, and his impressions are +given with the most delicate exactitude of phrase, and in a very +fine strain of imagination. He was a quietist and an epicurean, +and the closest parallel to Horner in the literature of the North. +Most of Bödtcher’s poems deal with Italian life, which he learned +to know thoroughly during a long residence in Rome. He was +secretary to Thorwaldsen for a considerable time.</p> + +<p><a href="#artlinks">Christian Winther</a> (q.v.; 1796-1876) made the island of +Zealand his loving study, and that province of Denmark belongs +to him no less thoroughly than the Cumberland lakes belong +to Wordsworth. Between the latter poet and Winther there +was much resemblance. He was, without compeer, the greatest +pastoral lyrist of Denmark. His exquisite strains, in which pure +imagination is blended with most accurate and realistic descriptions +of scenery and rural life, have an extraordinary charm not +easily described.</p> + +<p>The youngest of the great poets born during the last twenty +years of the 18th century was <a href="#artlinks">Henrik Hertz</a> (q.v.; 1797-1870). +As a satirist and comic poet he followed Baggesen, and in all +branches of the poetic art stood a little aside out of the main +current of romanticism. He introduced into the Danish literature +of his time inestimable elements of lucidity and purity. In his +best pieces Hertz is the most modern and most cosmopolitan of +the Danish writers of his time.</p> + +<p>It is noticeable that all the great poets of the romantic period +lived to an advanced age. Their prolonged literary activity—for +some of them, like Grundtvig, were busy to the last—had a +slightly damping influence on their younger contemporaries, but +certain names in the next generation have special prominence. +<a href="#artlinks">Hans Christian Andersen</a> (q.v.; 1805-1875) was the greatest of +modern fabulists. In 1835 there appeared the first collection of +his <i>Fairy Tales</i>, and won him a world-wide reputation. Almost +every year from this time forward until near his death he published +about Christmas time one or two of these unique stories, so delicate +in their humour and pathos, and so masterly in their simplicity. +Carl Christian Bagger (1807-1846) published volumes in 1834 +and 1836 which gave promise of a great future,—a promise +broken by his early death. <a href="#artlinks">Frederik Paludan-Müller</a> (q.v.; +1809-1876) developed, as a poet, a magnificent career, which +contrasted in its abundance with his solitary and silent life as a +man. His mythological or pastoral dramas, his great satiric +epos of <i>Adam Homo</i> (1841-1848), his comedies, his lyrics, and +above all his noble philosophic tragedy of <i>Kalanus</i>, prove the +immense breadth of his compass, and the inexhaustible riches +of his imagination. C. L. Emil Aarestrup (1800-1856) published +in 1838 a volume of vivid erotic poetry, but its quality was +only appreciated after his death. Edvard Lembcke (1815-1897) +made himself famous as the admirable translator of Shakespeare, +but the incidents of 1864 produced from him some volumes of +direct and manly patriotic verse.</p> + +<p>The poets completely ruled the literature of Denmark during +this period. There were, however, eminent men in other departments +of letters, and especially in philology. Rasmus Christian +Rask (1787-1832) was one of the most original and gifted linguists +of his age. His grammars of Old Frisian, Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon +were unapproached in his own time, and are still admirable. +Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862), a disciple of Rask, was the +author of an admirable <i>History of Denmark in the Heathen</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43"></a>43</span> +<i>Antiquity</i>, and the translator of many of the sagas. Martin +Frederik Arendt (1773-1823), the botanist and archaeologist, +did much for the study of old Scandinavian records. Christian +Molbech (1783-1857) was a laborious lexicographer, author of +the first good Danish dictionary, published in 1833. In Joachim +Frederik Schouw (1789-1852), Denmark produced a very eminent +botanist, author of an exhaustive <i>Geography of Plants</i>. In later +years he threw himself with zeal into politics. His botanical +researches were carried on by Frederik Liebmann (1813-1856). +The most famous zoologist contemporary with these men was +Salomon Dreier (1813-1842).</p> + +<p>The romanticists found their philosopher in a most remarkable +man, Sören Aaby Kierkegaard (1813-1855), one of the most +subtle thinkers of Scandinavia, and the author of some brilliant +philosophical and polemical works. A learned philosophical +writer, not to be compared, however, for genius or originality to +Kierkegaard, was Frederik Christian Sibbern (1785-1872). He +wrote a dissertation <i>On Poetry and Art</i> (3 vols., 1853-1869) and +<i>The Contents of a MS. from the Year 2135</i> (3 vols., 1858-1872).</p> + +<p>Among novelists who were not also poets was Andreas Nikolai +de Saint-Aubain (1798-1865), who, under the pseudonym of +Carl Bernhard, wrote a series of charming romances. Mention +must also be made of two dramatists, Peter Thun Feorsom +(1777-1817), who produced an excellent translation of Shakespeare +(1807-1816), and Thomas Overskou (1798-1873), author of a long +series of successful comedies, and of a history of the Danish +theatre (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1854-1864).</p> + +<p>Other writers whose names connect the age of romanticism +with a later period were Meyer Aron Goldschmidt (1819-1887), +author of novels and tales; Herman Frederik Ewald (1821-1908), +who wrote a long series of historical novels; Jens Christian +Hostrup (1818-1892), a writer of exquisite comedies; and the +miscellaneous writer Erik Bögh (1822-1899). In zoology, +J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813-1898); in philology, J. N. Madvig +(1804-1886) and his disciple V. Thomsen (b. 1842); in antiquarianism, +C. J. Thomsen (1788-1865) and J. J. Asmussen +Worsaae (1821-1885); and in philosophy, Rasmus Nielsen +(1809-1884) and Hans Bröchner (1820-1875), deserve mention.</p> + +<p>The development of imaginative literature in Denmark became +very closely defined during the latter half of the 19th century. +The romantic movement culminated in several poets of great +eminence, whose deaths prepared the way for a new school. +In 1874 Bödtcher passed away, in 1875 Hans Christian Andersen, +in the last week of 1876 Winther, and the greatest of all, Frederik +Paludan-Müller. The field was therefore left open to the +successors of those idealists, and in 1877 the reaction began to +be felt. The eminent critic, Dr <a href="#artlinks">Georg Brandes</a> (q.v.), had long +foreseen the decline of pure romanticism, and had advocated a +more objective and more exact treatment of literary phenomena. +Accordingly, as soon as all the great planets had disappeared, +a new constellation was perceived to have risen, and all the stars +in it had been lighted by the enthusiasm of Brandes. The new +writers were what he called Naturalists, and their sympathies +were with the latest forms of exotic, but particularly of French +literature. Among these fresh forces three immediately took +place as leaders—Jacobsen, Drachmann and Schandorph. In +<a href="#artlinks">J. P. Jacobsen</a> (q.v.; 1847-1885) Denmark was now taught +to welcome the greatest artist in prose which she has ever possessed; +his romance of <i>Marie Grubbe</i> led off the new school with +a production of unexampled beauty. But Jacobsen died young, +and the work was really carried out by his two companions. <a href="#artlinks">Holger +Drachmann</a> (q.v.; 1846-1908) began life as a marine painter; +and a first little volume of poems, which he published in 1872, +attracted slight attention. In 1877 he came forward again with +one volume of verse, another of fiction, a third of travel; in each +he displayed great vigour and freshness of touch, and he rose at +one leap to the highest position among men of promise. Drachmann +retained his place, without rival, as the leading imaginative +writer in Denmark. For many years he made the aspects of +life at sea his particular theme, and he contrived to rouse the +patriotic enthusiasm of the Danish public as it had never been +roused before. His various and unceasing productiveness, his +freshness and vigour, and the inexhaustible richness of his lyric +versatility, early brought Drachmann to the front and kept him +there. Meanwhile prose imaginative literature was ably supported +by Sophus Schandorph (1836-1901), who had been entirely +out of sympathy with the idealists, and had taken no step while +that school was in the ascendant. In 1876, in his fortieth year, +he was encouraged by the change in taste to publish a volume +of realistic stories, <i>Country Life</i>, and in 1878 a novel, <i>Without a +Centre</i>. He has some relation with Guy de Maupassant as a close +analyst of modern types of character, but he has more humour. He +has been compared with such Dutch painters of low life as Teniers. +His talent reached its height in the novel called <i>Little Folk</i> (1880), +a most admirable study of lower middle-class life in Copenhagen. +He was for a while, without doubt, the leading living novelist, +and he went on producing works of great force, in which, however, +a certain monotony is apparent. The three leaders had meanwhile +been joined by certain younger men who took a prominent +position. Among these Karl Gjellerup and Erik Skram were the +earliest. Gjellerup (b. 1857), whose first works of importance +date from 1878, was long uncertain as to the direction of his +powers; he was poet, novelist, moralist and biologist in one; +at length he settled down into line with the new realistic school, +and produced in 1882 a satirical novel of manners which had a +great success, <i>The Disciple of the Teutons</i>. Erik Skram (b. 1847) +had in 1879 written a solitary novel, <i>Gertrude Coldbjörnsen</i>, +which created a sensation, and was hailed by Brandes as exactly +representing the “naturalism” which he desired to see +encouraged; but Skram has written little else of importance. +Other writers of reputation in the naturalistic school were +Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), and Herman Bang (b. 1858). Peter +Nansen (b. 1861) has come into wide notoriety as the author, +in particularly beautiful Danish, of a series of stories of a +pronouncedly sexual type, among which <i>Maria</i> (1894) has been +the most successful. Meanwhile, several of the elder generation, +unaffected by the movement of realism, continued to please the +public. Three lyrical poets, H. V. Kaalund (1818-1885), Carl +Ploug (1813-1894) and Christian Richardt (1831-1892), of very +great talent, were not yet silent, and among the veteran novelists +were still active H. F. Ewald and Thomas Lange (1829-1887). +Ewald’s son Carl (1856-1908) achieved a great name as a novelist, +but did his most characteristic work in a series of books for +children, in which he used the fairy tale, in the manner of Hans +Andersen, as a vehicle for satire and a theory of morals. During +the whole of this period the most popular writer of Denmark was +J. C. C. Brosböll (1816-1900), who wrote, under the pseudonym +Carit Etlar, a vast number of tales. Another popular novelist +was Vilhelm Bergsöe (b. 1835), author of <i>In the Sabine Mountains</i> +(1871), and other romances. Sophus Bauditz (b. 1850) persevered +in composing novels which attain a wide general popularity. +Mention must be made also of the dramatist Christian Molbech +(1821-1888).</p> + +<p>Between 1885 and 1892 there was a transitional period in +Danish literature. Up to that time all the leaders had been +united in accepting the naturalistic formula, which was combined +with an individualist and a radical tendency. In 1885, however, +Drachmann, already the recognized first poet of the country, +threw off his allegiance to Brandes, denounced the exotic tradition, +declared himself a Conservative, and took up a national and +patriotic attitude. He was joined a little later by Gjellerup, while +Schandorph remained stanchly by the side of Brandes. The camp +was thus divided. New writers began to make their appearance, +and, while some of these were stanch to Brandes, others were +inclined to hold rather with Drachmann. Of the authors who +came forward during this period of transition, the strongest +novelist proved to be Hendrik Pontoppidan (b. 1857). In some +of his books he reminds the reader of Turgeniev. Pontoppidan +published in 1898 the first volume of a great novel entitled <i>Lykke-Per</i>, +the biography of a typical Jutlander named Per Sidenius, +a work to be completed in eight volumes. From 1893 to 1909 no +great features of a fresh kind revealed themselves. The Danish +public, grown tired of realism, and satiated with pathological +phenomena, returned to a fresh study of their own national +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44"></a>44</span> +characteristics. The cultivation of verse, which was greatly discouraged +in the eighties, returned. Drachmann was supported by +excellent younger poets of his school. J. J. Jörgensen (b. 1866), +a Catholic decadent, was very prolific. Otto C. Fönss (b. 1853) +published seven little volumes of graceful lyrical poems in praise +of gardens and of farm-life. Andreas Dolleris (b. 1850), of Vejle, +showed himself an occasional poet of merit. Alfred Ipsen (b. 1852) +must also be mentioned as a poet and critic. Valdemar Rördam, +whose <i>The Danish Tongue</i> was the lyrical success of 1901, may +also be named. Some attempts were made to transplant +the theories of the symbolists to Denmark, but without signal +success. On the other hand, something of a revival of naturalism +is to be observed in the powerful studies of low life admirably +written by Karl Larsen (b. 1860).</p> + +<p>The drama has long flourished in Denmark. The principal +theatres are liberally open to fresh dramatic talent of every kind, +and the great fondness of the Danes for this form of entertainment +gives unusual scope for experiments in halls or private +theatres; nothing is too eccentric to hope to obtain somewhere +a fair hearing. Drachmann produced with very great success +several romantic dramas founded on the national legends. Most +of the novelists and poets already mentioned also essayed the +stage, and to those names should be added these of Einar +Christiansen (b. 1861), Ernst von der Recke (b. 1848), Oskar +Benzon (b. 1856) and Gustav Wied (b. 1858).</p> + +<p>In theology no names were as eminent as in the preceding +generation, in which such writers as H. N. Clausen (1793-1877), +and still more Hans Lassen Martensen (1808-1884), lifted the +prestige of Danish divinity to a high point. But in history the +Danes have been very active. Karl Ferdinand Allen (1811-1871) +began a comprehensive history of the Scandinavian kingdoms +(5 vols., 1864-1872). Jens Peter Trap (1810-1885) concluded +his great statistical account of Denmark in 1879. The 16th +century was made the subject of the investigations of <a href="#artlinks">Troels +Lund</a> (q.v.). About 1880 several of the younger historians +formed the plan of combining to investigate and publish the +sources of Danish history; in this the indefatigable Johannes +Steenstrup (b. 1844) was prominent. The domestic history of +the country began, about 1885, to occupy the attention of +Edvard Holm (b. 1833), O. Nielsen and the veteran P. Frederik +Barfod (1811-1896). The naval histories of G. Lütken attracted +much notice. Besides the names already mentioned, A. D. +Jörgensen (1840-1897), J. Fredericia (b. 1849), Christian Erslev +(b. 1852) and Vilhelm Mollerup have all distinguished themselves +in the excellent school of Danish historians. In 1896 an +elaborate composite history of Denmark was undertaken by some +leading historians (pub. 1897-1905). In philosophy nothing has +recently been published of the highest value. Martensen’s <i>Jakob +Böhme</i> (1881) belongs to an earlier period. H. Höffding (b. 1843) +has been the most prominent contributor to psychology. His +<i>Problems of Philosophy</i> and his <i>Philosophy of Religion</i> were +translated into English in 1906. Alfred Lehmann (b. 1858) has, +since 1896, attracted a great deal of attention by his sceptical +investigation of psychical phenomena. F. Rönning has written +on the history of thought in Denmark. In the criticism of art, +Julius Lange (1838-1896), and later Karl Madsen, have done +excellent service. In literary criticism Dr Georg Brandes is +notable for the long period during which he remained predominant. +His was a steady and stimulating presence, ever +pointing to the best in art and thought, and his influence on +his age was greater than that of any other Dane.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—R. Nyerup, <i>Den danske Digtekunsts Historie</i> +(1800-1808), and <i>Almindeligt Literaturlexikon</i> (1818-1820); N. M. +Petersen, <i>Literaturhistorie</i> (2nd ed., 1867-1871, 5 vols.); Overskou, +<i>Den danske Skueplads</i> (1854-1866, 5 vols.), with a continuation +(2 vols., 1873-1876) by E Collin; Chr. Bruun, <i>Bibliotheca Danica</i> +(3 vols., 1872-1896); Bricka, <i>Dansk biografisk Lexikon</i> (1887-1901); +J. Paludan, <i>Danmarks Literatur i Middelalderen</i> (Copenhagen, 1896); +P. Hansen, <i>Illustreret Dansk Literaturhistorie</i> (3 vols., 1901-1902); +F. W. Horn, <i>History of the Scandinavian North from the most ancient +times to the present</i> (English translation by Rasmus B. Anderson +(Chicago, 1884), with bibliographical appendix by Thorwald Solberg); +Ph. Schweitzer, <i>Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur</i> (3 pts., +Leipzig, 1886-1889), forming vol. viii. of the <i>Geschichte der Weltlitteratur</i>. +See also Brandes, <i>Kritiker og Portraiter</i> (1870); Brandes, +<i>Danske Ditgere</i> (1877); Marie Herzfeld, <i>Die Skandinavische +Litteratur und ihre Tendenzen</i> (Berlin and Leipzig, 1898); Hjalmar +Hjorth Boyesen, <i>Essays on Scandinavian Literature</i> (London, 1895); +Edmund Gosse, <i>Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe</i> (new ed., +London, 1883); Vilhelm Andersen, <i>Litteraturbilleder</i> (Copenhagen, +1903); A. P. J. Schener, <i>Kortfattet Indledning til Romantikkus +Periode i Danmarks Litteratur</i> (Copenhagen, 1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is true the university was established on the 9th of September +1537, but its influence was of very gradual growth and small at +first.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2e" href="#FnAnchor_2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Collected as <i>Samling af gamle danske Love</i> (5 vols., Copenhagen, +1821-1827).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3e" href="#FnAnchor_3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Henrik Harpestraengs Laegebog</i> (ed. C. Molbech, Copenhagen, +1826).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4e" href="#FnAnchor_4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Ed. C. Molbech (Copenhagen, 1825).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5e" href="#FnAnchor_5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See <i>Povel Eliesens danske Skrifter</i> (Copenhagen, 1855, &c.), +edited by C. E. Secher.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6e" href="#FnAnchor_6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See <i>Monumenta historiae Danicae</i> (ed. H. Rördam, vol. i., 1873).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7e" href="#FnAnchor_7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Ed. Sophus Birket Smith (Copenhagen, 1868), who also edited +the comedies ascribed to Chr. Hansen as <i>De tre aeldste danske +Skuespil</i> (1874), and the works of Ranch (1876).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8e" href="#FnAnchor_8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> His works were edited by Gustav Storm (Christiania, 1877-1879).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9e" href="#FnAnchor_9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Fr. W. Horn, <i>Peder Syv</i> (Copenhagen, 1878).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10e" href="#FnAnchor_10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See A. C. L. Heiberg, <i>Thomas Kingo</i> (Odense, 1852).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11e" href="#FnAnchor_11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> His collected works were edited by Fr. Barford (Copenhagen, +5th ed., 1879).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12e" href="#FnAnchor_12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Wessel’s <i>Digte</i> (3rd ed., 1895) are edited by J. Levin, with a +biographical introduction.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13e" href="#FnAnchor_13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> A biography by his friend, K. L. Rahbek, is prefixed to a selection +of his poetry (6 vols., 1824-1829).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14e" href="#FnAnchor_14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See F. L. Liebenberg, <i>Schack Staffeldts samlede Digte</i> (2 vols., +Copenhagen, 1843), and <i>Samlinger til Schack Staffeldts Levnet</i> (4 vols., +1846-1851).]</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15e" href="#FnAnchor_15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Blicher’s <i>Tales</i> were edited by P. Hansen (3 vols., Copenhagen, +1871), and his <i>Poems</i> in 1870.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16e" href="#FnAnchor_16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Edited (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1855, Copenhagen) by F. L. Liebenberg.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENNERY,</span> or <span class="sc">D’Ennery</span>, <span class="bold">ADOLPHE</span> (1811-1899), French +dramatist and novelist, whose real surname was <span class="sc">Philippe</span>, was +born in Paris on the 17th of June 1811. He obtained his first +success in collaboration with Charles Desnoyer in <i>Émile, ou le +fils d’un pair de France</i> (1831), a drama which was the first of a +series of some two hundred pieces written alone or in collaboration +with other dramatists. Among the best of them may be +mentioned <i>Gaspard Hauser</i> (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; <i>Les +Bohémiens de Paris</i> (1842) with Eugène Grangé; with Mallian, +<i>Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple</i> (1845), in which Madame +Dorval obtained a great success; <i>La Case d’Oncle Tom</i> (1853); +<i>Les Deux Orphelines</i> (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugène +Cormon. He wrote the libretto for Gounod’s <i>Tribut de Zamora</i> +(1881); with Louis Gallet and Édouard Blan he composed the +book of Massenet’s <i>Cid</i> (1885); and, again in collaboration with +Eugène Cormon, the books of Auber’s operas, <i>Le Premier Jour de +bonheur</i> (1868) and <i>Rêve d’amour</i> (1869). He prepared for the +stage Balzac’s posthumous comedy <i>Mercadet ou le faiseur</i>, +presented at the Gymnase theatre in 1851. Reversing the usual +order of procedure, Dennery adapted some of his plays to the form +of novels. He died in Paris in 1899.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENNEWITZ,</span> a village of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Brandenburg, near Jüterbog, 40 m. S.W. from Berlin. It is +memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the 6th of +September 1813, in which Marshal Ney, with an army of 58,000 +French, Saxons and Poles, was defeated with great loss by 50,000 +Prussians under Generals Bülow (afterwards Count Bülow of +Dennewitz) and Tauentzien. The site of the battle is marked by +an iron obelisk.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENNIS, JOHN</span> (1657-1734), English critic and dramatist, the +son of a saddler, was born in London in 1657. He was educated +at Harrow School and Caius College, Cambridge, where he took +his B.A. degree in 1679. In the next year he was fined and dismissed +from his college for having wounded a fellow-student with +a sword. He was, however, received at Trinity Hall, where he +took his M.A. degree in 1683. After travelling in France and +Italy, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with +Dryden, Wycherley and others; and being made temporarily +independent by inheriting a small fortune, he devoted himself to +literature. The duke of Marlborough procured him a place as one +of the queen’s waiters in the customs with a salary of £120 a year. +This he afterwards disposed of for a small sum, retaining, at the +suggestion of Lord Halifax, a yearly charge upon it for a long +term of years. Neither the poems nor the plays of Dennis are of +any account, although one of his tragedies, a violent attack on +the French in harmony with popular prejudice, entitled <i>Liberty +Asserted</i>, was produced with great success at Lincoln’s Inn +Fields in 1704. His sense of his own importance approached +mania, and he is said to have desired the duke of Marlborough to +have a special clause inserted in the treaty of Utrecht to secure +him from French vengeance. Marlborough pointed out that +although he had been a still greater enemy of the French nation, +he had no fear for his own security. This tale and others of a +similar nature may well be exaggerations prompted by his +enemies, but the infirmities of character and temper indicated in +them were real. Dennis is best remembered as a critic, and Isaac +D’Israeli, who took a by no means favourable view of Dennis, +said that some of his criticisms attain classical rank. The +earlier ones, which have nothing of the rancour that afterwards +gained him the nickname of “Furius,” are the best. They are +<i>Remarks ...</i> (1696), on Blackmore’s epic of Prince Arthur; +<i>Letters upon Several Occasions written by and between Mr Dryden, +Mr Wycherley, Mr Moyle, Mr Congreve and Mr Dennis, published +by Mr Dennis</i> (1696): two pamphlets in reply to Jeremy +Collier’s <i>Short View; The Advancement and Reformation of</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>45</span> +<i>Modern Poetry</i> (1701), perhaps his most important work; +<i>The Grounds of Criticism in Poetry</i> (1704), in which he argued that +the ancients owed their superiority over the moderns in poetry +to their religious attitude; an <i>Essay upon Publick Spirit ...</i> +(1711), in which he inveighs against luxury, and servile imitation +of foreign fashions and customs; and <i>Essay on the Genius and +Writings of Shakespeare in three Letters</i> (1712).</p> + +<p>Dennis had been offended by a humorous quotation made +from his works by Addison, and published in 1713 <i>Remarks upon +Cato</i>. Much of this criticism was acute and sensible, and it is +quoted at considerable length by Johnson in his <i>Life of Addison</i>, +but there is no doubt that Dennis was actuated by personal +jealousy of Addison’s success. Pope replied in <i>The Narrative +of Dr Robert Norris, concerning the strange and deplorable frenzy +of John Dennis ...</i> (1713). This pamphlet was full of personal +abuse, exposing Dennis’s foibles, but offering no defence of <i>Cato</i>. +Addison repudiated any connivance in this attack, and indirectly +notified Dennis that when he did answer his objections, +it would be without personalities. Pope had already assailed +Dennis in 1711 in the <i>Essay on Criticism</i>, as Appius. Dennis +retorted by <i>Reflections, Critical and Satirical ...</i>, a scurrilous +production in which he taunted Pope with his deformity, saying +among other things that he was “as stupid and as venomous as +a hunch-backed toad.” He also wrote in 1717 <i>Remarks upon +Mr Pope’s Translation of Homer ...</i> and <i>A True Character of +Mr Pope</i>. He accordingly figures in the <i>Dunciad</i>, and in a +scathing note in the edition of 1729 (bk. i. 1. 106) Pope quotes +his more outrageous attacks, and adds an insulting epigram +attributed to Richard Savage, but now generally ascribed to +Pope. More pamphlets followed, but Dennis’s day was over. He +outlived his annuity from the customs, and his last years were +spent in great poverty. Bishop Atterbury sent him money, and +he received a small sum annually from Sir Robert Walpole. +A benefit performance was organized at the Haymarket +(December 18, 1733) on his behalf. Pope wrote for the occasion +an ill-natured prologue which Cibber recited. Dennis died within +three weeks of this performance, on the 6th of January 1734.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>His other works include several plays, for one of which, <i>Appius +and Virginia</i> (1709), he invented a new kind of thunder. He wrote +a curious <i>Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner</i> (1706), maintaining +that opera was the outgrowth of effeminate manners, and +should, as such, be suppressed. His <i>Works</i> were published in 1702, +<i>Select Works ...</i> (2 vols.) in 1718, and <i>Miscellaneous Tracts</i>, the first +volume only of which appeared, in 1727. For accounts of Dennis +see Cibber’s <i>Lives of the Poets</i>, vol. iv.; Isaac D’Israeli’s essays on +Pope and Addison in the <i>Quarrels of Authors</i>, and “On the Influence +of a Bad Temper in Criticism” in <i>Calamities of Authors</i>; and +numerous references in Pope’s <i>Works</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENOMINATION</span> (Lat. <i>denominare</i>, to give a specific name +to), the giving of a specific name to anything, hence the name or +designation of a person or thing, and more particularly of a class +of persons or things; thus, in arithmetic, it is applied to a unit +in a system of weights and measures, currency or numbers. The +most general use of “denomination” is for a body of persons +holding specific opinions and having a common name, especially +with reference to the religious opinions of such a body. More +particularly the word is used of the various “sects” into which +members of a common religious faith may be divided. The term +“denominationalism” is thus given to the principle of emphasizing +the distinctions, rather than the common ground, in the faith +held by different bodies professing one sort of religious belief. +This use is particularly applied to that system of religious +education which lays stress on the principle that children +belonging to a particular religious sect should be publicly taught +in the tenets of their belief by members belonging to it and under +the general control of the ministers of the denomination.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT,</span> <span class="sc">Baron de</span> (1747-1825), +French artist and archaeologist, was born at Chalon-sur-Saône +on the 4th of January 1747. He was sent to Paris to study law, +but he showed a decided preference for art and literature, and +soon gave up his profession. In his twenty-third year he produced +a comedy, <i>Le Bon Pére</i>, which obtained a <i>succès d’estime</i>, as +he had already won a position in society by his agreeable manners +and exceptional conversational powers. He became a favourite +of Louis XV., who entrusted him with the collection and arrangement +of a cabinet of medals and antique gems for Madame de +Pompadour, and subsequently appointed him attaché to the +French embassy at St Petersburg. On the accession of Louis +XVI. Denon was transferred to Sweden; but he returned, after +a brief interval, to Paris with the ambassador M. de Vergennes, +who had been appointed foreign minister. In 1775 Denon was +sent on a special mission to Switzerland, and took the opportunity +of visiting Voltaire at Ferney. He made a portrait of the +philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to +Paris. His next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where +he spent seven years, first as secretary to the embassy and afterwards +as <i>chargé d’affaires</i>. He devoted this period to a careful +study of the monuments of ancient art, collecting many specimens +and making drawings of others. He also perfected himself in +etching and mezzotinto engraving. The death of his patron, +M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, and the rest of his life +was given mainly to artistic pursuits. On his return to Paris +he was admitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After +a brief interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice. +He also visited Florence and Bologna, and afterwards went to +Switzerland. While there he heard that his property had been +confiscated, and his name placed on the list of the proscribed, and +with characteristic courage he resolved at once to return to Paris. +His situation was critical, but he was spared, thanks to the +friendship of the painter David, who obtained for him a commission +to furnish designs for republican costumes. When the +Revolution was over, Denon was one of the band of eminent men +who frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais. Here he +met Bonaparte, to whose fortunes he wisely attached himself. +At Bonaparte’s invitation he joined the expedition to Egypt, and +thus found the opportunity of gathering the materials for his most +important literary and artistic work. He accompanied General +Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made numerous sketches of the +monuments of ancient art, sometimes under the very fire of the +enemy. The results were published in his <i>Voyage dans la basse +et la haute Égypte</i> (2 vols, fol., with 141 plates, Paris, 1802), a +work which crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist +and as an artist. In 1804 he was appointed by Napoleon to the +important office of director-general of museums, which he filled +until the restoration in 1815, when he had to retire. He was a +devoted friend of Napoleon, whom he accompanied in his expeditions +to Austria, Spain and Poland, taking sketches with his +wonted fearlessness on the various battlefields, and advising the +conqueror in his choice of spoils of art from the various cities +pillaged. After his retirement he began an illustrated history of +ancient and modern art, in which he had the co-operation of +several skilful engravers. He died at Paris on the 27th of April +1825, leaving the work unfinished. It was published posthumously, +with an explanatory text by Amaury Duval, under the +title <i>Monuments des arts du dessin chez les peuples tant anciens +que modernes, recueillis par Vivant Denon</i> (4 vols, fol., Paris, 1829). +Denon was the author of a novel, <i>Point de lendemain</i> (1777), of +which further editions were printed in 1812, 1876 and 1879.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See J. Renouvier, <i>Histoire de l’art pendant la Révolution</i>; A. de la +Fizelière, <i>L’Œuvre originale de Vivant-Denon</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1872-1873); +Roger Portallis, <i>Les Dessinateurs d’illustrations au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i>; D. H. Beraldi, <i>Les Graveurs d’illustrations au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENOTATION</span> (from Lat. <i>denotare</i>, to mark out, specify), in +logic, a technical term used strictly as the correlative of Connotation, +to describe one of the two functions of a concrete term. +The concrete term “connotes” attributes and “denotes” all +the individuals which, as possessing these attributes, constitute +the genus or species described by the term. Thus “cricketer” +denotes the individuals who play cricket, and connotes the +qualities or characteristics by which these individuals are marked. +In this sense, in which it was first used by J. S. Mill, Denotation +is equivalent to Extension, and Connotation to Intension. It is +clear that when the given term is qualified by a limiting adjective +the Denotation or Extension diminishes, while the Connotation +or Intension increases; e.g. a generic term like “flower” has a +larger Extension, and a smaller Intension than “rose”: “rose” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46"></a>46</span> +than “moss-rose.” In more general language Denotation +is used loosely for that which is meant or indicated by a word, +phrase, sentence or even an action. Thus a proper name or +even an abstract term is said to have Denotation. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Connotation</a></span>.)</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENS, PETER</span> (1690-1775), Belgian Roman Catholic theologian, +was born at Boom near Antwerp. Most of his life was +spent in the archiepiscopal college of Malines, where he was for +twelve years reader in theology and for forty president. His +great work was the <i>Theologia moralis et dogmatica</i>, a compendium +in catechetical form of Roman Catholic doctrine and ethics +which has been much used as a students’ text-book. Dens died +on the 15th of February 1775.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENSITY</span> (Lat. <i>densus</i>, thick), in physics, the mass or quantity +of matter contained in unit volume of any substance: this is the +<i>absolute density</i>; the term <i>relative density</i> or <i>specific gravity</i> +denotes the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a substance +to the mass of the same volume of some standard substance. +Since the weights used in conjunction with a balance are really +standard masses, the word “weight” may be substituted for +the word “mass” in the preceding definitions; and we may +symbolically express the relations thus:—If M be the weight of +substance occupying a volume V, then the absolute density +Δ = M/V; and if m, m<span class="su">1</span> be the weights of the substance and +of the standard substance which occupy the same volume, the +relative density or specific gravity S = m/m<span class="su">1</span>; or more generally +if m<span class="su">1</span> be the weight of a volume v of the substance, and m<span class="su">1</span> the +weight of a volume v<span class="su">1</span> of the standard, then S = mv<span class="su">1</span>/m<span class="su">1</span>v. In the +numerical expression of absolute densities it is necessary to +specify the units of mass and volume employed; while in the case +of relative densities, it is only necessary to specify the standard +substance, since the result is a mere number. Absolute densities +are generally stated in the C.G.S. system, i.e. as grammes per +cubic centimetre. In commerce, however, other expressions are +met with, as, for example, “pounds per cubic foot” (used for +woods, metals, &c.), “pounds per gallon,” &c. The standard +substances employed to determine relative densities are: water +for liquids and solids, and hydrogen or atmospheric air for gases; +oxygen (as 16) is sometimes used in this last case. Other +standards of reference may be used in special connexions; for +example, the Earth is the usual unit for expressing the relative +density of the other members of the solar system. Reference +should be made to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gravitation</a></span> for an account of the +methods employed to determine the “mean density of the earth.”</p> + +<p>In expressing the absolute or relative density of any substance, +it is necessary to specify the conditions for which the relation +holds: in the case of gases, the temperature and pressure of the +experimental gas (and of the standard, in the case of relative +density); and in the case of solids and liquids, the temperature. +The reason for this is readily seen; if a mass M of any gas +occupies a volume V at a temperature T (on the absolute scale) +and a pressure P, then its absolute density under these conditions +is Δ = M/V; if now the temperature and pressure be changed to +T<span class="su">1</span> and P<span class="su">1</span>, the volume V<span class="su">1</span> under these conditions is VPT/P<span class="su">1</span>T<span class="su">1</span>, +and the absolute density is MP<span class="su">1</span>T/VPT<span class="su">1</span>. It is customary to reduce +gases to the so-called “normal temperature and pressure,” +abbreviated to N.T.P., which is 0°C. and 760 mm.</p> + +<p>The relative densities of gases are usually expressed in terms +of the standard gas under the same conditions. The density +gives very important information as to the molecular weight, +since by the law of Avogadro it is seen that the relative density +is the ratio of the molecular weights of the experimental and +standard gases. In the case of liquids and solids, comparison +with water at 4°C, the temperature of the maximum density of +water; at 0°C, the zero of the Centigrade scale and the freezing-point +of water; at 15° and 18°, ordinary room-temperatures; +and at 25°, the temperature at which a thermostat may be +conveniently maintained, are common in laboratory practice. +The temperature of the experimental substance may or may not +be the temperature of the standard. In such cases a bracketed +fraction is appended to the specific gravity, of which the numerator +and denominator are respectively the temperatures of the +substance and of the standard; thus 1.093 (0°/4°) means that +the ratio of the weight of a definite volume of a substance at 0° +to the weight of the same volume of water 4° is 1.093. It may +be noted that if comparison be made with water at 4°, the relative +density is the same as the absolute density, since the unit of mass +in the C.G.S. system is the weight of a cubic centimetre of water +at this temperature. In British units, especially in connexion +with the statement of relative densities of alcoholic liquors for +Inland Revenue purposes, comparison is made with water at +62° F. (<span class="correction" title="degree symbol was missing">16.6°</span> C); a reason for this is that the gallon of water +is defined by statute as weighing 10 <span class="uni">℔</span> at 62° F., and hence the +densities so expressed admit of the ready conversion of volumes +to weights. Thus if d be the relative density, then 10d represents +the weight of a gallon in <span class="uni">℔</span>. The brewer has gone a step further +in simplifying his expressions by multiplying the density by 1000, +and speaking of the difference between the density so expressed +and 1000 as “degrees of gravity” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beer</a></span>).</p> + +<p class="center sc">Practical Determination of Densities</p> + +<div class="condenced"> + +<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figright1"> + <a name="fig_1"><img src="images/img46.jpg" width="49" height="400" alt="Say's Stereometer." title="Say's Stereometer." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Say’s<br />Stereometer.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The methods for determining densities may be divided into two +groups according as hydrostatic principles are employed or not. In +the group where the principles of hydrostatics are not employed the +method consists in determining the weight and volume of a certain +quantity of the substance, or the weights of equal +volumes of the substance and of the standard. In +the case of solids we may determine the volume in +some cases by direct measurement—this gives at the +best a very rough and ready value; a better method +is to immerse the body in a fluid (in which it must +sink and be insoluble) contained in a graduated +glass, and to deduce its volume from the height to +which the liquid rises. The weight may be directly +determined by the balance. The ratio “weight to +volume” is the absolute density. The separate +determination of the volume and mass of such +substances as gunpowder, cotton-wool, soluble substances, +&c., supplies the only means of determining +their densities. The stereometer of Say, which was +greatly improved by Regnault and further modified +by Kopp, permits an accurate determination of the +volume of a given mass of any such substance. In +its simplest form the instrument consists of a glass +tube PC (fig. 1), of uniform bore, terminating in a +cup PE, the mouth of which can be rendered airtight +by the plate of glass E. The substance whose +volume is to be determined is placed in the cup PE, +and the tube PC is immersed in the vessel of mercury +D, until the mercury reaches the mark P. The plate +E is then placed on the cup, and the tube PC raised +until the surface of the mercury in the tube stands +at M, that in the vessel D being at C, and the +height MC is measured. Let k denote this height, +and let PM be denoted by l. Let u represent the +volume of air in the cup before the body was inserted, +v the volume of the body, a the area of the horizontal +section of the tube PC, and h the height of the +mercurial barometer. Then, by Boyle’s law +(u - v + al)(h - k) = (u - v)h, and therefore v = u - al(h - k)/k.</p> + +<p>The volume u may be determined by repeating the experiment +when only air is in the cup. In this case v = 0, and the equation +becomes (u + al<span class="sp">1</span>)(h - k<span class="sp">1</span>) = uh, whence u = al<span class="sp">1</span>(h - k<span class="sp">1</span>)/k<span class="sp">1</span>. Substituting +this value in the expression for v, the volume of the body inserted in +the cup becomes known. The chief errors to which the stereometer +is liable are (1) variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure +during the experiment, and (2) the presence of moisture which disturbs +Boyle’s law.</p> + +<p>The method of weighing equal volumes is particularly applicable +to the determination of the relative densities of liquids. It consists +in weighing a glass vessel (1) empty, (2) filled with the liquid, (3) +filled with the standard substance. Calling the weight of the empty +vessel w, when filled with the liquid W, and when filled with the +standard substance W<span class="su">1</span>, it is obvious that W - w, and W<span class="su">1</span> - w, +are the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and standard, +and hence the relative density is (W - w)/(W<span class="su">1</span> - w).</p> + +<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figright1"> + <a name="fig_2"><img src="images/img46a.jpg" width="70" height="162" alt="Fig. 2." title="Fig. 2." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption sc">Fig. 2.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Many forms of vessels have been devised. The commoner +type of “specific gravity bottle” consists of a thin +glass bottle (fig. 2) of a capacity varying from 10 to 100 cc., +fitted with an accurately ground stopper, which is vertically +perforated by a fine hole. The bottle is carefully cleansed +by washing with soda, hydrochloric acid and distilled +water, and then dried by heating in an air bath or by blowing +in warm air. It is allowed to cool and then weighed. +The bottle is then filled with distilled water, and brought +to a definite temperature by immersion in a thermostat, and the +stopper inserted. It is removed from the thermostat, and carefully +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47"></a>47</span> +wiped. After cooling it is weighed. The bottle is again cleaned and +dried, and the operations repeated with the liquid under examination +instead of water. Numerous modifications of this bottle are in +use. For volatile liquids, a flask provided with a long neck which +carries a graduation and is fitted with a well-ground stopper is +recommended. The bringing of the liquid to the mark is effected +by removing the excess by means of a capillary. In many forms a +thermometer forms part of the apparatus.</p> + +<table style="float: left; width: auto; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figleft1"> + <a name="fig_3"><img src="images/img47.jpg" width="300" height="267" alt="Fig. 3." title="Fig. 3." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption sc">Fig. 3.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Another type of vessel, named the Sprengel tube or pycnometer +(Gr. <span class="grk" title="pyknos">πυκυός</span>, dense), is shown in fig. 3. It consists of a cylindrical +tube of a capacity ranging from 10 to 50 cc., provided at the upper +end with a thick-walled capillary bent as shown on the left of the +figure. From the bottom there leads +another fine tube, bent upwards, and +then at right angles so as to be at the +same level as the capillary branch. This +tube bears a graduation. A loop of platinum +wire passed under these tubes serves +to suspend the vessel from the balance +arm. The manner of cleansing, &c., is +the same as in the ordinary form. The +vessel is filled by placing the capillary +in a vessel containing the liquid and +gently aspirating. Care must be taken +that no air bubbles are enclosed. The +liquid is adjusted to the mark by +withdrawing any excess from the capillary end by a strip of +bibulous paper or by a capillary tube. Many variations of this +apparatus are in use; in one of the commonest there are two +cylindrical chambers, joined at the bottom, and each provided +at the top with fine tubes bent at right angles; sometimes the inlet +and outlet tubes are provided with caps.</p> + +<p>The specific gravity bottle may be used to determine the relative +density of a solid which is available in small fragments, and is insoluble +in the standard liquid. The method involves three operations:—(1) +weighing the solid in air (W), (2) weighing the specific gravity +bottle full of liquid (W<span class="su">1</span>), (3) weighing the bottle containing the solid +and filled up with liquid (W<span class="su">2</span>). It is readily seen that W + W<span class="su">1</span> - W<span class="su">2</span> is +the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid, and therefore is the +weight of an equal volume of liquid; hence the relative density is +W/(W + W<span class="su">1</span> - W<span class="su">2</span>).</p> + +<p>The determination of the absolute densities of gases can only be +effected with any high degree of accuracy by a development of this +method. As originated by Regnault, it consisted in filling a large +glass globe with the gas by alternately exhausting with an air-pump +and admitting the pure and dry gas. The flask was then brought to +0° by immersion in melting ice, the pressure of the gas taken, and +the stop-cock closed. The flask is removed from the ice, allowed to +attain the temperature of the room, and then weighed. The flask +is now partially exhausted, transferred to the cooling bath, and after +standing the pressure of the residual gas is taken by a manometer. +The flask is again brought to room-temperature, and re-weighed. +The difference in the weights corresponds to the volume of gas at a +pressure equal to the difference of the recorded pressures. The +volume of the flask is determined by weighing empty and filled with +water. This method has been refined by many experimenters, +among whom we may notice Morley and Lord Rayleigh. Morley +determined the densities of hydrogen and oxygen in the course of +his classical investigation of the composition of water. The method +differed from Regnault’s inasmuch as the flask was exhausted to an +almost complete vacuum, a performance rendered possible by the high +efficiency of the modern air-pump. The actual experiment necessitates +the most elaborate precautions, for which reference must be +made to Morley’s original papers in the <i>Smithsonian Contributions +to Knowledge</i> (1895), or to M. Travers, <i>The Study of Gases</i>. Lord +Rayleigh has made many investigations of the absolute densities of +gases, one of which, namely on atmospheric and artificial nitrogen, +undertaken in conjunction with Sir William Ramsay, culminated in +the discovery of <a href="#artlinks">argon</a> (q.v.). He pointed out in 1888 (<i>Proc. Roy. +Soc.</i> 43, p. 361) an important correction which had been overlooked +by previous experimenters with Regnault’s method, viz. the change +in volume of the experimental globe due to shrinkage under diminished +pressure; this may be experimentally determined and amounts to +between 0.04 and 0.16% of the volume of the globe.</p> + +<p>Related to the determination of the density of a gas is the determination +of the density of a vapour, i.e. matter which at ordinary +temperatures exists as a solid or liquid. This subject owes its +importance in modern chemistry to the fact that the vapour density, +when hydrogen is taken as the standard, gives perfectly definite +information as to the molecular condition of the compound, since +twice the vapour density equals the molecular weight of the +compound. Many methods have been devised. In historical order +we may briefly enumerate the following:—in 1811, Gay-Lussac +volatilized a weighed quantity of liquid, which must be readily +volatile, by letting it rise up a short tube containing mercury and +standing inverted in a vessel holding the same metal. This method +was developed by Hofmann in 1868, who replaced the short tube +of Gay-Lussac by an ordinary barometer tube, thus effecting the +volatilization in a Torricellian vacuum. In 1826 Dumas devised a +method suitable for substances of high boiling-point; this consisted +in its essential point in vaporizing the substance in a flask made of +suitable material, sealing it when full of vapour, and weighing. This +method is very tedious in detail. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and +L. Troost made it available for specially high temperatures by +employing porcelain vessels, sealing them with the oxyhydrogen +blow-pipe, and maintaining a constant temperature by a vapour +bath of mercury (350°), sulphur (440°), cadmium (860°) and zinc +(1040°). In 1878 Victor Meyer devised his air-expulsion method.</p> + +<p>Before discussing the methods now used in detail, a summary of +the conclusions reached by Victor Meyer in his classical investigations +in this field as to the applicability of the different methods will +be given:</p> + +<p>(1) For substances which do not boil higher than 260° and have +vapours stable for 30° above the boiling-point and which do not +react on mercury, use Victor Meyer’s “mercury expulsion method.”</p> + +<p>(2) For substances boiling between 260° and 420°, and which do +not react on metals, use Meyer’s “Wood’s alloy expulsion method.”</p> + +<p>(3) For substances boiling at higher temperatures, or for any +substance which reacts on mercury, Meyer’s “air expulsion method” +must be used. It is to be noted, however, that this method is +applicable to substances of any boiling-point (see below).</p> + +<p>(4) For substances which can be vaporized only under diminished +pressure, several methods may be used. (a) Hofmann’s is the best +if the substance volatilizes at below 310°, and does not react on +mercury; otherwise (b) Demuth and Meyer’s, Eykman’s, Schall’s, or +other methods may be used.</p> + +<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figright1"> + <a name="fig_4"><img src="images/img47a.jpg" width="70" height="152" alt="Fig. 4." title="Fig. 4." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption sc">Fig. 4.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>1. <i>Meyer’s “Mercury Expulsion” Method.</i>—A small quantity of +the substance is weighed into a tube, of the form shown in fig. 4, +which has a capacity of about 35 cc., provided with a capillary tube +at the top, and a bent tube about 6 mm. in diameter at the bottom. +The vessel is completely filled with mercury, the capillary +sealed, and the vessel weighed. The vessel is then lowered +into a jacket containing vapour at a known temperature +which is sufficient to volatilize the substance. Mercury is +expelled, and when this expulsion ceases, the vessel is +removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. It is necessary to +determine the pressure exerted on the vapour by the +mercury in the narrow limb; this is effected by opening +the capillary and inclining the tube until the mercury just +reaches the top of the narrow tube; the difference between +the height of the mercury in the wide tube and the top of +the narrow tube represents the pressure due to the mercury column, +and this must be added to the barometric pressure in order to +deduce the total pressure on the vapour.</p> + +<p>The result is calculated by means of the formula:</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + <tr><td rowspan="2">D = </td> + <td class="tc1">W(1 + αt) × 7,980,000</td> + <td rowspan="2">,</td> </tr> + <tr><td class="denom">(p + p<span class="su">1</span> - s)[m{1 + β(t - t<span class="su">0</span>)} - m<span class="su">1</span>{1 + γ(t - t<span class="su">0</span>)}](1 + γt)</td> </tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">in which W = weight of substance taken; t = temperature of vapour +bath; α = 0.00366 = temperature coefficient of gases; p = barometric +pressure; p<span class="su">1</span> = height of mercury column in vessel; s = +vapour tension of mercury at t°; m = weight of mercury contained in +the vessel; m<span class="su">1</span> = weight of mercury left in vessel after heating; +β = coefficient of expansion of glass = .0000303; γ = coefficient of +expansion of mercury = 0.00018 (0.00019 above 240°) (see <i>Ber.</i> 1877, +10, p. 2068; 1886, 19, p. 1862).</p> + +<p>2. <i>Meyer’s Wood’s Alloy Expulsion Method.</i>—This method is a +modification of the one just described. The alloy used is composed +of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium; it +melts at 70°, and can be experimented with as readily as mercury. +The cylindrical vessel is replaced by a globular one, and the pressure +on the vapour due to the column of alloy in the side tube is readily +reduced to millimetres of mercury since the specific gravity of the +alloy at the temperature of boiling sulphur, 444° (at which the +apparatus is most frequently used), is two-thirds of +that of mercury (see <i>Ber.</i> 1876, 9, p. 1220).</p> + +<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figright1"> + <a name="fig_5"><img src="images/img47b.jpg" width="110" height="350" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption sc">Fig. 5.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>3. <i>Meyer’s Air Expulsion Method.</i>—The simplicity, +moderate accuracy, and adaptability of this method +to every class of substance which can be vaporized +entitles it to rank as one of the most potent methods +in analytical chemistry; its invention is indissolubly +connected with the name of Victor Meyer, being termed +“Meyer’s method” to the exclusion of his other +original methods. It consists in determining the +air expelled from a vessel by the vapour of a given +quantity of the substance. The apparatus is shown +in fig. 5. A long tube (a) terminates at the bottom in +a cylindrical chamber of about 100-150 cc. capacity. +The top is fitted with a rubber stopper, or in some +forms with a stop-cock, while a little way down there +is a bent delivery tube (b). To use the apparatus, the +long tube is placed in a vapour bath (c) of the requisite +temperature, and after the air within the tube is in +equilibrium, the delivery tube is placed beneath the +surface of the water in a pneumatic trough, the rubber +stopper pushed home, and observation made as to +whether any more air is being expelled. If this be not +so, a graduated tube (d) is filled with water, and inverted over the +delivery tube. The rubber stopper is removed and the experimental +substance introduced, and the stopper quickly replaced to the same +extent as before. Bubbles are quickly disengaged and collect in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>48</span> +graduated tube. Solids may be directly admitted to the tube from +a weighing bottle, while liquids are conveniently introduced by +means of small stoppered bottles, or, in the case of exceptionally +volatile liquids, by means of a bulb blown on a piece of thin +capillary tube, the tube being sealed during the weighing operation, +and the capillary broken just before transference to the apparatus. +To prevent the bottom of the apparatus being knocked +out by the impact of the substance, a layer of sand, asbestos or +sometimes mercury is placed in the tube. To complete the experiment, +the graduated tube containing the expelled air is brought +to a constant and determinate temperature and pressure, and this +volume is the volume which the given weight of the substance +would occupy if it were a gas under the same temperature and +pressure. The vapour density is calculated by the following formula:</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + <tr><td rowspan="2">D = </td> + <td class="tc1">W(1 + αt) × 587,780</td> + <td rowspan="2">,</td> </tr> + <tr><td class="denom tc1">(p - s)V</td> </tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">in which W = weight of substance taken, V = volume of air expelled, +α = 1/273 = .003665, t and p = temperature and pressure at which +expelled air is measured, and s = vapour pressure of water at t°.</p> + +<table style="float: left; width: auto; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figleft1"> + <a name="fig_6"><img src="images/img48.jpg" width="97" height="350" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption sc">Fig. 6.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>By varying the material of the bulb, this apparatus is rendered +available for exceptionally high temperatures. Vapour baths of iron +are used in connexion with boiling anthracene (335°), anthraquinone +(368°), sulphur (444°), phosphoruspentasulphide (518°); +molten lead may also be used. For higher temperatures +the bulb of the vapour density tube is made of +porcelain or platinum, and is heated in a gas furnace.</p> + +<p>(4a) <i>Hofmann’s Method.</i>—Both the <i>modus operandi</i> +and apparatus employed in this method particularly +recommend its use for substances which do not react +on mercury and which boil in a vacuum at below 310°. +The apparatus (fig. 6) consists of a barometer tube, +containing mercury and standing in a bath of the same +metal, surrounded by a vapour jacket. The vapour is +circulated through the jacket, and the height of the +mercury read by a cathetometer or otherwise. The substance +is weighed into a small stoppered bottle, which +is then placed beneath the mouth of the barometer tube. +It ascends the tube, the substance is rapidly volatilized, +and the mercury column is depressed; this depression +is read off. It is necessary to know the volume of the +tube above the second level; this may most efficiently +be determined by calibrating the tube prior to its use. +Sir T. E. Thorpe employed a barometer tube 96 cm. +long, and determined the volume from the closed end +for a distance of about 35 mm. by weighing in mercury; +below this mark it was calibrated in the ordinary way so that a scale +reading gave the volume at once. The calculation is effected by the +following formulae:—</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + <tr><td rowspan="2">D = </td> + <td class="tc1">760w(1 + 0.003665t)</td> + <td rowspan="2">;</td> </tr> + <tr><td class="denom tc1">0.0012934 × V × B</td> </tr> +</table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + <tr><td rowspan="2">B = </td> + <td class="tc1">h</td> + <td rowspan="2"> - <span style="font-size: 160%">(</span> </td> + <td class="tc1">h<span class="su">1</span></td> + <td rowspan="2"> - </td> + <td class="tc1">h<span class="su">2</span></td> + <td rowspan="2"> + s <span style="font-size: 160%">)</span> ,</td> </tr> + <tr><td class="denom tc1">1 + 0.00018t<span class="su">1</span></td> + <td class="denom tc1">1 + 0.00018t<span class="su">2</span></td> + <td class="denom tc1">1 + 0.00018t</td> </tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">in which w = weight of substance taken; t = temperature of vapour +jacket; V = volume of vapour at t; h = height of barometer reduced +to 0°; t<span class="su">1</span> = temperature of air; h<span class="su">1</span> = height of mercury column below +vapour jacket; t<span class="su">2</span> = temperature of mercury column not heated by +vapour; h<span class="su">2</span> = height of mercury column within vapour jacket; s = +vapour tension of mercury at t°. The vapour tension of mercury +need not be taken into account when water is used in the jacket.</p> + +<p>(4b) <i>Demuth and Meyer’s Method.</i>—The principle of this method +is as follows:—In the ordinary air expulsion method, the vapour +always mixes to some extent with the air in the tube, and this involves +a reduction of the pressure of the vapour. It is obvious that +this reduction may be increased by accelerating the diffusion of the +vapour. This may be accomplished by using a vessel with a somewhat +wide bottom, and inserting the substance so that it may be +volatilized very rapidly, as, for example, in tubes of Wood’s alloy, +and by filling the tube with hydrogen. (For further +details see <i>Ber.</i> 23, p. 311.)</p> + +<table style="float: left; width: auto; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figleft1"> + <a name="fig_7"><img src="images/img48a.jpg" width="150" height="274" alt="Fig. 7." title="Fig. 7." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption sc">Fig. 7.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>We may here notice a modification of Meyer’s +process in which the increase of pressure due to the +volatilization of the substance, and not the volume +of the expelled air, is measured. This method has +been developed by J. S. Lumsden (<i>Journ. Chem. +Soc.</i> 1903, 83, p. 342), whose apparatus is shown +diagrammatically in fig. 7. The vaporizing bulb +A has fused about it a jacket B, provided with a +condenser c. Two side tubes are fused on to the +neck of A: the lower one leads to a mercury manometer +M, and to the air by means of a cock C; the +upper tube is provided with a rubber stopper +through which a glass rod passes—this rod serves +to support the tube containing the substance to be +experimented upon, and so avoids the objection to +the practice of withdrawing the stopper of the tube, dropping the +substance in, and reinserting the stopper. To use the apparatus, a +liquid of suitable boiling-point is placed in the jacket and brought +to the boiling-point. All parts of the apparatus are open to the air, +and the mercury in the manometer is adjusted so as to come to a +fixed mark a. The substance is now placed on the support already +mentioned, and the apparatus closed to the air by inserting the +cork at D and turning the cock C. By turning or withdrawing +the support the substance enters the bulb; and during its vaporization +the free limb of the manometer is raised so as to maintain +the mercury at a. When the volatilization is quite complete, the +level is accurately adjusted, and the difference of the levels of the +mercury gives the pressure exerted by the vapour. To calculate the +result it is necessary to know the capacity of the apparatus to the +mark a, and the temperature of the jacket.</p> + +<p><i>Methods depending on the Principles of Hydrostatics.</i>—Hydrostatical +principles can be applied to density determinations in four +typical ways: (1) depending upon the fact that the heights of liquid +columns supported by the same pressure vary inversely as the +densities of the liquids; (2) depending upon the fact that a body which +sinks in a liquid loses a weight equal to the weight of liquid which +it displaces; (3) depending on the fact that a body remains suspended, +neither floating nor sinking, in a liquid of exactly the same +density; (4) depending on the fact that a floating body is immersed +to such an extent that the weight of the fluid displaced equals the +weight of the body.</p> + +<p>1. The method of balancing columns is of limited use. Two forms +are recognized. In one, applicable only to liquids which do not mix, +the two liquids are poured into the limbs of a U tube. The heights +of the columns above the surface of junction of the liquids are inversely +proportional to the densities of the liquids. In the second +form, named after Robert Hare (1781-1858), professor of chemistry +at the university of Pennsylvania, the liquids are drawn or aspirated +up vertical tubes which have their lower ends placed in reservoirs +containing the different liquids, and their upper ends connected to a +common tube which is in communication with an aspirator for +decreasing the pressure within the vertical tubes. The heights to +which the liquids rise, measured in each case by the distance between +the surfaces in the reservoirs and in the tubes, are inversely proportional +to the densities.</p> + +<p>2. The method of “hydrostatic weighing” is one of the most +important. The principle may be thus stated: the solid is weighed +in air, and then in water. If W be the weight in air, and W<span class="su">1</span> the +weight in water, then W<span class="su">1</span> is always less than W, the difference W - W<span class="su">1</span><span class="su">1</span> +representing the weight of the water displaced, i.e. the weight of a +volume of water equal to that of the solid. Hence W/(W - W<span class="su">1</span>) is the +relative density or specific gravity of the body. The principle is +readily adapted to the determination of the relative densities of two +liquids, for it is obvious that if W be the weight of a solid body in air, +W<span class="su">1</span> and W<span class="su">2</span> its weights when immersed in the liquids, then W - W<span class="su">1</span> +and W - W<span class="su">2</span> are the weights of equal volumes of the liquids, and +therefore the relative density is the quotient (W - W<span class="su">1</span>)/(W - W<span class="su">2</span>). +The determination in the case of solids lighter than water is effected +by the introduction of a sinker, i.e. a body which when affixed to the +light solid causes it to sink. If W be the weight of the experimental +solid in air, w the weight of the sinker in water, and W<span class="su">1</span> the weight of +the solid plus sinker in water, then the relative density is given by +W/(W + w - W<span class="su">1</span>). In practice the solid or plummet is suspended +from the balance arm by a fibre—silk, platinum, &c.—and carefully +weighed. A small stool is then placed over the balance pan, and on +this is placed a beaker of distilled water so that the solid is totally +immersed. Some balances are provided with a “specific gravity +pan,” i.e. a pan with short suspending arms, provided with a hook +at the bottom to which the fibre may be attached; when this is so, +the stool is unnecessary. Any air bubbles are removed from the +surface of the body by brushing with a camel-hair brush; if the +solid be of a porous nature it is desirable to boil it for some time in +water, thus expelling the air from its interstices. The weighing is +conducted in the usual way by vibrations, except when the weight +be small; it is then advisable to bring the pointer to zero, an operation +rendered necessary by the damping due to the adhesion of water +to the fibre. The temperature and pressure of the air and water +must also be taken.</p> + +<p>There are several corrections of the formula Δ = W/(W - W<span class="su">1</span>) +necessary to the accurate expression of the density. Here we can +only summarize the points of the investigation. It may be assumed +that the weighing is made with brass weights in air at t° and p mm. +pressure. To determine the true weight <i>in vacuo</i> at 0°, account +must be taken of the different buoyancies, or losses of true weight, +due to the different volumes of the solids and weights. Similarly +in the case of the weighing in water, account must be taken of the +buoyancy of the weights, and also, if absolute densities be required, +of the density of water at the temperature of the experiment. In a +form of great accuracy the absolute density Δ(0°/4°) is given by</p> + +<p class="center">Δ(0°/4°) = (ραW - δW<span class="su">1</span>)/(W - W<span class="su">1</span>),</p> + +<p class="noind">in which W is the weight of the body in air at t° and p mm. pressure, +W<span class="su">1</span> the weight in water, atmospheric conditions remaining very +nearly the same; ρ is the density of the water in which the body is +weighed, α is (1 + αt°) in which a is the coefficient of cubical +expansion of the body, and δ is the density of the air at t°, p mm. +Less accurate formulae are Δ = ρ W/(W - W<span class="su">1</span>), the factor involving +the density of the air, and the coefficient of the expansion of the +solid being disregarded, and Δ = W/(W - W<span class="su">1</span>), in which the density +of water is taken as unity. Reference may be made to J. Wade and +R. W. Merriman, <i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i> 1909, 95, p. 2174.</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="page49"></a>49</p> + +<table style="float: left; width: auto; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figleft1"> + <a name="fig_8"><img src="images/img49.jpg" width="400" height="353" alt="Fig. 8." title="Fig. 8." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption sc">Fig. 8.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The determination of the density of a liquid by weighing a +plummet in air, and in the standard and experimental liquids, +has been put into a very +convenient laboratory form +by means of the apparatus +known as a Westphal balance +(fig. 8). It consists of a steelyard +mounted on a fulcrum; +one arm carries at its extremity +a heavy bob and pointer, +the latter moving along a scale +affixed to the stand and serving +to indicate when the beam +is in its standard position. +The other arm is graduated +in ten divisions and carries +riders—bent pieces of wire of +determined weights—and at +its extremity a hook from +which the glass plummet is +suspended. To complete the +apparatus there is a glass jar which serves to hold the liquid +experimented with. The apparatus is so designed that when the +plummet is suspended in air, the index of the beam is at the zero +of the scale; if this be not so, then it is adjusted by a levelling +screw. The plummet is now placed in distilled water at 15°, and the +beam brought to equilibrium by means of a rider, which we shall call +1, hung on a hook; other riders are provided, <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">10</span>th and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">100</span>th respectively +of 1. To determine the density of any liquid it is only necessary +to suspend the plummet in the liquid, and to bring the beam +to its normal position by means of the riders; the relative density is +read off directly from the riders.</p> + +<p>3. Methods depending on the free suspension of the solid in a +liquid of the same density have been especially studied by Retgers +and Gossner in view of their applicability to density determinations +of crystals. Two typical forms are in use; in one a liquid is prepared +in which the crystal freely swims, the density of the liquid +being ascertained by the pycnometer or other methods; in the other +a liquid of variable density, the so-called “diffusion column,” is +prepared, and observation is made of the level at which the particle +comes to rest. The first type is in commonest use; since both +necessitate the use of dense liquids, a summary of the media of most +value, with their essential properties, will be given.</p> + +<p><i>Acetylene tetrabromide</i>, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">2</span>Br<span class="su">4</span>, which is very conveniently +prepared by passing acetylene into cooled bromine, has a density +of 3.001 at 6° C. It is highly convenient, since it is colourless, +odourless, very stable and easily mobile. It may be diluted with +benzene or toluene.</p> + +<p><i>Methylene iodide</i>, CH<span class="su">2</span>I<span class="su">2</span>, has a density of 3.33, and may be diluted +with benzene. Introduced by Brauns in 1886, it was recommended +by Retgers. Its advantages rest on its high density and mobility; +its main disadvantages are its liability to decomposition, the +originally colourless liquid becoming dark owing to the separation of +iodine, and its high coefficient of expansion. Its density may be +raised to 3.65 by dissolving iodoform and iodine in it.</p> + +<p><i>Thoulet’s solution</i>, an aqueous solution of potassium and mercuric +iodides (potassium iodo-mercurate), introduced by Thoulet and +subsequently investigated by V. Goldschmidt, has a density of +3.196 at 22.9°. It is almost colourless and has a small coefficient of +expansion; its hygroscopic properties, its viscous character, and +its action on the skin, however, militate against its use. A. Duboin +(<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1905, p. 141) has investigated the solutions of mercuric +iodide in other alkaline iodides; sodium iodo-mercurate solution has +a density of 3.46 at 26°, and gives with an excess of water a dense +precipitate of mercuric iodide, which dissolves without decomposition +in alcohol; lithium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3.28 +at 25.6°; and ammonium iodo-mercurate solution a density of +2.98 at 26°.</p> + +<p><i>Rohrbach’s solution</i>, an aqueous solution of barium and mercuric +iodides, introduced by Carl Rohrbach, has a density of 3.588.</p> + +<p><i>Klein’s solution</i>, an aqueous solution of cadmium borotungstate, +2Cd(OH)<span class="su">2</span>·B<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·9WO<span class="su">3</span>·16H<span class="su">2</span>O, introduced by D. Klein, has a +density up to 3.28. The salt melts in its water of crystallization at +75°, and the liquid thus obtained goes up to a density of 3.6.</p> + +<p><i>Silver-thallium nitrate</i>, TIAg(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, introduced by Retgers, melts +at 75° to form a clear liquid of density 4.8; it may be diluted with +water.</p> + +<p>The method of using these liquids is in all cases the same; a +particle is dropped in; if it floats a diluent is added and the mixture +well stirred. This is continued until the particle freely swims, +and then the density of the mixture is determined by the ordinary +methods (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mineralogy</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the “diffusion column” method, a liquid column uniformly +varying in density from about 3.3 to 1 is prepared by pouring a little +methylene iodide into a long test tube and adding five times as much +benzene. The tube is tightly corked to prevent evaporation, and +allowed to stand for some hours. The density of the column at any +level is determined by means of the areometrical beads proposed by +Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), professor of astronomy at Glasgow +University. These are hollow glass beads of variable density; +they may be prepared by melting off pieces of very thin capillary +tubing, and determining the density in each case by the method just +previously described. To use the column, the experimental fragment +is introduced, when it takes up a definite position. By successive +trials two beads, of known density, say d<span class="su">1</span>, d<span class="su">2</span>, are obtained, one of +which floats above, and the other below, the test crystal; the +distances separating the beads from the crystal are determined by +means of a scale placed behind the tube. If the bead of density d<span class="su">1</span> +be at the distance l<span class="su">1</span> above the crystal, and that of d<span class="su">2</span> at l<span class="su">2</span> below, +it is obvious that if the density of the column varies uniformly, then +the density of the test crystal is (d<span class="su">1</span>l<span class="su">2</span> + d<span class="su">2</span>l<span class="su">1</span>)/(l<span class="su">1</span> + l<span class="su">2</span>).</p> + +<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figright1"> + <a name="fig_9"><img src="images/img49a.jpg" width="102" height="400" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption">Fig. 9.<br />Brewster’s<br />Staktometer</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Acting on a principle quite different from any previously discussed +is the capillary hydrometer or staktometer of Brewster, +which is based upon the difference in the surface tension and +density of pure water, and of mixtures of alcohol and water in varying +proportions.</p> + +<p>If a drop of water be allowed to form at the extremity of a fine +tube, it will go on increasing until its weight overcomes the surface +tension by which it clings to the tube, and then it will +fall. Hence any impurity which diminishes the surface +tension of the water will diminish the size of the drop +(unless the density is proportionately diminished). +According to Quincke, the surface tension of pure water +in contact with air at 20° C. is 81 dynes per linear centimetre, +while that of alcohol is only 25.5 dynes; and a +small percentage of alcohol produces much more than a +proportional decrease in the surface tension when added +to pure water. The capillary hydrometer consists simply +of a small pipette with a bulb in the middle of the stem, +the pipette terminating in a very fine capillary point. +The instrument being filled with distilled water, the +number of drops required to empty the bulb and +portions of the stem between two marks m and n (fig. 9) +on the latter is carefully counted, and the experiments +repeated at different temperatures. The pipette having +been carefully dried, the process is repeated with pure +alcohol or with proof spirits, and the strength of any +admixture of water and spirits is determined from the +corresponding number of drops, but the formula generally +given is not based upon sound data. Sir David Brewster +found with one of these instruments that the number +of drops of pure water was 734, while of proof spirit, +sp. gr. 920, the number was 2117.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">References.</span>—Density and density determinations are discussed in +all works on practical physics; reference may be made to B. Stewart +and W. W. Haldane Gee, <i>Practical Physics</i>, vol. i. (1901); Kohlrausch, +<i>Practical Physics</i>; Ostwald, <i>Physico-Chemical Measurements</i>. +The density of gases is treated in M. W. Travers, <i>The Experimental +Study of Gases</i> (1901); and vapour density determinations +in Lassar-Cohn’s <i>Arbeitsmethoden für organisch-chemische Laboratorien</i> +(1901), and <i>Manual of Organic Chemistry</i> (1896), and in +H. Biltz, <i>Practical Methods for determining Molecular Weights</i> +(1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. E.*)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENTATUS, MANIUS CURIUS,</span> Roman general, conqueror of +the Samnites and Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was born of humble +parents, and was possibly of Sabine origin. He is said to have +been called Dentatus because he was born with his teeth already +grown (Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> vii. 15). Except that he was tribune of +the people, nothing certain is known of him until his first consulship +in 290 B.C. when, in conjunction with his colleague +P. Cornelius Rufinus, he gained a decisive victory over the +Samnites, which put an end to a war that had lasted fifty years. +He also reduced the revolted Sabines to submission; a large +portion of their territory was distributed among the Roman +citizens, and the most important towns received the citizenship +without the right of voting for magistrates (<i>civitas sine suffragio</i>). +With the proceeds of the spoils of the war Dentatus cut an +artificial channel to carry off the waters of Lake Velinus, so as to +drain the valley of Reate. In 275, after Pyrrhus had returned +from Sicily to Italy, Dentatus (again consul) took the field +against him. The decisive engagement took place near Beneventum +in the Campi Arusini, and resulted in the total defeat of +Pyrrhus. Dentatus celebrated a magnificent triumph, in which +for the first time a number of captured elephants were exhibited. +Dentatus was consul for the third time in 274, when he finally +crushed the Lucanians and Samnites, and censor in 272. In the +latter capacity he began to build an aqueduct to carry the waters +of the Anio into the city, but died (270) before its completion. +Dentatus was looked upon as a model of old Roman simplicity +and frugality. According to the well-known anecdote, when the +Samnites sent ambassadors with costly presents to induce him +to exercise his influence on their behalf in the senate, they found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50"></a>50</span> +him sitting on the hearth and preparing his simple meal of roasted +turnips. He refused their gifts, saying that earthen dishes were +good enough for him, adding that he preferred ruling those who +possessed gold to possessing it himself. It is also said that he +died so poor that the state was obliged to provide dowries for his +daughters. But these and similar anecdotes must be received +with caution, and it should be remembered that what was a +competence in his day would have been considered poverty by +the Romans of later times.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>Livy, epitome, 11-14; Polybius ii. 19; Eutropius ii. 9, 14; +Florus i. 18; Val. Max. iv. 3, 5, vi. 3, 4; Cicero, <i>De senectute</i>, 16; +Juvenal xi. 78; Plutarch, <i>Pyrrhus</i>, 25.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENTIL</span> (from Lat. <i>dens</i>, a tooth), in architecture, a small +tooth-shaped block used as a repeating ornament in the bed-mould +of a cornice. Vitruvius (iv. 2) states that the dentil +represents the end of a rafter (<i>asser</i>); and since it occurs in its +most pronounced form in the Ionic temples of Asia Minor, the +Lycian tombs and the porticoes and tombs of Persia, where +it represents distinctly the reproduction in stone of timber +construction, there is but little doubt as to its origin. The earliest +example is that found on the tomb of Darius, c. 500 B.C., cut in the +rock in which the portico of his palace is reproduced. Its first +employment in Athens is in the cornice of the caryatid portico +or tribune of the Erechtheum (480 B.C.). When subsequently +introduced into the bed-mould of the cornice of the choragic +monument of Lysicrates it is much smaller in its dimensions. +In the later temples of Ionia, as in the temple of Priene, the larger +scale of the dentil is still retained. As a general rule the projection +of the dentil is equal to its width, and the intervals +between to half the width. In some cases the projecting band +has never had the sinkings cut into it to divide up the dentils, +as in the Pantheon at Rome, and it is then called a dentil-band. +The dentil was the chief decorative feature employed in the bed-mould +by the Romans and the Italian Revivalists. In the porch +of the church of St John Studius at Constantinople, the dentil +and the interval between are equal in width, and the interval +is splayed back from top to bottom; this is the form it takes in +what is known as the “Venetian dentil,” which was copied from +the Byzantine dentil in Santa Sophia, Constantinople. There, +however, it no longer formed part of a bed-mould: its use at +Santa Sophia was to decorate the projecting moulding enclosing +the encrusted marbles, and the dentils were cut alternately on +both sides of the moulding. The Venetian dentil was also introduced +as a label round arches and as a string course.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENTISTRY</span> (from Lat. <i>dens</i>, a tooth), a special department +of medical science, embracing the structure, function and +therapeutics of the mouth and its contained organs, +<span class="sidenote">Historical sketch.</span> +specifically the teeth, together with their surgical and +prosthetic treatment. (For the anatomy of the teeth +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teeth</a></span>.) As a distinct vocation it is first alluded to by +Herodotus (500 B.C.). There are evidences that at an earlier +date the Egyptians and Hindus attempted to replace lost teeth +by attaching wood or ivory substitutes to adjacent sound teeth +by means of threads or wires, but the gold fillings reputed to +have been found in the teeth of Egyptian mummies have upon +investigation been shown to be superficial applications of gold +leaf for ornamental purposes. The impetus given to medical +study in the Grecian schools by the followers of Aesculapius +and especially Hippocrates (500 to 400 B.C.) developed among the +practitioners of medicine and surgery considerable knowledge of +dentistry. Galen (A.D. 131) taught that the teeth were true bones +existing before birth, and to him is credited the belief that the +upper canine teeth receive branches from the nerve which supplies +the eye, and hence should be called “eye-teeth.” Abulcasis +(10th cent. A.D.) describes the operation by which artificial crowns +are attached to adjacent sound teeth. Vesalius (1514), Ambroise +Paré, J. J. Scaliger, T. Kerckring, M. Malpighi, and lesser +anatomists of the same period contributed dissertations which +threw some small amount of light upon the structure and +functions of the teeth. The operation of transplanting teeth is +usually attributed to John Hunter (1728-1793), who practised it +extensively, and gave to it additional prominence by transplanting +a human tooth to the comb of a cock, but the operation was +alluded to by Ambroise Paré (1509-1590), and there is evidence +to show that it was practised even earlier. A. von Leeuwenhoek +in 1678 described with much accuracy the tubular structure of +the dentine, thus making the most important contribution to +the subject which had appeared up to that time. Until the latter +part of the 18th century extraction was practically the only +operation for the cure of toothache.</p> + +<p>The early contributions of France exerted a controlling influence +upon the development of dental practice. Urbain Hémard, +surgeon to the cardinal Georges of Armagnac, whom Dr Blake +(1801) calls an ingenious surgeon and a great man, published in +1582 his <i>Researches upon the Anatomy of the Teeth, their Nature +and Properties</i>. Of Hémard, M. Fauchard says: “This surgeon +had read Greek and Latin authors, whose writings he has judiciously +incorporated in his own works.” In 1728 Fauchard, who +has been called the father of modern dentistry, published his +celebrated work, entitled <i>Le Chirurgien Dentiste ou traité des +dents</i>. The preface contains the following statement as to the +existing status of dental art and science in France, which might +have been applied with equal truth to any other European +country:—“The most celebrated surgeons having abandoned +this branch of surgery, or having but little cultivated it, their +negligence gave rise to a class of persons who, without theoretic +knowledge or experience, and without being qualified, practised +it at hazard, having neither principles nor system. It was only +since the year 1700 that the intelligent in Paris opened their eyes +to these abuses, when it was provided that those who intended +practising dental surgery should submit to an examination by +men learned in all the branches of medical science, who should +decide upon their merits.” After the publication of Fauchard’s +work the practice of dentistry became more specialized and +distinctly separated from medical practice, the best exponents +of the art being trained as apprentices by practitioners of ability, +who had acquired their training in the same way from their +predecessors. Fauchard suggested porcelain as an improvement +upon bone and ivory for the manufacture of artificial teeth, a +suggestion which he obtained from R. A. F. de Réaumur, the +French savant and physicist, who was a contributor to the royal +porcelain manufactory at Sévres. Later, Duchateau, an apothecary +of St Germain, made porcelain teeth, and communicated his +discovery to the Academy of Surgery in 1776, but kept the process +secret. Du Bois Chémant carried the art to England, and the +process was finally made public by M. Du Bois Foucou. M. Fonzi +improved the art to such an extent that the Athenaeum of Arts +in Paris awarded him a medal and crown (March 14, 1808).</p> + +<p>In Great Britain the 19th century brought the dawning of +dental science. The work of Dr Blake in 1801 on the anatomy +of the teeth was distinctly in advance of anything previously +written on the subject. Joseph Fox was one of the first members +of the medical profession to devote himself exclusively to dentistry, +and his work is a repository of the best practice of his time. +The processes described, though comparatively crude, involve +principles in use at the present time. Thomas Bell, the successor +of Fox as lecturer on the structure and disease of the teeth at +Guy’s Hospital, published his well-known work in 1829. About +this period numerous publications on dentistry made their appearance, +notably those of Koecker, Johnson and Waite, followed +somewhat later by the admirable work of Alexander Nasmyth +(1839). By this time Cuvier, Serres, Rousseau, Bertin, Herissant +and others in France had added to the knowledge of human +and comparative dental anatomy, while M. G. Retzius, of Sweden, +and E. H. Weber, J. C. Rosenmüller, Schreger, J. E. von Purkinje, +B. Fraenkel and J. Müller in Germany were carrying forward the +same lines of research. The sympathetic nervous relationships +of the teeth with other parts of the body, and the interaction of +diseases of the teeth with general pathological conditions, were +clearly established. Thus a scientific foundation was laid, and +dentistry came to be practised as a specialty of medicine. Certain +minor operations, however, such as the extraction of teeth and +the stopping of caries in an imperfect way, were still practised by +barbers, and the empirical practice of dentistry, especially of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51"></a>51</span> +those operations which were almost wholly mechanical, had +developed a considerable body of dental artisans who, though +without medical education in many cases, possessed a high +degree of manipulative skill. Thus there came to be two classes +of practitioners, the first regarding dentistry as a specialty of +medicine, the latter as a distinct and separate calling.</p> + +<p>In America representatives of both classes of dentists began +to arrive from England and France about the time of the Revolution. +Among these were John Wooffendale (1766), a student of +Robert Berdmore of Liverpool, surgeon-dentist to George III.; +James Gardette (1778), a French physician and surgeon; and +Joseph Lemaire (1781), a French dentist who went out with the +army of Count Rochambeau. During the winter of 1781-1782, +while the Continental army was in winter quarters at Providence, +Rhode Island, Lemaire found time and opportunity to practise +his calling, and also to instruct one or two persons, notably +Josiah Flagg, probably the first American dentist. Dental +practice was thus established upon American soil, where it has +produced such fertile results.</p> + +<p>Until well into the 19th century apprenticeship afforded the +only means of acquiring a knowledge of dentistry. The profits +derived from the apprenticeship system fostered secrecy and +quackery among many of the early practitioners; but the more +liberal minded and better educated of the craft developed an +increasing opposition to these narrow methods. In 1837 a local +<span class="sidenote">Course of training.</span> +association of dentists was formed in New York, and in +1840 a national association, The American Society of +Dental Surgeons, the object of which was “to advance +the science by free communication and interchange of sentiments.” +The first dental periodical in the world, <i>The American +Journal of Dental Science</i>, was issued in June 1839, and in +November 1840 was established the Baltimore College of Dental +Surgery, the first college in the world for the systematic education +of dentists. Thus the year 1839-1840 marks the birth of the +three factors essential to professional growth in dentistry. All +this, combined with the refusal of the medical schools to furnish +the desired facilities for dental instruction, placed dentistry for +the time being upon a footing entirely separate from general +medicine. Since then the curriculum of study preparatory to +dental practice has been systematically increased both as to its +content and length, until in all fundamental principles it is +practically equal to that required for the training of medical +specialists, and in addition includes the technical subjects +peculiar to dentistry. In England, and to some extent upon +the continent, the old apprenticeship system is retained as an +adjunct to the college course, but it is rapidly dying out, as it has +already done in America. Owing to the regulation by law of the +educational requirements, the increase of institutions devoted +to the professional training of dentists has been rapid in all +civilized countries, and during the past twenty years especially +so in the United States. Great Britain possesses upwards of +twelve institutions for dental instruction, France two, Germany +and Switzerland six, all being based upon the conception that +dentistry is a department of general medicine. In the United +States there were in 1878 twelve dental schools, with about +700 students; in 1907 there were fifty-seven schools, with 6919 +students. Of these fifty-seven schools, thirty-seven are departments +of universities or of medical institutions, and there is a +growing tendency to regard dentistry from its educational aspect as +a special department of the general medical and surgical practice.</p> + +<p>Recent studies have shown that besides being an important +part of the digestive system, the mouth sustains intimate relationship +with the general nervous system, and is important as +the portal of entrance for the majority of the bacteria that cause +specific diseases. This fact has rendered more intimate the +relations between dentistry and the general practice of medicine, +and has given a powerful impetus to scientific studies in dentistry. +<span class="sidenote">Research.</span> +Through the researches of Sir J. Tomes, Mummery, +Hopewell Smith, Williams and others in England, +O. Hertwig, Weil and Röse in Germany, Andrews, Sudduth +and Black in America, the minute anatomy and embryology of +the dental tissues have been worked out with great fulness and +precision. In particular, it has been demonstrated that certain +general systemic diseases have a distinct oral expression. Through +their extensive nervous connexions with the largest of the cranial +nerves and with the sympathetic nervous system, the teeth +frequently cause irritation resulting in profound reflex nervous +phenomena, which are curable only by removal of the local tooth +disorder. Gout, lithaemia, scurvy, rickets, lead and mercurial +poisoning, and certain forms of chronic nephritis, produce dental +and oral lesions which are either pathognomonic or strongly +indicative of their several constitutional causes, and are thus of +great importance in diagnosis. The most important dental research +of modern times is that which was carried out by Professor +W. D. Miller of Berlin (1884) upon the cause of caries of the teeth, +a disease said to affect the human race more extensively than any +other. Miller demonstrated that, as previous observers had +suspected, caries is of bacterial origin, and that acids play an +important rôle in the process. The disease is brought about by +a group of bacteria which develop in the mouth, growing naturally +upon the débris of starchy or carbohydrate food, producing +fermentation of the mass, with lactic acid as the end product. +The lactic acid dissolves the mineral constituent of the tooth +structure, calcium phosphate, leaving the organic matrix of the +tooth exposed. Another class of germs, the peptonising and +putrefactive bacteria, then convert the organic matter into liquid +or gaseous end products. The accuracy of the conclusions obtained +from his analytic research was synthetically proved, after +the manner of Koch, by producing the disease artificially. Caries +of the teeth has been shown to bear highly important relation to +more remote or systemic diseases. Exposure and death of the +dental pulp furnishes an avenue of entrance for disease-producing +bacteria, by which invasion of the deeper tissues may readily +take place, causing necrosis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, +phlegmon and other destructive inflammations, certain of which, +affecting the various sinuses of the head, have been found to +cause meningitis, chronic empyema, metastatic abscesses in +remote parts of the body, paralysis, epilepsy and insanity.</p> + +<p><i>Operative Dentistry.</i>—The art of dentistry is usually divided +arbitrarily into <i>operative dentistry</i>, the purpose of which is to +preserve as far as possible the teeth and associated tissues, and +<i>prosthetic dentistry</i>, the purpose of which is to supply the loss of +<span class="sidenote">Filling or stopping.</span> +teeth by artificial substitutes. The filling of carious +cavities was probably first performed with lead, suggested +apparently by an operation recorded by Celsus +(100 B.C.), who recommended that frail or decayed teeth be +stuffed with lead previous to extraction, in order that they might +not break under the forceps. The use of lead as a filling was +sufficiently prevalent in France during the 17th century to bring +into use the word <i>plombage</i>, which is still occasionally applied in +that country to the operation of filling. Gold as a filling material +came into general use about the beginning of the 19th century.<a name="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +The earlier preparations of gold were so impure as to be virtually +without cohesion, so that they were of use only in cavities which +had sound walls for its retention. In the form of rolls or tape it +was forced into the previously cleaned and prepared cavity, condensed +with instruments under heavy hand pressure, smoothed +with files, and finally burnished. Tin foil was also used to a +limited extent and by the same method. Improvements in the +refining of gold for dental use brought the product to a fair degree +of purity, and, about 1855, led to the invention by Dr Robert +Arthur of Baltimore of a method by which it could be welded +firmly within the cavity. The cohesive properties of the foil +were developed by passing it through an alcohol flame, which +dispelled its surface contaminations. The gold was then welded +piece by piece into a homogeneous mass by plugging instruments +with serrated points. In this process of cold-welding, the mallet, +hitherto in only limited use, was found more efficient than hand +pressure, and was rapidly developed. The primitive mallet of +wood, ivory, lead or steel, was supplanted by a mallet in which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52"></a>52</span> +a hammer was released automatically by a spring condensed by +pressure of the operator’s hand. Then followed mallets operated +by pneumatic pressure, by the dental engine, and finally by the +electro-magnet, as utilized in 1867 by Bonwill. These devices +greatly facilitated the operation, and made possible a partial +or entire restoration of the tooth-crown in conformity with +anatomical lines.</p> + +<p>The dental engine in its several forms is the outgrowth of the +simple drill worked by the hand of the operator. It is used in +removing decayed structure and for shaping the cavity for +inserting the filling. From time to time its usefulness has been +extended, so that it is now used for finishing fillings and polishing +them, for polishing the teeth, removing deposits from them and +changing their shapes. Its latest development, the <i>dento-surgical +engine</i>, is of heavier construction and is adapted to operations +upon all of the bones, a recent addition to its equipment being the +spiral osteotome of Cryer, by which, with a minimum shock to +the patient, fenestrae of any size or shape in the brain-case may +be made, from a simple trepanning operation to the more extensive +openings required in intra-cranial operations. The rotary +power may be supplied by the foot of the operator, or by +hydraulic or electric motors. The rubber dam invented by +S. C. Barnum of New York (1864) provided a means for protecting +the field of operations from the oral fluids, and extended the scope +of operations even to the entire restoration of tooth-crowns with +cohesive gold foil. Its value has been found to be even greater +than was at first anticipated. In all operations involving the +exposed dental pulp or the pulp-chamber and root-canals, it is +the only efficient method of mechanically protecting the field of +operation from invasion by disease-producing bacteria.</p> + +<p>The difficulty and annoyance attending the insertion of gold, +its high thermal conductivity, and its objectionable colour have +led to an increasing use of amalgam, guttapercha, and cements +of zinc oxide mixed with zinc chloride or phosphoric acid. +Recently much attention has been devoted to restorations with +porcelain. A piece of platinum foil of .001 inch thickness is +burnished and pressed into the cavity, so that a matrix is produced +exactly fitting the cavity. Into this matrix is placed a +mixture of powdered porcelain and water or alcohol, of the colour +to match the tooth. The mass is carefully dried and then fused +until homogeneous. Shrinkage is counteracted by additions of +porcelain powder, which are repeatedly fused until the whole +exactly fills the matrix. After cooling, the matrix is stripped +away and the porcelain is cemented into the cavity. When the +cement has hardened, the surface of the porcelain is ground +and polished to proper contour. If successfully made, porcelain +fillings are scarcely noticeable. Their durability remains to be +tested.</p> + +<p>Until recent times the exposure of the dental pulp inevitably +led to its death and disintegration, and, by invasion of bacteria +via the pulp canal, set up an inflammatory process +<span class="sidenote">Dental therapeutics.</span> +which eventually caused the loss of the entire tooth. +A rational system of therapeutics, in conjunction with +proper antiseptic measures, has made possible both +the conservative treatment of the dental pulp when exposed, and +the successful treatment of pulp-canals when the pulp has been +devitalized either by design or disease. The conservation of the +exposed pulp is affected by the operation of capping. In capping +a pulp, irritation is allayed by antiseptic and sedative treatment, +and a metallic cap, lined with a non-irritant sedative paste, is +applied under aseptic conditions immediately over the point +of pulp exposure. A filling of cement is superimposed, and this, +after it has hardened, is covered with a metallic or other suitable +filling. The utility of arsenious acid for devitalizing the dental +pulp was discovered by J. R. Spooner of Montreal, and first +published in 1836 by his brother Shearjashub in his <i>Guide to +Sound Teeth</i>. The painful action of arsenic upon the pulp was +avoided by the addition of various sedative drugs,—morphia, +atropia, iodoform, &c.,—and its use soon became universal. Of +late years it is being gradually supplanted by immediate surgical +extirpation under the benumbing effect of cocaine salts. By the +use of cocaine also the pain incident to excavating and shaping +of cavities in tooth structure may be controlled, especially when +the cocaine is driven into the dentine by means of an electric +current. To fill the pulp-chamber and canals of teeth after loss +of the pulp, all organic remains of pulp tissue should be removed +by sterilization, and then, in order to prevent the entrance of +bacteria, and consequent infection, the canals should be perfectly +filled. Upon the exclusion of infection depends the future +integrity and comfort of the tooth. Numberless methods have +been invented for the operation. Pulpless teeth are thus preserved +through long periods of usefulness, and even those remains +of teeth in which the crowns have been lost are rendered comfortable +and useful as supports for artificial crowns, and as +abutments for assemblages of crowns, known as bridge-work.</p> + +<p>The discoloration of the pulpless tooth through putrefactive +changes in its organic matter were first overcome by bleaching +it with chlorine. Small quantities of calcium hypochlorite are +packed into the pulp-chamber and moistened with dilute acetic +acid; the decomposition of the calcium salt liberates chlorine <i>in +situ</i>, which restores the tooth to normal colour in a short time. +The cavity is afterwards washed out, carefully dried, lined with a +light-coloured cement and filled. More efficient bleaching agents +of recent introduction are hydrogen dioxide in a 25% solution +or a saturated solution of sodium peroxide; they are less irritating +and much more convenient in application. Unlike chlorine, +these do not form soluble metallic salts which may subsequently +discolour the tooth. Hydrogen dioxide may be carried into the +tooth structure by the electric current. In which case a current +of not less than forty volts controlled by a suitable graduated +resistance is applied with the patient in circuit, the anode being a +platinum-pointed electrode in contact with the dioxide solution +in the tooth cavity, and the cathode a sponge or plate electrode +in contact with the hand or arm of the patient. The current is +gradually turned on until two or three milliamperes are indicated +by a suitable ammeter. The operation requires usually twenty to +thirty minutes.</p> + +<p>Malposed teeth are not only unsightly but prone to disease, and +may be the cause of disease in other teeth, or of the associated +tissues. The impairment of function which their abnormal +position causes has been found to be the primary cause of +disturbances of the general bodily health; for example, enlarged +tonsils, chronic pharyngitis and nasal catarrh, indigestion +and malnutrition. By the use of springs, screws, vulcanized +caoutchouc bands, elastic ligatures, &c., as the case may require, +practically all forms of dental irregularity may be corrected, even +such protrusions and retrusions of the front teeth as cause great +disfigurement of the facial contour.</p> + +<p>The extraction of teeth, an operation which until quite recent +times was one of the crudest procedures in minor surgery, has +been reduced to exactitude by improved instruments, +<span class="sidenote">Extraction.</span> +designed with reference to the anatomical relations of +the teeth and their alveoli, and therefore adapted to the +several classes of teeth. The operation has been rendered painless +by the use of anaesthetics. The anaesthetic generally employed +is nitrous oxide, or laughing-gas, the use of which was discovered +in 1844 by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Conn., U.S.A. +Chloroform and ether, as well as other general anaesthetics, have +been employed in extensive operations because of their more prolonged +effect; but chloroform, especially, is dangerous, owing to +its effect upon the heart, which in many instances has suddenly +failed during the operation. Ether, while less manageable than +nitrous oxide, has been found to be practically devoid of danger. +The local injection of solutions of cocaine and allied anaesthetics +into the gum-tissue is extensively practised; but is attended with +danger, from the toxic effects of an overdose upon the heart, and +the local poisonous effect upon the tissues, which lead in numerous +cases to necrosis and extensive sloughing.</p> + +<p><i>Dental Prosthesis.</i>—The fastening of natural teeth or carved +substitutes to adjoining sound teeth by means of thread or wire +preceded their attachment to base-plates of carved +<span class="sidenote">Artificial teeth.</span> +wood, bone or ivory, which latter method was practised +until the introduction of swaged metallic plates. Where +the crown only of a tooth or those of several teeth were lost, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>53</span> +restoration was effected by engrafting upon the prepared root a +suitable crown by means of a wooden or metallic pivot. When +possible, the new crown was that of a corresponding sound tooth +taken from the mouth of another individual; otherwise an +artificial crown carved from bone or ivory, or sometimes from the +tooth of an ox, was used. To replace entire dentures a base-plate +of carved hippopotamus ivory was constructed, upon which were +mounted the crowns of natural teeth, or later those of porcelain. +The manufacture of a denture of this character was tedious and +uncertain, and required much skill. The denture was kept in +place by spiral springs attached to the buccal sides of the appliance +above and below, which caused pressure upon both jaws, necessitating +a constant effort upon the part of the unfortunate wearer +to keep it in place. Metallic swaged plates were introduced in +the latter part of the 18th century. An impression of the gums +was taken in wax, from which a cast was made in plaster of +Paris. With this as a model, a metallic die of brass or zinc was +prepared, upon which the plate of gold or silver was formed, and +then swaged into contact with the die by means of a female die or +counter-die of lead. The process is essentially the same to-day, +with the addition of numerous improvements in detail, which +have brought it to a high degree of perfection. The discovery, by +Gardette of Philadelphia in 1800, of the utility of atmospheric +pressure in keeping artificial dentures in place led to the abandonment +of spiral springs. A later device for enhancing the stability +is the vacuum chamber, a central depression in the upper surface +of the plate, which, when exhausted of air by the wearer, materially +increases the adhesion. The metallic base-plate is used also +for supporting one or more artificial teeth, being kept in place +by metallic clasps fitting to, and partially surrounding, adjacent +sound natural teeth, the plate merely covering the edentulous +portion of the alveolar ridge. It may also be kept in place by +atmospheric adhesion, in which case the palatal vault is included, +and the vacuum chamber is utilized in the palatal portion to +increase the adhesion.</p> + +<p>In the construction usually practised, porcelain teeth are +attached to a gold base-plate by means of stay-pieces of gold, +perforated to receive the platinum pins baked in the body of the +tooth. The stay-pieces or backings are then soldered to the pins +and to the plate by means of high-fusing gold solder. The teeth +used may be single or in sections, and may be with or without +an extension designed in form and colour to imitate the gum of +the <span class="correction" title="corrected from aveolar">alveolar</span> border. Even when skillfully executed, the process is +imperfect in that the jointing of the teeth to each other, and +their adaptation to the base-plate, leaves crevices and recesses, +in which food débris and oral secretions accumulate. To obviate +these defects the enamelled platinum denture was devised. +Porcelain teeth are first attached to a swaged base-plate of pure +platinum by a stay-piece of the same metal soldered with pure +gold, after which the interstices between the teeth are filled, and +the entire surface of the plate, excepting that in contact with the +palate and alveolar border, is covered with a porcelain paste +called the body, which is modelled to the normal contour of the +gums, and baked in a muffle furnace until vitrified. It is then +enamelled with a vitreous enamel coloured in imitation of the +colour of the natural gum, which is applied and fired as before, +the result being the most artistic and hygienic denture known. +This is commonly known as the continuous gum method. Originating +in France in the early part of the 19th century, and variously +improved by several experimenters, it was brought to its present +perfection by Dr John Allen of New York about 1846-1847. +Dentures supported upon cast bases of metallic alloys and of +aluminium have been employed as substitutes for the more +expensive dentures of gold and platinum, but have had only a +limited use, and are less satisfactory.</p> + +<p>Metallic bases were used exclusively as supports for artificial +dentures until in 1855-1856 Charles Goodyear, jun., patented in +England a process for constructing a denture upon vulcanized +caoutchouc as a base. Several modifications followed, each the +subject of patented improvements. Though the cheapness and +simplicity of the vulcanite base has led to its abuse in incompetent +hands, it has on the whole been productive of much +benefit. It has been used with great success as a means of +attaching porcelain teeth to metallic bases of gold, silver and +aluminium. It is extensively used also in correcting irregular +positions of the teeth, and for making interdental splints in the +treatment of fractures of the jaws. For the mechanical correction +of palatal defects causing imperfection of deglutition and speech, +which comes distinctly within the province of the prosthetic +dentist, the vulcanite base produces the best-known apparatus. +Two classes of palatal mechanism are recognized—the obturator, +a palatal plate, the function of which is to close perforations +or clefts in the hard palate, and the artificial velum, a movable +attachment to the obturator or palatal plate, which closes the +opening in the divided natural velum and, moving with it, +enables the wearer to close off the nasopharynx from the oral +cavity in the production of the guttural sounds. Vulcanite is +also used for extensive restorations of the jaws after surgical +operations or loss by disease, and in the majority of instances +wholly corrects the deformity.</p> + +<p>For a time vulcanite almost supplanted gold and silver as +a base for artificial denture, and developed a generation of +practitioners deficient in that high degree of skill necessary +to the construction of dentures upon metallic bases. +<span class="sidenote">Modern methods.</span> +The recent development of crown-and-bridge work +has brought about a renaissance, so that a thorough +training is more than ever necessary to successful practice in +mechanical dentistry. The simplest crown is of porcelain, and is +engrafted upon a sound natural tooth-root by means of a metallic +pin of gold or platinum, extending into the previously enlarged +root-canal and cemented in place. In another type of crown the +point between the root-end and the abutting crown-surface is +encircled with a metallic collar or band, which gives additional +security to the attachment and protects the joints from fluids +or bacteria. Crowns of this character are constructed with a +porcelain facing attached by a stay-piece or backing of gold to a +plate and collar, which has been previously fitted to the root-end +like a ferrule, and soldered to a pin which projects through the +ferrule into the root-canal. The contour of the lingual surface of +the crown is made of gold, which is shaped to conform to the +anatomical lines of the tooth. The shell-crown consists of a +reproduction of the crown entirely of gold plate, filled with +cement, and driven over the root-end, which it closely encircles. +The two latter kinds of crowns may be used as abutments for +the support of intervening crowns in constructing bridge-work. +When artificial crowns are supported not by natural tooth-roots +but by soldering them to abutments, they are termed dummies. +The number of dummies which may be supported upon a given +number of roots depends upon the position and character of the +abutments, the character of the alveolar tissues, the age, sex and +health of the patient, the character of the occlusion or bite, and +the force exerted in mastication. In some cases a root will not +properly support more than one additional crown; in others +an entire bridge denture has been successfully supported upon +four well-placed roots. Two general classes of bridge-work are +recognized, namely, the fixed and the removable. Removable +bridge-work, though more difficult to construct, is preferable, as +it can be more thoroughly and easily cleansed. When properly +made and applied to judiciously selected cases, the bridge +denture is the most artistic and functionally perfect restoration +of prosthetic dentistry.</p> + +<p>The entire development of modern dentistry dates from the +19th century, and mainly from its latter half. Beginning with a +few practitioners and no organized professional basis, educational +system or literature, its practitioners are to be found in all +civilized communities, those in Great Britain numbering about +5000; in the United States, 27,000; France, 1600, of whom +376 are graduates; German Empire, qualified practitioners +(<i>Zahnärzte</i>), 1400; practitioners without official qualification, +4100. Its educational institutions are numerous and well +equipped. It possesses a large periodical and standard literature +in all languages. Its practice is regulated by legislative +enactment in all countries the same as is medical practice. +The business of manufacturing and selling dentists’ supplies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54"></a>54</span> +represents an enormous industry, in which millions of capital +are invested.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—W. F. Litch, <i>American System of Dentistry</i>; +Julius Scheff, jun., <i>Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde</i>; Charles J. Essig, +<i>American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry</i>; Tomes, <i>Dental Anatomy</i> +and <i>Dental Surgery</i>; W. D. Miller, <i>Microörganisms of the Human +Mouth</i>; Hopewell Smith, <i>Dental Microscopy</i>; H. H. Burchard, +<i>Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and Pharmacology</i>; F. J. S. Gorgas, +<i>Dental Medicine</i>; E. H. Angle, <i>Treatment of Malocclusion of the +Teeth and Fractures of the Maxillae</i>; G. Evans, <i>A Practical Treatise +on Artificial Crown-and-Bridge Work and Porcelain Dental Art</i>; +C. N. Johnson, <i>Principles and Practice of Filling Teeth, American +Text-Book of Operative Dentistry</i> (3rd ed., 1905); Edward C. Kirk, +<i>Principles and Practice of Operative Dentistry</i> (2nd ed., 1905); +J. S. Marshall, <i>American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry</i> (edited by +C. R. Turner; 3rd ed., 1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. K.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The filling of teeth with gold foil is recorded in the oldest known +book on dentistry, <i>Artzney Buchlein</i>, published anonymously in 1530, +in which the operation is quoted from Mesue (A.D. 857), physician to +the caliph Haroun al-Raschid.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENTON,</span> an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, 4½ m. N.E. from Stockport, on +the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 14,934. In +the township are reservoirs for the water supply of Manchester, +with a capacity of 1,860,000,000 gallons. The manufacture of +felt hats is the leading industry. Coal is extensively mined in +the district.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DENVER,</span> the capital of Colorado, U.S.A., the county-seat +of Denver county, and the largest city between Kansas City, +Missouri, and the Pacific coast, sometimes called the “Queen +City of the Plains.” Pop. (1870) 4759; (1880) 35,629; (1890) +106,713; (1900), 133,859, of whom 25,301 were foreign-born +and 3923 were negroes; (1910 census) 213,381. Of the +25,301 foreign-born in 1900, 5114 were Germans; 3485, Irish; +3376, Swedes; 3344, English; 2623, English-Canadian; +1338, Russians; and 1033, Scots. Denver is an important +railway centre, being served by nine railways, of which the +chief are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé; the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy; the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific; +the Denver & Rio Grande; the Union Pacific; and the +Denver, North-Western & Pacific.</p> + +<p>Denver lies on the South Platte river, at an altitude exactly +1 m. above the sea, about 15 m. from the E. base of the Rocky +mountains, which stretch along the W. horizon from N. to S. +in an unbroken chain of some 175 m. Excursions may be made +in all directions into the mountains, affording beautiful scenery +and interesting views of the mining camps. Various peaks are +readily accessible from Denver: Long’s Peak (14,271 ft.), Gray’s +Peak (14,341 ft.), Torrey Peak (14,336 ft.), Mt. Evans (14,330 ft.), +Pike’s Peak (14,108 ft.), and many others of only slightly less +altitudes. The streets are excellent, broad and regular. The +parks are a fine feature of the city; by its charter a fixed +percentage of all expenditures for public improvements must be +used to purchase park land. Architectural variety and solidity +are favoured in the buildings of the city by a wealth of beautiful +building stones of varied colours (limestones, sandstones, lavas, +granites and marbles), in addition to which bricks and Roman +tiles are employed. The State Capitol, built of native granite and +marble (1887-1895, cost $2,500,000), is an imposing building. +Noteworthy also are the Denver county court house; the handsome +East Denver high school; the Federal building, containing +the United States custom house and post office; the United +States mint; the large Auditorium, in which the Democratic +National convention met in 1908; a Carnegie library (1908) +and the Mining Exchange; and there are various excellent +business blocks, theatres, clubs and churches. Denver has an +art museum and a zoological museum. The libraries of the city +contain an aggregate of some 300,000 volumes. Denver is the +seat of the Jesuit college of the Sacred Heart (1888; in the +suburbs); and the university of Denver (Methodist, 1889), a +co-educational institution, succeeding the Colorado Seminary +(founded in 1864 by John Evans), and consisting of a college +of liberal arts, a graduate school, Chamberlin astronomical +observatory and a preparatory school—these have buildings +in University Park—and (near the centre of the city) the +Denver and Gross College of Medicine, the Denver law school, a +college of music in the building of the old Colorado Seminary, and +a Saturday college (with classes specially for professional men).</p> + +<p>The prosperity of the city depends on that of the rich mining +country about it, on a very extensive wholesale trade, for which +its situation and railway facilities admirably fit it, and on its +large manufacturing and farming interests. The value of +manufactures produced in 1900 was $41,368,698 (increase +1890-1900, 41.5%). The value of the factory product for 1905, +however, was 3.3% less than that for 1900, though it represented +36.6% of the product of the state as a whole. The principal +industry is the smelting and refining of lead, and the smelting +works are among the most interesting sights of the city. The +value of the ore reduced annually is about $10,000,000. Denver +has also large foundries and machine shops, flour and grist mills, +and slaughtering and meat-packing establishments. Denver is +the central live-stock market of the Rocky Mountain states. The +beet sugar, fruit and other agricultural products of the surrounding +and tributary section were valued in 1906 at about +$20,000,000. The assessed valuation of property in the city in +1905 was $115,338,920 (about the true value), and the bonded +debt $1,079,595.</p> + +<p>At Denver the South Platte is joined by Cherry Creek, and +here in October 1858 were established on opposite sides of the +creek two bitterly rival settlements, St Charles and Auraria; the +former was renamed almost immediately Denver, after General +J. W. Denver (1818-1892), ex-governor of Kansas (which then +included Colorado), and Auraria was absorbed. Denver had +already been incorporated by a provisional local (extra legal) +“legislature,” and the Kansas legislature gave a charter to a +rival company which the Denver people bought out. A city +government was organized in December 1859; and continued +under a reincorporation effected by the first territorial legislature +of 1861. This body adjourned from Colorado City, nominally +the capital, to Denver, and in 1862 Golden was made the seat of +government. In 1868 Denver became the capital, but feeling in +the southern counties was then so strong against Denver that +provision was made for a popular vote on the situation of the +capital five years after Colorado should become a state. This +popular vote confirmed Denver in 1881. Until 1870, when it +secured a branch railway from the Union Pacific line at Cheyenne +(Wyoming), the city was on one side of the transcontinental travel-routes. +The first road was quickly followed by the Kansas +Pacific from Kansas City (1870, now also part of the Union +Pacific), the Denver & Rio Grande (1871), the Burlington system +(1882), the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé (1887), and other roads +which have made Denver’s fortune. In April 1859 appeared the +first number of <i>The Rocky Mountain News</i>. The same year a +postal express to Leavenworth, Kansas (10 days, letters 25 cents +an ounce) was established; and telegraph connexion with Boston +and New York ($9 for 10 words) in 1863. A private mint was +established in 1860. In the ’seventies all the facilities of a modern +city—gas, street-cars, water-works, telephones—were introduced. +Much the same might be said of a score of cities in the +new West, but none is a more striking example than Denver of +marvellous growth. The city throve on the freighting trade of +the mines. In 1864 a tremendous flood almost ruined it, and +another flood in 1878, and a famous strike in Denver and +Leadville in 1879-1880 were further, but only momentary, +checks to its prosperity. As in every western city, particularly +those in mining regions whose sites attained speculative values, +Denver had grave problems with “squatters” or “land-jumpers” +in her early years; and there was the usual gambling +and outlawry, sometimes extra-legally repressed by vigilantes. +Settled social conditions, however, soon established themselves. +In 1880 there was a memorable election riot under the guise of +an anti-Chinese demonstration. In the decade 1870-1880 the +population increased 648.7%. The ’eighties were notable +for great real estate activity, and the population of the city +increased 199.5% from 1880 to 1890. In 1882-1884 three +successive annual exhibits of a National Mining and Industrial +Exposition were held. After 1890 growth was slower but +continuous. In 1902 a city-and-county of Denver was created +with extensive powers of framing its own charter, and in +1904 a charter was adopted. The constitution of the state was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55"></a>55</span> +framed by a convention that sat at Denver from December 1875 +to March 1876; various territorial conventions met here; and +here W. J. Bryan was nominated in 1908 for the presidency.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEODAND</span> (Lat. <i>Deo dandum</i>, that which is to be given to God), +in English law, was a personal chattel (any animal or thing) +which, on account of its having caused the death of a human +being, was forfeited to the king for pious uses. Blackstone, while +tracing in the custom an expiatory design, alludes to analogous +Jewish and Greek laws,<a name="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which required that what occasions a +man’s death should be destroyed. In such usages the notion of +the punishment of an animal or thing, or of its being morally +affected from having caused the death of a man, seems to be +implied. The forfeiture of the offending instrument in no way +depends on the guilt of the owner. This imputation of guilt to +inanimate objects or to the lower animals is not inconsistent with +what we know of the ideas of uncivilized races. In English law, +deodands came to be regarded as mere forfeitures to the king, and +the rules on which they depended were not easily explained by +any key in the possession of the old commentators. The law +distinguished, for instance, between a thing in motion and a thing +standing still. If a horse or other animal in motion killed a +person, whether infant or adult, or if a cart ran over him, it was +forfeited as a deodand. On the other hand, if death were caused +by falling from a cart or a horse at rest, the law made the chattel +a deodand if the person killed were an adult, but not if he +were below the years of discretion. Blackstone accounts for the +greater severity against things in motion by saying that in such +cases the owner is more usually at fault, an explanation which +is doubtful in point of fact, and would certainly not account +for other instances of the same tendency. Thus, where a man’s +death is caused by a thing not in motion, that part only which is +the immediate cause is forfeited, as “if a man be climbing up the +wheel of a cart, and is killed by falling from it, the wheel alone is +a deodand”; whereas, if the cart were in motion, not only the +wheel but all that moves along with it (as the cart and the +loading) are forfeited. A similar distinction is to be found in +Britton. Where a man is killed by a vessel at rest the cargo is not +deodand; where the vessel is under sail, hull and cargo are both +deodand. For the distinction between the death of a child and the +death of an adult Blackstone accounts by suggesting that the child +“was presumed incapable of actual sin, and therefore needed no +deodand to purchase propitiatory masses; but every adult who +died in actual sin stood in need of such atonement, according to +the humane superstition of the founders of the English law.” Sir +Matthew Hale’s explanation was that the child could not take +care of himself, whereon Blackstone asks why the owner should +save his forfeiture on account of the imbecility of the child, which +ought to have been an additional reason for caution. The +finding of a jury was necessary to constitute a deodand, and the +investigation of the value of the instrument by which death was +caused occupied an important place among the provisions of +early English criminal law. It became a necessary part of an +indictment to state the nature and value of the weapon employed—as, +that the stroke was given by a certain penknife, of the value +of sixpence—so that the king might have his deodand. Accidents +on the high seas did not cause forfeiture, being beyond the domain +of the common law; but it would appear that in the case of +ships in fresh water the law held good. The king might grant his +right to deodands to another. In later times these forfeitures +became extremely unpopular; and juries, with the connivance +of judges, found deodands of trifling value, so as to defeat the +inequitable claim. At last, by an act of 1846 they were abolished, +the date noticeably coinciding with the introduction of railways +and modern steam-engines.</p> + + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare also the rule of the Twelve Tables, by which an animal +which had inflicted mischief might be surrendered in lieu of compensation.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEOGARH,</span> the name of several towns of British India. (1) A +town in the Santal Parganas district of Bengal. Pop. (1901) +8838. It is famous for a group of twenty-two temples dedicated +to Siva, the resort of numerous pilgrims. It is connected with +the East Indian railway by a steam tramway, 5 m. in length. +(2) The headquarters of the Bamra feudatory state in Bengal; +58 m. by road from the Bamra Road station on the Bengal-Nagpur +railway. Pop. (1901) 5702. The town, which is well +laid out, with parks and gardens, and pleasantly situated in a +hollow among hills, rapidly increased in population under the +enlightened administration of the raja, Sir Sudhal Rao, K.C.I.E. +(b. 1860). It has a state-supported high school affiliated to +Calcutta University, with a chemical and physical laboratory. +(3) The chief town of the Deogarh estate in the state of Udaipur, +Rajputana, about 68 m. N.N.E. of the city of Udaipur. It is +walled, and contains a fine palace. Pop. (1901) 5384. The +holder of the estate is styled <i>rawat</i>, and is one of the first-class +nobles of Mewar. (4) Deogarh Fort, the ancient Devagiri or +Deogiri (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Daulatabad</a></span>).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DÉOLS,</span> a suburb of the French town of Châteauroux, in the +department of Indre. Pop. (1906) 2337. Déols lies to the +north of Châteauroux, from which it is separated by the Indre. +It preserves a fine Romanesque tower and other remains of the +church of a famous Benedictine abbey, the most important in +Berry, founded in 917 by Ebbes the Noble, lord of Déols. A +gateway flanked by towers survives from the old ramparts of +the town. The parish church of St Stephen (15th and 16th +centuries) has a Romanesque façade and a crypt containing the +ancient Christian tomb of St Ludre and his father St Leocade, who +according to tradition were lords of the town in the 4th century. +There are also interesting old paintings of the 10th century +representing the ancient abbey. The pilgrimage to the tomb of +St Ludre gave importance to Déols, which under the name of +<i>Vicus Dolensis</i> was in existence in the Roman period. In 468 +the Visigoths defeated the Gauls there, the victory carrying with +it the supremacy over the district of Berry. In the middle ages +the head of the family of Déols enjoyed the title of prince and +held sway over nearly all Lower Berry, of which the town itself +was the capital. In the 10th century Raoul of Déols gave his +castle to the monks of the abbey and transferred his residence +to Châteauroux. For centuries this change did not affect the +prosperity of the place, which was maintained by the prestige +of its abbey. But the burning of the abbey church by the +Protestants during the religious wars and in 1622 the suppression +of the abbey by the agency of Henry II., prince of Condé and of +Déols, owing to the corruption of the monks, led to its decadence.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEPARTMENT</span> (Fr. <i>département</i>, from <i>départir</i>, to separate +into parts), a division. The word is used of the branches of the +administration in a state or municipality; in Great Britain it +is applied to the subordinate divisions only of the great offices +and boards of state, such as the bankruptcy department of the +Board of Trade, but in the United States these subordinate +divisions are known as “bureaus,” while “department” is used +of the eight chief branches of the executive.</p> + +<p>A particular use of the word is that for a territorial division +of France, corresponding loosely to an English county. Previous +to the French Revolution, the local unit in France was the +province, but this division was too closely bound up with the +administrative mismanagement of the old régime. Accordingly, +at the suggestion of Mirabeau, France was redivided on entirely +new lines, the thirty-four provinces being broken up into eighty-three +departments (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolution</a></span>). The idea was +to render them as nearly as possible equal to a certain average +of size and population, though this was not always adhered to. +They derived their names principally from rivers, mountains +or other prominent geographical features. Under Napoleon the +number was increased to one hundred and thirty, but in 1815 it +was reduced to eighty-six. In 1860 three new departments were +created out of the newly annexed territory of Savoy and Nice. In +1871 three departments (Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin and Moselle) +were lost after the German war. Of the remains of the Haut-Rhin +was formed the territory of Belfort, and the fragments of +the Moselle were incorporated in the department of Meurthe, +which was renamed Meurthe-et-Moselle, making the number +at present eighty-seven. For a complete list of the departments +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>. Each department is presided over by an officer +called a prefect, appointed by the government, and assisted by a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"></a>56</span> +prefectorial council (<i>conseil de préfecture</i>). The departments are +subdivided into arrondissements, each in charge of a sub-prefect. +Arrondissements are again subdivided into cantons, and these +into communes, somewhat equivalent to the English parish +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France: <i>Local Government</i></a></span>).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DE PERE,</span> a city of Brown county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both +sides of the Fox river, 6 m. above its mouth, and 109 m. N. of +Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 3625; (1900) 4038, of whom 1025 +were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 4523. It is served by +the Chicago & North-Western and Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul +railways, by interurban electric lines and by lake and river +steamboat lines, it being the head of lake navigation on the Fox +river. Two bridges here span the Fox, which is from <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">3</span> m. to ½ m. +in width. It is a shipping and transfer point and has paper +mills, machine shops, flour mills, sash, door and blind factories, +a launch and pleasure-boat factory, and knitting works, cheese +factories and dairies, brick yards and grain elevators. There is +an excellent water-power. De Pere is the seat of St Norbert’s +college (Roman Catholic, 1902) and has a public library. North +of the city is located the state reformatory. On the coming +of the first European, Jean Nicolet, who visited the place in +1634-1635, De Pere was the site of a polyglot Indian settlement +of several thousand attracted by the fishing at the first rapids of +the Fox river. Here in 1670 Father Claude Allouez established +the mission of St Francis Xavier, the second in what is now +Wisconsin. From the name <i>Rapides des Peres</i>, which the French +applied to the place, was derived the name De Pere. Here +Nicolas Perrot, the first French commandant in the North-West, +established his headquarters, and Father Jacques Marquette +wrote the journal of his journey to the Mississippi. A few +miles south of the city lived for many years Eleazer Williams +(c. 1787-1857), the alleged “lost dauphin” Louis XVII. of France +and an authority on Indians, especially Iroquois. De Pere was +incorporated as a village in 1857, and was chartered as a city +in 1883.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL</span> (1834-<span class="spc"> </span>), American +lawyer and politician, was born in Peekskill, New York, on the +23rd of April 1834, of a Huguenot family (originally Du Puis or +De Puy). He graduated at Yale in 1856, entered politics as a +Whig—his father had been a Democrat—was admitted to the +bar in 1858, was a member of the New York Assembly in +1861-1862, and was secretary of state of New York state in +1864-1865. He refused a nomination to be United States +minister to Japan, and through his friendship with Cornelius and +William H. Vanderbilt in 1866 became attorney for the New York +& Harlem railway, in 1869 was appointed attorney of the newly +consolidated New York Central & Hudson river railway, of which +he soon became a director, and in 1875 was made general counsel +for the entire Vanderbilt system of railways. He became second +vice-president of the New York Central & Hudson river in 1869 +and was its president in 1885-1898, and in 1898 was made +chairman of the board of directors of the Vanderbilt system. In +1872 he joined the Liberal-Republican movement, and was +nominated and defeated for the office of lieutenant-governor of +New York. In 1888 in the National Republican convention he +was a candidate for the presidential nomination, but withdrew +his name in favour of Benjamin Harrison, whose offer to him in +1889 of the portfolio of state he refused. In 1899 he was elected +United States senator from New York state, and in 1904 was +re-elected for the term ending in 1911. His great personal +popularity, augmented by his ability as an orator, suffered +considerably after 1905, the inquiry into life insurance company +methods by a committee of the state legislature resulting in +acute criticism of his actions as a director of the Equitable Life +Assurance Society and as counsel to Henry B. Hyde and his +son. Among his best-known orations are that delivered at +the unveiling of the Bartholdi statue of Liberty enlightening +the World (1886), an address at the Washington Centennial in +New York (1889), and the Columbian oration at the dedication +ceremonies of the Chicago World’s Fair (1892).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEPILATORY</span> (from Lat. <i>depilare</i>, to pull out the <i>pilus</i> or +hair), any substance, preparation or process which will remove +superfluous hair. For this purpose caustic alkalis, alkaline earths +and also orpiment (trisulphide of arsenic) are used, the last being +somewhat dangerous. No application is permanent in its effect, +as the hair always grows again. The only permanent method, +which is, however, painful, slow in operation and likely to leave +small scars, is by the use of an electric current for the destruction +of the follicles by electrolysis.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEPORTATION,</span> or <span class="sc">Transportation</span>, a system of punishment +for crime, of which the essential factor is the removal of the +criminal to a penal settlement outside his own country. It is to +be distinguished from mere <a href="#artlinks">expulsion</a> (q.v.) from a country, +though the term “deportation” is now used in that sense in +English law under the Aliens Act 1905 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alien</a></span>). Strictly, +the deportation or transportation system has ceased to exist in +England, though the removal or exclusion of undesirable persons +from British territory, under various Orders in Council, is possible +in places subject to the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, and in the case +of criminals under the Extradition Acts.</p> + +<p><i>Earlier British Transportation System.</i>—At a time when the +British statute-book bristled with capital felonies, when the pick-pocket +or sheep-stealer was hanged out of hand, when Sir Samuel +Romilly, to whose strenuous exertions the amelioration of the +penal code is in a great measure due, declared that the laws +of England were written in blood, another and less sanguinary +penalty came into great favour. The deportation of criminals +beyond the seas grew naturally out of the laws which prescribed +banishment for certain offences. The Vagrancy Act of Elizabeth’s +reign contained in it the germ of transportation, by empowering +justices in quarter sessions to banish offenders and order +them to be conveyed into such parts beyond the seas as should +be assigned by the privy council. Full effect was given to this +statute in the next reign, as is proved by a letter of James I. +<span class="sidenote">American plantations.</span> +dated 1619, in which the king directs “a hundred +dissolute persons” to be sent to Virginia. Another +act of similar tenor was passed in the reign of +Charles II., in which the term “transportation” +appears to have been first used. A further and more systematic +development of the system of transportation took place in +1617, when an act was passed by which offenders who had +escaped the death penalty were handed over to contractors, +who engaged to transport them to the American colonies. +These contractors were vested with a property in the +labour of the convicts for a certain term, generally from +seven to fourteen years, and this right they frequently sold. +Labour in those early days was scarce in the new settlements; +and before the general adoption of negro slavery there was a +keen competition for felon hands. An organized system +of kidnapping prevailed along the British coasts; young lads +were seized and sold into what was practically white slavery in +the American plantations. These malpractices were checked, but +the legitimate traffic in convict labour continued, until it was +ended peremptorily by the revolt of the American colonies and +the achievement of their independence in 1776.<a name="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The British legislature, making a virtue of necessity, discovered +that transportation to the colonies was bound to be attended by +various inconveniences, particularly by depriving the kingdom of +many subjects whose labour might be useful to the community; +and an act was accordingly passed which provides that convicts +sentenced to transportation might be employed at hard labour +at home. At the same time the consideration of some scheme +for their disposal was entrusted to three eminent public men—Sir +William Blackstone, Mr Eden (afterwards Lord Auckland) +and John Howard. The result of their labours was an act for the +establishment of penitentiary houses, dated 1778. This act is of +peculiar importance. It contains the first public enunciation of a +general principle of prison treatment, and shows that even at that +early date the system since nearly universally adopted was fully +understood. The object in view was thus stated. It was hoped +“by sobriety, cleanliness and medical assistance, by a regular +series of labour, by solitary confinement during the intervals of +work and by due religious instruction to preserve and amend +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"></a>57</span> +the health of the unhappy offenders, to inure them to habits of +industry, to guard them from pernicious company, to accustom +them to serious reflection and to teach them both the principles +and practice of every Christian and moral duty.” The experience +of succeeding years has added little to these the true principles +of penal discipline; they form the basis of every species of prison +system carried out since the passing of an act of 1779.</p> + +<p>No immediate action was taken by the committee appointed. +Its members were not in accord as to the choice of site. One was +for Islington, another for Limehouse; Howard only stipulated +for some healthy place well supplied with water and conveniently +situated for supervision. He was strongly of opinion that the +penitentiary should be built by convict labour. Howard withdrew +from the commission, and new members were appointed, who +were on the eve of beginning the first penitentiary when the +discoveries of Captain Cook in the South Seas turned the attention +of the government towards these new lands. The vast territories +<span class="sidenote">Australian penal settlements.</span> +of Australasia promised an unlimited field for convict +colonization, and for the moment the scheme for +penitentiary houses fell to the ground. Public opinion +generally preferred the idea of establishing penal +settlements at a distance from home. “There was general +confidence,” says Merivale in his work on colonization, “in the +favourite theory that the best mode of punishing offenders was +that which removed them from the scene of offence and temptation, +cut them off by a great gulf of space from all their former +connexions, and gave them the opportunity of redeeming past +crimes by becoming useful members of society.” These views so +far prevailed that an expedition consisting of nine transports +and two men-of-war, the “first fleet” of Australian annals, sailed +in March 1787 for New South Wales. This first fleet reached +Botany Bay in January 1788, but passed on and landed at Port +Jackson, where it entered and occupied Sydney harbour. From +that time forward convicts were sent in constantly increasing +numbers from England to the Antipodes. Yet the early settlement +at Sydney had not greatly prospered. The infant colony +had had a bitter struggle for existence. It had been hoped that +the community would raise its own produce and speedily become +self-supporting. But the soil was unfruitful; the convicts knew +nothing of farming. All lived upon rations sent out from home; +and when convoys with relief lingered by the way famine stared +all in the face. The colony was long a penal settlement and +nothing more, peopled only by two classes, convicts and their +masters; criminal bondsmen on the one hand who had forfeited +their independence and were bound to labour without wages for the +state, on the other officials to guard and exact the due performance +of tasks. A few free families were encouraged to emigrate, +but they were lost in the mass they were intended to leaven, +swamped and outnumbered by the convicts, shiploads of whom +continued to pour in year after year. When the influx increased, +difficulties as to their employment arose. Free settlers were too +few to give work to more than a small proportion. Moreover, a +new policy was in the ascendant, initiated by Governor Macquarie, +who considered the convicts and their rehabilitation his chief +care, and steadily discouraged the immigration of any but those +who “came out for their country’s good.” The great bulk of the +convict labour thus remained in government hands.</p> + +<p>This period marked the first phase in the history of transportation. +The penal colony, having triumphed over early dangers +and difficulties, was crowded with convicts in a state of semi-freedom, +maintained at the public expense and utilized in the +development of the latent resources of the country. The methods +employed by Governor Macquarie were not, perhaps, invariably +the best; the time was hardly ripe as yet for the erection of +palatial buildings in Sydney, while the congregation of the workmen +in large bodies tended greatly to their demoralization. But +some of the works undertaken and carried out were of incalculable +service to the young colony; and its early advance in wealth and +prosperity was greatly due to the magnificent roads, bridges and +other facilities of inter-communication for which it was indebted +to Governor Macquarie. As time passed the criminal sewage +flowing from the Old World to the New greatly increased in +volume under milder and more humane laws. Many now escaped +the gallows, and much of the overcrowding of the gaols at home +was caused by the gangs of convicts awaiting transhipment to +the Antipodes. They were packed off, however, with all convenient +despatch, and the numbers on government hands in the +colonies multiplied exceedingly, causing increasing embarrassment +as to their disposal. Moreover, the expense of the Australian +convict establishments was enormous.</p> + +<p>Some change in system was inevitable, and the plan of “assignment” +was introduced; in other words, that of freely lending the +convicts to any who would relieve the authorities of the burdensome +<span class="sidenote">Assignment system.</span> +charge. By this time free settlers were arriving +in greater number, invited by a different and more +liberal policy than that of Governor Macquarie. +Inducements were especially offered to persons +possessed of capital to assist in the development of the country. +Assignment developed rapidly; soon eager competition arose for +the convict hands that had been at first so reluctantly taken. +Great facilities existed for utilizing them on the wide areas of +grazing land and on the new stations in the interior. A pastoral +life, without temptations and contaminating influences, was well +suited for convicts. As the colony grew richer and more populous, +other than agricultural employers became assignees, and numerous +enterprises were set on foot. The trades and callings which +minister to the needs of all civilized communities were more and +more largely pursued. There was plenty of work for skilled +convicts in the towns, and the services of the more intelligent +were highly prized. It was a great boon to secure gratis the +assistance of men specially trained as clerks, book-keepers or +handicraftsmen. Hence all manner of intrigues and manœuvres +were afoot on the arrival of drafts and there was a scramble for +the best hands. Here at once was a palpable flaw in the system +of assignment. The lot of the convict was altogether unequal. +Some, the dull, unlettered and unskilled, were drafted up country +to heavy manual labour at which they remained, while clever +expert rogues found pleasant, congenial and often profitable +employment in the towns. The contrast was very marked from +the first, but it became the more apparent when in due course it +was seen that some were still engaged in irksome toil, while others +who had come out by the same ship had already attained to +affluence and ease. For the latter transportation was no punishment, +but often the reverse. It meant too often transfer to a new +world under conditions more favourable to success, removed from +the keener competition of the old. By adroit management, too, +convicts often obtained the command of funds, the product of +nefarious transactions at home, which wives or near relatives or +unconvicted accomplices presently brought out to them. It was +easy for the free new-comers to secure the assignment of their +convict friends; and the latter, although still nominally servants +and in the background, at once assumed the real control. +Another system productive of much evil was the employment of +convict clerks in positions of trust in various government offices; +convicts did much of the legal work of the colony; a convict was +clerk to the attorney general; others were schoolmasters and +were entrusted with the education of youth.</p> + +<p>Under a system so anomalous and uncertain the main object +of transportation as a method of penal discipline and repression +was in danger of being quite overlooked. Yet the state +<span class="sidenote">Evils of convict system.</span> +could not entirely abdicate its functions, although it +surrendered to a great extent the care of criminals to +private persons. It had established a code of penalties +for the coercion of the ill-conducted, while it kept the +worst perforce in its own hands. The master was always at +liberty to appeal to the strong arm of the law. A message carried +to a neighbouring magistrate, often by the culprit himself, brought +down the prompt retribution of the lash. Convicts might be +flogged for petty offences, for idleness, drunkenness, turbulence, +absconding and so forth. At the out-stations some show of +decorum and regularity was observed, although the work done +was generally scanty and the convicts were secretly given to all +manner of evil courses. The town convicts were worse, because +they were far less controlled. They were nominally under the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58"></a>58</span> +surveillance and supervision of the police, which amounted to +nothing at all. They came and went, and amused themselves +after working hours, so that Sydney and all the large towns were +hotbeds of vice and immorality. The masters as a rule made +no attempt to watch over their charges; many of them were +absolutely unfitted to do so, being themselves of low character, +“emancipists” frequently, old convicts conditionally pardoned +or who had finished their terms. No effort was made to prevent +the assignment of convicts to improper persons; every applicant +got what he wanted, even though his own character would not +bear inspection. All whom the masters could not manage—the +incorrigible upon whom the lash and bread and water had been +tried in vain—were returned to government charge. These, in +short, comprised the whole of the refuse of colonial convictdom. +Every man who could not agree with his master, or who was +to undergo a penalty greater than flogging or less than capital +punishment, came back to government and was disposed of in +one of three ways, (1) the road parties, (2) the chain gang, or (3) the +penal settlements. (1) In the first case, the convicts might be +kept in the vicinity of the towns or marched about the country +according to the work in hand; the labour was severe, but, owing +to inefficient supervision, never intolerable; the diet was ample +and there was no great restraint upon independence within +certain wide limits. To the slackness of control over the road +parties was directly traceable the frequent escape of desperadoes, +who, defying recapture, recruited the gangs of bushrangers +which were a constant terror to the whole country. In (2) the +chain or iron gangs, as they were sometimes styled, discipline was +far more rigorous. It was maintained by the constant presence +of a military guard, and when most efficiently organized the gang +was governed by a military officer who was also a magistrate. +The work was really hard, the custody close—in hulk, stockaded +barrack or caravan; the first was at Sydney, the second in the +interior, the last when the undertaking required constant change +of place. All were locked up from sunset to sunrise; all wore +heavy leg irons; and all were liable to immediate flagellation. +The convict “scourger” was one of the regular officials attached +to every chain gang. (3) The third and ultimate receptacle was +the penal settlement, to which no offenders were transferred till +all other methods of treatment had failed. These were terrible +cesspools of iniquity, so bad that it seemed, to use the words of +one who knew them well, that “the heart of a man who went to +them was taken from him and he was given that of a beast.” +The horrors accumulated at Norfolk Island, Moreton Bay, Port +Arthur and Tasman’s Peninsula are almost beyond description. +The convicts herded together in them were soon utterly degraded +and brutalized; no wonder that reckless despair took possession +of them, that death on the gallows for murder purposely committed, +or the slow terror from starvation following escape into +surrounding wilds was often welcomed as a relief.</p> + +<p>The stage which transportation was now reaching and the +actual condition of affairs in the Australian colonies about this +period do not appear to have been much understood in England. +Earnest and thoughtful men might busy themselves with prison +discipline at home, and the legislature might watch with peculiar +interest the results obtained from the special treatment of a +limited number of selected offenders in Millbank penitentiary. +But for the great mass of criminality deported to a distant shore +no very active concern was shown. The country for a long time +seemed satisfied with transportation. Portions of the system +might be open to criticism. Thus the Commons committee of +1832 freely condemned the hulks at Woolwich and other arsenals +in which a large number of convicts were kept while waiting +embarkation. It was reported that the indiscriminate association +of prisoners in them produced more vice, profaneness and +demoralization than in the ordinary prisons. After dark the +wildest orgies went on unchecked—dancing, fighting, gambling, +singing and so forth; it was easy to get drink and tobacco and +to see friends from outside. The labour hours were short and +the tasks light; “altogether the situation of the convict in +the hulks,” says the report, “cannot be considered penal; it is +a state of restriction, but hardly of punishment.”</p> + +<p>But no objection was raised to transportation. It was considered +by this same committee “a most valuable expedient +in the system of secondary punishment.” They only thought it +necessary to suggest that exile should be preceded by a period +of severe probationary punishment in England, a proposal +which was reiterated later on and actually adopted. It was in +the country most closely affected that dissatisfaction first began +to find voice. Already in 1832 the most reputable sections of +Australian society were beginning to murmur grievously. Transportation +had fostered the growth of a strong party—that +representing convict views—and these were advocated boldly in +<span class="sidenote">Australian objections.</span> +unprincipled prints. This party, constantly recruited +from the emancipists and ticket-of-leave holders, +gradually grew very numerous, and threatened soon +to swamp the honest and untainted parts of the +community. As years passed the prevalence of crime, and the +universally low tone of morality due to the convict element, +became more and more in the ascendant. At length in 1835 +Judge Burton made a loud protest, and in a charge to the grand +jury of Sydney plainly intimated that transportation must cease. +While it existed, he said, the colonies could never rise to their +proper position; they could not claim free institutions. This +bold but forcible language commanded attention. It was speedily +echoed in England, and particularly by Archbishop Whately, +who argued that transportation failed in all the leading requisites +of any system of secondary punishment. Transportation +exercised no salutary terror in offenders; it was no longer exile to +an unknown inhospitable region, but to one flowing with milk and +honey, whither innumerable friends and associates had gone +already. The most glowing descriptions came back of the wealth +which any clever fellow might easily amass; stories were told +and names mentioned of those who had made ample fortunes in +Australia in a few years. As a matter of fact the convicts, or at +least large numbers of them, had prospered exceedingly. Some +had incomes of twenty, thirty, even forty thousand pounds a year. +The deteriorating effects of the system were plainly manifest on +the surface from the condition of the colony,—the profligacy of +the towns, the scant reprobation of crimes and those who had +committed them. Down below, in the openly sanctioned slavery +called assignment, in the demoralizing chain gangs and in the +inexpressibly horrible penal settlements, were more abundant +and more awful proofs of the general wickedness and corruption. +Moreover these appalling results were accompanied by colossal +expenditure. The cost of the colonial convict establishments, +with the passages out, amounted annually to upwards of +£300,000; another £100,000 was expended on the military +garrisons; and various items brought the whole outlay to about +half a million per annum. It may be argued that this was not a +heavy price to pay for peopling a continent and laying the foundations +of a vast Australasian empire. But that empire could never +have expanded to its present dimensions if it had depended on +convict immigration alone. There was a point, too, at which +all development, all progress, would have come to a full stop +had it not been relieved of its stigma as a penal colony.</p> + +<p>That point was reached between 1835 and 1840, when a +powerful party came into existence in New South Wales, pledged +to bring about the abandonment of transportation. A strongly +hostile feeling was also gaining ground in England. In 1837 +<span class="sidenote">Reform movement.</span> +a new committee of the House of Commons had +made a patient and searching investigation into the +merits and demerits of the system and freely condemned +it. The government had no choice but to give way; +it could not ignore the protests of the colonists, backed up by +such an authoritative expression of opinion. In 1840 orders were +issued to suspend the deportation of criminals to New South +Wales. But what was to become of the convicts? It was +impossible to keep them at home. The hulks which might have +served had also failed; the faultiness of their internal management +had been fully proved. The committee had recommended +the erection of more penitentiaries. But the costly experiment +of Millbank had been barren of results. The model prison at +Pentonville, in process of construction under the pressure of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>59</span> +movement towards prison reform, could offer but limited accommodation. +A proposal was put forward to construct convict +barracks in the vicinity of the great arsenals; but this, which +contained really the germ of the present British penal system, +was premature. The government in this dilemma steered a +middle course and resolved to adhere to transportation, but under +a greatly modified and it was hoped much improved form. The +colony of Van Diemen’s Land, younger and less self-reliant than +its neighbour, had also endured convict immigration but had +made no protest. It was resolved to direct the whole stream +of deportation upon Van Diemen’s Land, which was thus constituted +one vast colonial prison. The main principle of the new +system was one of probation; hence its name. All convicts were +to pass through various stages and degrees of punishment according +to their conduct and character. Some general depot was +needed where the necessary observation could be made, and it +was found at Millbank penitentiary. Thence boys were sent +to the prison for juveniles at Parkhurst; the most promising +subjects among the adults were selected to undergo the experimental +discipline of solitude and separation at Pentonville; less +hopeful cases went to the hulks; and all adults alike passed on to +the Antipodes. Fresh stages awaited the convict on his arrival +at Van Diemen’s Land. The first was limited to “lifers” and +colonial convicts sentenced a second time. It consisted in detention +at one of the penal stations, either Norfolk Island or Tasman’s +Peninsula, where the disgraceful conditions already described +continued unchanged to the very last. The second stage received +the largest number, who were subjected in it to gang labour, +working under restraint in various parts of the colony. These +probation stations, as they were called, were intended to inculcate +habits of industry and subordination; they were provided with +supervisors and religious instructors; and had they not been +tainted by the vicious virus brought to them by others arriving +from the penal stations, they might have answered their purpose +for a time. But they became as bad as the worst of the penal +settlements and contributed greatly to the breakdown of the +whole system. The third stage and the first step towards freedom +was the concession of a pass which permitted the convict to be +at large under certain conditions to seek work for himself; the +fourth was a ticket-of-leave, the possession of which allowed him +to come and go much as he pleased; the fifth and last was +absolute pardon, with the prospects of rehabilitation.</p> + +<p>This scheme seemed admirable on paper; yet it failed completely +when put into practice. Colonial resources were quite +unable to bear the pressure. Within two or three years +<span class="sidenote">Gradual abandonment.</span> +Van Diemen’s Land was inundated with convicts. +Sixteen thousand were sent out in four years; the +average annual number in the colony was about +30,000, and this when there were only 37,000 free settlers. +Half the whole number of convicts remained in government +hands and were kept in the probation gangs, engaged upon public +works of great utility; but the other half, pass-holders +and ticket-of-leave men in a state of semi-freedom, could +get little or no employment. The supply greatly exceeded the +demand; there were no hirers of labour. Had the colony been as +large and as prosperous as its neighbour it could scarcely have +absorbed the glut of workmen; but it was really on the verge +of bankruptcy—its finances were embarrassed, its trades and +industries at a standstill. But not only were the convicts idle; +they were utterly depraved. It was soon found that the system +which kept large bodies always together had a most pernicious +effect upon their moral condition. “The congregation of +criminals in large batches without adequate supervision meant +simply wholesale, widespread pollution,” as was said at the time. +These ever-present and constantly increasing evils forced the +government to reconsider its position; and in 1846 transportation +to Van Diemen’s Land was temporarily suspended for a +couple of years, during which it was hoped some relief might be +afforded. The formation of a new convict colony in North +Australia had been contemplated; but the project, warmly +espoused by Mr Gladstone, then under-secretary of state for the +colonies, was presently abandoned; and it now became clear +that no resumption of transportation was possible. The measures +taken to substitute other methods of secondary punishment are +set forth in the article <a href="#artlinks">Prison</a> (q.v.).</p> + +<p><i>France.</i>—France adopted deportation for criminals as far back +as 1763, when a penal colony was founded in French Guiana and +failed disastrously. An expedition was sent there, composed +<span class="sidenote">French practice.</span> +of the most evil elements of the Paris population +and numbering 14,000, all of whom died. The +attempt was repeated in 1766 and with the same +miserable result. Other failures are recorded, the worst being +the scheme of the philanthropist Baron Milius, who in 1823 +planned to form a community on the banks of the Mana (French +Guiana) by the marriage of exiled convicts and degraded women, +which resulted in the most ghastly horrors. The principle of +deportation was then formally condemned by publicists and +government until suddenly in 1854 it was reintroduced into the +French penal code with many high-sounding phrases. Splendid +results were to be achieved in the creation of rich colonies afar, +and the regeneration of the criminal by new openings in a new +land. The only outlet available at the moment beyond the sea +was French Guiana, and it was again to be utilized despite its +pestilential climate. Thousands were exiled, more than half to +find certain death; none of the penal settlements prospered. +No return was made by agricultural development, farms and +plantations proved a dead loss under the unfavourable conditions +of labour enforced in a malarious climate and unkindly soil, and +it was acknowledged by French officials that the attempt to +establish a penal colony on the equator was utterly futile. +Deportation to Guiana was not abandoned, but instead of native-born +French exiles, convicts of subject races, Arabs, Anamites +and Asiatic blacks, were sent exclusively, with no better success +as regards colonization.</p> + +<p>In 1864, however, it was possible to divert the stream elsewhere. +New Caledonia in the Australian Pacific was annexed to +France in 1853. Ten years later it became a new settlement for +convict emigrants. A first shipload was disembarked in 1864 at +Noumea, and the foundations of the city laid. Prison buildings +were the first erected and were planted upon the island of Nou, +a small breakwater to the Bay of Noumea. Outwardly all went +well under the fostering care of the authorities. The population +steadily increased; an average total of 600 in 1867 rose in the +following year to 1554. In 1874 the convict population exceeded +5000; in 1880 it had risen to 8000; the total reached 9608 +at the end of December 1883. But from that time forward the +numbers transported annually fell, for it was found that this +South Pacific island, with its fertile soil and fairly temperate +climate, by no means intimidated the dangerous classes; and +the French administration therefore resumed deportation of +French-born whites to Guiana, which was known as notoriously +unhealthy and was likely to act as a more positive deterrent. +The authorities divided their exiles between the two outlets, +choosing New Caledonia for the convicts who gave some promise +of regeneration, and sending criminals with the worst antecedents +and presumably incorrigible to the settlements on the equator. +This was in effect to hand over a fertile colony entirely to +criminals. Free immigration to New Caledonia was checked, and +the colony became almost exclusively penal. The natural growth +of a prosperous colonial community made no advance, and +convict labour did little to stimulate it, the public works, essential +for development, and construction of roads were neglected; there +was no extensive clearance of lands, no steady development of +agriculture. From 1898 simple deportation practically ceased, +but the islands were full of convicts already sent, and they still +received the product of the latest invention in the criminal code +known as “relegation,” a punishment directed against the +recidivist or incorrigible criminal whom no penal retribution +had hitherto touched and whom the French law felt justified +in banishing for ever to the “back of beyond.” A certain +period of time spent in a hard labour prison preceded relegation, +but the convicts on arrival were generally unfitted to assist in +colonization. They were for the most part decadent, morally +and physically; their labour was of no substantial value to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>60</span> +colonists or themselves, and there was small hope of profitable +result when they gained conditional liberation, with a concession +of colonial land and a possibility of rehabilitation by their own +efforts abroad, for by their sentence they were forbidden to hope +for return to France. The punishment of relegation was not +long in favour, the number of sentences to it fell year after year, +and it has now been practically abandoned.</p> + +<p><i>Other Countries.</i>—Penal exile has been practised by some other +countries as a method of secondary punishment. Russia since +1823 has directed a stream of offenders, mainly political, upon +Siberia, and at one time the yearly average sent was 18,000. The +Siberian exile system, the horrors of which cannot be exaggerated, +belongs only in part to penitentiary science, but it was very +distinctly punitive and aimed at regeneration of the individual +and the development of the soil by new settlements. Although +the journey was made mostly on foot and not by sea transport, +the principle of deportation (or more exactly of removal) was +the essence of the system. The later practice, however, has been +exactly similar to transportation as originated by England and +afterwards followed by France. The penal colonization of the +island of Sakhalin reproduced the preceding methods, and the +Russian convicts were conveyed by ships through the Suez +Canal to the Far East. Sakhalin was hopefully intended as an +outlet for released convicts and their rehabilitation by their own +efforts, precisely in the manner tried in Australia and New +Caledonia. The result repeated previous experiences. There was +land to reclaim, forests to cut down, marshes to drain, everything +but a temperate climate and a good will of the felon labourers to +create a prosperous colony. But the convicts would not work; a +few sought to win the right to occupy a concession of soil, but the +bulk were pure vagabonds, wandering to and fro in search of food. +The agricultural enterprise was a complete failure. The wrong +sites for cultivation were chosen, the labourers were unskilled and +they handled very indifferent tools. Want amounting to constant +starvation was a constant rule; the rations were insufficient and +unwholesome, very little meat eked out with salt fish and with +entire absence of vegetables. The general tone of morals was +inconceivably low, and a universal passion for alcohol and card-playing +prevailed. According to one authority the life of the +convicts at Sakhalin was a frightful nightmare, “a mixture of +debauchery and innocence mixed with real sufferings and almost +inconceivable privations, corrupt in every one of its phases.” +The prisons hopelessly ruined all who entered them, all classes +were indiscriminately herded together. It is now generally +allowed that deportation, as practised, had utterly failed, the +chief reasons being the unmanageable numbers sent and the +absence of outlets for their employment, even at great +cost.</p> + +<p>The prisons on Sakhalin have been described as hotbeds of +vice; the only classification of prisoners is one based on the length +of sentence. Some imperfect attempt is made to separate those +waiting trial from the recidivist or hardened offender, but too +often the association is indiscriminate. Prison discipline is +generally slack and ineffective, the staff of warders, from ill-judged +economy, too weak to supervise or control. The officers +themselves are of inferior stamp, drunken, untrustworthy, overbearing, +much given to “trafficking” with the prisoners, accepting +bribes to assist escape, quick to misuse and oppress their +charges. Crime of the worst description is common.</p> + +<p>Italy has practised deportation in planting various agricultural +colonies upon the islands to be found on her coast. They +were meant to imitate the intermediate prisons of the Irish +system, where prisoners might work out their redemption, when +provisionally released. Two were established on the islands +of Pianoso and Gorgona, and there were settlements made +on Monte Christo and Capraia. They were used also to give +effect to the system of enforced residence or <i>domicilio +coatto</i>.</p> + +<p>Portugal also has tried deportation to the African colony +of Angola on a small scale with some success, and combined +it with free emigration. The settlers have been represented as +well disposed towards the convicts, gladly obtaining their +services or helping them in the matter of security. The +convict element is orderly, and, although their treatment is +“<i>peu repressive et relativement debonnaire</i>,” few commit offences.</p> + +<p>The Andaman Islands have been utilized by the Indian +government since the mutiny (1857) for the deportation of +heinous criminals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Andaman Islands</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Captain A. Phillip, R.N., <i>The Voyage of Governor +Phillip to New South Wales</i> (1790); David Collins, <i>Account of the +English Colony of New South Wales</i> (1798); Archbishop Whately, +<i>Remarks on Transportation</i> (1834); Herman Merivale, <i>Colonization +and Colonies</i> (1841); d’Haussonville, <i>Établissements pénitentiaires +en France et aux colonies</i> (1875); George Griffith, <i>In a Prison Land</i>; +Cuche, <i>Science et legislation pénitentiaire</i> (1905); Hawes, <i>The Uttermost +East</i> (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See J. C. Ballagh, <i>White Servitude in Virginia</i> (Baltimore, 1895.)</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEPOSIT</span> (Lat. <i>depositum</i>, from <i>deponere</i>, to lay down, to put +in the care of), anything laid down or separated; as in geology, +any mass of material accumulated by a natural agency (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bed</a></span>), and in chemistry, a precipitate or matter settling from +a solution or suspension. In banking, a deposit may mean, +generally, a sum of money lodged in a bank without regard to +the conditions under which it is held, but more specially money +lodged with a bank on “deposit account” and acknowledged by +the banker by a “deposit receipt” given to the depositor. It is +then not drawn upon by cheque, usually bears interest at a rate +varying from time to time, and can only be withdrawn after fixed +notice. Deposit is also used in the sense of earnest or security +for the performance of a contract. In the law of mortgage the +deposit of title-deeds is usual as a security for the repayment of +money advanced. Such a deposit operates as an equitable +mortgage. In the law of contract, deposit or simple bailment is +delivery or bailment of goods in trust to be kept without recompense, +and redelivered on demand (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bailment</a></span>).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEPOT</span> (from the Fr. <i>dépôt</i>, Lat. <i>depositum</i>, laid down; the +French accent marks are usually dispensed with in English), a +place where things may be stored or deposited, such as a furniture +or forage depot, the accumulation of military stores, especially +in the theatre of operations. In America the word is used of a +railway station, whether for passengers or goods; in Great +Britain on railways the word, when in use, is applied to goods +stations. A particular military application is to a depot, situated +as a rule in the centre of the recruiting district of the regiment or +other unit, where recruits are received and undergo the necessary +preliminary training before joining the active troops. Such +depots are maintained in peace time by all armies which have to +supply distant or oversea garrisons; in an army raised by compulsory +service and quartered in its own country, the regiments +are usually stationed in their own districts, and on their taking +the field for war leave behind a small nucleus for the formation +and training of drafts to be sent out later. These nucleus troops +are generally called depot troops.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEPRETIS, AGOSTINO</span> (1813-1887), Italian statesman, was +born at Mezzana Corte, in the province of Stradella on the 31st +of January 1813. From early manhood a disciple of Mazzini +and affiliated to the <i>Giovane Italia</i>, he took an active part in the +Mazzinian conspiracies and was nearly captured by the Austrians +while smuggling arms into Milan. Elected deputy in 1848, he +joined the Left and founded the journal <i>Il Diritto</i>, but held +no official position until appointed governor of Brescia in 1859. +In 1860 he went to Sicily on a mission to reconcile the policy of +Cavour (who desired the immediate incorporation of the island +in the kingdom of Italy) with that of Garibaldi, who wished to +postpone the Sicilian <i>plébiscite</i> until after the liberation of Naples +and Rome. Though appointed pro-dictator of Sicily by Garibaldi, +he failed in his attempt. Accepting the portfolio of public works +in the Rattazzi cabinet in 1862, he served as intermediary in +arranging with Garibaldi the expedition which ended disastrously +at Aspromonte. Four years later, on the outbreak of war against +Austria, he entered the Ricasoli cabinet as minister of marine, +and, by maintaining Admiral Persano in command of the fleet, +contributed to the defeat of Lissa. His apologists contend, +however, that, as an inexperienced civilian, he could not have +made sudden changes in naval arrangements without disorganizing +the fleet, and that in view of the impending hostilities he was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61"></a>61</span> +obliged to accept the dispositions of his predecessors. Upon the +death of Rattazzi in 1873, Depretis became leader of the Left, +prepared the advent of his party to power, and was called upon +to form the first cabinet of the Left in 1876. Overthrown by +Cairoli in March 1878 on the grist-tax question, he succeeded, +in the following December, in defeating Cairoli, became again +premier, but on the 3rd of July 1879 was once more overturned +by Cairoli. In November 1879 he, however, entered the Cairoli +cabinet as minister of the interior, and in May 1881 succeeded to +the premiership, retaining that office until his death on the 29th of +July 1887. During the long interval he recomposed his cabinet +four times, first throwing out Zanardelli and Baccarini in order +to please the Right, and subsequently bestowing portfolios upon +Ricotti, Robilant and other Conservatives, so as to complete the +political process known as “trasformismo.” A few weeks before +his death he repented of his transformist policy, and again included +Crispi and Zanardelli in his cabinet. During his long term +of office he abolished the grist tax, extended the suffrage, completed +the railway system, aided Mancini in forming the Triple +Alliance, and initiated colonial policy by the occupation of +Massawa; but, at the same time, he vastly increased indirect +taxation, corrupted and destroyed the fibre of parliamentary +parties, and, by extravagance in public works, impaired the +stability of Italian finance.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEPTFORD,</span> a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, +England, bounded N. by Bermondsey, E. by the river Thames +and Greenwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Camberwell. Pop. +(1901) 110,398. The name is connected with a ford over the +Ravensbourne, a stream entering the Thames through Deptford +Creek. The borough comprises only the parish of Deptford +St Paul, that of Deptford St Nicholas being included in the +borough of Greenwich. Deptford is a district of poor streets, +inhabited by a large industrial population, employed in engineering +and other riverside works. On the river front, extending +into the borough of Greenwich, are the royal victualling yard +and the site of the old Deptford dockyard. The first supplies the +navy with provisions, medicines, furniture, &c., manufactured or +stored in the large warehouses here. The dockyard ceased to be +used in 1869, and was filled up and converted into a foreign cattle +market by the City Corporation. Of public buildings the most +noteworthy are St Paul’s church (1730), of classic design; the +municipal buildings; and the hospital for master mariners, +maintained by the corporation of the Trinity House, which was +founded at Deptford, the old hall being pulled down in 1787. +Other institutions are the Goldsmiths’ Polytechnic Institute, +New Cross; and the South-eastern fever hospital. A mansion +known as Sayes Court, taken down in 1729, was the residence of +the duke of Sussex in the reign of Elizabeth; it was occupied in +the following century by John Evelyn, author of <i>Sylva</i>, and by +Peter the Great during his residence in England in 1698. The +site of its gardens is occupied by Deptford Park of 11 acres. +Another open space is Telegraph Hill (9½ acres). The parliamentary +borough of Deptford returns one member. The borough +council consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 36 councillors. +Area, 1562.7 acres.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEPUTY</span> (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of <i>deputare</i>, to +cut off, allot; <i>putare</i> having the original sense of to trim, prune), +one appointed to act or govern instead of another; one who +exercises an office in another man’s right, a substitute; in +representative government a member of an elected chamber. In +general, the powers and duties of a deputy are those of his +principal (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Representation</a></span>), but the extent to which he +may exercise them is dependent upon the power delegated to him. +He may be authorized to exercise the whole of his principal’s +office, in which case he is a general deputy, or to act only in +some particular matter or service, when he is termed a special +deputy. In the United Kingdom various officials are specifically +empowered by statute to appoint deputies to act for them +under certain circumstances. Thus a clerk of the peace, in case +of illness, incapacity or absence, may appoint a fit person to act +as his deputy. While judges of the supreme court cannot act by +deputy, county court judges and recorders can, in cases of illness +or unavoidable absence, appoint deputies. So can registrars of +county courts and returning officers at elections.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DE QUINCEY, THOMAS</span> (1785-1859), English author, was born +at Greenheys, Manchester, on the 15th of August 1785. He was +the fifth child in a family of eight (four sons and four daughters). +His father, descended from a Norman family, was a merchant, +who left his wife and six children a clear income of £1600 a +year. Thomas was from infancy a shy, sensitive child, with a +constitutional tendency to dreaming by night and by day; and, +under the influence of an elder brother, a lad “whose genius for +mischief amounted to inspiration,” who died in his sixteenth year, +he spent much of his boyhood in imaginary worlds of their own +creating. The amusements and occupations of the whole family, +indeed, seem to have been mainly intellectual; and in De +Quincey’s case, emphatically, “the child was father to the man.” +“My life has been,” he affirms in the <i>Confessions</i>, “on the whole +the life of a philosopher; from my birth I was made an intellectual +creature, and intellectual in the highest sense my pursuits and +pleasures have been.” From boyhood he was more or less in +contact with a polished circle; his education, easy to one of +such native aptitude, was sedulously attended to. When he +was in his twelfth year the family removed to Bath, where he was +sent to the grammar school, at which he remained for about two +years; and for a year more he attended another public school at +Winkfield, Wiltshire. At thirteen he wrote Greek with ease; at +fifteen he not only composed Greek verses in lyric measures, but +could converse in Greek fluently and without embarrassment; one +of his masters said of him, “that boy could harangue an Athenian +mob better than you or I could address an English one.” +Towards the close of his fifteenth year he visited Ireland, with +a companion of his own age, Lord Westport, the son of Lord +Altamont, an Irish peer, and spent there in residence and travel +some months of the summer and autumn of the year 1800,—being +a spectator at Dublin of “the final ratification of the +bill which united Ireland to Great Britain.” On his return +to England, his mother having now settled at St John’s +Priory, a residence near Chester, De Quincey was sent +to the Manchester grammar school, mainly in the hope of +securing one of the school exhibitions to help his expenses at +Oxford.</p> + +<p>Discontented with the mode in which his guardians conducted +his education, and with some view apparently of forcing them to +send him earlier to college, he left this school after less than +a year’s residence—ran away, in short, to his mother’s house. +There his mother’s brother, Colonel Thomas Penson, made an +arrangement for him to have a weekly allowance, on which he +might reside at some country place in Wales, and pursue his +studies, presumably till he could go to college. From Wales, +however, after brief trial, “suffering grievously from want of +books,” he went off as he had done from school, and hid himself +from guardians and friends in the world of London. And now, as +he says, commenced “that episode, or impassioned parenthesis +of my life, which is comprehended in <i>The Confessions of an +English Opium Eater</i>.” This London episode extended over a +year or more; his money soon vanished, and he was in the +utmost poverty; he obtained shelter for the night in Greek +Street, Soho, from a moneylender’s agent, and spent his days +wandering in the streets and parks; finally the lad was reconciled +to his guardians, and in 1803 was sent to Worcester College, +Oxford, being by this time about nineteen. It was in the course +of his second year at Oxford that he first tasted opium,—having +taken it to allay neuralgic pains. De Quincey’s mother had +settled at Weston Lea, near Bath, and on one of his visits +to Bath, De Quincey made the acquaintance of Coleridge; he +took Mrs Coleridge to Grasmere, where he became personally +acquainted with Wordsworth.</p> + +<p>After finishing his career of five years at college in 1808 he +kept terms at the Middle Temple; but in 1809 visited the +Wordsworths at Grasmere, and in the autumn returned to +Dove Cottage, which he had taken on a lease. His choice was +of course influenced partly by neighbourhood to Wordsworth, +whom he early appreciated;—having been, he says, the only man +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62"></a>62</span> +in all Europe who quoted Wordsworth so early as 1802. His +friendship with Wordsworth decreased within a few years, and +when in 1834 De Quincey published in <i>Tait’s Magazine</i> his +reminiscences of the Grasmere circle, the indiscreet references to +the Wordsworths contained in the article led to a complete +cessation of intercourse. Here also he enjoyed the society and +friendship of Coleridge, Southey and especially of Professor +Wilson, as in London he had of Charles Lamb and his circle. He +continued his classical and other studies, especially exploring the +at that time almost unknown region of German literature, and +indicating its riches to English readers. Here also, in 1816, he +married Margaret Simpson, the “dear M——” of whom a +charming glimpse is accorded to the reader of the <i>Confessions</i>; +his family came to be five sons and three daughters.</p> + +<p>For about a year and a half he edited the <i>Westmoreland Gazette</i>. +He left Grasmere for London in the early part of 1820. The +Lambs received him with great kindness and introduced him to +the proprietors of the <i>London Magazine</i>. It was in this journal +in 1821 that the <i>Confessions</i> appeared. De Quincey also contributed +to <i>Blackwood</i>, to <i>Knight’s Quarterly Magazine</i>, and later +to <i>Tait’s Magazine</i>. His connexion with <i>Blackwood</i> took him to +Edinburgh in 1828, and he lived there for twelve years, contributing +from time to time to the <i>Edinburgh Literary Gazette</i>. His +wife died in 1837, and the family eventually settled at Lasswade, +but from this time De Quincey spent his time in lodgings in +various places, staying at one place until the accumulation of +papers filled the rooms, when he left them in charge of the +landlady and wandered elsewhere. After his wife’s death he gave +way for the fourth time in his life to the opium habit, but in 1844 +he reduced his daily quantity by a tremendous effort to six +grains, and never again yielded. He died in Edinburgh on the +8th of December 1859, and is buried in the West Churchyard.</p> + +<p>During nearly fifty years De Quincey lived mainly by his pen. +His patrimony seems never to have been entirely exhausted, +and his habits and tastes were simple and inexpensive; but he +was reckless in the use of money, and had debts and pecuniary +difficulties of all sorts. There was, indeed, his associates affirm, +an element of romance even in his impecuniosity, as there was in +everything about him; and the diplomatic and other devices +by which he contrived to keep clear of clamant creditors, while +scrupulously fulfilling many obligations, often disarmed animosity, +and converted annoyance into amusement. The famous +<i>Confessions of an English Opium Eater</i> was published in a small +volume in 1822, and attracted a very remarkable degree of +attention, not simply by its personal disclosures, but by the +extraordinary power of its dream-painting. No other literary +man of his time, it has been remarked, achieved so high and +universal a reputation from such merely fugitive efforts. The +only works published separately (not in periodicals) were a novel, +<i>Klosterheim</i> (1832), and <i>The Logic of Political Economy</i> (1844). +After his works were brought together, De Quincey’s reputation +was not merely maintained, but extended. For range of thought +and topic, within the limits of pure literature, no like amount of +material of such equality of merit proceeded from any eminent +writer of the day. However profuse and discursive, De Quincey +is always polished, and generally exact—a scholar, a wit, a man of +the world and a philosopher, as well as a genius. He looked upon +letters as a noble and responsible calling; in his essay on Oliver +Goldsmith he claims for literature the rank not only of a fine art, +but of the highest and most potent of fine arts; and as such he +himself regarded and practised it. He drew a broad distinction +between “the literature of <i>knowledge</i> and the literature of <i>power</i>,” +asserting that the function of the first is to <i>teach</i>, the function of +the second to <i>move</i>,—maintaining that the meanest of authors +who moves has pre-eminence over all who merely teach, that +the literature of knowledge must perish by supersession, while the +literature of power is “triumphant for ever as long as the language +exists in which it speaks.” It is to this class of motive literature +that De Quincey’s own works essentially belong; it is by virtue +of that vital element of power that they have emerged from the +rapid oblivion of periodicalism, and live in the minds of later +generations. But their power is weakened by their volume.</p> + +<p>De Quincey fully defined his own position and claim to distinction +in the preface to his collected works. These he divides +into three classes:—“<i>first</i>, that class which proposes primarily +to amuse the reader,” such as the <i>Narratives, Autobiographic +Sketches</i>, &c.; “<i>second</i>, papers which address themselves purely +to the understanding as an insulated faculty, or do so primarily,” +such as the essays on Essenism, the Caesars, Cicero, &c.; and +finally, as a <i>third</i> class, “and, in virtue of their aim, as a far +higher class of compositions,” he ranks those “modes of impassioned +prose ranging under no precedents that I am aware +of in any literature,” such as the <i>Confessions</i> and <i>Suspiria de +Profundis</i>. The high claim here asserted has been questioned; +and short and isolated examples of eloquent apostrophe, and +highly wrought imaginative description, have been cited from +Rousseau and other masters of style; but De Quincey’s power +of sustaining a fascinating and elevated strain of “impassioned +prose” is allowed to be entirely his own. Nor, in regard to his +writings as a whole, will a minor general claim which he makes be +disallowed, namely, that he “does not write without a thoughtful +consideration of his subject,” and also with novelty and freshness +of view. “Generally,” he says, “I claim (not arrogantly, but +with firmness) the merit of rectification applied to absolute errors, +or to injurious limitations of the truth.” Another obvious +quality of all his genius is its overflowing fulness of allusion and +illustration, recalling his own description of a great philosopher +or scholar—“Not one who depends simply on an infinite memory, +but also on an infinite and electrical power of combination, +bringing together from the four winds, like the angel of the +resurrection, what else were dust from dead men’s bones into the +unity of breathing life.” It is useless to complain of his having +lavished and diffused his talents and acquirements over so vast +a variety of often comparatively trivial and passing topics. +The world must accept gifts from men of genius as they offer +them; circumstance and the hour often rule their form. Those +influences, no less than the idiosyncrasy of the man, determined +De Quincey to the illumination of such matter for speculation +as seemed to lie before him; he was not careful to search out +recondite or occult themes, though these he did not neglect,—a +student, a scholar and a recluse, he was yet at the same time a +man of the world, keenly interested in the movements of men and +in the page of history that unrolled itself before him day by day. +To the discussion of things new, as readily as of things old, aided +by a capacious, retentive and ready memory, which dispensed +with reference to printed pages, he brought also the exquisite +keenness and subtlety of his highly analytic and imaginative +intellect, the illustrative stores of his vast and varied erudition, +and that large infusion of common sense which preserved him +from becoming at any time a mere <i>doctrinaire</i>, or visionary. If +he did not throw himself into any of the great popular controversies +or agitations of the day, it was not from any want of +sympathy with the struggles of humanity or the progress of +the race, but rather because his vocation was to apply to such +incidents of his own time, as to like incidents of all history, great +philosophical principles and tests of truth and power. In politics, +in the party sense of that term, he would probably have been +classed as a Liberal Conservative or Conservative Liberal—at +one period of his life perhaps the former, and at a later the latter. +Originally, as we have seen, his surroundings were aristocratic, +in his middle life his associates, notably Wordsworth, Southey +and Wilson, were all Tories; but he seems never to have held the +extreme and narrow views of that circle. Though a flavour of +high breeding runs through his writings, he has no vulgar sneers +at the vulgar. As he advanced in years his views became more +and more decidedly liberal, but he was always as far removed +from Radicalism as from Toryism, and may be described as a +philosophical politician, capable of classification under no definite +party name or colour. Of political economy he had been an +early and earnest student, and projected, if he did not so far +proceed with, an elaborate and systematic treatise on the science, +of which all that appears, however, are his fragmentary <i>Dialogues</i> +on the system of Ricardo, published in the <i>London Magazine</i> in +1824, and <i>The Logic of Political Economy</i> (1844). But political +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63"></a>63</span> +and economic problems largely exercised his thoughts, and his +historical sketches show that he is constantly alive to their +interpenetrating influence. The same may be said of his biographies, +notably of his remarkable sketch of Dr Parr. Neither +politics nor economics, however, exercised an absorbing influence +on his mind,—they were simply provinces in the vast domain of +universal speculation through which he ranged “with unconfined +wings.” How wide and varied was the region he traversed a +glance at the titles of the papers which make up his collected—or +more properly, selected—works (for there was much matter +of evanescent interest not reprinted) sufficiently shows. Some +things in his own line he has done perfectly; he has written +many pages of magnificently mixed argument, irony, humour +and eloquence, which, for sustained brilliancy, richness, subtle +force and purity of style and effect, have simply no parallels; +and he is without peer the prince of dreamers. The use of opium +no doubt stimulated this remarkable faculty of reproducing in +skilfully selected phrase the grotesque and shifting forms of that +“cloudland, gorgeous land,” which opens to the sleep-closed eye.</p> + +<p>To the appreciation of De Quincey the reader must bring an +imaginative faculty somewhat akin to his own—a certain general +culture, and large knowledge of books, and men and things. +Otherwise much of that slight and delicate allusion that gives +point and colour and charm to his writings will be missed; and +on this account the full enjoyment and comprehension of De +Quincey must always remain a luxury of the literary and intellectual. +But his skill in narration, his rare pathos, his wide +sympathies, the pomp of his dream-descriptions, the exquisite +playfulness of his lighter dissertations, and his abounding +though delicate and subtle humour, commend him to a larger +class. Though far from being a professed humorist—a character +he would have shrunk from—there is no more expert +worker in a sort of half-veiled and elaborate humour and +irony than De Quincey; but he employs those resources for +the most part secondarily. Only in one instance has he given +himself up to them unreservedly and of set purpose, +namely, in the famous “Essay on Murder considered as one +of the Fine Arts,” published in <i>Blackwood</i>,—an effort which, +admired and admirable though it be, is also, it must be +allowed, somewhat strained. His style, full and flexible, pure +and polished, is peculiarly his own; yet it is not the style of a +mannerist,—its charm is, so to speak, latent; the form never +obtrudes; the secret is only discoverable by analysis and study. +It consists simply in the reader’s assurance of the writer’s +complete mastery over all the infinite applicability and resources +of the English language. Hence involutions and parentheses, +“cycle on epicycle,” evolve themselves into a stately clearness +and harmony; and sentences and paragraphs, loaded with +suggestion, roll on smoothly and musically, without either +fatiguing or cloying—rather, indeed, to the surprise as well as +delight of the reader; for De Quincey is always ready to indulge +in feats of style, witching the world with that sort of noble +horsemanship which is as graceful as it is daring.</p> + +<p>It has been complained that, in spite of the apparently full +confidences of the <i>Confessions</i> and <i>Autobiographic Sketches</i>, +readers are left in comparative ignorance, biographically speaking, +of the man De Quincey. Two passages in his <i>Confessions</i> afford +sufficient clues to this mystery. In one he describes himself +“as framed for love and all gentle affections,” and in another +confesses to the “besetting infirmity” of being “too much of an +eudaemonist.” “I hanker,” he says, “too much after a state of +happiness, both for myself and others; I cannot face misery, +whether my own or not, with an eye of sufficient firmness, and +am little capable of surmounting present pain for the sake of +any recessionary benefit.” His sensitive disposition dictated the +ignoring in his writings of traits merely personal to himself, as +well as his ever-recurrent resort to opium as a doorway of escape +from present ill; and prompted those habits of seclusion, and +that apparently capricious abstraction of himself from the society +not only of his friends, but of his own family, in which he from +time to time persisted. He confessed to occasional accesses of +an almost irresistible impulse to flee to the labyrinthine shelter +of some great city like London or Paris,—there to dwell solitary +amid a multitude, buried by day in the cloister-like recesses of +mighty libraries, and stealing away by night to some obscure +lodging. Long indulgence in seclusion, and in habits of study the +most lawless possible in respect of regular hours or any considerations +of health or comfort,—the habit of working as pleased +himself without regard to the divisions of night or day, of times +of sleeping or waking, even of the slow procession of the seasons, +had latterly so disinclined him to the restraints, however slight, +of ordinary social intercourse, that he very seldom submitted +to them. On such rare occasions, however, as he did appear, +perhaps at some simple meal with a favoured friend, or in later +years in his own small but refined domestic circle, he was the most +charming of guests, hosts or companions. A short and fragile, +but well-proportioned frame; a shapely and compact head; a +face beaming with intellectual light, with rare, almost feminine +beauty of feature and complexion; a fascinating courtesy of +manner; and a fulness, swiftness and elegance of silvery +speech,—such was the irresistible “mortal mixture of earth’s +mould” that men named De Quincey. He possessed in a high +degree what James Russell Lowell called “the grace of perfect +breeding, everywhere persuasive, and nowhere emphatic”; and +his whole aspect and manner exercised an undefinable attraction +over every one, gentle or simple, who came within its influence; +for shy as he was, he was never rudely shy, making good his +boast that he had always made it his “pride to converse familiarly +<i>more socratico</i> with all human beings—man, woman and child”—looking +on himself as a catholic creature standing in an equal +relation to high and low, to educated and uneducated. He would +converse with a peasant lad or a servant girl in phrase as choice, +and sentences as sweetly turned, as if his interlocutor were his +equal both in position and intelligence; yet without a suspicion +of pedantry, and with such complete adaptation of style and topic +that his talk charmed the humblest as it did the highest that +listened to it. His conversation was not a monologue; if he had +the larger share, it was simply because his hearers were only too +glad that it should be so; he would listen with something like +deference to very ordinary talk, as if the mere fact of the speaker +being one of the same company entitled him to all consideration +and respect. The natural bent of his mind and disposition, and +his lifelong devotion to letters, to say nothing of his opium +eating, rendered him, it must be allowed, regardless of ordinary +obligations in life—domestic and pecuniary—to a degree that +would have been culpable in any less singularly constituted +mind. It was impossible to deal with or judge De Quincey +by ordinary standards—not even his publishers did so. Much +no doubt was forgiven him, but all that needed forgiveness +is covered by the kindly veil of time, while his merits as a master +in English literature are still gratefully acknowledged.<a name="FnAnchor_1i" href="#Footnote_1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>[<span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—In 1853 De Quincey began to prepare an edition +of his works, <i>Selections Grave and Gay</i>. <i>Writings Published and Unpublished</i> +(14 vols., Edinburgh, 1853-1860), followed by a second +edition (1863-1871) with notes by James Hogg and two additional +volumes; a further supplementary volume appeared in 1878. The +first comprehensive edition, however, was printed in America +(Boston, 20 vols., 1850-1855); and the “Riverside” edition +(Boston and New York, 12 vols., 1877) is still fuller. The standard +English edition is <i>The Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey</i> (14 +vols., Edinburgh, 1889-1890), edited by David Masson, who also wrote +his biography (1881) for the “English Men of Letters” series. The +<i>Uncollected Writings of Thomas De Quincey</i> (London, 2 vols., 1890) +contains a preface and annotations by James Hogg; <i>The Posthumous +Writings of Thomas De Quincey</i> (2 vols., 1891-1893) were edited by +A. H. Japp (“H. A. Page”), who wrote the standard biography, +<i>Thomas De Quincey: his Life and Writings</i> (London, 2 vols., 2nd ed., +1879), and <i>De Quincey Memorials</i> (2 vols., 1891). See also Arvède +Barine, <i>Neurosés</i> (Paris, 1898); Sir L. Stephen, <i>Hours in a Library</i>; +H. S. Salt, <i>De Quincey</i> (1904); and <i>De Quincey and his Friends</i> (1895), +a collection edited by James Hogg, which includes essays by Dr Hill +Burton and Shadworth Hodgson.]</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. R. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1i" href="#FnAnchor_1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The above account has been corrected and amplified in some +statements of fact for this edition. Its original author, John Ritchie +Findlay (1824-1898), proprietor of <i>The Scotsman</i> newspaper, and the +donor of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, had +been intimate with De Quincey, and in 1886 published his <i>Personal +Recollections</i> of him.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>64</p> + +<p><span class="bold">DERA GHAZI KHAN,</span> a town and district of British India, +in the Punjab. In 1901 the town had a population of 21,700. +There are several handsome mosques in the native quarter. It +commands the direct approaches to the Baluch highlands by +Sakki Sarwar and Fort Monro. For many years past both the +town and cantonment have been threatened by the erosion of +the river Indus. The town was founded at the close of the 15th +century and named after Ghazi Khan, son of Haji Khan, a +Baluch chieftain, who after holding the country for the Langah +sultans of Multan had made himself independent. Together +with the two other <i>deras</i> (settlements), Dera Ismail Khan and +Dera Fateh Khan, it gave its name to the territorial area locally +and historically known as Derajat, which after many vicissitudes +came into the possession of the British after the Sikh War, in 1849, +and was divided into the two districts of Dera Ghazi Khan and +Dera Ismail Khan.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Dera Ghazi Khan</span> contains an area of +5306 sq. m. The district is a long narrow strip of country, +198 m. in length, sloping gradually from the hills which form +its western boundary to the river Indus on the east. Below +the hills the country is high and arid, generally level, but sometimes +rolling in sandy undulations, and much intersected by hill +torrents, 201 in number. With the exceptions of two, these +streams dry up after the rains, and their influence is only felt for +a few miles below the hills. The eastern portion of the district is +at a level sufficiently low to benefit by the floods of the Indus. A +barren tract intervenes between these zones, and is beyond the +reach of the hill streams on the one hand and of the Indus on the +other. Although liable to great extremes of temperature, and +to a very scanty rainfall, the district is not unhealthy. The +population in 1901 was 471,149, the great majority being Baluch +Mahommedans. The principal exports are wheat and indigo. +The only manufactures are for domestic use. There is no railway +in the district, and only 29 m. of metalled road. The Indus, +which is nowhere bridged within the district, is navigable by +native boats. The geographical boundary between the Pathan +and Baluch races in the hills nearly corresponds with the northern +limit of the district. The frontier tribes on the Dera Ghazi Khan +border include the Kasranis, Bozdars, Khosas, Lagharis, +Khetvans, Gurchanis, Mazaris, Mariris and Bugtis. The chief +of these are described under their separate names.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERA ISMAIL KHAN,</span> a town and district in the Derajat +division of the North-West Frontier Province of India. The town +is situated near the right bank of the Indus, which is here crossed +by a bridge of boats during half the year. In 1901 it had a +population of 31,737. It takes its name from Ismail Khan, a +Baluch chief who settled here towards the end of the 15th century, +and whose descendants ruled for 300 years. The old town was +swept away by a flood in 1823, and the present town stands 4 m. +back from the permanent channel of the river. The native quarters +are well laid out, with a large bazaar for Afghan traders. It is the +residence of many Mahommedan gentry. The cantonment accommodates +about a brigade of troops. There is considerable through +trade with Afghanistan by the Gomal Pass, and there are local +manufactures of cotton cloth scarves and inlaid wood-work.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Dera Ismail Khan</span> contains an area of 3403 +sq. m. It was formerly divided into two almost equal portions +by the Indus, which intersected it from north to south. To the +west of the Indus the characteristics of the country resemble +those of Dera Ghazi Khan. To the east of the present bed of the +river there is a wide tract known as the <i>Kachi</i>, exposed to river +action. Beyond this, the country rises abruptly, and a barren, +almost desert plain stretches eastwards, sparsely cultivated, and +inhabited only by nomadic tribes of herdsmen. In 1901 the +trans-Indus tract was allotted to the newly formed North-West +Frontier Province, the cis-Indus tract remaining in the Punjab +jurisdiction. The cis-Indus portions of the Dera Ismail Khan +and Bannu districts now comprise the new Punjab district of +Mianiwali. In 1901 the population was 252,379, chiefly Pathan +and Baluch Mahommedans. Wheat and wool are exported.</p> + +<p>The Indus is navigable by native boats throughout its course +of 120 m. within the district, which is the borderland of Pathan +and Baluch tribes, the Pathan element predominating. The chief +frontier tribes are the Sheranis and Ustaranas.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERBENT,</span> or <span class="sc">Derbend</span>, a town of Russia, Caucasia, in the +province of Daghestan, on the western shore of the Caspian, +153 m. by rail N.W. of Baku, in 42° 4′ N. and 48° 15′ E. Pop. +(1873) 15,739; (1897) 14,821. It occupies a narrow strip of +land beside the sea, from which it climbs up the steep heights +inland to the citadel of Naryn-kaleh, and is on all sides except +towards the east surrounded by walls built of porous limestone. +Its general aspect is Oriental, owing to the flat roofs of its two-storeyed +houses and its numerous mosques. The environs are +occupied by vineyards, gardens and orchards, in which madder, +saffron and tobacco, as well as figs, peaches, pears and other +fruits, are cultivated. Earthenware, weapons and silk and cotton +fabrics are the principal products of the manufacturing industry. +To the north of the town is the monument of the <i>Kirk-lar</i>, or +“forty heroes,” who fell defending Daghestan against the Arabs +in 728; and to the south lies the seaward extremity of the +Caucasian wall (50 m. long), otherwise known as Alexander’s +wall, blocking the narrow pass of the Iron Gate or Caspian Gates +(<i>Portae Albanae</i> or <i>Portae Caspiae</i>). This, when entire, had a +height of 29 ft. and a thickness of about 10 ft., and with its iron +gates and numerous watch-towers formed a valuable defence of +the Persian frontier. Derbent is usually identified with Albana, +the capital of the ancient Albania. The modern name, a Persian +word meaning “iron gates,” came into use in the end of the 5th +or the beginning of the 6th century, when the city was refounded +by Kavadh of the Sassanian dynasty of Persia. The walls and +the citadel are believed to belong to the time of Kavadh’s son, +Khosrau (Chosroes) Anosharvan. In 728 the Arabs entered into +possession, and established a principality in the city, which they +called Bab-el-Abwab (“the principal gate”), Bab-el-Khadid +(“the iron gate”), and Seraill-el-Dagab (“the golden throne”). +The celebrated caliph, Harun-al-Rashid, lived in Derbent at +different times, and brought it into great repute as a seat of the +arts and commerce. In 1220 it was captured by the Mongols, +and in the course of the succeeding centuries it frequently changed +masters. In 1722 Peter the Great of Russia wrested the town +from the Persians, but in 1736 the supremacy of Nadir Shah was +again recognized. In 1796 Derbent was besieged by the Russians, +and in 1813 incorporated with the Russian empire.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERBY, EARLS OF.</span> The 1st earl of Derby was probably +Robert de Ferrers (d. 1139), who is said by John of Hexham to +have been made an earl by King Stephen after the battle of +the Standard in 1138. Robert and his descendants retained +the earldom until 1266, when Robert (c. 1240-c. 1279), probably +the 6th earl, having taken a prominent part in the baronial +rising against Henry III., was deprived of his lands and practically +of his title. These earlier earls of Derby were also known +as Earls Ferrers, or de Ferrers, from their surname; as earls +of Tutbury from their residence; and as earls of Nottingham +because this county was a lordship under their rule. The large +estates which were taken from Earl Robert in 1266 were given +by Henry III. in the same year to his son, Edmund, earl of +Lancaster; and Edmund’s son, Thomas, earl of Lancaster, +called himself Earl Ferrers. In 1337 Edmund’s grandson, +Henry (c. 1299-1361), afterwards duke of Lancaster, was created +earl of Derby, and this title was taken by Edward III.’s son, +John of Gaunt, who had married Henry’s daughter, Blanche. +John of Gaunt’s son and successor was Henry, earl of Derby, +who became king as Henry IV. in 1399.</p> + +<p>In October 1485 Thomas, Lord Stanley, was created earl of +Derby, and the title has since been retained by the Stanleys, +who, however, have little or no connexion with the county +of Derby. Thomas also inherited the sovereign lordship of the +Isle of Man, which had been granted by the crown in 1406 to +his great-grandfather, Sir John Stanley; and this sovereignty +remained in possession of the earls of Derby till 1736, when it +passed to the duke of Atholl.</p> + +<p>The earl of Derby is one of the three “catskin earls,” the others +being the earls of Shrewsbury and Huntingdon. The term +“catskin” is possibly a corruption of <i>quatre-skin</i>, derived from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>65</span> +the fact that in ancient times the robes of an earl (as depicted +in some early representations) were decorated with four rows of +ermine, as in the robes of a modern duke, instead of the three +rows to which they were restricted in later centuries. The three +“catskin” earldoms are the only earldoms now in existence which +date from creations prior to the 17th century.</p> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Thomas Stanley</span>, 1st earl of Derby (c. 1435-1504), was +the son of Thomas Stanley, who was created Baron Stanley in +1456 and died in 1459. His grandfather, Sir John Stanley +(d. 1414), had founded the fortunes of his family by marrying +Isabel Lathom, the heiress of a great estate in the hundred of West +Derby in Lancashire; he was lieutenant of Ireland in 1389-1391, +and again in 1399-1401, and in 1405 received a grant of the +lordship of Man from Henry IV. The future earl of Derby was +a squire to Henry VI. in 1454, but not long afterwards married +Eleanor, daughter of the Yorkist leader, Richard Neville, earl of +Salisbury. At the battle of Blore Heath in August 1459 Stanley, +though close at hand with a large force, did not join the royal +army, whilst his brother William fought openly for York. In +1461 Stanley was made chief justice of Cheshire by Edward IV., +but ten years later he sided with his brother-in-law Warwick in +the Lancastrian restoration. Nevertheless, after Warwick’s fall, +Edward made Stanley steward of his household. Stanley served +with the king in the French expedition of 1475, and with Richard +of Gloucester in Scotland in 1482. About the latter date he +married, as his second wife, Margaret Beaufort, mother of the +exiled Henry Tudor. Stanley was one of the executors of +Edward IV., and was at first loyal to the young king Edward V. +But he acquiesced in Richard’s usurpation, and retaining his +office as steward avoided any entanglement through his wife’s +share in Buckingham’s rebellion. He was made constable of +England in succession to Buckingham, and granted possession of +his wife’s estates with a charge to keep her in some secret place at +home. Richard could not well afford to quarrel with so powerful +a noble, but early in 1485 Stanley asked leave to retire to his +estates in Lancashire. In the summer Richard, suspicious of his +continued absence, required him to send his eldest son, Lord +Strange, to court as a hostage. After Henry of Richmond had +landed, Stanley made excuses for not joining the king; for his +son’s sake he was obliged to temporize, even when his brother +William had been publicly proclaimed a traitor. Both the +Stanleys took the field; but whilst William was in treaty +with Richmond, Thomas professedly supported Richard. On +the morning of Bosworth (August 22), Richard summoned +Stanley to join him, and when he received an evasive reply +ordered Strange to be executed. In the battle it was William +Stanley who turned the scale in Henry’s favour, but Thomas, +who had taken no part in the fighting, was the first to salute the +new king. Henry VII. confirmed Stanley in all his offices, and on +the 27th of October created him earl of Derby. As husband of +the king’s mother Derby held a great position, which was not +affected by the treason of his brother William in February 1495. +In the following July the earl entertained the king and queen +with much state at Knowsley. Derby died on the 29th of July +1504. Strange had escaped execution in 1485, through neglect to +obey Richard’s orders; but he died before his father in 1497, and +his son Thomas succeeded as second earl. An old poem called +<i>The Song of the Lady Bessy</i>, which was written by a retainer of +the Stanleys, gives a romantic story of how Derby was enlisted +by Elizabeth of York in the cause of his wife’s son.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>For fuller narratives see J. Gairdner’s <i>Richard III.</i> and J. H. +Ramsay’s <i>Lancaster and York</i>; also Seacome’s <i>Memoirs of the +House of Stanley</i> (1741).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Edward Stanley</span>, 3rd earl of Derby (1508-1572), was a +son of Thomas Stanley, 2nd earl and grandson of the 1st earl, +and succeeded to the earldom on his father’s death in May 1521. +During his minority Cardinal Wolsey was his guardian, and as +soon as he came of age he began to take part in public life, being +often in the company of Henry VIII. He helped to quell the +rising in the north of England known as the Pilgrimage of Grace +in 1536; but remaining true to the Roman Catholic faith he +disliked and opposed the religious changes made under Edward +VI. During Mary’s reign the earl was more at ease, but under +Elizabeth his younger sons, Sir Thomas (d. 1576) and Sir Edward +Stanley (d. 1609), were concerned in a plot to free Mary, queen of +Scots, and he himself was suspected of disloyalty. However, he +kept his numerous dignities until his death at Lathom House, +near Ormskirk, on the 24th of October 1572.</p> + +<p>Derby’s first wife was Katherine, daughter of Thomas Howard, +duke of Norfolk, by whom he had, with other issue, a son Henry, +the 4th earl (c. 1531-1593), who was a member of the council of +the North, and like his father was lord-lieutenant of Lancashire. +Henry was one of the commissioners who tried Mary, queen of +Scots, and was employed by Elizabeth on other high undertakings +both at home and abroad. He died on the 25th of +September 1593. His wife Margaret (d. 1596), daughter of +Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, was descended through +the Brandons from King Henry VII. Two of his sons, Ferdinando +(c. 1559-1594), and William (c. 1561-1642), became in turn the +5th and 6th earls of Derby. Ferdinando, the 5th earl (d. 1594), +wrote verses, and is eulogized by the poet Spenser under the name +of Amyntas.</p> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">James Stanley</span>, 7th earl of Derby (1607-1651), sometimes +styled the Great Earl of Derby, eldest son of William, 6th +earl, and Elizabeth de Vere, daughter of Edward, 17th earl of +Oxford, was born at Knowsley on the 31st of January 1607. +During his father’s life he was known as Lord Strange. After +travelling abroad he was chosen member of parliament for +Liverpool in 1625, was created knight of the Bath on the occasion +of Charles’s coronation in 1626, and was joined with his father +the same year as lieutenant of Lancashire and Cheshire and +chamberlain of Chester, and in the administration of the Isle of +Man, being appointed subsequently lord-lieutenant of North +Wales. On the 7th of March 1628 he was called up to the House +of Lords as Baron Strange. He took no part in the political +disputes between king and parliament and preferred country +pursuits and the care of his estates to court or public life. Nevertheless +when the Civil War broke out in 1642, Lord Strange +devoted himself to the king’s cause. His plan of securing +Lancashire at the beginning and raising troops there, which +promised success, was however discouraged by Charles, who was +said to be jealous of his power and royal lineage and who commanded +his presence at Nottingham. His subsequent attempts +to recover the county were unsuccessful. He was unable to get +possession of Manchester, was defeated at Chowbent and Lowton +Moor, and in 1643 after gaining Preston failed to take Bolton and +Lancaster castles. Finally, after successfully beating off Sir +William Brereton’s attack on Warrington, he was defeated at +Whalley and withdrew to York, Warrington in consequence +surrendering to the enemy’s forces. In June he left for the Isle +of Man to attend to affairs there, and in the summer of 1644 he +took part in Prince Rupert’s successful campaign in the north, +when Lathom House, where Lady Derby had heroically resisted +the attacks of the besiegers, was relieved, and Bolton Castle +taken. He followed Rupert to Marston Moor, and after the +complete defeat of Charles’s cause in the north withdrew to the +Isle of Man, where he held out for the king and offered an asylum +to royalist fugitives. His administration of the island imitated +that of Strafford in Ireland. It was strong rather than just. He +maintained order, encouraged trade, remedied some abuses, and +defended the people from the exactions of the church; but he +crushed opposition by imprisoning his antagonists, and aroused a +prolonged agitation by abolishing the tenant-right and introducing +leaseholds. In July 1649 he refused scornfully terms offered +to him by Ireton. By the death of his father on the 29th of +September 1642 he had succeeded to the earldom, and on the +12th of January 1650 he obtained the Garter. He was chosen by +Charles II. to command the troops of Lancashire and Cheshire, +and on the 15th of August 1651 he landed at Wyre Water in +Lancashire in support of Charles’s invasion, and met the king +on the 17th. Proceeding to Warrington he failed to obtain +the support of the Presbyterians through his refusal to take the +Covenant, and on the 25th was totally defeated at Wigan, being +severely wounded and escaping with difficulty. He joined +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>66</span> +Charles at Worcester; after the battle on the 3rd of September +he accompanied him to Boscobel, and while on his way north +alone was captured near Nantwich and given quarter. He was +tried by court-martial at Chester on the 29th of September, and +on the ground that he was a traitor and not a prisoner of war +under the act of parliament passed in the preceding month, +which declared those who corresponded with Charles guilty of +treason, his quarter was disallowed and he was condemned to +death. When his appeal for pardon to parliament was rejected, +though supported by Cromwell, he endeavoured to escape; but +was recaptured and executed at Bolton on the 15th of October +1651. He was buried in Ormskirk church. Lord Derby was a +man of deep religious feeling and of great nobility of character, +who though unsuccessful in the field served the king’s cause with +single-minded purpose and without expectation of reward. His +political usefulness was handicapped in the later stages of the +struggle by his dislike of the Scots, whom he regarded as guilty +of the king’s death and as unfit instruments of the restoration. +According to Clarendon he was “a man of great honour and clear +courage,” and his defects the result of too little knowledge of +the world. Lord Derby left in MS. “A Discourse concerning the +Government of the Isle of Man” (printed in the <i>Stanley Papers</i> +and in F. Peck’s <i>Desiderata Curiosa</i>, vol. ii.) and several volumes +of historical collections, observations, devotions (<i>Stanley Papers</i>) +and a commonplace book. He married on the 26th of June 1626 +Charlotte de la Tremoille (1599-1664), daughter of Claude, duc +de Thouars, and grand-daughter of William the Silent, prince +of Orange, by whom besides four daughters he had five sons, of +whom the eldest, Charles (1628-1672), succeeded him as 8th earl.</p> + +<p>Charles’s two sons, William, the 9th earl (c. 1655-1702), and +James, the 10th earl (1664-1736), both died without sons, and +consequently, when James died in February 1736, his titles and +estates passed to Sir Edward Stanley (1689-1776), a descendant +of the 1st earl. From him the later earls were descended, the +12th earl (d. 1834) being his grandson.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Article in <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> with authorities +and article in same work on Charlotte Stanley, countess of Derby; +the <i>Stanley Papers</i>, with the too laudatory memoir by F. R. Haines +(Chetham Soc. publications, vols. 62, 66, 67, 70); <i>Memoires</i>, by De +Lloyd (1668), 572; <i>State Trials</i>, v. 293-324; <i>Notes & Queries</i>, viii. +Ser. iii. 246; Seacombe’s <i>House of Stanley</i>; Clarendon’s <i>Hist. of +the Rebellion</i>; Gardiner’s <i>Hist. of the Civil War and Protectorate</i>; +<i>The Land of Home Rule</i>, by Spencer Walpole (1893); <i>Hist. of +the Isle of Man</i>, by A. W. Moore (1900); Manx Soc. publications, +vols. 3, 25, 27.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley</span>, 14th earl of Derby (1799-1869), +the “Rupert of Debate,” born at Knowsley in Lancashire +on the 29th of March 1799, grandson of the 12th earl and +eldest son of Lord Stanley, subsequently (1834) 13th earl of Derby +(1775-1851). He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, +Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a classical scholar, +though he took no degree. In 1819 he obtained the Chancellor’s +prize for Latin verse, the subject being “Syracuse.” He gave +early promise of his future eminence as an orator, and in his youth +he used to practise elocution under the instruction of Lady +Derby, his grandfather’s second wife, the actress, Elizabeth +Farren. In 1820 he was returned for Stockbridge in Hampshire, +one of the nomination boroughs whose electoral rights were +swept away by the Reform Bill of 1832, Stanley being a warm +advocate of their destruction.</p> + +<p>His maiden speech was delivered early in the session of 1824 in +the debate on a private bill for lighting Manchester with gas. On +the 6th of May 1824 he delivered a vehement and eloquent speech +against Joseph Hume’s motion for a reduction of the Irish Church +establishment, maintaining in its most conservative form the +doctrine that church property is as sacred as private property. +From this time his appearances became frequent; and he soon +asserted his place as one of the most powerful speakers in the +House. Specially noticeable almost from the first was the skill +he displayed in reply. Macaulay, in an essay published in 1834, +remarked that he seemed to possess intuitively the faculty which +in most men is developed only by long and laborious practice. In +the autumn of 1824 Stanley went on an extended tour through +Canada and the United States in company with Mr Labouchere, +afterwards Lord Taunton, and Mr Evelyn Denison, afterwards +Lord Ossington. In May of the following year he married the +second daughter of Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, created Baron +Skelmersdale in 1828, by whom he had a family of two sons +and one daughter who survived.</p> + +<p>At the general election of 1826 Stanley renounced his connection +with Stockbridge, and became the representative of the +borough of Preston, where the Derby influence was paramount. +The change of seats had this advantage, that it left him free to +speak against the system of rotten boroughs, which he did with +great force during the Reform Bill debates, without laying himself +open to the charge of personal inconsistency as the representative +of a place where, according to Gay, cobblers used to “feast three +years upon one vote.” In 1827 he and several other distinguished +Whigs made a coalition with Canning on the defection of the more +unyielding Tories, and he commenced his official life as under-secretary +for the colonies, but the coalition was broken up by +Canning’s death in August. Lord Goderich succeeded to the +premiership, but he never was really in power, and he resigned +his place after the lapse of a few months. During the succeeding +administration of the duke of Wellington (1828-1830), Stanley +and those with whom he acted were in opposition. His robust +and assertive Liberalism about this period seemed curious afterwards +to a younger generation who knew him only as the very +embodiment of Conservatism.</p> + +<p>By the advent of Lord Grey to power in November 1830, +Stanley obtained his first opportunity of showing his capacity for +a responsible office. He was appointed to the chief secretaryship +of Ireland, a position in which he found ample scope +for both administrative and debating skill. On accepting +office he had to vacate his seat for Preston and seek re-election; +and he had the mortification of being defeated by the Radical +“orator” Hunt. The contest was a peculiarly keen one, and +turned upon the question of the ballot, which Stanley refused to +support. He re-entered the House as one of the members for +Windsor, Sir Hussey Vivian having resigned in his favour. In 1832 +he again changed his seat, being returned for North Lancashire.</p> + +<p>Stanley was one of the most ardent supporters of Lord Grey’s +Reform Bill. Of this no other proof is needed than his frequent +parliamentary utterances, which were fully in sympathy with the +popular cry “The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill.” +Reference may be made especially to the speech he delivered on +the 4th of March 1831 on the adjourned debate on the second +reading of the bill, which was marked by all the higher qualities +of his oratory. Apart from his connexion with the general policy +of the government, Stanley had more than enough to have +employed all his energies in the management of his own department. +The secretary of Ireland has seldom an easy task; Stanley +found it one of peculiar difficulty. The country was in a very +unsettled state. The just concession that had been somewhat +tardily yielded a short time before in Catholic emancipation +had excited the people to make all sorts of demands, reasonable +and unreasonable. Undaunted by the fierce denunciations of +O’Connell, who styled him Scorpion Stanley, he discharged with +determination the ungrateful task of carrying a coercion bill +through the House. It was generally felt that O’Connell, +powerful though he was, had fairly met his match in Stanley, +who, with invective scarcely inferior to his own, evaded no +challenge, ignored no argument, and left no taunt unanswered. +The title “Rupert of Debate” is peculiarly applicable to him +in connexion with the fearless if also often reckless method of +attack he showed in his parliamentary war with O’Connell. +It was first applied to him, however, thirteen years later by Sir +Edward Bulwer Lytton in <i>The New Timon</i>:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> +<p class="ind03">“One after one the lords of time advance;</p> +<p>Here Stanley meets—here Stanley scorns the glance!</p> +<p>The brilliant chief, irregularly great,</p> +<p>Frank, haughty, rash,—the Rupert of debate.”</p> +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p>The best answer, however, which he made to the attacks of the +great agitator was not the retorts of debate, effective though +these were, but the beneficial legislation he was instrumental in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67"></a>67</span> +passing. He introduced and carried the first national education +act for Ireland, one result of which was the remarkable and to +many almost incredible phenomenon of a board composed +of Catholics, Episcopalians and Presbyterians harmoniously +administering an efficient education scheme. He was also chiefly +responsible for the Irish Church Temporalities Act, though the +bill was not introduced into parliament until after he had quitted +the Irish secretaryship for another office. By this measure two +archbishoprics and eight bishoprics were abolished, and a remedy +was provided for various abuses connected with the revenues of +the church. As originally introduced, the bill contained a clause +authorizing the appropriation of surplus revenues to non-ecclesiastical +purposes. This had, however, been strongly opposed +from the first by Stanley and several other members of the +cabinet, and it was withdrawn by the government before the +measure reached the Lords.</p> + +<p>In 1833, just before the introduction of the Irish Church +Temporalities Bill, Stanley had been promoted to be secretary +for the colonies with a seat in the cabinet. In this position it fell +to his lot to carry the emancipation of the slaves to a successful +practical issue. The speech which he delivered on introducing +the bill for freeing the slaves in the West Indies, on the 14th of +May 1833, was one of the finest specimens of his eloquence.</p> + +<p>The Irish Church question determined more than one turning-point +in his political career. The most important occasion on +which it did so was in 1834, when the proposal of the government +to appropriate the surplus revenues of the church to educational +purposes led to his secession from the cabinet, and, as it proved, +his complete and final separation from the Whig party. In the +former of these steps he had as his companions Sir James Graham, +the earl of Ripon and the duke of Richmond. Soon after it +occurred, O’Connell, amid the laughter of the House, described +the secession in a couplet from Canning’s <i>Loves of the Triangles</i>:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> +<p class="ind03">“Still down thy steep, romantic Ashbourne, glides</p> +<p>The Derby dilly carrying six insides.”</p> +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p>Stanley was not content with marking his disapproval by the +simple act of withdrawing from the cabinet. He spoke against the +bill to which he objected with a vehemence that showed the +strength of his feeling in the matter, and against its authors with +a bitterness that he himself is understood to have afterwards +admitted to have been unseemly towards those who had so +recently been his colleagues. The course followed by the government +was “marked with all that timidity, that want of dexterity, +which led to the failure of the unpractised shoplifter.” His late +colleagues were compared to “thimble-riggers at a country fair,” +and their plan was “petty larceny, for it had not the redeeming +qualities of bold and open robbery.”</p> + +<p>In the end of 1834, Lord Stanley, as he was now styled by +courtesy, his father having succeeded to the earldom in October, +was invited by Sir Robert Peel to join the short-lived Conservative +ministry which he formed after the resignation of Lord +Melbourne. Though he declined the offer for reasons stated in a +letter published in the Peel memoirs, he acted from that date +with the Conservative party, and on its next accession to power, +in 1841, he accepted the office of colonial secretary, which he had +held under Lord Grey. His position and his temperament alike, +however, made him a thoroughly independent supporter of any +party to which he attached himself. When, therefore, the injury +to health arising from the late hours in the Commons led him +in 1844 to seek elevation to the Upper House in the right of his +father’s barony, Sir Robert Peel, in acceding to his request, had +the satisfaction of at once freeing himself from the possible effects +of his “candid friendship” in the House, and at the same time +greatly strengthening the debating power on the Conservative +side in the other. If the premier in taking this step had any +presentiment of an approaching difference on a vital question, it +was not long in being realized. When Sir Robert Peel accepted +the policy of free trade in 1846, the breach between him and Lord +Stanley was, as might have been anticipated from the antecedents +of the latter, instant and irreparable. Lord Stanley at once +asserted himself as the uncompromising opponent of that policy, +and he became the recognized leader of the Protectionist party, +having Lord George Bentinck and Disraeli for his lieutenants +in the Commons. They did all that could be done in a case in +which the logic of events was against them, though Protection +was never to become more than their watchword.</p> + +<p>It is one of the peculiarities of English politics, however, that +a party may come into power because it is the only available one +at the time, though it may have no chance of carrying the very +principle to which it owes its organized existence. Such was the +case when Lord Derby, who had succeeded to the earldom on the +death of his father in June 1851, was called upon to form his first +administration in February 1852. He was in a minority, but the +circumstances were such that no other than a minority government +was possible, and he resolved to take the only available +means of strengthening his position by dissolving parliament and +appealing to the country at the earliest opportunity. The appeal +was made in autumn, but its result did not materially alter the +position of parties. Parliament met in November, and by the +middle of the following month the ministry had resigned in +consequence of their defeat on Disraeli’s budget. For the six +following years, during Lord Aberdeen’s “ministry of all the +talents” and Lord Palmerston’s premiership, Lord Derby +remained at the head of the opposition, whose policy gradually +became more generally Conservative and less distinctively +Protectionist as the hopelessness of reversing the measures +adopted in 1846 made itself apparent. In 1855 he was asked to +form an administration after the resignation of Lord Aberdeen, +but failing to obtain sufficient support, he declined the task. It +was in somewhat more hopeful circumstances that, after the +defeat of Lord Palmerston on the Conspiracy Bill in February +1858, he assumed for the second time the reins of government. +Though he still could not count upon a working majority, there +was a possibility of carrying on affairs without sustaining defeat, +which was realized for a full session, owing chiefly to the dexterous +management of Mr Disraeli in the Commons. The one rock +ahead was the question of reform, on which the wishes of the +country were being emphatically expressed, but it was not so +pressing as to require to be immediately dealt with. During the +session of 1858 the government contrived to pass two measures +of very considerable importance, one a bill to remove Jewish +disabilities, and the other a bill to transfer the government of +India from the East India Company to the crown. Next year +the question of parliamentary reform had to be faced, and, +recognizing the necessity, the government introduced a bill +at the opening of the session, which, in spite of, or rather in +consequence of, its “fancy franchises,” was rejected by the +House, and, on a dissolution, rejected also by the country. A +vote of no confidence having been passed in the new parliament +on the 10th of June, Lord Derby at once resigned.</p> + +<p>After resuming the leadership of the Opposition Lord Derby +devoted much of the leisure the position afforded him to the +classical studies that had always been congenial to him. It was +his reputation for scholarship as well as his social position that +had led in 1852 to his appointment to the chancellorship of the +university of Oxford, in succession to the duke of Wellington; +and perhaps a desire to justify the possession of the honour on +the former ground had something to do with his essays in the +field of authorship. His first venture was a poetical version of the +ninth ode of the third book of Horace, which appeared in Lord +Ravensworth’s collection of translations of the <i>Odes</i>. In 1862 he +printed and circulated in influential quarters a volume entitled +<i>Translations of Poems Ancient and Modern</i>, with a very modest +dedicatory letter to Lord Stanhope, and the words “Not +published” on the title-page. It contained, besides versions of +Latin, Italian, French and German poems, a translation of the +first book of the <i>Iliad</i>. The reception of this volume was such as +to encourage him to proceed with the task he had chosen as his +<i>magnum opus</i>, the translation of the whole of the <i>Iliad</i>, which +accordingly appeared in 1864.</p> + +<p>During the seven years that elapsed between Lord Derby’s +second and third administrations an industrial crisis occurred +in his native county, which brought out very conspicuously his +public spirit and his philanthropy. The destitution in Lancashire +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>68</span> +caused by the stoppage of the cotton-supply in consequence of the +American Civil War, was so great as to threaten to overtax the +benevolence of the country. That it did not do so was probably +due to Lord Derby more than to any other single man. From the +first he was the very life and soul of the movement for relief. His +personal subscription, munificent though it was, represented the +least part of his service. His noble speech at the meeting in +Manchester in December 1862, where the movement was initiated, +and his advice at the subsequent meetings of the committee, +which he attended very regularly, were of the very highest value +in stimulating and directing public sympathy. His relations +with Lancashire had always been of the most cordial description, +notwithstanding his early rejection by Preston; but it is not +surprising that after the cotton famine period the cordiality +passed into a warmer and deeper feeling, and that the name of +Lord Derby was long cherished in most grateful remembrance +by the factory operatives.</p> + +<p>On the rejection of Earl Russell’s Reform Bill in 1866, Lord +Derby was for the third time entrusted with the formation of a +cabinet. Like those he had previously formed it was destined to +be short-lived, but it lived long enough to settle on a permanent +basis the question that had proved fatal to its predecessor. The +“education” of the party that had so long opposed all reform to +the point of granting household suffrage was the work of another; +but Lord Derby fully concurred in, if he was not the first to +suggest, the statesmanlike policy by which the question was +disposed of in such a way as to take it once for all out of the region +of controversy and agitation. The passing of the Reform Bill was +the main business of the session 1867. The chief debates were, of +course, in the Commons, and Lord Derby’s failing powers prevented +him from taking any large share in those which took place +in the Lords. His description of the measure as a “leap in the +dark” was eagerly caught up, because it exactly represented the +common opinion at the time,—the most experienced statesmen, +while they admitted the granting of household suffrage to be a +political necessity, being utterly unable to foresee what its effect +might be on the constitution and government of the country.</p> + +<p>Finding himself unable, from declining health, to encounter +the fatigues of another session, Lord Derby resigned office early +in 1868. The step he had taken was announced in both Houses +on the evening of the 25th of February, and warm tributes of +admiration and esteem were paid by the leaders of the two great +parties. He yielded the entire leadership of the party as well +as the premiership to Disraeli. His subsequent appearances in +public were few and unimportant. It was noted as a consistent +close to his political life that his last speech in the House of Lords +should have been a denunciation of Gladstone’s Irish Church Bill +marked by much of his early fire and vehemence. A few months +later, on the 23rd of October 1869, he died at Knowsley.</p> + +<p>Sir Archibald Alison, writing of him when he was in the zenith +of his powers, styles him “by the admission of all parties the +most perfect orator of his day.” Even higher was the opinion of +Lord Aberdeen, who is reported by <i>The Times</i> to have said that +no one of the giants he had listened to in his youth, Pitt, Fox, +Burke or Sheridan, “as a speaker, is to be compared with our +own Lord Derby, when Lord Derby is at his best.”</p> +<div class="author">(W. B. S.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Edward Henry Stanley</span>, 15th earl of Derby (1826-1893), +eldest son of the 14th earl, was educated at Rugby +and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a high degree +and became a member of the society known as the Apostles. In +March 1848 he unsuccessfully contested the borough of Lancaster, +and then made a long tour in the West Indies, Canada and the +United States. During his absence he was elected member for +King’s Lynn, which he represented till October 1869, when he +succeeded to the peerage. He took his place, as a matter of +course, among the Conservatives, and delivered his maiden speech +in May 1850 on the sugar duties. Just before, he had made a +very brief tour in Jamaica and South America. In 1852 he went +to India, and while travelling in that country he was appointed +under-secretary for foreign affairs in his father’s first administration. +From the outset of his career he was known to be a most +Liberal Conservative, and in 1855 Lord Palmerston offered him +the post of colonial secretary. He was much tempted by the +proposal, and hurried down to Knowsley to consult his father, +who called out when he entered the room, “Hallo, Stanley! +what brings you here?—Has Dizzy cut his throat, or are you +going to be married?” When the object of his sudden appearance +had been explained, the Conservative chief received the +courteous suggestion of the prime minister with anything but +favour, and the offer was declined. In his father’s second +administration Lord Stanley held, at first, the office of secretary +for the colonies, but became president of the Board of Control on +the resignation of Lord Ellenborough. He had the charge of the +India Bill of 1858 in the House of Commons, became the first +secretary of state for India, and left behind him in the India +Office an excellent reputation as a man of business. After the +revolution in Greece and the disappearance of King Otho, the +people most earnestly desired to have Queen Victoria’s second +son, Prince Alfred, for their king. He declined the honour, and +they then took up the idea that the next best thing they could +do would be to elect some great and wealthy English noble, not +concealing the hope that although they might have to offer him +a Civil List he would decline to receive it. Lord Stanley was the +prime favourite as an occupant of this bed of thorns, and it has +been said that he was actually offered the crown. That, however, +is not true; the offer was never formally made. After the fall of +the Russell government in 1866 he became foreign secretary in +his father’s third administration. He compared his conduct in +that great post to that of a man floating down a river and fending +off from his vessel, as well as he could, the various obstacles it +encountered. He thought that that should be the normal +attitude of an English foreign minister, and probably under the +circumstances of the years 1866-1868 it was the right one. He +arranged the collective guarantee of the neutrality of Luxemburg +in 1867, negotiated a convention about the “Alabama,” which, +however, was not ratified, and most wisely refused to take any +part in the Cretan troubles. In 1874 he again became foreign +secretary in Disraeli’s government. He acquiesced in the +purchase of the Suez Canal shares, a measure then considered +dangerous by many people, but ultimately most successful; he +accepted the Andrassy Note, but declined to accede to the Berlin +Memorandum. His part in the later phases of the Russo-Turkish +struggle has never been fully explained, for with equal wisdom +and generosity he declined to gratify public curiosity at the cost +of some of his colleagues. A later generation will know better +than his contemporaries what were the precise developments of +policy which obliged him to resign. He kept himself ready to +explain in the House of Lords the course he had taken if those +whom he had left challenged him to do so, but from that course +they consistently refrained. Already in October 1879 it was clear +enough that he had thrown in his lot with the Liberal party, but +it was not till March 1880 that he publicly announced this change +of allegiance. He did not at first take office in the second +Gladstone government, but became secretary for the colonies in +December 1882, holding this position till the fall of that government +in the summer of 1885. In 1886 the old Liberal party was +run on the rocks and went to pieces. Lord Derby became a +Liberal Unionist, and took an active part in the general management +of that party, leading it in the House of Lords till 1891, +when Lord Hartington became duke of Devonshire. In 1892 he +presided over the Labour Commission, but his health never +recovered an attack of influenza which he had in 1891, and he +died at Knowsley on the 21st of April 1893.</p> + +<p>During a great part of Lord Derby’s life he was deflected from +his natural course by the accident of his position as the son of the +leading Conservative statesman of the day. From first to last +he was at heart a moderate Liberal. After making allowance, +however, for this deflecting agency, it must be admitted that in +the highest quality of the statesman, “aptness to be right,” he +was surpassed by none of his contemporaries, or—if by anybody—by + Sir George Cornewall Lewis alone. He would have been +more at home in a state of things which did not demand from its +leading statesman great popular power; he had none of those +“isms” and “prisms of fancy” which stood in such good stead +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69"></a>69</span> +some of his rivals. He had another defect besides the want +of popular power. He was so anxious to arrive at right conclusions +that he sometimes turned and turned and turned a +subject over till the time for action had passed. One of his best +lieutenants said of him in a moment of impatience: “Lord +Derby is like the God of Hegel: ‘Er setzt sich, er verneint sich, +er verneint seine Negation.’” His knowledge, acquired both +from books and by the ear, was immense, and he took every +opportunity of increasing it. He retained his old university +habit of taking long walks with a congenial companion, even in +London, and although he cared but little for what is commonly +known as society—the society of crowded rooms and fragments +of sentences—he very much liked conversation. During the +many years in which he was a member of “The Club” he was +one of its most assiduous frequenters, and his loss was acknowledged +by a formal resolution. His talk was generally grave, but +every now and then was lit up by dry humour. The late Lord +Arthur Russell once said to him, after he had been buying some +property in southern England: “So you still believe in land, +Lord Derby.” “Hang it,” he replied, “a fellow must believe in +something!” He did an immense deal of work outside politics. +He was lord rector of the University of Glasgow from 1868 to +1871, and later held the same office in that of Edinburgh. From +1875 to 1893 he was president of the Royal Literary Fund, and +attended most closely to his duties then. He succeeded Lord +Granville as chancellor of the University of London in 1891, and +remained in that position till his death. He lived much in +Lancashire, managed his enormous estates with great skill, and +did a great amount of work as a local magnate. He married in +1870 Maria Catharine, daughter of the 5th earl de la Warr, and +widow of the 2nd marquess of Salisbury.</p> + +<p>The earl left no children and he was succeeded as 16th earl +by his brother Frederick Arthur Stanley (1841-1908), who had +been made a peer as Baron Stanley of Preston in 1886. He was +secretary of state for war and for the colonies and president of +the board of trade; and was governor-general of Canada from +1888 to 1893. He died on the 14th of June 1908, when his eldest +son, Edward George Villiers Stanley, became earl of Derby. As +Lord Stanley the latter had been member of parliament for the +West Houghton division of Lancashire from 1892 to 1906; he +was financial secretary to the War Office from 1900 to 1903, and +postmaster-general from 1903 to 1905.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>The best account of the 15th Lord Derby is that which was +prefixed by W. E. H. Lecky, who knew him very intimately, +to the edition of his speeches outside parliament, published in +1894.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. G. D.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERBY,</span> a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., +coextensive with the township of Derby, about 10 m. W. of New +Haven, at the junction of the Housatonic and Naugatuck rivers. +Pop. (1900) 7930 (2635 foreign-born); (1910) 8991. It is served +by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by +interurban electric railways. In Derby there are an opera house, +owned by the city, and a public library. Across the Housatonic +is the borough of Shelton (pop. 1910, 4807), which is closely +related, socially and industrially, to Derby, the two having a +joint board of trade. Adjoining Derby on the N. along the +Naugatuck is Ansonia. Derby, Ansonia and Shelton form one of +the most important manufacturing communities in the state; +although their total population in 1900 (23,448) was only 2.9% +of the state’s population, the product of their manufactories was +7.4% of the total manufactured product of Connecticut. Among +the manufactures of Derby are pianos and organs, woollen goods, +pins, keys, dress stays, combs, typewriters, corsets, hosiery, guns +and ammunition, and foundry and machine-shop products. +Derby was settled in 1642 as an Indian trading post under the +name Paugasset, and received its present name in 1675. The +date of organization of the township is unknown. Ansonia was +formed from a part of Derby in 1889. In 1893 the borough of +Birmingham, on the opposite side of the Naugatuck, was annexed +to Derby, and Derby was chartered as a city. In the 18th +century Derby was the centre of a thriving commerce with the +West Indies. Derby is the birthplace of David Humphreys +(1752-1818), a soldier, diplomatist and writer, General +Washington’s aide and military secretary from 1780 until the +end of the War of Independence, the first minister of the +United States to Portugal (1790-1797) and minister to Spain in +1797-1802, and one of the “Hartford Wits.”</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See Samuel Orcutt and Ambrose Beardsley, <i>History of the Old +Town of Derby</i> (Springfield, 1880); and the <i>Town Records of Derby +from 1655 to 1710</i> (Derby, 1901).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERBY,</span> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough, +and the county town of Derbyshire, England, 128¾ m. N.N.W. +of London by the Midland railway; it is also served by the +Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 94,146; (1901) 114,848. +Occupying a position almost in the centre of England, the town +is situated chiefly on the western bank of the river Derwent, on an +undulating site encircled with gentle eminences, from which flow +the Markeaton and other brooks. In the second half of the 19th +century the prosperity of the town was enhanced by the establishment +of the head offices and principal workshops of the Midland +Railway Company. Derby possesses several handsome public +buildings, including the town hall, a spacious range of buildings +erected for the postal and inland revenue offices, the county hall, +corn exchange and market hall. Among churches may be +mentioned St Peter’s a fine building principally of Perpendicular +date but with earlier portions; St Alkmund’s with its lofty spire, +Decorated in style; St Andrew’s, in the same style, by Sir G. G. +Scott; and All Saints’, which contains a beautiful choir-screen, +good stained glass and monuments by L. F. Roubiliac, Sir +Francis Chantrey and others. The body of this church is in +classic style (1725), but the tower was built 1509-1527, and is one +of the finest in the midland counties, built in three tiers, and +crowned with battlements and pinnacles, which give it a total +height of 210 ft. The Roman Catholic church of St Mary is one +of the best examples of the work of A. W. Pugin. The Derby +grammar school, one of the most ancient in England, was placed +in 1160 under the administration of the chapter of Darley Abbey, +which lay a little north of Derby. It occupies St Helen’s House, +once the town residence of the Strutt family, and has been +enlarged in modern times, accommodating about 160 boys. The +Derby municipal technical college is administered by the corporation. +Other institutions include schools of science and art, +public library, museum and art gallery, the Devonshire almshouses, +a remodelled foundation inaugurated by Elizabeth, +countess of Shrewsbury, in the 16th century, and the town and +county infirmary. The free library and museum buildings, +together with a recreation ground, were gifts to the town from +M. T. Bass, M.P. (d. 1884), while an arboretum of seventeen +acres was presented to the town by Joseph Strutt in 1840.</p> + +<p>Derby has been long celebrated for its porcelain, which +rivalled that of Saxony and France. This manufacture was +introduced about 1750, and although for a time partially +abandoned, it has been revived. There are also spar works where +the fluor-spar, or Blue John, is wrought into a variety of useful +and ornamental articles. The manufacture of silk, hosiery, lace +and cotton formerly employed a large portion of the population, +and there are still numerous silk mills and elastic web works. +Silk “throwing” or spinning was introduced into England in +1717 by John Lombe, who found out the secrets of the craft +when visiting Piedmont, and set up machinery in Derby. Other +industries include the manufacture of paint, shot, white and +red lead and varnish; and there are sawmills and tanneries. +The manufacture of hosiery profited greatly by the inventions +of Jedediah Strutt about 1750. In the northern suburb of +Littlechester, there are chemical and steam boiler works. The +Midland railway works employ a large number of hands. Derby +is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Southwell. The parliamentary +borough returns two members. The town is governed +by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and forty-two councillors. Area, +3449 acres.</p> + +<p>Littlechester, as its name indicates, was the site of a Roman +fort or village; the site is in great part built over and the remains +practically effaced. Derby was known in the time of the +heptarchy as Northworthig, and did not receive the name of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70"></a>70</span> +Deoraby or Derby until after it was given up to the Danes by the +treaty of Wedmore and had become one of their five boroughs, +probably ruled in the ordinary way by an earl with twelve +“lawmen” under him. Being won back among the sweeping +conquests of Æthelflæd, lady of the Mercians, in 917, it prospered +during the 10th century, and by the reign of Edward the Confessor +there were 243 burgesses in Derby. However, by 1086 this +number had decreased to 100, while 103 “manses” which used +to be assessed were waste. In spite of this the amount rendered +by the town to the lord had increased from £24 to £30. The first +extant charter granted to Derby is dated 1206 and is a grant of all +those privileges which the burgesses of Nottingham had in the +time of Henry I. and Henry II., which included freedom from toll, +a gild merchant, power to elect a provost at their will, and the +privilege of holding the town at the ancient farm with an increase +of £10 yearly. The charter also provides that no one shall dye +cloth within ten leagues of Derby except in the borough. A +second charter, granted by Henry III. in 1229, limits the power of +electing a provost by requiring that he shall be removed if he +be displeasing to the king. Henry III. also granted the burgesses +two other charters, one in 1225 confirming their privileges and +granting that the <i>comitatus</i> of Derby should in future be held on +Thursdays in the borough, the other in 1260 granting that no +Jew should be allowed to live in the town. In 1337 Edward III. +on the petition of the burgesses granted that they might have two +bailiffs instead of one. Derby was incorporated by James I. in +1611 under the name of the bailiffs and burgesses of Derby, but +Charles I. in 1637 appointed a mayor, nine aldermen, fourteen +brethren and fourteen capital burgesses. In 1680 the burgesses +were obliged to resign their charters, and received a new one, +which did not, however, alter the government of the town. Derby +has been represented in parliament by two members since 1295. +In the rebellion of 1745 the young Pretender marched with his +army as far south as Derby, where the council was held which +decided that he should return to Scotland instead of going on to +London.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>Among early works on Derby are W. Hutton, <i>History of Derby</i> +(London, 1791); R. Simpson, <i>History and Antiquities of Derby</i> +(Derby, 1826).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERBYSHIRE,</span> a north midland county of England, bounded +N. and N.E. by Yorkshire, E. by Nottinghamshire, S.E. and S. by +Leicestershire, S. and S.W. by Staffordshire, and W. and N.W. by +Cheshire. The area is 1029.5 sq. m. The physical aspect is much +diversified. The extreme south of the county is lacking in +picturesqueness, being for the most part level, with occasional +slight undulations. The Peak District of the north, on the other +hand, though inferior in grandeur to the mountainous Lake +District, presents some of the finest hill scenery in England, +deriving a special beauty from the richly wooded glens and +valleys, such as those of Castleton, Glossop, Dovedale and +Millersdale. The character of the landscape ranges from the wild +moorland of the Cheshire borders or the grey rocks of the Peak, +to the park lands and woods of the Chatsworth district. Some of +the woods are noted for their fine oaks, those at Kedleston, 3 m. +from Derby, ranking among the largest and oldest in the kingdom. +From the northern hills the streams of the county radiate. +Those of the north-west belong to the Mersey, and those of the +north-east to the Don, but all the others to the Trent, which, like +the Don, falls into the Humber. The principal river is the Trent, +which, rising in the Staffordshire moorlands, intersects the +southern part of Derbyshire, and forms part of its boundary +with Leicestershire. After the Trent the most important river +is the Derwent, one of its tributaries, which, taking its rise in the +lofty ridges of the High Peak, flows southward through a beautiful +valley, receiving a number of minor streams in its course, including +the Wye, which, rising near Buxton, traverses the fine +Millersdale and Monsal Dale. The other principal rivers are the +following: The Dane rises at the junction of the three counties, +Staffordshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire. The Goyt has its source +a little farther north, at the base of the same hill, and, taking a +N.N.E. direction, divides Derbyshire from Cheshire, and falls into +the Mersey. The Dove rises on the southern slope, and flows as +the boundary stream between Derbyshire and Staffordshire for +nearly its entire course. It receives several feeders, and falls into +the Trent near Repton. The Erewash is the boundary stream +between Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. The Rother rises +about Baslow, and flows into Yorkshire, with a northerly course, +joining the Don. Besides the attractions of its scenery Derbyshire +possesses, in Buxton, Matlock and Bakewell, three +health resorts in much favour on account of their medicinal +springs.</p> + +<p>The whole northward extension of the county is occupied by +the plateau of the Peak and other plateau-like summits, the +highest of which are of almost exactly similar elevation. Thus +in the extreme north Bleaklow Hill reaches 2060 ft., while +southward from this point along the axis of main elevation are +found Shelf Moss (2046 ft.), and Kinder Scout and other summits +of the Peak itself, ranging up to 2088 ft. This plateau-mass is +demarcated on the north and west by the vales of the Etherow +and Goyt, by the valley of the Derwent on the east, and in part +by that of its tributary the Noe on the south. The flanks of the +plateau are deeply scored by abrupt ravines, often known as +“cloughs” (an Anglo-Saxon word, <i>cloh</i>) watered by streams +which sometimes descend over precipitous ledges in picturesque +falls, such as the Kinder Downfall, formed by the brook of that +name which rises on Kinder Scout. The most picturesque +cloughs are found on the south, descending to Edale, and on the +west. Edale is the upper part of the Noe valley, and the narrow +gorge at its head is exceedingly beautiful, as is the more gentle +scenery of the Vale of Hope, the lower part of the valley. In a +branch vale is situated <a href="#artlinks">Castleton</a> (q.v.), with the ruined Peak +Castle, or Castle of the Peak, and the Peak Cavern, Blue John +Mine and other caves. The upper Derwent valley, or Derwent +Dale, is narrow and well wooded. In it, near the village of +Derwent Chapel, is Derwent Hall, a fine old mansion formerly +a seat of the Newdigate family. On Derwent Edge, above the +village, are various peculiar rock formations, known by such +names as the Salt-cellar. Ashopton, another village lower down +the dale, is a favourite centre, and here the main valley is joined +by Ashop Dale, a bold defile in its upper part, penetrating the +heart of the Peak.</p> + +<p>The well-known high road crossing the plateau from east to +west, between the lower Derwent valley, Bakewell, Buxton and +Macclesfield, shows the various types of scenery characteristic +of the limestone hill-country of Derbyshire south of the Peak +itself. The lower Derwent valley, about Chatsworth, Rowsley, +Darley and Matlock, is open, fertile and well wooded. The road +leads up the tributary valley of the Wye, which after Bakewell +quickly narrows, and in successive portions is known as Monsal +Dale, Millersdale (which the main road does not touch), Chee +Dale and Wye Dale. On the flanks of these beautiful dales bold +cliffs and bastions of limestone stand out among rich woods. +Near the mouth of the valley, about Stanton, the fantastic +effects of weathering on the limestone are especially well seen, +as in Rowtor Rocks and Robin Hood’s Stride, and in the same +locality are a remarkable number of tumuli and other early +remains, and the Hermitage, a cave containing sacred carvings. +From Buxton the road ascends over the high moors, here open +and grassy in contrast to the heather of the Peak, and shortly +after crossing the county boundary, reaches the head of the pass +well known by the name of an inn, the Cat and Fiddle, at its +highest point, 1690 ft.</p> + +<p>South of Buxton the elevations along the main axis decrease, +thus Axe Edge reaches 1600 ft., and this height is nowhere +exceeded as the hills sink to the plain valley of the Trent. The +dales and ravines which ramify among the limestone heights are +characteristic and beautiful, and the valley of the <a href="#artlinks">Dove</a> (q.v.) +or Dovedale, on the border with Staffordshire, is as famous as +any of the northern dales. Swallow-holes or waterworn caverns +are common in many parts of the limestone region. The hills +east of the Derwent are nowhere so high as those to the west—Margley +Hill reaches 1793 ft., Howden Edge 1787 ft. and Derwent +Moors 1505 ft. The plateau type is maintained. The +valley of the Derwent provides the most attractive scenery in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71"></a>71</span> +the southern part of the county, from Matlock southward by +Heage, Belper and Duffield to Derby.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Five well-contrasted types of scenery in Derbyshire are +clearly traceable to as many varieties of rock; the bleak dry uplands +of the north and east, with deep-cut ravines and swift clear streams, +are due to the great mass of Mountain Limestone; round the limestone +boundary are the valleys with soft outlines in the Pendleside +Shales; these are succeeded by the rugged moorlands, covered with +heather and peat, which are due to the Millstone Grit series; eastward +lies the Derbyshire Coalfield with its gently moulded grass-covered +hills; southward is the more level tract of red Triassic rocks. +The principal structural feature is the broad anticline, its axis running +north and south, which has brought up the Carboniferous Limestone; +this uplifted region is the southern extremity of the Pennine Range. +The Carboniferous or “Mountain” Limestone is the oldest formation +in the county; its thickness is not known, but it is certainly over +2000 ft.; it is well exposed in the numerous narrow gorges cut by the +Derwent and its tributaries and by the Dove on the Staffordshire +border. Ashwood Dale, Chee Dale, Millersdale, Monsal Dale and the +valley at Matlock are all flanked by abrupt sides of this rock. It is +usually a pale, thick-bedded rock, sometimes blue and occasionally, +as at Ashford, black. In some places, e.g. Thorpe Cloud, it is highly +fossiliferous, but it is usually somewhat barren except for abundant +crinoids and smaller organisms. It is polished in large slabs at +Ashford, where crinoidal, black and “rosewood” marbles are produced. +Volcanic rocks, locally called “Toadstone,” are represented +in the limestones by intrusive sills and flows of dolerite and by necks +of agglomerate, notably near Tideswell, Millersdale and Matlock. +Beds and nodules of chert are abundant in the upper parts of the +limestone; at Bakewell it is quarried for use in the Potteries. At +some points the limestone has been dolomitized; near Bonsall it has +been converted into a granular silicified rock. A series of black +shales with nodular limestones, the Pendleside series, rests upon the +Mountain Limestone on the east, south and north-west; much of the +upper course of the Derwent has been cut through these soft beds. +Mam Tor, or the Shivering Mountain, is made of these shales. Next +in upward sequence is a thick mass of sandstones, grits and shales—the +Millstone Grit series. On the west side these extend from +Blacklow Hill to Axe Edge; on the east, from Derwent Edge to near +Derby; outlying masses form the rough moorland on Kinder Scout +and the picturesque tors near Stanton-by-Youlgreave. A small +patch of Millstone Grit and Limestone occurs in the south of the +county about Melbourne and Ticknall. The Coal Measures repose +upon the Millstone Grit; the largest area of these rocks lies on the east, +where they are conterminous with the coalfields of Yorkshire and +Nottingham. A small tract, part of the Leicestershire coalfield, lies +in the south-east corner, and in the north-west corner a portion of the +Lancashire coalfield appears about New Mills and Whaley Bridge. +They yield valuable coals, clays, marls and ganister. East of +Bolsover, the Coal Measures are covered unconformably by the +Permian breccias and magnesian limestone. Flanking the hills +between Ashbourne and Quarndon are red beds of Bunter marl, +sandstone and conglomerate; they also appear at Morley, east of the +Derwent, and again round the small southern coalfield. Most of the +southern part of the county is occupied by Keuper marls and sandstones, +the latter yield good building stone; and at Chellaston the +gypsum beds in the former are excavated on a large scale. Much of +the Triassic area is covered superficially by glacial drift and alluvium +of the Trent. Local boulders as well as northern erratics are found +in the valley of the Derwent. The bones of Pleistocene mammals, +the rhinoceros, mammoth, bison, hyaena, &c., have been found at +numerous places, often in caves and fissures in the limestones, e.g. at +Castleton, Wirksworth and Creswell. At Doveholes the Pleiocene +<i>Mastodon</i> has been reported. Galena and other lead ores are +abundant in veins in the limestone, but they are now only worked on +a large scale at Mill Close, near Winster; calamine, zinc, blende, +barytes, calcite and fluor-spar are common. A peculiar variety of the +last named, called “Blue John,” is found only near Castleton; at +the same place occurs the remarkable elastic bitumen, “elaterite.” +Limestone is quarried at Buxton, Millersdale and Matlock for lime, +fluxing and chemical purposes. Good sandstone is obtained from +the Millstone Grit at Stancliffe, Tansley and Whatstandwell. Calcareous +tufa or travertine occurs in the valley of Matlock and elsewhere, +and in some places is still being deposited by springs. Large +pits containing deposits of white sand, clay and pebbles are found +in the limestone at Longcliff, Newhaven and Carsington.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—From the elevation which it attains in its northern +division the county is colder and is rainier than other midland +counties. Even in summer cold and thick fogs are often seen +hanging over the rivers, and clinging to the lower parts of the +hills, and hoar-frosts are by no means unknown even in June +and July. The winters in the uplands are generally severe, and +the rainfall heavy. At Buxton, at an elevation of about 1000 ft., +the mean temperature in January is 34.9° F., and in July 57.5°, +the mean annual being 45.4°. These conditions contrast with +those at Derby, in the southern lowland, where the figures are +respectively 37.5°, 61.2° and 48.8°, while intermediate conditions +are found at Belper, 9 m. higher up the Derwent valley, where +the figures are 36.3°, 59.9° and 47.3°. The contrasts shown by +the mean annual rainfall are similarly marked. Thus at Woodhead, +lying high in the extreme north, it is 52.03 in., at Buxton +49.33 in., at Matlock, in the middle part of the Derwent valley, +35.2 in., and at Derby 24.35 in.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—A little over seven-tenths of the total area of +the county is under cultivation. Among the higher altitudes of +north Derbyshire, where the soil is poor and the climate harsh, +grain is unable to flourish, while even in the more sheltered parts +of this region the harvest is usually belated. In such districts +sheep farming is chiefly practised, and there is a considerable +area of heath pasture. Farther south, heavy crops of wheat, +turnips and other cereals and green crops are not uncommon, +while barley is cultivated about Repton and Gresley, and also in +the east of the county, in order to supply the Burton breweries. +A large part of the Trent valley is under permanent pasture, +being devoted to cattle-feeding and dairy-farming. This industry +has prospered greatly, and the area of permanent pasture +encroaches continually upon that of arable land. Derbyshire +cheeses are exported or sent to London in considerable quantities; +and cheese fairs are held in various parts of the county, as at +Ashbourne and Derby. A feature of the upland districts is the +total absence of hedges, and the substitution of limestone walls, +put together without any mortar or cement.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—The manufactures of Derbyshire are both +numerous and important, embracing silks, cotton hosiery, iron, +woollen manufactures, lace, elastic web and brewing. For many +of these this county has long been famous, especially for that of +silk, which is carried on to a large extent in Derby, as well as in +Belper and Duffield. Derby is also celebrated for its china, and +silk-throwing is the principal industry of the town. Elastic web +weaving by power looms is carried on to a great extent, and the +manufacture of lace and net curtains, gimp trimmings, braids +and cords. In the county town and neighbourhood are several +important chemical and colour works; and in various parts of +the county, as at Belper, Cromford, Matlock, Tutbury, are cotton-spinning +mills, as well as hosiery and tape manufactories. The +principal works of the Midland Railway Company are at Derby. +The principal mineral is coal. Ironstone is not extensively +wrought, but, on account of the abundant supply of coal, large +quantities are imported for smelting purposes. There are +smelting furnaces in several districts, as at Alfreton, Chesterfield, +Derby, Ilkeston. Besides lead, gypsum and zinc are raised, to +a small extent; and for the quarrying of limestone Derbyshire is +one of the principal English counties. The east and the extreme +south-west parts are the principal industrial districts.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The chief railway serving the county is the +Midland, the south, east and north being served by its main line +and branches. In the north-east and north the Great Central +system touches the county; in the west the North Staffordshire +and a branch of the London & North-Western; while a branch of +the Great Northern serves Derby and other places in the south. +The Trent & Mersey canal crosses the southern part of the county, +and there is a branch canal (the Derby) connecting Derby with +this and with the Erewash canal, which runs north from the +Trent up the Erewash valley. From it there is a little-used +branch (the Cromford canal) to Matlock.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient +county is 658,885 acres, with a population in 1891 of 528,033, +and 1901 of 620,322. The area of the administrative county is +652,272 acres. The county contains six hundreds. The municipal +boroughs are Chesterfield (pop. 27,185), Derby, a county borough +and the county town (114,848), Glossop (21,526), Ilkeston +(25,384). The other urban districts are Alfreton (17,505), +Alvaston and Boulton (1279), Ashbourne (4039), Bakewell (2850), +Baslow and Bubnell (797), Belper (10,934), Bolsover (6844) +Bonsall (1360), Brampton and Walton (2698), Buxton (10,181), +Clay Cross (8358), Dronfield (3809), Fairfield (2969), Heage (2889), +Heanor (16,249), Long Eaton (13,045), Matlock (5979), Matlock +Bath and Scarthin Nick (1810), Newbold and Dunston (5986), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72"></a>72</span> +New Mills (7773), North Darley (2756), Ripley (10,111), +South Darley (788), Swadlincote (18,014), Whittington (9416), +Wirksworth (3807). Among other towns may be mentioned +Ashover (2426), Barlborough (2056), Chapel-en-le-Frith (4626), +Clowne (3896), Crich (3063), Killamarsh (3644), Staveley (11,420), +Whitwell (3380). The county is in the Midland circuit, and +assizes are held at Derby. It has one court of quarter sessions +and is divided into fifteen petty sessional divisions. The boroughs +of Derby, Chesterfield and Glossop have separate commissions of +the peace, and that of Derby has also a separate court of quarter +sessions. The total number of civil parishes is 314. The county +is mainly in the diocese of Southwell, with small portions in the +dioceses of Peterborough and Lichfield, and contains 255 ecclesiastical +parishes or districts. The parliamentary divisions of +the county are High Peak, North-Eastern, Chesterfield, Mid, +Ilkeston, Southern and Western, each returning one member, +while the parliamentary borough of Derby returns two members.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The earliest English settlements in the district which +is now Derbyshire were those of the West Angles, who in the +course of their northern conquests in the 6th century pushed +their way up the valleys of the Derwent and the Dove, where they +became known as the Pecsaetan. Later the district formed the +northern division of Mercia, and in 848 the Mercian witenagemot +assembled at Repton. In the 9th century the district suffered +frequently from the ravages of the Danes, who in 874 wintered at +Repton and destroyed its famous monastery, the burial-place of +the kings of Mercia. Derby under Guthrum was one of the five +Danish burghs, but in 917 was recovered by Æthelflæd. In 924 +Edward the Elder fortified Bakewell, and in 942 Edmund +regained Derby, which had fallen under the Danish yoke. +Barrows of the Saxon period are numerous in Wirksworth +hundred and the Bakewell district, among the most remarkable +being White-low near Winster and Bower’s-low near Tissington. +There are Saxon cemeteries at Stapenhill and Foremark Hall.</p> + +<p>Derbyshire probably originated as a shire in the time of +Æthelstan, but for long it maintained a very close connexion with +Nottinghamshire, and the Domesday Survey gives a list of local +customs affecting the two counties alike. The two shire-courts +sat together for the Domesday Inquest, and the counties were +united under one sheriff until the time of Elizabeth. The villages +of Appleby, Oakthorpe, Donisthorpe, Stretton-en-le-Field, +Willesley, Chilcote and Measham were reckoned as part of +Derbyshire in 1086, although separated from it by the Leicestershire +parishes of Over and Nether Seat.</p> + +<p>The early divisions of the county were known as wapentakes, +five being mentioned in Domesday, while 13th-century documents +mention seven wapentakes, corresponding with the six present +hundreds, except that Repton and Gresley were then reckoned as +separate divisions. In the 14th century the divisions were more +frequently described as hundreds, and Wirksworth alone retained +the designation wapentake until modern times. Ecclesiastically +the county constituted an archdeaconry in the diocese of +Lichfield, comprising the six deaneries of Derby, Ashbourne, +High Peak, Castillar, Chesterfield and Repington. In 1884 it +was transferred to the newly formed diocese of Southwell. The +assizes for Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire were held at +Nottingham until the reign of Henry III., when they were held +alternately at Nottingham and Derby until 1569, after which the +Derbyshire assizes were held at Derby. The court of the Honour +of Peverel, held at Basford in Nottinghamshire, which formerly +exercised jurisdiction in the hundreds of Scarsdale, the Peak and +Wirksworth, was abolished in 1849. The miners of Derbyshire +formed an independent community under the jurisdiction of +a steward and barmasters, who held two <a href="#artlinks">Barmote courts</a> +(q.v.) every year. The forests of Peak and Duffield had their +separate courts and officers, the justice seat of the former being +in an extra-parochial part at equal distances from Castleton, +Tideswell and Bowden, while the pleas of Duffield Forest were +held at Tutbury. Both were disafforested in the 17th +century.</p> + +<p>The greatest landholder in Derbyshire at the time of the +Domesday Survey was Henry de Ferrers, who owned almost the +whole of the modern hundred of Appletree. The Ferrers estates +were forfeited by Robert, earl of Derby, in the reign of Henry III. +Another great Domesday landholder was William Peverel, the +historic founder of Peak Castle, whose vast possessions were +known as the Honour of Peverel. In 1155 the younger Peverel +was disinherited for poisoning the earl of Chester, and his estates +forfeited to the crown. Few Englishmen retained estates of any +importance after the Conquest, but one, Elfin, an under-tenant +of Henry de Ferrers, not only held a considerable property but +was the ancestor of the Derbyshire family of Brailsford. The +families of Shirley and Gresley can also boast an unbroken descent +from Domesday tenants.</p> + +<p>During the rebellion of Prince Henry against Henry II. the +castles of Tutbury and Duffield were held against the king, and +in the civil wars of John’s reign Bolsover and Peak Castles were +garrisoned by the rebellious barons. In the Barons’ War of the +reign of Henry III. the earl of Derby was active in stirring up +feeling in the county against the king, and in 1266 assembled +a considerable force, which was defeated by the king’s party at +Chesterfield. At the time of the Wars of the Roses discontent +was rife in Derbyshire, and riots broke out in 1443, but the county +did not lend active support to either party. On the outbreak of +the Civil War of the 17th century, the county at first inclined +to support the king, who received an enthusiastic reception +when he visited Derby in 1642, but by the close of 1643 Sir +John Gell of Hopton had secured almost the whole county for +the parliament. Derby, however, was always royalist in sympathy, +and did not finally surrender till 1646; in 1659 it rebelled +against Richard Cromwell, and in 1745 entertained the young +Pretender.</p> + +<p>Derbyshire has always been mainly a mining and manufacturing +county, though the rich land in the south formerly produced +large quantities of corn. The lead mines were worked by the +Romans, and the Domesday Survey mentions lead mines at +Wirksworth, Matlock, Bakewell, Ashford and Crich. Iron has +also been produced in Derbyshire from an early date, and coal +mines were worked at Norton and Alfreton in the beginning of the +14th century. The woollen industry flourished in the county +before the reign of John, when an exclusive privilege of dyeing +cloth was conceded to the burgesses of Derby. Thomas Fuller +writing in 1662 mentions lead, malt and ale as the chief products +of the county, and the Buxton waters were already famous in his +day. The 18th century saw the rise of numerous manufactures. +In 1718 Sir Thomas and John Lombe set up an improved silk-throwing +machine at Derby, and in 1758 Jedediah Strutt introduced +a machine for making ribbed stockings, which became +famous as the “Derby rib.” In 1771 Sir Richard Arkwright set +up one of his first cotton mills in Cromford, and in 1787 there +were twenty-two cotton mills in the county. The Derby porcelain +or china manufactory was started about 1750.</p> + +<p>From 1295 until the Reform Act of 1832 the county and town +of Derby each returned two members to parliament. From this +latter date the county returned four members in two divisions +until the act of 1868, under which it returned six members for +three divisions.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—Monastic remains are scanty, but there are +interesting portions of a priory incorporated with the school +buildings at Repton. The village church of Beauchief Abbey, +near Dronfield, is a remnant of an abbey founded c. 1175 by +Robert Fitzranulf. It has a stately transitional Norman tower, +and three fine Norman arches. Dale Abbey, near Derby, was +founded early in the 13th century for the Premonstratensian +order. The ruins are scanty, but the east window is preserved, +and the present church incorporates remains of the ancient rest-house +for pilgrims. The church has a peculiar music gallery, +entered from without. The abbey church contained famous +stained glass, and some of this is preserved in the neighbouring +church at Morley. Derbyshire is rich in ecclesiastical architecture +as a whole. The churches are generally of various styles. The +chancel of the church at Repton is assigned to the second half of +the 10th century, though subsequently altered, and the crypt +beneath is supposed to be earlier still; its roof is supported by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73"></a>73</span> +four round pillars, and it is approached by two stairways. Other +remains of pre-Conquest date are the chancel arches in the +churches of Marston Montgomery and of Sawley; and the +curiously carved font in Wilne church is attributed to the same +period. Examples of Norman work are frequent in doorways, +as in the churches of Allestree and Willington near Repton, +while a fine tympanum is preserved in the modern church of +Findern. There is a triple-recessed doorway, with arcade above, +in the west end of Bakewell church, and there is another fine +west doorway in Melbourne church, a building principally of the +late Norman period, with central and small western towers. +In restoring this church curious mural paintings were discovered. +At Steetley, near Worksop, is a small Norman chapel, with +apse, restored from a ruinous condition; Youlgrave church, a +building of much general interest, has Norman nave pillars and +a fine font of the same period, and Normanton church has a +peculiar Norman corbel table. The Early English style is on +the whole less well exemplified in the county, but Ashbourne +church, with its central tower and lofty spire, contains beautiful +details of this period, notably the lancet windows in the Cockayne +chapel.</p> + +<p>The parish churches of Dronfield, Hathersage (with some +notable stained glass), Sandiacre and Tideswell exemplify the +Decorated period; the last is a particularly stately and beautiful +building, with a lofty and ornate western tower and some good +early brasses. The churches of Dethic, Wirksworth and Chesterfield +are typical of the Perpendicular period; that of Wirksworth +contains noteworthy memorial chapels, monuments and brasses, +and that of Chesterfield is celebrated for its crooked spire.</p> + +<p>The remains of castles are few; the ancient Bolsover Castle is +replaced by a castellated mansion of the 17th century; of the +Norman Peak Castle near Castleton little is left; of Codnor +Castle in the Erewash valley there are picturesque ruins of the +13th century. Among ancient mansions Derbyshire possesses +one of the most famous in England in Haddon Hall, of the +15th century. Wingfield manor house is a ruin dating from +the same century. Hardwick Hall is a very perfect example of +Elizabethan building; ruins of the old Tudor hall stand near by. +Other Elizabethan examples are Barlborough and Tissington +Halls.</p> + +<p>The village of Tissington is noted for the maintenance of an +old custom, that of “well-dressing.” On the Thursday before +Easter a special church service is celebrated, and the wells are +beautifully ornamented with flowers, prayers being offered at +each. The ceremony has been revived also in several other +Derbyshire villages.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See Davies, <i>New Historical and Descriptive View of Derbyshire</i> +(Belper, 1811); D. Lysons, <i>Magna Britannia</i>, vol. v. (London, 1817); +Maunder, <i>Derbyshire Miners’ Glossary</i> (Bakewell, 1824); R. Simpson, +<i>Collection of Fragments illustrative of the History of Derbyshire</i> (1826); +S. Glover, <i>History and Gazetteer of the County of Derby</i>, ed. T. Noble, +part 1 of vols. i. and ii. (Derby, 1831-1833); T. Bateman, <i>Vestiges +of the Antiquities of Derbyshire</i> (London, 1848); L. Jewitt, <i>Ballads +and Songs of Derbyshire</i> (London, 1867); J. C. Cox, <i>Notes on the +Churches of Derbyshire</i> (Chester, 1875), and <i>Three Centuries of +Derbyshire Annals</i> (2 vols., London, 1890); R. N. Worth, <i>Derby</i>, in +“Popular County Histories” (London, 1886); J. P. Yeatman, +<i>Feudal History of the County of Derby</i> (3 vols., London, 1886-1895); +<i>Victoria County History, Derbyshire</i>. See also <i>Notts and Derbyshire +Notes and Queries</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DEREHAM</span> (properly <span class="sc">East Dereham</span>), a market town in the +Mid parliamentary division of Norfolk, England, 122 m. N.N.E. +from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 5545. The church of St Nicholas is a cruciform +Perpendicular structure with a beautiful central tower, and some +portions of earlier date. It contains a monument to William +Cowper, who came to live here in 1796, and the Congregational +chapel stands on the site of the house where the poet spent his +last days. Dereham is an important agricultural centre with +works for the manufacture of agricultural implements, iron +foundries and a malting industry.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERELICT</span> (from Lat. <i>derelinquere</i>, to forsake), in law, +property thrown away or abandoned by the owner in such a +manner as to indicate that he intends to make no further claim to +it. The word is used more particularly with respect to property +abandoned at sea (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wreck</a></span>), but it is also applied in other +senses; for example, land gained from the sea by receding of the +water is termed <i>dereliction</i>. Land gained gradually and slowly +by dereliction belongs to the owner of the adjoining land, but in +the case of sudden or considerable dereliction the land belongs to +the Crown. This technical use of the term “dereliction” is to +be distinguished from the more general modern sense, dereliction +or abandonment of duty, which implies a culpable failure +or neglect in moral or legal obligation.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERENBOURG, JOSEPH</span> (1811-1895), Franco-German +orientalist. He was a considerable force in the educational +revival of Jewish education in France. He made great contributions +to the knowledge of Saadia, and planned a complete edition +of Saadia’s works in Arabic and French. A large part of this +work appeared during his lifetime. He also wrote an <i>Essai sur +l’histoire et la géographie de la Palestine</i> (Paris, 1867). This was +an original contribution to the history of the Jews and Judaism +in the time of Christ, and has been much used by later writers on +the subject (e.g. by Schürer). He also published in collaboration +with his son Hartwig, <i>Opuscules et traités d’Abou-’l-Walîd</i> (with +translation, 1880); <i>Deux Versions hébraïques du livre de Kalilâh +et Dimnah</i> (1881), and a Latin translation of the same story +under the title <i>Joannis de Capua directorium vitae humanae</i> +(1889); <i>Commentaire de Maimonide sur la Mischnah Seder +Tohorot</i> (Berlin, 1886-1891); and a second edition of S. de +Sacy’s <i>Séances de Hariri</i>. He died on the 29th of July 1895, at +Ems.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Hartwig Derenbourg</span> (1844-1908), was born in Paris +on the 17th of June 1844. He was educated at Göttingen and +Leipzig. Subsequently he studied Arabic at the École des +Langues Orientales. In 1879 he was appointed professor of +Arabic, and in 1886 professor of Mahommedan Religion, at the +École des Hautes Études in Paris. He collaborated with his +father in the great edition of Saadia and the edition of Abu-’l-Walîd, +and also produced a number of important editions of +other Arabic writers. Among these are <i>Le Dîwân de Nâbiqa +Dhobyānï</i>; <i>Le Livre de Sîbawaihi</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1889); +<i>Chrestomathie élémentaire de l’arabe littéral</i> (in collaboration with +Spiro, 1885; 2nd ed., 1892); <i>Ousâma ibn Mounkidh, un émir +syrien</i> (1889); <i>Ousâma ibn Mounkidh, préface du livre du bâton</i> +(with trans., 1887); <i>Al-Fákhrî</i> (1895); <i>Oumâra du Gémen</i> +(1897), a catalogue of Arabic MSS. in the Escorial (vol. i., +1884).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERG, LOUGH,</span> a lake of Ireland, on the boundary of the +counties Galway, Clare and Tipperary. It is an expansion of the +Shannon, being the lowest lake on that river, and is 23 m. long +and generally from 1 to 3 m. broad. It lies where the Shannon +leaves the central plain of Ireland and flows between the hills +which border the plain. While the northerly shores of the lake, +therefore, are flat, the southern are steep and picturesque, being +backed by the Slieve Aughty, Slieve Bernagh and Arra Mountains. +Ruined churches and fortresses are numerous on the eastern +shore, and on Iniscaltra Island are a round tower and remains of +five churches.</p> + +<p>Another <span class="sc">Lough Derg</span>, near Pettigo in Donegal, though small, +is famous as the traditional scene of St Patrick’s purgatory. In +the middle ages its pilgrimages had a European reputation, and +they are still observed annually by many of the Irish from June 1 +to August 15. The hospice, chapels, &c., are on Station Island, +and there is a ruined monastery on Saints’ Island.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERHAM, WILLIAM</span> (1657-1735), English divine, was born at +Stoulton, near Worcester, on the 26th of November 1657. He was +educated at Blockley, in his native county, and at Trinity College, +Oxford. In 1682 he became vicar of Wargrave, in Berkshire; +and in 1689 he was preferred to the living of Upminster, in Essex. +In 1696 he published his <i>Artificial Clockmaker</i>, which went +through several editions. The best known of his subsequent +works are <i>Physico-Theology</i>, published in 1713; <i>Astro-Theology</i>, +1714; and <i>Christo-Theology</i>, 1730. The first two of these books +were teleological arguments for the being and attributes of God, +and were used by Paley nearly a century later. In 1702 Derham +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74"></a>74</span> +was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1716 was made +a canon of Windsor. He was Boyle lecturer in 1711-1712. His +last work, entitled A <i>Defence of the Church’s Right in Leasehold +Estates</i>, appeared in 1731. He died on the 5th of April 1735. +Besides the works published in his own name, Derham, who +was keenly interested in natural history, contributed a variety +of papers to the <i>Transactions of the Royal Society, revised the +Miscellanea Curiosa</i>, edited the correspondence of John Ray and +Eleazar Albin’s <i>Natural History</i>, and published some of the MSS. +of Robert Hooke, the natural philosopher.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">D’ERLON, JEAN BAPTISTE DROUET,</span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1765-1844), +marshal of France, was born at Reims on the 29th of July 1765. +He entered the army as a private soldier in 1782, was discharged +after five years’ service, re-entered it in 1792, and rose rapidly to +the rank of an officer. From 1794 to 1796 he was aide-de-camp +to General Lefebvre. He did good service in the campaigns of +the revolutionary wars and in 1799 attained the rank of general +of brigade. In the campaign of that year he was engaged in +the Swiss operations under Masséna. In 1800 he fought under +Moreau at Hohenlinden. As a general of division he took part in +Napoleon’s campaigns of 1805 and 1806, and rendered excellent +service at Jena. He was next engaged under Lefebvre in the +siege of Danzig and negotiated the terms of surrender; after this +he rejoined the field army and fought at Friedland (1807), +receiving a severe wound. After this battle he was made grand +officer of the Legion of Honour, was created Count d’Erlon and +received a pension. For the next six years d’Erlon was almost +continuously engaged as commander of an army corps in the +Peninsular War, in which he added greatly to his reputation as a +capable general. At the pass of Maya in the Pyrenees he inflicted +a defeat upon Lord Hill’s troops, and in the subsequent battles +of the 1814 campaign he distinguished himself further. After +the first Restoration he was named commander of the 16th +military division, but he was soon arrested for conspiring with +the Orléans party, to which he was secretly devoted. He escaped, +however, and gave in his adhesion to Napoleon, who had returned +from Elba. The emperor made him a peer of France, and gave +him command of the I. army corps, which formed part of the +Army of the North. In the Waterloo campaign d’Erlon’s corps +formed part of Ney’s command on the 16th of June, but, in +consequence of an extraordinary series of misunderstandings, +took part neither at Ligny nor at Quatre Bras (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo +Campaign</a></span>). He was not, however, held to account by Napoleon, +and as the latter’s practice in such matters was severe to the +verge of injustice, it may be presumed that the failure was not +due to d’Erlon.</p> + +<p>He was in command of the right wing of the French army +throughout the great battle of the 18th of June, and fought in +the closing operations around Paris. At the second Restoration +d’Erlon fled into Germany, only returning to France after the +amnesty of 1825. He was not restored to the service until the +accession of Louis Philippe, in whose interests he had engaged in +several plots and intrigues. As commander of the 12th military +division (Nantes), he suppressed the legitimist agitation in his +district and caused the arrest of the duchess of Berry (1832). +His last active service was in Algeria, of which country he was +made governor-general in 1834 at the age of seventy. He +returned to France after two years, and was made marshal of +France shortly before his death at Paris on the 25th of January +1844.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERMOT MAC MURROUGH</span> (d. 1171), Irish king of Leinster, +succeeded his father in the principality of the Hui Cinsellaigh +(1115) and eventually in the kingship of Leinster. The early +events of his life are obscure; but about 1152 we find him +engaged in a feud with O Ruairc, the lord of Breifne (Leitrim and +Cavan). Dermot abducted the wife of O Ruairc more with the +object of injuring his rival than from any love of the lady. The +injured husband called to his aid Roderic, the high king (aird-righ) +of Connaught; and in 1166 Dermot fled before this powerful +coalition to invoke the aid of England. Obtaining from Henry II. +a licence to enlist allies among the Welsh marchers, Dermot +secured the aid of the Clares and Geraldines. To Richard +Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and head of the house of Clare, +Dermot gave his daughter Eva in marriage; and on his death +was succeeded by the earl in Leinster. The historical importance +of Dermot lies in the fact that he was the means of introducing +the English into Ireland. Through his aid the towns of Waterford, +Wexford and Dublin had already become English colonies +before the arrival of Henry II. in the island.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See <i>The Song of Dermot and the Earl, an old French Poem</i> (by M. +Regan?), ed. with trans. by G. H. Orpen, 1892; Kate Norgate, +<i>England under the Angevin Kings</i>, vol. ii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERNA</span> (anc. <i>Darnis-Zarine</i>), a town on the north coast of +Africa and capital of the eastern half of the Ottoman province +of Bengazi or Barca. Situated below the eastern butt of Jebel +Akhdar on a small but rich deltaic plain, watered by fine perennial +springs, it has a growing population and trade, the latter being +mainly in fruits grown in its extensive palm gardens, and in hides +and wool brought down by the nomads from the interior. If the +port were better there would be more rapid expansion. The bay +is open from N.W. round to S.E. and often inaccessible in winter +and spring, and the steamers of the <i>Nav. Gen. Italiana</i> sometimes +have to pass without calling. The population has recovered +from the great plague epidemic of 1821 and reached its former +figure of about 7000. A proportion of it is of Moorish stock, of +Andalusian origin, which emigrated in 1493; the descendants +preserve a fine facial type. The sheikhs of the local Bedouin +tribes have houses in the place, and a Turkish garrison of about +250 men is stationed in barracks. There is a lighthouse W. of the +bay. A British consular agent is resident and the Italians +maintain a vice-consul. The names Darnis and Zarine are +philologically identical and probably refer to the same place. No +traces are left of the ancient town except some rock tombs. +Darnis continued to be of some importance in early Moslem times +as a station on the Alexandria-Kairawan road, and has served +on more than one occasion as a base for Egyptian attacks on +Cyrenaica and Tripolitana. In 1805 the government of the +United States, having a quarrel with the dey of Tripoli on account +of piracies committed on American shipping, landed a force to +co-operate in the attack on Derna then being made by Sidi +Ahmet, an elder brother of the dey. This force, commanded by +<a href="#artlinks">William Eaton</a> (q.v.), built a fort, whose ruins and rusty guns are +still to be seen, and began to improve the harbour; but its work +quickly came to an end with the conclusion of peace. After 1835 +Derna passed under direct Ottoman control, and subsequently +served as the point whence the sultan exerted a precarious but +increasing control over eastern Cyrenaica and Marmarica. It is +now in communication by wireless telegraphy with Rhodes and +western Cyrenaica. It is the only town, or even large village, +between Bengazi and Alexandria (600 m.)</p> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DÉROULÈDE, PAUL</span> (1846-<span class="spc"> </span>), French author and politician, +was born in Paris on the 2nd of September 1846. He +made his first appearance as a poet in the pages of the <i>Revue +nationale</i>, under the pseudonym of Jean Rebel, and in 1869 produced +at the Théâtre Français a one-act drama in verse entitled +<i>Juan Strenner</i>. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he +enlisted as a private, was wounded and taken prisoner at Sedan, +and sent to Breslau, but effected his escape. He then served +under Chanzy and Bourbaki, took part in the latter’s disastrous +retreat to Switzerland, and fought against the Commune in Paris. +After attaining the rank of lieutenant, he was forced by an +accident to retire from the army. He published in 1872 a number +of patriotic poems (<i>Chants du soldat</i>), which enjoyed unbounded +popularity. This was followed in 1875 by another collection, +<i>Nouveaux Chants du soldat</i>. In 1877 he produced a drama in +verse called <i>L’Hetman</i>, which derived a passing success from the +patriotic fervour of its sentiments. For the exhibition of 1878 he +wrote a hymn, <i>Vive la France</i>, which was set to music by Gounod. +In 1880 his drama in verse, <i>La Moäbite</i>, which had been accepted +by the Théâtre Français, was forbidden by the censor on religious +grounds. In 1882 M. Déroulède founded the <i>Ligue des patriotes</i>, +with the object of furthering France’s “revanche” against +Germany. He was one of the first advocates of a Franco-Russian +alliance, and as early as 1883 undertook a journey to Russia for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>75</span> +the furtherance of that object. On the rise of General Boulanger, +M. Déroulède attempted to use the <i>Ligue des patriotes</i>, hitherto a +non-political organization, to assist his cause, but was deserted by +a great part of the league and forced to resign his presidency. +Nevertheless he used the section that remained faithful to him +with such effect that the government found it necessary in 1889 +to decree its suppression. In the same year he was elected to the +chamber as member for Angoulême. He was expelled from the +chamber in 1890 for his disorderly interruptions during debate. +He did not stand at the elections of 1893, but was re-elected in +1898, and distinguished himself by his violence as a nationalist +and anti-Dreyfusard. After the funeral of President Faure, on +the 23rd of February 1899, he endeavoured to persuade General +Roget to lead his troops upon the Élysée. For this he was +arrested, but on being tried for treason was acquitted (May 31). +On the 12th of August he was again arrested and accused, together +with André Buffet, Jules Guérin and others, of conspiracy against +the republic. After a long trial before the high court, he was +sentenced, on the 4th of January 1900, to ten years’ banishment +from France, and retired to San Sebastian. In 1901, he was +again brought prominently before the public by a quarrel with +his Royalist allies, which resulted in an abortive attempt to +arrange a duel with M. Buffet in Switzerland. In November +1905, however, the law of amnesty enabled him to return to +France.</p> + +<p>Besides the works already mentioned, he published <i>Le Sergent</i>, +in the <i>Theâtre de campagne</i> (1880); <i>De l’éducation nationale</i> +(1882); <i>Monsieur le Uhlan et les trois couleurs</i> (1884); <i>Le +Premier grenadier de France; La Tour d’Auvergne</i> (1886); <i>Le +Livre de la ligue des patriotes</i> (1887); <i>Refrains militaires</i> (1888); +<i>Histoire d’amour</i> (1890); a pamphlet entitled <i>Désarmement?</i> +(1891); <i>Chants du paysan</i> (1894); <i>Poésies Militaires</i> (1896) and +<i>Messire du Guesclin, drame en vers</i> (1895); <i>La mort de Hoche. +Cinq actes en prose</i> (1897); <i>La Plus belle fille du monde, conte +dialogué en vers libres</i> (1898).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERRICK,</span> a sort of <a href="#artlinks">crane</a> (q.v.); the name is derived from +that of a famous early 17th-century Tyburn hangman, and was +originally applied as a synonym.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERRING-DO,</span> valour, chivalrous conduct, or “desperate +courage,” as it is defined by Sir Walter Scott. The word in its +present accepted substantival form is a misconstruction of the +verbal substantive <i>dorryng</i> or <i>durring</i>, daring, and <i>do</i> or <i>don</i>, +the present infinitive of “do,” the phrase <i>dorryng do</i> thus +meaning “daring to do.” It is used by Chaucer in <i>Troylus</i>, +and by Lydgate in the <i>Chronicles of Troy</i>. Spenser in the +<i>Shepherd’s Calendar</i> first adapted <i>derring-do</i> as a substantive +meaning “manhood and chevalrie,” and this use was revived +by Scott, through whom it came into vogue with writers of +romance.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DE RUYTER, MICHAEL ADRIANZOON</span> (1607-1676), Dutch +naval officer, was born at Flushing on the 24th of March 1607. +He began his seafaring life at the age of eleven as a cabin boy, +and in 1636 was entrusted by the merchants of Flushing with +the command of a cruiser against the French pirates. In 1640 he +entered the service of the States, and, being appointed rear-admiral +of a fleet fitted out to assist Portugal against Spain, +specially distinguished himself at Cape St Vincent, on the 3rd of +November 1641. In the following year he left the service of the +States, and, until the outbreak of war with England in 1652, held +command of a merchant vessel. In 1653 a squadron of seventy +vessels was despatched against the English, under the command +of Admiral Tromp. Ruyter, who accompanied the admiral in +this expedition, seconded him with great skill and bravery in the +three battles which were fought with the English. He was afterwards +stationed in the Mediterranean, where he captured several +Turkish vessels. In 1659 he received a commission to join the +king of Denmark in his war with the Swedes. As a reward of +his services, the king of Denmark ennobled him and gave him +a pension. In 1661 he grounded a vessel belonging to Tunis, +released forty Christian slaves, made a treaty with the Tunisians, +and reduced the Algerine corsairs to submission. From his +achievements on the west coast of Africa he was recalled in 1665 +to take command of a large fleet which had been organized +against England, and in May of the following year, after a long +contest off the North Foreland, he compelled the English to take +refuge in the Thames. On the 7th of June 1672 he fought a +drawn battle with the combined fleets of England and France, in +Southwold or Sole Bay, and after the fight he convoyed safely +home a fleet of merchantmen. His valour was displayed to equal +advantage in several engagements with the French and English +in the following year. In 1676 he was despatched to the assistance +of Spain against France in the Mediterranean, and, receiving +a mortal wound in the battle on the 21st of April off Messina, +died on the 29th at Syracuse. A patent by the king of Spain, +investing him with the dignity of duke, did not reach the fleet till +after his death. His body was carried to Amsterdam, where a +magnificent monument to his memory was erected by command +of the states-general.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See <i>Life</i> of De Ruyter by Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687), and by +Klopp (2nd ed., Hanover, 1858).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERVISH,</span> a Persian word, meaning “seeking doors,” i.e. +“beggar,” and thus equivalent to the Arabic <i>faqïr</i> (fakir). +Generally in Islam it indicates a member of a religious fraternity, +whether mendicant or not; but in Turkey and Persia it indicates +more exactly a wandering, begging religious, called, in Arabic-speaking +countries, more specifically a <i>faqir</i>. With important +differences, the dervish fraternities may be compared to the +regular religious orders of Roman Christendom, while the <a href="#artlinks">Ulema</a> +(q.v.) are, also with important differences, like the secular clergy. +The origin and history of the mystical life in Islam, which led to +the growth of the order of dervishes, are treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Şūfi’ism</a></span> +It remains to treat here more particularly of (1) the dervish +fraternities, and (2) the Şūfï hierarchy.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Dervish Fraternities.</i>—In the earlier times, the relation +between devotees was that of master and pupil. Those inclined +to the spiritual life gathered round a revered sheikh (<i>murshid</i>, +“guide,” <i>ustadh</i>, <i>pir</i>, “teacher”), lived with him, shared his +religious practices and were instructed by him. In time of +war against the unbelievers, they might accompany him to the +threatened frontier, and fight under his eye. Thus <i>murābit</i>, +“one who pickets his horse on a hostile frontier,” has become +the <a href="#artlinks">marabout</a> (q.v.) or dervish of French Algeria; and <i>ribat</i>, “a +frontier fort,” has come to mean a monastery. The relation, +also, might be for a time only. The pupil might at any time +return to the world, when his religious education and training +were complete. On the death of the master the memory of his +life and sayings might go down from generation to generation, +and men might boast themselves as pupils of his pupils. Continuous +corporations to perpetuate his name were slow in forming. +Ghazali himself, though he founded, taught and ruled a Şūfï +cloister (<i>khānqāh</i>) at Tus, left no order behind him. But ’Adï +al-Hakkārï, who founded a cloister at Mosul and died about 1163, +was long reverenced by the ‘Adawite Fraternity, and in 1166 +died ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jilānï, from whom the Qādirite order +descends, one of the greatest and most influential to this day. +The troublous times of the break up of the Seljuk rule may have +been a cause in this, as, with St Benedict, the crumbling Roman +empire. Many existing fraternities, it is true, trace their origin +to saints of the third, second and even first Moslem centuries, but +that is legend purely. Similar is the tendency to claim all the +early pious Moslems as good Şūfïs; collections of Şūfï biography +begin with the ten to whom Mahomet promised Paradise. So, +too, the ultimate origin of fraternities is assigned to either Ali +or Abu Bekr, and in Egypt all are under the rule of a direct +descendant of the latter.</p> + +<p>To give a complete list of these fraternities is quite impossible. +Commonly, thirty-two are reckoned, but many have vanished +or have been suppressed, and there are sub-orders innumerable. +Each has a “rule” dating back to its founder, and a ritual which +the members perform when they meet together in their convent +(<i>khānqāh</i>, <i>zāwiya</i>, <i>takya</i>). This may consist simply in the repetition +of sacred phrases, or it may be an elaborate performance, +such as the whirlings of the dancing dervishes, the Mevlevites, +an order founded by Jelāl ud-Dïn ar-Rūmï, the author of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76"></a>76</span> +great Persian mystical poem, the <i>Mesnevi</i>, and always ruled by +one of his descendants. Jelāl ud-Dïn was an advanced pantheist, +and so are the Mevlevites, but that seems only to earn them the +dislike of the Ulema, and not to affect their standing in Islam. +They are the most broad-minded and tolerant of all. There are +also the performances of the Rifā‘ites or “howling dervishes.” +In ecstasy they cut themselves with knives; eat live coals and +glass, handle red-hot iron and devour serpents. They profess +miraculous healing powers, and the head of the Sa‘dites, a sub-order, +used, in Cairo, to ride over the bodies of his dervishes +without hurting them, the so-called Dōseh (<i>dausa</i>). These +different abilities are strictly regulated. Thus, one sub-order +may eat glass and another may eat only serpents. Another +division is made by their attitude to the law of Islam. When a +dervish is in a state of ecstasy (<i>majdhūb</i>), he is supposed to be +unconscious of the actions of his body. Reputed saints, therefore, +can do practically anything, as their souls will be supposed to be +out of their bodies and in the heavenly regions. They may not +only commit the vilest of actions, but neglect in general the +ceremonial and ritual law. This goes so far that in Persia and +Turkey dervish orders are classified as <i>bā-shar‘</i>, “with law,” and +<i>bï-shar‘</i>, “without law.” The latter are really antinomians, and +the best example of them is the Bakhtashite order, widely spread +and influential in Turkey and Albania and connected by legend +with the origin of the Janissaries. The Qalandarite order is known +to all from the “Calenders” of the <i>Thousand and One Nights</i>. +They separated from the Bakhtashites and are under obligation +of perpetual travelling. The Senussi (Senussia) were the last +order to appear, and are distinguished from the others by a +severely puritanic and reforming attitude and strict orthodoxy, +without any admixture of mystical slackness in faith or conduct. +Each order is distinguished by a peculiar garb. Candidates for +admission have to pass through a noviciate, more or less lengthy. +First comes the <i>‘ahd</i>, or initial covenant, in which the neophyte +or <i>murïd</i>, “seeker,” repents of his past sins and takes the sheikh +of the order he enters as his guide (<i>murshid</i>) for the future. +He then enters upon a course of instruction and discipline, called +a “path” (<i>tarïqa</i>), on which he advances through diverse +“stations” (<i>maqāmāt</i>) or “passes” (<i>‘aqabāt</i>) of the spiritual life. +There is a striking resemblance here to the gnostic system, with +its seven Archon-guarded gates. On another side, it is plain that +the sheikh, along with ordinary instruction of the novice, also +hypnotizes him and causes him to see a series of visions, marking +his penetration of the divine mystery. The part that hypnosis +and autohypnosis, conscious and unconscious, has played here +cannot easily be overestimated. The Mevlevites seem to have +the most severe noviciate. Their aspirant has to labour as a lay +servitor of the lowest rank for 1001 days—called the <i>kārrā kolak</i>, +or “jackal”—before he can be received. For one day’s failure +he must begin again from the beginning.</p> + +<p>But besides these full members there is an enormous number +of lay adherents, like the tertiaries of the Franciscans. Thus, +nearly every religious man of the Turkish Moslem world is a lay +member of one order or another, under the duty of saying certain +prayers daily. Certain trades, too, affect certain orders. Most +of the Egyptian Qādirites, for example, are fishermen and, on +festival days, carry as banners nets of various colours. On this side, +the orders bear a striking resemblance to lodges of Freemasons +and other friendly societies, and points of direct contact have +even been alleged between the more pantheistic and antinomian +orders, such as the Bakhtashite, and European Freemasonry. +On another side, just as the <i>dhikrs</i> of the early ascetic mystics +suggest comparison with the class-meetings of the early +Methodists, so these orders are the nearest approach in Islam +to the different churches of Protestant Christendom. They are +the only ecclesiastical organization that Islam has ever known, +but it is a multiform organization, unclassified internally or +externally. They differ thus from the Roman monastic orders, +in that they are independent and self-developing, each going its +own way in faith and practice, limited only by the universal +conscience (<i>ijmā‘</i>, “agreement”: see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Law</a></span>) of +Islam. Strange doctrines and moral defects may develop, but +freedom is saved, and the whole people of Islam can be reached +and affected.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Saints and the Şūfï Hierarchy.</i>—That an elaborate doctrine +of wonder-working saints should have grown up in Islam may, at +first sight, appear an extreme paradox. It can, however, be +conditioned and explained. First, Mahomet left undoubted +loop-holes for a minor inspiration, legitimate and illegitimate. +Secondly, the Şūfïs, under various foreign influences, developed +these to the fullest. Thirdly, just as the Christian church has +absorbed much of the mythology of the supposed exterminated +heathen religions into its cult of local saints, so Islam, to an +even higher degree, has been overlaid and almost buried by +the superstitions of the peoples to which it has gone. Their +religious and legal customs have completely overcome the direct +commands of the Koran, the traditions from Mahomet and +even the “Agreement” of the rest of the Moslem world (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Law</a></span>). The first step in this, it is true, was taken +by Mahomet himself when he accepted the Meccan pilgrimage and +the Black Stone. The worship of saints, therefore, has appeared +everywhere in Islam, with an absolute belief in their miracles +and in the value of their intercession, living or dead.</p> + +<p>Further, there appeared very early in Islam a belief that there +was always in existence some individual in direct intercourse +with God and having the right and duty of teaching and ruling +all mankind. This individual might be visible or invisible; +his right to rule continued. This is the basis of the Ismā‘ïlite +and Shï‘ite positions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Religion</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Institutions</a></span>). The Şūfïs applied this idea of +divine right to the doctrine of saints, and developed it into the +Şūfï hierarchy. This is a single, great, invisible organization, +forming a saintly board of administration, by which the invisible +government of the world is supposed to be carried on. Its head +is called the <i>Quţb</i> (Axis); he is presumably the greatest saint +of the time, is chosen by God for the office and given greater +miraculous powers and rights of intercession than any other saint +enjoys. He wanders through the world, often invisible and +always unknown, performing the duties of his office. Under +him there is an elaborate organization of <i>walïs</i>, of different ranks +and powers, according to their sanctity and faith. The term <i>walï</i> +is applied to a saint because of Kor. x. 63, “Ho! the <i>walïs</i> of +God; there is no fear upon them, nor do they grieve,” where +<i>walï</i> means “one who is near,” friend or favourite.</p> + +<p>In the fraternities, then, all are dervishes, cloistered or lay; +those whose faith is so great that God has given them miraculous +powers—and there are many—are <i>walïs</i>; begging friars are +<i>fakirs</i>. All forms of life—solitary, monastic, secular, celibate, +married, wandering, stationary, ascetic, free—are open. Their +theology is some form of Sūfi‘ism.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The bibliography of this subject is very large, and +the following only a selection:—(1) <i>On Dervishes.</i> In Egypt, Lane’s +<i>Modern Egyptians</i>, chaps. x., xx., xxiv., xxv.; in Turkey, D’Ohsson, +<i>Tableau général de l’emp. othoman</i>, ii. (Paris, 1790); <i>Turkey in +Europe</i> by “Odysseus” (London, 1900); in Persia, E. G. Browne, +<i>A Year among the Persians</i> (1893), in Morocco, T. H. Weir, <i>Sheikhs +of Morocco</i> (Edinburgh, 1904); B. Meakin, <i>The Moors</i> (London, 1902), +chap. xix.; in Central Asia, all Vambéry’s books of travel and +history. In general, Hughes, <i>Dict. of Islam</i>, s.v. “Faqir”; Depont +and Cappolani, <i>Les Confréries religieuses musulmanes</i> (Alger, 1897); +J. P. Brown, <i>The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism</i> (London, 1868). +(2) <i>On Saints.</i> I. Goldziher, <i>Muhammedanische Studien</i>, ii. 277 ff., +and “De l’ascétisme aux premiers temps de l’Islam” in <i>Revue de +l’histoire des religions</i>, vol. xxxvii. pp. 134 ff.; Lane, <i>Modern +Egyptians</i>, chap. x.; <i>Arabian Nights</i>, chap. iii. note 63; Vollers in +<i>Zeitsch. d. morgenländ. Gesellsch.</i> xliii. 115 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(<span class="sc">D. B. Ma.</span>)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERWENT</span> (Celtic <i>Dwr-gent</i>, clear water), the name of several +English rivers. (1) The Yorkshire Derwent collects the greater +part of the drainage of the North Yorkshire moors, rising in their +eastern part. A southern head-stream, however, rises in the +Yorkshire Wolds near Filey, little more than a mile from the +North Sea, from which it is separated by a morainic deposit, and +thus flows in an inland direction. The early course of the Derwent +lies through a flat open valley between the North Yorkshire moors +and the Yorkshire Wolds, the upper part of which is known as +the Carrs, when the river follows an artificial drainage cut. It +receives numerous tributaries from the moors, then breaches the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77"></a>77</span> +low hills below Malton in a narrow picturesque valley, and +debouches upon the central plain of Yorkshire. Its direction, +hitherto westerly and south-westerly from the Carrs, now becomes +southerly, and it flows roughly parallel to the Ouse, which it +joins near Barmby-on-the-Marsh, in the level district between +Selby and the head of the Humber estuary, after a course, +excluding minor sinuosities, of about 70 m. As a tributary of +the Ouse it is included in the Humber basin. It is tidal up to +Sutton-upon-Derwent, 15 m. from the junction with the Ouse, +and is locked up to Malton, but the navigation is little used. A +canal leads east from the tidal water to the small market town of +Pocklington.</p> + +<p>(2) The Derbyshire Derwent rises in Bleaklow Hill north of +the Peak and traverses a narrow dale, which, with those of such +tributary streams as the Noe, watering Hope Valley, and the Wye, +is famous for its beauty (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Derbyshire</a></span>). The Derwent flows +south past Chatsworth, Matlock and Belper and then, passing +Derby, debouches upon a low plain, and turns south-eastward, +with an extremely sinuous course, to join the Trent near Sawley. +Its length is about 60 m. It falls in all some 1700 ft. (from +Matlock 200 ft.), and no part is navigable, save certain reaches at +Matlock and elsewhere for pleasure boats.</p> + +<p>(3) The Cumberland Derwent rises below Great End in the +Lake District, draining <span class="correction" title="corrected from Spinkling">Sprinkling</span> and Sty Head tarns, and flows +through Borrowdale, receiving a considerable tributary from +Lang Strath. It then drains the lakes of Derwentwater and +Bassenthwaite, after which its course, hitherto N. and N.N.W., +turns W. and W. by S. past Cockermouth to the Irish Sea +at Workington. The length is about 34 m., and the fall about +2000 ft. (from Derwentwater 244 ft.); the waters are usually +beautifully clear, and the river is not navigable. At a former +period this stream must have formed one large lake covering the +whole area which includes Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite; +between which a flat alluvial plain is formed of the deposits of +the river Greta, which now joins the Derwent from the east +immediately below Derwentwater, and the Newlands Beck, +which enters Bassenthwaite. In time of high flood this plain is +said to have been submerged, and the two lakes thus reunited.</p> + +<p>(4) A river Derwent rises in the Pennines near the borders of +Northumberland and Durham, and, forming a large part of the +boundary between these counties, takes a north-easterly course +of 30 m. to the Tyne, which it joins 3 m. above Newcastle.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERWENTWATER, EARL OF,</span> an English title borne by the +family of Radclyffe, or Radcliffe, from 1688 to 1716 when the +3rd earl was attainted and beheaded, and claimed by his +descendants, adherents of the exiled house of Stewart, from that +date until the death of the last male heir in 1814. Sir Francis +Radclyffe, 3rd baronet (1625-1697), was the lineal descendant of +Sir Nicholas Radclyffe, who acquired the extensive Derwentwater +estates in 1417 through his marriage with the heiress of +John de Derwentwater, and of Sir Francis Radclyffe, who was +made a baronet in 1619. In 1688 Sir Francis was created +Viscount Radclyffe and earl of Derwentwater by James II., +and dying in 1697 was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest +son Edward (1655-1705), who had married Lady Mary Tudor +(d. 1726), a natural daughter of Charles II. The 2nd earl died +in 1705, and was succeeded by his eldest son James (1689-1716), +who was born in London on the 28th of June 1689, and was +brought up at the court of the Stewarts in France as companion +to Prince James Edward, the old Pretender. In 1710 he came +to reside on his English estates, and in July 1712 was married to +Anna Maria (d. 1723), daughter of Sir John Webb, baronet, of +Odstock, Wiltshire. Joining without any hesitation in the +Stewart rising of 1715, Derwentwater escaped arrest owing to the +devotion of his tenantry, and in October, with about seventy +followers, he joined Thomas Forster at Green-rig. Like Forster +the earl was lacking in military experience, and when the rebels +capitulated at Preston he was conveyed to London and impeached. +Pleading guilty at his trial he was attainted and +condemned to death. Great efforts were made to obtain a +mitigation of the sentence, but the government was obdurate, +and Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 24th +of February 1716, declaring on the scaffold his devotion to the +Roman Catholic religion and to King James III. The earl was +very popular among his tenantry and in the neighbourhood of +his residence, Dilston Hall. His gallant bearing and his sad +fate have been celebrated in song and story, and the <i>aurora +borealis</i>, which shone with exceptional brightness on the night of +his execution, is known locally as “Lord Derwentwater’s lights.” +He left an only son John, who, in spite of his father’s attainder, +assumed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and who died unmarried +in 1731; and a daughter Alice Mary (d. 1760), who +married in 1732 Robert James, 8th Baron Petre (1713-1742).</p> + +<p>On the death of John Radclyffe in 1731 his uncle Charles +(1693-1746), the only surviving son of the 2nd earl, took the +title of earl of Derwentwater. Charles Radclyffe had shared the +fate of his brother, the 3rd earl, at Preston in November 1715, +and had been condemned to death for high treason; but, more +fortunate than James, he had succeeded in escaping from prison, +and had joined the Stewarts on the Continent. In 1724 he +married Charlotte Maria (d. 1755), in her own right countess of +Newburgh, and after spending some time in Rome, he was +captured by an English ship in November 1745 whilst proceeding +to join Charles Edward, the young Pretender, in Scotland. +Condemned to death under his former sentence he was beheaded +on the 8th of December 1746. His eldest son, James Bartholomew +(1725-1786), who had shared his father’s imprisonment, then +claimed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and on his mother’s +death in 1755 became 3rd earl of Newburgh. His only son +and successor, Anthony James (1757-1814), died without issue +in 1814, when the title became extinct <i>de facto</i> as well as <i>de +jure</i>. Many of the forfeited estates in Northumberland and +Cumberland had been settled upon Greenwich Hospital, and in +1749 a sum of £30,000 had been raised upon them for the benefit +of the earl of Newburgh. The present representative of the +Radclyffe family is Lord Petre, and in 1874 the bodies of the +first three earls of Derwentwater were reburied in the family vault +of the Petres at Thorndon, Essex.</p> + +<p>In 1865 a woman appeared in Northumberland who claimed +to be a grand-daughter of the 4th earl and, as there were +no male heirs, to be countess of Derwentwater and owner of the +estates. She said the 4th earl had not died in 1731 but had +married and settled in Germany. Her story aroused some +interest, and it was necessary to eject her by force from Dilston +Hall.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See R. Patten, <i>History of the Late Rebellion</i> (London, 1717); W. S. +Gibson, <i>Dilston Hall, or Memoirs of James Radcliffe, earl of Derwentwater</i> +(London, 1848-1850); G. E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i> +(Exeter, 1887-1898); and <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, vol. xlvii. +(London, 1896).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DERWENTWATER,</span> a lake of Cumberland, England, in the +northern part of the celebrated <a href="#artlinks">Lake District</a> (q.v. for the physical +relations of the lake with the district at large). It is of irregular +figure, approaching to an oval, about 3 m. in length and from +½ m. to 1¼ m. in breadth. The greatest depth is 70 ft. The lake +is seen at one view, within an amphitheatre of mountains of +varied outline, overlooked by others of greater height. Several +of the lesser elevations near the lake are especially famous as +view-points, such as Castle Head, Walla Crag, Ladder Brow and +Cat Bells. The shores are well wooded, and the lake is studded +with several islands, of which Lord’s Island, Derwent Isle and +St Herbert’s are the principal. Lord’s Island was the residence +of the earls of Derwentwater. St Herbert’s Isle receives its name +from having been the abode of a holy man of that name mentioned +by Bede as contemporary with St Cuthbert of Farne Island in the +7th century. Derwent Isle, about six acres in extent, contains +a handsome residence surrounded by lawns, gardens and timber +of large growth. The famous Falls of Lodore, at the upper end +of the lake, consist of a series of cascades in the small Watendlath +Beck, which rushes over an enormous pile of protruding crags +from a height of nearly 200 ft. The “Floating Island” appears +at intervals on the upper portion of the lake near the mouth +of the beck. This singular phenomenon is supposed to owe its +appearance to an accumulation of gas, formed by the decay of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78"></a>78</span> +vegetable matter, detaching and raising to the surface the matted +weeds which cover the floor of the lake at this point. The river +<a href="#artlinks">Derwent</a> (q.v.) enters the lake from the south and leaves it on the +north, draining it through Bassenthwaite lake, to the Irish Sea. +To the north-east of the lake lies the town of Keswick.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DES ADRETS, FRANÇOIS DE BEAUMONT,</span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (c. 1512-1587), +French Protestant leader, was born in 1512 or 1513 at +the château of La Frette (Isère). During the reign of Henry II. of +France he served with distinction in the royal army and became +colonel of the “legions” of Dauphiné, Provence and Languedoc. +In 1562, however, he joined the Huguenots, not from religious +conviction but probably from motives of ambition and personal +dislike of the house of Guise. His campaign against the Catholics +in 1562 was eminently successful. In June of that year Des +Adrets was master of the greater part of Dauphiné. But his +brilliant military qualities were marred by his revolting atrocities. +The reprisals he exacted from the Catholics after their massacres +of the Huguenots at Orange have left a dark stain upon his name. +The garrisons that resisted him were butchered with every circumstance +of brutality, and at Montbrison, in Forez, he forced +eighteen prisoners to precipitate themselves from the top of the +keep. Having alienated the affections of the Huguenots by +his pride and violence, he entered into communication with the +Catholics, and declared himself openly in favour of conciliation. +On the 10th of January 1563 he was arrested on suspicion by +some Huguenot officers and confined in the citadel of Nîmes. +He was liberated at the edict of Amboise in the following March, +and, distrusted alike by Huguenots and Catholics, retired to the +château of La Frette, where he died, a Catholic, on the 2nd of +February 1587.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—J. Roman, <i>Documents inédits sur le baron des +Adrets</i> (1878); and memoirs and histories of the time. See also +Guy Allard, <i>Vie de François de Beaumont</i> (1675); l’abbé J. C. Martin, +<i>Histoire politique et militaire de François de Beaumont</i> (1803); Eugène +and Émile Haag, <i>La France protestante</i> (2nd ed., 1877 seq.).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS CHARLES ANTOINE</span> +(1768-1800), French general, was born of a noble though impoverished +family. He received a military education at the +school founded by Marshal d’Effiat, and entered the French +royal army. During the first six years of his service the young +officer devoted himself assiduously to duty and the study of his +profession, and at the outbreak of the Revolution threw himself +whole-heartedly into the cause of liberty. In spite of the pressure +put upon him by his relatives, he refused to “emigrate,” and +in 1792 is found serving on Broglie’s staff. The disgrace of this +general nearly cost young Desaix his life, but he escaped the +guillotine, and by his conspicuous services soon drew upon +himself the favour of the Republican government. Like many +other members of the old ruling classes who had accepted the new +order of things, the instinct of command, joined to native ability, +brought Desaix rapidly to high posts. By 1794 he had attained +the rank of general of division. In the campaign of 1795 he +commanded Jourdan’s right wing, and in Moreau’s invasion of +Bavaria in the following year he held an equally important +command. In the retreat which ensued when the archduke +Charles won the battles of Amberg and Würzburg (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French +Revolutionary Wars</a></span>) Desaix commanded Moreau’s rearguard, +and later the fortress of Kehl, with the highest distinction, and +his name became a household word, like those of Bonaparte, +Jourdan, Hoche, Marceau and Kléber. Next year his initial +successes were interrupted by the Preliminaries of Leoben, +and he procured for himself a mission into Italy in order to +meet General Bonaparte, who spared no pains to captivate the +brilliant young general from the almost rival camps of Germany. +Provisionally appointed commander of the “Army of England,” +Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary +force intended for Egypt. It was his division which bore the +brunt of the Mameluke attack at the battle of the Pyramids, and +he crowned his reputation by his victories over Murad Bey in +Upper Egypt. Amongst the fellaheen he acquired the significant +appellation of the “Just Sultan.” When his chief handed over +the command to Kléber and prepared to return to France, +Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany the +future emperor. But, from various causes, it was many months +before he could join the new Consul. The campaign of 1800 was +well on its way to the climax when Desaix at last reported +himself for duty in Italy. He was immediately assigned to the +command of a corps of two infantry divisions. Three days later +(June 14), detached, with Boudet’s division, at Rivalta, he heard +the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the initiative he +marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonaparte’s staff +officer, who had come to recall him, half way on the route. He +arrived with Boudet’s division at the moment when the Austrians +were victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, “There is yet +time to win another battle!” he led his three regiments straight +against the enemy’s centre. At the moment of victory Desaix +was killed by a musket ball. Napoleon paid a just tribute to the +memory of one of the most brilliant soldiers of that brilliant time +by erecting the monuments of Desaix on the Place Dauphinè and +the Place des Victoires in Paris.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See F. Martha-Beker, Comte de Mons, <i>Le Général L. C. A. Desaix</i> +(Paris, 1852).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DÉSAUGIERS, MARC ANTOINE MADELEINE</span> (1772-1827), +French dramatist and song-writer, son of Marc Antoine +Désaugiers, a musical composer, was born at Fréjus (Var) on +the 17th of November 1772. He studied at the Mazarin college +in Paris, where he had for one of his teachers the critic Julien +Louis Geoffroy. He entered the seminary Saint Lazare with a +view to the priesthood, but soon gave up his intention. In his +nineteenth year he produced in collaboration with his father a +light opera (1791) adapted from the <i>Médecin malgré lui</i> of Molière.</p> + +<p>During the Revolution he emigrated to St Domingo, and during +the negro revolt he was made prisoner, barely escaping with his +life. He took refuge in the United States, where he supported +himself by teaching the piano. In 1797 he returned to his native +country, and in a very few years he became famous as a writer of +comedies, operas and vaudevilles, which were produced in rapid +succession at the Théâtre des Variétés and the Vaudeville. He +also wrote convivial and satirical songs, which, though different +in character, can only worthily be compared with those of +Béranger. He was at one time president of the <i>Caveau</i>, a convivial +society whose members were then chiefly drawn from +literary circles. He had the honour of introducing Béranger as a +member. In 1815 Désaugiers succeeded Pierre Yves Barré as +manager of the Vaudeville, which prospered under his management +until, in 1820, the opposition of the Gymnase proved too +strong for him, and he resigned. He died in Paris on the 9th of +August 1827.</p> + +<p>Among his pieces maybe mentioned <i>Le Valet d’emprunt</i> (1807); +<i>Monsieur Vautour</i> (1811); and <i>Le Règne d’un terme et le terme d’un +règne</i>, aimed at Napoleon.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>An edition of Désaugiers’ <i>Chansons et Poésies diverses</i> appeared in +1827. A new selection with a notice by Alfred de Bougy appeared +in 1858. See also Sainte-Beuve’s <i>Portraits contemporains</i>, vol. v.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESAULT, PIERRE JOSEPH</span> (1744-1795), French anatomist +and surgeon, was born at Magny-Vernois (Haute Saône) on the +6th of February 1744. He was destined for the church, but his +own inclination was towards the study of medicine; and, after +learning something from the barber-surgeon of his native village, +he was settled as an apprentice in the military hospital of Belfort, +where he acquired some knowledge of anatomy and military +surgery. Going to Paris when about twenty years of age, he +opened a school of anatomy in the winter of 1766, the success +of which excited the jealousy of the established teachers and +professors, who endeavoured to make him give up his lectures. +In 1776 he was admitted a member of the corporation of +surgeons; and in 1782 he was appointed surgeon-major to the +hospital <i>De la Charité</i>. Within a few years he was recognized +as one of the leading surgeons of France. The clinical school of +surgery which he instituted at the Hôtel Dieu attracted great +numbers of students, not only from every part of France but also +from other countries; and he frequently had an audience of +about 600. He introduced many improvements into the practice +of surgery, as well as into the construction of various surgical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79"></a>79</span> +instruments. In 1791 he established a <i>Journal de chirurgerie</i>, +edited by his pupils, which was a record of the most interesting +cases that had occurred in his clinical school, with the remarks +which he had made upon them in the course of his lectures. But +in the midst of his labours he became obnoxious to some of the +revolutionists, and he was, on some frivolous charge, denounced +to the popular sections. After being twice examined, he was +seized on the 28th of May 1793, while delivering a lecture, carried +away from his theatre, and committed to prison in the Luxembourg. +In three days, however, he was liberated, and permitted +to resume his functions. He died in Paris on the 1st of June 1795, +the story that his death was caused by poison being disproved +by the autopsy carried out by his pupil, M. F. X. Bichat. A +pension was settled on his widow by the republic. Together +with François Chopart (1743-1795) he published a <i>Traité des +maladies chirurgicales</i> (1779), and Bichat published a digest +of his surgical doctrines in <i>Œuvres chirurgicales de Desault</i> +(1798-1799).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DES BARREAUX, JACQUES VALLÉE, SIEUR</span> (1602-1673), +French poet, was born in Paris in 1602. His great-uncle, +Geoffroy-Vallée, had been hanged in 1574 for the authorship of +a book called <i>Le Fléau de la foy</i>. His nephew appears to have +inherited his scepticism, which on one occasion nearly cost him +his life. The peasants of Touraine attributed to the presence +of the unbeliever an untimely frost that damaged the vines, +and proposed to stone him. His authorship of the sonnet on +“Pénitence,” by which he is generally known, has been disputed. +He had the further distinction of being the first of the lovers of +Marion Delorme. He died at Chalon-sur-Saône on the 9th of +May 1673.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See <i>Poésies de Des Barreaux</i> (1904), edited by F. Lachèvre.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESBOROUGH, JOHN</span> (1608-1680), English soldier and +politician, son of James Desborough of Eltisley, Cambridgeshire, +and of Elizabeth Hatley of Over, in the same county, was baptized +on the 13th of November 1608. He was educated for the law. +On the 23rd of June 1636 he married Eltisley Jane, daughter +of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon, and sister of the future +Protector. He took an active part in the Civil War when it +broke out, and showed considerable military ability. In 1645 he +was present as major in the engagement at Langport on the 10th +of July, at Hambleton Hill on the 4th of August, and on the 10th +of September he commanded the horse at the storming of Bristol. +Later he took part in the operations round Oxford. In 1648 +as colonel he commanded the forces at Great Yarmouth. He +avoided all participation in the trial of the king in June 1649, +being employed in the settlement of the west of England. He +fought at Worcester as major-general and nearly captured +Charles II. near Salisbury. After the establishment of the +Commonwealth he was chosen, on the 17th of January 1652, a +member of the committee for legal reforms. In 1653 he became +a member of the Protectorate council of state, and a commissioner +of the treasury, and was appointed one of the four +generals at sea and a commissioner for the army and navy. In +1654 he was made constable of St Briavel’s Castle in Gloucestershire. +Next year he was appointed major-general over the west. +He had been nominated a member of Barebones’ parliament +in 1653, and he was returned to the parliament of 1654 for +Cambridgeshire, and to that of 1656 for Somersetshire. In July +1657 he became a member of the privy council, and in 1658 he +accepted a seat in Cromwell’s House of Lords. In spite of his +near relationship to the Protector’s family, he was one of the +most violent opponents of the assumption by Cromwell of the +royal title, and after the Protector’s death, instead of supporting +the interests and government of his nephew Richard Cromwell, +he was, with Fleetwood, the chief instigator and organizer of the +hostility of the army towards his administration, and forced him +by threats and menaces to dissolve his parliament in April 1659. +He was chosen a member of the council of state by the restored +Rump, and made colonel and governor of Plymouth, but presenting +with other officers a seditious petition from the army +council, on the 5th of October, was about a week later dismissed. +After the expulsion of the Rump by Fleetwood on the 13th of +October he was chosen by the officers a member of the new +administration and commissary-general of the horse. The new +military government, however, rested on no solid foundation, and +its leaders quickly found themselves without any influence. +Desborough himself became an object of ridicule, his regiment +even revolted against him, and on the return of the Rump he +was ordered to quit London. At the restoration he was excluded +from the act of indemnity but not included in the clause of pains +and penalties extending to life and goods, being therefore only +incapacitated from public employment. Soon afterwards he was +arrested on suspicion of conspiring to kill the king and queen, +but was quickly liberated. Subsequently he escaped to Holland, +where he engaged in republican intrigues. Accordingly he was +ordered home, in April 1666, on pain of incurring the charge of +treason, and obeying was imprisoned in the Tower till February +1667, when he was examined before the council and set free. +Desborough died in 1680. By his first wife, Cromwell’s sister, he +had one daughter and seven sons; he married a second wife in +April 1658 whose name is unrecorded. Desborough was a good +soldier and nothing more; and his only conception of government +was by force and by the army. His rough person and +manners are the constant theme of ridicule in the royalist ballads, +and he is caricatured in Butler’s <i>Hudibras</i> and in the <i>Parable of +the Lion and Fox</i>.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESCARTES, RENÉ</span> (1596-1650), French philosopher, was +born at La Haye, in Touraine, midway between Tours and +Poitiers, on the 31st of March 1596, and died at Stockholm on the +11th of February 1650. The house where he was born is still +shown, and a <i>métairie</i> about 3 m. off retains the name of +Les Cartes. His family on both sides was of Poitevin descent. +Joachim Descartes, his father, having purchased a commission +as counsellor in the parlement of Rennes, introduced the family +into that demi-noblesse of the robe which, between the bourgeoisie +and the high nobility, maintained a lofty rank in French society. +He had three children, a son who afterwards succeeded to his +father in the parlement, a daughter who married a M. du Crevis, +and René, after whose birth the mother died.</p> + +<p>Descartes, known as Du Perron, from a small estate destined +for his inheritance, soon showed an inquisitive mind. From +1604 to 1612 he studied at the school of La Flêche, +<span class="sidenote">Early years.</span> +which Henry IV. had lately founded and endowed for +the Jesuits. He enjoyed exceptional privileges; his +feeble health excused him from the morning duties, and thus +early he acquired the habit of reflection in bed, which clung to +him throughout life. Even then he had begun to distrust the +authority of tradition and his teachers. Two years before he +left school he was selected as one of the twenty-four who went +forth to receive the heart of Henry IV. as it was borne to its +resting-place at La Flêche. At the age of sixteen he went home +to his father, who was now settled at Rennes, and had married +again. During the winter of 1612 he completed his preparations +for the world by lessons in horsemanship and fencing; and then +started as his own master to taste the pleasures of Parisian life. +Fortunately he went to no perilous lengths; the worst we hear +of is a passion for gaming. Here, too, he made the acquaintance +of Claude Mydorge, one of the foremost mathematicians of France, +and renewed an early intimacy with <a href="#artlinks">Marin Mersenne</a> (q.v.), now +Father Mersenne, of the order of Minim friars. The withdrawal +of Mersenne in 1614 to a post in the provinces was the signal for +Descartes to abandon social life and shut himself up for nearly +two years in a secluded house of the faubourg St Germain. +Accident betrayed the secret of his retirement; he was compelled +to leave his mathematical investigations, and to take part +in entertainments, where the only thing that chimed in with his +theorizing reveries was the music. French politics were at that +time characterized by violence and intrigue to such an extent +that Paris was no fit place for a student, and there was little +honourable prospect for a soldier. Accordingly, in May 1617, +Descartes set out for the Netherlands and took service in the +army of Prince Maurice of Orange. At Breda he enlisted as a +volunteer, and the first and only pay which he accepted he kept +as a curiosity through life. There was a lull in the war, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80"></a>80</span> +Netherlands was distracted by the quarrels of Gomarists and +Arminians. During the leisure thus arising, Descartes one day +had his attention drawn to a placard in the Dutch tongue; as +the language, of which he never became perfectly master, was +then strange to him, he asked a bystander to interpret it into +either French or Latin. The stranger, Isaac Beeckman, principal +of the college of Dort, offered to do so into Latin, if the inquirer +would bring him a solution of the problem,—for the advertisement +was one of those challenges which the mathematicians of +the age were accustomed to throw down to all comers, daring +them to discover a geometrical mystery known as they fancied +to themselves alone. Descartes promised and fulfilled; and a +friendship grew up between him and Beeckman—broken only +by the dishonesty of the latter, who in later years took credit for +the novelty contained in a small essay on music (<i>Compendium +Musicae</i>) which Descartes wrote at this period and entrusted to +Beeckman.<a name="FnAnchor_1j" href="#Footnote_1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>After spending two years in Holland as a soldier in a period +of peace, Descartes, in July 1619, attracted by the news of +the impending struggle between the house of Austria and the +Protestant princes, consequent upon the election of the palatine +of the Rhine to the kingdom of Bohemia, set out for upper +Germany, and volunteered into the Bavarian service. The +winter of 1619, spent in quarters at Neuburg on the Danube, was +the critical period in his life. Here, in his warm room (<i>dans un +poêle</i>), he indulged those meditations which afterwards led to the +<i>Discourse of Method</i>. It was here that, on the eve of St Martin’s +day, he “was filled with enthusiasm, and discovered the foundations +of a marvellous science.” He retired to rest with anxious +thoughts of his future career, which haunted him through the +night in three dreams that left a deep impression on his mind. +The date of his philosophical conversion is thus fixed to a day. +But as yet he had only glimpses of a logical method which should +invigorate the syllogism by the co-operation of ancient geometry +and modern algebra. For during the year that elapsed before he +left Swabia (and whilst he sojourned at Neuburg and Ulm), and +amidst his geometrical studies, he would fain have gathered some +knowledge of the mystical wisdom attributed to the Rosicrucians; +but the Invisibles, as they called themselves, kept their secret. +He was present at the battle of Weisser Berg (near Prague), where +the hopes of the elector palatine were blasted (November 8, +1620), passed the winter with the army in southern Bohemia, +and next year served in Hungary under Karl Bonaventura de +Longueval, Graf von Buquoy or Boucquoi (1571-1621). On the +death of this general Descartes quitted the imperial service, and +in July 1621 began a peaceful tour through Moravia, the borders +of Poland, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Holstein and Friesland, +from which he reappeared in February 1622 in Belgium, and +betook himself directly to his father’s home at Rennes in +Brittany.</p> + +<p>At Rennes Descartes found little to interest him; and, after +he had visited the maternal estate of which his father now put +him in possession, he went to Paris, where he found the Rosicrucians +the topic of the hour, and heard himself credited with +partnership in their secrets. A short visit to Brittany enabled +him, with his father’s consent, to arrange for the sale of his +property in Poitou. The proceeds were invested in such a way +at Paris as to bring him in a yearly income of between 6000 and +7000 francs (equal now to more than £500). Towards the end +of the year Descartes was on his way to Italy. The natural +phenomena of Switzerland, and the political complications in +the Valtellina, where the Catholic inhabitants had thrown off the +yoke of the Grisons and called in the Papal and Spanish troops +to their assistance, delayed him some time; but he reached +Venice in time to see the ceremony of the doge’s wedlock with the +Adriatic. After paying his vows at Loretto, he came to Rome, +which was then on the eve of a year of jubilee—an occasion which +Descartes seized to observe the variety of men and manners which +the city then embraced within its walls. In the spring of 1625 +he returned home by Mont Cenis, observing the avalanches,<a name="FnAnchor_2j" href="#Footnote_2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +instead of, as his relatives hoped, securing a post in the French +army in Piedmont.</p> + +<p>For an instant Descartes seems to have concurred in the plan +of purchasing a post at Châtellerault, but he gave up the idea, +and settled in Paris (June 1625), in the quarter where he had +sought seclusion before. By this time he had ceased to devote +himself to pure mathematics, and in company with his friends +Mersenne and Mydorge was deeply interested in the theory of +the refraction of light, and in the practical work of grinding +glasses of the best shape suitable for optical instruments. But +all the while he was engaged with reflections on the nature of +man, of the soul and of God, and for a while he remained invisible +even to his most familiar friends. But their importunity made a +hermitage in Paris impossible; a graceless friend even surprised +the philosopher in bed at eleven in the morning meditating and +taking notes. In disgust, Descartes started for the west to take +part in the siege of La Rochelle, and entered the city with the +troops (October 1628). A meeting at which he was present after +his return to Paris decided his vocation. He had expressed an +opinion that the true art of memory was not to be gained by +technical devices, but by a philosophical apprehension of things; +and the cardinal de Berulle, the founder of the Congregation of +the Oratory, was so struck by the tone of the remarks as to +impress upon the speaker the duty of spending his life in the +examination of truth. Descartes accepted the philosophic +mission, and in the spring of 1629 he settled in Holland. His +financial affairs he had entrusted to the care of the abbé Picot, +and as his literary and scientific representative he adopted +Mersenne.</p> + +<p>Till 1649 Descartes lived in Holland. Thrice only did he +revisit France—in 1644, 1647 and 1648. The first of these +occasions was in order to settle family affairs after the death +of his father in 1640. The second brief visit, in 1647, partly on +literary, partly on family business, was signalized by the award +of a pension of 3000 francs, obtained from the royal bounty +by Cardinal Mazarin. The last visit in 1648 was less fortunate. +A royal order summoned him to France for new honours—an +additional pension and a permanent post—for his fame had by +this time gone abroad, and it was the age when princes sought to +attract genius and learning to their courts. But when Descartes +arrived, he found Paris rent asunder by the civil war of the +Fronde. He paid the costs of his royal parchment, and left +without a word of reproach. The only other occasions on which +he was out of the Netherlands were in 1630, when he made a +flying visit to England to observe for himself some alleged +magnetic phenomena, and in 1634, when he took an excursion +to Denmark.</p> + +<p>During his residence in Holland he lived at thirteen different +places, and changed his abode twenty-four times. In the choice +of these spots two motives seem to have influenced him—the +neighbourhood of a university or college, and the amenities of +the situation. Among these towns were Franeker in Friesland, +Harderwyk, Deventer, Utrecht, Leiden, Amersfoort, Amsterdam, +Leeuwarden in Friesland. His favourite residences were +Endegeest, Egmond op den Hoef and Egmond the Abbey (west +of Zaandam).</p> + +<p>The time thus spent seems to have been on the whole happy, +even allowing for warm discussions with the mathematicians +and metaphysicians of France, and for harassing controversies in +the Netherlands. Friendly agents—chiefly Catholic priests—were +the intermediaries who forwarded his correspondence from Dort, +Haarlem, Amsterdam and Leiden to his proper address, which he +kept completely secret; and Father Mersenne sent him objections +and questions. His health, which in his youth had been bad, +improved. “I sleep here ten hours every night,” he writes +from Amsterdam, “and no care ever shortens my slumber.” +“I take my walk every day through the confusion of a great +multitude with as much freedom and quiet as you could find in +your rural avenues.”<a name="FnAnchor_3j" href="#Footnote_3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> At his first coming to Franeker he +arranged to get a cook acquainted with French cookery; but, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>81</span> +to prevent misunderstanding, it may be added that his diet was +mainly vegetarian, and that he rarely drank wine. New friends +gathered round him who took a keen interest in his researches. +Once only do we find him taking an interest in the affairs of his +neighbours,—to ask pardon from the government for a homicide.<a name="FnAnchor_4j" href="#Footnote_4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +He continued the profession of his religion. Sometimes from +curiosity he went to the ministrations of anabaptists,<a name="FnAnchor_5j" href="#Footnote_5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a> to hear +the preaching of peasants and artisans. He carried few books +to Holland with him, but a Bible and the <i>Summa</i> of Thomas +Aquinas were amongst them.<a name="FnAnchor_6j" href="#Footnote_6j"><span class="sp">6</span></a> One of the recommendations of +Egmond the Abbey was the free exercise there allowed to the +Catholic religion. At Franeker his house was a small château, +“separated by a moat from the rest of the town, where the mass +could be said in safety.”<a name="FnAnchor_7j" href="#Footnote_7j"><span class="sp">7</span></a> And one motive in favour of accepting +an invitation to England lay in the alleged leanings of Charles I. +to the older church.</p> + +<p>The best account of Descartes’s mental history during his +life in Holland is contained in his letters, which extend over the +whole period, and are particularly frequent in the latter half. +The majority of them are addressed to Mersenne, and deal with +problems of physics, musical theory (in which he took a special +interest), and mathematics. Several letters between 1643 and +1649 are addressed to the princess Elizabeth, the eldest daughter +of the ejected elector palatine, who lived at The Hague, where her +mother maintained the semblance of a royal court. The princess +was obliged to quit Holland, but kept up a philosophical correspondence +with Descartes. It is to her that the <i>Principles of +Philosophy</i> were dedicated; and in her alone, according to +Descartes, were united those generally separated talents for +metaphysics and for mathematics which are so characteristically +co-operative in the Cartesian system. Two Dutch friends, +Constantijn Huygens (von Zuylichem), father of the more +celebrated Huygens, and Hoogheland, figure amongst the +correspondents, not to mention various savants, professors and +churchmen (particularly Jesuits).</p> + +<p>His residence in the Netherlands fell in the most prosperous +and brilliant days of the Dutch state, under the stadtholdership +of Frederick Henry (1625-1647). Abroad its navigators monopolized +the commerce of the world, and explored unknown seas; +at home the Dutch school of painting reached its acme in +Rembrandt (1607-1669); and the philological reputation of +the country was sustained by Grotius, Vossius and the elder +Heinsius. And yet, though Rembrandt’s “Nightwatch” is dated +the very year after the publication of the <i>Meditations</i>, not a word +in Descartes breathes of any work of art or historical learning. +The contempt of aesthetics and erudition is characteristic of the +most typical members of what is known as the Cartesian school, +especially Malebranche. Descartes was not in any strict sense a +reader. His wisdom grew mainly out of his own reflections and +experiments. The story of his disgust when he found that +Queen Christina devoted some time every day to the study of +Greek under the tuition of Vossius is at least true in substance.<a name="FnAnchor_8j" href="#Footnote_8j"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +It gives no evidence of science, he remarks, to possess a tolerable +knowledge of the Roman tongue, such as once was possessed by +the populace of Rome.<a name="FnAnchor_9j" href="#Footnote_9j"><span class="sp">9</span></a> In all his travels he studied only the +phenomena of nature and human life. He was a spectator +rather than an actor on the stage of the world. He entered the +army, merely because the position gave a vantage-ground from +which to make his observations. In the political interests which +these contests involved he took no part; his favourite disciple, +the princess Elizabeth, was the daughter of the banished king, +against whom he had served in Bohemia; and Queen Christina, +his second royal follower, was the daughter of Gustavus +Adolphus.</p> + +<p>Thus Descartes is a type of that spirit of science to which +erudition and all the heritage of the past seem but elegant +trifling. The science of Descartes was physics in all its branches, +but especially as applied to physiology. Science, he says, may +be compared to a tree; metaphysics is the root, physics is the +trunk, and the three chief branches are mechanics, medicine and +morals,—the three applications of our knowledge to the outward +world, to the human body, and to the conduct of life.<a name="FnAnchor_10j" href="#Footnote_10j"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<p>Such then was the work that Descartes had in view in Holland. +His residence was generally divided into two parts—one his +workshop for science, the other his reception-room for society. +“Here are my books,” he is reported to have told a visitor, as he +pointed to the animals he had dissected. He worked hard at his +book on refraction, and dissected the heads of animals in order to +explain imagination and memory, which he considered physical +processes.<a name="FnAnchor_11j" href="#Footnote_11j"><span class="sp">11</span></a> But he was not a laborious student. “I can say +with truth,” he writes to the princess Elizabeth,<a name="FnAnchor_12j" href="#Footnote_12j"><span class="sp">12</span></a> “that the +principle which I have always observed in my studies, and which +I believe has helped me most to gain what knowledge I have, has +been never to spend beyond a very few hours daily in thoughts +which occupy the imagination, and a very few hours yearly in +those which occupy the understanding, and to give all the rest of +my time to the relaxation of the senses and the repose of the +mind.” But his expectations from the study of anatomy and +physiology went a long way. “The conservation of health,” +he writes in 1646, “has always been the principal end of my +studies.”<a name="FnAnchor_13j" href="#Footnote_13j"><span class="sp">13</span></a> In 1629 he asks Mersenne to take care of himself +“till I find out if there is any means of getting a medical theory +based on infallible demonstrations, which is what I am now +inquiring.”<a name="FnAnchor_14j" href="#Footnote_14j"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Astronomical inquiries in connexion with optics, +meteorological phenomena, and, in a word, the whole field +of natural laws, excited his desire to explain them. His own +observation, and the reports of Mersenne, furnished his data. Of +Bacon’s demand for observation and collection of facts he is +an imitator; and he wishes (in a letter of 1632) that “some one +would undertake to give a history of celestial phenomena after +the method of Bacon, and describe the sky exactly as it appears +at present, without introducing a single hypothesis.”<a name="FnAnchor_15j" href="#Footnote_15j"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p> + +<p>He had several writings in hand during the early years of his +residence in Holland, but the main work of this period was a +physical doctrine of the universe which he termed <i>The World</i>. +Shortly after his arrival he writes to Mersenne that it will probably +be finished in 1633, but meanwhile asks him not to disclose +the secret to his Parisian friends. Already anxieties appear as to +the theological verdict upon two of his fundamental views—the +infinitude of the universe, and the earth’s rotation round the +sun.<a name="FnAnchor_16j" href="#Footnote_16j"><span class="sp">16</span></a> But towards the end of year 1633 we find him writing as +follows:—“I had intended sending you my <i>World</i> as a New +Year’s gift, and a fortnight ago I was still minded to send you a +fragment of the work, if the whole of it could not be transcribed +in time. But I have just been at Leyden and Amsterdam to +ask after Galileo’s cosmical system as I imagined I had heard of +its being printed last year in Italy. I was told that it had been +printed, but that every copy had been at the same time burnt at +Rome, and that Galileo had been himself condemned to some +penalty.”<a name="FnAnchor_17j" href="#Footnote_17j"><span class="sp">17</span></a> He has also seen a copy of Galileo’s condemnation +at Liége (September 20, 1633), with the words “although he +professes that the [Copernican] theory was only adopted by him +as a hypothesis.” His friend Beeckman lent him a copy of +Galileo’s work, which he glanced through in his usual manner +with other men’s books; he found it good, and “failing more +in the points where it follows received opinions than where it +diverges from them.”<a name="FnAnchor_18j" href="#Footnote_18j"><span class="sp">18</span></a> The consequence of these reports of the +hostility of the church led him to abandon all thoughts of +publishing. <i>The World</i> was consigned to his desk; and although +doctrines in all essential respects the same constitute the physical +portion of his <i>Principia</i>, it was not till after the death of Descartes +that fragments of the work, including <i>Le Monde</i>, or a treatise on +light, and the physiological tracts <i>L’Homme</i> and <i>La Formation du +fœtus</i>, were given to the world by his admirer Claude Clerselier +(1614-1684) in 1664. Descartes was not disposed to be a +martyr; he had a sincere respect for the church, and had no +wish to begin an open conflict with established doctrines.</p> + +<p>In 1636 Descartes had resolved to publish some specimens of +the fruits of his method, and some general observations on its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>82</span> +nature which, under an appearance of simplicity, might sow the +good seed of more adequate ideas on the world and man. “I +should be glad,” he says, when talking of a publisher,<a name="FnAnchor_19j" href="#Footnote_19j"><span class="sp">19</span></a> “if the +whole book were printed in good type, on good paper, and I +should like to have at least 200 copies for distribution. The book +will contain four essays, all in French, with the general title of +‘Project of a Universal science, capable of raising our nature to +its highest perfection; also Dioptrics, Meteors and Geometry, +wherein the most curious matters which the author could select +as a proof of the universal science which he proposes are explained +in such a way that even the unlearned may understand them.’” +The work appeared anonymously at Leiden (published by Jean +Maire) in 1637, under the modest title of <i>Essais philosophiques</i>; +and the project of a universal science becomes the <i>Discours de la +méthode pour bien conduire sa raison et chercher la vérité dans les +sciences</i>. In 1644 it appeared in a Latin version, revised by +Descartes, as <i>Specimina philosophica</i>. A work so widely circulated +by the author naturally attracted attention, but in France +it was principally the mathematicians who took it up, and their +criticisms were more pungent than complimentary. Fermat, +Roberval and Desargues took exception in their various ways to +the methods employed in the geometry, and to the demonstrations +of the laws of refraction given in the Dioptrics and Meteors. +The dispute on the latter point between Fermat and Descartes +was continued, even after the philosopher’s death, as late as +1662. In the youthful Dutch universities the effect of the essays +was greater.</p> + +<p>The first public teacher of Cartesian views was Henri Renery, +a Belgian, who at Deventer and afterwards at Utrecht had +introduced the new philosophy which he had learned +<span class="sidenote">Spread of Cartesianism.</span> +from personal intercourse with Descartes. Renery +only survived five years at Utrecht, and it was reserved +for Heinrich Regius (van Roy)—who in 1638 had been +appointed to the new chair of botany and theoretical medicine +at Utrecht, and who visited Descartes at Egmond in order more +thoroughly to learn his views—to throw down the gauntlet to +the adherents of the old methods. With more eloquence than +judgment, he propounded theses bringing into relief the points +in which the new doctrines clashed with the old. The attack was +opened by Gisbert Voët, foremost among the orthodox theological +professors and clergy of Utrecht. In 1639 he published a +series of arguments against atheism, in which the Cartesian views +were not obscurely indicated as perilous for the faith, though no +name was mentioned. Next year he persuaded the magistracy +to issue an order forbidding Regius to travel beyond the received +doctrine. The magisterial views seem to have prevailed in the +professoriate, which formally in March 1642 expressed its disapprobation +of the new philosophy as well as of its expositors. +As yet Descartes was not directly attacked. Voët now issued, +under the name of Martin Schoock, one of his pupils, a pamphlet +with the title of <i>Methodus novae philosophiae Renati Descartes</i>, in +which atheism and infidelity were openly declared to be the effect +of the new teaching. Descartes replied to Voët directly in a letter, +published at Amsterdam in 1643. He was summoned before the +magistrates of Utrecht to defend himself against charges of +irreligion and slander. What might have happened we cannot +tell; but Descartes threw himself on the protection of the French +ambassador and the prince of Orange, and the city magistrates, +from whom he vainly demanded satisfaction in a dignified letter,<a name="FnAnchor_20j" href="#Footnote_20j"><span class="sp">20</span></a> +were snubbed by their superiors. About the same time (April +1645) Schoock was summoned before the university of Groningen, +of which he was a member, and forthwith disavowed the more +abusive passages in his book. So did the effects of the <i>odium +theologicum</i>, for the meanwhile at least, die away.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Discourse of Method</i> Descartes had sketched the main +points in his new views, with a mental autobiography which +might explain their origin, and with some suggestions +<span class="sidenote">Discourse of Method, and Meditations.</span> +as to their applications. His second great work,. +<i>Meditations on the First Philosophy</i>, which had been +begun soon after his settlement in the Netherlands, +expounded in more detail the foundations of his system, +laying especial emphasis on the priority of mind to body, and on +the absolute and ultimate dependence of mind as well as body on +the existence of God. In 1640 a copy of the work in manuscript +was despatched to Paris, and Mersenne was requested to lay it +before as many thinkers and scholars as he deemed desirable, +with a view to getting their views upon its argument and doctrine. +Descartes soon had a formidable list of objections to reply to. +Accordingly, when the work was published at Paris in August +1641, under the title of <i>Meditationes de prima philosophia ubi de +Dei existentia et animae immortalitate</i> (though it was in fact not +the <i>immortality</i> but the <i>immateriality</i> of the mind, or, as the +second edition described it, <i>animae humanae a corpore distinctio</i>, +which was maintained), the title went on to describe the larger +part of the book as containing various objections of learned +men, with the replies of the author. These objections in the first +edition are arranged under six heads: the first came from +Caterus, a theologian of Louvain; the second and sixth are +anonymous criticisms from various hands; whilst the third, +fourth and fifth belong respectively to Hobbes, Arnauld and +Gassendi. In the second edition appeared the seventh—objections +from Père Bourdin, a Jesuit teacher of mathematics in +Paris; and subsequently another set of objections, known +as those of <i>Hyperaspistes</i>, was included in the collection of +Descartes’s letters. The anonymous objections are very much +the statement of common-sense against philosophy; those of +Caterus criticize the Cartesian argument from the traditional +theology of the church; those of Arnauld are an appreciative +inquiry into the bearings and consequences of the meditations +for religion and morality; while those of <a href="#artlinks">Hobbes</a> (q.v.) and +Gassendi—both somewhat senior to Descartes and with a +dogmatic system of their own already formed—are a keen assault +upon the spiritualism of the Cartesian position from a generally +“sensational” standpoint. The criticisms of the last two are +the criticisms of a hostile school of thought; those of Arnauld +are the difficulties of a possible disciple.</p> + +<p>In 1644 the third great work of Descartes, the <i>Principia +philosophiae</i>, appeared at Amsterdam. Passing briefly over +the conclusions arrived at in the <i>Meditations</i>, it deals +<span class="sidenote">The Principia.</span> +in its second, third and fourth parts with the general +principles of physical science, especially the laws of +motion, with the theory of vortices, and with the phenomena of +heat, light, gravity, magnetism, electricity, &c., upon the earth. +This work exhibits some curious marks of caution. Undoubtedly, +says Descartes, the world was in the beginning created in all its +perfection. “But yet as it is best, if we wish to understand the +nature of plants or of men, to consider how they may by degrees +proceed from seeds, rather than how they were created by God +in the beginning of the world, so, if we can excogitate some +extremely simple and comprehensible principles, out of which, +as if they were seeds, we can prove that stars, and earth and all +this visible scene could have originated, although we know full +well that they never did originate in such a way, we shall in that +way expound their nature far better than if we merely described +them as they exist at present.”<a name="FnAnchor_21j" href="#Footnote_21j"><span class="sp">21</span></a> The Copernican theory is +rejected in name, but retained in substance. The earth, or other +planet, does not actually move round the sun; yet it is carried +round the sun in the subtle matter of the great vortex, where it +lies in equilibrium,—carried like the passenger in a boat, who may +cross the sea and yet not rise from his berth.</p> + +<p>In 1647 the difficulties that had arisen at Utrecht were repeated +on a smaller scale at Leiden. There the Cartesian innovations +had found a patron in Adrian Heerebord, and were openly +discussed in theses and lectures. The theological professors took +the alarm at passages in the <i>Meditations</i>; an attempt to prove +the existence of God savoured, as they thought, of atheism and +heresy. When Descartes complained to the authorities of this +unfair treatment,<a name="FnAnchor_22j" href="#Footnote_22j"><span class="sp">22</span></a> the only reply was an order by which all +mention of the name of Cartesianism, whether favourable or +adverse, was forbidden in the university. This was scarcely +what Descartes wanted, and again he had to apply to the prince +of Orange, whereupon the theologians were asked to behave with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"></a>83</span> +civility, and the name of Descartes was no longer proscribed. +But other annoyances were not wanting from unfaithful disciples +and unsympathetic critics. The <i>Instantiae</i> of Gassendi appeared +at Amsterdam in 1644 as a reply to the reply which Descartes had +published of his previous objections; and the publication by +Heinrich Regius of his work on physical philosophy (<i>Fundamenta +physices</i>, 1646) gave the world to understand that he had ceased +to be a thorough adherent of the philosophy which he had so +enthusiastically adopted.</p> + +<p>It was about 1648 that Descartes lost his friends Mersenne +and Mydorge by death. The place of Mersenne as his Parisian +representative was in the main taken by Claude Clerselier (the +French translator of the Objections and Responses), whom he had +become acquainted with in Paris. Through Clerselier he came to +know Pierre Chanut, who in 1645 was sent as French ambassador +to the court of Sweden. Queen Christina was not yet twenty, +and took a lively if a somewhat whimsical interest in literary +and philosophical culture. Through Chanut, with whom she +was on terms of familiarity, she came to hear of Descartes, and a +correspondence which the latter nominally carried on with the +ambassador was in reality intended for the eyes of the queen. +The correspondence took an ethical tone. It began with a long +letter on love in all its aspects (February 1647),<a name="FnAnchor_23j" href="#Footnote_23j"><span class="sp">23</span></a> a topic suggested +by Chanut, who had been discussing it with the queen; and this +was soon followed by another to Christina herself on the chief +good. An essay on the passions of the mind (<i>Passions de l’âme</i>), +which had been written originally for the princess Elizabeth, +in development of some ethical views suggested by the <i>De vita +beata</i> of Seneca, was enclosed at the same time for Chanut. It +was a draft of the work published in 1650 under the same title. +Philosophy, particularly that of Descartes, was becoming a +fashionable <i>divertissement</i> for the queen and her courtiers, and +it was felt that the presence of the sage himself was necessary +to complete the good work of education. An invitation to +the Swedish court was urged upon Descartes, and after much +hesitation accepted; a vessel of the royal navy was ordered +to wait upon him, and in September 1649 he left Egmond for +the north.</p> + +<p>The position on which he entered at Stockholm was unsuited +for a man who wished to be his own master. The young queen +wanted Descartes to draw up a code for a proposed +<span class="sidenote">Death.</span> +academy of the sciences, and to give her an hour of +philosophic instruction every morning at five. She had already +determined to create him a noble, and begun to look out an estate +in the lately annexed possessions of Sweden on the Pomeranian +coast. But these things were not to be. His friend Chanut fell +dangerously ill; and Descartes, who devoted himself to attend +in the sick-room, was obliged to issue from it every morning in +the chill northern air of January, and spend an hour in the palace +library. The ambassador recovered, but Descartes fell a victim +to the same disease, inflammation of the lungs. The last time he +saw the queen was on the 1st of February 1650, when he handed +to her the statutes he had drawn up for the proposed academy. +On the 11th of February he died. The queen wished to bury him +at the feet of the Swedish kings, and to raise a costly mausoleum +in his honour; but these plans were overruled, and a plain +monument in the Catholic cemetery was all that marked the place +of his rest. Sixteen years after his death the French treasurer +d’Alibert made arrangements for the conveyance of the ashes to +his native land; and in 1667 they were interred in the church of +Ste Geneviève du Mont, the modern Pantheon. In 1819, after +being temporarily deposited in a stone sarcophagus in the court +of the Louvre during the Revolutionary epoch, they were +transferred to St Germain-des-Près, where they now repose +between Montfaucon and Mabillon. A monument was raised +to his memory at Stockholm by Gustavus III.; and a modern +statue has been erected to him at Tours, with an inscription on +the pedestal: “Je pense, donc je suis.”</p> + +<p>Descartes never married, and had little of the amorous in his +temperament. He has alluded to a childish fancy for a young +girl with a slight obliquity of vision; but he only mentions it +<i>à propos</i> of the consequent weakness which led him to associate +such a defect with beauty.<a name="FnAnchor_24j" href="#Footnote_24j"><span class="sp">24</span></a> In person he was small, with large +head, projecting brow, prominent nose, and eyes wide apart, +with black hair coming down almost to his eyebrows. His voice +was feeble. He usually dressed in black, with unobtrusive +propriety.</p> + +<p><i>Philosophy.</i>—The end of all study, says Descartes, in one of his +earliest writings, ought to be to guide the mind to form true and +sound judgments on every thing that may be presented to it.<a name="FnAnchor_25j" href="#Footnote_25j"><span class="sp">25</span></a> +The sciences in their totality are but the intelligence of man; +and all the details of knowledge have no value save as they +strengthen the understanding. The mind is not for the sake of +knowledge, but knowledge for the sake of the mind. This is the +reassertion of a principle which the middle ages had lost sight of—that +knowledge, if it is to have any value, must be intelligence, +and not erudition.</p> + +<p>But how is intelligence, as opposed to erudition, possible? +The answer to that question is the method of Descartes. That +idea of a method grew up with his study of geometry +<span class="sidenote">Mathematics.</span> +and arithmetic,—the only branches of knowledge +which he would allow to be “made sciences.” But +they did not satisfy his demand for intelligence. “I found in +them,” he says, “different propositions on numbers of which, +after a calculation, I perceived the truth; as for the figures, I +had, so to speak, many truths put before my eyes, and many +others concluded from them by analogy; but it did not seem to me +that they told my mind with sufficient clearness why the things +were as I was shown, and by what means their discovery was +attained.”<a name="FnAnchor_26j" href="#Footnote_26j"><span class="sp">26</span></a> The mathematics of which he thus speaks included +the geometry of the ancients, as it had been handed down to the +modern world, and arithmetic with the developments it had +received in the direction of algebra. The ancient geometry, as we +know it, is a wonderful monument of ingenuity—a series of +<i>tours de force</i>, in which each problem to all appearance stands +alone, and, if solved, is solved by methods and principles peculiar +to itself. Here and there particular curves, for example, had +been obliged to yield the secret of their tangent; but the ancient +geometers apparently had no consciousness of the general +bearings of the methods which they so successfully applied. +Each problem was something unique; the elements of transition +from one to another were wanting; and the next step which +mathematics had to make was to find some method of reducing, +for instance, all curves to a common notation. When that was +found, the solution of one problem would immediately entail the +solution of all others which belonged to the same series as itself.</p> + +<p>The arithmetical half of mathematics, which had been gradually +growing into algebra, and had decidedly established itself as such +in the <i>Ad logisticen speciosam notae priores</i> of François Vieta +(1540-1603), supplied to some extent the means of generalizing +geometry. And the algebraists or arithmeticians of the 16th +century, such as Luca Pacioli (Lucas de Borgo), Geronimo or +Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), and Niccola Tartaglia (1506-1559), +had used geometrical constructions to throw light on +the solution of particular equations. But progress was made +difficult, in consequence of the clumsy and irregular nomenclature +employed. With Descartes the use of exponents as now employed +for denoting the powers of a quantity becomes systematic; and +without some such step by which the homogeneity of successive +powers is at once recognized, the binomial theorem could scarcely +have been detected. The restriction of the early letters of the +alphabet to known, and of the late letters to unknown, quantities +is also his work. In this and other details he crowns and completes, +in a form henceforth to be dominant for the language +of algebra, the work of numerous obscure predecessors, such as +Étienne de la Roche, Michael Stifel or Stiefel (1487-1567), and +others.</p> + +<p>Having thus perfected the instrument, his next step was to +apply it in such a way as to bring uniformity of method into the +isolated and independent operations of geometry. “I had no +intention,”<a name="FnAnchor_27j" href="#Footnote_27j"><span class="sp">27</span></a> he says in the <i>Method</i>, “of attempting to master all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84"></a>84</span> +the particular sciences commonly called mathematics; but as I +observed that, with all differences in their objects, they agreed in +considering merely the various relations or proportions subsisting +among these objects, I thought it best for my purpose to consider +these relations in the most general form possible, without referring +them to any objects in particular except such as would +most facilitate the knowledge of them. Perceiving further, that +in order to understand these relations I should sometimes have +to consider them one by one, and sometimes only to bear them in +mind or embrace them in the aggregate, I thought that, in order +the better to consider them individually, I should view them as +subsisting between straight lines, than which I could find no +objects more simple, or capable of being more distinctly represented +to my imagination and senses; and on the other hand +that, in order to retain them in the memory or embrace an +aggregate of many, I should express them by certain characters, +the briefest possible.” Such is the basis of the algebraical or +modern analytical geometry. The problem of the curves is +solved by their reduction to a problem of straight lines; and the +locus of any point is determined by its distance from two given +straight lines—the axes of co-ordinates. Thus Descartes gave +to modern geometry that abstract and general character in +which consists its superiority to the geometry of the ancients. +In another question connected with this, the problem of drawing +tangents to any curve, Descartes was drawn into a controversy +with Pierre (de) Fermat (1601-1663), Gilles Persone de Roberval +(1602-1675), and Girard Desargues (1593-1661). Fermat and +Descartes agreed in regarding the tangent to a curve as a secant +of that curve with the two points of intersection coinciding, while +Roberval regarded it as the direction of the composite movement +by which the curve can be described. Both these methods, +differing from that now employed, are interesting as preliminary +steps towards the method of fluxions and the differential calculus. +In pure algebra Descartes expounded and illustrated the general +methods of solving equations up to those of the fourth degree +(and believed that his method could go beyond), stated the law +which connects the positive and negative roots of an equation +with the changes of sign in the consecutive terms, and introduced +the method of indeterminate coefficients for the solution of +equations.<a name="FnAnchor_28j" href="#Footnote_28j"><span class="sp">28</span></a> These innovations have been attributed on inadequate +evidence to other algebraists, e.g. William Oughtred +(1575-1660) and Thomas Harriot (1560-1621).</p> + +<p>The <i>Geometry</i> of Descartes, unlike the other parts of his essays, +is not easy reading. It dashes at once into the middle of the +subjects with the examination of a problem which had baffled +the ancients, and seems as if it were tossed at the heads of +the French geometers as a challenge. An edition of it appeared +subsequently, with notes by his friend Florimond de +Beaune (1601-1652), calculated to smooth the difficulties of +the work. All along mathematics was regarded by Descartes +rather as the envelope than the foundation of his method; and +the “universal mathematical science” which he sought after +was only the prelude of a universal science of all-embracing +character.<a name="FnAnchor_29j" href="#Footnote_29j"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p> + +<p>The method of Descartes rests upon the proposition that all +the objects of our knowledge fall into series, of which the members +are more or less known by means of one another. In +<span class="sidenote">Descartes’ method.</span> +every such series or group there is a dominant element, +simple and irresoluble, the standard on which the rest +of the series depends, and hence, so far as that group or series is +concerned, absolute. The other members of the group are relative +and dependent, and only to be understood as in various degrees +subordinate to the primitive conception. The characteristic by +which we recognize the fundamental element in a series is its +intuitive or self-evident character; it is given by “the evident +conception of a healthy and attentive mind so clear and distinct +that no doubt is left.”<a name="FnAnchor_30j" href="#Footnote_30j"><span class="sp">30</span></a> Having discovered this prime or absolute +member of the group, we proceed to consider the degrees in which +the other members enter into relation with it. Here deduction +comes into play to show the dependence of one term upon the +others; and, in the case of a long chain of intervening links, the +problem for intelligence is so to enunciate every element, and so +to repeat the connexion that we may finally grasp all the links +of the chain in one. In this way we, as it were, bring the causal +or primal term and its remotest dependent immediately together, +and raise a derivative knowledge into one which is primary and +intuitive. Such are the four points of Cartesian method:—(1) +Truth requires a clear and distinct conception of its object, +excluding all doubt; (2) the objects of knowledge naturally fall +into series or groups; (3) in these groups investigation must +begin with a simple and indecomposable element, and pass from +it to the more complex and relative elements; (4) an exhaustive +and immediate grasp of the relations and interconnexion of +these elements is necessary for knowledge in the fullest sense of +that word.<a name="FnAnchor_31j" href="#Footnote_31j"><span class="sp">31</span></a></p> + +<p>“There is no question,” he says in anticipation of Locke +and Kant, “more important to solve than that of knowing +what human knowledge is and how far it extends.” “This is a +question which ought to be asked at least once in their lives by +all who seriously wish to gain wisdom. The inquirer will find +that the first thing to know is intellect, because on it depends the +knowledge of all other things. Examining next what immediately +follows the knowledge of pure intellect, he will pass in review all +the other means of knowledge, and will find that they are two +(or three), the imagination and the senses (and the memory). He +will therefore devote all his care to examine and distinguish +these three means of knowledge; and seeing that truth and error +can, properly speaking, be only in the intellect, and that the two +other modes of knowledge are only occasions, he will carefully +avoid whatever can lead him astray.”<a name="FnAnchor_32j" href="#Footnote_32j"><span class="sp">32</span></a> This separation of +intellect from sense, imagination and memory is the cardinal +precept of the Cartesian logic; it marks off clear and distinct +(i.e. adequate and vivid) from obscure, fragmentary and +incoherent conceptions.</p> + +<p>The <i>Discourse of Method</i> and the <i>Meditations</i> apply what the +<i>Rules for the Direction of the Mind</i> had regarded in particular +instances to our conceptions of the world as a whole. +<span class="sidenote">Fundamental principles of philosophy.</span> +They propose, that is, to find a simple and indecomposable +point, or absolute element, which gives to the +world and thought their order and systematization. +The grandeur of this attempt is perhaps unequalled in +the annals of philosophy. The three main steps in the argument +are the veracity of our thought when that thought is true to +itself, the inevitable uprising of thought from its fragmentary +aspects in our habitual consciousness to the infinite and perfect +existence which God is, and the ultimate reduction of the material +universe to extension and local movement. There are the central +dogmas of logic, metaphysics and physics, from which start +the subsequent inquiries of Locke, Leibnitz and Newton. They +are also the direct antitheses to the scepticism of Montaigne and +Pascal, to the materialism of Gassendi and Hobbes, and to the +superstitious anthropomorphism which defaced the reawakening +sciences of nature. Descartes laid down the lines on which +modern philosophy and science were to build. But himself no +trained metaphysician, and unsusceptible to the lessons of history, +he gives but fragments of a system which are held together, not +by their intrinsic consistency, but by the vigour of his personal +conviction transcending the weaknesses and collisions of his +several arguments. “All my opinions,” he says, “are so +conjoined, and depend so closely upon one another, that it would +be impossible to appropriate one without knowing them all.”<a name="FnAnchor_33j" href="#Footnote_33j"><span class="sp">33</span></a> +Yet every disciple of Cartesianism seems to disprove the dictum +by his example.</p> + +<p>The very moment when we begin to think, says Descartes, +when we cease to be merely receptive, when we draw back and +fix our attention on any point whatever of our belief,—that +moment doubt begins. If we even stop for an instant to ask +ourselves how a word ought to be spelled, the deeper we ponder +that one word by itself the more hopeless grows the hesitation. +The doubts thus awakened must not be stifled, but pressed +systematically on to the point, if such a point there be, where +doubt confutes itself. The doubt as to the details is natural; it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>85</span> +is no less natural to have recourse to authority to silence the +doubt. The remedy proposed by Descartes is (while not neglecting +our duties to others, ourselves and God) to let doubt range +unchecked through the whole fabric of our customary convictions. +One by one they refuse to render any reasonable account of +themselves; each seems a mere chance, and the whole tends to +elude us like a mirage which some malignant power creates for +our illusion. Attacked in detail, they vanish one after another +into as many teasing spectra of uncertainty. We are seeking +from them what they cannot give. But when we have done our +worst in unsettling them, we come to an ultimate point in the fact +that it is <i>we</i> who are doubting, <i>we</i> who are thinking. We may +doubt that we have hands or feet, that we sleep or wake, and that +there is a world of material things around us; but we cannot +<span class="sidenote">Cogito ergo sum.</span> +doubt that we are doubting. We are certain that we +are thinking, and in so far as we are thinking we are. +<i>Je pense, donc je suis.</i> In other words, the criterion +of truth is a clear and distinct conception, excluding all possibility +of doubt.</p> + +<p>The fundamental point thus established is the veracity of +consciousness when it does not go beyond itself, or does not +postulate something which is external to itself. At this point +Gassendi arrested Descartes and addressed his objections to him +as pure intelligence,—<i>O mens!</i> But even this <i>mens</i>, or mind, is +but a point—we have found no guarantee as yet for its continuous +existence. The analysis must be carried deeper, if we are to gain +any further conclusions.</p> + +<p>Amongst the elements of our thought there are some which we +can make and unmake at our pleasure; there are others which +come and go without our wish; there is also a third class which is +of the very essence of our thinking, and which dominates our +conceptions. We find that all our ideas of limits, sorrows and +weaknesses presuppose an infinite, perfect and ever-blessed +something beyond them and including them,—that all our ideas, +in all their series, converge to one central idea, in which they find +their explanation. The formal fact of thinking is what constitutes +our being; but this thought leads us back, when we consider its +concrete contents, to the necessary pre-supposition on which our +ideas depend, the permanent cause on which they and we as +conscious beings depend. We have therefore the idea of an infinite, +perfect and all-powerful being—an idea which cannot be +the creation of ourselves, and must be given by some being who +really possesses all that we in idea attribute to him. Such a +being he identifies with God. But the ordinary idea of God can +scarcely be identified with such a conception. “The majority +of men,” he says himself, “do not think of God as an infinite and +incomprehensible being, and as the sole author from whom all +things depend; they go no further than the letters of his name.”<a name="FnAnchor_34j" href="#Footnote_34j"><span class="sp">34</span></a> +<span class="sidenote">Nature of God.</span> +“The vulgar almost imagine him as a finite thing.” +The God of Descartes is not merely the creator of +the material universe; he is also the father of all +truth in the intellectual world. “The metaphysical truths,” he +says, “styled eternal have been established by God, and, like +the rest of his creatures, depend entirely upon him. To say that +these truths are independent of him is to speak of God as a +Jupiter or a Saturn,—to subject him to Styx and the Fates.”<a name="FnAnchor_35j" href="#Footnote_35j"><span class="sp">35</span></a> +The laws of thought, the truths of number, are the decrees of God. +The expression is anthropomorphic, no less than the dogma of +material creation; but it is an attempt to affirm the unity of the +intellectual and the material world. Descartes establishes a +philosophic monotheism,—by which the medieval polytheism of +substantial forms, essences and eternal truths fades away before +God, who is the ruler of the intellectual world no less than of the +kingdom of nature and of grace.</p> + +<p>To attach a clear and definite meaning to the Cartesian +doctrine of God, to show how much of it comes from the Christian +theology and how much from the logic of idealism, how far the +conception of a personal being as creator and preserver mingles +with the pantheistic conception of an infinite and perfect something +which is all in all, would be to go beyond Descartes +and to ask for a solution of difficulties of which he was +scarcely aware. It seems impossible to deny that the tendency +of his principles and his arguments is mainly in the line of a +metaphysical absolute, as the necessary completion and foundation +of all being and knowledge. Through the truthfulness of +that God as the author of all truth he derives a guarantee for our +perceptions in so far as these are clear and distinct. And it is in +guaranteeing the veracity of our clear and distinct conceptions +that the value of his deduction of God seems in his own estimate +to rest. All conceptions which do not possess these two attributes—of +being vivid in themselves and discriminated from all +others—cannot be true. But the larger part of our conceptions +are in such a predicament. We think of things not in the abstract +elements of the things themselves, but in connexion with, and +in language which presupposes, other things. Our idea of body, +e.g., involves colour and weight, and yet when we try to think +carefully, and without assuming anything, we find that we cannot +attach any distinct idea to these terms when applied to body. +In truth therefore these attributes do not belong to body at all; +and if we go on in the same way testing the received qualities of +matter, we shall find that in the last resort we understand nothing +by it but extension, with the secondary and derivative characters +of divisibility and mobility.</p> + +<p>But it would again be useless to ask how extension as the +characteristic attribute of matter is related to mind which thinks, +and how God is to be regarded in reference to extension. The +force of the universe is swept up and gathered in God, who communicates +motion to the parts of extension, and sustains that +motion from moment to moment; and in the same way the force +of mind has really been concentrated in God. Every moment one +expects to find Descartes saying with Hobbes that man’s thought +has created God, or with Spinoza and Malebranche that it is God +who really thinks in the apparent thought of man. After all, the +metaphysical theology of Descartes, however essential in his own +eyes, serves chiefly as the ground for constructing his theory of +man and of the universe. His fundamental hypothesis relegates +to God all forces in their ultimate origin. Hence the world is +left open for the free play of mechanics and geometry. The disturbing +conditions of will, life and organic forces are eliminated +from the problem; he starts with the clear and distinct idea of +extension, figured and moved, and thence by mathematical laws +he gives a hypothetical explanation of all things. Such explanation +of physical phenomena is the main problem of Descartes, +and it goes on encroaching upon territories once supposed proper +to the mind. Descartes began with the certainty that we are +thinking beings; that region remains untouched; but up to its +very borders the mechanical explanation of nature reigns +unchecked.</p> + +<p>The physical theory, in its earlier form in <i>The World</i>, and later +in the <i>Principles of Philosophy</i> (which the present account +follows), rests upon the metaphysical conclusions of the +<span class="sidenote">Physical theory.</span> +<i>Meditations</i>. It proposes to set forth the genesis of the +existing universe from principles which can be plainly +understood, and according to the acknowledged laws of the transmission +of movement. The idea of force is one of those obscure +conceptions which originate in an obscure region, in the sense +of muscular power. The true physical conception is motion, the +ultimate ground of which is to be sought in God’s infinite power. +Accordingly the quantity of movement in the universe, like its +mover, can neither increase nor diminish. The only circumstance +which physics has to consider is the transference of movement +from one particle to another, and the change of its direction. +Man himself cannot increase the sum of motion; he can only alter +its direction. The whole conception of force may disappear from +a theory of the universe; and we can adopt a geometrical +definition of motion as the shifting of one body from the neighbourhood +of those bodies which immediately touch it, and which +are assumed to be at rest, to the neighbourhood of other bodies. +Motion, in short, is strictly locomotion, and nothing else.</p> + +<p>Descartes has laid down three laws of nature, and seven +secondary laws regarding impact. The latter are to a large +extent incorrect. The first law affirms that every body, so far +as it is altogether unaffected by extraneous causes, always +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>86</span> +perseveres in the same state of motion or of rest; and the second +law that simple or elementary motion is always in a straight line.<a name="FnAnchor_36j" href="#Footnote_36j"><span class="sp">36</span></a> +These doctrines of inertia, and of the composite character of +curvilinear motion, were scarcely apprehended even by Kepler +or Galileo; but they follow naturally from the geometrical +analysis of Descartes.</p> + +<p>Extended body has no limits to its extent, though the power +of God has divided it in lines discriminating its parts in endless +ways. The infinite universe is infinitely full of matter. Empty +space, as distinguished from material extension, is a fictitious +abstraction. There is no such thing really as a vacuum, any +more than there are atoms or ultimate indivisible particles. +In both these doctrines of <i>à priori</i> science Descartes has not +been subverted, but, if anything, corroborated by the results of +experimental physics; for the so-called atoms of chemical theory +already presuppose, from the Cartesian point of view, certain +aggregations of the primitive particles of matter. Descartes +regards matter as uniform in character throughout the universe; +he anticipates, as it were, from his own transcendental ground, +the revelations of spectrum analysis as applied to the sun and +stars. We have then to think of a full universe of matter +(and matter = extension) divided and figured with endless variety, +and set (and kept) in motion by God; and any sort of division, +figure and motion will serve the purposes of our supposition as +well as another. “Scarcely any supposition,”<a name="FnAnchor_37j" href="#Footnote_37j"><span class="sp">37</span></a> he says, “can be +made from which the same result, though possibly with greater +difficulty, might not be deduced by the same laws of nature; for +since, in virtue of these laws, matter successively assumes all the +forms of which it is capable, if we consider these forms in order, +we shall at one point or other reach the existing form of the world, +so that no error need here be feared from a false supposition.” +As the movement of one particle in a closely-packed universe is +only possible if all other parts move simultaneously, so that +the last in the series steps into the place of the first; and as +the figure and division of the particles varies in each point in the +universe, there will inevitably at the same instant result throughout +the universe an innumerable host of more or less circular +movements, and of vortices or whirlpools of material particles +varying in size and velocity. Taking for convenience a limited +<span class="sidenote">Theory of vortices.</span> +portion of the universe, we observe that in consequence +of the circular movement, the particles of matter have +their corners pared off by rubbing against each other; +and two species of matter thus arise,—one consisting of small +globules which continue their circular motion with a (centrifugal) +tendency to fly off from the centre as they swing round the axis +of rotation, while the other, consisting of the fine dust—the +filings and parings of the original particles—gradually becoming +finer and finer, and losing its velocity, tends (centripetally) to +accumulate in the centre of the vortex, which has been gradually +left free by the receding particles of globular matter. This finer +matter which collects in the centre of each vortex is the <i>first</i> +matter of Descartes—it constitutes the sun or star. The spherical +particles are the <i>second</i> matter of Descartes, and their tendency +to propel one another from the centre in straight lines towards the +circumference of each vortex is what gives rise to the phenomenon +of light radiating from the central star. This second matter is +atmosphere or firmament, which envelops and revolves around +the central accumulation of first matter.</p> + +<p>A third form of matter is produced from the original particles. +As the small filings produced by friction seek to pass through +the interstices between the rapidly revolving spherical particles +in the vortex, they are detained and become twisted and channelled +in their passage, and when they reach the edge of the inner +ocean of solar dust they settle upon it as the froth and foam +produced by the agitation of water gathers upon its surface. +These form what we term spots in the sun. In some cases they +come and go, or dissolve into an aether round the sun; but in +other cases they gradually increase until they form a dense crust +round the central nucleus. In course of time the star, with +its expansive force diminished, suffers encroachments from the +neighbouring vortices, and at length they catch it up. If the +velocity of the decaying star be greater than that of any part of +the vortex which has swept it up, it will ere long pass out of the +range of that vortex, and continue its movement from one to +another. Such a star is a comet. But in other cases the encrusted +star settles in that portion of the revolving vortex which +has a velocity equivalent to its own, and so continues to revolve +in the vortex, wrapped in its own firmament. Such a reduced and +impoverished star is a planet; and the several planets of our +solar system are the several vortices which from time to time have +been swept up by the central sun-vortex. The same considerations +serve to explain the moon and other satellites. They too +were once vortices, swallowed up by some other, which at a later +day fell a victim to the sweep of our sun.</p> + +<p>Such in mere outline is the celebrated theory of <i>vortices</i>, which +for about twenty years after its promulgation reigned supreme +in science, and for much longer time opposed a tenacious resistance +to rival doctrines. It is one of the grandest hypotheses +which ever have been formed to account by mechanical processes +for the movements of the universe. While chemistry rests in the +acceptance of ultimate heterogeneous elements, the vortex-theory +assumed uniform matter through the universe, and reduced +cosmical physics to the same principles as regulate terrestrial +phenomena. It ended the old Aristotelian distinction between +the sphere beneath the moon and the starry spaces beyond. +It banished the spirits and genii, to which even Kepler had +assigned the guardianship of the planetary movements; and, +if it supposes the globular particles of the envelope to be the +active force in carrying the earth round the sun, we may +remember that Newton himself assumed an aether for somewhat +similar purposes. The great argument on which the Cartesians +founded their opposition to the Newtonian doctrine was that +attraction was an occult quality, not wholly intelligible by the +aid of mere mechanics. The Newtonian theory is an analysis of +the elementary movements which in their combination determine +the planetary orbits, and gives the formula of the proportions +according to which they act. But the Cartesian theory, like +the later speculations of Kant and Laplace, proposes to give a +hypothetical explanation of the circumstances and motions which +in the normal course of things led to the state of things required +by the law of attraction. In the judgment of D’Alembert the +<span class="correction" title="originally written Cartesan">Cartesian</span> theory was the best that the observations of the age +admitted; and “its explanation of gravity was one of the most +ingenious hypotheses which philosophy ever imagined.” That +the explanation fails in detail is undoubted: it does not account +for the ellipticity of the planets; it would place the sun, not in +one focus, but in the centre of the ellipse; and it would make +gravity directed towards the centre only under the equator. +But these defects need not blind us to the fact that this hypothesis +made the mathematical progress of Hooke, Borelli and Newton +much more easy and certain. Descartes professedly assumed a +simplicity in the phenomena which they did not present. But +such a hypothetical simplicity is the necessary step for solving +the more complex problems of nature. The danger lies not in +forming such hypotheses, but in regarding them as final, or as +more than an attempt to throw light upon our observation of +the phenomena. In doing what he did, Descartes actually +exemplified that reduction of the processes of nature to mere +transposition of the particles of matter, which in different ways +was a leading idea in the minds of Bacon, Hobbes and Gassendi. +The defects of Descartes lie rather in his apparently imperfect +apprehension of the principle of movements uniformly accelerated +which his contemporary Galileo had illustrated and insisted +upon, and in the indistinctness which attaches to his views of the +transmission of motion in cases of impact. It should be added +that the modern theory of vortex-atoms (Lord Kelvin’s) to +explain the constitution of matter has but slight analogy with +Cartesian doctrine, and finds a <span class="correction" title="corrected from parellel">parallel</span>, if anywhere, in a +modification of that doctrine by Malebranche.</p> + +<p>Besides the last two parts of the <i>Principles of Philosophy</i>, the +physical writings of Descartes include the <i>Dioptrics</i> and <i>Meteors</i>, +as well as passages in the letters. His optical investigations are +perhaps the subject in which he most contributed to the progress +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>87</span> +of science; and the lucidity of exposition which marks his +<i>Dioptrics</i> stands conspicuous even amid the generally luminous +<span class="sidenote">Optical theories.</span> +style of his works. Its object is a practical one, to +determine by scientific considerations the shape of lens +best adapted to improve the capabilities of the telescope, +which had been invented not long before. The conclusions +at which he arrives have not been so useful as he imagined, in +consequence of the mechanical difficulties. But the investigation +by which he reaches them has the merit of first prominently +publishing and establishing the law of the refraction of light. +Attempts have been made, principally founded on some remarks +of Huygens, to show that Descartes had learned the principles +of refraction from the manuscript of a treatise by Willebrord +Snell, but the facts are uncertain; and, so far as Descartes founds +his optics on any one, it is probably on the researches of Kepler. +In any case the discovery is to some extent his own, for his proof +of the law is founded upon the theory that light is the propagation +of the aether in straight lines from the sun or luminous body to +the eye (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Light</a></span>). Thus he approximates to the wave theory +of light, though he supposed that the transmission of light was +instantaneous. The chief of his other contributions to optics was +the explanation of the rainbow—an explanation far from complete, +since the unequal refrangibility of the rays of light was yet +undiscovered—but a decided advance upon his predecessors, +notably on the <i>De radiis visus et lucis</i> (1611) of Marc-Antonio +de Dominis, archbishop of Spalato.</p> + +<p>If Descartes had contented himself with thus explaining the +phenomena of gravity, heat, magnetism, light and similar forces +by means of the molecular movements of his vortices, even such a +theory would have excited admiration. But he did not stop short +in the region of what is usually termed physics. Chemistry and +biology are alike swallowed up in the one science of physics, and +reduced to a problem of mechanism. This theory, he believed, +would afford an explanation of every phenomenon whatever, and +in nearly every department of knowledge he has given specimens +of its power. But the most remarkable and daring application +of the theory was to account for the phenomena of organic life, +especially in animals and man. “If we possessed a thorough +knowledge,” he says,<a name="FnAnchor_38j" href="#Footnote_38j"><span class="sp">38</span></a> “of all the parts of the seed of any species +of animal (e.g. man), we could from that alone, by reasons entirely +mathematical and certain, deduce the whole figure and conformation +of each of its members, and, conversely, if we knew several +peculiarities of this conformation, we could from these deduce +the nature of its seed.” The organism in this way is regarded as +a machine, constructed from the particles of the seed, which in +virtue of the laws of motion have arranged themselves (always +under the governing power of God) in the particular animal shape +in which we see them. The doctrine of the circulation of the +blood, which Descartes adopted from Harvey, supplied additional +arguments in favour of his mechanical theory, and he probably +did much to popularize the discovery. A fire without light, +compared to the heat which gathers in a haystack when the hay +has been stored before it was properly dry—heat, in short, as an +agitation of the particles—is the motive cause of the contraction +and dilatations of the heart. Those finer particles of the blood +which become extremely rarefied during this process pass off +in two directions—one portion, and the least important in the +theory, to the organs of generation, the other portion to the +cavities of the brain. There not merely do they serve to nourish +the organ, they also give rise to a fine ethereal flame or wind +through the action of the brain upon them, and thus form the +so-called “animal” spirits. From the brain these spirits are +conveyed through the body by means of the nerves, regarded by +Descartes as tubular vessels, resembling the pipes conveying the +water of a spring to act upon the mechanical appliances in an +artificial fountain. The nerves conduct the animal spirits to act +upon the muscles, and in their turn convey the impressions of +the organs to the brain.</p> + +<p>Man and the animals as thus described are compared to +automata, and termed machines. The vegetative and sensitive +souls which the Aristotelians had introduced to break the leap +between inanimate matter and man are ruthlessly swept away; +only one soul, the rational, remains, and that is restricted to man. +<span class="sidenote">Automatism.</span> +One hypothesis supplants the various principles of +life; the rule of absolute mechanism is as complete in +the animal as in the cosmos. Reason and thought, +the essential quality of the soul, do not belong to the brutes; +there is an impassable gulf fixed between man and the lower +animals. The only sure sign of reason is the power of language—i.e. +of giving expression to general ideas; and language in that +sense is not found save in man. The cries of animals are but +the working of the curiously-contrived machine, in which, when +one portion is touched in a certain way, the wheels and springs +concealed in the interior perform their work, and, it may be, a +note supposed to express joy or pain is evolved; but there is +no consciousness or feeling. “The animals act naturally and by +springs, like a watch.”<a name="FnAnchor_39j" href="#Footnote_39j"><span class="sp">39</span></a> “The greatest of all the prejudices we +have retained from our infancy is that of believing that the beasts +think.”<a name="FnAnchor_40j" href="#Footnote_40j"><span class="sp">40</span></a> If the beasts can properly be said to see at all, “they +see as we do when our mind is distracted and keenly applied elsewhere; +the images of outward objects paint themselves on the +retina, and possibly even the impressions made in the optic nerves +determine our limbs to different movements, but we feel nothing +of it all, and move as if we were automata.”<a name="FnAnchor_41j" href="#Footnote_41j"><span class="sp">41</span></a> The sentience of +the animal to the lash of his tyrant is not other than the sensitivity +of the plant to the influences of light and heat. It is not +much comfort to learn further from Descartes that “he denies +life to no animal, but makes it consist in the mere heat of the +heart. Nor does he deny them feeling in so far as it depends on +the bodily organs.”<a name="FnAnchor_42j" href="#Footnote_42j"><span class="sp">42</span></a></p> + +<p>Descartes, with an unusual fondness for the letter of Scripture, +quotes oftener than once in support of this monstrous doctrine. +the dictum, “the blood is the life”; and he remarks, with some +sarcasm possibly, that it is a comfortable theory for the eaters of +animal flesh. And the doctrine found acceptance among some +whom it enabled to get rid of the difficulties raised by Montaigne +and those who allowed more difference between animal and animal +than between the higher animals and man. It also encouraged +vivisection—a practice common with Descartes himself.<a name="FnAnchor_43j" href="#Footnote_43j"><span class="sp">43</span></a> The +recluses of Port Royal seized it eagerly, discussed automatism, +dissected living animals in order to show to a morbid curiosity +the circulation of the blood, were careless of the cries of tortured +dogs, and finally embalmed the doctrine in a syllogism of their +logic,—No matter thinks; every soul of beast is matter: therefore +no soul of beast thinks.</p> + +<p>But whilst all the organic processes in man go on mechanically, +and though by reflex action he may repel attack unconsciously, +still the first affirmation of the system was that man was +essentially a thinking being; and, while we retain this original +dictum, it must not be supposed that the mind is a mere spectator, +or like the boatman in the boat. Of course a unity of nature +<span class="sidenote">Relation of mind and body.</span> +is impossible between mind and body so described. +And yet there is a unity of composition, a unity so +close that the compound is “really one and in a sense +indivisible.” You cannot in the actual man cut soul +and body asunder; they interpenetrate in every member. But +there is one point in the human frame—a point midway in the +brain, single and free, which may in a special sense be called the +seat of the mind. This is the so-called <span class="correction" title="originally printed as 'c narion'">conarion</span>, or pineal gland, +where in a minimized point the mind on one hand and the vital +spirits on the other meet and communicate. In that gland the +mystery of creation is concentrated; thought meets extension +and directs it; extension moves towards thought and is perceived. +Two clear and distinct ideas, it seems, produce an +absolute mystery. Mind, driven from the field of extension, +erects its last fortress in the pineal gland. In such a state of +despair and destitution there is no hope for spiritualism, save +in God; and Clauberg, Geulincx and Malebranche all take +refuge under the shadow of his wings to escape the tyranny of +extended matter.</p> + +<p>In the psychology of Descartes there are two fundamental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"></a>88</span> +modes of thought,—perception and volition. “It seems to me,” +he says, “that in receiving such and such an idea the mind is +passive, and that it is active only in volition; that its +<span class="sidenote">Psychology.</span> +ideas are put in it partly by the objects which touch the +senses, partly by the impressions in the brain, and +partly also by the dispositions which have preceded in the mind +itself and by the movements of its will.”<a name="FnAnchor_44j" href="#Footnote_44j"><span class="sp">44</span></a> The will, therefore, +as being more originative, has more to do with true or false +judgments than the understanding. Unfortunately, Descartes is +too lordly a philosopher to explain distinctly what either understanding +or will may mean. But we gather that in two directions +our reason is bound up with bodily conditions, which make or mar +it, according as the will, or central energy of thought, is true to +itself or not. In the range of perception, intellect is subjected to +the material conditions of sense, memory and imagination; and +in infancy, when the will has allowed itself to assent precipitately +to the conjunctions presented to it by these material processes, +thought has become filled with obscure ideas. In the moral +sphere the passions or emotions (which Descartes reduces to the +six primitive forms of admiration, love, hatred, desire, joy and +sadness) are the perceptions or sentiments of the mind, caused and +maintained by some movement of the vital spirits, but specially +referring to the mind only. The presentation of some object of +dread, for example, to the eye has or may have a double effect. +On one hand the animal spirits “reflected”<a name="FnAnchor_45j" href="#Footnote_45j"><span class="sp">45</span></a> from the image +formed on the pineal gland proceed through the nervous tubes to +make the muscles turn the back and lift the feet, so as to escape +the cause of the terror. Such is the reflex and mechanical +movement independent of the mind. But, on the other hand, +the vital spirits cause a movement in the gland by which the mind +perceives the affection of the organs, learns that something is to +be loved or hated, admired or shunned. Such perceptions dispose +the mind to pursue what nature dictates as useful. But the +estimate of goods and evils which they give is indistinct and +unsatisfactory. The office of reason is to give a true and distinct +appreciation of the values of goods and evils; or firm and +determinate judgments touching the knowledge of good and +evil are our proper arms against the influence of the passions.<a name="FnAnchor_46j" href="#Footnote_46j"><span class="sp">46</span></a> +We are free, therefore, through knowledge: <i>ex magna luce in +intellectu sequitur magna propensio in voluntate</i>, and <i>omnis peccans +est ignorans</i>. “If we clearly see that what we are doing is wrong, +it would be impossible for us to sin, so long as we saw it in that +light.”<a name="FnAnchor_47j" href="#Footnote_47j"><span class="sp">47</span></a> Thus the highest liberty, as distinguished from mere +indifference, proceeds from clear and distinct knowledge, and +such knowledge can only be attained by firmness and resolution, +i.e. by the continued exercise of the will. Thus in the perfection +of man, as in the nature of God, will and intellect must be united. +For thought, will is as necessary as understanding. And innate +ideas therefore are mere capacities or tendencies,—possibilities +which apart from the will to think may be regarded as nothing +at all.</p> + +<p><i>The Cartesian School.</i>—The philosophy of Descartes fought its +first battles and gained its first triumphs in the country of his +adoption. In his lifetime his views had been taught in Utrecht +and Leiden. In the universities of the Netherlands and of lower +Germany, as yet free from the conservatism of the old-established +seats of learning, the new system gained an easy victory over +Aristotelianism, and, as it was adapted for lectures and examinations, +soon became almost as scholastic as the doctrines +it had supplanted. At Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, Franeker, +Breda, Nimeguen, Harderwyk, Duisburg and Herborn, and at +the Catholic university of Louvain, Cartesianism was warmly +expounded and defended in seats of learning, of which many are +now left desolate, and by adherents whose writings have for the +most part long lost interest for any but the antiquary.</p> + +<p>The Cartesianism of Holland was a child of the universities, +and its literature is mainly composed of commentaries upon +the original texts, of theses discussed in the schools, +<span class="sidenote">Holland.</span> +and of systematic expositions of Cartesian philosophy +for the benefit of the student. Three names stand out in this +Cartesian professoriate,—Wittich, Clauberg and Geulincx. Christoph +Wittich (1625-1687), professor at Duisburg and Leiden, +is a representative of the moderate followers who professed +to reconcile the doctrines of their school with the faith of +Christendom and to refute the theology of Spinoza. <a href="#artlinks">Johann +Clauberg</a> (q.v.) commented clause by clause upon the <i>Meditations</i> +of Descartes; but he specially claims notice for his work <i>De +corporis et animae in homine conjunctione</i>, where he maintains +that the bodily movements are merely procatarctic causes (i.e. +antecedents, but not strictly causes) of the mental action, and +sacrifices the independence of man to the omnipotence of God. +The same tendency is still more pronounced in <a href="#artlinks">Arnold Geulincx</a> +(q.v.). With him the reciprocal action of mind and body is +altogether denied; they resemble two clocks, so made by the +artificer as to strike the same hour together. The mind can act +only upon itself; beyond that limit, the power of God must +intervene to make any seeming interaction possible between body +and soul. Such are the half-hearted attempts at consistency in +Cartesian thought, which eventually culminate in the pantheism +of Spinoza (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cartesianism</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Descartes occasionally had not scrupled to interpret the +Scriptures according to his own tenets, while still maintaining, +when their letter contradicted him, that the Bible was not meant +to teach the sciences. Similar tendencies are found amongst his +followers. Whilst Protestant opponents put him in the list of +atheists like Vanini, and the Catholics held him as dangerous as +Luther or Calvin, there were zealous adherents who ventured to +prove the theory of vortices in harmony with the book of Genesis. +It was this rationalistic treatment of the sacred writings which +helped to confound the Cartesians with the allegorical school of +John Cocceius, as their liberal doctrines in theology justified the +vulgar identification of them with the heresies of Socinian and +Arminian. The chief names in this advanced theology connected +with Cartesian doctrines are Ludwig Meyer, the friend and editor +of Spinoza, author of a work termed <i>Philosophia scripturae +interpres</i> (1666); Balthasar Bekker, whose <i>World Bewitched</i> +helped to discredit the superstitious fancies about the devil; and +Spinoza, whose <i>Tractatus theologico-politicus</i> is in some respects +the classical type of rational criticism up to the present day. +Against this work and the <i>Ethics</i> of Spinoza the orthodox +Cartesians (who were in the majority), no less than sceptical +hangers-on like Bayle, raised an all but universal howl of reprobation, +scarcely broken for about a century.</p> + +<p>In France Cartesianism won society and literature before +it penetrated into the universities. Clerselier (the friend of +Descartes and his literary executor), his son-in-law +<span class="sidenote">France.</span> +Rohault (who achieved that relationship through his +Cartesianism), and others, opened their houses for readings to +which the intellectual world of Paris—its learned professors +not more than the courtiers and the fair sex,—flocked to hear the +new doctrines explained, and possibly discuss their value. Grand +seigneurs, like the prince of Condé, the duc de Nevers and the +marquis de Vardes, were glad to vary the monotony of their +feudal castles by listening to the eloquent rehearsals of Malebranche +or Regis. And the salons of Mme de Sévigné, of her +daughter Mme de Grignan, and of the duchesse de Maine for +a while gave the questions of philosophy a place among the topics +of polite society, and furnished to Molière the occasion of his +<i>Femmes savantes</i>. The Château of the duc de Luynes, the translator +of the <i>Meditations</i>, was the home of a Cartesian club, that +discussed the questions of automatism and of the composition +of the sun from filings and parings, and rivalled Port Royal in +its vivisections. The cardinal de Retz in his leisurely age at +Commercy found amusement in presiding at disputations between +the more moderate Cartesians and Don Robert Desgabets, who +interpreted Descartes in an original way of his own. Though +rejected by the Jesuits, who found peripatetic formulae a faithful +weapon against the enemies of the church, Cartesianism was +warmly adopted by the Oratory, which saw in Descartes something +of St Augustine, by Port Royal, which discovered a +connexion between the new system and Jansenism, and by some +amongst the Benedictines and the order of Ste Geneviève.</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="page89"></a>89</p> + +<p>The popularity which Cartesianism thus gained in the social +and literary circles of the capital was largely increased by the +labours of Pierre-Sylvain Regis (1632-1707). On his visit to +Toulouse in 1665, with a mission from the Cartesian chiefs, his +lectures excited boundless interest; ladies threw themselves +with zeal and ability into the study of philosophy; and Regis +himself was made the guest of the civic corporation. In 1671 +scarcely less enthusiasm was roused in Montpellier; and in 1680 +he opened a course of lectures at Paris, with such acceptance +that hearers had to take their seats in advance. Regis, by +removing the paradoxes and adjusting the metaphysics to the +popular powers of apprehension, made Cartesianism popular, +and reduced it to a regular system.</p> + +<p>But a check was at hand. Descartes, in his correspondence +with the Jesuits, had shown an almost cringing eagerness to have +their powerful organization on his side. Especially he had +written to Père Mesland, one of the order, to show how the +Catholic doctrine of the eucharist might be made compatible with +his theories of matter. But his undue haste to arrange matters +with the church only served to compromise him more deeply. +Unwise admirers and malicious opponents exaggerated the +theological bearings of his system in this detail; and the efforts +of the Jesuits succeeded in getting the works of Descartes, in +November 1663, placed upon the index of prohibited books,—<i>donec +corrigantur</i>. Thereupon the power of church and state +enforced by positive enactments the passive resistance of old +institutions to the novel theories. In 1667, the oration at the +interment was forbidden by royal order. In 1669, when the chair +of philosophy at the Collège Royal fell vacant, one of the four +selected candidates had to sustain a thesis against “the pretended +new philosophy of Descartes.” In 1671 the archbishop of Paris, +by the king’s order, summoned the heads of the university to +his presence, and enjoined them to take stricter measures against +philosophical novelties dangerous to the faith. In 1673 a decree +of the parlement against Cartesian and other unlicensed theories +was on the point of being issued, and was only checked in time by +the appearance of a burlesque mandamus against the intruder +Reason, composed by Boileau and some of his brother-poets. +Yet in 1675 the university of Angers was empowered to repress +all Cartesian teaching within its domain, and actually appointed +a commission charged to look for such heresies in the theses and +the students’ note-books of the college of Anjou belonging to +the Oratory. In 1677 the university of Caen adopted not less +stringent measures against Cartesianism. And so great was the +influence of the Jesuits, that the congregation of St Maur, the +canons of Ste Geneviève, and the Oratory laid their official ban +on the obnoxious doctrines. From the real or fancied <i>rapprochements</i> +between Cartesianism and Jansenism, it became for a +while impolitic, if not dangerous, to avow too loudly a preference +for Cartesian theories. Regis was constrained to hold back for +ten years his <i>System of Philosophy</i>; and when it did appear, in +1690, the name of Descartes was absent from the title-page. +There were other obstacles besides the mild persecutions of the +church. Pascal and other members of Port Royal openly +expressed their doubts about the place allowed to God in the +system; the adherents of Gassendi met it by resuscitating +atoms; and the Aristotelians maintained their substantial forms +as of old; the Jesuits argued against the arguments for the being +of God, and against the theory of innate ideas; whilst Pierre +Daniel Huet (1630-1721), bishop of Avranches, once a Cartesian +himself, made a vigorous onslaught on the contempt in which his +former comrades held literature and history, and enlarged on the +vanity of all human aspirations after rational truth.</p> + +<p>The greatest and most original of the French Cartesians was +<a href="#artlinks">Malebranche</a> (q.v.). His <i>Recherche de la vérité</i>, in 1674, was the +baptism of the system into a theistic religion which borrowed +its imagery from Augustine; it brought into prominence the +metaphysical base which Louis Delaforge, Jacques Rohault and +Regis had neither cared for nor understood. But this doctrine +was a criticism and a divergence, no less than a consequence, +from the principles in Descartes; and it brought upon +Malebranche the opposition, not merely of the Cartesian +physicists, but also of Arnauld, Fénelon and Bossuet, who found, +or hoped to find, in the <i>Meditations</i>, as properly understood, +an ally for theology. Popular enthusiasm, however, was with +Malebranche, as twenty years before it had been with Descartes; +he was the fashion of the day; and his disciples rapidly increased +both in France and abroad.</p> + +<p>In 1705 Cartesianism was still subject to prohibitions from the +authorities; but in a project of new statutes, drawn up for the +faculty of arts at Paris in 1720, the <i>Method</i> and <i>Meditations</i> of +Descartes were placed beside the <i>Organon</i> and the <i>Metaphysics</i> +of Aristotle as text-books for philosophical study. And before +1725, readings, both public and private, were given from +Cartesian texts in some of the Parisian colleges. But when +this happened, Cartesianism was no longer either interesting +or dangerous; its theories, taught as ascertained and verified +truths, were as worthless as the systematic verbiage which +preceded them. Already antiquated, it could not resist the wit +and raillery with which Voltaire, in his <i>Lettres sur les Anglais</i> +(1728), brought against it the principles and results of Locke and +Newton. The old Cartesians, Jean Jacques Dortous de Mairan +(1678-1771) and especially Fontenelle, with his <i>Théorie des +tourbillons</i> (1752), struggled in vain to refute Newton by styling +attraction an occult quality. Fortunately the Cartesian method +had already done its service, even where the theories were +rejected. The Port Royalists, Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) and +Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694), had applied it to grammar and +logic; Jean Domat or Daumat (1625-1696) and Henri François +Daugesseau (1668-1751) to jurisprudence; Fontenelle, Charles +Perrault (1628-1703) and Jean Terrasson (1670-1750) to literary +criticism, and a worthier estimate of modern literature. Though +it never ceased to influence individual thinkers, it had handed on +to Condillac its popularity with the masses. A Latin abridgment +of philosophy, dated 1784, tells us that the innate ideas of +Descartes are founded on no arguments, and are now universally +abandoned. The ghost of innate ideas seems to be all that it +had left.</p> + +<p>In Germany a few Cartesian lecturers taught at Leipzig and +Halle, but the system took no root, any more than in Switzerland, +where it had a brief reign at Geneva after 1669. In +<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span> +Italy the effects were more permanent. What is +termed the iatro-mechanical school of medicine, with G. A. +Borelli (1608-1679) as its most notable name, entered in a way +on the mechanical study of anatomy suggested by Descartes, but +was probably much more dependent upon the positive researches +of Galileo. At Naples there grew up a Cartesian school, of which +the best known members are Michel Angelo Fardella (1650-1708) +and Cardinal Gerdil (1718-1802), both of whom, however, +attached themselves to the characteristic views of Malebranche.</p> + +<p>In England Cartesianism took but slight hold. Henry More, +who had given it a modified sympathy in the lifetime of the +author, became its opponent in later years; and +<span class="sidenote">England.</span> +Cudworth differed from it in most essential points. +Antony Legrand, from Douai, attempted to introduce it into +Oxford, but failed. He is the author of several works, amongst +others a system of Cartesian philosophy, where a chapter on +“Angels” revives the methods of the schoolmen. His chief +opponent was Samuel Parker (1640-1688), bishop of Oxford, who, +in his attack on the irreligious novelties of the Cartesian, treats +Descartes as a fellow-criminal in infidelity with Hobbes and +Gassendi. Rohault’s version of the Cartesian physics was +translated into English; and Malebranche found an ardent +follower in John Norris (1667-1711). Of Cartesianism towards +the close of the 17th century the only remnants were an overgrown +theory of vortices, which received its death-blow from +Newton, and a dubious phraseology anent innate ideas, which +found a witty executioner in Locke.</p> + +<p>For an account of the metaphysical doctrines of Descartes, +in their connexions with Malebranche and Spinoza, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cartesianism</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—I. <i>Editions and Translations.</i>—The collected +works of Descartes were published in Latin in 8 vols. at Amsterdam +(1670-1683), in 7 vols. at Frankfort (1697) and in 9 vols. by Elzevir +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90"></a>90</span> +(1713); in French in 13 vols. (Paris, 1724-1729), republished by +Victor Cousin (Paris, 1824-1826) in 11 vols., and again under the +authority of the minister of public instruction by C. Adam and +P. Tannery (1897 foll.). These include his so-called posthumous works. +<i>The Rules for the Direction of the Mind</i>, <i>The Search for Truth by the +Light of Nature</i>, and other unimportant fragments, published (in +Latin) in 1701. In 1859-1860 Foucher de Careil published in two +parts some unedited writings of Descartes from copies taken by +Leibnitz from the original papers. Six editions of the <i>Opera philosophica</i> +appeared at Amsterdam between 1650 and 1678; a two-volume +edition at Leipzig in 1843; there are also French editions, +<i>Œuvres philosophiques</i>, by A. Garnier, 3 vols. (1834-1835), and L. +Aimé-Martin (1838) and <i>Œuvres morales et philosophiques</i> by Aimé-Martin +with an introduction on life and works by Amedée Prévost +(Paris, 1855); <i>Œuvres choisies</i> (1850) by Jules Simon. A complete +French edition of the collected works was begun in the Romance +Library (1907 foll.). German translations by J. H. von Kirchmann +under the title <i>Philosophische Werke</i> (with biography, &c., Berlin, +1868; 2nd <span class="correction" title="period added">ed.,</span> 1882-1891), by Kuno Fischer, <i>Die Hauptschriften +zur Grundlegung seiner Philosophie</i> (1863), with introduction by +Ludwig Fischer (1892). There are also numerous editions and translations +of separate works, especially the <i>Method</i>, in French, German, +Italian, Spanish and Hungarian. There are English translations by +J. Veitch, <i>Method, Meditations and Selections from the Principles</i> +(1850-1853; 11th ed., 1897; New York, 1899); by H. A. P. Torrey +(New York, 1892).</p> + +<p>II. <i>Biographical.</i>—A. Baillet, <i>La Vie de M. Des Cartes</i> (Paris, 1691; +Eng. trans., 1692), exhaustive but uncritical; notices in the editions +of Garnier and Aimé-Martin; A. Hoffmann, <i>René Descartes</i> (1905); +Elizabeth S. Haldane, <i>Descartes, his Life and Times</i> (1905), containing +full bibliography; A. Barbier, <i>René Descartes, sa famille, son lieu +de naissance</i>, &c. (1901); Richard Lowndes, <i>René Descartes, his +Life and Meditations</i> (London, 1878); J. P. Mahaffy, <i>Descartes</i> (1902), +with an appendix on Descartes’s mathematical work by Frederick +Purser; Victor de Swarte, <i>Descartes directeur spirituel</i> (Paris, 1904), +correspondence with the Princess Palatine; C. J. Jeannel, <i>Descartes +et la princesse palatine</i> (Paris, 1869); <i>Lettres de M. Descartes</i>, ed. +Claude Clerselier (1657). A useful sketch of recent biographies is to +be found in <i>The Edinburgh Review</i> (July 1906).</p> + +<p>III. <i>Philosophy.</i>—Beside the histories of philosophy, the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cartesianism</a></span>, and the above works, consult J. B. Bordas-Demoulini +<i>Le Cartésianisme</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1874); J. P. Damiron, <i>Histoire de +la philosophie du XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1846); C. B. Renouvier, <i>Manuel +de philosophie moderne</i> (Paris, 1842); V. Cousin, <i>Fragments philosophiques</i>, +vol. ii. (3rd ed., Paris, 1838), <i>Fragments de philosophie +cartésienne</i> (Paris, 1845), and in the <i>Journal des savants</i> (1860-1861); +F. Bouillier, <i>Hist. de la philosophie cartésienne</i> (Paris, 1854), 2 vols., +and <i>Hist. et critique de la révolution cartésienne</i> (Paris, 1842); J. Millet, +<i>Descartes, sa vie, ses travaux, ses découvertes avant 1637</i> (Paris, +1867), and <i>Hist. de Descartes depuis 1637</i> (Paris, 1870); L. Liard, +<i>Descartes</i> (Paris, 1882); A. Fouillée, <i>Descartes</i> (Paris, 1893); <i>Revue +de métaphysique et de morale</i> (July, 1896, Descartes number); Norman +Smith, <i>Studies in the Cartesian Philosophy</i> (1902); R. Keussen, +<i>Bewusstsein und Erkenntnis bei Descartes</i> (1906); A. Kayserling, +<i>Die Idee der Kausalität in den Lehren der Occasionalisten</i> (1896); +J. Iverach, <i>Descartes, Spinoza and the New Philosophy</i> (1904); +R. Joerges, <i>Die Lehre von den Empfindungen bei Descartes</i> (1901); +Kuno Fischer, <i>Hist. of Mod. Phil. Descartes and his School</i> (Eng. trans., +1887); B. Christiansen, <i>Das Urteil bei Descartes</i> (1902); E. Boutroux, +“Descartes and Cartesianism” in <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. +iv. (1906), chap. 27, with a very full bibliography, pp. 950-953; +P. Natorp, <i>Descartes’ Erkenntnisstheorie</i> (Marburg, 1882); L. A. +Prévost-Paradol, <i>Les Moralistes français</i> (Paris, 1865); C. Schaarschmidt, +<i>Descartes und Spinoza</i> (Bonn, 1850); R. Adamson, <i>The +Development of Modern Philosophy</i> (Edinburgh, 1903); J. Müller, +<i>Der Begriff der sittlichen Unvollkommenheit bei Descartes und Spinoza</i> +(1890); J. H. von Kirchmann, <i>R. Descartes’ Prinzipien der Philos.</i> +(1863); G. Touchard, <i>La Morale de Descartes</i> (1898); Lucien Lévy-Bruhl, +<i>Hist. of Mod. Philos. in France</i> (Eng. trans., 1899), pp. 1-76.</p> + +<p>IV. <i>Science and Mathematics.</i>—F. Cajori, <i>History of Mathematics</i> +(London, 1894); M. Cantor, <i>Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der +Mathematik</i> (Leipzig, 1894-1901); Sir Michael Foster, <i>Hist. of +Physiol. during the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries</i> +(1901); Duboux, <i>La Physique de Descartes</i> (Lausanne, 1881); G. +H. Zeuthen, <i>Geschichte der Mathematik im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert</i> +(1903); Chasles, <i>Aperçu historique sur l’origine et le développement +des méthodes en géométrie</i> (3rd ed., 1889).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W.; X.)</div> + + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1j" href="#FnAnchor_1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It was only published after the author’s death; and of it, besides +the French version, there exists an English translation “by a Person +of Quality.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2j" href="#FnAnchor_2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, v. 255.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3j" href="#FnAnchor_3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ib. vi. 199.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4j" href="#FnAnchor_4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, viii. 59.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5j" href="#FnAnchor_5j"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Ib. viii. 173.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6j" href="#FnAnchor_6j"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Ib. viii. 181.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7j" href="#FnAnchor_7j"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Ib. vi. 123.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8j" href="#FnAnchor_8j"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Ib. x. 375.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9j" href="#FnAnchor_9j"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Ib. ix. 6.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10j" href="#FnAnchor_10j"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Ib. iii. 24.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11j" href="#FnAnchor_11j"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Ib. vi. 234.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12j" href="#FnAnchor_12j"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Ib. ix. 131.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13j" href="#FnAnchor_13j"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Ib. ix. 341.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14j" href="#FnAnchor_14j"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Ib. vi. 89.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15j" href="#FnAnchor_15j"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Ib. vi. 210.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16j" href="#FnAnchor_16j"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Ib. vi. 73.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17j" href="#FnAnchor_17j"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Ib. vi. 239.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18j" href="#FnAnchor_18j"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Ib. vi. 248.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19j" href="#FnAnchor_19j"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, vi. 276.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20j" href="#FnAnchor_20j"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Ib. ix. 250.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21j" href="#FnAnchor_21j"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>Princip.</i> L. iii. S. 45.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22j" href="#FnAnchor_22j"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, x. 26.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23j" href="#FnAnchor_23j"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, x. 3.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24j" href="#FnAnchor_24j"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Ib. x. 53.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25j" href="#FnAnchor_25j"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>Regulae</i>, <i>Œuvres</i>, xi. 202.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26j" href="#FnAnchor_26j"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, xi. 219.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27j" href="#FnAnchor_27j"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Disc. de méthode</i>, part ii.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28j" href="#FnAnchor_28j"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Géométrie</i>, book iii.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29j" href="#FnAnchor_29j"><span class="fn">29</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, xi. 224.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30j" href="#FnAnchor_30j"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Ib. xi. 212.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31j" href="#FnAnchor_31j"><span class="fn">31</span></a> <i>Disc. de méthode</i>, part. ii.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32j" href="#FnAnchor_32j"><span class="fn">32</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, xi. 243.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33j" href="#FnAnchor_33j"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Ib. vii. 381.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34j" href="#FnAnchor_34j"><span class="fn">34</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, vi. 132.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35j" href="#FnAnchor_35j"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Ib. vi. 109.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36j" href="#FnAnchor_36j"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Princip.</i> part ii. 37.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_37j" href="#FnAnchor_37j"><span class="fn">37</span></a> Ib. part iii. 47.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_38j" href="#FnAnchor_38j"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, iv. 494.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_39j" href="#FnAnchor_39j"><span class="fn">39</span></a> Ib. ix. 426.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_40j" href="#FnAnchor_40j"><span class="fn">40</span></a> Ib. x. 204.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41j" href="#FnAnchor_41j"><span class="fn">41</span></a> Ib. vi. 339.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42j" href="#FnAnchor_42j"><span class="fn">42</span></a> Ib. x. 208.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_43j" href="#FnAnchor_43j"><span class="fn">43</span></a> Ib. iv. 452 and 454.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_44j" href="#FnAnchor_44j"><span class="fn">44</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, ix. 166.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_45j" href="#FnAnchor_45j"><span class="fn">45</span></a> <i>Passions de l’âme</i>, 36.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_46j" href="#FnAnchor_46j"><span class="fn">46</span></a> Ib. 48.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_47j" href="#FnAnchor_47j"><span class="fn">47</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, ix. 170.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESCHAMPS, ÉMILE</span> (1791-1871), French poet and man of +letters, was born at Bourges on the 20th of February 1791. The +son of a civil servant, he adopted his father’s career, but as early +as 1812 he distinguished himself by an ode, <i>La Paix conquise</i>, +which won the praise of Napoleon. In 1818 he collaborated with +Henri de Latouche in two verse comedies, <i>Selmours de Florian</i> +and <i>Le Tour de faveur</i>. He and his brother were among the most +enthusiastic disciples of the <i>cénacle</i> gathered round Victor Hugo, +and in July 1823 Émile founded with his master the <i>Muse +française</i>, which during the year of its existence was the special +organ of the romantic party. His <i>Études françaises et étrangères</i> +(1828) were preceded by a preface which may be regarded as +one of the manifestos of the romanticists. The versions of +Shakespeare’s <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> (1839) and of <i>Macbeth</i> (1844), +important as they were in the history of the romantic movement, +were never staged. He was the author of several libretti, among +which may be mentioned the <i>Roméo et Juliette</i> of Berlioz. The +list of his more important works is completed by his two volumes +of stories, <i>Contes physiologiques</i> (1854) and <i>Réalités fantastiques</i> +(1854). He died at Versailles in April 1871. His <i>Œuvres +complètes</i> were published in 1872-1874 (6 vols.).</p> + +<p>His brother, Antoine François Marie, known as <span class="sc">Antony +Deschamps</span>, was born in Paris on the 12th of March 1800 and +died at Passy on the 29th of October 1869. Like his brother, +he was an ardent romanticist, but his production was limited by +a nervous disorder, which has left its mark on his melancholy +work. He translated the <i>Divina Commedia</i> in 1829, and his +poems, <i>Dernières Paroles</i> and <i>Résignation</i>, were republished with +his brother’s in 1841.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE,</span> called <span class="sc">Morel</span> (1346?-1406?), +French poet, was born at Vertus in Champagne about 1346. He +studied at Reims, where he is said to have received some lessons +in the art of versification from Guillaume de Machaut, who is +stated to have been his uncle. From Reims he proceeded about +1360 to the university of Orleans to study law and the seven +liberal arts. He entered the king’s service as royal messenger +about 1367, and was sent on missions to Bohemia, Hungary and +Moravia. In 1372 he was made <i>huissier d’armes</i> to Charles V. +He received many other important offices, was <i>bailli</i> of Valois, +and afterwards of Senlis, squire to the Dauphin, and governor of +Fismes. In 1380 his patron, Charles V., died, and in the same +year the English burnt down his house at Vertus. In his childhood +he had been an eye-witness of the English invasion of 1358; +he had been present at the siege of Reims and seen the march on +Chartres; he had witnessed the signing of the treaty of Bretigny; +he was now himself a victim of the English fury. His violent +hatred of the English found vent in numerous appeals to carry +the war into England, and in the famous prophecy<a name="FnAnchor_1k" href="#Footnote_1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> that England +would be destroyed so thoroughly that no one should be able +to point to her ruins. His own misfortunes and the miseries of +France embittered his temper. He complained continually of +poverty, railed against women and lamented the woes of his +country. His last years were spent on his <i>Miroir de mariage</i>, a +satire of 13,000 lines against women, which contains some real +comedy. The mother-in-law of French farce has her prototype +in the <i>Miroir</i>.</p> + +<p>The historical and patriotic poems of Deschamps are of much +greater value. He does not, like Froissart, cast a glamour over +the miserable wars of the time but gives a faithful picture of the +anarchy of France, and inveighs ceaselessly against the heavy +taxes, the vices of the clergy and especially against those who +enrich themselves at the expense of the people. The terrible +ballad with the refrain “<i>Sà, de l’argent; sà, de l’argent</i>” is +typical of his work. Deschamps excelled in the use of the ballade +and the chant royal. In each of these forms he was the greatest +master of his time. In ballade form he expressed his regret for +the death of Du Guesclin, who seems to have been the only man +except his patron, Charles V., for whom he ever felt any admiration. +One of his ballades (No. 285) was sent with a copy of his +works to Geoffrey Chaucer, whom he addresses with the words:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> +<p class="ind03">“Tu es d’amours mondains dieux en Albie</p> +<p>Et de la Rose en la terre Angélique.”</p> +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p>Deschamps was the author of an <i>Art poétique</i>, with the title of +<i>L’Art de dictier et de fere chancons, balades, virelais et rondeaulx</i>. +Besides giving rules for the composition of the kinds of verse +mentioned in the title he enunciates some curious theories on +poetry. He divides music into music proper and poetry. Music +proper he calls artificial on the ground that everyone could by +dint of study become a musician; poetry he calls natural because +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91"></a>91</span> +he says it is not an art that can be acquired but a gift. He lays +immense stress on the harmony of verse, because, as was the +fashion of his day, he practically took it for granted that all +poetry was to be sung.</p> + +<p>The work of Deschamps marks an important stage in the history +of French poetry. With him and his contemporaries the long, +formless narrations of the <i>trouvères</i> give place to complicated and +exacting kinds of verse. He was perhaps by nature a moralist +and satirist rather than a poet, and the force and truth of his +historical pictures gives him a unique place in 14th-century +poetry. M. Raynaud fixes the date of his death in 1406, or at +latest, 1407. Two years earlier he had been relieved of his +charge as <i>bailli</i> of Senlis, his plain-spoken satires having made +him many enemies at court.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>His <i>Œuvres complètes</i> were edited (10 vols., 1878-1901) for the +<i>Société des anciens textes français</i> by Queux de Saint-Hilaire and +Gaston Raynaud. A supplementary volume consists of an Introduction +by G. Raynaud. See also Dr E. Hoeppner, <i>Eustache Deschamps</i> +(Strassburg, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1k" href="#FnAnchor_1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “<i>De la prophécie Merlin sur la destruction d’Angleterre qui doit +brief advenir</i>” (<i>Œuvres</i>, No. 211).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESCHANEL, PAUL EUGÈNE LOUIS</span> (1856-<span class="spc"> </span>), French +statesman, son of Émile Deschanel (1819-1904), professor at the +Collège de France and senator, was born at Brussels, where his +father was living in exile (1851-1859), owing to his opposition to +Napoleon III. Paul Deschanel studied law, and began his career +as secretary to Deshayes de Marcère (1876), and to Jules Simon +(1876-1877). In October 1885 he was elected deputy for Eure +and Loire. From the first he took an important place in the +chamber, as one of the most notable orators of the Progressist +Republican group. In January 1896 he was elected vice-president +of the chamber, and henceforth devoted himself to the struggle +against the Left, not only in parliament, but also in public +meetings throughout France. His addresses at Marseilles on the +26th of October 1896, at Carmaux on the 27th of December 1896, +and at Roubaix on the 10th of April 1897, were triumphs of clear +and eloquent exposition of the political and social aims of the +Progressist party. In June 1898 he was elected president of +the chamber, and was re-elected in 1901, but rejected in 1902. +Nevertheless he came forward brilliantly in 1904 and 1905 as a +supporter of the law on the separation of church and state. He +was elected a member of the French Academy in 1899, his most +notable works being <i>Orateurs et hommes d’état</i> (1888), <i>Figures +de femmes</i> (1889), <i>La Décentralization</i> (1895), <i>La Question sociale</i> +(1898).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DES CLOIZEAUX, ALFRED LOUIS OLIVIER LEGRAND</span> +(1817-1897), French mineralogist, was born at Beauvais, in the +department of Oise, on the 17th of October 1817. He became +professor of mineralogy at the École Normale Supérieure and +afterwards at the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris. He +studied the geysers of Iceland, and wrote also on the classification +of some of the eruptive rocks; but his main work consisted in the +systematic examination of the crystals of numerous minerals, in +researches on their optical properties and on the subject of polarization. +He wrote specially on the means of determining the +different felspars. He was awarded the Wollaston medal by the +Geological Society of London in 1886. He died in May 1897. +His best-known books are <i>Leçons de cristallographie</i> (1861); +<i>Manuel de minéralogie</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1862, 1874 and 1893).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESCLOIZITE,</span> a rare mineral species consisting of basic lead +and zinc vanadate, (Pb, Zn)<span class="su">2</span>(OH)V0<span class="su">4</span>, crystallizing in the orthorhombic +system and isomorphous with olivenite. It was discovered +by A. Damour in 1854, and named by him in honour +of the French mineralogist Des Cloizeaux. It occurs as small +prismatic or pyramidal crystals, usually forming drusy crusts +and stalactitic aggregates; also as fibrous encrusting masses with +a mammillary surface. The colour is deep cherry-red to brown +or black, and the crystals are transparent or translucent with a +greasy lustre; the streak is orange-yellow to brown; specific +gravity 5.9 to 6.2; hardness 3½. A variety known as cuprodescloizite +is dull green in colour; it contains a considerable +amount of copper replacing zinc and some arsenic replacing +vanadium. Descloizite occurs in veins of lead ores in association +with pyromorphite, vanadinite, wulfenite, &c. Localities are +the Sierra de Cordoba in Argentina, Lake Valley in Sierra county, +New Mexico, Arizona, Phoenixville in Pennsylvania, and Kappel +(Eisen-Kappel) near Klagenfurt in Carinthia.</p> + +<p>Other names which have been applied to this species are +vanadite, tritochorite and ramirite; the uncertain vanadates +eusynchite, araeoxene and dechenite are possibly identical +with it.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESCRIPTIVE POETRY,</span> the name given to a class of literature, +which may be defined as belonging mainly to the 16th, 17th and +18th centuries in Europe. From the earliest times, all poetry +which was not subjectively lyrical was apt to indulge in ornament +which might be named descriptive. But the critics of the +17th century formed a distinction between the representations +of the ancients and those of the moderns. We find Boileau +emphasizing the statement that, while Virgil <i>paints</i>, Tasso +<i>describes</i>. This may be a useful indication for us in defining not +what should, but what in practice has been called “descriptive +poetry.” It is poetry in which it is not imaginative passion +which prevails, but a didactic purpose, or even something of the +instinct of a sublimated auctioneer. In other words, the landscape, +or architecture, or still life, or whatever may be the object +of the poet’s attention, is not used as an accessory, but is itself +the centre of interest. It is, in this sense, not correct to call +poetry in which description is only the occasional ornament of a +poem, and not its central subject, descriptive poetry. The landscape +or still life must fill the canvas, or, if human interest is +introduced, that must be treated as an accessory. Thus, in the +<i>Hero and Leander</i> of Marlowe and in the <i>Alastor</i> of Shelley, +description of a very brilliant kind is largely introduced, yet +these are not examples of what is technically called “descriptive +poetry,” because it is not the strait between Sestos and Abydos, +and it is not the flora of a tropical glen, which concentrates the +attention of the one poet or of the other, but it is an example of +physical passion in the one case and of intellectual passion in the +other, which is diagnosed and dilated on. On the other hand +Thomson’s <i>Seasons</i>, in which landscape takes the central place, +and Drayton’s <i>Polyolbion</i>, where everything is sacrificed to a +topographical progress through Britain, are strictly descriptive.</p> + +<p>It will be obvious from this definition that the danger ahead +of all purely descriptive poetry is that it will lack intensity, that +it will be frigid, if not dead. Description for description’s sake, +especially in studied verse, is rarely a vitalized form of literature. +It is threatened, from its very conception, with languor and +coldness; it must exercise an extreme art or be condemned to +immediate sterility. Boileau, with his customary intelligence, +was the first to see this, and he thought that the danger might be +avoided by care in technical execution. His advice to the poets +of his time was:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> +<p class="ind03">“Soyez riches et pompeux dans vos descriptions;</p> +<p>C’est-là qu’il faut des vers étaler l’élégance,”</p> +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> +<p class="ind03">“De figure sans nombre égayez votre ouvrage;</p> +<p>Que toute y fasse aux yeux une riante image,”</p> +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and in verses of brilliant humour he mocked the writer who, +too full of his subject, and describing for description’s sake, will +never quit his theme until he has exhausted it:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> +<p class="ind03">“Fuyez de ces auteurs l’abondance stérile</p> +<p>Et ne vous chargez point d’un détail inutile.”</p> +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">This is excellent advice, but Boileau’s humorous sallies do not +quite meet the question whether such purely descriptive poetry +as he criticizes is legitimate at all.</p> + +<p>In England had appeared the famous translation (1592-1611), +by Josuah Sylvester, of the <i>Divine Weeks and Works</i> of Du +Bartas, containing such lines as those which the juvenile Dryden +admired so much:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> +<p class="ind03">“But when winter’s keener breath began</p> +<p>To crystallize the Baltic ocëan,</p> +<p>To glaze the lakes, and bridle up the floods,</p> +<p>And perriwig with wool the bald-pate woods.”</p> +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">There was also the curious physiological epic of Phineas Fletcher, +<i>The Purple Island</i> (1633). But on the whole it was not until +French influences had made themselves felt on English poetry, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>92</span> +that description, as Boileau conceived it, was cultivated as a +distinct art. The <i>Cooper’s Hill</i> (1642) of Sir John Denham may +be contrasted with the less ambitious <i>Penshurst</i> of Ben Jonson, +and the one represents the new no less completely than the other +does the old generation. If, however, we examine <i>Cooper’s Hill</i> +carefully, we perceive that its aim is after all rather philosophical +than topographical. The Thames is described indeed, but not +very minutely, and the poet is mainly absorbed in moral reflections. +Marvell’s long poem on the beauties of Nunappleton comes +nearer to the type. But it is hardly until we reach the 18th +century that we arrive, in English literature, at what is properly +known as descriptive poetry. This was the age in which poets, +often of no mean capacity, began to take such definite themes +as a small country estate (Pomfret’s <i>Choice</i>, 1700), the cultivation +of the grape (Gay’s <i>Wine</i>, 1708), a landscape (Pope’s <i>Windsor +Forest</i>, 1713), a military manœuvre (Addison’s <i>Campaign</i>, 1704), +the industry of an apple-orchard (Philip’s <i>Cyder</i>, 1708) or a piece +of topography (Tickell’s <i>Kensington Gardens</i>, 1722), as the sole +subject of a lengthy poem, generally written in heroic or blank +verse. These <i>tours de force</i> were supported by minute efforts in +miniature-painting, by touch applied to touch, and were often +monuments of industry, but they were apt to lack personal +interest, and to suffer from a general and deplorable frigidity. +They were infected with the faults which accompany an artificial +style; they were monotonous, rhetorical and symmetrical, while +the uniformity of treatment which was inevitable to their plan +rendered them hopelessly tedious, if they were prolonged to any +great extent.</p> + +<p>This species of writing had been cultivated to a considerable +degree through the preceding century, in Italy and (as the +remarks of Boileau testify) in France, but it was in England that +it reached its highest importance. The classic of descriptive +poetry, in fact, the specimen which the literature of the world +presents which must be considered as the most important and +the most successful, is <i>The Seasons</i> (1726-1730) of <a href="#artlinks">James Thomson</a> +(q.v.). In Thomson, for the first time, a poet of considerable +eminence appeared, to whom external nature was all sufficient, +and who succeeded in conducting a long poem to its close by a +single appeal to landscape, and to the emotions which it directly +evokes. Coleridge, somewhat severely, described <i>The Seasons</i> as +the work of a good rather than of a great poet, and it is an indisputable +fact that, at its very best, descriptive poetry fails to +awaken the highest powers of the imagination. A great part of +Thomson’s poem is nothing more nor less than a skilfully varied +catalogue of natural phenomena. The famous description of twilight +in “the fading many-coloured woods” of autumn may be +taken as an example of the highest art to which purely descriptive +poetry has ever attained. It is obvious, even here, that the effect +of these rich and sonorous lines, in spite of the splendid effort +of the artist, is monotonous, and leads us up to no final crisis of +passion or rapture. Yet Thomson succeeds, as few other poets +of his class have succeeded, in producing nobly-massed effects +and comprehensive beauties such as were utterly unknown to his +predecessors. He was widely imitated in England, especially by +Armstrong, by Akenside, by Shenstone (in <i>The Schoolmistress</i>, +1742), by the anonymous author of <i>Albania</i>, 1737, and by +Goldsmith (in <i>The Deserted Village</i>, 1770). No better example +of the more pedestrian class of descriptive poetry could be found +than the last-mentioned poem, with its minute and Dutch-like +painting:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> +<p class="ind03">“How often have I paused on every charm:</p> +<p>The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm;</p> +<p>The never-failing brook, the busy mill,</p> +<p>The decent church that topped the neighbouring hill:</p> +<p>The hawthorn-bush, with seats beneath the shade.</p> +<p>For talking age and whispering lovers made.”</p> +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p>On the continent of Europe the example of Thomson was almost +immediately fruitful. Four several translations of <i>The Seasons</i> +into French contended for the suffrages of the public, and J. F. +de Saint-Lambert (1716-1803) imitated Thomson in <i>Les Saisons</i> +(1769), a poem which enjoyed popularity for half a century, and +of which Voltaire said that it was the only one of its generation +which would reach posterity. Nevertheless, as Madame du +Deffand told Walpole, Saint-Lambert is “<i>froid, fade et faux,</i>” +and the same may be said of J. A. Roucher (1745-1794), who +wrote <i>Les Mois</i> in 1779, a descriptive poem famous in its +day. The Abbé Jacques Delille (1738-1813), perhaps the most +ambitious descriptive poet who has ever lived, was treated +as a Virgil by his contemporaries; he published <i>Les Géorgiques</i> +in 1769, <i>Les Jardins</i> in 1782, and <i>L’Homme des champs</i> in 1803, +but he went furthest in his brilliant, though artificial, <i>Trois +règnes de la nature</i> (1809), which French critics have called the +masterpiece of this whole school of descriptive poetry. Delille, +however, like Thomson before him, was unable to avoid monotony +and want of coherency. Picture follows picture, and no +progress is made. The satire of Marie Joseph Chénier, in his +famous and witty <i>Discours sur les poèmes descriptifs</i>, brought +the vogue of this species of poetry to an end.</p> + +<p>In England, again, Wordsworth, who treated the genius of +Thomson with unmerited severity, revived descriptive poetry +in a form which owed more than Wordsworth realized to the +model of <i>The Seasons</i>. In <i>The Excursion</i> and <i>The Prelude</i>, as +well as in many of his minor pieces, Wordsworth’s philosophical +and moral intentions cannot prevent us from perceiving the +large part which pure description takes; and the same may be +said of much of the early blank verse of S. T. Coleridge. Since +their day, however, purely descriptive poetry has gone more and +more completely out of fashion, and its place has been taken by +the richer and directer effects of such prose as that of Ruskin +in English, or of Fromentin and Pierre Loti in French. It is +almost impossible in descriptive verse to obtain those vivid +and impassioned appeals to the imagination which are of the +very essence of genuine poetry, and it is unlikely that descriptive +poetry, as such, will again take a prominent place in living +literature.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESERT,</span> a term somewhat loosely employed to describe those +parts of the land surface of the earth which do not produce +sufficient vegetation to support a human population. Few areas +of large extent in any part of the world are absolutely devoid of +vegetation, and the transition from typical desert conditions is +often very gradual and ill-defined. (“Desert” comes from Lat. +<i>deserere</i>, to abandon; distinguish “desert,” merit, and “dessert,” +fruit eaten after dinner, from <i>de</i> and <i>servier</i>, to serve.)</p> + +<p>Deserts are conveniently divided into two classes according +to the causes which give rise to the desert conditions. In “cold +deserts” the want of vegetation is wholly due to the prevailing +low temperature, while in “hot deserts” the surface is unproductive +because, on account of high temperature and deficient +rainfall, evaporation is largely in excess of precipitation. Cold +deserts accordingly occur in high latitudes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tundra</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polar Regions</a></span>). Hot desert conditions are primarily found +along the tropical belts of high atmospheric pressure in which the +conditions of warmth and dryness are most fully realized, and on +their equatorial sides, but the zonal arrangement is considerably +modified in some regions by the monsoonal influence of elevated +land. Thus we have in the northern hemisphere the Sahara +desert, the deserts of Arabia, Iran, Turan, Takla Makan and +Gobi, and the desert regions of the Great Basin in North +America; and in the southern hemisphere the Kalahari desert +in Africa, the desert of Australia, and the desert of Atacama in +South America. Where the line of elevated land runs east and +west, as in Asia, the desert belt tends to be displaced into higher +latitudes, and where the line runs north and south, as in Africa, +America and Australia, the desert zone is cut through on the +windward side of the elevation and the arid conditions intensified +on the lee side. Desert conditions also arise from local causes, +as in the case of the Indian desert situated in a region inaccessible +to either of the two main branches of the south-west monsoon.</p> + +<p>Although rivers rising in more favoured regions may traverse +deserts on their way to the sea, as in the case of the Nile and the +Colorado, the fundamental physical condition of an arid area is +that it contributes nothing to the waters of the ocean. The rainfall +chiefly occurs in violent cloud-bursts, and the soluble matter +in the soil is carried down by intermittent streams to salt lakes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"></a>93</span> +around which deposits are formed as evaporation takes place. +The land forms of a desert are exceedingly characteristic. Surface +erosion is chiefly due to rapid changes of temperature through a +wide range, and to the action of wind transferring sand and dust, +often in the form of “dunes” resembling the waves of the sea. +Dry valleys, narrow and of great depth, with precipitous sides, +and ending in “cirques,” are probably formed by the intense +action of the occasional cloud-bursts.</p> + +<p>When water can be obtained and distributed over an arid +region by irrigation, the surface as a rule becomes extremely +productive. Natural springs give rise to oases at intervals and +make the crossing of large deserts possible. Where a river crosses +a desert at a level near that of the general surface, irrigation can +be carried on with extremely profitable results, as has been done +in the valley of the Nile and in parts of the Great Basin of North +America; in cases, however, where the river has cut deeply and +flows far below the general surface, irrigation is too expensive. +Much has been done in parts of Australia by means of artesian +wells.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>For a general account of deserts see Professor Johannes Walther, +<i>Das Gesetz der Wüstenbildung</i> (Berlin, 1900), in which many references +to other original authorities will be found.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. N. D.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESERTION,</span> the act of forsaking or abandoning; more +particularly, the wilful abandonment of an employment or of +duty, in violation of a legal or moral obligation.</p> + +<p>The offence of naval or military desertion is constituted when +a man absents himself with the intention either of not returning +or of escaping some important service, such as embarkation for +foreign service, or service in aid of the civil power. In the +United Kingdom desertion has always been recognized by the +civil law, and until 1827 (7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28) was a felony +punishable by death. It was subsequently dealt with by the +various Mutiny Acts, which were replaced by the Army Act +1881, renewed annually by the Army (Annual) Act. By § 12 +of the act every person subject to military law who deserts or +attempts to desert, or who persuades or procures any person to +desert, shall, on conviction by court martial, if he committed the +offence when on active service or under orders for active service, +be liable to suffer death, or such less punishment as is mentioned +in the act. When the offence is committed under any other +circumstances, the punishment for the first offence is imprisonment, +and for the second or any subsequent offence penal servitude +or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. § 44 +contains a scale of punishments, and §§ 175-184 an enumeration +of persons subject to military law. By § 153 any person who +persuades a soldier to desert or aids or assists him or conceals him +is liable, on conviction, to be imprisoned, with or without hard +labour, for not more than six months. § 154 makes provision +for the apprehension of deserters. § 161 lays down that where a +soldier has served continuously in an exemplary manner for not +less than three years in any corps of regular forces he is not to be +tried or punished for desertion which has occurred before the +commencement of the three years. Desertion from the regular +forces can only be tried by a military court, but in the case of the +militia and reserve forces desertion can be tried by a civil court. +The Army Act of 1881 made a welcome distinction between +actual desertion, as defined at the commencement of this article, +and the quitting one regiment in order to enlist in another. This +offence is now separately dealt with as fraudulent enlistment; +formerly, it was termed “desertion and fraudulent enlistment,” +and the statistics of desertion proper were consequently and +erroneously magnified. The gross total of desertions in the +British Army in an average year (1903-1904) was nearly 4000, +or 1.4% of the average strength of the army, but owing to men +rejoining from desertion, fraudulent enlistment, &c., the net loss +was no more than 1286, i.e. less than .5%. The army of the +United States suffers very severely from desertion, and very few +deserters rejoin or are recaptured (see <i>Journal of the Roy. United +Service Inst.</i>, December 1905, p. 1469). In the year 1900-1901, +3110 men deserted (4.3% of average strength); in 1901-1902, +4667 (or 5.9%); in 1904-1905, 6553 (or 6.8%); and in 1905-1906, +6258 out of less than 60,000 men, or 7.4%.</p> + +<p>In all armies desertion while on active service is punishable +by death; on the continent of Europe, owing to the system of +compulsory service, desertion is infrequent, and takes place +usually when the deserter wishes to leave his country altogether. +It was formerly the practice in the English army to punish a man +convicted of desertion by tattooing on him the letter “D” to +prevent his re-enlistment, but this has been long abandoned in +deference to public opinion, which erroneously adopted the idea +that the “marking” was effected by red-hot irons or in some +other manner involving torture. The Navy Discipline Act 1866, +and the Naval Deserters Act 1847, contain similar provisions to +the Army Act of 1881 for dealing with desertions from the navy. +In the United States navy the term “straggling” is applied to +absence without leave, where the probability is that the person +does not intend to desert. The United States government offers +a monetary reward of between $20 and $30 for the arrest and +delivery of deserters from the army and navy.</p> + +<p>In the British merchant service the offence of desertion is +defined as the abandonment of duty by quitting the ship before +the termination of the engagement, without justification, and +with the intention of not returning.</p> + +<p>Desertion is also the term applied to the act by which a man +abandons his wife and children, or either of them. Desertion of +a wife is a matrimonial offence; under the Matrimonial Causes +Act 1857, a decree of judicial separation may be obtained in +England by either husband or wife on the ground of desertion, +without cause, for two years and upwards (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divorce</a></span>).</p> + +<p>For the desertion of children see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children, Law relating to</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infant</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DES ESSARTS, EMMANUEL ADOLPHE</span> (1839-<span class="spc"> </span>), French +poet and man of letters, was born at Paris on the 5th of February +1839. His father, Alfred Stanislas Langlois des Essarts +(d. 1893), was a poet and novelist of considerable reputation. +The son was educated at the École Normale Supérieure, and +became a teacher of rhetoric and finally professor of literature +at Dijon and at Clermont. His works are: <i>Poésies parisiennes</i> +(1862), a volume of light verse on trifling subjects; <i>Les Élévations</i> +(1864), philosophical poems; <i>Origines de la poésie lyrique en +France au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1873); <i>Du génie de Chateaubriand</i> (1876); +<i>Poèmes de la Révolution</i> (1879); <i>Pallas Athéné</i> (1887); <i>Portraits +de maîtres</i> (1888), &c.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESFONTAINES, RENÉ LOUICHE</span> (1750-1833), French +botanist, was born at Tremblay (Île-et-Vilaine) on the 14th of +February 1750. After graduating in medicine at Paris, he was +elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1783. In the +same year he set out for North Africa, on a scientific exploring +expedition, and on his return two years afterwards brought with +him a large collection of plants, animals, &c., comprising, it is +said, 1600 species of plants, of which about 300 were described +for the first time. In 1786 he was nominated to the post of +professor at the Jardin des Plantes, vacated in his favour by his +friend, L. G. Lemonnier. His great work, <i>Flora Atlantica sive +historia plantarum quae in Atlante, agro Tunetano el Algeriensi +crescunt</i>, was published in 2 vols. 4to in 1798, and he produced in +1804 a <i>Tableau de l’école botanique du muséum d’histoire naturelle +de Paris</i>, of which a third edition appeared in 1831, under the +new title <i>Catalogus plantarum horti regii Parisiensis</i>. He was +also the author of many memoirs on vegetable anatomy and +physiology, descriptions of new genera and species, &c., one +of the most important being a “Memoir on the Organization of +the Monocotyledons.” He died at Paris on the 16th of November +1833. His Barbary collection was bequeathed to the Muséum +d’Histoire Naturelle, and his general collection passed into the +hands of the English botanist, Philip Barker Webb.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESFORGES, PIERRE JEAN BAPTISTE CHOUDARD</span> (1746-1806), +French dramatist and man of letters, natural son of Dr +Antoine Petit, was born in Paris on the 15th of September 1746. +He was educated at the Collège Mazarin and the Collège de +Beauvais, and at his father’s desire began the study of medicine. +Dr Petit’s death left him dependent on his own resources, and +after appearing on the stage of the Comédie Italienne in Paris +he joined a troupe of wandering actors, whom he served in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94"></a>94</span> +capacity of playwright. He married an actress, and the two +spent three years in St Petersburg, where they were well received. +In 1782 he produced at the Comédie Italienne an adaptation of +Fielding’s novel with the title <i>Tom Jones à Londres</i>. His first +great success was achieved with <i>L’Épreuve villageoise</i> (1785) +to the music of Grétry. <i>La Femme jalouse</i>, a five-act comedy in +verse (1785), <i>Joconde</i> (1790) for the music of Louis Jaden, <i>Les +Époux divorcés</i> (1799), a comedy, and other pieces followed. +Desforges was one of the first to avail himself of the new facilities +afforded under the Revolution for divorce and re-marriage. +The curious record of his own early indiscretions in <i>Le Poète, ou +mémoires d’un homme de lettres écrits par lui-même</i> (4 vols., 1798) +is said to have been undertaken at the request of Madame +Desforges. He died in Paris on the 13th of August 1806.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESGARCINS, MAGDELEINE MARIE</span> [<span class="sc">Louise</span>] (1769-1797), +French actress, was born at Mont Dauphin (Hautes Alpes). In +her short career she became one of the greatest of French tragédiennes, +the associate of Talma, with whom she nearly always +played. Her début at the Comédie Française occurred on the +24th of May 1788, in <i>Bajazet</i>, with such success that she was at +once made <i>sociétaire</i>. She was one of the actresses who left the +Comédie Française in 1791 for the house in the rue Richelieu, +soon to become the Théâtre de la République, and there her +triumphs were no less—in <i>King Lear</i>, <i>Othello</i>, La Harpe’s +<i>Mélanie et Virginie</i>, &c. Her health, however, failed, and she +died insane, in Paris, on the 27th of October 1797.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESHAYES, GÉRARD PAUL</span> (1795-1875), French geologist +and conchologist, was born at Nancy on the 13th of May 1797, +his father at that time being professor of experimental physics +in the École Centrale of the department of la Meurthe. He +studied medicine at Strassburg, and afterwards took the degree +of <i>bachelier ès lettres</i> in Paris in 1821; but he abandoned the +medical profession in order to devote himself to natural history. +For some time he gave private lessons on geology, and subsequently +became professor of natural history in the Muséum +d’Histoire Naturelle. He was distinguished for his researches on +the fossil mollusca of the Paris Basin and of other Tertiary areas. +His studies on the relations of the fossil to the recent species led +him as early as 1829 to conclusions somewhat similar to those +arrived at by Lyell, to whom Deshayes rendered much assistance +in connexion with the classification of the Tertiary system into +Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. He was one of the founders of +the Société Géologique de France. In 1839 he began the publication +of his <i>Traité élémentaire de conchyliologie</i>, the last part +of which was not issued until 1858. In the same year (1839) he +went to Algeria for the French Government, and spent three +years in explorations in that country. His principal work, which +resulted from the collections he made, <i>Mollusques de l’Algérie</i>, +was issued (incomplete) in 1848. In 1870 the Wollaston medal +of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him. He +died at Boran on the 9th of June 1875. His publications included +<i>Description des coquilles fossiles des environs de Paris</i> (2 vols. +and atlas, 1824-1837); <i>Description des animaux sans vertèbres +découverts dans le bassin de Paris</i> (3 vols. and atlas, 1856-1866); +<i>Catalogue des mollusques de l’île la Réunion</i> (1863).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESHOULIÈRES, ANTOINETTE DU LIGIER DE LA GARDE</span> +(1638-1694), French poet, was born in Paris on the 1st of January +1638. She was the daughter of Melchior du Ligier, sieur de la +Garde, <i>maître d’hôtel</i> to the queens Marie de’ Medici and Anne +of Austria. She received a careful and very complete education, +acquiring a knowledge of Latin, Spanish and Italian, and studying +prosody under the direction of the poet Jean Hesnault. +At the age of thirteen she married Guillaume de Boisguerin, +seigneur Deshoulières, who followed the prince of Condé as +lieutenant-colonel of one of his regiments to Flanders about a +year after the marriage. Madame Deshoulières returned for a time +to the house of her parents, where she gave herself to writing +poetry and studying the philosophy of Gassendi. She rejoined +her husband at Rocroi, near Brussels, where, being distinguished +for her personal beauty, she became the object of embarrassing +attentions on the part of the prince of Condé. Having made +herself obnoxious to the government by her urgent demand for +the arrears of her husband’s pay, she was imprisoned in the +château of Wilworden. After a few months she was freed by her +husband, who attacked the château at the head of a small band +of soldiers. An amnesty having been proclaimed, they returned +to France, where Madame Deshoulières soon became a conspicuous +personage at the court of Louis XIV. and in literary society. +She won the friendship and admiration of the most eminent +literary men of the age—some of her more zealous flatterers +even going so far as to style her the tenth muse and the +French Calliope. Her poems were very numerous, and included +specimens of nearly all the minor forms, odes, eclogues, idylls, +elegies, chansons, ballads, madrigals, &c. Of these the idylls +alone, and only some of them, have stood the test of time, the +others being entirely forgotten. She wrote several dramatic +works, the best of which do not rise to mediocrity. Her friendship +for Corneille made her take sides for the <i>Phèdre</i> of Pradon +against that of Racine. Voltaire pronounced her the best of +women French poets; and her reputation with her contemporaries +is indicated by her election as a member of the Academy of +the Ricovrati of Padua and of the Academy of Arles. In 1688 +a pension of 2000 livres was bestowed upon her by the king, and +she was thus relieved from the poverty in which she had long +lived. She died in Paris on the 17th February 1694. Complete +editions of her works were published at Paris in 1695, 1747, &c. +These include a few poems by her daughter, Antoine Thérèse +Deshoulières (1656-1718), who inherited her talent.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESICCATION</span> (from the Lat. <i>desiccare</i>, to dry up), the +operation of drying or removing water from a substance. It is +of particular importance in practical chemistry. If a substance +admits of being heated to say 100°, the drying may be effected +by means of an air-bath, which is simply an oven heated by gas +or by steam. Otherwise a <i>desiccator</i> must be employed; this +is essentially a closed vessel in which a hygroscopic substance is +placed together with the substance to be dried. The process may +be accelerated by exhausting the desiccator; this so-called +vacuum desiccation is especially suitable for the concentration +of aqueous solutions of readily decomposable substances. Of the +hygroscopic substances in common use, phosphoric anhydride, +concentrated sulphuric acid, and dry potassium hydrate are +almost equal in power; sodium hydrate and calcium chloride are +not much behind.</p> + +<p>Two common types of desiccator are in use. In one the +absorbent is placed at the bottom, and the substance to be dried +above. Hempel pointed out that the efficiency would be +increased by inverting this arrangement, since water vapour is +lighter than air and consequently rises. Liquids are dried either +by means of the desiccator, or, as is more usual, by shaking with +a substance which removes the water. Fused calcium chloride +is the commonest absorbent; but it must not be used with +alcohols and several other compounds, since it forms compounds +with these substances. Quicklime, barium oxide, and dehydrated +copper sulphate are especially applicable to alcohol and +ether; the last traces of water may be removed by adding +metallic sodium and distilling. Gases are dried by leading them +through towers or tubes containing an appropriate drying +material. The experiments of H. B. Baker on the influence of +moisture on chemical combination have shown the difficulty of +removing the last traces of water.</p> + +<p>In chemical technology, apparatus on the principle of the +laboratory air-bath are mainly used. Crystals and precipitates, +deprived of as much water as possible by centrifugal machines +or filter-presses, are transported by means of a belt, screw, or +other form of conveyer, on to trays staged in brick chambers +heated directly by flue gases or steam pipes; the latter are easily +controlled, and if the steam be superheated a temperature of +300° and over may be maintained. In some cases the material +traverses the chamber from the coolest to the hottest part on a +conveyer or in wagons. Rotating cylinders are also used; the +material to be dried being placed inside, and the cylinder heated +by a steam jacket or otherwise.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO</span> (1428-1464), Italian sculptor, +was born at Settignano, a village on the southern slope of the hill +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95"></a>95</span> +of Fiesole, still surrounded by the quarries of sandstone of which +the hill is formed, and inhabited by a race of “stone-cutters.” +Desiderio was for a short time a pupil of Donatello, whom, +according to Vasari, he assisted in the work on the pedestal +of David, and he seems to have worked also with Mino da +Fiesole, with the delicate and refined style of whose works +those of Desiderio seem to have a closer affinity than with the +perhaps more masculine tone of Donatello. Vasari particularly +extols the sculptor’s treatment of the figures of women and +children. It does not appear that Desiderio ever worked elsewhere +than at Florence; and it is there that those who are +interested in the Italian sculpture of the Renaissance must seek +his few surviving decorative and monumental works, though a +number of his delicately carved marble busts of women and +children are to be found in the museums and private collections of +Germany and France. The most prominent of his works are the +tomb of the secretary of state, Marsuppini, in Santa Croce, and +the great marble tabernacle of the Annunciation in San Lorenzo, +both of which belong to the latter period of Desiderio’s activity; +and the cherubs’ heads which form the exterior frieze of the +Pazzi Chapel. Vasari mentions a marble bust by Desiderio +of Marietta degli Strozzi, which for many years was held to +be identical with a very beautiful bust bought in 1878 from the +Strozzi family for the Berlin Museum. This bust is now, however, +generally acknowledged to be the work of Francesco Laurana; +whilst Desiderio’s bust of Marietta has been recognized in another +marble portrait acquired by the Berlin Museum in 1842. The +Berlin Museum also owns a coloured plaster bust of an Urbino +lady by Desiderio, the model for which is in the possession of +the earl of Wemyss. Other important busts by the master are +in the Bargello, Florence, the Louvre in Paris, the collections of +M. Figdor and M. Benda in Vienna, and of M. Dreyfus in Paris. +Like most of Donatello’s pupils, Desiderio worked chiefly in marble, +and not a single work in bronze has been traced to his hand.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See Wilhelm Bode, <i>Die italienische Plastik</i> (Berlin, 1893).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESIDERIUS,</span> the last king of the Lombards, is chiefly known +through his connexion with Charlemagne. He was duke of +Tuscany and became king of the Lombards after the death of +Aistulf in 756. Seeking, like his predecessors, to extend the +Lombard power in Italy, he came into collision with the papacy, +and about 772 the new pope, Adrian I., implored the aid of +Charlemagne against him. Other causes of quarrel already +existed between the Frankish and the Lombard kings. In 770 +Charlemagne had married a daughter of Desiderius; but he soon +put this lady away, and sent her back to her father. Moreover, +Gerberga, the widow of Charlemagne’s brother Carloman, had +sought the protection of the Lombard king after her husband’s +death in 771; and in return for the slight cast upon his daughter, +Desiderius had recognized Gerberga’s sons as the lawful Frankish +kings, and had attacked Adrian for refusing to crown them. Such +was the position when Charlemagne led his troops across the Alps +in 773, took the Lombard capital, Ticinum, the modern Pavia, +in June 774, and added the kingdom of Lombardy to his own +dominions. Desiderius was carried to France, where he died, +and his son, Adalgis, spent his life in futile attempts to recover +his father’s kingdom. The name of Desiderius appears in the +romances of the Carolingian period.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See S. Abel, <i>Untergang des Langobardenreichs</i> (Göttingen, 1859); +and <i>Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen</i> +(Leipzig, 1865); L. M. Hartmann, <i>Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter</i> +(Gotha, 1903); and Paulus Diaconus, <i>Historia Langobardorum</i>, edited +by L. Bethmann and G. Waitz (Hanover, 1878).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESIGN</span> (Fr. <i>dessin</i>, drawing; Lat. <i>designare</i>, to mark out), +in the arts, a drawing, more especially when made as a guide +for the execution of work; that side of drawing which deals +with arrangement rather than representation; and generally, +by analogy, a deliberate planning, scheming or purpose. Modern +use has tended to associate design with the word “original” in +the sense of new or abnormal. The end of design, however, is +properly utility, fitness and delight. If a discovery, it should be +a discovery of what seems inevitable, an inspiration arising out +of the conditions, and parallel to invention in the sciences. The +faculty of design has best flourished when an almost spontaneous +development was taking place in the arts, and while certain +classes of arts, more or less noble, were generally demanded and +the demand copiously satisfied, as in the production of Greek +vases, Byzantine mosaics, Gothic cathedrals, and Renaissance +paintings. Thus where a “school of design” arises there is much +general likeness in the products but also a general progress. +The common experience—“tradition”—is a part of each +artist’s stock in trade; and all are carried along in a stream of +continuous exploration. Some of the arts, writing, for instance, +have been little touched by conscious originality in design, all +has been progress, or, at least, change, in response to conditions. +Under such a system, in a time of progress, the proper limitations +react as intensity; when limitations are removed the designer +has less and less upon which to react, and unconditioned liberty +gives him nothing at all to lean on. Design is response to needs, +conditions and aspirations. The Greeks so well understood this +that they appear to have consciously restrained themselves to +the development of selected types, not only in architecture and +literature, but in domestic arts, like pottery. Design with them +was less the new than the true.</p> + +<p>For the production of a school of design it is necessary that +there should be a considerable body of artists working together, +and a large demand from a sympathetic public. A process of +continuous development is thus brought into being which sustains +the individual effort. It is necessary for the designer to know +familiarly the processes, the materials and the skilful use of the +tools involved in the productions of a given art, and properly +only one who practises a craft can design for it. It is necessary +to enter into the traditions of the art, that is, to know past +achievements. It is necessary, further, to be in relation with +nature, the great reservoir of ideas, for it is from it that fresh +thought will flow into all forms of art. These conditions being +granted, the best and most useful meaning we can give to +the word design is exploration, experiment, consideration of +possibilities. Putting too high a value on originality other than +this is to restrict natural growth from vital roots, in which true +originality consists. To take design in architecture as an example, +we have rested too much on definite precedent (a different thing +from living tradition) and, on the other hand, hoped too much from +newness. Exploration of the possibilities in arches, vaults, domes +and the like, as a chemist or a mathematician explores, is little +accepted as a method in architecture at this time, although in +antiquity it was by such means that the great master-works were +produced: the Pantheon, Santa Sophia, Durham and Amiens +cathedrals. The same is true of all forms of design. Of course +the genius and inspiration of the individual artist is not here +ignored, but assumed. What we are concerned with is a mode +of thought which shall make it most fruitful.</p> +<div class="author">(W. R. L.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESIRE,</span> in popular usage, a term for a wishing or longing +for something which one has not got. For its technical use see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>. The word is derived through the French from +Lat. <i>desiderare</i>, to long or wish for, to miss. The substantive +<i>desiderium</i> has the special meaning of desire for something one +has once possessed but lost, hence regret or grief. The usual +explanation of the word is to connect it with <i>sidus</i>, star, as in +<i>considerare</i>, to examine the stars with attention, hence, to look +closely at. If this is so, the history of the transition in meaning +is unknown. J. B. Greenough (<i>Harvard Studies in Classical +Philology</i>, i. 96) has suggested that the word is a military slang +term. According to this theory <i>desiderare</i> meant originally to +miss a soldier from the ranks at roll-call, the root being that +seen in <i>sedere</i>, to sit, <i>sedes</i>, seat, place, &c.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESK</span> (from Lat. <i>discus</i>, quoit, in med. sense of “table,” +cf. “dish” and Ger. <i>Tisch</i>, table, from same source), any +kind of flat or sloping table for writing or reading. Its +earliest shape was probably that with which we are familiar +in pictures of the monastic <i>scriptorium</i>—rather high and +narrow with a sloping slab. The primitive desk had little +accommodation for writing materials, and no storage room for +papers; drawers, cupboards and pigeon-holes were the evolution +of periods when writing grew common, and when letters and +other documents requiring preservation became numerous. It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96"></a>96</span> +was long the custom to secure papers in chests or cabinets, whereas +the modern desk serves the double purpose of a writing-table and +a storehouse for documents. The first development from the +early stall-like desk consisted of the addition of a drawer; then +the table came to be supported upon legs or columns, which, as +in the many beautiful examples constructed by Boulle and his +school, were often of elaborate grace. Eventually the legs were +replaced by a series of superimposed drawers forming pedestals—hence +the familiar pedestal writing-table.</p> + +<p>For a long period there were two distinct contemporary forms +of desk—the table and the bureau or escritoire. The latter shape +attained a popularity so great that, especially in England and +America, it was found even in houses in which there was little +occasion for writing. The English-speaking people of the 18th +century were amazingly fond of pieces of furniture which +served a double or triple purpose. The bureau—the word is +the French generic appellation for a desk—derives its name +from the material with which it was originally covered (Fr. <i>bure</i>, +woollen cloth). It consists of an upright carcass sloping inward +at the top, and provided with long drawers below. The upper +part is fitted with small drawers and pigeon-holes, and often with +secret places, and the writing space is formed by a hinged slab +supported on runners; when not in use this slab closes up the +sloping top. During the 18th century innumerable thousands of +these bureaux were made on both sides of the Atlantic—indeed, +if we except tables and chairs, no piece of old furniture is more +common. In the first part of that period they were usually of +oak, but when mahogany was introduced into Europe it speedily +ousted the heavier-looking wood. Its deep rich colour and the +high polish of which it was capable added appreciably to its +ornamental appearance. While the pigeon-holes and small +drawers were used for papers, the long drawers were often +employed for purposes other than literary. In time the bureau-secretaire +became a bureau-bookcase, the glazed shelves, which +were often a separate erection, resting upon the top of the bureau. +The cabinetmakers of the second half of the 18th century, the +period of the greatest <i>floraison</i> of this combination, competed +with each other in devising elegant frets for the glass fronts. +Solid and satisfying to the eye, if somewhat severe in form, the +mahogany bureau was usually an exceedingly presentable piece +of furniture. Occasionally it had a <i>bombé</i> front which mitigated +its severity; this was especially the case in the Dutch varieties, +which were in a measure free adaptations of the French Louis +Quinze <i>commode</i>. These Dutch bureaux, and the English ones +made in imitation of them, were usually elaborately inlaid with +floral designs in coloured woods; but whereas the Batavian +marquetry was often rough and crude, the English work was +usually of considerable excellence. Side by side with this form of +writing apparatus was one variety or another of the writing-table +proper. In so far as it is possible to generalize upon such a detail +it would appear that the bureau was the desk of the yeoman and +what we now call the lower middle class, and that the slighter and +more table-like forms were preferred by those higher in the social +scale. This probably means no more than that while the one +class preserved the old English affection for the solid and heavy +furniture which would last for generations, those who were more +free to follow the fashions and fancies of their time were, as the +pecuniarily easy classes always have been, ready to abandon the +old for the new.</p> + +<p>Just about the time when the flat table with its drawers in a +single row, or in nests serving as pedestals, was finally assuming +its familiar modern shape, an invention was introduced which +was destined eventually, so far as numbers and convenience go, +to supersede all other forms of desk. This was the cylinder-top +writing-table. Nothing is known of the originator of this device, +but it is certain that if not French himself he worked in France. +The historians of French furniture agree in fixing its introduction +about the year 1750, and we know that a desk worked on this +principle was in the possession of the French crown in the year +1760. Even in its early days the cylinder took more than one +form. It sometimes consisted of a solid piece of curved wood, +and sometimes of a tambour frame—that is to say, of a series of +narrow jointed strips of wood mounted on canvas; the revolving +shutters of a shop-front are an adaptation of the idea. For a long +period, however, the cylinder was most often solid, and remained +so until the latter part of the 19th century, when the “American +roll-top desk” began to be made in large numbers. This is +indeed the old French form with a tambour cylinder, and it is +now the desk that is most frequently met with all over the world +for commercial purposes. Its popularity is due to its large +accommodation, and to the facility with which the closing of the +cylinder conceals all papers, and automatically locks every drawer. +To France we owe not only the invention of this ubiquitous form, +but the construction of many of the finest and most historic desks +that have survived—the characteristic marquetry writing-tables +of the Boulle period, and the gilded splendours of that of Louis +Quinze have never been surpassed in the history of furniture. +Indeed, the “Bureau du roi” which was made for Louis XV. is the +most famous and magnificent piece of furniture that, so far as we +know, was ever constructed. This desk, which is now one of the +treasures of the Louvre, was the work of several artist-artificers, +chief among whom were Oeben and Riesener—Oeben, it may be +added here as a matter of artistic interest, became the grandfather +of Eugene Delacroix. The bureau is signed “Riesener fa. +1769 à l’Arsenal de Paris,” but it has been established that, +however great may have been the share of its construction which +fell to him, the conception was that of Oeben. The work was +ordered in 1760; it would thus appear that nine years were +consumed in perfecting it, which is not surprising when we learn +from the detailed account of its construction that the work began +with making a perfect miniature model followed by one of full +size. The “bureau du roi” is a large cylinder desk elaborately +inlaid in marquetry of woods, and decorated with a wonderful +and ornate series of mounts consisting of mouldings, plaques, +vases and statuettes of gilt bronze cast and chased. These +bronzes are the work of Duplessis, Winant and Hervieux. The +desk, which shows plainly the transition between the Louis +Quinze and Louis Seize styles, is as remarkable for the boldness +of its conception as for the magnificent finish of its details. Its +lines are large, flowing and harmonious, and although it is no +longer exactly as it left the hands of its makers (Oeben died +before it was finished) the alterations that have been made have +hardly interfered with the general effect. For the head of the +king for whom it was made that of Minerva in a helmet was +substituted under his successor. The ciphers of Louis XV. have +been removed and replaced by Sèvres plaques, and even the +key which bore the king’s initial crowned with laurels and +palm leaves, with his portrait on the one side, and the fleur de lys +on the other, has been interfered with by an austere republicanism. +Yet no tampering with details can spoil the monumental nobility +of this great conception.</p> +<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESLONGCHAMPS, JACQUES AMAND EUDES-</span> (1794-1867), +French naturalist and palaeontologist, was born at Caen in +Normandy on the 17th of January 1794. His parents, though +poor, contrived to give him a good education, and he studied +medicine in his native town to such good effect that in 1812 he +was appointed assistant-surgeon in the navy, and in 1815 surgeon +assistant major to the military hospital of Caen. Soon afterwards +he proceeded to Paris to qualify for the degree of doctor of +surgery, and there the researches and teachings of Cuvier attracted +his attention to subjects of natural history and palaeontology. +In 1822 he was elected surgeon to the board of relief at Caen, and +while he never ceased to devote his energies to the duties of this +post, he sought relaxation in geological studies. Soon he discovered +remains of <i>Teleosaurus</i> in one of the Caen quarries, and +he became an ardent palaeontologist. He was one of the founders +of the museum of natural history at Caen, and acted as honorary +curator; he was likewise one of the founders of the <i>Sociétié +linnéenne de Normandie</i> (1823), to the transactions of which +society he communicated papers on <i>Teleosaurus</i>, <i>Poekilopleuron</i> +(<i>Megalosaurus</i>), on Jurassic mollusca and brachiopoda. In 1825 +he became professor of zoology to the faculty of sciences, and in +1847, dean. He died on the 17th of January 1867.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Eugène Eudes-Deslongchamps</span> (1830-1889), French +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97"></a>97</span> +palaeontologist, was born in 1830. He succeeded his father about +the year 1856 as professor of zoology at the faculty of sciences at +Caen, and in 1861 he became also professor of geology and dean. +After the death of his father in 1867, he devoted himself to the +completion of a memoir on the Teleosaurs: the joint labours +being embodied in his <i>Prodrome des Téléosauriens du Calvados</i>. +To the Société Linnéenne de Normandie he contributed memoirs +on Jurassic brachiopods, on the geology of the department of La +Manche (1856), of Calvados (1856-1863), on the <i>Terrain callovien</i> +(1859), on <i>Nouvelle-Calédonie</i> (1864), and <i>Études sur les étages +jurassiques inférieurs de la Normandie</i> (1864). His work <i>Le +Jura normand</i> was issued in 1877-1878 (incomplete). He died +at Château Matthieu, Calvados, on the 21st of December 1889.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESMAISEAUX, PIERRE</span> (1673-1745); French writer, was +born at Saillat, probably in 1673. His father, a minister of the +reformed church, had to leave France on the revocation of the +edict of Nantes, and took refuge in Geneva, where Pierre was +educated. Bayle gave him an introduction to the 3rd Lord +Shaftesbury, with whom, in 1699, he came to England, where he +engaged in literary work. He remained in close touch with +the religious refugees in England and Holland, and constantly in +correspondence with the leading continental savants and writers, +who were in the habit of employing him to conduct such business +as they might have in England. In 1720 he was elected a fellow +of the Royal Society. Among his works are <i>Vie de St Evremond</i> +(1711), <i>Vie de Boileau-Despréaux</i> (1712), <i>Vie de Bayle</i> (1730). +He also took an active part in preparing the <i>Bibliothèque raisonnée +des ouvrages de l’Europe</i> (1728-1753), and the <i>Bibliothèque +britannique</i> (1733-1747), and edited a selection of St Evremond’s +writings (1706). Part of Desmaiseaux’s correspondence is preserved +in the British Museum, and other letters are in the royal +library at Copenhagen. He died on the 11th of July 1745.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESMAREST, NICOLAS</span> (1725-1815), French geologist, was +born at Soulaines, in the department of Aube, on the 16th of +September 1725. Of humble parentage, he was educated at +the college of the Oratorians of Troyes and Paris. Taking full +advantage of the instruction he received, he was able to support +himself by teaching, and to continue his studies independently. +Buffon’s <i>Theory of the Earth</i> interested him, and in 1753 he +successfully competed for a prize by writing an essay on the +ancient connexion between England and France. This attracted +much attention, and ultimately led to his being employed in +studying and reporting on manufactures in different countries, +and in 1788 to his appointment as inspector-general of the +manufactures of France. He utilized his journeys, travelling on +foot, so as to add to his knowledge of the earth’s structure. In +1763 he made observations in Auvergne, recognizing that the +prismatic basalts were old lava streams, comparing them with +the columns of the Giant’s Causeway in Ireland, and referring +them to the operations of extinct volcanoes. It was not, however, +until 1774 that he published an essay on the subject, accompanied +by a geological map, having meanwhile on several occasions +revisited the district. He then pointed out the succession of +volcanic outbursts and the changes the rocks had undergone +through weathering and erosion. As remarked by Sir A. Geikie, +the doctrine of the origin of valleys by the erosive action of the +streams which flow through them was first clearly taught by +Desmarest. An enlarged and improved edition of his map of the +volcanic region of Auvergne was published after his death, in +1823, by his son <span class="sc">Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest</span> (1784-1838), who +was distinguished as a zoologist, and author of memoirs on recent +and fossil crustacea. He died in Paris on the 20th of September +1815.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See <i>The Founders of Geology</i>, by Sir A. Geikie (1897), pp. 48-78.</p> +</div> + +<div class="author sc">(H. B. Wo.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESMARETS</span> (or <span class="sc">Desmaretz</span>), <span class="bold">JEAN,</span> <span class="sc">Sieur de Saint-Sorlin</span> +(1595-1676), French dramatist and miscellaneous writer, +was born in Paris in 1595. When he was about thirty he was +introduced to Richelieu, and became one of the band of writers +who carried out the cardinal’s literary ideas. Desmarets’s own +inclination was to novel-writing, and the success of his romance +<i>Ariane</i> in 1631 led to his formal admission to the circle that met +at the house of Valentine Conrart and later developed into the +Académie Française. Desmarets was its first chancellor. It was +at Richelieu’s request that he began to write for the theatre. In +this kind he produced a comedy long regarded as a masterpiece, +<i>Les Visionnaires</i> (1637); a prose-tragedy, <i>Érigone</i> (1638); and +<i>Scipion</i> (1639), a tragedy in verse. His success led to official +preferment, and he was made <i>conseiller du roi</i>, <i>contrôleur-général +de l’extraordinaire des guerres</i>, and secretary-general of the fleet +of the Levant. His long epic <i>Clovis</i> (1657) is noteworthy because +Desmarets rejected the traditional pagan background, and +maintained that Christian imagery should supplant it. With +this standpoint he contributed several works in defence of +the moderns in the famous quarrel between the Ancients and +Moderns. In his later years Desmarets devoted himself chiefly +to producing a quantity of religious poems, of which the best-known +is perhaps his verse translation of the <i>Office de la Vierge</i> +(1645). He was a violent opponent of the Jansenists, against +whom he wrote a <i>Réponse à l’insolente apologie de Port-Royal ...</i> +(1666). He died in Paris on the 28th of October 1676.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See also H. Rigault, <i>Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des +modernes</i> (1856), pp. 80-103.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESMARETS, NICOLAS,</span> <span class="sc">Sieur de Maillebois</span> (1648-1721), +French statesman, was born in Paris on the 10th of September +1648. His mother was the sister of J. B. Colbert, who took him +into his offices as a clerk. He became counsellor to the parlement +in 1672, master of requests in 1674 and intendant of finances in +1678. In these last functions he had to treat with the financiers +for the coinage of new silver pieces of four sous. After Colbert’s +death he was involved in the legal proceedings taken against those +financiers who had manufactured coins of bad alloy. The +prosecution, conducted by the members of the family of Le Tellier, +rivals of the Colberts, presented no proof against Desmarets. +Nevertheless he was stripped of his offices and exiled to his +estates by the king, on the 23rd of December 1683. In March +1686 he was authorized to return to Paris, and again entered +into relations with the controllers-general of finance, to whom +he furnished for more than ten years remarkable memoirs on the +economic situation in France. As early as 1687 he showed the +necessity for radical reforms in the system of taxation, insisting +on the ruin of the people and the excessive expenses of the king. +By these memoirs he established his claim to a place among +the great economists of the time, Vauban, Boisguilbert and the +comte de Boulainvilliers. When in September 1699 Chamillart +was named controller-general of finances, he took Desmarets for +counsellor; and when he created the two offices of directors +of finances, he gave one to Desmarets (October 22, 1703). +Henceforth Desmarets was veritable minister of finance. Louis +XIV. had long conversations with him. Madame de Maintenon +protected him. The economists Vauban and Boisguilbert exchanged +long conversations with him. When Chamillart found +his double functions too heavy, and retaining the ministry of +war resigned that of finance in 1708, Desmarets succeeded him. +The situation was exceedingly grave. The ordinary revenues of +the year 1708 amounted to 81,977,007 livres, of which 57,833,233 +livres had already been spent by anticipation, and the expenses +to meet were 200,251,447 livres. In 1709 a famine reduced still +more the returns from taxes. Yet Desmarets’s reputation renewed +the credit of the state, and financiers consented to advance +money they had refused to the king. The emission of paper +money, and a reform in the collection of taxes, enabled him to +tide over the years 1709 and 1710. Then Desmarets decided upon +an “extreme and violent remedy,” to use his own expression,—an +income tax. His “tenth” was based on Vauban’s plan; but +the privileged classes managed to avoid it, and it proved no better +than other expedients. Nevertheless Louis XIV. managed to +meet the most urgent expenses, and the deficit of 1715, about +350,000,000 livres, was much less than it would have been had +it not been for Desmarets’s reforms. The honourable peace which +Louis was enabled to conclude at Utrecht with his enemies was certainly +due to the resources which Desmarets procured for him.</p> + +<p>After the death of Louis XIV. Desmarets was dismissed by +the regent along with all the other ministers. He withdrew to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98"></a>98</span> +his estates. To justify his ministry he addressed to the regent +a <i>Compte rendu</i>, which showed clearly the difficulties he had +to meet. His enemies even, like Saint Simon, had to recognize +his honesty and his talent. He was certainly, after Colbert, the +greatest finance minister of Louis XIV.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See Forbonnais, <i>Recherches et considérations sur les finances de la +France</i> (2 vols., Basel, 1758); Montyon, <i>Particularités et observations +sur les ministres des finances de la France</i> (Paris, 1812); De Boislisle, +<i>Correspondance des contrôleurs-généraux des finances</i> (3 vols., Paris, +1873-1897); and the same author’s “Desmarets et l’affaire des pièces +de quatre sols” in the appendix to the seventh volume of his edition +of the <i>Mémoires de Saint-Simon</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author sc">(E. Es.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DES MOINES,</span> the capital and the largest city of Iowa, U.S.A., +and the county-seat of Polk county, in the south central part of +the state, at the confluence of the Raccoon with the Des Moines +river. Pop. (1890) 50,093; (1900) 62,139, of whom 7946 were +foreign-born, including 1907 from Sweden and 1432 from +Germany; (1910 census) 86,368. Des Moines is served by the +Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, +the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, +the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Wabash, the Minneapolis +& St Louis, and the Des Moines, Iowa Falls & Northern railways; +also by several interurban electric lines. The chief building +in Des Moines is the State Capitol, erected at a cost of about +$3,000,000; other important buildings are the public library +(containing, in 1908, 40,415 volumes), the court house, the post +office, the Iowa State Historical building, a large auditorium +and two hospitals. As a manufacturing centre the city has +considerable importance. Among the leading products are +those of the furnaces, foundries and machine shops, flour and +grist mills, planing mills, creameries, bridge and iron works, +publishing houses and a packing house; and brick, tile, pottery, +patent medicines, furniture, caskets, tombstones, carriages, +farm machinery, Portland cement, glue, gloves and hosiery. The +value of the factory product in 1905 was $15,084,958, an increase +of 79.7% in five years. The city is in one of the most productive +coal regions of the state, has a large jobbing trade, and is an +important centre for the insurance business. The Iowa state fair +is held here annually. In 1908 this city had a park system of +750 acres. Des Moines is the seat of Des Moines College, a +Baptist institution, co-educational, founded in 1865 (enrolment, +1907-1908, 214); of Drake University (co-educational; founded +in 1881 by the Disciples of Christ; now non-sectarian), with +colleges of liberal arts, law, medicine, dental surgery and of the +Bible, a conservatory of music, and a normal school, in which +are departments of oratory and commercial training, and having +in 1907-1908 1764 students, of whom 520 were in the summer +school only; of the Highland Park College, founded in 1890; +of Grand View College (Danish Lutheran), founded in 1895; and +of the Capital City commercial college (founded 1884). A new +city charter, embodying what has become known as the “Des +Moines Plan” of municipal government, was adopted in 1907. +It centralizes power in a council of five (mayor and four councilmen), +nominated at a non-partisan primary and voted for on +a non-partisan ticket by the electors of the entire city, ward +divisions having been abolished. Elections are biennial. Other +city officers are chosen by the council, and city employees are +selected by a civil service commission of three members, appointed +by the council. The mayor is superintendent of the +department of public affairs, and each of the other administrative +departments (accounts and finances, public safety, +streets and public improvements, and parks and public +property) is under the charge of one of the councilmen. After +petition signed by a number of voters not less than 25% of the +number voting at the preceding municipal election, any member +of the council may be removed by popular vote, to which all +public franchises must be submitted, and by which the council +may be compelled to pass any law or ordinance.</p> + +<p>A fort called Fort Des Moines was established on the site of the +city in 1843 to protect the rights of the Sacs and Foxes. In 1843 +the site was opened to settlement by the whites; in 1851 Des +Moines was incorporated as a town; in 1857 it was first chartered +as a city, and, for the purpose of a more central location, the seat +of government was removed hither from Iowa City. A fort was +re-established here by act of Congress in 1900 and named Fort +Des Moines. It is occupied by a full regiment of cavalry. The +name of the city was taken from that of the river, which in turn +is supposed to represent a corruption by the French of the +original Indian name, <i>Moingona</i>,—the French at first using +the abbreviation “moin,” and calling the river “<i>la rivière des +moins</i>” and then, the name having become associated with the +Trappist monks, changing it into “<i>la rivière des moines</i>.”</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESMOND, GERALD FITZGERALD,</span> <span class="sc">15th Earl of</span> (d. 1583), +Irish leader, was son of James, 14th earl, by his second wife More +O’Carroll. His father had agreed in January 1541, as one of the +terms of his submission to Henry VIII., to send young Gerald +to be educated in England. At the accession of Edward VI. +proposals to this effect were renewed; Gerald was to be the +companion of the young king. Unfortunately for the subsequent +peace of Munster these projects were not carried out. The +Desmond estates were held by a doubtful title, and claims on +them were made by the Butlers, the hereditary enemies of the +Geraldines, the 9th earl of Ormonde having married Lady Joan +Fitzgerald, daughter and heiress-general of the 11th earl of +Desmond. On Ormonde’s death she proposed to marry Gerald +Fitzgerald, and eventually did so, after the death of her second +husband, Sir Francis Bryan. The effect of this marriage was a +temporary cessation of open hostility between the Desmonds and +her son, Thomas Butler, 10th earl of Ormonde.</p> + +<p>Gerald succeeded to the earldom in 1558; he was knighted by +the lord deputy Sussex, and did homage at Waterford. He soon +established close relations with his namesake Gerald Fitzgerald, +11th earl of Kildare (1525-1585), and with Shane O’Neill. In +spite of an award made by Sussex in August 1560 regulating +the matters in dispute between Ormonde and the Fitzgeralds, +the Geraldine outlaws were still plundering their neighbours. +Desmond neglected a summons to appear at Elizabeth’s court +for some time on the plea that he was at war with his uncle +Maurice. When he did appear in London in May 1562 his +insolent conduct before the privy council resulted in a short +imprisonment in the Tower. He was detained in England until +1564, and soon after his return his wife’s death set him free from +such restraint as was provided by her Butler connexion. He now +raided Thomond, and in Waterford he sought to enforce his feudal +rights on Sir Maurice Fitzgerald of Decies, who invoked the help +of Ormonde. The two nobles thereupon resorted to open war, +fighting a battle at Affane on the Blackwater, where Desmond +was defeated and taken prisoner. Ormonde and Desmond were +bound over in London to keep the peace, being allowed to return +early in 1566 to Ireland, where a royal commission was appointed +to settle the matters in dispute between them. Desmond and +his brother Sir John of Desmond were sent over to England, +where they surrendered their lands to the queen after a short +experience of the Tower. In the meanwhile Desmond’s cousin, +James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, caused himself to be acclaimed +captain of Desmond in defiance of Sidney, and in the evident +expectation of usurping the earldom. He sought to give the +movement an ultra-Catholic character, with the idea of gaining +foreign assistance, and allied himself with John Burke, son of +the earl of Clanricarde, with Connor O’Brien, earl of Thomond, +and even secured Ormonde’s brother, Sir Edmund Butler, whom +Sidney had offended. Piers and Edward Butler also joined the +rebellion, but the appearance of Sidney and Ormonde in the +south-west was rapidly followed by the submission of the Butlers. +Most of the Geraldines were subjugated by Humphrey Gilbert, +but Fitzmaurice remained in arms, and in 1571 Sir John Perrot +undertook to reduce him. Perrot hunted him down, and at last +on the 23rd of February 1573 he made formal submission at +Kilmallock, lying prostrate on the floor of the church by way of +proving his sincerity.</p> + +<p>Against the advice of the queen’s Irish counsellors Desmond +was allowed to return to Ireland in 1573, the earl promising not +to exercise palatinate jurisdiction in Kerry until his rights to +it were proved. He was detained for six months in Dublin, but +in November slipped through the hands of the government, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99"></a>99</span> +within a very short time had reduced to a state of anarchy the +province which Perrot thought to have pacified by his severities. +Edward Fitzgerald, brother of the earl of Kildare, and lieutenant +of the queen’s pensioners in London, was sent to remonstrate with +Desmond, but accomplished nothing. Desmond asserted that +none but Brehon law should be observed between Geraldines; +and Fitzmaurice seized Captain George Bourchier, one of +Elizabeth’s officers in the west. Essex met the earl near Waterford +in July, and Bourchier was surrendered, but Desmond +refused the other demands made in the queen’s name. A +document offering £500 for his head, and £1000 to any one +who would take him alive, was drawn up but was vetoed by two +members of the council. On the 18th of July 1574 the Geraldine +chiefs signed the “Combination” promising to support the earl +unconditionally; shortly afterwards Ormonde and the lord +deputy, Sir William Fitzwilliam, marched on Munster, and put +Desmond’s garrison at Derrinlaur Castle to the sword. Desmond +submitted at Cork on the 2nd of September, handing over his +estates to trustees. Sir Henry Sidney visited Munster in 1575, +and affairs seemed to promise an early restoration of order. But +Fitzmaurice had fled to Brittany in company with other leading +Geraldines, John Fitzgerald, seneschal of Imokilly, who had held +Ballymartyr against Sidney in 1567, and Edmund Fitzgibbon, +the son of the White Knight who had been attainted in 1571. +He intrigued at the French and Spanish courts for a foreign +invasion of Ireland, and at Rome met the adventurer Stucley, +with whom he projected an expedition which was to make +a nephew of Gregory XIII. king of Ireland. In 1579 he landed +in Smerwick Bay, where he was joined later by some Spanish +soldiers at the Fort del Ore. His ships were captured on the +29th of July and he himself was slain in a skirmish while on his +way to Tipperary. Nicholas Sanders, the papal legate who had +accompanied Fitzmaurice, worked on Desmond’s weakness, and +sought to draw him into open rebellion. Desmond had perhaps +been restrained before by jealousy of Fitzmaurice; his indecisions +ceased when on the 1st of November Sir William Pelham +proclaimed him a traitor. The sack of Youghal and Kinsale by +the Geraldines was speedily followed by the successes of Ormonde +and Pelham acting in concert with Admiral Winter. In June +1581 Desmond had to take to the woods, but he maintained a +considerable following for some time, which, however, in June +1583, when Ormonde set a price on his head, was reduced to four +persons. Five months later, on the 11th of November, he was +seized and murdered by a small party of soldiers. His brother +Sir John of Desmond had been caught and killed in December +1581, and the seneschal of Imokilly had surrendered on the 14th +of June 1583. After his submission the seneschal acted loyally, +but his lands excited envy; he was arrested in 1587, and died +in Dublin Castle two days later.</p> + +<p>By his second marriage with Eleanor Butler, the 15th earl left +two sons, the elder of whom, James, 16th earl (1570-1601), spent +most of his life in prison. After an unsuccessful attempt in +1600-1601 to recover his inheritance he returned to England, +where he died, the title becoming extinct.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See G. E. C(okayne,) <i>Complete Peerage</i>; R. Bagwell, <i>Ireland under +the Tudors</i> (1885-1890); <i>Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters</i> +(ed. J. O’Donovan, 1851); and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fitzgerald</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESMOND</span> (<i>Des-Mumha</i>), an ancient territorial division of +Ireland, covering the eastern part of the modern Co. Kerry and +the western part of Co. Cork. Its creation as a kingdom is placed +in the year 248, when Oliol Olum, king of Munster, divided his +territory between his two sons, giving Desmond to Eoghan, and +Thomond or North Munster to Cormac. In 1329 Maurice +Fitzthomas or Fitzgerald (d. 1356), lord of Decies and Desmond, +was created 1st earl of Desmond by Edward III.; like other +earls created about that time he ruled his territory as a palatinate, +and his family acquired enormous powers and a large measure +of independence. Meanwhile native kings continued to reign in +a restricted territory until 1596. In 1583 came the attainder of +<a href="#artlinks">Gerald Fitzgerald</a>, 15th earl of Desmond (q.v.), and in 1586 an act +of parliament declared the forfeiture of the Desmond estates to +the crown. In 1571 a commission provided for the formation of +Desmond into a county, and it was regarded as such for a few +years, but by the beginning of the 17th century it was joined to +Co. Kerry.</p> + +<p>In 1619 the title of earl of Desmond was conferred on Richard +Preston, Lord Dingwall, at whose death in 1628 it again became +extinct. It was then bestowed on George Feilding, second son +of William, earl of Denbigh, who had held the reversion of the +earldom from 1622. His son William Feilding succeeded as earl +of Denbigh in 1675, and thenceforward the title of Desmond was +held in conjunction with that honour.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table style="float: left; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figleft1"> + <img src="images/img99.jpg" width="97" height="400" alt="DESMOSCOLECIDA" title="DESMOSCOLECIDA" /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="norm" style="padding-right: 1.5em;"> + <p style="font-size: 80%; line-height: 1em;">From <i>Cambridge Natural + History</i>, vol. ii., “Worms,” + &c., by permission of Macmillian + & Co. Ltd.</p> + + <p style="line-height: 1em;">Female <i>Desmoscolex + elongatus</i> Panceri, ventral + view. a, Ovary. + (From Panceri.)</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">DESMOSCOLECIDA,</span> a group of minute marine worm-like +creatures. The body tapers towards each end and is marked by +a number of well-defined ridges. These +ridges resemble on a small scale those +which surround the body of a <i>Porocephalus</i> +(Linguatulida), and like them +have no segmental significance. Their +number varies in the different species. +The head bears four setae, and some of +the ridges bear a pair either dorsally +or ventrally. The setae are movable. +Two pigment spots between the fourth +and fifth ridges are regarded as eyes. +The Desmoscolecida move by looping +their bodies like geometrid caterpillars +or leeches, as well as by creeping on their +setae. The mouth is terminal, and +leads into a muscular oesophagus which +opens into a straight intestine terminating +in an anus, which is said to be +dorsal in position. The sexes are distinct. +The testis is single, and its duct +opens into the intestine and is provided +with two chitinous spicules. The ovary +is also single, opening independently +and anterior to the anus. The nervous +system is as yet unknown.</p> + +<p>There are several species. <i>D. minutus</i> +Clap. has been met with in the English +Channel. Others are <i>D. nematoides</i> +Greef, <i>D. adelphus</i> Greef, <i>D. chaetogaster</i> +Greef, <i>D. elongatus</i> Panceri, <i>D. lanuginosa</i> +Panceri. <i>Trichoderma oxycaudatum</i> +Greef is 0.3 mm. long, and is also a +“ringed creature with long hair-like +bristles.” The male has two spicules, +and there is some doubt as to whether +it should be placed with the Desmoscolecida +or with the Nematoda. With regard to the systematic +position of the group, it certainly comes nearest—especially in +the structure of its reproductive organs—to the Nematoda. We +still, however, are very ignorant of the internal anatomy of these +forms, and until we know more it is impossible to arrive at a +very definite conclusion as to their position in the animal +kingdom.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See Panceri, <i>Atti Acc. Napoli.</i> vii. (1878); Greef, <i>Arch. Naturg.</i> +35 (i.) (1869), p. 112.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div> + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESMOULINS, LUCIE SIMPLICE CAMILLE BENOIST</span> (1760-1794), +French journalist and politician, who played an important +part in the French Revolution, was born at Guise, in Picardy, on +the 2nd of March 1760. His father was lieutenant-general of the +<i>bailliage</i> of Guise, and through the efforts of a friend obtained +a <i>bourse</i> for his son, who at the age of fourteen left home for Paris, +and entered the college of Louis le Grand. In this school, in +which Robespierre was also a bursar and a distinguished student, +Camille Desmoulins laid the solid foundation of his learning. +Destined by his father for the law, at the completion of his legal +studies he was admitted an advocate of the parlement of Paris +in 1785. His professional success was not great; his manner was +violent, his appearance unattractive, and his speech impaired by +a painful stammer. He indulged, however, his love for literature, +was closely observant of public affairs, and thus gradually +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100"></a>100</span> +prepared himself for the main duties of his life—those of a +political <i>littérateur</i>.</p> + +<p>In March 1789 Desmoulins began his political career. Having +been nominated deputy from the <i>bailliage</i> of Guise, he appeared +at Laon as one of the commissioners for the election of deputies +to the States-General summoned by royal edict of January 24th. +Camille heralded its meeting by his <i>Ode to the States-General</i>. It +is, moreover, highly probable that he was the author of a radical +pamphlet entitled <i>La Philosophie au peuple français</i>, published +in 1788, the text of which is not known. His hopes of professional +success were now scattered, and he was living in Paris +in extreme poverty. He, however, shared to the full the excitement +which attended the meeting of the States-General. As +appears from his letters to his father, he watched with exultation +the procession of deputies at Versailles, and with violent indignation +the events of the latter part of June which followed the +closing of the Salle des Menus to the deputies who had named +themselves the National Assembly. It is further evident that +Desmoulins was already sympathizing, not only with the enthusiasm, +but also with the fury and cruelty, of the Parisian crowds.</p> + +<p>The sudden dismissal of Necker by Louis XVI. was the event +which brought Desmoulins to fame. On the 12th of July 1789 +Camille, leaping upon a table outside one of the cafés in +the garden of the Palais Royal, announced to the crowd +the dismissal of their favourite. Losing, in his violent excitement, +his stammer, he inflamed the passions of the mob by his +burning words and his call “To arms!” “This dismissal,” +he said, “is the tocsin of the St Bartholomew of the patriots.” +Drawing, at last, two pistols from under his coat, he declared that +he would not fall alive into the hands of the police who were +watching his movements. He descended amid the embraces of +the crowd, and his cry “To arms!” resounded on all sides. +This scene was the beginning of the actual events of the +Revolution. Following Desmoulins the crowd surged through +Paris, procuring arms by force; and on the 13th it was partly +organized as the Parisian militia which was afterwards to be the +National Guard. On the 14th the Bastille was taken.</p> + +<p>Desmoulins may be said to have begun on the following day +that public literary career which lasted till his death. In May +and June 1789 he had written <i>La France libre</i>, which, to his +chagrin, his publisher refused to print. The taking of the Bastille, +however, and the events by which it was preceded, were a sign +that the times had changed; and on the 18th of July Desmoulins’s +work was issued. Considerably in advance of public opinion, +it already pronounced in favour of a republic. By its erudite, +brilliant and courageous examination of the rights of king, of +nobles, of clergy and of people, it attained a wide and sudden +popularity; it secured for the author the friendship and protection +of Mirabeau, and the studied abuse of numerous royalist +pamphleteers. Shortly afterwards, with his vanity and love of +popularity inflamed, he pandered to the passions of the lower +orders by the publication of his <i>Discours de la lanterne aux +Parisiens</i> which, with an almost fiendish reference to the excesses +of the mob, he headed by a quotation from St John, <i>Qui male +agit odit lucem</i>. Camille was dubbed “Procureur-général de +la lanterne.”</p> + +<p>In November 1789 Desmoulins began his career as a journalist +by the issue of the first number of a weekly publication, <i>Les +Révolutions de France et de Brabant</i>. The title of the publication +changed after the 73rd number. It ceased to appear at the end +of July 1791.<a name="FnAnchor_1l" href="#Footnote_1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>Success attended the <i>Révolutions</i> from its first to its last +number, Camille was everywhere famous, and his poverty was +relieved. These numbers are valuable as an exhibition not so +much of events as of the feelings of the Parisian people; they +are adorned, moreover, by the erudition, the wit and the genius +of the author, but they are disfigured, not only by the most biting +personalities and the defence and even advocacy of the excesses +of the mob, but by the entire absence of the forgiveness and pity +for which the writer was afterwards so eloquently to plead.</p> + +<p>Desmoulins was powerfully swayed by the influence of more +vigorous minds; and for some time before the death of Mirabeau, +in April 1791, he had begun to be led by Danton, with whom +he remained associated during the rest of his life. In July 1791 +Camille appeared before the municipality of Paris as head of +a deputation of petitioners for the deposition of the king. In +that month, however, such a request was dangerous; there was +excitement in the city over the presentation of the petition, and +the private attacks to which Desmoulins had often been subject +were now followed by a warrant for the arrest of himself and +Danton. Danton left Paris for a little; Desmoulins, however, +remained there, appearing occasionally at the Jacobin club. +Upon the failure of this attempt of his opponents, Desmoulins +published a pamphlet, <i>Jean Pierre Brissot démasqué</i>, which +abounded in the most violent personalities. This pamphlet, +which had its origin in a petty squabble, was followed in 1793 +by a <i>Fragment de l’histoire secrète de la Révolution</i>, in which the +party of the Gironde, and specially Brissot, were most mercilessly +attacked. Desmoulins took an active part on the 10th of August +and became secretary to Danton, when the latter became +minister of justice. On the 8th of September he was elected one of +the deputies for Paris to the National Convention, where, however, +he was not successful as an orator. He was of the party of the +“Mountain,” and voted for the abolition of royalty and the death +of the king. With Robespierre he was now more than ever +associated, and the <i>Histoire des Brissotins</i>, the fragment above +alluded to, was inspired by the arch-revolutionist. The success +of the <i>brochure</i>, so terrible as to send the leaders of the Gironde +to the guillotine, alarmed Danton and the author. Yet the role +of Desmoulins during the Convention was of but secondary +importance.</p> + +<p>In December 1793 was issued the first number of the <i>Vieux +Cordelier</i>, which was at first directed against the Hébertists and +approved of by Robespierre, but which soon formulated Danton’s +idea of a committee of clemency. Then Robespierre turned +against Desmoulins and took advantage of the popular indignation +roused against the Hébertists to send them to death. The +time had come, however, when Saint Just and he were to turn +their attention not only to <i>les enragés</i>, but to <i>les indulgents</i>—the +powerful faction of the Dantonists. On the 7th of January +1794 Robespierre, who on a former occasion had defended Camille +when in danger at the hands of the National Convention, in +addressing the Jacobin club counselled not the expulsion of +Desmoulins, but the burning of certain numbers of the <i>Vieux +Cordelier</i>. Camille sharply replied that he would answer with +Rousseau,—“burning is not answering,” and a bitter quarrel +thereupon ensued. By the end of March not only were Hébert +and the leaders of the extreme party guillotined, but their +opponents, Danton, Desmoulins and the best of the moderates, +were arrested. On the 31st the warrant of arrest was signed and +executed, and on the 3rd, 4th and 5th of April the trial took place +before the Revolutionary Tribunal. It was a scene of terror not +only to the accused but to judges and to jury. The retorts of the +prisoners were notable. Camille on being asked his age, replied, +“I am thirty-three, the age of the <i>sans-culotte</i> Jesus, a critical age +for every patriot.” This was false; he was thirty-four.<a name="FnAnchor_2l" href="#Footnote_2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The +accused were prevented from defending themselves; a decree of +the Convention denied them the right of speech. Armed with +this and the false report of a spy, who charged the wife of +Desmoulins with conspiring for the escape of her husband and the +ruin of the republic, Fouquier-Tinville by threats and entreaties +obtained from the jury a sentence of death. It was passed in +absence of the accused, and their execution was appointed for +the same day.</p> + +<p>Since his arrest the courage of Camille had miserably failed. +He had exhibited in the numbers of the <i>Vieux Cordelier</i> almost +a disregard of the death which he must have known hovered over +him. He had with consummate ability exposed the terrors of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101"></a>101</span> +the Revolution, and had adorned his pages with illustrations from +Tacitus, the force of which the commonest reader could feel. In +his last number, the seventh, which his publisher refused to print, +he had dared to attack even Robespierre, but at his trial it was +found that he was devoid of physical courage. He had to be torn +from his seat ere he was removed to prison, and as he sat next to +Danton in the tumbrel which conveyed them to the guillotine, +the calmness of the great leader failed to impress him. In his +violence, bound as he was, he tore his clothes into shreds, and +his bare shoulders and breast were exposed to the gaze of the +surging crowd. Of the fifteen guillotined together, including +among them Marie Jean Hérault de Séchelles, François Joseph +Westermann and Pierre Philippeaux, Desmoulins died third; +Danton, the greatest, died last.</p> + +<p>On the 29th of December 1790 Camille had married Lucile +Duplessis, and among the witnesses of the ceremony are observed +the names of Brissot, Pétion and Robespierre. The only child +of the marriage, Horace Camille, was born on the 6th of July +1792. Two days afterwards Desmoulins brought it into notice +by appearing with it before the municipality of Paris to demand +“the formal statement of the civil estate of his son.” The boy +was afterwards pensioned by the French government, and died +in Haiti in 1825. Lucile, Desmoulins’s accomplished and affectionate +wife, was, a few days after her husband, and on a false +charge, condemned to the guillotine. She astonished all onlookers +by the calmness with which she braved death (April 13, 1794).</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See J. Claretie, <i>Œuvres de Camille Desmoulins avec une étude +biographique ...</i> &c. (Paris, 1874), and <i>Camille Desmoulins, Lucile +Desmoulins, étude sur les Dantonistes</i> (Paris, 1875; Eng. trans., +London, 1876); F. A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la +Convention</i> (Paris, 1905, 2nd ed.): G. Lenôtre, “La Maison de Camille +Desmoulins” (<i>Le Temps</i>, March 25, 1899).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1l" href="#FnAnchor_1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In April 1792 Desmoulins founded with Stanislas Fréron a new +journal, <i>La Tribune des patriotes</i>, but only four numbers appeared.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2l" href="#FnAnchor_2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This is borne out by the register of his birth and baptism, and by +words in his last letter to his wife,—“I die at thirty-four.” The +dates (1762-1794) given in so many biographies of Desmoulins are +certainly inaccurate.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESNOYERS, JULES PIERRE FRANÇOIS STANISLAS</span> (1800-1887), +French geologist and archaeologist, was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou, +in the department of Eure-et-Loir, on the 8th of October +1800. Becoming interested in geology at an early age, he was one +of the founders of the Société Géologique de France in 1830. +In 1834 he was appointed librarian of the Museum of Natural +History in Paris. His contributions to geological science comprise +memoirs on the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata +of the Paris Basin and of Northern France, and other papers +relating to the antiquity of man, and to the question of his +co-existence with extinct mammalia. His separate books were +<i>Sur la Craie et sur les terrains tertiaires du Cotentin</i> (1825), +<i>Recherches géologiques et historiques sur les cavernes</i> (1845). He +died in 1887.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESOR, PIERRE JEAN ÉDOUARD</span> (1811-1882), Swiss +geologist, was born at Friedrichsdorf, near Frankfort-on-Main, +on the 13th of February 1811. Associated in early years with +Agassiz he studied palaeontology and glacial phenomena, and +in company with J. D. Forbes ascended the Jungfrau in 1841. +Desor afterwards became professor of geology in the academy +at Neuchâtel, continued his studies on the structure of glaciers, +but gave special attention to the study of Jurassic Echinoderms. +He also investigated the old lake-habitations of Switzerland, +and made important observations on the physical features of +the Sahara. Having inherited considerable property he retired +to Combe Varin in Val Travers. He died at Nizza on the 23rd +of February 1882. His chief publications were: <i>Synopsis des +Échinides fossiles</i> (1858), <i>Aus Sahara</i> (1865), <i>Der Gebirgsbau +der Alpen</i> (1865), <i>Die Pfahlbauten des Neuenburger Sees</i> (1866), +<i>Échinologie helvétique</i> (2 vols., 1868-1873, with P. de Loriol).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DE SOTO,</span> a city of Jefferson county, Missouri, U.S.A., on +Joachim Creek, 42 m. S.S.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 3960; +(1900) 5611 (332 being foreign-born and 364 negroes); (1910) 4721. +It is served by the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railway, +which has extensive repair shops here. About 2½ m. from De Soto +is the Bochert mineral spring. In De Soto are Mount St Clement’s +College (Roman Catholic, 1900), a theological seminary of the +Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer under the charge of the +Redemptorist Fathers, and a Young Men’s Christian Association +building. De Soto is in a good agricultural and fruit-growing +region, which produces Indian corn, apples, plums, pears and +small fruit. Lead and zinc are mined in the vicinity and shipped +from the city in considerable quantities; and among the city’s +manufactures are shoes, flour and agricultural implements. The +municipality owns the water-works, the water supply of which is +furnished by artesian wells. De Soto was laid out in 1855 and +was incorporated in 1869.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESPARD, EDWARD MARCUS</span> (1751-1803), Irish conspirator, +was born in Queen’s Co., Ireland, in 1751. In 1766 he entered +the British navy, was promoted lieutenant in 1772, and stationed +at Jamaica, where he soon proved himself to have considerable +engineering talent. He served in the West Indies with credit, +being promoted captain after the San Juan expedition (1779), +then made governor of the Mosquito Shore and the Bay of +Honduras, and in 1782 commander of a successful expedition +against the Spanish possessions on the Black river. In 1784 +he took over the administration of Yucatan. Upon frivolous +charges he was suspended by Lord Grenville, and recalled to +England. From 1790 to 1792 these charges were held over him, +and when dismissed no compensation was forthcoming. His +complaints caused him to be arrested in 1798; and with a short +interval he remained in gaol until 1800. By that time Despard +was desperate, and engaged in a plot to seize the Tower of +London and Bank of England and assassinate George III. The +whole idea was patently preposterous, but Despard was arrested, +tried before a special commission, found guilty of high treason, +and, with six of his fellow-conspirators, sentenced in 1803 to be +hanged, drawn and quartered. These were the last men to be +so sentenced in England. Despard was executed on the 21st of +February 1803.</p> + +<p>His eldest brother, <span class="sc">John Despard</span> (1745-1829), had a long and +distinguished career in the British army; gazetted an ensign in +1760, he was promoted through the various intermediate grades +and became general in 1814. His most active service was in the +American War of Independence, during which he was twice +made prisoner.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESPENSER, HUGH LE</span> (d. 1265), chief justiciar of England, +first plays an important part in 1258, when he was prominent on +the baronial side in the Mad Parliament of Oxford. In 1260 the +barons chose him to succeed Hugh Bigod as justiciar, and in 1263 +the king was further compelled to put the Tower of London in +his hands. On the outbreak of civil war he joined the party of +Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and led the Londoners when +they sacked the manor-house of Isleworth, belonging to Richard, +earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans. Having fought at Lewes +(1264) he was made governor of six castles after the battle, and +was then appointed one of the four arbitrators to mediate +between Simon de Montfort and Gilbert de Clare, earl of +Gloucester. He was summoned to Simon de Montfort’s parliament +in 1264, and acted as justiciar throughout the earl’s +dictatorship. Despenser was killed at Evesham in August 1265.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See C. Bémont, <i>Simon de Montfort</i> (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in +<i>Owens College Historical Essays</i>, pp. 76 ff. (Manchester, 1902).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESPENSER, HUGH LE</span> (1262-1326), English courtier, was +a son of the English justiciar who died at Evesham. He fought +for Edward I. in Wales, France and Scotland, and in 1295 was +summoned to parliament as a baron. Ten years later he was +sent by the king to Pope Clement V. to secure Edward’s release +from the oaths he had taken to observe the charters in 1297. +Almost alone Hugh spoke out for Edward II.’s favourite, Piers +Gaveston, in 1308; but after Gaveston’s death in 1312 he himself +became the king’s chief adviser, holding power and influence +until Edward’s defeat at Bannockburn in 1314. Then, hated +by the barons, and especially by Earl Thomas of Lancaster, as +a deserter from their party, he was driven from the council, but +was quickly restored to favour and loaded with lands and honours, +being made earl of Winchester in 1322. Before this time Hugh’s +son, the younger Hugh le Despenser, had become associated with +his father, and having been appointed the king’s chamberlain +was enjoying a still larger share of the royal favour. About 1306 +this baron had married Eleanor (d. 1337), one of the sisters and +heiresses of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, who was slain at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102"></a>102</span> +Bannockburn; and after a division of the immense Clare lands +had been made in 1317 violent quarrels broke out between the +Despensers and the husbands of the other heiresses, Roger of +Amory and Hugh of Audley. Interwoven with this dispute was +another between the younger Despenser and the Mowbrays, who +were supported by Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, about +some lands in Glamorganshire. Fighting having begun in Wales +and on the Welsh borders, the English barons showed themselves +decidedly hostile to the Despensers, and in 1321 Edward II. was +obliged to consent to their banishment. While the elder Hugh +left England the younger one remained; soon the king persuaded +the clergy to annul the sentence against them, and father and +son were again at court. They fought against the rebellious +barons at Boroughbridge, and after Lancaster’s death in 1322 +they were practically responsible for the government of the +country, which they attempted to rule in a moderate and constitutional +fashion. But their next enemy, Queen Isabella, was +more formidable, or more fortunate, than Lancaster. Returning +to England after a sojourn in France in 1326 the queen directed +her arms against her husband’s favourites. The elder Despenser +was seized at Bristol, where he was hanged on the 27th of +October 1326, and the younger was taken with the king at +Llantrisant and hanged at Hereford on the 24th of November +following. The attainder against the Despensers was reversed +in 1398. The intense hatred with which the barons regarded the +Despensers was due to the enormous wealth which had passed +into their hands, and to the arrogance and rapacity of the +younger Hugh.</p> + +<p>The younger Despenser left two sons, Hugh (1308-1349), and +Edward, who was killed at Vannes in 1342.</p> + +<p>The latter’s son <span class="sc">Edward le Despenser</span> (d. 1375) fought at +the battle of Poitiers, and then in Italy for Pope Urban V.; he +was a patron of Froissart, who calls him <i>le grand sire Despensier</i>. +His son, <span class="sc">Thomas le Despenser</span> (1373-1400), the husband of +Constance (d. 1416), daughter of Edmund of Langley, duke of +York, supported Richard II. against Thomas of Woodstock, duke +of Gloucester, and the other lords appellant in 1397, when he +himself was created earl of Gloucester, but he deserted the king +in 1399. Then, degraded from his earldom for participating in +Gloucester’s death, Despenser joined the conspiracy against +Henry IV., but he was seized and was executed by a mob at +Bristol in January 1400.</p> + +<p>The elder Edward le Despenser left another son, <span class="sc">Henry</span> +(c. 1341-1406), who became bishop of Norwich in 1370. In +early life Henry had been a soldier, and when the peasants +revolted in 1381 he took readily to the field, defeated the insurgents +at North Walsham, and suppressed the rising in Norfolk +with some severity. More famous, however, was the militant +bishop’s enterprise on behalf of Pope Urban VI., who in 1382 +employed him to lead a crusade in Flanders against the supporters +of the anti-pope Clement VII. He was very successful in capturing +towns until he came before Ypres, where he was checked, +his humiliation being completed when his army was defeated by +the French and decimated by a pestilence. Having returned +to England the bishop was impeached in parliament and was +deprived of his lands; Richard II., however, stood by him, and +he soon regained an influential place in the royal council, and +was employed to defend his country on the seas. Almost alone +among his peers Henry remained true to Richard in 1399; he was +then imprisoned, but was quickly released and reconciled with +the new king, Henry IV. He died on the 23rd of August 1406. +Despenser was an active enemy of the Lollards, whose leader, +John Wycliffe, had fiercely denounced his crusade in Flanders.</p> + +<p>The barony of Despenser, called out of abeyance in 1604, was +held by the Fanes, earls of Westmorland, from 1626 to 1762; +by the notorious Sir Francis Dashwood from 1763 to 1781; +and by the Stapletons from 1788 to 1891. In 1891 it was +inherited, through his mother, by the 7th Viscount Falmouth.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DES PÉRIERS, BONAVENTURE</span> (c. 1500-1544), French +author, was born of a noble family at Arnay-le-duc in Burgundy +at the end of the 15th century. The circumstances of his education +are uncertain, but he became a good classical scholar, and +was attached to various noble houses in the capacity of tutor. +In 1533 or 1534 Des Périers visited Lyons, then the most enlightened +town of France, and a refuge for many liberal scholars +who might elsewhere have had to suffer for their opinions. He +gave some assistance to Robert Olivetan and Lefèvre d’Étaples +in the preparation of the vernacular version of the Old Testament, +and to Étienne Dolet in the <i>Commentarii linguae latinae</i>. In +1536 he put himself under the protection of Marguerite +d’Angoulême, queen of Navarre, who made him her <i>valet-de-chambre</i>. +He acted as the queen’s secretary, and transcribed the +<i>Heptaméron</i> for her. It is probable that his duties extended +beyond those of a mere copyist, and some writers have gone so +far as to say that the <i>Heptaméron</i> was his work. The free +discussions permitted at Marguerite’s court encouraged a licence +of thought as displeasing to the Calvinists as to the Catholics. +This free inquiry became scepticism in Bonaventure’s <i>Cymbalum +Mundi ...</i> (1537), and the queen of Navarre thought it prudent +to disavow the author, though she continued to help him privately +until 1541. The book consisted of four dialogues in imitation of +Lucian. Its allegorical form did not conceal its real meaning, +and, when it was printed by Morin, probably early in 1538, the +Sorbonne secured the suppression of the edition before it was +offered for sale. The dedication provides a key to the author’s +intention: <i>Thomas du Clevier (or Clenier) à son ami Pierre Tryocan</i> +was recognized by 19th-century editors to be an anagram for +<i>Thomas l’Incrédule à son ami Pierre Croyant</i>. The book was +reprinted in Paris in the same year. It made many bitter enemies +for the author. Henri Estienne called it <i>détestable</i>, and Étienne +Pasquier said it deserved to be thrown into the fire with its author +if he were still living. Des Périers prudently left Paris, and after +some wanderings settled at Lyons, where he lived in poverty, +until in 1544 he put an end to his existence by falling on his +sword. In 1544 his collected works were printed at Lyons. +The volume, <i>Recueil des œuvres de feu Bonaventure des Périers</i>, +included his poems, which are of small merit, the <i>Traité des +quatre vertus cardinales après Sénèque</i>, and a translation of the +<i>Lysis</i> of Plato. In 1558 appeared at Lyons the collection of +stories and fables entitled the <i>Nouvelles récréations et joyeux devis</i>. +It is on this work that the claim put forward for Des Périers as +one of the early masters of French prose rests. Some of the tales +are attributed to the editors, Nicholas Denisot and Jacques +Pelletier, but their share is certainly limited to the later ones. +The book leaves something to be desired on the score of morality, +but the stories never lack point and are models of simple, direct +narration in the vigorous and picturesque French of the 16th +century.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>His <i>Œuvres françaises</i> were published by Louis Lacour (Paris, +2 vols., 1856). See also the preface to the <i>Cymbalum Mundi ...</i> +(ed. F. Franck, 1874); A. Cheneviere, <i>Bonaventure Despériers, sa vie, +ses poésies</i> (1885); and P. Toldo, <i>Contributo allo studio della novella +francese del XV. e XVI. secolo</i> (Rome, 1895).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESPORTES, PHILIPPE</span> (1546-1606), French poet, was born +at Chartres in 1546. As secretary to the bishop of Le Puy +he visited Italy, where he gained a knowledge of Italian poetry +afterwards turned to good account. On his return to France he +attached himself to the duke of Anjou, and followed him to +Warsaw on his election as king of Poland. Nine months in +Poland satisfied the civilized Desportes, but in 1574 his patron +became king of France as Henry III. He showered favours on +the poet, who received, in reward for the skill with which he +wrote occasional poems at the royal request, the abbey of Tiron +and four other valuable benefices. A good example of the light +and dainty verse in which Desportes excelled is furnished by +the well-known <i>villanelle</i> with the refrain “Qui premier s’en +repentira,” which was on the lips of Henry, duke of Guise, just +before his tragic death. Desportes was above all an imitator. +He imitated Petrarch, Ariosto, Sannazaro, and still more closely +the minor Italian poets, and in 1604 a number of his plagiarisms +were exposed in the <i>Rencontres des Muses de France et d’ltalie</i>. +As a sonneteer he showed much grace and sweetness, and English +poets borrowed freely from him. In his old age Desportes +acknowledged his ecclesiastical preferment by a translation of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>103</span> +the Psalms remembered chiefly for the brutal <i>mot</i> of Malherbe: +“Votre potage vaut mieux que vos psaumes.” Desportes died on +the 5th of October 1606. He had published in 1573 an edition +of his works including <i>Diane</i>, <i>Les Amours d’Hippolyte</i>, <i>Élégies</i>, +<i>Bergeries</i>, <i>Œuvres chrétiennes</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>An edition of his <i>Œuvres</i>, by Alfred Michiels, appeared in 1858.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESPOT</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="despotês">δεσπότης</span>, lord or master; the origin of the first +part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with +<span class="grk" title="posis">πόσις</span>, husband, Lat. <i>potens</i>, powerful), in Greek usage the master +of a household, hence the ruler of slaves. It was also used by +the Greeks of their gods, as was the feminine form <span class="grk" title="despoina">δέσποινα</span>. It +was, however, principally applied by the Greeks to the absolute +monarchs of the eastern empires with which they came in contact; +and it is in this sense that the word, like its equivalent “tyrant,” +is in current usage for an absolute sovereign whose rule is not +restricted by any constitution. In the Roman empire of the +East “despot” was early used as a title of honour or address of +the emperor, and was given by Alexius I. (1081-1118) to the sons, +brothers and sons-in-law of the emperor (Gibbon, <i>Decline and +Fall</i>, ed. Bury, vol. vi. 80). It does not seem that the title was +confined to the heir-apparent by Alexius II. (see Selden, <i>Titles of +Honour</i>, part ii. chap. i. s. vi.). Later still it was adopted by +the vassal princes of the empire. This gave rise to the name +“despotats” as applied to these tributary states, which survived +the break-up of the empire in the independent “despotats” of +Epirus, Cyprus, Trebizond, &c. Under Ottoman rule the title +was preserved by the despots of Servia and of the Morea, &c. +The early use of the term as a title of address for ecclesiastical +dignitaries survives in its use in the Greek Church as the formal +mode of addressing a bishop.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DES PRÉS, JOSQUIN</span> (c. 1445-1521), also called <span class="sc">Deprés</span> or +<span class="sc">Desprez</span>, and by a latinized form of his name, <span class="sc">Jodocus +Pratensis</span> or <span class="sc">A Prato</span>, French musical composer, was born, +probably in Condé in the Hennegau, about 1445. He was a +pupil of Ockenheim, and himself one of the most learned +musicians of his time. In spite of his great fame, the accounts of +his life are vague and the dates contradictory. Fétis contributed +greatly towards elucidating the doubtful points in his <i>Biographie +universelle</i>. In his early youth Josquin seems to have been a +member of the choir of the collegiate church at St Quentin; when +his voice changed he went (about 1455) to Ockenheim to take +lessons in counterpoint; afterwards he again lived at his birthplace +for some years, till Pope Sixtus IV. invited him to Rome +to teach his art to the musicians of Italy, where musical knowledge +at that time was at a low ebb. In Rome Des Prés lived +till the death of his protector (1484), and it was there that many +of his works were written. His reputation grew rapidly, and he +was considered by his contemporaries to be the greatest master +of his age. Luther, who was a good judge, is credited with the +saying that “other musicians do with notes what they can, +Josquin what he likes.” The composer’s journey to Rome marks +in a manner the transference of the art from its Gallo-Belgian +birthplace to Italy, which for the next two centuries remained +the centre of the musical world. To Des Prés and his pupils +Arcadelt, Mouton and others, much that is characteristic in +modern music owes its rise, particularly in their influence upon +Italian developments under Palestrina. After leaving Rome +Des Prés went for a time to Ferrara, where the duke Hercules I. +offered him a home; but before long he accepted an invitation +of King Louis XII. of France to become the chief singer of the +royal chapel. According to another account, he was for a time +at least in the service of the emperor Maximilian I. The date +of his death has by some writers been placed as early as 1501. +But this is sufficiently disproved by the fact of one of his finest +compositions, <i>A Dirge (Déploration) for Five Voices</i>, being +written to commemorate the death of his master Ockenheim, +which took place after 1512. The real date of Josquin’s decease +has since been settled as the 27th of August 1521. He was at +that time a canon of the cathedral of Condé (see Victor Delzant’s +<i>Sépultures de Flandre</i>, No. 118).</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>The most complete list of his compositions—consisting of masses, +motets, psalms and other pieces of sacred music—will be found in +Fétis. The largest collection of his MS. works, containing no less +than twenty masses, is in the possession of the papal chapel in Rome. +In his lifetime Des Prés was honoured as an eminent composer, and +the musicians of the 16th century are loud in his praise. During the +17th and 18th centuries his value was ignored, nor does his work +appear in the collections of Martini and Paolucci. Burney was the +first to recover him from oblivion, and Forkel continued the task of +rehabilitation. Ambros furnishes the most exhaustive account of +his achievements. An admirable account of Josquin’s art, from the +rare point of view of a modern critic who knows how to allow for +modern difficulties, will be found in the article “Josquin,” in Grove’s +<i>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</i>, new ed. vol. ii. The <i>Répertoire +des chanteurs de St Gervais</i> contains an excellent modern edition of +Josquin’s <i>Miserere</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESPRÈS, SUZANNE</span> (1875-<span class="spc"> </span>), French actress, was born +at Verdun, and trained at the Paris Conservatoire, where in 1897 +she obtained the first prize for comedy, and the second for +tragedy. She then became associated with, and subsequently +married, Aurelien Lugné-Poë (b. 1870), the actor-manager, who +had founded a new school of modern drama, <i>L’Œuvre</i>, and she +had a brilliant success in several plays produced by him. In +succeeding years she played at the Gymnase and at the Porte +Saint-Martin, and in 1902 made her début at the Comédie +Française, appearing in <i>Phèdre</i> and other important parts.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESRUES, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS</span> (1744-1777), French +poisoner, was born at Chartres in 1744, of humble parents. He +went to Paris to seek his fortune, and started in business as a +grocer. He was known as a man of great piety and devotion, +and his business was reputed to be a flourishing one, but when, +in 1773, he gave up his shop, his finances, owing to personal +extravagance, were in a deplorable condition. Nevertheless he +entered into negotiations with a Madame de la Mothe for the +purchase from her of a country estate, and, when the time came +for the payment of the purchase money, invited her to stay with +him in Paris pending the transfer. While she was still his guest, +he poisoned first her and then her son, a youth of sixteen. Then, +having forged a receipt for the purchase money, he endeavoured +to obtain possession of the property. But by this time the disappearance +of Madame de la Mothe and her son had aroused +suspicion. Desrues was arrested, the bodies of his victims were +discovered, and the crime was brought home to him. He was +tried, found guilty and condemned to be torn asunder alive and +burned. The sentence was carried out (1777), Desrues repeating +hypocritical protestations of his innocence to the last. The +whole affair created a great sensation at the time, and as late as +1828 a dramatic version of it was performed in Paris.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESSAIX, JOSEPH MARIE,</span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1764-1834), French +general, was born at Thonon in Savoy on the 24th of September +1764. He studied medicine, took his degree at Turin, and then +went to Paris, where in 1789 he joined the National Guard. In +1791 he tried without success to raise an <i>émeute</i> in Savoy, in 1792 +he organized the “Legion of the Allobroges,” and in the following +years he served at the siege of Toulon, in the Army of the +Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Army of Italy. He was captured +at Rivoli, but was soon exchanged. In the spring of 1798 Dessaix +was elected a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He was +one of the few in that body who opposed the <i>coup d’état</i> of the +18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799). In 1803 he was promoted +general of brigade, and soon afterwards commander of the +Legion of Honour. He distinguished himself greatly at the +battle of Wagram (1809), and was about this time promoted +general of division and named grand officer of the Legion of +Honour, and in 1810 was made a count. He took part in the +expedition to Russia, and was twice wounded. For several +months he was commandant of Berlin, and afterwards delivered +the department of Mont Blanc from the Austrians. After the +first restoration Dessaix held a command under the Bourbons. +He nevertheless joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days, and in +1816 he was imprisoned for five months. The rest of his life +was spent in retirement. He died on the 26th of October 1834.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See <i>Le Général Dessaix, sa vie politique et militaire</i>, by his nephew +Joseph Dessaix (Paris, 1879).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESSAU,</span> a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Anhalt, +on the left bank of the Mulde, 2 m. from its confluence with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104"></a>104</span> +Elbe, 67 m. S.W. from Berlin and at the junction of lines to +Cöthen and Zerbst. Pop. (1905) 55,134. Apart from the old +quarter lying on the Mulde, the town is well built, is surrounded +by pleasant gardens and contains many handsome streets and +spacious squares. Among the latter is the Grosse Markt with +a statue of Prince Leopold I. of Anhalt-Dessau, “the old +Dessauer.” Of the six churches, the Schlosskirche, adorned with +paintings by Lucas Cranach, in one of which (“The Last Supper”) +are portraits of several reformers, is the most interesting. The +ducal palace, standing in extensive grounds, contains a collection +of historical curiosities and a gallery of pictures, which includes +works by Cimabue, Lippi, Rubens, Titian and Van Dyck. Among +other buildings are the town hall (built 1899-1900), the palace +of the hereditary prince, the theatre, the administration offices, +the law courts, the Amalienstift, with a picture gallery, several +high-grade schools, a library of 30,000 volumes and an excellently +appointed hospital. There are monuments to the philosopher +Moses Mendelssohn (born here in 1729), to the poet Wilhelm +Müller, father of Professor Max Müller, also a native of the place, +to the emperor William I., and an obelisk commemorating the +war of 1870-71. The industries of Dessau include the production +of sugar, which is the chief manufacture, woollen, linen +and cotton goods, carpets, hats, leather, tobacco and musical +instruments. There is also a considerable trade in corn and +garden produce. In the environs are the ducal villas of Georgium +and Luisium, the gardens of which, as well as those of the +neighbouring town of Wörlitz, are much admired.</p> + +<p>Dessau was probably founded by Albert the Bear; it had +attained civic rights as early as 1213. It first began to grow into +importance at the close of the 17th century, in consequence of +the religious emancipation of the Jews in 1686, and of the +Lutherans in 1697.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See Würdig, <i>Chronik der Stadt Dessau</i> (Dessau, 1876).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESSEWFFY, AUREL,</span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1808-1842), Hungarian +journalist and politician, eldest son of Count József Dessewffy +and Eleonora Sztaray, was born at Nagy-Mihály, county Zemplén, +Hungary. Carefully educated at his father’s house, he was +accustomed to the best society of his day. While still a child he +could declaim most of the <i>Iliad</i> in Greek without a book, and +read and quoted Tacitus with enthusiasm. Under the noble +influence of Ferencz Kazinczy he became acquainted with the +chief masterpieces of European literature in their original tongues. +He was particularly fond of the English, and one of his early +idols was Jeremy Bentham. He regularly accompanied his father +to the diets of which he was a member, followed the course of +the debates, of which he kept a journal, and made the acquaintance +of the great Széchenyi, who encouraged his aspirations. On +leaving college, he entered the royal aulic chancellery, and in +1832 was appointed secretary of the royal stadtholder at Buda. +The same year he turned his attention to politics and was +regarded as one of the most promising young orators of the day, +especially during the sessions of the diet of 1832-1836, when he +had the courage to oppose Kossuth. At the Pressburg diet in +1840 Dessewffy was already the leading orator of the more +enlightened and progressive Conservatives, but incurred great +unpopularity for not going far enough, with the result that he +was twice defeated at the polls. But his reputation in court +circles was increasing; he was appointed a member of the committee +for the reform of the criminal law in 1840; and, the same +year with a letter of recommendation from Metternich in his +pocket, visited England and France, Holland and Belgium, made +the acquaintance of Thiers and Heine in Paris, and returned home +with an immense and precious store of practical information. +He at once proceeded to put fresh life into the despondent and +irresolute Conservative party, and the Magyar aristocracy, by +gallantly combating in the <i>Világ</i> the opinions of Kossuth’s paper, +the <i>Pesti Hírlap</i>. But the multiplicity of his labours was too +much for his feeble physique, and he died on the 9th of February +1842, at the very time when his talents seemed most indispensable.</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>See <i>Aus den Papieren des Grafen Aurel Dessewffy</i> (Pest, 1843); +<i>Memorial Wreath to Count Aurel Dessewffy</i> (Hung.), (Budapest, +1857); <i>Collected Works of Count Dessewffy, with a Biography</i> (Hung.), +(Budapest, 1887).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESSOIR, LUDWIG</span> (1810-1874), German actor, whose name +was originally Leopold Dessauer, was born on the 15th of +December 1810 at Posen, the son of a Jewish tradesman. He +made his first appearance on the stage there in 1824 in a small +part. After some experience at the theatre in Posen and on +tour, he was engaged at Leipzig from 1834 to 1836. Then he +was attached to the municipal theatre of Breslau, and in 1837 +appeared at Prague, Brünn, Vienna and Budapest, where he +accepted an engagement which lasted until 1839. He succeeded +Karl Devrient at Karlsruhe, and went in 1847 to Berlin, where he +acted Othello and Hamlet with such extraordinary success that +he received a permanent engagement at the Hof-theater. From +1849 to 1872, when he retired on a pension, he played 110 parts, +frequently on tour, and in 1853 acting in London. He died on +the 30th of December 1874 in Berlin. Dessoir was twice married; +his first wife, Theresa, a popular actress (1810-1866), was +separated from him a year after marriage; his second wife went +mad on the death of her child. By his first wife Dessoir had one +son, the actor Ferdinand Dessoir (1836-1892). In spite of certain +physical disabilities Ludwig Dessoir’s genius raised him to the +first rank of actors, especially as interpreter of Shakespeare’s +characters. G. H. Lewes placed Dessoir’s Othello above that of +Kean, and the <i>Athenaeum</i> preferred him in this part to Brooks +or Macready.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE</span> (1680-1754), French dramatist, +whose real name was Néricault, was born at Tours in April 1680. +When he was nineteen years of age he became secretary to +M. de Puysieux, the French ambassador in Switzerland. In 1716 +he was attached to the French embassy in London, where he +remained for six years under the abbé Dubois. He contracted +with a Lancashire lady, Dorothea Johnston, a marriage which +was not avowed for some years. He drew a picture later of his +own domestic circumstances in <i>Le Philosophe marié</i> (1726). On his +return to France (1723) he was elected to the Academy, and in +1727 he acquired considerable estates, the possession of which +conferred the privileges of nobility. He spent his later years at +his château of Fortoiseau near Melun, dying on the 4th of July +1754. His early comedies were: <i>Le Curieux Impertinent</i> (1710), +<i>L’Ingrat</i> (1712), <i>L’Irrésolu</i> (1713) and <i>Le Médisant</i> (1715). The +best of these is <i>L’Irrêsolu</i>, in which Dorante, after hesitating +throughout the play between Julie and Célimène, marries Julie, +but concludes the play with the reflection:—</p> + +<p class="center noind">“J’aurais mieux fait, je crois, d’épouser Célimène.”</p> + +<p>After eleven years of diplomatic service Destouches returned +to the stage with the <i>Philosophe marié</i> (1727), followed in 1732 +by his masterpiece <i>Le Glorieux</i>, a picture of the struggle then +beginning between the old nobility and the wealthy <i>parvenus</i> who +found their opportunity in the poverty of France. Destouches +wished to revive the comedy of character as understood by +Molière, but he thought it desirable that the moral should be +directly expressed. This moralizing tendency spoilt his later +comedies. Among them may be mentioned: <i>Le Tambour +nocturne</i> (1736), <i>La Force du naturel</i> (1750) and <i>Le Dissipateur</i> +(1736).</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>His works were issued in collected form in 1755, 1757, 1811 and, +in a limited edition (6 vols.), 1822.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DESTRUCTORS.</span> The name destructors is applied by English +municipal engineers to furnaces, or combinations of furnaces, +commonly called “garbage furnaces” in the United States, constructed +for the purpose of disposing by burning of town refuse, +which is a heterogeneous mass of material, including, besides +general household and ash-bin refuse, small quantities of garden +refuse, trade refuse, market refuse and often street sweepings. +The mere disposal of this material is not, however, by any means +the only consideration in dealing with it upon the destructor +system. For many years past scientific experts, municipal +engineers and public authorities have been directing careful +attention to the utilization of refuse as fuel for steam production, +and such progress in this direction has been made that in many +towns its calorific value is now being utilized daily for motive-power +purposes. On the other hand, that proper degree of +caution which is obtained only by actual experience must be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>105</span> +exercised in the application of refuse fuel to steam-raising. +When its value as a low-class fuel was first recognized, the idea +was disseminated that the refuse of a given population was of +itself sufficient to develop the necessary steam-power for supplying +that population with the electric light. The economical +importance of a combined destructor and electric undertaking +of this character naturally presented a somewhat fascinating +stimulus to public authorities, and possibly had much to do +with the development both of the adoption of the principle of +dealing with refuse by fire, and of lighting towns by electricity. +However true this phase of the question may be as the statement +of a theoretical scientific fact, experience so far does not show +it to be a basis upon which engineers may venture to calculate, +although, as will be seen later, under certain circumstances of +equalized load, which must be considered upon their merits +in each case, a well-designed destructor plant can be made +to perform valuable commercial service to an electric or other +power-using undertaking. Further, when a system, thermal or +otherwise, for the storage of energy can be introduced and applied +in a trustworthy and economical manner, the degree of advantage +to be derived from the utilization of the waste heat from +destructors will be materially enhanced.</p> + +<p>The composition of house refuse, which must obviously affect +its calorific value, varies considerably in different localities, +according to the condition, habits and pursuits of the +<span class="sidenote">Composition and quantity of refuse.</span> +people. Towns situated in coal-producing districts +invariably yield a refuse richer in unconsumed carbon +than those remote therefrom. It is also often found +that the refuse from different parts of the same town varies +considerably—that from the poorest quarters frequently proving +of greater calorific value than that from those parts occupied by +the rich and middle classes. This has been attributed to the more +extravagant habits of the working classes in neglecting to sift +the ashes from their fires before disposing of them in the ash-bin. +In Bermondsey, for example, the refuse has been found to possess +an unusually high calorific value, and this experience is confirmed +in other parts of the metropolis. Average refuse consists of +breeze (cinder and ashes), coal and coke, fine dust, vegetable and +animal matters, straw, shavings, cardboard, bottles, tins, iron, +bones, broken crockery and other matters in very variable proportions +according to the character of the district from which it +is collected. In London the quantity of house refuse amounts +approximately to 1¼ million tons per annum, which is equivalent +to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum, or to from 200 to 250 +tons per 1000 of the population per annum. Statistics, however, +vary widely in different districts. In the vicinity of the metropolis +the amount varies from 2.5 cwt. per head per annum at Leyton to +3.5 cwt. at Hornsey, and to as much as 7 cwt. at Ealing. In the +north of England the total house refuse collected, exclusive of +street sweepings, amounts on the average to 8 cwt. per head per +annum. Speaking generally, throughout the country an amount +of from 5 cwt. to 10 cwt. per head per annum should be allowed +for. A cubic yard of ordinary house refuse weighs from 12¼ to +15 cwt. Shop refuse is lighter, frequently containing a large proportion +of paper, straw and other light wastes. It sometimes +weighs as little as 7¼ cwt. per cubic yard. A load, by which +refuse is often estimated, varies in weight from 15 cwt. to 1½ tons.</p> + +<p>The question how a town’s refuse shall be disposed of must be +considered both from a commercial and a sanitary point of view. +Various methods have been practised. Sometimes the +<span class="sidenote">Refuse disposal.</span> +household ashes, &c., are mixed with pail excreta, or +with sludge from a sewage farm, or with lime, and +disposed of for agricultural purposes, and sometimes they are +conveyed in carts or by canal to outlying and country districts, +where they are shot on waste ground or used to fill up hollows and +raise the level of marshland. Such plans are economical when +suitable outlets are available. To take the refuse out to sea in +hopper barges and sink it in deep water is usually expensive and +frequently unsatisfactory. At Bermondsey, for instance, the +cost of barging is about 2s. 9d. a ton, while the material may +be destroyed by fire at a cost of from 10d. to 1s. a ton, exclusive +of interest and sinking fund on the cost of the works. In other +cases, as at Chelsea and various dust contractors’ yards, the +refuse is sorted and its ingredients are sold; the fine dust may be +utilized in connexion with manure manufactories, the pots and +pans employed in forming the foundations of roads, and the +cinders and vegetable refuse burnt to generate steam. In the +Arnold system, carried out in Philadelphia and other American +towns, the refuse is sterilized by steam under pressure, the grease +and fertilizing substances being extracted at the same time; +while in other systems, such as those of Weil and Porno, and +of Defosse, distillation in closed vessels is practised. But the +destructor system, in which the refuse is burned to an innocuous +clinker in specially constructed furnaces, is that which must +finally be resorted to, especially in districts which have become +well built up and thickly populated.</p> + +<p>Various types of furnaces and apparatus have from time +to time been designed, and the subject has been one of much +experiment and many failures. The principal towns in +<span class="sidenote">Types of destructors.</span> +England which took the lead in the adoption of the +refuse destructor system were Manchester, Birmingham, +Leeds, Heckmondwike, Warrington, Blackburn, +Bradford, Bury, Bolton, Hull, Nottingham, Salford, Ealing and +London. Ordinary furnaces, built mostly by dust contractors, +began to come into use in London and in the north of England +in the second half of the 19th century, but they were not scientifically +adapted to the purpose, and necessitated the admixture of +coal or other fuel with the refuse to ensure its cremation. The +Manchester corporation erected a furnace of this description +about the year 1873, and Messrs Mead & Co. made an unsatisfactory +attempt in 1870 to burn house refuse in closed furnaces +at Paddington. In 1876 Alfred Fryer erected his destructor at +Manchester, and several other towns adopted this furnace +shortly afterwards. Other furnaces were from time to time +brought before the public, among which may be mentioned those +of Pearce and Lupton, Pickard, Healey, Thwaite, Young, +Wilkinson, Burton, Hardie, Jacobs and Odgen. In addition to +these the “Beehive” and the “Nelson” destructors became +well known. The former was introduced by Stafford and Pearson +of Burnley, and one was erected in 1884 in the parish yard at +Richmond, Surrey, but the results being unsatisfactory, it was +closed during the following year. The “Nelson” furnace, +patented in 1885 by Messrs Richmond and Birtwistle, was +erected at Nelson-in-Marsden, Lancashire, but being very costly +in working was abandoned. The principal types of destructors +now in use are those of Fryer, Whiley, Horsfall, Warner, +Meldrum, Beaman and Deas, Heenan and Froude, and the +“Sterling” destructor erected by Messrs Hughes and Stirling.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figcenter"> + <a name="fig_1a"><img src="images/img105.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="Fryer's Destructor." title="Fryer's Destructor." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Fryer’s Destructor.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>The general arrangement of the destructor patented<a name="FnAnchor_1m" href="#Footnote_1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> by Alfred +Fryer in 1876 is illustrated in fig. 1. An installation upon this +principle consists of a number of furnaces or cells, usually +<span class="sidenote">Fryer’s.</span> +arranged in pairs back to back, and enclosed in a +rectangular block of brickwork having a flat top, upon which the +house refuse is tipped from the carts.</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>106</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figcenter"> + <a name="fig_2a"><img src="images/img106a.jpg" width="630" height="325" alt="Horsfall's Improved Destructor." title="Horsfall's Improved Destructor." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Horsfall’s Improved Destructor.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>A large main flue, which also forms the dust chamber, is placed +underneath the furnace hearths. The Fryer furnace ordinarily burns +from 4 to 6 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. It will be observed +that the outlets for the products of combustion are placed at the back +near the refuse feed opening, an arrangement which is imperfect in +design, inasmuch as while a charge of refuse is burning upon the +furnace bars the charge which is to follow lies on the dead hearth near +the outlet flue. Here it undergoes drying and partial decomposition, +giving off offensive empyreumatic vapours which pass into the flue +without being exposed to sufficient heat to render them entirely +inoffensive. The serious nuisances thus produced in some instances +led to the introduction of a second furnace, or “cremator,” patented +by C. Jones of Ealing in 1885, which was placed in the main flue +leading to the chimney-shaft, for the purpose of resolving the organic +matters present in the vapour, but the greatly increased cost of +burning due to this device led to its abandonment in many cases. +This type of cell was largely used during the early period of the +history of destructors, but has to a considerable extent given place to +furnaces of more modern design.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figcenter"> + <a name="fig_3a"><img src="images/img106b.jpg" width="850" height="371" alt="Meldrum's Destructor at Darwen" title="Meldrum's Destructor at Darwen" /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span> - Meldrum’s Destructor at Darwen</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>A furnace<a name="FnAnchor_2m" href="#Footnote_2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> patented in 1891 by Mr Henry Whiley, superintendent +of the scavenging department of the Manchester corporation, is +automatic in its action and was designed primarily with a +<span class="sidenote">Whiley’s.</span> +view to saving labour—the cells being fed, stoked and +clinkered automatically. There is no drying hearth, and the refuse +carts tip direct into a shoot or hopper at the back which conducts the +material directly on to movable eccentric grate bars. These automatically +traverse the material forward into the furnace, and finally +push it against a flap-door which opens and allows it to fall out. +This apparatus is adapted for dealing with screened rather than +unscreened refuse, since it suffers from the objection that the motion +of the bars tends to allow fine particles to drop through unburnt. +Some difficulty has been experienced from the refuse sticking in the +hopper, and exception may also be taken to the continual flapping of +the door when the clinker passes out, as cold air is thereby admitted +into the furnace. As in the Fryer cell, the outlet for the products of +combustion into the main flue is close to the point where the crude +refuse is fed into the furnace, and the escape of unburnt vapours is +thus facilitated. Forced draught is applied by means of a Roots +blower. The Manchester corporation has 28 cells of this type in use, +and the approximate amount of refuse burnt per cell per 24 hours is +from 6 to 8 tons at a cost per ton for labour of 3.47 pence.</p> + +<p>Horsfall’s destructor<a name="FnAnchor_3m" href="#Footnote_3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (fig. 2) is a high-temperature furnace of +modern type which has been adopted largely in Great Britain and on +the continent of Europe. In it some of the general features +<span class="sidenote">Horsfall’s.</span> +of the Fryer cell are retained, but the details differ considerably +from those of the furnaces already described. Important +points in the design are the arrangement of the flues and flue outlets +for the products of combustion, and the introduction of a blast duct +through which air is forced into a closed ash-pit. The feeding-hole is +situated at the back of and above the furnace, while the flue opening +for the emission of the gaseous products is placed at the front of the +furnace over the dead plate; thus the gases distilled from the raw +refuse are caused to pass on their way to the main flue over the +hottest part of the furnace and through the flue opening in the red-hot +reverberatory arch. The steam jet, which plays an important +part in the Horsfall furnace, forces air into the closed ash-pit at a +pressure of about ¾ to 1 in. of water, and in this way a temperature +varying from 1500° to 2000° F., as tested by a thermo-electric +pyrometer, is maintained in the main flue. In a battery of cells the +gases from each are delivered into one main flue, so that a uniform +temperature is maintained therein sufficiently high to prevent +noxious vapours from reaching the chimney. The cells being charged +and clinkered in rotation, when the fire in one is green, in the others +it is at its hottest, and the products of combustion do not reach the +boiler surfaces until after they have been mixed in the main flue. +The cast iron boxes which are provided at the sides of the furnaces, +and through which the blast air is conveyed on its way to the grate, +prevent the adhesion of clinker to the side walls of the cells, and very +materially preserve the brickwork, which otherwise becomes damaged +by the tools used to remove the clinker. The wide clinkering doors +are suspended by counterbalance weights and open vertically. The +rate of working of these cells varies from 8 tons per cell per 24 hours +at Oldham to 10 tons per cell at Bradford, where the furnaces are of +a later type. The cost of labour in stoking and clinkering is about 6d. +per ton of the refuse treated at Bradford, and 9d. per ton at Oldham, +where the rate of wages is higher. Well-constructed and properly-worked +plants of this type should give rise to no nuisance, and may +be located in populous neighbourhoods without danger to the public +health or comfort. Installations were put down at Fulham (1901), +Hammerton Street, Bradford (1900), West Hartlepool (1904), and +other places, and the surplus power generated is employed in the production +of electric energy.</p> + +<p>Warner’s destructor,<a name="FnAnchor_4m" href="#Footnote_4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> known as the “Perfectus,” is, in general +arrangement, similar to Fryer’s, but differs in being provided with +special charging hoppers, dampers in flues, dust-catching +<span class="sidenote">Warner’s.</span> +arrangements, rocking grate bars and other improvements. +The refuse is tipped into feeding-hoppers, consisting of rectangular +cast iron boxes over which plates are placed to prevent the escape of +smoke and fumes. At the lower portion of the feeding-hopper is a +flap-door working on an axis and controlled by an iron lever from the +tipping platform. When refuse is to be fed into the furnace the lever +is thrown over, the contents of the hopper drop on to the sloping +firebrick hearth beneath, and the door is at once closed again. The +door should be kept open as short a time as possible in order to prevent +the admission of cold air into the furnace at the back end, since this +leads to the lowering of the +temperature of the cells and +main flue, and also to paper +and other light refuse being +carried into the flues and chimney. +The flues of each furnace +are provided with dampers, +which are closed during the +process of clinkering in order to +keep up the heat. The cells are +each 5 ft. wide and 11 ft. deep, +the rearmost portion consisting +of a firebrick drying hearth, +and the front of rocking grate +bars upon which the combustion +takes place. The crown of +each cell is formed of a reverberatory +firebrick arch having +openings for the emission of the +products of combustion. The +flap dampers which are fitted +to these openings are operated +by horizontal spindles passing +through the brickwork to the +front of the cell, where they are provided with levers or handles; +thus each cell can be worked independently of the others. With the +view of increasing the steam-raising capabilities of the furnace, forced +draught is sometimes applied and a tubular boiler is placed close to +the cells. The amount of refuse consumed varies from 5 tons to 8 tons +per cell per 24 hours. At Hornsey, where 12 cells of this type are +in use, the cost of labour for burning the refuse is 9½d. per ton.</p> + +<p>The Meldurm “Simplex” destructor (fig. 3), a type of furnace +which yields good steam-raising results, is in successful operation +at Rochdale, Hereford, Darwen, Nelson, Plumstead and +<span class="sidenote">Meldrum’s.</span> +Woolwich, at each of which towns the production of steam +is an important consideration. Cells have also been laid down at +Burton, Hunstanton, Blackburn and Shipley, and more recently at +Burnley, Cleckheaton, Lancaster, Nelson, Sheerness and Weymouth. +In general arrangement the destructor differs considerably from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107"></a>107</span> +those previously described. The grates are placed side by side +without separation except by dead plates, but, in order to localize +the forced draught, the ash-pit is divided into parts corresponding +with the different grate areas. Each ash-pit is closed airtight by a +cast iron plate, and is provided with an air-tight door for removing +the fine ash. Two patent Meldrum steam-jet blowers are provided +for each furnace, supplying any required pressure of blast up to +6 in. water column, though that usually employed does not exceed +1½ in. The furnaces are designed for hand-feeding from the front, +but hopper-feeding can be applied if desirable. The products of +combustion either pass away from the back of each fire-grate into +a common flue leading to boilers and the chimney-shaft, or are conveyed +sideways over the various grates and a common fire-bridge +to the boilers or chimney. The heat in the gases, after passing the +boilers, is still further utilized to heat the air supplied to the furnaces, +the gases being passed through an air heater or continuous +regenerator consisting of a number of cast iron pipes from which the +air is delivered through the Meldrum “blowers” at a temperature of +about 300° F. That a high percentage (15 to 18%) of CO<span class="su">2</span> is obtained +in the furnaces proves a small excess of free oxygen, and no doubt +explains the high fuel efficiency obtained by this type of destructor. +High-pressure boilers of ample capacity are provided for the accumulation +during periods of light load of a reserve of steam, the storage +being obtained by utilizing the difference between the highest and +lowest water-levels and the difference between the maximum and +working steam-pressure. Patent locking fire-bars, to prevent lifting +when clinkering, are used in the furnace and have a good life. At +Rochdale the Meldrum furnaces consume from 53 <span class="uni">℔</span> to 66 <span class="uni">℔</span> of refuse +per square foot of grate area per hour, as compared with 22.4 <span class="uni">℔</span> per +square foot in a low-temperature destructor burning 6 tons per cell +per 24 hours with a grate area of 25 sq. ft. The evaporative efficiency +of the Rochdale furnaces varies from 1.39 <span class="uni">℔</span> to 1.87 <span class="uni">℔</span> of water +(actual) per 1 <span class="uni">℔</span> of refuse burned, and an average steam-pressure of +about 114 <span class="uni">℔</span> per square inch is maintained. The cost of labour and +supervision amounts to 10d. per ton of refuse dealt with. A +Lancashire boiler (22 ft. by 6 ft. 6 in.) at the Sewage Outfall Works, +Hereford, evaporates with refuse fuel 2980 <span class="uni">℔</span> of water per hour, +equal to 149 indicated horse-power. About 54 <span class="uni">℔</span> of refuse are burnt +per square foot of grate area per hour with an evaporation of 1.82 <span class="uni">℔</span> +of water per pound of refuse.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figcenter"> + <a name="fig_4a"><img src="images/img107.jpg" width="630" height="319" alt="Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton." title="Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The Beaman and Deas destructor<a name="FnAnchor_5m" href="#Footnote_5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (fig. 4) has attracted much +attention from public authorities, and successful installations +are in operation at Warrington, Dewsbury, Leyton, +<span class="sidenote">Beaman and Deas.</span> +Canterbury, Llandudno, Colne, Streatham, Rotherhithe, +Wimbledon, Bolton and elsewhere. Its essential features +include a level-fire grate with ordinary type bars, a high-temperature +combustion chamber at the back of the cells, a closed ash-pit with +forced draught, provision for the admission of a secondary air-supply +at the fire-bridge, and a firebrick hearth sloping at an angle of about +52°. From the refuse storage platform the material is fed into a +hopper mouth about 18 in. square, and slides down the firebrick +hearth, supported by T-irons, to the grate bars, over which it is +raked and spread with the assistance of long rods manipulated through +clinkering doors placed at the sides of the cells. A secondary door +in the rear of the cell facilitates the operation. The fire-bars, spaced +only <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">32</span> in. apart, are of the ordinary stationary type. Vertically, +under the fire-bridge, is an air-conduit, from the top of which lead +air blast pipes 12 in. in diameter discharging into a hermetically +closed ash-pit under the grate area. The air is supplied from fans +(Schiele’s patent) at a pressure of from 1½ to 2 in. of water, and is controlled +by means of baffle valves worked by handles on either side +of the furnace, conveniently placed for the attendant. The forced +draught tends to keep the bars cool and lessen wear and tear. The +fumes from the charge drying on the hearth pass through the fire +and over the red-hot fire-bridge, which is perforated longitudinally +with air-passages connected with a small flue leading from a grated +opening on the face of the brickwork outside; in this way an auxiliary +supply of heated oxygen is fed into the combustion chamber. This +chamber, in which a temperature approaching 2000° F. is attained, +is fitted with large iron doors, sliding with balance weights, which +allow the introduction of infected articles, bad meat, &c., and also +give access for the periodical removal of fine ash from the flues. +The high temperatures attained are utilized by installing one boiler, +preferably of the Babcock & Wilcox water-tube type, for each pair +of cells, so that the gases, on their way from the combustion chamber +to the main flue, pass three times between the boiler tubes. A +secondary furnace is provided under the boiler for raising steam by +coal, if required, when the cells are out of use. The grate area of each +cell is 25 sq. ft., and the consumption varies from 16 up to 20 tons of +refuse per cell per 24 hours. In a 24-hours’ test made by the superintendent +of the cleansing department, Leeds, at the Warrington +installation, the quantity of water evaporated per pound of refuse was +1.14 <span class="uni">℔</span>, the average temperature in the combustion chamber 2000° +F. by copper-wire test, and the average air pressure with forced +draught 2½ in. (water-gauge). At Leyton, which has a population +of over 100,000, an 8-cell plant of this type is successfully dealing +with house refuse and filter press cakes of sewage sludge from the +sewage disposal works adjoining, and even with material of this low +calorific value the total steam-power produced is considerable. Each +cell burns about 16 tons of the mixture in 24 hours and develops +about 35 indicated horse-power continuously, at an average steam-pressure +in the boilers of 105 <span class="uni">℔</span>. The cost of labour at Leyton for +burning the mixed refuse is about 1s. 7d. per ton; at Llandudno, +where four cells were laid down in connexion with the electric-light +station in 1898, it is 1s. 3¼d., and at Warrington 9½d. per ton of refuse +consumed. Combustion is complete, and the destructor may be +installed in populous districts without nuisance to the inhabitants. +Further patents (Wilkie’s improvements) have been obtained by +Meldrum Brothers (Manchester) in connexion with this destructor.</p> + +<p>The Heenan furnaces are in operation at Farnworth, Gloucester, +Barrow-in-Furness, Northampton, Mansfield, Wakefield, Blackburn, +Levenshulme, Kings Norton, Worthing, Birmingham and +<span class="sidenote">Heenan.</span> +other places, and are now dealing with over 1200 tons of +refuse per day. The general arrangement of this destructor somewhat +resembles that of the Meldrum type. The cells intercommunicate, +and the mechanical mixture of the gases arising from the +furnace grates of the various cells is sought by the introduction of +a special design of reverberatory arch overlying the grates. The +standard arrangement of this destructor embodies all modern +arrangements for high-temperature refuse destruction and steam-power +generation.</p> + +<p>Destructors of the “Sterling” type, combined with electric-power +generating stations, are installed at Hackney (1901), +Bermondsey (1902) and Frederiksberg (1903)—the first-named +<span class="sidenote">Sterling.</span> +plant being probably the most powerful combined +destructor and electricity station yet erected. In these +modern stations the recognized requirements of an up-to-date refuse-destruction +plant have been well considered and good calorific results +are also obtained.</p> + +<p>In addition to the above-described destructors, other forms have +been introduced from time to time, but adopted to a less degree; +amongst these may be mentioned Baker’s destructor, Willshear’s, +Hanson’s Utilizer, Mason’s Gasifier, the Bennett-Phythian, +Cracknell’s (Melbourne, Victoria), Coltman’s (Loughborough), +Willoughby’s, and Healey’s improved destructors. On the continent +of Europe systems for the treatment of refuse have also been devised. +Among these may be mentioned those of M. Defosse and M. Helouis. +The former has endeavoured to burn the refuse in large quantities by +using a forced draught and only washing the smoke.<a name="FnAnchor_6m" href="#Footnote_6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Helouis has +extended the operation by using the heat from the combustion of the +refuse for drying and distilling the material which is brought gradually +on to the grate.</p> + +<p>Boulnois and Brodie’s improved charging tank is a labour-saving +apparatus consisting of a wrought iron truck, 5 ft. wide by 3 ft. deep, +and of sufficient length to hold not less than 12 hours +<span class="sidenote">Destructor accessories.</span> +supply for the two cells which it serves. The truck, +which moves along a pair of rails across the top of the +destructor, may be worked by one man. It is divided into +compartments holding a charge of refuse in each, and is provided +with a pair of doors in the bottom, opening downwards, which are +supported by a series of small wheels running on a central rail. A +special feeding opening in the reverberatory arch of the cell of the +width of the truck, situated over the drying hearth, is formed by a +firebrick arch fitted into a frame capable of being moved backwards +and forwards by means of a lever. The charging truck, when empty, +is brought under the tipping platform, and the carts tip directly into +it. When one of the cells has to be fed, the truck is moved along, so +that one of the divisions is immediately over the feeding opening, and +the wheel holding up the bottom doors rests upon the central rail, +which is continued over the movable covering arch. Then the +movable arch is rolled back, the doors are released, and the contents +are discharged into the cell, so that no handling of the refuse is +required from tipping to feeding. This apparatus is in operation at +Liverpool, Shoreditch, Cambridge and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Various forms of patent movable fire-bars have been employed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108"></a>108</span> +in destructor furnaces. Among these may be mentioned Settle’s,<a name="FnAnchor_7m" href="#Footnote_7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a> +Vicar’s,<a name="FnAnchor_8m" href="#Footnote_8m"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Riddle’s rocking bars,<a name="FnAnchor_9m" href="#Footnote_9m"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Horsfall’s self-feeding apparatus,<a name="FnAnchor_10m" href="#Footnote_10m"><span class="sp">10</span></a> +and Healey’s movable bars;<a name="FnAnchor_11m" href="#Footnote_11m"><span class="sp">11</span></a> but complicated movable arrangements +are not to be recommended, and experience greatly favours the use +of a simple stationary type of fire-bar.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both; " summary="Illustration"> +<tr> + <td class="figcenter"> + <a name="fig_5a"><img src="images/img108.jpg" width="850" height="604" alt="Leyton Destructor." title="Leyton Destructor." /></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Leyton Destructor. Block Plan, showing general arrangement of the Works.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>A dust-catching apparatus has been designed and erected at +Edinburgh, by the Horsfall Furnace Syndicate, in order to overcome +difficulties in regard to the escape of flue dust, &c., from the +destructor chimney. Externally, it appears a large circular block +of brickwork, 18 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. 7 in. high, connected with +the main flue, and situated between the destructor cells and the +boiler. Internally it consists of a spiral flue traversing the entire +circumference and winding upwards to the top of the chamber. +There is an interior well or chamber 6 ft. diameter by 12 ft. high, +having a domed top, and communicating with the outer spiral flue +by four ports at the top of the chamber. Dust traps, baffle walls +and cleaning doors are also provided for the retention and subsequent +weekly removal of the flue dust. The apparatus forms a large +reservoir of heat maintained at a steady temperature of from 1500º +to 1800° F., and is useful in keeping up steam in the boiler at an +equable pressure for a long period. It requires no attention, and has +proved successful for its purpose.</p> + +<p>Travelling cranes for transporting refuse and feeding cells are +sometimes employed at destructor stations, as, for example, at +Hamburg. Here the transportation of the refuse is effected by +means of specially constructed water-tight iron wagons, containing +detachable boxes provided with two double-flap doors at the top for +loading, and one flap-door at the back for unloading. There are +thirty-six furnaces of the Horsfall type placed in two ranks, each +arranged in three blocks of six in the large furnace hall. An electric +crane running above each rank lifts the boxes off the wagons and +carries them to the feeding-hole of each well. Here the box is tipped +up by an electric pulley and emptied on to the furnace platform. +When the travelling crane is used, the carts (four-wheeled) bringing +the refuse may be constructed so that the body of the carriage can be +taken off the wheels, lifted up and tipped direct over the furnace +as required, and returned again to its frame. The adoption of the +travelling crane admits of the reduction in size of the main building, +as less platform space for unloading refuse carts is required; the +inclined roadway may also be dispensed with. Where a destructor +site will not admit of an inclined roadway and platform, the refuse +may be discharged from the collecting carts into a lift; and thence +elevated into the feeding-bins.</p> + +<p>Other accessory plant in use at most modern destructor stations +includes machinery for the removal, crushing and various means +of utilization of the residual clinker, stoking tools, air heaters or +regenerators for the production of hot-air blast to the furnaces, +superheaters and thermal storage arrangements for equalizing the +output of power from the station during the 24-hours’ day.</p> +</div> + +<p>The general arrangement of a battery of refuse cells at a +destructor station is illustrated by fig. 5. The cells are arranged +either side by side, with a common main flue in the +<span class="sidenote">Working of destructors.</span> +rear, or back to back with the main flue placed in the +centre and leading to a tall chimney-shaft. The heated +gases on leaving the cells pass through the combustion +chamber into the main flue, and thence go forward to the boilers, +where their heat is absorbed and utilized. Forced draught, or +in many cases, hot blast, is supplied from fans through a conduit +commanding the whole of the cells. An inclined roadway, of +as easy gradient as circumstances will admit, is provided for the +conveyance of the refuse to the tipping platform, from which it +is fed through feed-holes into the furnaces. In the installation +of a destructor, the choice of suitable plant and the general design +of the works must be largely dependent upon local requirements, +and should be entrusted to an engineer experienced in these +matters. The following primary considerations, however, may +be enumerated as materially affecting the design of such works:—</p> + +<div class="condenced"> +<p>(a) The plant must be simple, easily worked without stoppages, +and without mechanical complications upon which stokers may lay +the blame for bad results. (b) It must be strong, must withstand +variations of temperature, must not be liable to get out of order, and +should admit of being readily repaired. (c) It must be such as can be +easily understood by stokers or firemen of average intelligence, so +that the continuous working of the plant may not be disorganized by +change of workmen. (d) A sufficiently high temperature must be +attained in the cells to reduce the refuse to an entirely innocuous +clinker, and all fumes or gases should pass either through an adjoining +red-hot cell or through a chamber whose temperature is maintained +by the ordinary working of the destructor itself at a degree sufficient +to exclude the possibility of the escape of any unconsumed gases, +vapours or particles. The temperature may vary between 1500° and +2000°. (e) The plant must be so worked that while some of the cells +are being recharged, others are at a glowing red heat, in order that a +high temperature may be uniformly maintained. (f) The design of +the furnaces must admit of clinkering and recharging being easily and +quickly performed, the furnace doors being open for a minimum of +time so as to obviate the inrush of cold air to lower the temperature ...</p> +</div> + +<p>(<i>Continued in volume 8, slice 3, page 109.</i>)</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1m" href="#FnAnchor_1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Patent No. 3125 (1876).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2m" href="#FnAnchor_2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Patent No. 8271 (1891).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3m" href="#FnAnchor_3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Patents No. 8999 (1887); No. 14,709 (1888); No. 22,531 (1891).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4m" href="#FnAnchor_4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Patent No. 18,719 (1888).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5m" href="#FnAnchor_5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Patents No. 15,598 (1893) and 23,712 (1893); also Beaman and +Deas Sludge Furnace, Patent No. 13,029 (1894).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6m" href="#FnAnchor_6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Compte Rendu des Travaux de la Société des Ingénieurs Civils de +France</i>, folio 775 (June 1897).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7m" href="#FnAnchor_7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Patent No. 15,482 (1885).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8m" href="#FnAnchor_8m"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Patents No. 1955 (1867) and No. 378 (1879).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9m" href="#FnAnchor_9m"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Patent No. 4896 (1891).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10m" href="#FnAnchor_10m"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Patent No. 20,207 (1892).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11m" href="#FnAnchor_11m"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Patents No. 18,398 (1892) and No. 12,990 (1892).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 2 *** + +***** This file should be named 30685-h.htm or 30685-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/6/8/30685/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/30685-h/images/img105.jpg b/30685-h/images/img105.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..22581ce --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img105.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img106a.jpg b/30685-h/images/img106a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b7e3b4e --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img106a.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img106b.jpg b/30685-h/images/img106b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..95011f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img106b.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img107.jpg b/30685-h/images/img107.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3436310 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img107.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img108.jpg b/30685-h/images/img108.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..99f3476 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img108.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img24.jpg b/30685-h/images/img24.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4136568 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img24.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img24full.png b/30685-h/images/img24full.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d15269a --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img24full.png diff --git a/30685-h/images/img46.jpg b/30685-h/images/img46.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..08eff65 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img46.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img46a.jpg b/30685-h/images/img46a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb7c4e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img46a.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img47.jpg b/30685-h/images/img47.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..246ca4e --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img47.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img47a.jpg b/30685-h/images/img47a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7fb6dc --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img47a.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img47b.jpg b/30685-h/images/img47b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c6ff546 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img47b.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img48.jpg b/30685-h/images/img48.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9719b4d --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img48.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img48a.jpg b/30685-h/images/img48a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7acd327 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img48a.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img49.jpg b/30685-h/images/img49.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3fc9092 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img49.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img49a.jpg b/30685-h/images/img49a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..be5ee58 --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img49a.jpg diff --git a/30685-h/images/img99.jpg b/30685-h/images/img99.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..543438f --- /dev/null +++ b/30685-h/images/img99.jpg |
