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diff --git a/30706-h/30706-h.htm b/30706-h/30706-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8f4d36e --- /dev/null +++ b/30706-h/30706-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4999 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII" /> +<title>The Rain Cloud, by Anonymous</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + P { margin-top: .75em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + P.gutsumm { margin-left: 5%;} + P.poetry {margin-left: 3%; } + H1, H2 { + text-align: center; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + } + H3, H4, H5 { + text-align: left; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + } + BODY{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + table { border-collapse: collapse; } +table {margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;} + td { vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid black;} + td p { margin: 0.2em; } + .blkquot {margin-left: 4em; margin-right: 4em;} /* block indent */ + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: small; + text-align: right; + font-weight: normal; + color: gray; + } + + div.gapspace { height: 0.8em; } + div.gapline { height: 0.8em; width: 30%; } + div.gapdoubleline { height: 0.3em; width: 50%; + margin-left: 25%; border-top: 1px solid; + border-bottom: 1px solid;} + div.gapshortline { height: 0.3em; width: 20%; margin-left:40%; + border-top: 1px solid; } + .citation {vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none;} + img.floatleft { float: left; + margin-right: 1em; + margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; } + img.floatright { float: right; + margin-left: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; } + img.clearcenter {display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0.5em; + margin-bottom: 0.5em} + --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Rain Cloud, by Anonymous + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Rain Cloud + or, An Account of the Nature, Properties, Dangers and Uses of Rain + + +Author: Anonymous + + + +Release Date: December 18, 2009 [eBook #30706] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RAIN CLOUD*** +</pre> +<p>Transcribed from the 1846 Society for Promoting Christian +Knowledge edition by David Price, email ccx074@pglaf.org</p> +<h1><span class="smcap">the</span><br /> +RAIN CLOUD:</h1> +<p style="text-align: center"><span class="smcap">or</span>,<br +/> +An Account<br /> +<span class="smcap">of</span><br /> +THE NATURE, PROPERTIES, DANGERS,<br /> +AND USES OF RAIN,</p> +<p style="text-align: center"><span class="smcap">in various +parts of the world</span>.</p> +<div class="gapshortline"> </div> +<p style="text-align: center"><span class="smcap">published under +the direction of</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">the committee of general literature and +education</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">appointed by the society for +promoting</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">christian knowledge</span>.</p> +<div class="gapshortline"> </div> +<p style="text-align: center">LONDON:<br /> +Printed for the<br /> +<span class="smcap">society for promoting christian +knowledge</span>.<br /> +<span class="smcap">sold at the depository</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">great queen street</span>, <span +class="smcap">lincoln’s inn fields</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">and</span> 4, <span class="smcap">royal +exchange</span>.</p> +<p style="text-align: center">1846.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 4--><a +name="page4"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 4</span><span +class="smcap">london</span>:<br /> +<span class="smcap">r. clay</span>, <span +class="smcap">printer</span>, <span class="smcap">bread street +hill</span>.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 5--><a +name="page5"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 5</span>CONTENTS.</p> +<table> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: center">CHAPTER I.<br /> +p. <span class="indexpageno"><a href="#page10">10</a></span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class="smcap">rains peculiar to each +season—spring showers—midsummer rains—rains of +autumn and winter—means of supplying the earth with +rain—rain clouds—deceptive appearances of +clouds—their light and shade—effects of clouds in +mountainous countries—ascent of monte pientio—ascent +to the peak of teneriffe—grand effects of clouds in the +pyrenees—voyage in a balloon through the clouds</span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: center">CHAPTER II.<br /> +p. <span class="indexpageno"><a href="#page37">37</a></span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class="smcap">effects of rain in mountainous +districts—the district of moray—the great floods of +1829—commencement of the rain—the swollen +rivers—disastrous effects of the flood—means adopted +for the rescue of cottagers—kerr and his brave +deliverers—rescue of funns and his family—floods of +the rhone in 1840—overflowing of the +mississippi</span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 6--><a +name="page6"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 6</span>CHAPTER III.<br +/> +p. <span class="indexpageno"><a href="#page74">74</a></span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class="smcap">various forms of clouds—the +cirrus, or curl-cloud—the cumulus, or +stacken-cloud—the stratus, or fall-cloud—the +cirro-cumulus, or sonder-cloud—the cirro-stratus, or +wane-cloud—the cumulo-stratus, or twain-cloud—the +nimbus, or rain-cloud—arrangement of +rain-clouds—appearances of a distant +shower—scud—cause of rain—formation of +clouds—mists—heights of clouds—appearance of +the sky above the clouds</span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: center">CHAPTER IV.<br /> +p. <span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page107">107</a></span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class="smcap">on hail—the hail-storms of +france—the disastrous effects of hail—the hail-storms +of south america—their surprising effects—origin and +nature of hail—periodical falls of hail—hail +clouds—hailstones—their various +forms—extraordinary size of hailstones</span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: center">CHAPTER V.<br /> +p. <span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page117">117</a></span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class="smcap">method of measuring the quantity of +rain that falls—the rain gauge—methods of observing +for rain and snow—effects of elevation on the quantity of +rain—difference between the top of a tall building and the +summit of a mountain—size of drops of rain—velocity +of their fall—</span><!-- page 7--><a +name="page7"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 7</span><span +class="smcap">quantity of rain in different +latitudes—extraordinary falls of rain—remarks on the +rain of this country—influence of the moon—absence of +rain—remarkable drought in south america—its terrible +effects and consequences—artificial rains</span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: center">CHAPTER VI.<br /> +p. <span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page137">137</a></span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class="smcap">the rainbow—decomposition of +white light by the prism—formation of primary and secondary +bows—rainbows in mountain regions—the rainbow a +sacred emblem—lunar rainbow—light decomposed by +clouds—their beautiful colours—examples</span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: center">CHAPTER VII.<br /> +p. <span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page157">157</a></span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class="smcap">remarkable showers—showers of +sand—of mud—showers of sulphur, or yellow +rain—luminous rain—red rain, or showers of +blood—superstitions connected therewith—explanation +of the cause—showers of fish—showers of +rats—showers of frogs—insect shower—showers of +vegetable substances—manna—wheat—showers of +stones—meteoric stones, or aerolites—meteoric +iron—suppositions respecting them—fossil +rain</span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 8--><a +name="page8"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 8</span>CHAPTER +VIII.<br /> +p. <span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page191">191</a></span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class="smcap">common sayings respecting the +weather—saint swithin’s-day—signs of rain or of +fair weather derived from the appearance of the sun—from +that of the moon—from the stars—from the +sky—from the distinctness of sounds—from the rising +of smoke—from the peculiar actions of plants and +animals—prognostics noticed by sir humphrey +davy—signs of rain collected by dr. jenner—north +american rain-makers—incident related by +catlin—rain-doctors of southern africa—rain-doctors +of ceylon—superstitions giving way to the teaching of +missionaries—conclusion</span>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 10--><a +name="page10"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 10</span> +<a href="images/p10b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Clouds among the mountains" +title= +"Clouds among the mountains" +src="images/p10s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<h2><!-- page 11--><a name="page11"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +11</span>CHAPTER I:</h2> +<p class="gutsumm"><span class="smcap">rains peculiar to each +season—spring showers—midsummer rains—rains of +autumn and winter—means of supplying the earth with +rain—rain-clouds—deceptive appearances of +clouds—their light and shade—effects of clouds in +mountainous countries—ascent of monte pientio—ascent +to the peak of teneriffe—grand effects of clouds in the +pyrenees—voyage in a balloon through the clouds</span>.</p> +<p>Every season has its own peculiar rains. What can be +more refreshing or invigorating than the showers of spring? +When the snows of February have disappeared, and the blustering +winds of March have performed their office of drying up the +excess of moisture, and preparing the earth for fruitfulness, and +when the young buds and blossoms of April are peeping forth +beneath the influence of the sun, and the trees and hedges are +attired in their new robes of tender green, how soon would <!-- +page 12--><a name="page12"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +12</span>all this beauty languish but for the showers of +spring! Several dry days, perhaps, have passed, and the +wreaths of dust which are raised by the wind show that the earth +wants moisture; but before a drop falls there is a general lull +throughout all nature; not a leaf is heard to rustle; the birds +are mute and the cattle stand in expectation of the refreshing +fall. At last the pools and rivulets are +“dimpled” by a few soft drops, the forerunners of the +general shower. And this shower, unlike the heavier rains +of summer, comes stealing on so gently, that the tinkling sound +of its fall is heard among the branches of the bursting trees +long before it is felt by those who walk beneath their slight +shelter. Rapidly does the landscape brighten under the +influence of the welcome shower; and as it becomes more rich and +extensive, all nature seems to rise up and rejoice. The +birds chirp merrily among the foliage; the flowers raise their +drooping heads, and the thirsty ground drinks in with eager haste +the mellowing rains. All day long, perhaps, does the rain +continue to fall, until the earth is fully moistened and +“enriched with vegetable life.” At length, +towards evening, the sun peeps out from <!-- page 13--><a +name="page13"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 13</span>among the +broken clouds, and lights up, by his sudden radiance, the lovely +scene. Myriads of rain-drops sparkle like gems beneath his +beams; a soft mist that seems to mingle earth and sky gradually +rolls away, and “moist, and bright, and green, the +landscape laughs around.” Now pours forth the evening +concert from the woods, while warbling brooks, and lowing herds, +appear to answer to the sound. Such are some of the +delightful effects of spring-showers.</p> +<p>In summer, when the heat has been very great, the rain is +often ushered in by a thunder-storm, and falls in torrents, which +at an earlier season would do harm to the young buds and blossoms +of spring; but now the vegetation is strong enough to resist the +floods so necessary to maintain moisture in the parched +earth. But when the summer has been moderately warm some +gentle rains generally fall about midsummer, which, from the +frequency of their occurrence about this time, have obtained the +name of “Midsummer rains.” These rains are +popularly associated with St. Swithin’s Day, as will be +noticed in another chapter; but when they fall early, mildly, and +in moderate quantity, they operate to a certain extent as a <!-- +page 14--><a name="page14"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +14</span>second spring. “Many of the birds come into +song and have second broods; and it is probable that there is a +fresh production of caterpillars for their food, or, at all +events, a larger production of the late ones than when the rains +are more violent and protracted. Many of the herbaceous +plants also bloom anew, and the autumn is long and pleasant, and +has very many of the charms of a summer, though without any very +powerful operation on the productions of nature, further than a +very excellent preparation for the coming year, whether in buds, +in roots, or in the labours of man. Such a season is also +one of plenty, or at all events of excellent quality in all the +productions of the soil. The wild animals partake in the +general abundance, as that food which is left for them in the +fields, after man has gathered in his share, is both more +abundant and more nourishing. When there is much moisture +from the protracted time and great quantity of the rains, many of +those seeds germinate, while in mild seasons they are left as +food for the wild animals, chiefly the field-mice and the birds, +which again form part of the food of the predatory +ones.”</p> +<p>There is something melancholy and depressing <!-- page 15--><a +name="page15"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 15</span>in the rains +of autumn and winter, for they bear away the last traces of +summer by stripping the trees of the many-coloured leaves, which +in mild seasons will continue to adorn the landscape even late in +November. The rains of this month, and their effects, have +been skilfully sketched by an accurate observer of nature. +He says:—</p> +<blockquote><p>“Now cold rains come deluging down, till the +drenched ground, the dripping trees, the pouring eaves, and the +torn, ragged-skirted clouds, seemingly dragged downward slantwise +by the threads of dusky rain that descend from them, are all +mingled together in one blind confusion; while the few cattle +that are left in open pastures, forgetful of their till now +interminable business of feeding, turn their backs upon the +besieging storm, and, hanging down their heads till their noses +almost touch the ground, stand out in the middle of the fields +motionless, like dead images.</p> +<p>“Now, too, a single rain-storm, like the above, breaks +up all the paths and ways at once, and makes home no longer +‘home’ to those who are not obliged to leave it; +while it becomes doubly endeared to those who are. What +sight, for instance, is so pleasant to the wearied woodman, who +<!-- page 16--><a name="page16"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +16</span>has been out all day long in the drenching rains of this +month, as his own distant cottage window seen through the +thickening dusk, lighted up by the blazing fagot that is to greet +his sure return at the accustomed minute?”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>While we watch the effects of the various rains, and their +beneficial influence on the earth, there is also much to excite +our gratitude and admiration; for among the many beautiful +contrivances in creation, none is more remarkable than the means +by which the earth is watered and refreshed by rain. The +oceans, seas, lakes, and other waters of the earth supply the air +with moisture, which, rendered elastic and invisible by the heat +of the sun and of the earth, rises to various heights in the +atmosphere, where it forms clouds in all their wonderful beauty +and variety. These are borne by the winds to places far +inland, to which water in sufficient quantity could not come by +any other means, and where moisture is most required; and here +the water is poured down, not in cataracts and water-spouts, but +in the form of drops of various sizes. If the rain-clouds +threw down, at once and suddenly, all the water contained in +them, not only would vegetation be destroyed by <!-- page 17--><a +name="page17"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 17</span>the force of +the fall, but we should be constantly liable to floods and other +inconveniences. Clouds also serve to screen the earth from +the fierce heat of the sun by day; and, by night, they serve to +maintain the heat which would otherwise escape by radiation, and +produce great cold even in summer. Clouds thus have great +influence in regulating the extremes of heat and cold, and in +forming what is called the “climate” of a +country. Clouds also supply the hidden stores of fountains +and the fresh water of rivers; and, as a pious old divine well +remarks, “So abundant is this great blessing, which the +most indulgent Creator hath afforded us by means of this +distribution of the waters I am speaking of, that there is more +than a scanty, bare provision, a mere sufficiency; even a plenty, +a surplusage of this useful creature of God, the fresh waters +afforded to the world; and they so well ordered, as not to drown +the nations of the earth, nor to stagnate, stink, and poison, or +annoy them; but to be gently carried through convenient channels +back again to their grand fountain the sea; and many of them +through such large tracts of land and to such prodigious +distances, that it is a great wonder the fountains should be <!-- +page 18--><a name="page18"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +18</span>high enough, or the seas low enough, ever to afford so +long a conveyance.” <a name="citation18"></a><a +href="#footnote18" class="citation">[18]</a></p> +<p>If rain is not at all seasons pleasant and delightful, neither +are rain-clouds among the most beautiful which diversify the +landscape of the sky; for it has been well remarked, that +“all the fine-weather clouds are beautiful, and those +connected with rain and wind mostly the reverse.” +What, indeed, can be more striking than the aërial +landscapes of fine weather, in which, by an easy fancy, we can +trace trees and towers, magnificent ruins and glaciers, natural +bridges and palaces, all dashed with torrents of light or +frowning in shadow, glowing like burnished silver, glittering in +a golden light, or melting into the most enchanting hues? +But with all this beauty the eye is seldom capable of judging +correctly of the proper size and forms and motions of +clouds. The same cloud which to one observer may be glowing +with light, to another may be enveloped in shadow. That +which appears to be its summit may be only a portion of its outer +edge, while that which seems to be its lower bed may really be a +portion of its further border. A spectator, on the summit +of a <!-- page 19--><a name="page19"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +19</span>tall cliff, may observe what he takes to be a single +cloud; while a second spectator, on lower ground, will perceive +that there are two clouds. The motions of clouds are so +deceptive, that they often seem to be moving in a curve over the +great concave of heaven, while they are in fact advancing in +nearly a right line. Suppose, for example that a cloud is +moving from the distant horizon <!-- page 20--><a +name="page20"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 20</span>towards the +place where we stand, in a uniform horizontal line without +changing either in size or form. Such a cloud, when first +seen, will appear to be in contact with the distant horizon, and +consequently much nearer to us than it really is. As it +advances towards us, it will seem to rise into the sky, and to +become gradually larger till it is almost directly +overhead. Continuing its progress, it will then seem again +to descend and to lessen in size as gradually as it had before +increased; till at length it disappears in the distant horizon at +a point exactly opposite to that at which it was first +seen. Thus the same cloud, without varying its motion in +the least from a straight line, and remaining throughout of the +same size and form, would seem to be continually varying in +magnitude; and the line of its motion, instead of being straight, +would appear to be curved. This is one of the most simple +cases that can be supposed: but the clouds as they exist in +nature do not remain of the same magnitude, but are constantly +changing in form, in size, in direction, and in velocity; so that +it is quite impossible to form an accurate idea of their shape +and size, or to explain their motions. Clouds, at different +elevations, <!-- page 21--><a name="page21"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 21</span>may often be seen to move in +different directions under the influence of different currents of +wind.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p19b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Different appearance of the same clouds to different observers" +title= +"Different appearance of the same clouds to different observers" +src="images/p19s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>The distribution of light and shade in clouds is most +striking. The watery particles of which they are composed, +yielding constantly to changes in temperature and moisture, are +always changing; so that a most beautiful cloud may alter in +figure and appearance in an instant of time; the light parts may +suddenly become dark, and those that were shaded may all at once +glow in the rays of the sun. Again, the appearance of a +cloud, with respect to the sun, may entirely alter its +character. The same cloud, to one observer, may appear +entirely in shade, to another tipped with silver; to a third it +may present brilliant points and various degrees of shade, or one +of its edges only may appear illuminated; sometimes the middle +parts may appear in shadow, while the margin may be partially +luminous, rendering the middle parts all the more obscure by the +contrast.</p> +<p>A wonderful variety may also be produced by the shadow of one +cloud falling upon another. The accompanying sketch +furnishes an example of this. Sometimes the whole of a +cloud projects a shadow through the air upon some other far <!-- +page 22--><a name="page22"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +22</span>distant cloud, and this again upon another, until at +length it reaches the ground. The shadows of moving clouds +may often be traced upon the ground, and they contribute greatly +to modify the appearance of the landscape. A large number +of small flickering clouds produce broken lights and shades which +have an unpleasant jarring effect; but when the clouds are +massive, or properly distributed, <!-- page 23--><a +name="page23"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 23</span>the shadows +often produce a high degree of repose.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p22b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Shadows of clouds" +title= +"Shadows of clouds" +src="images/p22s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>Clouds are often seen to advantage in mountainous +countries. Here the aspect of the heavens may be entirely +different at different elevations. A single cloud in the +valley may conceal the whole of the upper sky from an observer; +but as he ascends he may gradually get above this and other +layers or bands of cloud, and see a beautifully variegated sky +above him, while the clouds which conceal the valley may be +rolling at his feet. Evelyn, in his Memoirs, notices a +scene of this kind. He says,—“Next morning we +rode by Monte Pientio, or, as vulgarly called, Monte Mantumiato, +which is of an excessive height, ever and anon peeping above airy +clouds with its snowy head, till we had climbed to the inn at +Radicofany, built by Ferdinand the greate Duke for the necessary +refreshment of travellers in so inhospitable a place. As we +ascended we entered a very thick, solid, and dark body of +cloudes, which looked like rocks at a little distance, which +lasted neare a mile in going up; they were dry, misty vapours, +hanging undissolved for a vast thicknesse, and obscuring both sun +and earth, so that we <!-- page 24--><a name="page24"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 24</span>seemed to be in the sea rather than +in the cloudes, till, having pierced through it, we came into a +most serene heaven, as if we had been above all human +conversation, the mountain appearing more like a great island +than joyn’d to any other hills, for we could perceive +nothing but a sea of very thick cloudes rowling under our feete +like huge waves, every now and then suffering the top of some +other mountain to peepe through, which we could discover many +miles off: and betweene some breaches of the cloudes we could see +landskips and villages of the subjacent country. This was +one of the most pleasant, newe, and altogether surprising objects +that I had ever beheld.”</p> +<p>In the following interesting account of the ascent of the Peak +of Teneriffe by Captain Basil Hall, it will be seen that heavy +rain clouds may skirt the mountain, while its summit is in a pure +and dry air.</p> +<blockquote><p>“On the 24th of August,” he says, +“we left Oratava to ascend the Peak. The day was the +worst possible for our purpose, as it rained hard; and was so +very foggy that we could not see the Peak, or indeed any object +beyond one hundred yards distant.</p> +<p><!-- page 25--><a name="page25"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +25</span>“After riding slowly up a rugged path for four +hours, it became extremely cold, and, as the rain never ceased +for an instant, we were by this time drenched to the skin, and +looked with no very agreeable feelings to the prospect of passing +the night in wet clothes. At length the night began to +close in, and the guides talked of the improbability of reaching +the English station before night. It was still raining +hard; but we dismounted, and took our dinner as cheerfully as +possible, and hoping for clearer weather the next day. On +remounting, we soon discovered that the road was no longer so +steep as it had been heretofore, and the surface was +comparatively smooth: we discovered, in short, that we had +reached a sort of table-land, along which we rode with +ease. Presently we thought the fog less dense, and the +drops of rain not so large, and the air less chilling. In +about half an hour we got an occasional glimpse of the blue sky; +and as we ascended, (for our road, though comparatively level, +was still upon the rise,) these symptoms became more +manifest. The moon was at the full, and her light now +became distinct, and we could see the stars in the zenith. +By this time we had reached the Llano <!-- page 26--><a +name="page26"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 26</span>de los +Remenos, or Retamos Plain, which is many thousand feet above the +sea; and we could distinctly see that during the day we had +merely been in a cloud, above which having now ascended, the +upper surface lay beneath us like a country covered with +snow. It was evident, on looking round, that no rain had +fallen on the pumice gravel over which we were travelling. +The mules were much fatigued, and we got off to walk. In a +few minutes our stockings and shoes were completely dried, and in +less than half an hour all our clothes were thoroughly +dried. The air was sharp and clear, like that of a cold +frosty morning in England; and though the extreme dryness, and +the consequent rapid evaporation, caused considerable cold, we +were enabled by quick exercise to keep ourselves +comfortable. I had various instruments with me, but no +regular hygrometer: accident, however, furnished me with one +sufficiently indicative of the dry state of the air. My +gloves, which I kept on while mounted, were completely soaked +with the rain; and I took them off during this walk, and, without +considering what was likely to happen, rolled them up, and +carried them in my hand. When, at the end of an hour, or +somewhat <!-- page 27--><a name="page27"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 27</span>less, we came to remount our mules, I +found the gloves as thoroughly dried and shrivelled up as if they +had been placed in an oven. During all the time we were at +the Peak itself, on the 26th, the sky was clear, the air quite +dry, and we could distinguish, several thousand feet below us, +the upper and level surface of the stratum of clouds through +which we had passed the day before, and into which we again +entered on going down, and found precisely in the same state as +when we started.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>It is not uncommon to observe an effect quite contrary to the +one given in the last two examples, the high summits of mountains +being frequently concealed by heavy clouds of mist, while at a +very short distance below them the air is clear and pure. +In ascending to the Port of Venasque, one of the mountain passes +of the Pyrenees, Mr. Murray found the mists so dense that he +despaired of getting above them, or of their clearing away. +But fortunately the wind freshened, and the mist, broken by it, +“came sweeping,” he says, “over our heads, +sometimes enveloping us in darkness, sometimes exposing the blue +sky, and a part of the mountains. Section after section of +the bald and towering masses which rose above the path <!-- page +28--><a name="page28"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 28</span>were +displayed to us, one after another, as if the whole had been a +sight too great for us to look upon. Sometimes the clouds +opened, and the snows, sparkling in the sun-beams, were before +us; at others, an enormous peak of the mountain would shoot its +dark head through the mist, and, without visible support, seem as +if it were about to fall upon us. Again, when we imagined +ourselves hemmed in on all sides by the mountains, and within a +few feet of their rugged sides, a passing breeze would disclose +the dark waters of the lakes hundreds of feet beneath us.</p> +<p>“Thus the effect of light and darkness, of sunshine and +of mist, working upon materials of such grandeur as those near +the Port of Venasque, was a sight well worthy of admiration, and +one which is rarely to be seen. * * * * Excepting the intervals +of light which the gusts of wind, by dispersing the mists, had +bestowed upon us, we had hitherto, comparatively speaking, been +shrouded in darkness, particularly for the ten minutes preceding +our arrival at the Port: my astonishment may therefore be +imagined when, the instant that I stepped beyond the limits of +the Port, I stood in the purest atmosphere—not a particle +of mist, <!-- page 29--><a name="page29"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 29</span>not even a cloud, was +perceptible. The phenomenon was curious, and its interest +greatly heightened from the situation in which it took +place. The mist rolling up the valley through which we had +passed, was, the moment that it could be said to reach the +Spanish frontier,—the moment it encircled the edges of the +high ridges which separated the countries, thrown back, as it +were, indignantly, by a counter current from the Spanish +side. The conflicting currents of air, seemingly of equal +strength, and unable to overcome each other, carried the mist +perpendicularly from the summits of the ridge, and filling up the +crevices and fissures in its uneven surface, formed a wall many +thousand feet above it, of dark and (from the appearance of +solidity which its massive and perpendicular character bestowed +upon it) apparently impenetrable matter.”</p> +<p>Undoubtedly the various phenomena of clouds may be seen to +great advantage in mountain regions; and there is only one other +method of seeing them to greater perfection, and that is from the +car of a balloon. The following description of an +aërial voyage, by Mr. M. Mason, in October 1836, will convey +a better idea of the magnificence <!-- page 30--><a +name="page30"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 30</span>of a cloudy +sky than any terrestrial prospect could do. He +says,—</p> +<blockquote><p>“Scarcely had we quitted the earth before +the clouds, which had previously overhung us, began to envelop us +on all sides, and gradually to exclude the fading prospect from +our sight. It is scarcely possible to convey an adequate +idea of the effect produced by this apparently trivial +occurrence. Unconscious of our own motion from any direct +impression upon our own feelings, the whole world appeared to be +in the act of receding from us in the dim vista of infinite +space; while the vapoury curtain seemed to congregate on all +sides and cover the retreating masses from our view. The +trees and buildings, the spectators and their crowded equipages, +and finally, the earth itself, at first distinctly seen, +gradually became obscured by the thickening mist, and growing +whiter in their forms, and fainter in their outlines, soon faded +away ‘like the baseless fabric of a vision,’ leaving +us, to all appearance, stationary in the cloud that still +continued to involve us in its watery folds. To heighten +the interest and maintain the illusion of the scene, the shouts +and voices of the multitude whom we had left behind us, cheering +the <!-- page 31--><a name="page31"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +31</span>ascent, continued to assail us, (long after the +interposing clouds had effectually concealed them from our eyes,) +in accents which every moment became fainter and fainter till +they were finally lost in the increasing distance.</p> +<p>“Through this dense body of vapour, which may be said to +have commenced at an altitude of about 1000 feet, we were borne +upwards to perhaps an equal distance, when the increasing light +warned us of our approach to its superior limits, and shortly +after, the sun and we rising together, a scene of splendour and +magnificence suddenly burst upon our view, which it would be vain +to expect to render intelligible by any mode of description +within our power. Pursuing the illusion, which the previous +events had been so strongly calculated to create, the impression +upon our senses was that of entering upon a new world to which we +had hitherto been strangers, and in which not a vestige could be +perceived to remind us of that we had left, except the last faint +echo of the voices which still dimly reached us, as if out of +some interminable abyss into which they were fast retreating.</p> +<p>“Above us not a single cloud appeared to disfigure <!-- +page 32--><a name="page32"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +32</span>the clear blue sky, in which the sun on one side, and +the moon in her first quarter on the other, reigned in +undisturbed tranquillity. Beneath us, in every direction, +as far as the eye could trace, and doubtless much further, the +whole plane of vision was one extended ocean of foam, broken into +a thousand fantastic forms; here swelling into mountains, there +sinking into lengthened fosses, or exhibiting the appearance of +vast whirlpools; with such a perfect mimicry of the real forms of +nature, that, were it not for a previous acquaintance with the +general character of the country below us, we should frequently +have been tempted to assert, without hesitation, the existence of +mountainous islands penetrating through the clouds, and +stretching in protracted ranges along the distant verge of our +horizon.</p> +<p>“In the centre of this hemisphere, and at an elevation +of about 3000 feet above the surface of the clouds, we continued +to float in solitary magnificence; attended only at first by our +counterpart—a vast image of the balloon itself with all its +paraphernalia distinctly thrown by the sun upon the opposite +masses of vapour, until we had risen so high that even that, +outreaching the material <!-- page 33--><a +name="page33"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 33</span>basis of its +support, at length deserted us; nor did we again perceive it +until, preparatory to our final descent, we had sunk to a proper +elevation to admit of its re-appearance.</p> +<p>“Not the least striking feature of our, and similar +situations, is the total absence of all perceptible motion, as +well as of the sound which, in ordinary cases, is ever found to +accompany it. Silence and tranquillity appear to hold equal +and undisputed sway throughout these airy regions. No +matter what may be the convulsions to which the atmosphere is +subjected, nor how violent its effects in sound and motion upon +the agitated surface of the earth, not the slightest sensation of +either can be detected by the individual who is floating in its +currents. The most violent storm, the most outrageous +hurricane, pass equally unheeded and unfelt; and it is only by +observing the retreating forms of the stable world beneath, that +any certain indication can be obtained as to the amount or +violence of the motion to which the individual is actually +subjected. This, however; was a resource of which we were +unable to avail ourselves, totally excluded as we were from all +view of the earth, or any fixed point connected with it.</p> +<p><!-- page 34--><a name="page34"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +34</span>“Once, and only once, for a few moments +preparatory to our final descent, did we obtain a transitory +glimpse of the world beneath us. Upon approaching the upper +surface of the vapoury strata, which we have described as +extending in every direction around, a partial opening in the +clouds discovered to us for an instant a portion of the earth, +appearing as if dimly seen through a vast pictorial tube, rapidly +receding behind us, variegated with furrows, and intersected with +roads running in all directions; the whole reduced to a scale of +almost graphic minuteness, and from the fleecy vapour that still +partially obscured it, impressing the beholder with the idea of a +vision of enchantment, which some kindly genius had, for an +instant, consented to disclose. Scarcely had we time to +snatch a hasty glance, ere we had passed over the spot, and the +clouds uniting gradually concealed it from our view.</p> +<p>“After continuing for a short space further, in the vain +hope of being again favoured with a similar prospect, the +approach of night made it desirable that we should prepare for +our return to earth, which we proceeded to accomplish +accordingly.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 36--><a +name="page36"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 36</span> +<a href="images/p36b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Kerr and his family in the middle of the flood" +title= +"Kerr and his family in the middle of the flood" +src="images/p36s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<h2><!-- page 37--><a name="page37"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +37</span>CHAPTER II.</h2> +<p class="gutsumm"><span class="smcap">effects of rain in +mountainous districts—the district of moray—the great +floods of 1829—commencement of the rain—the swollen +rivers—disastrous effects of the flood—means adopted +for the rescue of cottagers—kerr and his brave +deliverers—rescue of funns and his family—floods of +the rhone in 1840—overflowing of the +mississippi</span>.</p> +<p>It is well known that some years are wetter than others; but +to persons living in tolerably flat countries an unusually wet +season causes no great inconvenience. It interferes, it is +true, with outdoor employments, but people seldom apprehend any +danger from the long continuance of rain. It is not so, +however, in hilly or mountainous regions; an unusual fall of rain +swells the rivers to such an extent, that they often overflow +their banks, and occasion much damage to the surrounding +districts; or, where the river’s banks are defended on both +sides by perpendicular rocks, the waters sometimes rise so fast +as to attain a height of forty or fifty feet above their natural +level, and from this <!-- page 38--><a name="page38"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 38</span>height they pour with destructive +violence over the face of the country. Such was the case in +the great floods of Moray, which happened in the year 1829, of +which the following is a brief abstract, derived chiefly from Sir +Thomas Dick Lauder’s interesting volume on this subject, +published soon after the calamity for the benefit of the +sufferers.</p> +<p>The province of Moray, or Murray, is a large district in the +north-east of Scotland, bounded by the Moray Frith on the +north-east and north. The eastern half of the province is +lower than the western; in which the mountains render the whole +country characteristically highland. On the north is a long +belt of lowlands, about 240 square miles in extent: this is +greatly diversified with ridgy swells and low hilly ranges, lying +parallel to the frith, and intersected by the rivers Ness, Nairn, +Findhorn, Lossie, and Spey running across it to the sea. +The grounds behind the lowlands appear, as seen from the coast, +to be only a narrow ridge of bold alpine heights, rising like a +rampart to guard the orchards, and woods, and fields: but these +really form long and broad mountain masses, receding, in all the +wildness and intricacy of highland <!-- page 39--><a +name="page39"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 39</span>arrangement, +to a distant summit line. Some of the broad clifts and long +narrow vales of these mountains form beautiful and romantic +pictures; while many of their declivities are practicable to the +plough or other instruments of cultivation; so that the bottoms +and the reclaimed or reclaimable sides of the valleys are +estimated to comprehend about one-third of the entire area. +The lowlands of Moray have long been celebrated for mildness and +luxuriousness of climate, and also for a certain dryness of +atmosphere, which seems to have some intimate connexion with the +mournful calamity about to be described. The high broad range of +mountains on the south-west shelter the lowlands from the +prevailing winds of the country, and exhaust many light vapours +and thinly-charged clouds, which might otherwise produce gentle +rains; but, for just the same reason, they powerfully attract +whatever long broad streams of heavy clouds are sailing through +the sky, and, among the gullies and the upland glens, amass their +discharged contents with amazing rapidity, and in singular +largeness of volume. The rivers of the country are, in +consequence, peculiarly liable to become flooded. One +general and tremendous outbreak, <!-- page 40--><a +name="page40"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 40</span>in 1829, +“afforded an awful exhibition of the peculiarities of the +climate, and will long be remembered, in connexion with the +boasted luxuriousness of Moray, as an illustration of how +chastisement and comfort are blended in a state of things which +is benignly adjusted for the moral discipline of man, and the +correction of moral evil.”</p> +<p>The heat in the province of Moray during the summer of 1829 +was unusually great. In May the drought was so excessive, +as to kill many of the recently planted shrubs and trees. +As the season advanced, the variations in the barometer became so +remarkable, that observers began to lose all confidence in this +instrument.</p> +<p>The deluge of rain, which produced the flood of the 3d and 4th +of August, fell chiefly on the Monadhlradh mountains, rising +between the south-east part of Lochness and Kingussie, in +Badenoch, and on that part of the Grampian range forming the +somewhat independent groups of the Cairngorums. The +westerly winds, which prevailed for some time previously, seem to +have produced a gradual accumulation of vapour to the north of +our island, and the column, being suddenly impelled by a strong +north-easterly blast, was driven <!-- page 41--><a +name="page41"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 41</span>towards the +south-west, its right flank almost sweeping the Caithness and +Sutherland coasts, until rushing up and across the Moray Frith it +was attracted by the lofty mountains just mentioned, and +discharged in fearful torrents. There fell at a great +distance from the mountains, within twenty-four hours, about +one-sixth of the annual allowance of rain; on the mountains +themselves the deluge that descended, must have been so enormous +as to occasion surprise that a flood, even yet more tremendous in +its magnitude and consequences, did not result from it.</p> +<p>The mouth of the Findhorn is described as the most important +scene of action. The banks of this river are well defended +by rocks on either side, and its whole course is distinguished by +the most romantic scenery. At the part where it is crossed +by the old military bridge of Dulsie, the scenery is of the +wildest character. The flood was most tremendous at this +bridge, for the water was so confined that it filled the smaller +arch altogether, and rose in the great arch to within three feet +of the key-stone, that is to say, forty feet above the usual +level. This fine old bridge sustained but little damage, +while many of the modern buildings <!-- page 42--><a +name="page42"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 42</span>were entirely +swept away. At another part of the river, it is stated, as +a curious illustration of the height to which the stream had +risen, that a gardener waded into the water as it had begun to +ebb on the haugh, and with his umbrella drove ashore and captured +a fine salmon, at an elevation of fifty feet above the ordinary +level of the Findhorn.</p> +<p>At Randolph’s bridge the opening expands as the rocks +rise upwards, till the width is about seventy or eighty feet; +yet, from the sudden turn of the river, as it enters this +passage, the stream was so checked in its progress that the flood +actually rose over the very top of the rocks, forty-six feet +above the usual height, and inundated the level part that lies +over them to the depth of four feet, making a total perpendicular +rise at this point of not less than fifty feet.</p> +<p>The effects of the deluge of the 3d and 4th of August, remain +on the Dorbach, in a bank one hundred feet high, which rose with +slopes and terraces covered with birch and alder wood. The +soil being naturally spongy imbibed so much rain, that it became +overloaded, and a mass of about an acre in extent, with all its +trees on it, gave way at <!-- page 43--><a +name="page43"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 43</span>once, threw +itself headlong down, and bounded across the bed of the Dorbach, +blocking up the waters, flooded and wide as they were at the +time. A farmer, who witnessed this phenomenon, told Sir +Thomas Dick Lauder that it fell “wi’ a sort o’ +a dumb sound,” while astonished and confounded <!-- page +44--><a name="page44"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 44</span>he +remained gazing at it. The bottom of the valley is here +some two hundred yards or more wide, and the flood nearly filled +it. The stoppage was not so great, therefore, as altogether +to arrest the progress of the stream; but this sudden obstacle +created an accumulation of water behind it, which went on +increasing for nearly an hour, till, becoming too powerful to be +longer resisted, the enormous dam began to yield, and was swept +off at once, and hurled onwards like a floating island. +While the farmer stood lost in wonder to behold his farm thus +sailing off to the ocean by acres at a time, another half acre, +or more, was suddenly rent from its native hill, and descended at +once, with a whole grove of trees on it, to the river, where it +rested on its natural base. The flood immediately assailed +this, and carried off the greater part of it piecemeal. At the +time when Sir Thomas was writing, part of it remained with the +trees growing on it in the upright position, after having +travelled through a horizontal distance of sixty or seventy +yards, with a perpendicular descent of not less than sixty +feet.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p43b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"The flood like—Brig of Bannock. (The dotted line shows +the height gained by the flood above the usual level of the +stream)" +title= +"The flood like—Brig of Bannock. (The dotted line shows +the height gained by the flood above the usual level of the +stream)" +src="images/p43s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>At Dunphail, the residence of Mr. Bruce was threatened by the +flood, and that gentleman prevailed <!-- page 45--><a +name="page45"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 45</span>on his wife +and daughter to quit the house and seek refuge on higher +ground. Before quitting the place, their anxiety had been +extremely excited for the fate of a favourite old pony, then at +pasture in a broad green, and partially-wooded island, of some +acres in extent. As the spot had never been flooded in the +memory of man, no one thought of removing the pony until the +wooden bridges having been washed away rendered it impossible to +do so. When the embankment gave way, and the patches of +green gradually diminished, Dobbin, now in his 27th year, and in +shape something like a 74-gun ship cut down to a frigate, was +seen galloping about in great alarm as the wreck of roots and +trees floated past him, and as the last spot of grass disappeared +he was given up for lost. At this moment he made a +desperate effort to cross the stream under the house; the force +of the current turned him head over heels, but he rose again with +his head up the river; he made boldly up against it, but was +again borne down and turned over: every one believed him lost, +when rising once more and setting down the waste of water, he +crossed both torrents, and landed safely on the opposite +bank.</p> +<p><!-- page 46--><a name="page46"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +46</span>At night Mr. Bruce says there was something +inexpressibly fearful and sublime in the roar of the torrent, +which by this time filled the valley, the ceaseless plash of the +rain, and the frequent and fitful gusts of the north wind that +groaned among the woods. The river had now undermined the +bank the house stood on, and this bank had already been carried +away to within four paces of the foundation of the kitchen tower, +and, as mass after mass fell with a thundering noise, some fine +trees, which had stood for more than a century on the terrace +above it, disappeared in the stream. The operations of the +flood were only dimly discovered by throwing the faint light of +lanterns over its waters, and its progress was judged of by +marking certain intervals of what remained of the terrace. +One by one these fell in, and at about eleven o’clock the +river was still rising, and only a space of three yards remained +about the house, which was now considered as lost. The +furniture was ordered to be removed, and by means of carts and +lanterns this was done without any loss. About one +o’clock in the morning, the partial subsidence of the flood +awakened a slight hope, but in an hour it rose again higher than +before. The banks <!-- page 47--><a name="page47"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 47</span>which supported the house were washed +away, and the house itself seemed to be doomed, and the people +were therefore sent out of it. But Providence ordered +otherwise; about four o’clock the clouds appeared higher, +the river began again to subside; by degrees a little sloping +beach became visible towards the foot of the precipice; the flood +ceased to undermine, and the house was saved.</p> +<p>But the ruin and devastation of the place were frightful to +behold. The shrubbery, all along the river side, with its +little hill and moss-house, had vanished; two stone and three +wooden buildings were carried off; the beautiful fringe of wood +on both sides of the river, with the ground it grew on, were +washed to the ocean, together with all those sweet and pastoral +projections of the fields which gave so peaceful and fertile a +character to the valley; whilst the once green island, robbed of +its groups of trees and furrowed by a dozen channels, was covered +with large stones, gravel, and torn-up roots.</p> +<p>At another part of the same river (the Divie) Sir Thomas +describes, from his own observations, the progress of the +flood. The noise was a distinct combination of two kinds of +sound: one, an <!-- page 48--><a name="page48"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 48</span>uniform continued roar; the other, +like rapidly repeated discharges of cannon. The first of +these proceeded from the violence of the water; the other, which +was heard through it, and as it were muffled by it, came from the +numerous stones which the stream was hurling over its uneven bed +of rock. Above all this was heard the shrieking of the +wind. The leaves were stripped off the trees and whirled +into the air, and their thick boughs and stems were bending and +cracking beneath the tempest. The rain was descending in +sheets, not in drops: and a peculiar lurid, bronze-like hue +pervaded the whole face of nature. And now the magnificent +trees were overthrown faster and faster, offering no more +resistance than reeds before the mower’s scythe. +Numerous as they were, they were all, individually, well-known +friends. Each, as it fell, gave one enormous plash on the +surface, then a plunge, the root upwards above water for a +moment; again all was submerged—and then up rose the stem +disbranched and peeled; after which, they either toiled round in +the cauldron, or darted, like arrows, down the stream. +“A chill ran through our hearts as we beheld how rapidly +the ruin of our favourite and <!-- page 49--><a +name="page49"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +49</span>long-cherished spot was going on. But we +remembered that the calamity came from the hand of God; and +seeing that no human power could avail, we prepared ourselves to +watch every circumstance of the spectacle.” In the +morning the place was seen cleared completely of shrubs, trees, +and soil; and the space so lately filled with a wilderness of +verdure was now one vast and powerful red-coloured river.</p> +<p>On the left bank of the Findhorn the discharge of water, +wreck, and stones that burst over the extensive plain of Forres, +spreading devastation abroad on a rich and beautiful country, was +truly terrific. On the 3d of August, Dr. Brands, of Forres, +having occasion to go to the western side of the river, forded it +on horseback, but ere he crossed the second branch of the stream, +he saw the flood coming thundering down. His horse was +caught by it; he was compelled to swim; and he had not long +touched dry land ere the river had risen six feet. By the +time he had reached Moy the river had branched out into numerous +streams, and soon came rolling on in awful grandeur; the effect +being greatly heightened by the contrary direction of the +northerly <!-- page 50--><a name="page50"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 50</span>wind, then blowing a gale. Many +of the cottages occupied a low level, and the inhabitants were +urged to quit them. Most of them did so; but some, trusting +to their apparent distance from the river, refused to move.</p> +<p>About ten o’clock the river had risen and washed away +several of the cottages; and on every side were heard reports of +suffering cottagers, whose houses were surrounded by water. +One of them was Sandy Smith, an active boatman, commonly called +<i>Whins</i>, (or <i>Funns</i>, as it is pronounced,) from his +residence on a piece of furzy pasture, at no great distance from +the river. From the situation of his dwelling he was given +up for lost; but for a long time the far-distant gleam of light +that issued from his window showed that he yet lived.</p> +<p>The barns on the higher grounds accommodated many people; and +large quantities of brose (broth) were made for the dripping and +shivering wretches. Candles were placed in all the windows +of the principal house (that of Mr. Suter) that poor Funns might +see he was not forgotten. But, alas! his light no longer +burns, and in the midst of the tempest and darkness, it was +utterly vain to attempt to assist the distressed.</p> +<p><!-- page 51--><a name="page51"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +51</span>At daybreak the wide waste of waters was only bounded by +the rising grounds on the south and west: whilst, towards the +north and east, the watery world swept off, uninterruptedly, into +the expanding Frith and the German Ocean. The embankments +appeared to have everywhere given way; and the water that covered +the fields, lately so beautiful with yellow wheat, green turnips, +and other crops, rushed with so great impetuosity in certain +directions, as to form numerous currents, setting furiously +through the quieter parts of the inundation, and elevated several +feet above it. As far as the eye could reach the +brownish-yellow moving mass of water was covered with trees and +wreck of every description, whirled along with a force that +shivered many of them against unseen obstacles. There was a +sublimity in the mighty power and deafening roar of waters, +heightened by the livid hue of the clouds, the sheeting rain, the +howling of the wind, the lowing of the cattle, and the screaming +and wailing of the assembled people, that riveted the +attention. In the distance could dimly be descried the +far-off dwelling of poor Funns, its roof rising like a speck +above the flood, that had evidently made a breach in one of its +ends.</p> +<p><!-- page 52--><a name="page52"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +52</span>A family named Kerr, who had refused to quit their +dwelling, were the objects of great anxiety. Their son, +Alexander Kerr, had been watching all night, and in the morning +was still gazing towards the spot in an agony of mind, and +weeping for the apparently inevitable destruction of his +parents. His master tried to comfort him; but even whilst +he spoke, the whole gable of Kerr’s dwelling, which was the +uppermost of three houses composing the row, gave way, and fell +into the raging current. Dr. Brands, who was looking on +intently at the time, with a telescope, observed a hand thrust +through the thatch of the central house. It worked busily, +as if in despair of life; a head soon appeared; and at last +Kerr’s whole frame emerged on the roof, and he began to +exert himself in drawing out his wife and niece. Clinging +to one another, they crawled along the roof towards the northern +chimney. The sight was torturing. Kerr, a little +a-head of the others, was seen tearing off the thatch, as if +trying to force an entrance through the roof, whilst the +miserable women clung to the house-top, the blankets which they +had used to shelter them almost torn from them by the violence of +the <!-- page 53--><a name="page53"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +53</span>hurricane; and the roof they had left yielding and +tottering, fell into the sweeping flood. The thatch +resisted all Kerr’s efforts; and he was now seen to let +himself drop from the eaves on a small speck of ground higher +than the rest, close to the foundation of the back wall of the +buildings, which was next the spectators. There he finally +succeeded in bringing down the women; and there he and they +stood, without even room to move.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p53b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Perilous situation of Kerr and his family" +title= +"Perilous situation of Kerr and his family" +src="images/p53s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p><!-- page 54--><a name="page54"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +54</span>Some people went on horseback to try to procure +boats. They managed to get on some way by keeping the line +of road. The water was so deep that the horses were +frequently swimming; but at length the current became so strong +that they were compelled to seek the rising grounds. Dr. +Brands attempted to reach the bridge of Findhorn, in hopes of +getting one of the fishermen’s cobbles. As he was +approaching the bridge he learned that the last of the three +arches had fallen the instant before; and when he got to the +brink, the waters were sweeping on as if it had never been, +making the rocks and houses vibrate with a distinct and tremulous +motion. The current was playing principally against the +southern approach of the bridge, and soon the usually dry arch, +at its further end, burst with a loud report; its fragments, +mixed with water, being blown into the air as if by +gunpowder. The boats had all been swept away, and the +fishermen’s houses were already one mass of ruin. The +centre of the main stream was hurried on at an elevation many +feet higher than the rest of the surrounding sea of waters; the +mighty rush of which displayed its power in the ruin it <!-- page +55--><a name="page55"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +55</span>occasioned. Magnificent trees, with all their +branches, were dashing and rending against the rock, and the +roaring and crashing sound that prevailed was absolutely +deafening.</p> +<p>As there was no chance of getting a boat the Doctor returned +with difficulty to the house, his mare swimming a great part of +the way. On again looking through the telescope at poor +Kerr and his family, they were seen huddled together on a spot of +ground a few feet square, some forty or fifty yards below their +inundated dwelling. <a name="citation55"></a><a +href="#footnote55" class="citation">[55]</a> He was +sometimes standing and sometimes sitting on a small cask, and, as +the beholders fancied, watching with intense anxiety the progress +of the flood, and trembling for every large tree that it brought +sweeping past them. His wife, covered with a blanket, sat +shivering on a bit of a log, one child in her lap, and a girl of +about seventeen, and a boy of about twelve years of age, leaning +against her side. A bottle and a glass on the ground near +the man gave the spectators, as it had doubtless given him, some +degree of comfort. Above a score of sheep were standing +around, or wading, or swimming in the <!-- page 56--><a +name="page56"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +56</span>shallows. Three cows and a small horse picking at +a broken rick of straw that seemed to be half afloat, were also +grouped with the family. Dreading that they must all be +swept off, if not soon relieved, the gentlemen hastened to the +offices, and looked anxiously out from the top of the tower for a +boat. At last they had the satisfaction to see one launched +from the garden at Earnhill, about a mile below. The boat +had been conveyed by a pair of horses, and had only just +arrived. It was nobly manned by three volunteers, and they +proceeded at once to the rescue of a family who were in a most +perilous situation in the island opposite to Earnhill. The +gentlemen on the tower watched the motions of this boat with the +liveliest interest. They saw it tugging up till it was hid +from them by the wood. Again it was seen beyond, and soon +it dashed into the main stream and disappeared again behind the +wood, with a velocity so fearful that they concluded it was +lost. But in a moment it again showed itself, and the brave +fellows were seen plying their oars across the submerged island +of Earnhill, making for John Smith’s cottage; the thatch +and a small part of the side walls of which were <!-- page +57--><a name="page57"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +57</span>visible above the water. The poor inmates were +dragged out of the windows from under the water, having been +obliged to duck within ere they could effect their escape. +The boat then swept down the stream towards a place called +‘The Lakes,’ where John Smith, his wife, and her +mother were safely landed.</p> +<p>The boat was next conveyed by the horses to a point from which +it was launched for the rescue of the Kerrs. Having pulled +up as far as they could in the still water, they approached the +desperate current, and fearlessly dashed into its tumultuous +waves. For a moment the spectators were in the most anxious +doubt as to the result; for, though none could pull a stronger +oar, yet the boat in crossing a distance equal to its own length +was swept down 200 yards. Ten yards more would have dashed +them to atoms on the lower stone wall. But they were now in +comparatively quiet water; and availing themselves of this, they +pulled up again to the park, in the space between two currents, +and passed, with a little less difficulty, though in the same +manner, the second and third streams, and at length reached the +houses. The spectators gave them three hearty cheers. +<!-- page 58--><a name="page58"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +58</span>By this time the Kerrs had been left scarcely three feet +of ground to stand on, under the back wall of the houses. A +pleasing sight it was to see the boat touch that tiny strand, and +the despairing family taken on board. How anxiously did the +spectators watch every motion of the little boat, that was now so +crowded as very much to impede the rowers. They crossed the +first two streams, and finally drew up for the last and dreadful +trial. There the frail bark was again whirled down; and +notwithstanding all their exertions, the stern just touched the +wall. The prow however was in stiller water; one desperate +pull,—she sprang forward in safety, and a few more strokes +of the oar landed the poor people amongst fifty or sixty of their +assembled friends. After mutual greetings and embraces, and +many tears of gratitude, old Kerr related his simple story. +“Seeing their retreat cut off by the flood, they attempted +to wade ashore. But the nearer the shore, the deeper and +more powerful was the current. The moment was awful. +The torrent increased on all sides, and night, dark night, was +spread over them. The stream began to be too deep for the +niece, a girl of twelve years of age,—she lost heart and +began to <!-- page 59--><a name="page59"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 59</span>sink. At this alarming crisis +Kerr seized the trembling girl, and placed her on his back, and +shoulder to shoulder with his wife, he providentially, but with +the greatest difficulty, regained his own house. Between +eight and nine o’clock he groped his way, and led his wife +and niece up into the garret. He could not tell how long +they remained there, but supposed it might be till about two +o’clock next morning, when the roof began to fail. To +avoid being crushed to death, he worked anxiously till he drove +down the partition separating them from the adjoining +house. Fortunately for him it was composed of wood and +clay, and a partial failure he found in it very much facilitated +his operations. Having made their way good, they remained +there till about eight o’clock in the morning, when the +strength of the water without became so great that it bent +inwards the bolt of the lock of the house-door, till it had no +greater hold of the staple than the eighth-part of an inch. +Aware, that if the door should give way the back wall of the +house would be swept down by the rush of the water inwards, and +that they would be crushed to atoms, he rummaged the garret and +fortunately found a bit of board and a few nails; <!-- page +60--><a name="page60"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 60</span>and +standing on the stairs, he placed one end of it against the door +and the other on the hatch, forming the entrance to the garret, +and so nailed it firmly down. At last the roof of the +second house began to crack over their heads, and Kerr forced a +way for himself and his companions through the thatch as has been +already told.”</p> +<p>Poor Funns and his family were not yet rescued from their +little island; and the boat was declared to be too small and weak +for so desperate a voyage. It was therefore determined to +row to a spot where a larger boat was moored. To effect +this, they were compelled to act precisely as they had done in +proceeding to rescue the Kerrs. But unfortunately, on +entering the third stream, they permitted the boat to glide down +with it, in the hope that it would carry them in safety through +the gate of the field, and across the road into that beyond +it. In this, however, they were mistaken, and the boat was +swamped. Fortunately for them, they were carried into +smooth water, and by wading shoulder deep they reached the large +boat.</p> +<p>Having secured the small boat, they attempted to drag the +large one through the gateway against the stream; but it soon +filled with water and <!-- page 61--><a name="page61"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 61</span>swamped, and, in spite of all their +exertions, they found it impossible to get it up. The small +boat was now all they had to trust to, and this was next caught +by the strong stream and overwhelmed in a moment; and had not the +men, most providentially, caught and clung to a haycock that +happened to be floating past, they must have been lost. +They were carried along till it stuck on some young alder trees, +when each of them grasped a bough, and the haycock sailed away, +leaving them among the weak and brittle branches. They had +been here about two hours, when one of the men being unable to +hold on longer by the boughs, let himself gently down into the +water with the hope of finding bottom; when, to his surprise, he +found that the small boat had actually drifted to the root of the +very tree to which they had been carried. Some salmon nets +and ropes had also, by the strangest accident, been lodged +there. The man contrived to pull up one of these with his +foot, and making a noose, and slipping it on his great toe, he +descended once more, and managed to fix the rope round the stern +of the boat, which was then safely hauled up, the oars, being +fixed to the side, being also saved. The boat was returned +to Mr. <!-- page 62--><a name="page62"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 62</span>Suter’s and fresh manned, when +it proceeded to a house occupied by a family of the name of +Cumin, consisting of an old couple, their daughter, and +grandson. By the time they reached the cottage, its western +side was entirely gone, and the boat was pushed in at the +gap. Not a sound was heard within, and they suspected that +all were drowned; but, on looking through a hole in a <!-- page +63--><a name="page63"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +63</span>partition, they discovered the unhappy inmates roosted, +like fowls, on the beams of the roof. They were, one by +one, transferred safely to the boat, half dead with cold; and +melancholy to relate, the old man’s mind, being too much +enfeebled to withstand the agonizing apprehensions he had +suffered, was now utterly deranged.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p63b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Rescuing cottagers" +title= +"Rescuing cottagers" +src="images/p63s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>The poor Funns’ were still the last to be +relieved. They and their cattle were clustered on their +little speck of land; and the poor quadrupeds, being chilled by +standing so long in the water, were continually pressing inwards +on them. It was between six and seven o’clock, the +weather was clearer, and the waters were subsiding. The +task being the most difficult of all, none but the most skilful +rowers were allowed to undertake it. One wide inundation +stretched from Monro’s house to the tiny spot where Funns +and his family were; and five tremendously tumultuous streams +raged through it with elevated waves. The moment they +dashed into the first of them they were whirled down for a great +way; but having once got through it, they pulled up in the +quieter water beyond, to prepare for the next; and in doing so, +Sergeant Grant stood in the prow, and with a long <!-- page +64--><a name="page64"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 64</span>rope, +the end of which was fixed to the boat, and wherever he thought +he had footing, he sprang out and dragged them up. The rest +followed his example, and in this way they were enabled to start +afresh with a sufficient advantage, and they crossed all the +outer streams in the same manner. The last they +encountered, being towards the middle of the flood, was fearful, +and carried them very far down. But Funns himself, +overjoyed to behold them, waded towards them, and gave them his +best help to drag up the boat again. Glad was he to see his +wife and children safely set in the boat. The perils of +their return were not few; but they were at length happily +landed.</p> +<p>These examples will suffice to show the nature and extent of +the great floods of Moray. The inundation covered a space +of something more than twenty miles in the Plain of Forres, and, +as it was expressively remarked by one of the sufferers, +“Before these floods was the Garden of Eden and behind them +a desolate wilderness.” And how often did the +beautiful expression of the Psalmist occur to them: “The +floods have lifted up, O Lord, the floods have lifted up their +voice; the floods lift up their waves. The Lord on high is +mightier <!-- page 65--><a name="page65"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 65</span>than the noise of many waters; yea, +than the mighty waves of the sea.” Ps. xciii. 3, +4.</p> +<p>But it is not in Scotland alone that the terrors of the floods +are experienced. All rivers which rise in high and cold +regions, and pass into warm lowlands, are naturally very liable +to overflow their bounds. A remarkable example is afforded +by the river Rhone, which rises in the glaciers of Switzerland; +and, after passing through the lake of Geneva, descends into the +south-eastern departments of France,—a very level district, +where the climate is mild and genial. Rapid meltings of the +ice in Switzerland, or heavy falls of rain or snow in that +country, greatly affect this river; and never, perhaps, were the +effects more dreadful than in the inundations of 1840. At +Lyons, where the Rhone joins the Saone, the most lamentable +scenes took place. Not only were the whole of the low-lying +lands in the vicinity of the city completely desolated, hundreds +of houses overturned, and many cattle swept away, but the waters +reached the city itself, bursting into the gas conduits, and thus +leaving the people in darkness, and rising to a great height in +the streets. The destruction of property, both in-doors and +out-of-doors, <!-- page 66--><a name="page66"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 66</span>was immense, and the loss of life +appalling. Charitable people and public servants went about +in boats laden with provisions, which were sent, at the expense +of the magistrates and clergy, to the starving families pent up +in their several abodes, where many of them remained in total +darkness by night, and under hourly expectation that the +foundations of their houses would give way beneath the rushing +waters. In fact, numbers of houses, and even whole streets, +were in this way sapped and overturned. Some of the people +had fled to the heights near the city, at the first rising of the +waters, but there they were reduced to the greatest extremities +for want of food, and signal shots were heard from them +continually. This miserable state of things lasted from the +beginning of November until the 20th or 21st of the same +month. At the same time the Rhone appeared like a +succession of immense lakes from Lyons to Avignon, and from +Avignon to the sea. A letter from Nismes, a little to the +west of Avignon, thus described the scene:—</p> +<blockquote><p>“As far as the view extends we perceive but +one sheet of water, in the midst of which appear the tops of +trees and houses, with the miserable <!-- page 67--><a +name="page67"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 67</span>inhabitants +perched upon them. At Valabrègue, an island on the +Rhone, they have hung out a black banner from the church-yard, +nearly two thousand persons being assembled in that spot, which +is on an elevation. Steam-boats are attempting to carry +bread to Valabrègue, and other similarly situated places, +but can scarcely effect it from the inequality of the +ground. For ten days the rains have never ceased. The +space covered by the waters near Avignon is calculated at about +thirty-six leagues in length and sixty leagues in breadth. +Human bodies are seen passing continually on the +waters.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>From the 10th to the 20th of November the Rhone fell several +inches each day, but always rose again somewhat during the +night. It began permanently to decline on the 20th, and in +a few days the streets were exposed to view, with about a foot of +mud on them. The loss of life and property, through this +calamity, are almost incalculable.</p> +<p>A still grander display of the power and extent of inundations +is afforded by the American rivers. The mighty waters of +the Mississippi, (a river, whose course extends for several +thousand miles,) <!-- page 68--><a name="page68"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 68</span>when swelled, and overflowing their +banks, present a wonderful spectacle. Unlike the +mountain-torrents, and small rivers, of other parts of the world, +the Mississippi rises slowly, continuing for several weeks to +increase at the rate of about an inch in a day. When at its +height, it undergoes little change for some days, and after this +subsides as slowly as it rose. A flood generally lasts from +four to six weeks, though it sometimes extends to two +months. The American naturalist, Audubon, has given a +striking account of the rush of waters overspreading the land +when once this mighty river has begun to overflow its +banks:—</p> +<blockquote><p>“No sooner has the water reached the upper +part of the banks, than it rushes out, and overspreads the whole +of the neighbouring swamps, presenting an ocean overgrown with +stupendous forest trees. So sudden is the calamity that +every individual, whether man or beast, has to exert his utmost +ingenuity to enable him to escape from the dreaded element. +The Indian quickly removes to the hills of the interior, the +cattle and game swim to the different strips of land that remain +uncovered in the midst of the flood, or attempt to force their +way through the waters until they perish from <!-- page 69--><a +name="page69"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +69</span>fatigue. Along the banks of the river the +inhabitants have rafts ready-made, on which they remove +themselves, their cattle, and their provisions, and which they +then fasten with ropes or grape-vines to the larger trees, while +they contemplate the melancholy spectacle presented by the +current, as it carries off their houses and wood-yards piece by +piece. Some, who have nothing to lose, and are usually +known by the name of Squatters, take this opportunity of +traversing the woods in canoes, for the purpose of procuring +game, and particularly the skins of animals, such as the deer and +bear, which may be converted into money. They resort to the +low ridges surrounded by the waters, and destroy thousands of +deer, merely for their skins, leaving the flesh to putrify.</p> +<p>“The river itself, rolling its swollen waters along, +presents a spectacle of the most imposing nature. Although +no large vessel, unless propelled by steam, can now make its way +against the current, it is seen covered by boats laden with +produce, which, running out from all the smaller streams, float +silently towards the city of New Orleans, their owners, +meanwhile, not very well assured of finding a landing-place even +there. <!-- page 70--><a name="page70"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 70</span>The water is covered with yellow foam +and pumice, the latter having floated from the rocky mountains of +the north-west. The eddies are larger and more powerful +than ever. Here and there tracts of forest are observed +undermined, the trees gradually giving way, and falling into the +stream. Cattle, horses, bears, and deer are seen at times +attempting to swim across the impetuous mass of foaming and +boiling water; whilst, here and there, a vulture or an eagle is +observed perched on a bloated carcass, tearing it up in pieces, +as regardless of the flood, as on former occasions it would have +been of the numerous sawyers and planters with which the surface +of the river is covered when the water is low. Even the +steamer is frequently distressed. The numberless trees and +logs that float along, break its paddles, and retard its +progress. Besides it is on such occasions difficult to +procure fuel to maintain its fires.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>In certain parts, the shores of the Mississippi are protected +by artificial barriers called Levées. In such +places, during a flood, the whole population of the district is +engaged in strengthening these barriers, each proprietor being in +great alarm lest a crevasse should open and let in the <!-- page +71--><a name="page71"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +71</span>waters upon his fields. In spite of all exertions +this disaster generally happens: the torrent rushes impetuously +over the plantations, and lays waste the most luxuriant +crops.</p> +<p>The mighty changes effected by the inundations of the +Mississippi are little known until the waters begin to +subside. Large streams are then found to exist where none +had formerly been. These are called by navigators <i>short +cuts</i>, and some of them are so considerable as to interfere +with the navigation of the Mississippi. Large sand-banks +are also completely removed by the impetuous whirl of the waters, +and are deposited in other places. Some appear quite new to +the navigator, who has to mark their situation and bearings in +his log-book. Trees on the margin of the river have either +disappeared, or are tottering and bending over the stream +preparatory to their fall. The earth is everywhere covered +by a deep deposit of muddy loam, which, in drying, splits into +deep and narrow chasms, forming a sort of network, from which, in +warm weather, noxious exhalations rise, filling the atmosphere +with a dense fog. The Squatter, shouldering his rifle, +makes his way through the morass in search of his <!-- page +72--><a name="page72"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 72</span>lost +stock, to drive the survivors home and save the skins of the +drowned. New fences have everywhere to be formed, and new +houses erected; to save which from a like disaster, the settler +places them on a raised platform, supported by pillars made of +the trunks of trees. “The lands must be ploughed +anew; and if the season is not too far advanced, a crop of corn +and potatoes may yet be raised. But the rich prospects of +the planter are blasted. The traveller is impeded in his +journey, the creeks and smaller streams having broken up their +banks in a degree proportionate to their size. A bank of +sand, which seems firm and secure, suddenly gives way beneath the +traveller’s horse, and the next moment the animal has sunk +in the quicksand, either to the chest in front, or to the crupper +behind, leaving its master in a situation not to be +envied.”</p> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 74--><a +name="page74"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 74</span> +<a href="images/p74b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Mists in the Valley" +title= +"Mists in the Valley" +src="images/p74s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<h2><!-- page 75--><a name="page75"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +75</span>CHAPTER III.</h2> +<p class="gutsumm"><span class="smcap">various forms op +clouds—the cirrus, or curl-cloud—the cumulus, or +stacken-cloud—the stratus, or fall-cloud—the +cirro-cumulus, or sonder-cloud—the cirro-stratus, or +wane-cloud—the cumulo-stratus, or twain-cloud—the +nimbus, or rain-cloud—arrangement of +rain-clouds—appearances of a distant +shower—scud—cause of rain—formation of +clouds—mists—heights of clouds—appearance of +the sky above the clouds</span>.</p> +<p>Many persons are apt to suppose that the clouds are among the +most fitful and irregular appearances in the world; fleeting and +unstable in their nature, uncertain in their forms, apparently +subject to no fixed laws, and obedient neither to times nor +seasons. Attentive observers, however, have proved that the +beauty and harmony which are everywhere found to prevail in +nature when rightly understood, can also be traced, even in the +clouds. Although very much still remains to be discovered +respecting them, yet it is found that, like all the other natural +productions, they admit of being arranged and classified. +So obvious was this to <!-- page 76--><a name="page76"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 76</span>persons whose interest it is to +observe the weather, that, long before scientific men had studied +the subject, country people had noticed the different forms of +clouds, and had learned to distinguish them by different +names.</p> +<p>The first scientific man who made the clouds the object of his +particular study, was Luke Howard, who, from an attentive +consideration of their forms and appearances, found that they +might all be arranged under three simple or primary forms, +namely:—</p> +<p>1. The <i>Cirrus</i>—so called from its +resemblance to a <i>curled lock of hair</i>. (Figures, 1, +2; page 77.)</p> +<p>2. The <i>Cumulus</i>, from the <i>heaped</i> appearance +presented by the convex masses which form this cloud. +(Figure 7.)</p> +<p>3. The <i>Stratus</i>, from its spreading out +horizontally in a continuous layer, and increasing from +below. (Figure 10.)</p> +<p>These three primary forms are subject to four +modifications:—</p> +<p>The first is the <i>Cirro-cumulus</i>, consisting of small +roundish and well-defined masses, in close horizontal +arrangement. (Figure 3.)</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p77b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Various forms of clouds" +title= +"Various forms of clouds" +src="images/p77s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>The second is the <i>Cirro-Stratus</i>, and the masses <!-- +page 78--><a name="page78"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +78</span>which compose it are small and rounded, but thinned off +towards a part, or towards the whole of their +circumference. They are sometimes separate, and sometimes +in groups. (Figures 4, 5, 6.)</p> +<p>The third is the <i>Cumulo-Stratus</i>, which is made up of +the cirro-stratus blended with the cumulus. (Figure 8.)</p> +<p>The fourth is the <i>Cumulo-Cirro-Stratus</i>, or +<i>Nimbus</i>. This is the true <i>rain-cloud</i>, or +system of clouds from which rain is falling. (Figure +9.)</p> +<p>The term <i>modification</i> applies to the structure or +manner in which a given mass of cloud is made up, and not to its +precise form or size, which in most clouds varies every +instant. Mr. Howard remarks, that it may be at first +difficult to distinguish one modification from another, or to +trace the narrow limits which sometimes separate the different +modifications; but a moderate acquaintance with the subject will +soon enable any one to point out the various forms, and to a +great extent to judge of the state of the weather by them. +In order, therefore, to assist the reader in gaining a certain +amount of knowledge on this interesting subject, it may be useful +to state more fully the various phenomena of the different forms +of clouds already enumerated.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 79--><a +name="page79"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 79</span> +<a href="images/p79b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"The Cirrus, or curl-cloud" +title= +"The Cirrus, or curl-cloud" +src="images/p79s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>The Cirrus occurs in very great variety, and in some states of +the air is constantly changing. It is the first cloud that +appears in serene weather, and is always at a great height. +The first traces of the <!-- page 80--><a name="page80"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 80</span>cirrus are some fine whitish threads, +delicately-pencilled on a clear blue sky; and as they increase in +length others frequently appear at the sides, until numerous +branches are formed, extending in all directions. Sometimes +these lines cross each other and form a sort of delicate +net-work. In dry weather the cirrus is sharp, defined, and +fibrous in texture, the lines vanishing off in fine points. +When the air is damp this cloud may be seen in the intervals of +rain, but is not well defined, and the lines are much less +fibrous. Such cirri as these often grow into other +varieties of cloud, and are frequently followed by rain.</p> +<p>The cirrus may last a few minutes only, or continue for +hours. Its duration is shortest when near other +clouds. Although it appears to be stationary, it has some +connexion with the motions of the atmosphere; for whenever, in +fair weather, light variable breezes prevail, cirri are generally +present. When they appear in wet weather, they quickly pass +into the cirro-stratus.</p> +<p>According to Dalton, these clouds are from three to five miles +above the earth’s surface. When viewed from the +summits of the highest mountains they appear as distant as from +the <!-- page 81--><a name="page81"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +81</span>plains. Another proof of their great height is, +their continuing to be tinged by the sun’s rays in the +evening twilight with the most vivid colours, while the denser +clouds are in the deepest shade.</p> +<p>The cirrus appears to be stationary; but, on comparison with a +fixed object, it will sometimes be found to make considerable +progress.</p> +<h3>THE CUMULUS, OR STACKEN-CLOUD.</h3> +<blockquote><p>“And now the mists from earth are clouds in +heaven:<br /> +Clouds, slowly castellating in a calm<br /> +Sublimer than a storm; while brighter breathes<br /> +O’er the whole firmament the breadth of blue,<br /> +Because of that excessive purity<br /> +Of all those hanging snow-white palaces,<br /> +A gentle contrast, but with power divine.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>The Cumulus is a day cloud; it usually has a dense, compact +appearance, and moves with the wind. In the latter part of +a clear morning a small irregular spot appears suddenly at a +moderate elevation. This is the nucleus or commencement of +the cloud, the upper part of which soon becomes rounded and well +defined, while the lower forms an irregular straight line. +The cloud evidently increases in size on the convex surface, <!-- +page 82--><a name="page82"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +82</span>one heap succeeding another, until a pile of cloud is +raised or <i>stacked</i> into one large and elevated mass, or +<i>stacken-cloud</i>, of stupendous magnitude and beauty, +disclosing mountain summits tipped with the brightest silver; the +whole floating along with its point to the sky, while the lower +surface continues parallel with the horizon.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p82b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"The Cumulus, or stacken-cloud" +title= +"The Cumulus, or stacken-cloud" +src="images/p82s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p><!-- page 83--><a name="page83"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +83</span>When several cumuli are present, they are separated by +distances proportioned to their size: the smaller cumuli crowding +the sky, while the larger ones are further apart. But the +bases always range in the same line; and the increase of each +cloud keeps pace with that of its neighbour, the intervening +spaces remaining clear.</p> +<p>The cumulus often attains its greatest size early in the +afternoon, when the heat of the day is most felt. As the +sun declines, this cloud gradually decreases, retaining, however, +its characteristic form till towards sunset, when it is, more or +less, hastily broken up and disappears, leaving the sky clear as +in the early part of the morning. Its tints are often +vivid, and pass one into the other in a most pleasing manner, +during this last hour of its existence.</p> +<p>This cloud accompanies and foretells fine weather. In +changeable weather it sometimes evaporates almost as soon as it +is formed; or it appears suddenly, and then soon passes off to +some other modification.</p> +<p>In fair weather this cloud has a moderate elevation and +extent, and a well-defined rounded surface. Before rain it +increases more rapidly than <!-- page 84--><a +name="page84"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 84</span>at other +times, and appears lower in the atmosphere, with its surface full +of loose fleeces.</p> +<p>The formation of large cumuli to leeward, in a strong wind, +indicates the approach of a calm with rain. When they do +not disappear or subside about sun-set, but continue to rise, +thunder is to be expected in the night.</p> +<p>Independently of the beauty and magnificence which this +description of cloud adds to the face of nature, it serves to +screen the earth from the direct rays of the sun; by its +multiplied reflections to diffuse and, as it were, economise the +light; and also to convey immense stores of vapour from the place +of its origin to a region in which moisture may be wanted.</p> +<h3>THE STRATUS, OR FALL-CLOUD.</h3> +<p>As the Cumulus belongs to the day, so does the Stratus to the +night. It is the lowest of all the clouds, and actually +rests upon the earth, or the surface of water. It is of +variable extent and thickness, and is called <i>Stratus</i>, <i>a +bed</i> or <i>covering</i>. It is generally formed by the +<i>sinking</i> of vapour in the atmosphere, and on this account +has been <!-- page 85--><a name="page85"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 85</span>called <i>Fall-cloud</i>. It +comprehends all those level, creeping mists, which, in calm +evenings, spread like an inundation from the valleys, lakes, and +rivers, to the higher ground. <a name="citation85"></a><a +href="#footnote85" class="citation">[85]</a> But on the +return of the sun the beautiful level surface of this <!-- page +86--><a name="page86"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 86</span>cloud +begins to put on the appearance of cumulus, the whole, at the +same time, rising from the ground like a magnificent +curtain. As the cloud ascends, it is broken up and +evaporates or passes off with the morning breeze. The +stratus has long been regarded as the harbinger of fine weather; +and, indeed, there are few days in the year more serene than +those whose morning breaks out through a stratus.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p85b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"The Stratus, or fall-cloud" +title= +"The Stratus, or fall-cloud" +src="images/p85s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<h3>THE CIRRO-CUMULUS, OR SONDER-CLOUD.</h3> +<p>The cirrus having continued for some time increasing or +stationary, usually passes either to the cirro-cumulus or to the +cirro-stratus, at the same time descending to a lower station in +the atmosphere.</p> +<p>The Cirro-cumulus is formed from a cirrus, or a number of +small separate cirri, passing into roundish masses, in which the +extent of the cirrus is no longer to be seen. This change +takes place either throughout the whole mass at once, or +progressively from one extremity to the other. In either +case the same effect is produced on a number of neighbouring +cirri at the same time, and in <!-- page 87--><a +name="page87"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 87</span>the same +order. It appears, in some instances, to be hastened by the +approach of other clouds.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p87b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"The Cirro-Cumulus, or sonder-cloud" +title= +"The Cirro-Cumulus, or sonder-cloud" +src="images/p87s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>The cirro-cumulus forms a very beautiful sky, exhibiting +sometimes numerous distinct beds of small connected clouds +floating at different heights. It is frequent in summer, +and accompanies warm, <!-- page 88--><a name="page88"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 88</span>dry weather. On a fine +summer’s evening the small masses which compose this cloud, +are often well defined, and lying quite <i>asunder</i>, or +separate from one another; and on this account the term +<i>sonder-cloud</i> has been applied to this modification. +The whole sky is sometimes covered with these small masses. +They are occasionally, and more sparingly, seen in the intervals +of showers, and in winter.</p> +<p>Bloomfield, in the following beautiful lines, has noticed the +appearance of the sonder-cloud:—</p> +<blockquote><p>“For yet above these wafted clouds are +seen<br /> +(In a remoter sky still more serene)<br /> +Others, detach’d in ranges through the air,<br /> +Spotless as snow, and countless as they’re fair;<br /> +Scatter’d immensely wide from east to west,<br /> +The beauteous semblance of a flock at rest:<br /> +These, to the raptur’d mind, aloud proclaim<br /> +The mighty Shepherd’s everlasting name.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>This cloud may either evaporate or disappear, or it may pass +to the cirrus, or sink lower and become a cirro-stratus. In +stormy weather, before thunder, a cirro-cumulus often appears, +composed of very dense and compact round bodies, in very close +arrangement. When accompanied by the <!-- page 89--><a +name="page89"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +89</span>cumulo-stratus, it is a sure indication of a coming +storm.</p> +<h3>THE CIRRO-STRATUS, OR WANE-CLOUD.</h3> +<p>This cloud appears to be formed from the fibres of the cirrus +sinking into a horizontal position, at the same time that they +approach each other sideways. This cloud is to be +distinguished by its flatness and great horizontal extension, in +proportion to its height; a character which it always retains, +under all its various forms. As this cloud is generally +changing its figure, and slowly sinking, it has been called the +<i>wane-cloud</i>. A collection of these clouds, when seen +in the distance, frequently give the idea of shoals of +fish. Sometimes the whole sky is so mottled with them, as +to obtain for it the name of the <i>mackerel-back sky</i>, from +its great resemblance to the back of that fish. Sometimes +they assume an arrangement like discs piled obliquely on each +other. But in this, as in other instances, the structure +must be attended to rather than the form, for this varies much, +presenting, at times, the appearance of parallel bars or +interwoven streaks, like the grain of polished <!-- page 90--><a +name="page90"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 90</span>wood. +It is thick in the middle and thinned off towards the edge.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p90b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"The Cirro-Stratus, or wane-cloud" +title= +"The Cirro-Stratus, or wane-cloud" +src="images/p90s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>These clouds precede wind and rain. The near or distant +approach of a storm may often be judged of from their greater or +less abundance and duration. They are almost always to be +seen in the <!-- page 91--><a name="page91"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 91</span>intervals of storms. Sometimes +the cirro-stratus, and the cirro-cumulus, appear together in the +sky, and even alternate with each other in the same cloud, +presenting many curious changes; and a judgment may be formed of +the weather likely to ensue, by observing which prevails at +last.</p> +<p>The cirro-stratus most frequently forms the solar and lunar +halo. Hence the reason of the prognostics of bad weather +commonly drawn from the appearance of halos.</p> +<h3>THE CUMULO-STRATUS, OR TWAIN-CLOUD.</h3> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p92b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"The Cumulo-Stratus, or twain-cloud" +title= +"The Cumulo-Stratus, or twain-cloud" +src="images/p92s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>This is a blending of two kinds of cloud (hence the name of +<i>twain-cloud</i>,) and it often presents a grand and beautiful +appearance, being a collection of large fleecy clouds overhanging +a flat stratum or base. When a cumulus increases rapidly a +cumulo-stratus frequently forms around its summit, resting +thereon as on a mountain, while the former cloud continues to be +seen, in some degree, through it. This state of things does +not continue long. The cumulo-stratus speedily becomes +denser and spreads, while the upper part of the cumulus extends +likewise, and passes into it, the base continuing as it <!-- page +92--><a name="page92"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +92</span>was. A large, lofty, dense cloud is thus formed +which may be compared to a mushroom with a very thick, short +stem. The cumulo-stratus, when well formed and seen singly, +and in profile, is quite as beautiful an object as the +cumulus. Mr. Howard has occasionally seen specimens +constructed almost <!-- page 93--><a name="page93"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 93</span>as finely as a Corinthian capital; +the summit throwing a well-defined shadow upon the parts +beneath. It is sometimes built up to a great height. +The finest examples occur between the first appearance of the +fleecy cumuli and the commencement of rain, while the lower +atmosphere is comparatively dry, and during the approach of +thunder storms. The appearance of the cumulo-stratus, among +ranges of hills, presents some interesting phenomena. It +appears like a curtain dropping among them and enveloping their +summits; the hills reminding the spectator of the massy Egyptian +columns which support the flat-roofed temples of Thebes. +But when a whole sky is crowded with these clouds, and the +cumulus rises behind them, and is seen through the interstices, +the whole, as it passes off in the distant horizon, presents to +the fancy mountains covered with snow, intersected with darker +ridges, lakes of water, rocks and towers. Shakspeare seems +to have referred to this modification in the well-known +lines:—</p> +<blockquote><p>“Sometimes we see a cloud that’s +dragonish;<br /> +A vapour, sometimes, like a bear or lion,<br /> +A towered citadel, a pendent rock,<br /> +A forked mountain, a blue promontory,<br /> +<!-- page 94--><a name="page94"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +94</span>With trees upon ’t that nod unto the world,<br /> +And mock our eyes with air.—<br /> +That which is now a horse, even with a thought<br /> +The rack dislimns, and makes it indistinct<br /> +As water is in water.</p> +</blockquote> +<p>The <i>distinct</i> cumulo-stratus is formed in the interval +between the first appearance of the fleecy <i>cumulus</i> and the +commencement of rain, while the lower atmosphere is yet dry; also +during the approach of thunder storms when it has frequently a +reddish appearance. Its <i>indistinct</i> appearance is +chiefly in the longer or shorter intervals of showers of rain, +snow, or hail.</p> +<h3>THE CUMULO-CIRRO-STRATUS; NIMBUS OR RAIN-CLOUD.</h3> +<p>Clouds, in any one of the preceding forms, at the same degree +of elevation, or two or more of these forms at different +elevations, may increase and become so dense as completely to +obscure the sky; this, to an inexperienced observer, would seem +to indicate the speedy commencement of rain. But Mr. Howard +is of opinion that clouds, while <!-- page 95--><a +name="page95"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 95</span>in any of the +states above described, never let fall rain.</p> +<p>Before rain the clouds always undergo a change of appearance, +sufficiently remarkable to give them a distinct character. +This appearance, when the rain happens overhead, is but +imperfectly seen; but from the observations of aëronauts, it +appears that whenever a fall of rain occurs, and the sky is at +the same time entirely overcast with clouds, there will be found +to exist another stratum of clouds at a certain elevation above +the former. So, also, when the sky is entirely overcast and +rain is altogether or generally absent, the aëronaut, upon +traversing the canopy immediately above him, is sure to enter +upon an upper hemisphere either perfectly cloudless or nearly +so. These remarks were, we believe, first made by Mr. M. +Mason, and he states that they have been verified during many +hundred ascents.</p> +<p>In October, 1837, two ascents were made by Mr. Mason, which +well illustrate what has been said. On the 12th, “the +sky was completely overspread with clouds, and torrents of rain +fell incessantly during the whole of the day. Upon quitting +the earth, the balloon was almost immediately <!-- page 96--><a +name="page96"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 96</span>enveloped in +the clouds, through which it continued to work its way upwards +for a few seconds. Upon emerging at the other side of this +dense canopy, a vacant space, of some thousand feet in breadth, +intervened, above which lay another stratum of a similar form and +observing a similar character. As the rain, however, still +continued to pour from this second layer of clouds, to preserve +the correctness of the observation, a third layer should, by +right, have existed at a still further elevation; which, +accordingly, proved to be the case. On the subsequent +occasion of the ascent of the same balloon, (October 17th,) an +exactly similar condition of the atmosphere, with respect to +clouds, prevailed; unaccompanied, however, with the slightest +appearance of rain. No sooner had the balloon passed the +layer of clouds immediately above the surface of the earth, than, +as was anticipated, not a single cloud was to be found in the +firmament beyond; an unbroken expanse of clear blue sky +everywhere embracing the frothy plain that completely intercepted +all view of the world beneath.”</p> +<p>Mr. Howard had not the advantages of a balloon to assist his +observations. He has noticed that during rain and before +the arrival of the denser <!-- page 97--><a +name="page97"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 97</span>and lower +clouds, or through their interstices, there exists, at a greater +height, a thin light veil or a hazy appearance. When this +has considerably increased, the lower clouds are seen to spread +till they unite in all points and form one uniform sheet. +The rain then commences, and the lower clouds arriving from the +windward, move under this sheet and are successively lost in +it. When the latter cease to arrive, or when the sheet +breaks, letting through the sun-beams, every one’s +experience teaches him to expect that the rain will abate or +leave off.</p> +<p>But there often follows an immediate and great addition to the +quantity of cloud. At the same time the darkness becomes +less, because the arrangement, which now returns, gives free +passage to the rays of light; the lower broken clouds rise into +cumuli, and the upper sheets put on the various forms of the +cumulo-stratus, sometimes passing to the cirro-cumulus.</p> +<p>The various phenomena of the rain-cloud are best seen in a +distant shower. If the cumulus be the only cloud at first +visible, its upper part is seen to become tufted with +cirri. Several adjacent clouds also approach and unite at +its side. The cirri <!-- page 98--><a +name="page98"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 98</span>increase, +extending upwards and sideways, after which the shower is seen to +commence. At other times, the cirro-stratus is first formed +above the cumulus, and their sudden union is attended with the +production of cirri and rain. In either case the cirri +spring up in proportion to the quantity of rain falling, and give +the cloud a character by which it is easily known at great +distances, and which has long been called by the name of +<i>nimbus</i>.</p> +<p>When one of these arrives hastily with the wind, it brings but +little rain, and frequently some hail or driven snow.</p> +<p>Since rain may be produced and continue to fall from the +slightest obscuration of the sky by the nimbus, while a cumulus +or a cumulo-stratus, of a very dark and threatening aspect, +passes on without discharging any until some change of state +takes place; it would seem as if nature had destined the latter +as reservoirs, in which water is collected from extensive regions +of the air for occasionally irrigating particular spots in dry +seasons; and by means of which it is arrested, at times, in its +descent in wet ones.</p> +<p>Although the nimbus is one of the least beautiful of clouds, +it is, nevertheless, now and then adorned <!-- page 99--><a +name="page99"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 99</span>by the +splendid colouring of the rainbow, which can only be seen in +perfection when the dark surface of this cloud forms for it a +background.</p> +<p>The small ragged clouds which are sometimes seen sailing +rapidly through the air, are called <i>scud</i>. They +consist of portions of a rain-cloud, probably broken up by the +wind, and are dark or light according as the sun shines upon +them. They are the usual harbingers of rain, and, as such, +are called by various names, such as <i>messengers</i>, +<i>carriers</i>, and <i>water-waggons</i>.</p> +<div class="gapshortline"> </div> +<p>In attempting to explain the production of clouds and rain, it +is necessary to observe that the subject is beset with +difficulties—the discussion of which does not belong to +this little volume; but the following notice of Dr. +Hutton’s theory may not be out of place.</p> +<p>It has been already stated, that the air supplies itself with +moisture from the surface of the waters of the earth. This +it continues to do at all temperatures, until it is so charged +with vapour that it cannot contain any more. The air is +then said to be <i>saturated</i>. Now, the quantity of +moisture which a given bulk of air can contain, depends entirely +<!-- page 100--><a name="page100"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +100</span>upon the temperature of the air for the time +being. The higher the temperature of the air the greater +will be the quantity of vapour contained in it; and, although it +may be perfectly invisible to the eye, on account of the +elasticity which the heat imparts to it, yet it can easily be +made visible by subtracting a portion of the heat. If, for +example, a glass of cold water be suddenly brought into a warm +room, moisture from the air will be condensed upon the outside of +the glass in the form of dew. A similar change is supposed +to take place when two currents of air having different +temperatures, but both saturated with vapour, are mingled +together; an excess of vapour is set free, which forms a cloud or +falls down as rain. If the currents continue to mingle +uniformly, “the clouds soon spread in all directions, so as +to occupy the whole horizon; while the additional moisture, +incessantly brought by the warmer current, keeps up a constant +supply for condensation, and produces a great and continued +deposition of moisture in the form of rain. By degrees, the +currents completely intermingle, and acquire a uniform +temperature; condensation then ceases; the clouds are +re-dissolved; and the whole face of nature, after being cooled +and refreshed <!-- page 101--><a name="page101"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 101</span>by the necessary rain, is again +enlivened by the sunshine, thus rendered still more agreeable by +its contrast with the previous gloom.”</p> +<p>If the cloud, produced by the mingling of two differently +heated currents of moist air, happen to form in the upper regions +of the sky, it may be heavier than its own bulk of air, and will +consequently begin to sink. Should the atmosphere near the +earth be less dense than the cloud, the latter will continue to +descend till it touches the ground, where it forms a mist. +If the vapour has been condensed rapidly and abundantly, the +watery particles will form rain, hail, or snow, according to the +temperature of the air through which they pass. But it may +happen that the cloud, in descending, arrives in a warmer region +than that in which it was formed: in this case, the condensed +moisture may again become vapour, and ascend again to a region +where condensation may again take place.</p> +<p>Mr. Daniell’s explanation of the formation of rain +differs from the above in some of its particulars, which are not +sufficiently elementary to be given here; but it may be +instructive to give a few of Mr. Howard’s illustrations +respecting the <!-- page 102--><a name="page102"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 102</span>formation of the various +clouds. If hot water be exposed to cool air, it +<i>steams</i>—that is, the vapour given off from the +surface is condensed in mixing with the air; and the water thus +produced appears in visible particles, the heat of the vapour +passing into the air. This effect may be seen about +sunrise, in summer, on the surface of ponds warmed by the sun of +the previous day, and also with water newly pumped from a +well. But the small cloud formed in these instances usually +disappears almost as soon as formed, the air being too dry to +allow it to remain. But in the wide regions of the +atmosphere the case is different, on account of the vast supply +of vapour, and the ascent and descent of the cloud to regions +which allow it to remain tolerably permanent. In the fine +evenings of autumn, and occasionally at other seasons, mists +appear suddenly in the valleys, gradually filling these low +places, and even rising to a certain height, forming a foggy +atmosphere for the following day. These collections of +visible vapour resting on the earth, and often cut off so as to +form a level surface above, so nearly resemble a sheet of water, +as to have been occasionally mistaken for an inundation, the +occurrence of the previous night. Such is the <!-- page +103--><a name="page103"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +103</span>origin and appearance of the <i>stratus</i>: it +constitutes the fog of the morning, and sometimes, as at the +approach of a long frost, occupies the lower atmosphere for +several days. But the sun, we will suppose, has broken +through and dissipated this obscurity, and cleared the lower +air. On looking up to the blue sky, we see some few spots +showing the first formation of a cloud there: these little +collections increase in number, and become clouds, heaped, as it +were, on a level base, and presenting their rounded forms +upwards; in which state they are carried along in the breeze, +remaining distinct from each other in the sky. This is the +<i>cumulus</i>, or <i>heap</i>.</p> +<p>By and by, if the clouds continue to form, and enough vapour +is supplied from above, these heaps are seen to grow over their +base like a mushroom or cauliflower. Perhaps a flat top is +seen forming separately, and this afterwards joins the simple +heap of cloud; or the flat forms and the heaps become mixed +irregularly among each other, occupying the spaces everywhere, +till the sky becomes overcast, and presents the usual appearance +of dense clouds. This is the <i>cumulo-stratus</i>, or +<i>heaped and flat cloud</i>. It is not productive of rain, +and it <!-- page 104--><a name="page104"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 104</span>forms, both in summer and in winter, +the common scenery of a full sky.</p> +<p>On examining minutely the higher regions of the air, +especially after the sky has been clear for some time, the +spectator will probably see the cirrus descending from above in +the form of <i>threads</i> or <i>locks</i> and <i>feathers</i>, +which go on increasing until they fill the sky. They are +more commonly seen above the two former kinds, which float upon +the clear air below. On continuing to watch the cirri, they +will be seen to pass to the intermediate form of cirro-cumulus, +consisting of smaller rounded clouds attached to each other, or +simply collected together in a flat aggregate, and forming the +mottled or dappled sky.</p> +<p>The cumulo-stratus is more dense and continuous in its +structure; thick in the middle, and thinned off towards the +edges. Over-head it is a mere bed of haze, more or less +dense. In the horizon, when seen sideways, it often +resembles shoals of fish, as already noticed; but it is liable to +put on the most ragged and patchy appearances, making a very ugly +sky.</p> +<p>The nimbus, or rain cloud, is seen to the greatest advantage +in profile, in the horizon, and at a great <!-- page 105--><a +name="page105"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 105</span>distance, +when it often resembles a lofty tower raised by its greater +height to a conspicuous place among the dark threatening clouds, +and catching the sun’s last rays upon its broad summit and +sides. In its nearer approach, it may always be known by +being connected below with an obscurity caused by the rain it +lets fall, and which reaches down to the horizon.</p> +<p>In ascending from the lower valleys to the tops of lofty +mountains, clouds may be traced through six modifications, the +cirrus being seen from the loftiest summits, while the other +forms are only skirting the sides of the mountains. Mr. +Mason remarks, that clouds occasionally lie so low, that before +the balloon seems to have entirely quitted the earth, it has been +received between their limits, and entirely enveloped within +their watery folds. Clouds, on the contrary, are sometimes +at such a height, that the balloon either never comes into +contact with them at all, or, if it passes through one layer, the +aëronaut continues to behold another occupying a still +remoter region of the skies above.</p> +<p>As a general rule, it is stated that the natural region of +clouds is a stratum of the atmosphere <!-- page 106--><a +name="page106"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 106</span>lying +between the level of the first thousand feet, and that of one +removed about ten thousand feet above it. Of course it is +not supposed but that clouds are occasionally found on both sides +of the bounds here assigned to them; the mist occupies the lowest +valleys, while, on the other hand, long after the aëronaut +has attained the height of ten thousand feet, some faint +indications of clouds may still be seen partially obscuring the +dark blue vault above him. As he continues to ascend, the +blue of the sky increases in intensity; and should a layer of +clouds shut out all view of the earth, “above and all +around him extends a firmament dyed in purple of the intensest +hue; and from the apparent regularity of the horizontal plane on +which it rests, bearing the resemblance of a large inverted bowl +of dark blue porcelain standing upon a rich Mosaic floor or +tesselated pavement. Ascending still higher, the colour of +the sky, especially about the zenith, is to be compared with the +deepest shade of Prussian blue.”</p> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 107--><a +name="page107"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 107</span> +<a href="images/p107b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Various forms of hail-stones" +title= +"Various forms of hail-stones" +src="images/p107s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> +<p class="gutsumm"><span class="smcap">on hail—the +hail-storms of france—disastrous effects of hail—the +hail-storms of south america—their surprising +effects—origin and nature of hail—periodical falls of +hail—hail clouds—hailstones—their various +forms—extraordinary size of hailstones</span>.</p> +<p>As hail seems to be nothing more than frozen rain, it is +necessary to collect a few particulars respecting it in this +place.</p> +<p>Great Britain is essentially a rain country; but there are +some parts of the world which have obtained the unhappy +distinction of being <i>hail</i> countries: <!-- page 108--><a +name="page108"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 108</span>such, for +example, as some of the most beautiful provinces of France, which +are frequently devastated by hail-storms. One of the most +tremendous hail-storms on record is that which occurred in that +country in July 1788. This fearful storm was ushered in by +a dreadful and almost total darkness which suddenly overspread +the whole country. In a single hour the whole face of +nature was so entirely changed, that no person who had slept +during the tempest could have believed himself in the same part +of the world when he awoke. Instead of the smiling bloom of +summer, and the rich prospects of a forward autumn, which were +just before spread over the face of that fertile and beautiful +country, it now presented the dreary aspect of an arctic +winter. The soil was changed into a morass; the standing +corn beaten into a quagmire; the vines were broken to pieces, and +their branches bruised in the same manner; the fruit-trees of +every kind were demolished, and the hail lay unmelted in heaps +like rocks of solid ice. Even the robust forest trees were +incapable of withstanding the fury of the tempest; and a large +wood of chesnut trees, in particular, was so much damaged, that +it presented, after the storm, <!-- page 109--><a +name="page109"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 109</span>little more +than bare and naked trunks. The vines were so miserably +hacked and battered, that four years were estimated as the +shortest period in which they could become again in any degree +productive. Of the sixty-six parishes included in the +district of Pontoise, forty-three were entirely desolated; while, +of the remaining twenty-three, some lost two-thirds, and others +above half their harvest.</p> +<p>This storm began in the south, and proceeded in two parallel +bands from the south-west to the north-east; the extent of one of +them being 175 leagues, and of the other 200; thus traversing +nearly the whole length of that great kingdom, and even a portion +of the Low countries. The mean breadth of the eastern +portion was four leagues, and of the western two: and, what is +very remarkable, the interval between the two bands, amounting to +five leagues, was deluged with heavy rain. The largest of +the hail-stones weighed half a pound each.</p> +<p>The progress of this storm, which was from south to north, was +at the rate of 16½ leagues an hour; and the velocity of +the two bands was precisely the same. The continuance of +the hail <!-- page 110--><a name="page110"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 110</span>was limited to seven or eight +minutes, at each of the principal stations marked.</p> +<p>There are instances, however, on record, in which hail has +produced even more tremendous results than those above +recorded. In some parts of South America hail-stones are +sometimes so large and so hard, and fall with such violence, that +large animals are killed by them. Mr. Darwin, encamping at +the foot of the Sierra Tapalguen, says:—“One of the +men had already found thirteen deer lying dead, and I saw their +fresh hides. Another of the party, a few minutes after my +arrival, brought in seven more. Now I well know that one +man without dogs could hardly have killed seven deer in a +week. The men believed they had seen about fifteen dead +ostriches, (part of one of which we had for dinner;) and they +said that several were running about evidently blind in one +eye. Numbers of small birds, as ducks, hawks, and +partridges, were killed. I saw one of the latter with a +black mark on its back, as if it had been struck with a +paving-stone. A fence of thistle-stalks round the hovel was +nearly broken down; and my informer, putting his head out to see +what was the matter, received a severe <!-- page 111--><a +name="page111"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 111</span>cut, and +now wears a bandage. The storm was said to have been of +limited extent: we certainly saw, from our last night’s +bivouac, a dense cloud and lightning in this direction. It +is marvellous how such strong animals as deer could thus have +been killed; but, I have no doubt, from the evidence I have +given, that the story is not in the least +exaggerated.” Dr. Malcolmson informed Mr. Darwin, +that he witnessed, in 1831, in India, a hail-storm, which killed +numbers of large birds, and much injured the cattle. These +hail-stones were flat; one was ten inches in circumference; and +another weighed two ounces. They ploughed up a gravel-walk +like musket-balls, and passed through glass windows, making round +holes, but not cracking them.</p> +<p>There is much in the origin and formation of hail that cannot +well be explained. Volta regarded the formation of small +flakes of ice, the kernels of future hail-stones, in the month of +July, during the hottest hours of the day, as one of the most +difficult phenomena in nature to explain. It is difficult +to account for the comparative scarcity of hail-showers in +winter; as also, for the great size which hailstones are often +known to attain.</p> +<p><!-- page 112--><a name="page112"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +112</span>It appears from certain resemblances in the descents of +rain, snow, and hail, that they have a common origin, their +different formations being explained by difference of +temperature. Howard has observed a huge nimbus affording +hard snowballs and distinct flakes of snow at the same +time. Hail and rain are by no means uncommon from the same +cloud. The size of a cloud may be such, or clouds may exist +in different elevations, which in an upper region produce hail, +in a lower region snow, and at a still lower elevation +rain. Rain may also form in an upper region of the sky, and +descend into a colder stratum of the atmosphere, and be frozen +into hail. Hail generally precedes storms of rain.</p> +<p>Change of wind and the action of opposite currents, so +necessary for the production of rain, are also frequent during +hail-storms. While clouds are agitated with the most rapid +motions, rain generally falls in greatest abundance; and if the +agitation be very great it generally hails. Before the +descent of hail a noise is heard, a particular kind of crackling, +which has been compared to the emptying of a bag of walnuts.</p> +<p>The descent of hail in some countries appears <!-- page +113--><a name="page113"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 113</span>to +occur at particular periods. In the central parts of +France, Italy, and Spain, it usually hails most abundantly during +the warmest hours of the day in spring and summer, and in Europe +generally it falls principally during the day; but there are +examples recorded of great hail-storms which have taken place +during the night. Near the equator, it seldom hails in +places situated at a lower level than 350 fathoms, for, although +the hail may be formed, the warmth of the regions prevents it +from falling in that state.</p> +<p>The appearance of hail clouds seems to be distinguished from +other stormy clouds by a very remarkable shadowing. Their +edges present a multitude of indentations, and their surfaces +disclose here and there immense irregular projections. +Arago has seen hail-clouds cover with a thick veil the whole +extent of a valley, at a time when the neighbouring hills enjoyed +a fine sky and an agreeable temperature.</p> +<p>Hailstones of similar forms are produced at similar +levels. They are smaller on the tops of mountains than in +the neighbouring plains. If the temperature or the wind +alter, the figures of the hailstones become immediately +changed. Hailstones <!-- page 114--><a +name="page114"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 114</span>of the form +of a six-sided pyramid have been known to change, on the wind +changing to the north-east, to convex lenses, so transparent and +nicely formed, that they magnified objects without distorting +them. Some hailstones are globular, others elongated, and +others armed with different points.</p> +<p>In the centres of hailstones small flakes of spungy snow are +frequently found, and this usually is the only opaque point in +them. Sometimes the surface is covered with dust, like fine +flour, and is something between hail and snow. This never +falls during summer in southerly countries. In the Andes +hailstones from five to seven lines in diameter are sometimes +formed of layers of different degrees of transparency, so as to +permit rings of ice to be separated from them with a very slight +blow. In Orkney, hailstones have fallen as finely polished +as marbles, of a greyish white colour, not unlike fragments of +light-coloured marble. Hailstones are often so hard and +elastic, that those which fall on the stones rebound without +breaking to the height of several yards; and they have been known +to be projected from a cloud almost horizontally, and with such +velocity <!-- page 115--><a name="page115"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 115</span>as to pierce glass windows with a +clear round hole.</p> +<p>On the 7th May, 1822, some remarkable hailstones fell at Bonn, +on the Rhine. Their general size was about an inch and a +half in diameter, and their weight 300 grains. When picked +up whole, which was not always the case, their general outline +was elliptical, with a white, or nearly opaque spot in the +centre, about which were arranged concentric layers, increasing +in transparency to the outside. Some of them exhibited a +beautiful star-like and fibrous arrangement, the result of rows +of air bubbles dispersed in different radii. The figures at +the head of this chapter show the external and internal +appearances of these hailstones.</p> +<p>The smaller figures represent pyramidal hail, common in +France, and occasionally in Great Britain.</p> +<p>Brown hailstones have been noticed. Humboldt saw hail +fall of the colour of blood.</p> +<p>On the 15th July, 1808, Howard noticed, in Gloucestershire, +hailstones from three to nine inches in circumference; appearing +like fragments of a vast plate of ice which had been broken in +its descent to the earth.</p> +<p><!-- page 116--><a name="page116"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +116</span>On the 4th June, 1814, Dr. Crookshank noticed, in North +America, hailstones of from thirteen to fifteen inches in +circumference. They seemed to consist of numerous smaller +stones fused together.</p> +<p>On the 24th July, 1818, during a storm in Orkney, Mr. Neill +picked up hailstones weighing from four ounces to nearly half a +pound.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 117--><a +name="page117"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 117</span> +<a href="images/p117b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Rain gauges" +title= +"Rain gauges" +src="images/p117s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> +<p class="gutsumm"><span class="smcap">method of measuring the +quantity of rain that falls—the rain gauge—methods of +observing for rain and snow—effects of elevation on the +quantity of rain—difference between the top of a tall +building and the summit of a mountain—size of drops of +rain—velocity of their fall—quantity of rain in +different latitudes—extraordinary falls of +rain—remarks on the rain of this country—influence of +the moon—absence of rain—remarkable drought in south +america—its terrible effects and +consequences—artificial rains</span>.</p> +<p>The quantity of rain which falls at different parts of the +earth’s surface is very variable; and <!-- page 118--><a +name="page118"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 118</span>for the +purpose of measuring it instruments called <i>Rain-gauges</i> +have been contrived. The simplest form is a funnel three or +four inches high, and having an area of one hundred square +inches. This may be placed in the mouth of a large bottle, +and, after each fall of rain, the quantity may be measured by a +glass jar divided into inches and parts. This simple gauge +being placed on the ground in an open spot, will evidently +represent a portion of the ground, and will show the depth of +rain which would cover it at and about that spot, supposing the +ground to be horizontal, and that the water could neither flow +off nor sink into the soil. Thus, by taking notice of the +quantity of rain which falls day by day, and year by year, and +taking the average of many years, we get the mean annual quantity +of rain for the particular spot in question. By an +extension of these observations, it is evident that the mean +annual fall of rain may be known for a district or a kingdom.</p> +<p>A more convenient form of rain-gauge than the one just +noticed, is made by placing the funnel at the top of a brass or +copper cylinder, connected with which at the lower point, is a +glass tube with a scale, measuring inches and tenths of an <!-- +page 119--><a name="page119"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +119</span>inch. The water stands at the same height in the +glass tube as it does in the cylinder, and being visible in the +tube the height can be immediately read on the scale. The +cylinder and the tube are so constructed, that the sum of the +areas of their sections is a given part, such as a tenth of the +area of the mouth of the funnel; so that each inch of water in +the tube is equal to the tenth of an inch of water which enters +the mouth of the funnel. A stop-cock is added for drawing +off the water from the cylinder after each observation is noted +down.</p> +<p>Some rain-gauges are constructed for showing the quantity of +rain which falls from each of the four principal quarters. +Others are made so as to register, themselves, the quantity of +rain fallen. One of this kind, by Mr. Crosley, consists of +a funnel through which the rain passes to a vibrating trough; +when, after a sufficient quantity has fallen into its higher +side, it sinks down and discharges the rain which escapes by a +tube. The vibrating action of this trough moves a train of +wheel-work and indices, which register upon a dial plate the +quantity of rain fallen.</p> +<p>Whatever form of rain-gauge is adopted, it <!-- page 120--><a +name="page120"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 120</span>must be +placed in an exposed situation, at a distance from all buildings, +and trees, and other objects likely to interfere with the free +descent of rain into the funnel. It is usual, in rainy +weather, to observe the quantity of water in the gauge every +morning; but this does not seem to be often enough, considering +how freely water evaporates in an exposed situation. An +error may also arise from some of the water adhering to the sides +of the vessel, unless an allowance is made for the quantity thus +lost by a contrivance such as the following:—Let a sponge +be made damp, yet so that no water can be squeezed from it, and +with this collect all the water which adheres to the funnel and +cylinder, after as much as possible has been drawn off; then, if +the sponge be squeezed, and the water from it be received in a +vessel which admits of measuring its quantity, an estimate may be +made of the depth due to it; and this being added to the depth +given by the instrument, would probably show correctly the +required depth of rain.</p> +<p>When snow has fallen the rain-gauge may not give a correct +quantity, as a portion of it may be blown out, or a greater +quantity may have fallen <!-- page 121--><a +name="page121"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 121</span>than the +mouth will contain. In such cases, it is recommended to +take a cylindrical tube and press it perpendicularly into the +snow, and it will bring out with it a cylinder equal to the +depth. This, when melted, will give the quantity of water +which can be measured as before. The proportion of snow to +water is about seventeen to one; and hail to water, about eight +to one. These quantities, however, may vary according to +the circumstances under which the snow or hail has fallen, and +the time they have been upon the ground.</p> +<p>The rain-gauge should be placed as near the surface of the +ground as possible; for it is a perplexing circumstance, that the +rain-gauge indicates very different quantities of rain as falling +upon the very same spot, according to the different heights at +which it is placed. Thus it has been found, that the annual +depth of rain at the top of Westminster Abbey was 12.1 inches +nearly, while, on the top of a house sixteen feet lower, it was +rather more than 18.1 inches, and on the ground, in the garden of +the house, it was 22.6 inches. M. Arago has also found from +observations made during twelve years, that on the terrace of the +Observatory at Paris the annual depth was about <!-- page +122--><a name="page122"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +122</span>2¼ inches less than in the court thirty yards +below.</p> +<p>It would naturally be expected from these observations, that +less rain falls on high ground than at the level of the +sea. Such however is not the case, except on abrupt +elevations; where the elevation is made by the natural and +gradual slope of the earth’s surface, the quantity of rain +is greater on the mountain than in the plain. Thus, on the +coast of Lancashire, there is an annual fall of 39 inches; while +at Easthwaite, among the mountains in the same county, the annual +depth of rain amounts to 86 inches. By comparing the +registers at Geneva and the convent of the Great St. Bernard, it +appears that at the former place, by a mean of thirty-two years, +the annual fall of rain is about 30¾ inches; while at the +latter, by a mean of twelve years, it is a little over 60 +inches.</p> +<p>In order to explain these remarkable differences, it must not +be supposed that the clouds extend down to the ground, so as to +cause more rain at the foot of Westminster Abbey than on its +roof. There is no doubt that in moist weather the air +contains more water near the ground than a few hundred feet above +it; and probably, the same cause <!-- page 123--><a +name="page123"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 123</span>which +determined a fall from the cloud, would also throw down the +moisture floating at a low elevation. Much rain also +proceeds from drifting showers, of short duration, and the +current moves more slowly along the surface, and allows the drops +to fall as fast as they are formed. In hilly countries, on +the contrary, clouds and vapours rest on the summits without +descending into the plains, and, according to some, the hills +attract electricity from the clouds, and thus occasion rain to +fall. Mr. Phillips supposes that each drop of rain +continues to increase in size from the commencement to the end of +its descent, and as it passes successively through the moist +strata of the air, obtains its increase from them; while the rain +which falls on the mountain may leave these moist strata +untouched, so that they may, in fact, not form rain at all.</p> +<p>The drops of rain are of unequal size, as may be seen from the +marks made by the first drops of a shower upon any smooth +surface. They vary in size from perhaps the twenty-fifth to +a quarter of an inch in diameter. It is supposed that in +parting from the clouds they fall with increasing speed, until +the increasing resistance of the air <!-- page 124--><a +name="page124"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 124</span>becomes +equal to their weight, when they continue to fall with an uniform +velocity. A thunder-shower pours down much faster than a +drizzling rain. A flake of snow, being perhaps nine times +more expanded than water, descends thrice as slow. But +hailstones are often several inches in length, and fall with a +velocity of seventy feet in a second, or at the rate of about +fifty miles an hour, and hence the destructive power of these +missiles in stripping and tearing off fruit and foliage.</p> +<p>The annual quantity of rain decreases from the equator to the +poles, as appears from the following table, which gives the name +of the station, its latitude, and the average annual number of +inches of rain:—</p> +<table> +<tr> +<td><p>Coast of Malabar</p> +</td> +<td><p>lat. 11° 30′ N.</p> +</td> +<td><p>135½ inches.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>At Grenada, Antilles</p> +</td> +<td><p>12°</p> +</td> +<td><p>126</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>At Cape François, St. Domingo</p> +</td> +<td><p>19° 46′</p> +</td> +<td><p>120</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>At Calcutta</p> +</td> +<td><p>22° 23′</p> +</td> +<td><p>81</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>At Rome</p> +</td> +<td><p>41° 54′</p> +</td> +<td><p>39</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>In England</p> +</td> +<td><p>50 to 55°</p> +</td> +<td><p>31</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>At St. Petersburgh</p> +</td> +<td><p>59° 16′</p> +</td> +<td><p>16</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>At Uleaborg</p> +</td> +<td><p>65° 30′</p> +</td> +<td><p>13½</p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The number of rainy days, on the contrary, increases from the +equator to the poles.</p> +<table> +<tr> +<td><p><!-- page 125--><a name="page125"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 125</span>From 12° to 43° N. +lat.—the number of rainy days in the year amounts to</p> +</td> +<td><p>78</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>From 43° to 46°</p> +</td> +<td><p>103</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>From 46° to 50°</p> +</td> +<td><p>134</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>From 50° to 60°</p> +</td> +<td><p>161</p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The greatest depth of rain which falls in the Indian ocean is +during the time when the periodical winds, called the +<i>monsoons</i>, change their direction. When the winds +blow directly in-shore the rains are very abundant, so much so +that, after a continuance of twenty-four hours, the surface of +the sea has been covered with a stratum of fresh water, good +enough for drinking, and ships have actually filled their casks +from it. Colonel Sykes observes, that the deluge-like +character of a monsoon in the Ghàts of Western India, is +attested by the annual amount of 302¼ inches, at +Malcolmpait, on the Mahabuleshwar Hills.</p> +<p>A great depth of rain in a short time has occasionally been +witnessed in Europe. At Genoa, on the 25th of October, +1822, a depth of thirty inches of rain fell in one day. At +Joyeuse, on the 9th of October, 1827, thirty-one inches of rain +fell in twenty-two hours. Previous to the great floods of +Moray, in 1829, the rain is described as <!-- page 126--><a +name="page126"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 126</span>being so +thick that the very air itself seemed to be descending in one +mass of water upon the earth. Nothing could withstand +it. The best finished windows were ineffectual against it, +and every room exposed to the north-east was deluged. The +smaller animals, the birds, and especially game, of all kinds, +were destroyed in great numbers by the rain alone, and the mother +partridge, with her brood and her mate, were found chilled to +death amidst the drenching wet. It was also noticed, that, +as soon as the flood touched the foundation of a dry stone wall, +the sods on the top of it became as it were alive with mice, all +forcing their way out to escape from the inundation which +threatened their citadel; and in the stables, where the water was +three feet deep, rats and moles were swimming about among the +buildings.</p> +<p>Among the Andes it is said to rain perpetually; but in Peru it +never rains, moisture being supplied during a part of the year by +thick fogs, called <i>garuas</i>. In Egypt, and some parts +of Arabia, it seldom rains at all, but the dews are heavy, and +supply with moisture the few plants of the sandy regions.</p> +<p>There is a great variation in the quantity of <!-- page +127--><a name="page127"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +127</span>rain that falls in the same latitude, on the different +sides of the same continent, and particularly of the same +island. The mean fall of rain at Edinburgh, on the eastern +coast, is 26 inches; while at Glasgow, on the western coast, in +nearly the same latitude, it is 40 inches. At North +Shields, on the eastern coast, it is 25 inches; while at +Coniston, in Lancashire, in nearly the same latitude, on the +western coast, it is 85 inches.</p> +<p>The amount of rain in a district may be changed by destroying +or forming forests, and by the inclosure and drainage of +land. By thinning off the wood in the neighbourhood of +Marseilles, there has been a striking decrease of rain in fifty +years.</p> +<p>In Mr. Howard’s observations on the climate of this +country, he has found, on an average of years, that it rains +every other day; that more rain falls in the night than in the +day; that the greatest quantity of rain falls in autumn, and the +least in winter; that the quantity which falls in autumn is +nearly double that in spring; that most rain falls in October and +least in February, and that May comes nearest to the mean: that +one year in every five, in this country, may be expected to be +extremely dry, and one in ten extremely wet.</p> +<p><!-- page 128--><a name="page128"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +128</span>According to Dalton, the mean annual amount of rain and +dew for England and Wales is 36 inches. The mean all over +the globe is stated to be 34 inches.</p> +<p>There seems to be some real connexion between the changes of +the moon and the weather. Mr. Daniell says, “No +observation is more general; and on no occasion, perhaps, is the +almanac so frequently consulted as in forming conjectures upon +the state of the weather. The common remark, however, goes +no further than that changes from wet to dry, and from dry to +wet, generally happen at the changes of the moon. When to +this result of universal experience we add the philosophical +reasons for the existence of tides in the aërial ocean, we +cannot doubt that such a connexion exists. The subject, +however, is involved in much obscurity.” At Viviers, +it was observed that the number of rainy days was greatest at the +first quarter, and least at the last. Mr. Howard has +observed that, in this country, when the moon has south +declination, there falls but a moderate quantity of rain, and +that the quantity increases till she has attained the greatest +northern declination. He thinks there is “evidence of +a great <i>tidal wave</i>, <!-- page 129--><a +name="page129"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 129</span>or swell in +the atmosphere, caused by the moon’s attraction, preceding +her in her approach to us, and following slowly as she departs +from these latitudes.”</p> +<p>Most dry climates are subject to periodical droughts. In +Australia, they return after every ten or twelve years, and are +then followed by excessive rains, which gradually become less and +less till another drought is the consequence.</p> +<p>When Mr. Darwin was in South America, he passed through a +district which had long been suffering from dry weather. +The first rain that had fallen during that year was on the 17th +of May, when it rained lightly for about five hours. +“With this shower,” he says, “the farmers, who +plant corn near the sea-coast, where the atmosphere is more +humid, would break up the ground; with a second, put the seed in; +and, if a third should fall, they would reap in the spring a good +harvest. It was interesting to watch the effect of this +trifling amount of moisture. Twelve hours afterwards the +ground appeared as dry as ever; yet, after an interval of ten +days, all the hills were faintly tinged with green patches; the +grass being sparingly scattered in hair-like fibres a full inch +in <!-- page 130--><a name="page130"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +130</span>length. Before this shower every part of the +surface was bare as on a high road.”</p> +<p>A fortnight after this shower had fallen, Mr. Darwin took an +excursion to a part of the country to which the shower had not +extended. “We had, therefore,” he says, +“in the first part of our journey a most faint tinge of +green, which soon faded away. Even where brightest, it was +scarcely sufficient to remind one of the fresh turf and budding +flowers during the spring of other countries. While +travelling through these deserts, one feels like a prisoner, shut +up in a gloomy courtyard, longing to see something green, and to +smell a moist atmosphere.”</p> +<p>The effects of a great drought in the Pampas are thus +described. “The period included between the years +1827 and 1830 is called the ‘gran seco’ or the great +drought. During this time so little rain fell, that the +vegetation, even to the thistles, failed; the brooks were dried +up, and the whole country assumed the appearance of a dusty high +road. This was especially the case in the northern part of +the province of Buenos Ayres, and the southern part of St. +Fe. Very great numbers of birds, wild animals, cattle, and +horses, <!-- page 131--><a name="page131"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 131</span>perished from the want of food and +water. A man told me that the deer used to come into his +courtyard to the well which he had been obliged to dig to supply +his own family with water; and that the partridges had hardly +strength to fly away when pursued. The lowest estimation of +the loss of cattle in the province of Buenos Ayres alone, was +taken at one million head. A proprietor at San Pedro had +previously to these years 20,000 cattle; at the end not one +remained. San Pedro is situated in the midst of the finest +country, and even now again abounds with animals; yet, during the +latter part of the ‘gran seco’ live cattle were +brought in vessels for the consumption of the inhabitants. +The animals roamed from their <i>estancias</i>, and wandering far +to the southward, were mingled together in such multitudes that a +government commission was sent from Buenos Ayres to settle the +disputes of the owners. Sir Woodbine Parish informed me of +another and very curious source of dispute; the ground being so +long dry, such quantities of dust were blown about, that in this +open country the landmarks became obliterated, and people could +not tell the limits of their estates.</p> +<p><!-- page 132--><a name="page132"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +132</span>“I was informed by an eye-witness, that the +cattle in herds of thousands rushed into the river Parana, and +being exhausted by hunger they were unable to crawl up the muddy +banks, and thus were drowned. The arm which runs by San +Pedro was so full of putrid carcasses, that the master of a +vessel told me, that the smell rendered it quite impossible to +pass that way. Without doubt, several hundred thousand +animals thus perished in the river. Their bodies, when +putrid, floated down the stream, and many in all probability were +deposited in the estuary of the Plata. All the small rivers +became highly saline, and this caused the death of vast numbers +in particular spots, for when an animal drinks of such water it +does not recover. I noticed, but probably it was the effect +of a gradual increase, rather than of any one period, that the +smaller streams in the Pampas were paved with bones. +Subsequently to this unusual drought, a very rainy season +commenced, which caused great floods. Hence it is almost +certain, that some thousands of these skeletons were buried by +the deposits of the very next year. What would be the +opinion of a geologist viewing such an enormous collection of +bones, of all kinds <!-- page 133--><a name="page133"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 133</span>of animals and of all ages, thus +embedded in one thick earthy mass? Would he not attribute +it to a flood having crept over the surface of the land, rather +than to the common order of things?”</p> +<p>Captain Owen mentions a curious effect of a drought on the +elephants at Benguela on the western coast of +Africa:—“A number of these animals had some time +since entered the town in a body to possess themselves of the +wells, not being able to procure any water in the country. +The inhabitants mustered, when a desperate conflict ensued, which +terminated in the ultimate discomfiture of the invaders, but not +until they had killed one man, and wounded several +others.” The town is said to have a population of +nearly three thousand. Dr. Malcolmson states, that during a +great drought in India the wild animals entered the tents of some +troops at Ellore, and that a hare drank out of a vessel held by +the adjutant of the regiment.</p> +<p>In connexion with droughts may be mentioned a plan <a +name="citation133"></a><a href="#footnote133" +class="citation">[133]</a> proposed by Mr. Espy of the United +States of America, for remedying them by means <!-- page 134--><a +name="page134"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 134</span>of +<i>artificial rains</i>. That gentleman says, that if a +large body of heated air be made to ascend in a column, a large +cloud will be generated, and that such cloud will contain in +itself a self-sustaining power, which may move from the place +over which it was formed, and cause the air over which it passes +to rise up into it and thus form more cloud and rain, until the +rain may become general.</p> +<p>It is proposed to form this ascending column of air by +kindling large fires which, Mr. Espy says, are known to produce +rain. Humboldt speaks of a mysterious connexion between +volcanoes and rain, and says that when a volcano bursts out in +South America in a dry season, it sometimes changes it to a rainy +one. The Indians of Paraguay, when their crops are +threatened by drought, set fire to the vast plains with the +intention of producing rain. In Louisiana, heavy rains have +been known from time immemorial to succeed the conflagration of +the prairies; and the inhabitants of Nova Scotia bear testimony +to a similar result from the burning of their forests. +Great battles are said to produce rain, and it is even stated +that the spread of manufactures in a particular district +deteriorates the climate of such district, the ascending <!-- +page 135--><a name="page135"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +135</span>current occasioned by the tall chimney of every +manufactory tending to produce rain. In Manchester, for +example, it is said to rain six days out of seven.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p135b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Decorative picture of person by pool" +title= +"Decorative picture of person by pool" +src="images/p135s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 136--><a +name="page136"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 136</span> +<a href="images/p136b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Decorative picture of pastoral scene with rainbow" +title= +"Decorative picture of pastoral scene with rainbow" +src="images/p136s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<h2><!-- page 137--><a name="page137"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 137</span>CHAPTER VI.</h2> +<p class="gutsumm"><span class="smcap">the +rainbow—decomposition of white light by the +prism—formation of primary and secondary +bows—rainbows in mountain regions—the rainbow a +sacred emblem—lunar rainbow—light decomposed by +clouds—their beautiful colours—examples</span>.</p> +<p>By means of rain and rain clouds we get that beautiful +appearance so well known as the rainbow. In order to form +some idea of the manner in which the rainbow is produced, it is +necessary to know something of the manner in which light is +composed. Sir Isaac Newton was the first philosopher who +clearly explained the composition of light, as derived from the +sun. He admitted a ray of the sun into a darkened room +through a small hole in the window shutters; in front of this +hole he placed a glass prism, and at a considerable distance +behind the prism he placed a white screen. If there had +been no prism between the hole and the screen, the ray of light +would have proceeded in the direction of the dotted lines, and +<!-- page 138--><a name="page138"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +138</span>a bright spot would have fallen upon the floor of the +room, as shown in the figure. But the effect of the prism +is to refract or bend the ray out of its ordinary course, and in +doing so it does not produce a white spot upon the screen, but a +long streak of beautiful colours, in the order marked in the +figure, red being at the bottom, then orange, yellow, green, +blue, indigo, and violet at the top.</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p138b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Decomposition of white light" +title= +"Decomposition of white light" +src="images/p138s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>In order to account for the production of these colours from a +ray of light, Newton supposed that such a ray is actually made up +of seven distinct colours, which being mixed in proper +proportions neutralize or destroy each other. In order to +account for the decomposition of the ray of white light by the +prism, and for the <!-- page 139--><a name="page139"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 139</span>lengthened form of the +<i>spectrum</i>, as it is called, he supposed that each of the +seven coloured rays was capable of being bent by the prism in a +different manner from the rest. Thus, in the figure, the +red appears to be less bent out of the direction of the original +ray than the orange—the orange less than the yellow, and so +on until we arrive at the violet, which is bent most of all.</p> +<p>It is scarcely necessary to remark, that these views were +found to be correct, except as regards the number of colours in +the solar spectrum; for it is now ascertained, with tolerable +certainty, that there are only three primitive or pure colours in +nature, and these are <i>red</i>, <i>yellow</i>, and <i>blue</i>; +and it is supposed that by mingling two or more of these colours +in various proportions, all the colours in nature are +produced.</p> +<p>Now, to apply this explanation to the production of the +rainbow, which is usually seen under the following +circumstances:—The observer is placed with his back to the +sun, and at some distance before him rain is falling,—the +air between the sun and the rain being tolerably clear. He +then often sees two circular arcs or bows immediately in front of +him. The colours of the inner bow are the <!-- page +140--><a name="page140"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +140</span>more striking and vivid of the two. Each exhibits +the same series of colours as in the spectrum formed by the +prism; namely, <i>red</i>, <i>orange</i>, <i>yellow</i>, +<i>green</i>, <i>blue</i>, <i>indigo</i>, and <i>violet</i>; but +the arrangement of these colours is different in the two bows, +for while in the inner bow the lower edge is violet and the upper +red, in the outer bow the lower edge is red and the upper +violet. The production of both bows is due to the +refraction and reflexion of light, the drops of rain forming, in +fact, the prism which decomposes the white light of the +sun. The colours in the rainbow have the same proportional +breadth as the spaces in the prismatic spectrum. “The +bow is, therefore,” as Sir D. Brewster remarks, “only +an infinite number of prismatic spectra, arranged in the +circumference of a circle; and it would be easy, by a circular +arrangement of prisms, or by covering up all the central part of +a large lens, to produce a small arch of exactly the same +colours. All we require, therefore, to form a rainbow, is a +great number of transparent bodies capable of forming a great +number of prismatic spectra from the light of the sun.”</p> +<p>The manner in which the drops of rain act as prisms, may, +perhaps, be better understood with <!-- page 141--><a +name="page141"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 141</span>the +assistance of the following diagram. Suppose the two lower +circles to represent drops of rain which assist in forming the +primary bow, and the two upper circles similar drops which help +to produce the secondary bow; and let S represent rays of the sun +falling upon them. The rays of the sun fall upon every part +of the drop; but, as those <!-- page 142--><a +name="page142"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 142</span>which pass +through or near the centre come out on the opposite side and form +a focus, they need not be taken into account. Those rays, +however, which fall on the upper side of the drops, will be bent +or refracted, the red rays least, and the violet most; and will +fall upon the back of the drop in such a manner as to be +reflected to the under part of the drop; on quitting which they +will be again refracted, so as to be seen at E, where there will +appear to the observer a prismatic spectrum with the red +uppermost, and the violet undermost. These remarks apply to +those drops only which form the upper part of the bow, but it is +obvious that a similar reasoning applied to the drops to the +right and left of the observer, will complete the <!-- page +143--><a name="page143"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +143</span>bow. The inclination of the red ray and the +violet ray to the sun’s rays, is 42° 2′ for the +red, and 40° 17′ for the violet, so that the breadth of +the primary bow is 1° 45′.</p> +<p>Thus it will be seen, that the primary bow is produced by two +refractions, and one intermediate reflection of the rays that +fall on the upper sides of the drops of rain. It is +different with the rays which enter the drops below. The +red and violet rays will be bent or refracted in different +directions; and, after being twice reflected, will be again bent +towards the eye of the observer at E; but in this case the violet +forms the upper part, and the red the under part of the +spectrum. The inclination of these rays to the sun’s +rays at S, is 50° 58′ for the red ray, and 54° +10′ for the violet ray; so that the breadth of the bow is +3° 10′, and the distance between the primary and +secondary bows is <!-- page 144--><a name="page144"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 144</span>8° 15′. Hence the +secondary is formed in the outside of the primary bow, with its +colours reversed, in consequence of their being produced by two +reflexions and two refractions. The colours of the +secondary bow are much fainter than those of the primary, because +they undergo two reflexions instead of one.</p> +<p>There is something very wonderful in the rapidity and +perfection with which these natural prisms, the falling drops of +rain, produce these effects. In the inconceivably short +space of time occupied by a drop falling through those parts of +the sky which form the proper angles with the sun’s rays +and the eye of the observer, the light enters the surface of the +drop, undergoes within it one or two reflexions, two refractions +and decompositions, and has reached the eye; and all this is done +in a portion of time too small for the drop to have fallen +through a space which we have the means of measuring.</p> +<p>It will be understood, that since the eyes of different +observers cannot be in precisely the same place at the same time, +no two observers can see the <i>same</i> rainbow; that is to say, +the bow produced by one set of drops to the eye of one observer +is <!-- page 145--><a name="page145"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +145</span>produced by another set of drops to the eye of another +observer.</p> +<p>A rainbow can never be greater than a semicircle, unless the +spectator is on elevated ground; for if it were greater than a +semicircle the centre of the bow would be above the horizon, +while the sun, which must be in a line drawn through that centre +and the eye of the observer, would be below the horizon: but in +such a case, the sun could not shine on the drops of rain, and +consequently there could be no rainbow.</p> +<p>When the rain cloud is of small extent only a portion of a bow +is visible; when the cloud overspreads a large part of the sky a +perfect bow appears. Sometimes the bow may be traced across +a portion of blue sky, or it may appear to rest on the +ground. In the former case, there are vapours in the air +too thin to be seen, but sufficient to refract and reflect the +rays of light; in the latter, the drops of rain, adhering to the +grass and foliage, produce the same effect. A coloured bow, +similar to that produced by rain, is sometimes seen in the spray +of a fountain or of a water-fall, and also in mists that lie low +upon the ground.</p> +<p>In mountainous and stormy regions rainbows <!-- page 146--><a +name="page146"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 146</span>are often +seen to great advantage. In the islands off the Irish coast +the author of “Letters from the Irish Islands,” +describes the rainbow of winter “as gradually advancing +before the lowering clouds, sweeping with majestic stride across +the troubled ocean, then, as it gained the beach, and seemed +almost within one’s grasp, vanishing amid the storm of +which it had been the lovely but treacherous forerunner. It +is, I suppose, a consequence of our situation, and the close +connexion between sea and mountain, that the rainbows here are so +frequent and so peculiarly beautiful. Of an amazing +breadth, and of colours vivid beyond description, I know not +whether most to admire this aërial phenomenon, when +suspended in the western sky, one end of the bow sinks behind the +Island of Boffin, while at the distance of several leagues the +other rests upon the misty hills of Ennis Turc; or when, at a +later hour of the day, it has appeared stretched across the ample +sides of Mulbrea, penetrating far into the deep blue waters that +flow at its base. With feelings of grateful recollection, +too, we may hail the repeated visits of this heavenly messenger, +occasionally as often as five or six times in the course of the +same <!-- page 147--><a name="page147"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 147</span>day, in a country exposed to such +astonishing, and, at times, almost incessant floods of +rain.”</p> +<p>The beauty of the rainbow is not the only reason why we should +regard it with interest. The rainbow was appointed by God +himself as a sign of the covenant of mercy, made with Noah and +with all mankind, after the flood. The words in which this +declaration was made to mankind, are recorded in the Book of +Genesis, chap. ix. ver. 11 to 16.</p> +<p>Burnet, in his “Sacred Theory of the Earth,” has +some remarks on the first appearance of the rainbow to the +inhabitants of the earth after the deluge. He says, +“How proper and how apposite a sign would this be for +Providence to pitch upon, to confirm the promise made to Noah and +his posterity, that the world should be no more destroyed by +water! It had a secret connexion with the effect itself, +and was so far a natural sign; but, however, appearing first +after the deluge, and in a watery cloud, there was, methinks, a +great easiness and propriety of application for such a +purpose. And if we suppose, that while God Almighty was +declaring his promise to Noah, and the sign of it, there appeared +at the same time in the clouds <!-- page 148--><a +name="page148"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 148</span>a fair +rainbow, that marvellous and beautiful meteor which Noah had +never seen before; it could not but make a most lively impression +upon him, quickening his faith, and giving him comfort and +assurance that God would be stedfast to his promise.”</p> +<p>A rainbow is sometimes formed by the rays of the moon falling +upon drops of rain, in the same manner as the solar rays, and +refracted and reflected by the drops; but the colours are faint +in consequence of the feeble light of the moon compared with that +of the sun. A lunar rainbow has been thus described by an +observer:—“The moon was truly ‘walking in +brightness,’ brilliant as she could be, not a cloud was to +be seen near her; and over against her, toward the north-west, or +perhaps rather more to the north, was a rainbow, a vast arch, +perfect in all its parts, not interrupted or broken as rainbows +frequently are, but unremittedly visible from one horizon to the +other. In order to give some idea of its extent, it is +necessary to say, that, as I stood toward the western extremity +of the parish of Stoke Newington, it seemed to take its rise from +the west of Hampstead, and to end perhaps in the river Lea, the +<!-- page 149--><a name="page149"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +149</span>eastern boundary of Tottenham. Its colour was +white, cloudy, or greyish, but a part of its western limb seemed +to exhibit tints of a faint sickly green. After some time +the moon became darkened by clouds, and the rainbow of course +vanished.”</p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p149b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Lunar Rainbow" +title= +"Lunar Rainbow" +src="images/p149s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p>The brilliant colours of the solar rainbow are <!-- page +150--><a name="page150"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +150</span>frequently produced by the clouds without any prismatic +arrangement. The light of the sun is decomposed by a +process called absorption: for example, white light is composed +of red, yellow, and blue rays, in certain proportions; now, if in +passing through, or falling upon any substance whatever, the red +rays are stifled or absorbed, while the yellow and blue are +allowed to pass or to be reflected, it is obvious that such a +substance cannot appear white, because one of the elements of +white light, namely, the red, is wanting; it must therefore +appear of such a colour as results from the combination of yellow +and blue; the substance will therefore appear green. So, +also, when white light falls upon what we call a <i>red</i> +surface, the yellow and blue rays are stifled or absorbed, +leaving the red only to be reflected. Now, when we consider +the various ways in which this absorption may take place; one or +two, or all of the coloured rays being absorbed in every possible +proportion, it is easy to form some idea of the manner by which +the innumerable tints of the sky are produced.</p> +<p>It has been calculated, that, of the horizontal sunbeams which +pass through two hundred miles <!-- page 151--><a +name="page151"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 151</span>of air, +scarcely a two thousandth part reaches the earth. A densely +formed cloud must therefore detain a much larger share; and those +dark and sombre forms, which sometimes make the sky so gloomy, +can only result from the abundant absorption of the solar +light. The brilliant whiteness which their edges +occasionally exhibit, must result from the more copious +transmission of light, so that the depths of shade in a cloud may +be regarded as comparative measures of the varied thickness of +its mass.</p> +<p>Sometimes the clouds absorb equally all the solar rays, in +which case the sun and moon appear through them perfectly +white. Instances are recorded in which the sun appeared of +a pale blue. It has also been observed to be orange at its +upper part, while the lower was of a brilliant red.</p> +<p>The position from which clouds are seen, has much to do with +their colours; and it seems difficult sometimes to believe that +the clouds, which in the evening are seen drenched with crimson +and gold, are the same we beheld absolutely colourless in the +middle of the day.</p> +<p>In the immediate neighbourhood of the sun the <!-- page +152--><a name="page152"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +152</span>most brilliant colours may be disclosed; and their +vividness and intensity diminish, and at last disappear at some +distance from it. Parry noticed some white fleecy clouds, +which, at the distance of fifteen or twenty degrees from the sun, +reflected from their edges the most soft and tender tints of +yellow, bluish green, and lake; and as the clouds advanced the +colours increased gradually, until they reached a sort of limit +two degrees below the solar orb. As the current continued +to transport them, the vividness of colour became weakened by +almost insensible degrees until the whole assemblage of tints +vanished.</p> +<p>“Who can venture to imitate, by the pencil, the endless +varieties of red and orange and yellow which the setting sun +discloses, and the magical illusions which all the day diversify +the vast and varied space the eye travels over in rising +gradually from the horizon to the upper sky? Those who have +paid any attention to colours, must be aware of the difficulty of +describing the various tints and shades that appear, and which +are known to amount to many thousands.”</p> +<p>The rapid changes of colour which the clouds <!-- page +153--><a name="page153"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +153</span>undergo, seem to depend on something more than change +of position either in the cloud or in the sun. Forster +mentions an instance of some detached cirro-cumuli being of a +fine golden yellow, but in a single minute becoming deep +red. On another occasion he saw the exact counterpart in a +cirro-stratus, by its instantly changing from a beautiful red to +a bright golden yellow. “What, indeed, can be more +interesting, than when by the breaking out of the sun in gleams, +a cloud which a moment before seemed only an unshapened mass +devoid of all interest and beauty, is suddenly pierced by +cataracts of light, and imbued with the most splendid colours, +varying every instant in intensity? Numerous examples occur +of this beautiful play of colour, which cannot but remind us of +the phenomena displayed by the pigeon’s neck and the +peacock’s tail, by opal and pearl.</p> +<p>“After the sun is set, the mild glow of his rays is +still diffused over every part; and it has been remarked, that +the clouds assume their brightest and most splendid colours a few +minutes after it is below the horizon. It is in the finest +weather that <!-- page 154--><a name="page154"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 154</span>the colouring of the sky presents +the most perfect examples of harmony, in tempestuous weather it +being almost always inharmonious. At the time of a warm +sun-setting, the whole hemisphere is influenced by the prevailing +colour of the light. The snowy summits of the Alps appear +about sunset of a most beautiful violet colour, approaching to +light crimson or pink. It is remarkable, also, as an +example of that general harmony which prevails in the material +world, that the most glowing and magnificent skies occur when +terrestrial objects put on their deepest and most splendid +hues. It has also been observed, that it is not the change +of vegetation only, which gives to the decaying charms of autumn +their finest and most golden hues, but also the atmosphere and +the peculiar lights and shadows which then prevail; and there can +be no doubt, on the other hand, that our perception of beauty in +the sky is very much influenced by the surrounding scenery. +In autumn all is matured; and the rich hues of the ripened fruits +and the changing foliage are rendered still more lovely by the +warm haze which a fine day at that season presents. So, +also, the earlier hues of <!-- page 155--><a +name="page155"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 155</span>spring have +a transparency, and a thousand quivering lights, which in their +turn harmonize with the light and flitting clouds and uncertain +shadows which then prevail.” <a name="citation155"></a><a +href="#footnote155" class="citation">[155]</a></p> +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a href="images/p155b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Decorative picture of lady by river" +title= +"Decorative picture of lady by river" +src="images/p155s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 156--><a +name="page156"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 156</span> +<a href="images/p156b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Foot-print of a bird, and impression of rain-drops sand-stone" +title= +"Foot-print of a bird, and impression of rain-drops sand-stone" +src="images/p156s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<h2><!-- page 157--><a name="page157"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 157</span>CHAPTER VII.</h2> +<p class="gutsumm"><span class="smcap">remarkable +showers—showers of sand—of mud—showers of +sulphur, or yellow rain—luminous rain—red rain, or +showers of blood—superstitions connected +therewith—explanation of the cause—showers of +fish—showers of rats—showers of frogs—insect +shower—showers of vegetable +substances—manna—wheat—showers of +stones—meteoric stones, or aerolites—meteoric +iron—suppositions respecting them—fossil +rain</span>.</p> +<p>Water, in the state of rain, hail, snow, or dew, is generally +the only substance which falls from the atmosphere upon the +earth. There are, however, many well authenticated +instances of various substances being showered down upon the +land, to the great alarm of persons who were ignorant that the +powerful action of the wind was, perhaps, the chief cause of the +strange visitations to which we allude.</p> +<p>We read of showers of sand, mud, sulphur, blood, fishes, +frogs, insects, and stones; and it may <!-- page 158--><a +name="page158"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 158</span>be useful, +as well as interesting, to quote a few examples of each +description of shower.</p> +<p>On the west coast of Africa, between Cape Bojador and Cape +Verd, and thence outwards, the land, during the dry season, +consists of little else but dust or sand, which, on account of +its extreme fineness, is raised into the atmosphere by the +slightest current of air; while a moderate wind will convey it to +so considerable a distance as even to annoy ships crossing the +Atlantic. On the 14th and 15th January, 1839, the Prussian +ship, <i>Princess Louisa</i>, being in N. lat. 24° 20′, +and W. long. 26° 42′, had her sails made quite yellow +by the fine sand which covered them. This effect was +produced when the distance from land was as much as from 12° +to 20°. About a fortnight after the time when this ship +crossed these parts of the Atlantic, a similar effect was +produced on board the English ship <i>Roxburgh</i>. One of +the passengers, the Rev. W. B. Clarke, says:—“The sky +was overcast, and the weather thick and insufferably oppressive, +though the thermometer was only 72°. At 3 <span +class="smcap">p.m.</span> Feb. 4, the wind suddenly lulled into a +calm; then rose from the SW. accompanied by rain, and the air +appeared to be filled <!-- page 159--><a name="page159"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 159</span>with dust, which affected the eyes +of the passengers and crew. The weather was clear and fine, +and the powder which covered the sails was of a reddish-brown +colour, resembling the ashes ejected from Vesuvius; and Mr. +Clarke thinks that this dust may have proceeded from the volcanic +island of Fogo, one of the Cape de Verds, about forty-five miles +from the place where the ship then was.</p> +<p>In countries which are subject to long-continued droughts the +soil is frequently converted into dust, which, being carried away +by the winds, leaves the land barren. The climate of Buenos +Ayres, in South America, has of late years been subject to such +droughts, as to disappoint the hopes of the husbandman and the +breeder of cattle. In the early part of 1832, the drought +had reached to such a height as to convert the whole province +into one continued bleak and dreary desert. The clouds of +dust raised by the winds were so dense as completely to obscure +the sun at mid-day, and envelope the inhabitants in almost total +darkness. When the rains at length commenced, in March, the +water, in its passage through the air, intermingled so completely +with the dust suspended in it, as to descend in the form of +showers of mud; and, <!-- page 160--><a name="page160"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 160</span>on some occasions, gave to the whole +exterior of the houses the appearance of having been plastered +over with earth. Many flocks of sheep were smothered on +these occasions, in a similar manner as in the snow-storms which +occur in the mountainous districts of Scotland.</p> +<p>Showers of sulphur, or yellow rain, have fallen at different +times in various parts of Europe; and sometimes, when falling by +night, they have appeared luminous, to the great alarm of the +observers. Yellow rain has been accounted for in the +following way:—The pollen, or impregnating seed-dust of the +flowers of the fir, birch, juniper, and other trees, is of a +yellow colour, and this pollen, by the action of the wind, is +carried to a considerable distance, and descends with falling +rain. This yellow rain has also been found impregnated with +sulphur; and during a shower of this kind which once fell in +Germany, matches were made by being dipped in it.</p> +<p>Many examples of luminous rain are recorded on good +authority. One of the latest instances is mentioned by Dr. +Morel Deville, of Paris, who on the 1st of November, 1844, at +half-past eight o’clock in the evening, during a heavy fall +of rain, <!-- page 161--><a name="page161"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 161</span>noticed, as he was crossing the +court of the College Louis-le-Grand, that the drops, on coming in +contact with the ground, emitted sparks and tufts +(<i>aigrettes</i>) of light, accompanied by a rustling and +crackling noise; a smell of phosphorus having been immediately +after perceptible. The phenomenon was seen three +times. At the same hour a remarkable brightness was seen in +the northern sky.</p> +<p>An officer of the Algerian army states, that during a violent +storm on the 20th September, 1840, the drops of rain that fell on +the beards and mustachios of the men were luminous. When +the hair was wiped the appearance ceased; but was renewed the +moment any fresh drops fell on it.</p> +<p>But of all these remarkable showers, the greatest alarm has +been occasioned by <i>red rain</i>, or showers of blood as they +have been ignorantly called. In the year 1608, considerable +alarm was excited in the city of Aix and its vicinity by the +appearance of large red drops upon the walls of the cemetery of +the greater church, which is near the walls of the city, upon the +walls of the city itself, and also upon the walls of villas, +hamlets, and towns, for some miles round the city. The +husbandmen are <!-- page 162--><a name="page162"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 162</span>said to have been so alarmed, that +they left their labour in the fields and fled for safety into the +neighbouring houses; and a report was set on foot, that the +appearance was produced by demons or witches shedding the blood +of innocent babes. M. Peiresc, thinking this story of a +bloody shower to be scarcely reconcileable with the goodness and +providence of God, accidentally discovered, as he thought, the +true cause of the phenomenon. He had found, some months +before, a chrysalis of remarkable size and form, which he had +enclosed in a box; he thought no more of it, until hearing a buzz +within the box, he opened it, and perceived that the chrysalis +had been changed into a beautiful butterfly, which immediately +flew away, leaving at the bottom of the box a red drop of the +size of a shilling. As this happened about the time when +the shower was supposed to have fallen, and when multitudes of +those insects were observed fluttering through the air in every +direction, he concluded that the drops in question were emitted +by them when they alighted upon the walls. He, therefore, +examined the drops again, and remarked that they were not upon +the upper surfaces of stones and buildings, <!-- page 163--><a +name="page163"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 163</span>as they +would have been if a shower of blood had fallen from the sky, but +rather in cavities and holes where insects might nestle. He +also noticed that they were to be seen upon the walls of those +houses only which were near the fields; and not upon the more +elevated parts of them, but only up to the same moderate height +at which butterflies were accustomed to flutter. This was, +no doubt, the correct explanation of the phenomenon in question; +for it is a curious and well-ascertained fact, that when insects +are evolved from the pupa state, they always discharge some +substance, which, in many butterflies, is of a red colour, +resembling blood, while in several moths it is orange or +whitish.</p> +<p>It appears, however, from the researches of M. Ehrenberg, a +distinguished microscopic observer, that the appearances of blood +which have at different times been observed in Arabia, Siberia, +and other places, are not to be attributed to one, but to various +causes. From his account, it appears that rivers have +flowed suddenly with red or bloody water, without any previous +rain of that colour having fallen; that lakes or stagnant-waters +were suddenly or gradually coloured without <!-- page 164--><a +name="page164"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 164</span>previous +blood-rain; that dew, rain, snow, hail, and shot-stars, +occasionally fall from the air red-coloured, as blood-dew, +blood-rain, and clotted blood; and, lastly, that the atmosphere +is occasionally loaded with red dust, by which the rain +accidentally assumes the appearance of blood-rain, in consequence +of which rivers and stagnant waters assume a red colour.</p> +<p>The blood-red colour sometimes exhibited by pools, was first +satisfactorily explained at the close of the last century. +Girod Chantran, observing the water of a pond to be of a +brilliant red colour, examined it with the microscope, and found +that the sanguine hue resulted from the presence of innumerable +animalculæ, not visible to the naked eye. But, before +this investigation, Linnæus and other naturalists had shown +that red infusoria were capable of giving that colour to water +which, in early times, and still, we fear, in remote districts, +was supposed to forebode great calamities. In the year 1815 +an instance of this superstitious dread occurred in the south of +Prussia. A number of red, violet, or grass-green spots were +observed in a lake near Lubotin, about the end of harvest. +In winter the ice was coloured in the same manner at the surface, +<!-- page 165--><a name="page165"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +165</span>while beneath it was colourless. The inhabitants, +in great dismay, anticipated a variety of disasters from the +appearance; but it fortunately happened that the celebrated +chemist Klaproth, hearing of the circumstance, undertook an +examination of the waters of the lake. He found them to +contain an albuminous vegetable matter, with a particular +colouring matter similar to indigo, produced, probably, by the +decomposition of vegetables in harvest; while the change of +colour from green to violet and red, he explained by the +absorption of more or less oxygen. A few years ago the +blood-red waters of a Siberian lake were carefully examined by M. +Ehrenberg, and found to contain multitudes of infusoria, by the +presence of which this remarkable appearance was accounted +for. Thus it appears that both animals and vegetables are +concerned in giving a peculiar tint to water. It has also +been ascertained that red snow is chiefly occasioned by the +presence of red animalculæ.</p> +<p>Showers of fish and frogs are by no means uncommon, especially +in India. One of these showers, which fell about twenty +miles south of Calcutta, is thus noticed by an +observer:—“About two <!-- page 166--><a +name="page166"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +166</span>o’clock, <span class="smcap">p.m.</span>, of the +20th inst., (Sept. 1839,) we had a very smart shower of rain, and +with it descended a quantity of live fish, about three inches in +length, and all of one kind only. They fell in a straight +line on the road from my house to the tank which is about forty +or fifty yards distant. Those which fell on the hard ground +were, as a matter of course, killed from the fall, but those +which fell where there was grass sustained no injury; and I +picked up a large quantity of them, ‘alive and +kicking,’ and let them go into my tank. The most +strange thing that ever struck me in connexion with this event, +was, that the fish did not fall helter skelter, everywhere, or +‘here and there;’ but they fell in a straight line, +not more than a cubit in breadth.” Another shower is +said to have taken place at a village near Allahabad, in the +month of May. About noon, the wind being in the west, and a +few distant clouds visible, a blast of high wind came on, +accompanied with so much dust as to change the tint of the +atmosphere to a reddish hue. The blast appeared to extend +in breadth four hundred yards, and was so violent that many large +trees were blown down. When the storm had passed <!-- page +167--><a name="page167"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +167</span>over, the ground, south of the village, was found to be +covered with fish, not less than three or four thousand in +number. They all belonged to a species well known in India, +and were about a span in length. They were all dead and +dry.</p> +<p>It would be easy to multiply these examples to almost any +extent, although they are not so frequent in Great Britain. +It is related in Hasted’s History of Kent, that about +Easter, 1666, in the parish of Stanstead, which is a considerable +distance from the sea, and a place where there are no fishponds, +and rather a scarcity of water, a pasture field was scattered all +over with small fish, supposed to have been rained down during a +thunder-storm. Several of these fish were sold publicly at +Maidstone and Dartford. In the year 1830, the inhabitants +of the island of Ula, in Argyleshire, after a day of very hard +rain, which occurred on the 9th March, were surprised to find +numbers of small herrings strewed over the fields, perfectly +fresh and some of them alive. Some years ago, during a +strong gale, herrings and other fish were carried from the Frith +of Forth so far as Loch-Leven.</p> +<p>In some countries rats migrate in vast numbers from the high +to the low countries; and it is <!-- page 168--><a +name="page168"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 168</span>recorded in +the history of Norway, that a shower of these, transported by the +wind, fell in an adjacent valley.</p> +<p>Several notices have, from time to time, been brought before +the French Academy, of showers of frogs having fallen in +different parts of France. Professor Pontus, of Cahors, +states, that in August, 1804, while distant three leagues from +Toulouse, the sky being clear, suddenly a very thick cloud +covered the horizon, and thunder and lightning came on. The +cloud burst over the road about sixty toises (383 feet) from the +place where M. Pontus was. Two gentlemen, returning from +Toulouse, were surprised by being exposed not only to a storm, +but to a shower of frogs. Pontus states that he saw the +young frogs on their cloaks. When the diligence in which he +was travelling, arrived at the place where the storm burst, the +road, and the fields alongside of it, were observed full of +frogs, in three or four layers placed one above the other. +The feet of the horses and the wheels of the carriage killed +thousands. The diligence travelled for a quarter of an +hour, at least, along this living road, the horses being at a +trot.</p> +<p><!-- page 169--><a name="page169"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +169</span>In the “Journal de St. Petersburg,” is +given an account of the fall of a shower of insects during a +snow-storm in Russia. “On the 17th October, 1827, +there fell in the district of Rjev, in the government of Tver, a +heavy shower of snow, in the space of about ten versts (nearly +seven English miles), which contained the village of Pakroff and +its environs. It was accompanied in its fall by a +prodigious quantity of worms of a black colour, ringed, and in +length about an inch and a quarter. The head of these +insects was flat and shining, furnished with antennæ, and +the hair in the form of whiskers; while the body, from the head +to about one-third of their length, resembled a band of black +velvet. They had on each side three feet, by means of which +they appeared to crawl very fast upon the snow, and assembled in +groups about the plants and the holes in trees and +buildings. Several having been exposed to the air in a +vessel filled with snow, lived there till the 26th October; +although, in that interval, the thermometer had fallen to eight +degrees below zero. Some others which had been frozen +continued alive equally long; for they were not found exactly +encrusted with the ice, but they had formed <!-- page 170--><a +name="page170"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 170</span>round their +bodies a space similar to the hollow of a tree. When they +were plunged into water they swam about as if they had received +no injury; but those which were carried into a warm place +perished in a few minutes.”</p> +<p>All these remarkable showers may be accounted for, when we +consider the mighty power of the wind; especially that form of it +which is popularly called the whirlwind. It is now pretty +well ascertained, that in all, or most of the great storms which +agitate the atmosphere, the wind has a circular or rotatory +movement; and the same is probably the case in many of the lesser +storms, in which the air is whirled upwards in a spiral curve +with great velocity, carrying up any small bodies which may come +within the circuit. When such a storm happens at sea, the +water-spout is produced. In the deserts of Arabia, pillars +of sand are formed; and, in other places various light bodies are +caught up; fishponds have been entirely emptied in an instant, +and the moving column, whether of water, sand, or air, travels +with the wind with great swiftness. When, however, the +storm has subsided, the various substances thus caught up and +sustained <!-- page 171--><a name="page171"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 171</span>in the air, are deposited at great +distances from the place where they were first found, and thus +produce these remarkable showers. In some cases, however, +the direct force of the wind has actually blown small fish out of +the water, and conveyed them several miles inland.</p> +<p>Showers of nutritious substances have been recorded on good +authority. We do not here refer to the manna which fell in +such abundance about the Hebrew camp, for that was a miracle +specially wrought by the Almighty for the preservation of his +chosen people; but, it may be noticed here, that in Arabia, a +substance, called “manna,” is found in great +abundance on the leaves of many trees and herbs, and may be +gathered and removed by the wind to a distance. A shower of +this kind occurred in 1824. In 1828, a substance was +exhibited at the French Academy, which fell in the plains of +Persia. It was eaten, and afforded nourishment to cattle, +and many other animals; and, on examination, proved to be a +vegetable,—the <i>Lichen esculentus</i>,—which had +been conveyed thither by the winds.</p> +<p>In the Minutes of the proceedings of the Royal Society, 26th +June, 1661, we find the following curious narration:—</p> +<blockquote><p><!-- page 172--><a name="page172"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 172</span>“Col. Tuke brought, in +writing, the following <i>brief account of the supposed rain of +wheat</i>, which was registered:—</p> +<p>“On the 30th of May, 1661, Mr. Henry Puckering, son to +Sir Henry Puckering, of Warwick, brought some papers of seeds, +resembling wheat, to the king, with a letter written by Mr. +William Halyburton, dated the 27th May, from Warwick; out of +which letter I have made this extract:</p> +<p>“‘Instead of news I send you some papers of +wonders. On Saturday last, it was rumoured in this town, +that it rained wheat at Tuchbrooke, a village about two miles +from Warwick. Whereupon some of the inhabitants of this +town went thither; where they saw great quantities on the way, in +the fields, and on the leads of the church, castle, and priory, +and upon the hearths of the chimneys in the chambers. And +Arthur Mason, coming out of Shropshire, reports, that it hath +rained the like in many places of that county. God make us +thankful for this miraculous blessing, &.’”</p> +<p>“I brought some papers of these seeds, with this letter, +to the Society of Gresham College; who would not enter into any +consideration of it, <!-- page 173--><a name="page173"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 173</span>till they were better informed of +the matter of fact. Hereupon, I entreated Mr. Henry +Puckering to write to the bailiff of the town of Warwick, to the +ministers and physicians, to send us an account of the matter of +fact, and their opinions of it. In the bailiff’s +letter, dated the 3rd of June, I find this report verified; +affirming that himself, with the inhabitants of the town, were in +a great astonishment at this wonder. But, before the next +day of our meeting, I sent for some ivy-berries, and brought them +to Gresham College with some of these seeds resembling wheat; and +taking off the outward pulp of the ivy-berries, we found in each +of the berries four seeds; which were generally concluded by the +Society to be the same with those that were supposed and believed +by the common people to have been wheat that had been rained; +and, that they were brought to those places, where they were +found, by starlings; who, of all the birds that we know, do +assemble in the greatest numbers; and do, at this time of the +year, feed upon these berries; and digesting the outward pulp, +they render these seeds by casting, as hawks do feathers and +bones.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>The remarkable showers already noticed, have <!-- page +174--><a name="page174"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +174</span>excited much interest and inquiry among learned men, +and many superstitious fears among the ignorant; but, there is +another description of shower which affords a singular instance +of popular observation, being greatly in advance of scientific +knowledge. We allude to the showers of stones, called +“aërolites,” (from two Greek words, signifying +the <i>atmosphere</i>, and a <i>stone</i>); they are also called +<i>Meteorolites</i>, or <i>Meteoric stones</i>.</p> +<p>Writers in all ages have mentioned instances of stony bodies +having been seen to fall from the sky. The Chinese and +Japanese carefully note down the most striking and remarkable +phenomena of nature, believing them to have some connexion with +public affairs; and the chronicles of these people are said to +contain many notices of the fall of stony bodies from the +sky. Until within the last fifty years, however, these +accounts have been treated in Europe as idle superstitions; +scientific men denying even the probability of such an +occurrence. The first scientific man who was bold enough to +support the popular opinion, that stones actually do fall from +the sky, was Chladni, a German philosopher, who published a +pamphlet on the subject in 1794. This did not excite <!-- +page 175--><a name="page175"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +175</span>much attention, until, two years afterwards, a stone +weighing fifty-six pounds was exhibited in London, which was said +to have fallen in Yorkshire in the December of the preceding +year; but, although the fact was attested by several respectable +persons, the possibility of such an occurrence was still +doubted. It was remarked, however, by Sir Joseph Banks, +that this stone was very similar in appearance to one which had +been sent to him from Italy, with an account of its having fallen +from the clouds. In the year 1799, a number of stones were +received by the Royal Society, from Benares, in the East Indies, +which were also said to have fallen from the atmosphere, with a +minute account of the circumstances attending the fall, which +will be presently noticed; and, as these stones appeared to be +precisely similar to the Yorkshire stone already noticed, +attention was fairly drawn to the subject. In 1802, Mr. +Howard published an analysis of a variety of these stones +collected from different places; and his researches led to the +important conclusion, that they are all composed of the same +substances, and in nearly the same proportions. In 1803, a +notice was received at Paris, of a shower of stones at +L’Aigle in Normandy; <!-- page 176--><a +name="page176"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 176</span>and the +Institute of France deputed M. Biot, a well-known and excellent +natural philosopher, to examine, on the spot, all the +circumstances attending this remarkable event. His account +will be noticed presently; but it may here be stated, that the +stones he collected, on being analysed, gave results similar to +those obtained by Mr. Howard.</p> +<p>The circumstances attending the fall of stones at Krakhut, a +village about fourteen miles from the city of Benares, are +briefly as follow:—On the 19th December, 1798, a very +luminous meteor was observed in the heavens, about eight +o’clock in the evening, in the form of a large ball of +fire; it was accompanied by a loud noise, resembling that of +thunder, which was immediately followed by the sound of the fall +of heavy bodies. On examining the ground, it was observed +to have been newly torn up in many places; and in these were +found stones of a peculiar appearance, most of which had buried +themselves to the depth of six inches. At the time the +meteor appeared, the sky was perfectly serene, not the smallest +vestige of a cloud had been seen since the 11th of the month; nor +were any observed for many days <!-- page 177--><a +name="page177"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +177</span>after. It was seen in the western part of the +hemisphere, and was visible only a short time. The light +from it was so great, as to cast a strong shadow from the bars of +a window upon a dark carpet. Mr. Davis, the judge and +magistrate of the district, affirmed, that in brilliancy it +equalled the brightest moonlight. Both he and Mr. Erskine +were induced to send persons in whom they could confide to the +spot where this shower of stones is reported to have taken place, +and thus obtained additional evidence of the phenomena, together +with several of the stones which had penetrated about six inches +into fields recently watered. Mr. Maclane, a gentleman who +resided near Krakhut, presented Mr. Howard with a portion of a +stone which had been brought to him the morning after its fall by +the person who was on duty at his house, and through the roof of +whose hut it had passed, and buried itself several inches in the +floor, which was of consolidated earth. Before it was +broken it must have weighed upwards of two pounds.</p> +<p>M. Biot’s summary of the evidence collected by him +respecting the great shower of stones which fell at Aigle, in +Normandy, is as follows:—</p> +<blockquote><p><!-- page 178--><a name="page178"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 178</span>“On Tuesday, 26th April, 1803, +about one o’clock, <span class="smcap">p.m.</span>, the +weather being serene, there was observed from Caen, Pont +d’Audemer, and the environs of Alençon, Falaise, and +Verneuil, a fiery globe, of a very brilliant splendour, and which +moved in the atmosphere with great rapidity. Some moments +after, there was heard at Aigle, and in the environs of that +town, in the extent of more than thirty leagues in every +direction, a violent explosion, which lasted five or six +minutes. At first there were three or four reports like +those of a cannon, followed by a kind of discharge which +resembled the firing of musketry; after which, there was heard a +dreadful rumbling, like the beating of a drum. The air was +calm and the sky serene, except a few clouds, such as are +frequently observed. This noise proceeded from a small +cloud which had a rectangular form; the largest side being in a +direction from east to west. It appeared motionless all the +time that the phenomenon lasted; but the vapours of which it was +composed, were projected momentarily from different sides, by the +effect of successive explosions. This cloud was about half +a league to the north-north-west of the town of Aigle. <!-- +page 179--><a name="page179"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +179</span>It was at a great elevation in the atmosphere; for, the +inhabitants of two hamlets, a league distant from each other, saw +it at the same time above their heads. In the whole canton +over which this cloud was suspended, there was a hissing noise, +like that of a stone discharged from a sling; and a great many +mineral masses, exactly similar to those distinguished by the +name of ‘meteor-stones,’ were seen to fall. The +district in which these masses were projected, forms an +elliptical extent of about two leagues and a half in length, and +nearly one in breadth, the greatest dimension being in a +direction from south-east to north-west; forming a declination of +about 22 degrees. This direction, which the meteor must +have followed, is exactly that of the magnetic meridian, which is +a remarkable result. The greatest of these stones fell at +the south-eastern extremity of the large axis of the ellipse, the +middle-sized in the centre, and the smaller at the other +extremity. Hence it appears, that the largest fell first, +as might naturally be supposed. The largest of all those +that fell, weighs seventeen pounds and a half. The smallest +which I have seen, weighs about two <i>gros</i>, (a thousandth +part of the last.) The number <!-- page 180--><a +name="page180"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 180</span>of all +those which fell, is certainly above two or three +thousand.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Meteoric stones have been known to commit great injury in +their fall. In July, 1790, a very bright fire-ball, +luminous as the sun, of the size of an ordinary balloon, appeared +near Bourdeaux, which, after filling the inhabitants with alarm, +burst, and disappeared. A few days after, some peasants +brought stones into the town, which they said had fallen from the +meteor; but, the philosophers to whom they offered them laughed +at their statements. One of these stones, fifteen inches in +diameter, broke through the roof of a cottage, and killed a +herdsman and a bullock. In 1810, a great stone fell at +Shahabad, in India. It burnt a village, and killed several +people.</p> +<p>The fall of meteoric stones is more frequent than would be +supposed. Chaldni has compiled a Catalogue of all recorded +instances from the earliest times. Of these, twenty-seven +are previous to the Christian era; thirty-five from the beginning +of the first to the end of the fourteenth century; eighty-nine +from the beginning of the fifteenth to the beginning of the +present century; from which time, since the attention of +scientific men has <!-- page 181--><a name="page181"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 181</span>been directed to the subject, above +sixty cases have been recorded. These are, doubtless, but a +small proportion of the whole amount of meteoric showers which +have fallen, when the small extent of surface occupied by those +capable of recording the event is compared with the wide expanse +of the ocean, the vast uninhabited deserts, mountains, and +forests, and the countries occupied by savage nations.</p> +<p>Meteoric stones have generally a broken, irregular surface, +coated with a thin black crust, like varnish. When broken, +they appear to have been made up of a number of small spherical +bodies of a grey colour, imbedded in a gritty substance, and +often interspersed with yellow spots. A considerable +proportion of iron is found in all of them, partly in a malleable +state, partly in that of an oxide, and always in combination with +a rather scarce metal called nickel; <a name="citation181"></a><a +href="#footnote181" class="citation">[181]</a> the earths silica, +and <!-- page 182--><a name="page182"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 182</span>magnesia, and sulphur, form the +other chief ingredients; but, the earths alumina and lime, the +metals manganese, chrome, and cobalt, together with carbon, soda, +and water, have also been found in small quantities, but not in +the same specimens. No substance with which chemists were +previously unacquainted, has ever been found in them; but no +combination, similar to that in meteoric stones, has ever been +met with in geological formations, or among the products of any +volcano. They are sometimes very friable, sometimes very +hard; and some that are friable when they first fall, become hard +afterwards. When taken up soon after their fall they are +extremely hot. They vary in weight from two drams to +several hundred pounds. Meteoric stones have fallen in all +climates, in every part of the earth, at all seasons, in the +night and in the day.</p> +<p>The meteoric stones already noticed, are not the only metallic +bodies which are supposed to fall from the sky. In many +parts of the earth masses of malleable iron, often of vast size, +have been found. An immense mass seen by Pallas, in +Siberia, was discovered at a great height on a mountain of slate, +near the river Jenesei. The Tartars held <!-- page 183--><a +name="page183"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 183</span>it in great +veneration, as having fallen from heaven. It was removed in +the year 1749, to the town of Krasnojarsk, by the inspector of +iron mines. The mass, which weighed about 1,400 pounds, was +irregular in form, and cellular, like a sponge. The iron +was tough and malleable, and was found to contain nickel, silica, +magnesia, sulphur, and chrome. Another enormous mass of +meteoric iron was found in South America, about the year +1788. It lay in a vast plain, half sunk in the ground, and +was supposed, from its size and the known weight of iron, to +contain upwards of thirteen tons. Specimens of this mass +are now in the British Museum, and have been found to contain 90 +per cent. of iron and 10 of nickel. Many other masses of +iron might be mentioned, which, from the places in which they are +found, and from their composition, leave no doubt as to their +being of meteoric origin. The only instance, on record, of +iron having been actually seen to fall from the atmosphere, is +that which took place at Agram in Croatia, on the 26th May, +1751. About six o’clock in the evening, the sky being +quite clear, a ball of fire was seen, which shot along, with a +hollow noise, from west to east, and, after a loud explosion +accompanied by a great <!-- page 184--><a +name="page184"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 184</span>smoke, two +masses of iron fell from it in the form of chains welded +together.</p> +<p>It is, perhaps, impossible, in the present state of our +knowledge, to account for the origin of these remarkable +bodies. Some have supposed them to have been shot out from +volcanoes belonging to our earth; but this theory is opposed by +the fact that no substance, resembling aërolites, has ever +been found in or near any volcano; and they fall from a height to +which no volcano can be supposed to have projected them, and +still less to have given them the horizontal direction in which +they usually move. Another supposition is, that these +masses are formed in the atmosphere; but it is almost ridiculous +to imagine a body, weighing many tons, to be produced by any +chemical or electrical forces in the upper regions of the +air. A third explanation is, that they are bodies thrown +out by the volcanoes, which are known to exist in the moon, with +such force as to bring them within the sphere of the +earth’s attraction. This notion was supported by the +celebrated astronomer and mathematician La Place. He +calculated that a body projected from the moon with the velocity +of 7771 feet in the first second, would reach our earth in <!-- +page 185--><a name="page185"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +185</span>about two days and a half. But other astronomers +are of opinion, that the known velocity of some meteors is too +great to admit of the possibility of their having come from the +moon. The theory which agrees best with known facts and the +laws of nature, is that proposed by Chladni, namely, that the +meteors are bodies moving in space, either masses of matter as +originally created, or fragments separated from a larger mass of +a similar nature. This view has also been supported by Sir +Humphrey Davy, who says, “The luminous appearances of +shooting-stars and meteors cannot be owing to any inflammation of +elastic fluids, but must depend upon the ignition of solid +bodies. Dr. Halley calculated the height of a meteor at +ninety miles; and the great American meteor, which threw down +showers of stones, was estimated at seventeen miles high. +The velocity of motion of these bodies must, in all cases, be +immensely great, and the heat produced by the compression of the +most rarefied air from the velocity of motion, must be, probably, +sufficient to ignite the mass; and all the phenomena may be +explained, if <i>falling stars</i> be supposed to be small bodies +moving round the earth in very eccentric orbits, which become +ignited only when <!-- page 186--><a name="page186"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 186</span>they pass with immense velocity +through the upper region of the atmosphere; and if the meteoric +bodies which throw down stones with explosions, be supposed to be +similar bodies which contain either combustible or elastic +matter.”</p> +<p>This chapter ought not to be concluded without a short notice +of that remarkable rain known to geologists as “fossil +rain.” In the new red-sandstone of the Storeton +quarries, impressions of the foot-prints of ancient animals have +been discovered; and in examining some of the slabs of stone +extracted at the depth of above thirty feet, Mr. Cunningham +observed “that their under surface was thickly covered with +minute hemispherical projections, or casts in relief of circular +pits, in the immediately subjacent layers of clay. The +origin of these marks, he is of opinion, must be ascribed to +showers of rain which fell upon an argillaceous beach exposed by +the retiring tide, and their preservation to the filling up of +the indentations by sand. On the same slabs are impressions +of the feet of small reptiles, which appear to have passed over +the clay previously to the shower, since the foot-marks are also +indented with circular pits, but to a less degree; and the +difference Mr. Cunningham <!-- page 187--><a +name="page187"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 187</span>explains by +the pressure of the animal having rendered these portions less +easily acted upon.” The preservation of these marks +has been explained by supposing dry sand, drifted by the wind, to +have swept over and filled up the footprints, rain-pits, and +hollows of every kind, which the soft argillaceous surface had +received.</p> +<p>The frontispiece to the present chapter (p. <span +class="indexpageno"><a href="#page156">156</a></span>), +represents a slab of sandstone containing impressions of the foot +of a bird and of rain drops. This slab is from a sandstone +basin near Turner’s Falls, a fine cataract of the +Connecticut river in the State of Massachusetts, and is described +by Dr. Deane in a recent number of the American Journal of +Science. “It is rare,” says that gentleman, to +“find a stratum containing these footprints exactly as they +were made by the animal, without having suffered change. +They are usually more or less disturbed or obliterated by the too +soft nature of the mud, the coarseness of the materials, and by +many other circumstances which we may easily see would deface +them, so that although the general form of the foot may be +apparent, the minute traces of its appendages are almost +invariably lost. In general, except in thick-toed species, +we <!-- page 188--><a name="page188"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +188</span>cannot discover the distinct evidences of the structure +of the toes, each toe appearing to be formed of a single joint, +and seldom terminated by a claw. But, a few specimens +hitherto discovered at this locality completely developed the +true characters of the foot, its ranks of joints, its claws and +integuments. So far as I have seen, the faultless +impressions are upon shales of the finest texture with a smooth +glossy surface, such as would retain the beautiful impressions of +rain drops. This kind of surface containing footmarks is +exceedingly rare: I have seen but few detached examples; recently +it has been my good fortune to recover a stratum, containing in +all more than one hundred most beautiful impressions of the feet +of four or five varieties of birds, the entire surface being also +pitted by a shower of fossil rain-drops. The slabs are +perfectly smooth on the inferior surface, and are about two +inches in thickness.</p> +<p>“The impression of a medallion is not more sharp and +clear than are most of these imprints, and it may be proper to +observe, that this remarkable preservation may be ascribed to the +circumstance, that the entire surface of the stratum was +incrusted with a layer of micaceous sandstone, <!-- page 189--><a +name="page189"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 189</span>adhering so +firmly that it would not cleave off, thereby requiring the +laborious and skilful application of the chisel. The +appearance of this shining layer which is of a gray colour, while +the fossil slab is a dark red, seems to carry the probability +that it was washed or blown over the latter while in a state of +loose sand, thus filling up the foot-prints and rain-drops, and +preserving them unchanged until the present day—unchanged +in the smallest particular, so far as relates merely to +configuration, nothing being obliterated; the precise form of the +nails, or claws, and joints, and in the deep impressions of the +heel bone, being exquisitely preserved.”</p> +<p>The small slab figured at p. <span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page156">156</a></span> is described as being an +incomparable specimen. “For purity of impression it +is unsurpassed, and the living reality of the rain-drops, the +beautiful colour of the stone, its sound texture and lightness, +renders it a fit member for any collection of organic +remains.”</p> +<p style="text-align: center"><!-- page 190--><a +name="page190"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 190</span> +<a href="images/p190b.jpg"> +<img alt= +"Mandan rain-makers" +title= +"Mandan rain-makers" +src="images/p190s.jpg" /> +</a></p> +<h2><!-- page 191--><a name="page191"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 191</span>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> +<p class="gutsumm"><span class="smcap">common sayings respecting +the weather—saint swithin’s-day—signs of rain +or of fair weather derived from the appearance of the +sun—from that of the moon—from the stars—from +the sky—from the distinctness of sounds—from the +rising of smoke—from the peculiar actions of plants and +animals—prognostics noticed by sir humphrey +davy—signs of rain collected by dr. jenner—north +american rain-makers—incident related by +catlin—rain-doctors of southern africa—rain-doctors +of ceylon—superstitions giving way to the teaching of +missionaries—conclusion</span>.</p> +<p>There are many proverbial sayings among country people +concerning the state of the weather, which, having been derived +from long observation, have become axioms, and were designated by +Bacon “the philosophy of the people.” These +prognostics are being set aside by the more certain lights of +science, but there is no doubt that many natural objects may +indicate symptoms of change in the atmosphere before any actually +takes place in it to such an extent as to affect our +senses. Some of <!-- page 192--><a name="page192"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 192</span>these prognostics are of a general +character applying to all seasons, and there are others which +apply only to a particular season; but they may all be derived +from appearances of the heavenly bodies and of the sky, the state +of meteorological instruments, and the notions and habits of +certain plants and animals. The author of the +“Journal of a Naturalist” has some good observations +on this subject. He says:—</p> +<blockquote><p>“Old simplicities, tokens of winds and +weather, and the plain observances of human life, are everywhere +waning fast to decay. Some of them may have been fond +conceits; but they accorded with the ordinary manners of the +common people, and marked times, seasons, and things, with +sufficient truth for those who had faith in them. Little as +we retain of these obsolete fancies, we have not quite abandoned +them all; and there are yet found among our peasants a few, who +mark the blooming of the large water-lily (<i>lilium +candidum</i>), and think that the number of its blossoms on a +stem will indicate the price of wheat by the bushel for the +ensuing year, each blossom equivalent to a shilling. We +expect a sunny day too, when the pimpernel (<i>anagallis +arvensis</i>) fully expands its blossoms; a <!-- page 193--><a +name="page193"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 193</span>dubious, or +a moist one, when they are closed. In this belief, however, +we have the sanction of some antiquity to support us. Sir +F. Bacon records it; Gerarde notes it as a common opinion +entertained by country people above two centuries ago; and I must +not withhold my own faith in its veracity, but say that I believe +this pretty little flower to afford more certain indication of +dryness or moisture in the air than any of our hygrometers +do. But if these be fallible criterions, we will notice +another that seldom deceives us. The approach of a sleety +snow-storm, following a deceitful gleam in spring, is always +announced to us by the loud untuneful voice of the missel-thrush +(<i>turdus viscivorus</i>) as it takes its stand on some tall +tree, like an enchanter calling up the gale. It seems to +have no song, no voice, but this harsh predictive note; and it in +great measure ceases with the storms of spring. We hear it +occasionally in autumn, but its voice is not then prognostic of +any change of weather. The missel-thrush is a wild and wary +bird, keeping generally in open fields and commons, heaths and +unfrequented places, feeding upon worms and insects. In +severe weather it approaches our plantations and shrubberies, to +feed <!-- page 194--><a name="page194"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 194</span>on the berry of the mistletoe, the +ivy, or the scarlet fruit of the holly or the yew; and, should +the redwing or the fieldfare presume to partake of these with it, +we are sure to hear its voice in clattering and contention with +the intruders, until it drives them from the place, though it +watches and attends, notwithstanding, to its own +safety.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>But before we notice more in detail the natural prognostics of +the weather, it is desirable to speak of a superstition which is +widely spread among all classes, in the town as well as in the +country. The superstition referred to, is that connected +with St. Swithin’s-day, and is well expressed in a Scotch +proverb:—</p> +<p class="poetry">“Saint Swithin’s-day, gif ye do +rain,<br /> +For forty days it will remain;<br /> +Saint Swithin’s-day, an ye be fair,<br /> +For forty days ’twill rain nae mair.”</p> +<p>This superstition originated with Swithin, or Swithum, bishop +of Winchester, who died in the year 868. He desired that he +might be buried in the open churchyard, “where the drops of +rain might wet his grave;” “thinking,” says +Bishop Hall, “that no vault was so good to cover his grave +as that of heaven.” But when Swithin was canonized +<!-- page 195--><a name="page195"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +195</span>the monks resolved to remove his body into the choir of +the church. According to tradition, this was to have been +done on the 15th of July; but it rained so violently for forty +days that the design was abandoned. Mr. Howard remarks, +that the tradition is so far valuable, as it proves that the +summers in the southern part of our island were subject, a +thousand years ago, to occasional heavy rains, in the same way as +at present. This accurate observer has endeavoured to +ascertain how far the popular notion is borne out by the +fact. In 1807 and 1808, it rained on St. +Swithin’s-day, and a dry season followed. In 1818 and +1819, it was dry on the 15th, and a very dry season +followed. The other summers, occurring between 1807 and +1819, seem to show, “that in a majority of our summers, a +showery period which, with some latitude as to time and local +circumstances, may be admitted to constitute daily rain for forty +days, does come on about the time indicated by the tradition of +St. Swithin.”</p> +<p>But in these calculations, it is necessary to bear in mind +that the change of style has very much interfered with St. +Swithin. With the day allowed in the closing year of the +last century, St. Swithin’s <!-- page 196--><a +name="page196"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 196</span>day is how +thirteen days earlier in the calendar than it would have been by +the old style. Thus the true St. Swithin’s-day, +according to the tradition, is about the 28th of July, and not +the 15th, as set down in the present calendar. There must, +therefore, be a considerable difference as to the rains and this +day.</p> +<p>We now proceed to collect a number of prognostics connected +with the appearances of the heavenly bodies and of the sky; they +are the result of long experience, but at the same time it is +necessary to caution our readers against attaching much +importance to them.</p> +<p>When the sun rises red, wind and rain may be expected during +the day; but when he rises unclouded, attended by a scorching +heat, cloudiness and perhaps rain will ensue before +mid-day. When he rises clouded, with a few grey clouds, +they will soon dissipate, and a fine day will follow. When +his light is dim, vapour exists in the upper regions of the air, +and may be expected to descend shortly after in the form of dense +clouds. When his light, after rain, is of a transparent +watery hue, rain will soon fall again. When his direct rays +have a scorching and weakening effect on the body <!-- page +197--><a name="page197"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +197</span>throughout the greater part of the day, the next day +will be cloudy, and perhaps rainy. When the sun is more or +less obscured by a thicker or thinner cirro-stratus cloud, and +when he is said to be <i>wading</i> in the cloud, rain may +come—if the cloud indicates rain it will come. A halo +surrounding the disc of the sun is almost always sure to precede +rain. A red sunset without clouds indicates a doubt of fair +weather; but a fine day may be expected after a red sunset in +clouds. A watery sunset, diverging rays of light, either +direct from the sun or from behind a cloud, is indicative of +rain. After a dull black sunset rain may be expected.</p> +<p>It is a common saying among country people,—</p> +<p class="poetry">“An evening red, or a morning grey,<br /> +Doth betoken a bonnie day;<br /> +In an evening grey and a morning red,<br /> +Put on your hat, or yell weet your head.”</p> +<p>There are not many prognostics connected with the appearances +of the moon. The changes of the moon produce greater +effects than at any other period. With a clear silvery +aspect fair weather may be expected. A pale moon always +indicates rain, and a red one wind. Seeing the “old +moon <!-- page 198--><a name="page198"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 198</span>in the new one’s arms,” +is a sign of stormy weather. Seeing the new moon very +young, “like the paring of a nail,” also indicates +wet; but when the horns of the new moon are blunt, they indicate +rain, and fair weather when sharp. It is truly said:</p> +<p class="poetry">“In the wane of the moon,<br /> +A cloudy morning bodes a fair afternoon.”</p> +<p>And also</p> +<p class="poetry">‘New moon’s mist<br /> +Never dies of thirst.’</p> +<p>Halos and coronæ are oftener seen about the moon than +the sun, and they indicate rain.</p> +<p>The stars appearing dim indicate rain. Very few stars +seen at one time, when there is no frost, indicate a similar +result.</p> +<p>When the sky is of deeply-coloured blue, it indicates +rain. If distant objects appear very distinct and near +through the air, it indicates rain. When the air feels +oppressive to walk in, rain will follow; when it feels light and +pleasant, fair weather will continue.</p> +<p>When distant sounds are distinctly heard through the air in a +calm day, such as the tolling of bells, barking of dogs, talking +of people, waterfalls, or rapids over mill-dams, the air is +loaded with vapour, <!-- page 199--><a name="page199"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 199</span>and rain may be expected. The +sea is often heard to roar, and loudest at night, as also the +noise of a city, when a cloud is seen suspended a very short way +above head.</p> +<p>If smoke rise perpendicularly upwards from chimneys in calm +weather, fair weather may be expected to continue; but if it fall +toward and roll along the ground, not being easily dispersed, +rain will ensue.</p> +<p>Many of the above prognostics, as well as some of those +relating to animals, are thus noticed by Sir Humphrey Davy, in +his “Salmonia, or Days of Fly-fishing.” The +conversation is between Halieus, a fly-fisher; Poietes, a poet; +Physicus, a man of science; and Ornither, a sportsman.</p> +<blockquote><p>“<i>Poiet</i>. I hope we shall have +another good day to-morrow, for the clouds are red in the +west.</p> +<p><i>Phys</i>. I have no doubt of it; for the red has a +tint of purple.</p> +<p><i>Hal</i>. Do you know why this tint portends fine +weather?</p> +<p><i>Phys</i>. The air, when dry, I believe, refracts more +red or heating rays; and as dry air is not perfectly transparent, +they are again reflected in the horizon. I have generally +observed a coppery <!-- page 200--><a name="page200"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 200</span>or yellow sun-set to foretell rain; +but, as an indication of wet weather approaching, nothing is more +certain than a halo round the moon, which is produced by the +precipitated water; and the larger the circle, the nearer the +clouds, and consequently the more ready to fall.</p> +<p><i>Hal</i>. I have often observed that the old proverb +is correct—</p> +<p>‘A rainbow in the morning is the shepherd’s +warning;<br /> +A rainbow at night is the shepherd’s delight’</p> +<p>Can you explain this omen?</p> +<p><i>Phys</i>. A rainbow can only occur when the clouds +containing or depositing the rain are opposite the sun,—and +in the evening the rainbow is in the east, and in the morning in +the west. As, therefore, our heavy rains in this climate +are usually brought by the westerly wind, a rainbow in the west +indicates that the bad weather is on the road, by the wind, to +us; whereas, the rainbow in the east proves that the rain in +these clouds is passing from us.</p> +<p><i>Poiet</i>. I have often observed that when the +swallows fly high, fine weather is to be expected or continued; +but when they fly low, and close to <!-- page 201--><a +name="page201"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 201</span>the ground, +rain is almost surely approaching. Can you account for +this?</p> +<p><i>Hal</i>. Swallows follow the flies and gnats, and +flies and gnats usually delight in warm strata of air; and as +warm air is lighter, and usually moister than cold air, when the +warm strata of air are high, there is less chance of moisture +being thrown down from them by the mixture with cold air; but +when the warm and moist air is close to the surface, it is almost +certain that, as the cold air flows down into it, a deposition of +water will take place.</p> +<p><i>Poiet</i>. I have often seen sea-gulls assemble on +the land, and have almost always observed that very stormy and +rainy weather was approaching. I conclude that these +animals, sensible of a current of air approaching from the ocean, +retire to the land to shelter themselves from the storm.</p> +<p><i>Orn</i>. No such thing. The storm is their +element, and the little petrel enjoys the heaviest gale; because, +living on the smaller sea-insects, he is sure to find his food in +the spray of a heavy wave; and you may see him flitting above the +edge of the highest surge. I believe that the reason of +this migration of sea-gulls, and other sea-birds, to the land, is +their security of finding food; and they <!-- page 202--><a +name="page202"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 202</span>may be +observed, at this time, feeding greedily on the earth-worms and +larvæ driven out of the ground by severe floods; and the +fish on which they prey in fine weather in the sea, leave the +surface, and go deeper in storms. The search after food, as +we have agreed on a former occasion, is the principal cause why +animals change their places. The different tribes of the +wading birds always migrate when rain is about to take place; and +I remember once, in Italy, having been long waiting, in the end +of March, for the arrival of the double snipe in the Campagna of +Rome, a great flight appeared on the 3rd of April, and the day +after heavy rain set in, which greatly interfered with my +sport. The vulture, upon the same principle, follows +armies; and I have no doubt that the augury of the ancients was a +good deal founded upon the observation of the instincts of +birds. There are many superstitions of the vulgar owing to +the same source. For anglers, in spring, it is always +unlucky to see single magpies,—but <i>two</i> may always be +regarded as a favourable omen; and the reason is, that in cold +and stormy weather one magpie alone leaves the nest in search of +food, the other remaining sitting upon the eggs or the young +ones; but when <!-- page 203--><a name="page203"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 203</span>two go out together, it is only when +the weather is warm and mild, and favourable for fishing.</p> +<p><i>Poiet</i>. The singular connexions of causes and +effects to which you have just referred, makes superstition less +to be wondered at, particularly amongst the vulgar; and when two +facts, naturally unconnected, have been accidentally coincident, +it is not singular that this coincidence should have been +observed and registered, and that omens of the most absurd kind +should be trusted in. In the west of England, half a +century ago, a particular hollow noise on the sea-coast was +referred to a spirit or goblin, called Bucca, and was supposed to +foretell a shipwreck. The philosopher knows that sound +travels much faster than currents in the air; and the sound +always foretold the approach of a very heavy storm, which seldom +takes place on that wild and rocky coast without a shipwreck on +some part of its extensive shores, surrounded by the +Atlantic.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Dr. Jenner has collected in the following amusing lines a +large number of the natural prognostics of rain. They are +said to have been addressed to a lady, who asked the Doctor if he +thought it would rain to-morrow.</p> +<p class="poetry"><!-- page 204--><a name="page204"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 204</span>“The hollow winds begin to +blow,<br /> +The clouds look black, the glass is low;<br /> +The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep,<br /> +And spiders from their cobwebs peep:<br /> +Last night the sun went pale to bed,<br /> +The moon in halos hid her head:<br /> +The boding shepherd heaves a sigh,<br /> +For, see! a rainbow spans the sky:<br /> +The walls are damp, the ditches smell,<br /> +Closed is the pink-eyed pimpernel;<br /> +Hark! how the chairs and tables crack;<br /> +Old Betty’s joints are on the rack;<br /> +Loud quack the ducks, the peacocks cry,<br /> +The distant hills are seeming nigh.<br /> +How restless are the snorting swine,—<br /> +The busy flies disturb the kine.<br /> +Low o’er the grass the swallow wings;<br /> +The cricket, too, how loud it sings:<br /> +Puss on the hearth with velvet paws,<br /> +Sits smoothing o’er her whisker’d jaws.<br /> +Through the clear stream the fishes rise,<br /> +And nimbly catch the incautious flies:<br /> +The sheep were seen at early light<br /> +Cropping the meads with eager bite.<br /> +Though June, the air is cold and chill;<br /> +The mellow blackbird’s voice is still.<br /> +The glow-worms, numerous and bright,<br /> +Illum’d the dewy dell last night.<br /> +At dusk the squalid toad was seen,<br /> +Hopping, and crawling o’er the green.<br /> +The frog has lost his yellow vest,<br /> +And in a dingy suit is dressed.<br /> +<!-- page 205--><a name="page205"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +205</span>The leech, disturb’d, is newly risen,<br /> +Quite to the summit of his prison.<br /> +The whirling winds the dust obeys,<br /> +And in the rapid eddy plays;<br /> +My dog, so alter’d in his taste,<br /> +Quits mutton-bones on grass to feast;<br /> +And see yon rooks, how odd their flight!<br /> +They imitate the gliding kite,<br /> +Or seem precipitate to fall,<br /> +As if they felt the piercing ball:—<br /> +’Twill surely rain,—I see with sorrow,<br /> +Our jaunt must be put off to-morrow.”</p> +<p>Uncivilized nations often entertain the absurd notion that +certain individuals can command the rain whenever they +please. Much honour is shown to persons supposed to possess +this power, for they are considered as having some mysterious +intercourse with heaven. Catlin gives a striking instance +of this superstition as it exists among the Mandans of North +America. These people raise a great deal of corn; but their +harvests are sometimes destroyed by long-continued drought. +When threatened with this calamity, the women (who have the care +of the patches of corn) implore their lords to intercede for +rain; and accordingly the chiefs and doctors assemble to +deliberate on the case. When they have decided that it is +necessary <!-- page 206--><a name="page206"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 206</span>to produce rain, they wisely delay +the matter for as many days as possible; and it is not until +further urged by the complaints and entreaties of the women, that +they begin to take the usual steps for accomplishing their +purpose. At length they assemble in the council-house with +all their apparatus about them—with abundance of wild sage +and aromatic herbs, to burn before the “Great +Spirit.” On these occasions the lodge is closed to +all except the doctors and some ten or fifteen young men, the +latter being the persons to whom the honour of making it rain, or +the disgrace of having failed in the attempt, is to belong.</p> +<p>After having witnessed the conjurations of the doctors inside +the lodge, these young men are called up by lot, one at a time, +to spend a day on the top of the lodge, and to see how far their +efforts will avail in producing rain; at the same time the smoke +of the burning herbs ascends through a hole in the roof. On +one of these occasions, when all the charms were in operation, +and when three young men had spent each his day on the lodge in +ineffectual efforts to bring rain, and the fourth was engaged +alternately addressing the crowd of villagers and the spirits of +the air, but <!-- page 207--><a name="page207"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 207</span>in vain, it so happened that the +steam-boat “Yellow Stone,” made her first trip up the +Missouri river, and about noon approached the village of the +Mandans. Catlin was a passenger on this boat; and helped to +fire a salute of twenty guns of twelve pounds calibre, when they +first came in sight of the village, which was at some three or +four miles distance. These guns introduced a new sound into +the country, which the Mandans naturally enough supposed to be +thunder. “The young man upon the lodge, who turned it +to good account, was gathering fame in rounds of applause, which +were repeated and echoed through the whole village; all eyes were +centred upon him—chiefs envied him—mothers’ +hearts were beating high, whilst they were decorating and leading +up their fair daughters to offer him in marriage on his signal +success. The medicine-men had left the lodge, and came out +to bestow upon him the envied title of +‘medicine-man,’ or ‘doctor,’ which he had +so deservedly won—wreaths were prepared to decorate his +brows, and eagle’s plumes and calumets were in readiness +for him—his enemies wore on their faces a silent gloom and +hatred; and his old sweethearts who had cast him off, gazed <!-- +page 208--><a name="page208"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +208</span>intensely upon him, as they glowed with the burning +fever of repentance. During all this excitement, +Wak-a-dah-ha-hee (or the white buffalo’s hair) kept his +position, assuming the most commanding and threatening attitudes; +brandishing his shield in the direction of the thunder, although +there was not a cloud to be seen, until he (poor fellow) being +elevated above the rest of the village, espied, to his +inexpressible amazement, the steamboat ploughing its way up the +windings of the river below, puffing her steam from her pipes, +and sending forth the thunder from a twelve-pounder on her +deck. ‘The white Buffalo’s hair’ stood +motionless, and turned pale; he looked awhile, and turned to the +chief and to the multitude, and addressed them with a trembling +lip—‘My friends, we will get no rain!—there +are, you see, no clouds; but my medicine is great—I have +brought a <i>thunder-boat</i>! look and see it! the thunder you +hear is out of her mouth, and the lightning which you see is on +the waters!’</p> +<p>“At this intelligence, the whole village flew to the +tops of their wigwams, or to the bank of the river, from whence +the steamer was in full view, and ploughing along to their utter +dismay and <!-- page 209--><a name="page209"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 209</span>confusion. In this promiscuous +throng, chiefs, doctors, women, children, and dogs, were mingled, +Wak-a-dah-ha-hee having descended from his high place to mingle +with the frightened throng. Dismayed at the approach of so +strange and unaccountable an object, the Mandans stood their +ground but a few moments; when, by an order of the chiefs, all +hands were ensconced within the piquets of their village, and all +the warriors armed for desperate self-defence. A few +moments brought the boat in front of the village, and all was +still and quiet as death; not a Mandan was to be seen upon the +banks. The steamer was moored, and three or four of the +chiefs soon after walked boldly down the bank, and on to her +deck, with a spear in one hand, and a calumet, or pipe of peace +in the other. The moment they stepped on board, they met +(to their great surprise and joy) their old friend Major Sanford, +their agent, which circumstance put an instant end to all their +fears.”</p> +<p>It was long, however, before the rain-maker could be persuaded +to come forward, or to listen to the assurance that his medicine +had nothing whatever to do with the arrival of the ship. +Unwilling to lose the fame of having produced <!-- page 210--><a +name="page210"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 210</span>such a +phenomenon, he continued to assert that he knew of its coming, +and by his magic had caused it to approach. But he was +little regarded in the universal bustle and gossip which was +going on respecting the mysteries of the +“thunder-boat.”</p> +<p>Meanwhile the day passed on, and towards evening a cloud began +to rise above the horizon. Wak-a-dah-ha-hee no sooner +observed this, than, with shield on his arm and bow in hand, he +was again upon the lodge. “Stiffened and braced to +the last sinew, he stood with his face and his shield presented +to the cloud, and his bow drawn. He drew the eyes of the +whole village upon him, as he vaunted forth his superhuman +powers; and at the same time commanded the cloud to come nearer, +that he might draw down its contents upon their heads and the +corn-fields of the Mandans. In this wise he stood, waving +his shield over his head, stamping his foot, and frowning as he +drew his bow and threatened the heavens, commanding it to +rain—his bow was bent, and the arrow drawn to its head, was +sent to the cloud, <a name="citation210"></a><a +href="#footnote210" class="citation">[210]</a> and he exclaimed, +‘My friends, it is done! Wak-a-dah-ha-hee’s +arrow has entered that black cloud, and <!-- page 211--><a +name="page211"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 211</span>the Mandans +will be wet with the water of the skies!’ His +predictions were true—in a few moments the cloud was over +the village, and the rain fell in torrents. He stood for +some time wielding his weapons, and boasting of the efficacy of +his <i>medicine</i> to those who had been about him, but were now +driven to the shelter of their wigwams; and descended from his +high place (in which he had been perfectly drenched) prepared to +receive the honours and homage that were due to one so potent in +his mysteries; and to receive the style and title of +<i>medicine-man</i>.” Catlin further informs us, that +when the Mandans undertake to make it rain, they always succeed, +for their ceremonies never stop until rain begins to fall: and +also, that he who has once made it rain never attempts it again; +his medicine is undoubted—and on future occasions of the +kind he stands aloof, giving an opportunity to other young men +who are ambitious to signalize themselves in the same way.</p> +<p>A superstition similar to that of the Mandans prevails also +among the Caffers of Southern Africa, and among the natives of +Ceylon. The Caffer chiefs, attended by their warriors, +proceed with <!-- page 212--><a name="page212"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 212</span>much ceremony, and laden with +presents, to the dwelling of the rain-doctor, where a grand feast +is held while certain charms are in process. The impostor +at length dismisses his guests with a variety of instructions, on +the due observance of which the success of their application is +to depend. These instructions are generally of the most +trifling kind: they are to travel home in perfect silence; or +they are not to look back; or they are to compel every one they +meet to turn back and go home with them. Should rain happen +to fall, the credit is given to the rain-doctor; but should the +drought continue, the fault is laid upon the failure of the +applicants to fulfil these instructions with sufficient +exactness.</p> +<p>Major Forbes gives an account of an old rain-doctor in Ceylon, +who had plied a lucrative trade for many years, and at length +wished to retire from business. But the people were highly +incensed at the idea of losing his services, especially as a most +distressing drought was at that time the scourge of the +land. So persuaded were they of his powers, that they all +agreed, that when required to do so by a whole village, he should +be compelled to furnish rain in sufficient quantities; <!-- page +213--><a name="page213"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +213</span>and that if he was insensible to rewards, he should be +tormented with thorns or beaten into compliance. In vain +did the poor old impostor at length declare the truth, and assure +the people that he had no power whatever to make it rain. +They treated his words with disdain, and dragged their victim +from village to village, inflicting stripes at every halt. +Even the chief of the district had determined on having rain by +force, if fair means should fail, and ordered the rain-doctor to +be taken to the village where rain was most required. On +his way thither he was so fortunate as to meet with Major Forbes, +who took him under his protection, and probably saved his life, +though not without some difficulty, for it so happened that a few +slight showers fell near his own village, while all the rest of +the neighbourhood was suffering the extremity of drought.</p> +<p>Melancholy indeed is the condition of these poor people; in +utter ignorance of the source of all the providential mercies +bestowed upon them, and, therefore, made the dupes and credulous +followers of knaves and impostors of every kind!</p> +<p>In some cases, however, the missionaries have happily +succeeded in opening the eyes of the <!-- page 214--><a +name="page214"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 214</span>deluded +people to the cheat which is practised on them. One of the +most intelligent of the Caffers of Southern Africa, having been +led to suspect the integrity of the rain-maker, visited Mr. Shaw, +and told him of his determination to have the question set at +rest, whether or no the rain-maker could produce rain. He +had summoned the rain-maker to meet Mr. Shaw in an open plain, +when all the Caffers of the surrounding kraals were to be present +to decide the affair. Accordingly, at the appointed time +and place, thousands of Caffers from the neighbouring country +assembled in their war-dresses. Mr. Shaw, being confronted +with a celebrated rain-maker, declared publicly that God alone +gave rain; and then offered to present the rain-maker with a team +of oxen if he should succeed in making it rain within a certain +specified time. This was agreed to; the rain-maker began +his ceremonies, which are said to have been well calculated to +impose upon an ignorant and superstitious people. The time +having expired without any signs of rain, the chief who had +called together the meeting asked the rain-maker why he had so +long imposed upon them? The rain-maker complained that he +had not been paid <!-- page 215--><a name="page215"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 215</span>well enough for his rain; and +appealed to all present, whether rain had not always been +produced when he had been properly paid. Mr. Shaw then +pointed out some half-famished cattle belonging to the +rain-maker, which were seen on a neighbouring hill starving for +want of pasturage, and remarked, that if he really possessed his +boasted skill, he would not have neglected his own +interests. To this the rain-maker cleverly replied, +“I never found a difficulty in making rain until <i>he</i> +(pointing to Mr. Shaw) came among us; but now, no sooner do I +collect the clouds, and the rain is about to fall, than +immediately there begins a sound of <i>ting</i>, <i>ting</i>, +<i>ting</i>, (alluding to the chapel-bell,) which puts the clouds +to flight, and prevents the rain from descending on your +land.” Mr. Shaw was not able to tell what effect this +ingenious excuse had upon the majority of the Caffers, but he had +the satisfaction of knowing that the intelligent chief, who +consulted him on the subject, never <i>bought</i> any more +rain.</p> +<h2><!-- page 216--><a name="page216"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 216</span>Already Published in this +Series.</h2> +<p>I.—THE SNOW STORM.<br /> +II.—THE FROZEN STREAM.<br /> +III.—THE RAIN CLOUD.</p> +<h2>Shortly will be Published.</h2> +<p>IV.—THE DEW DROP.<br /> +V.—THE THUNDER STORM.<br /> +VI.—THE TEMPEST.</p> +<h2>Footnotes:</h2> +<p><a name="footnote18"></a><a href="#citation18" +class="footnote">[18]</a> Physico-Theology by the Rev. Wm. +Derham.</p> +<p><a name="footnote55"></a><a href="#citation55" +class="footnote">[55]</a> See Frontispiece to this Chapter, +p. <span class="indexpageno"><a href="#page36">36</a></span>.</p> +<p><a name="footnote85"></a><a href="#citation85" +class="footnote">[85]</a> See Frontispiece to this Chapter, +p. <span class="indexpageno"><a href="#page74">74</a></span>.</p> +<p><a name="footnote133"></a><a href="#citation133" +class="footnote">[133]</a> This plan was brought before the +notice of the British Association for the advancement of Science +in the year 1840.</p> +<p><a name="footnote155"></a><a href="#citation155" +class="footnote">[155]</a> Harvey’s Meteorology, in +the Encyclopædia Metropolitana.</p> +<p><a name="footnote181"></a><a href="#citation181" +class="footnote">[181]</a> One of the stones which fell at +L’Aigle, on being analysed by Thenard, gave—</p> +<table> +<tr> +<td><p>Silica</p> +</td> +<td><p>46 per cent.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Magnesia</p> +</td> +<td><p>10</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Iron</p> +</td> +<td><p>45</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Nickel</p> +</td> +<td><p>2</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Sulphur</p> +</td> +<td><p>5</p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="footnote210"></a><a href="#citation210" +class="footnote">[210]</a> See Frontispiece to this +Chapter, p. 190.</p> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RAIN CLOUD***</p> +<pre> + + +***** This file should be named 30706-h.htm or 30706-h.zip****** + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/0/7/0/30706 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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