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diff --git a/30706.txt b/30706.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c943495 --- /dev/null +++ b/30706.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4126 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Rain Cloud, by Anonymous + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Rain Cloud + or, An Account of the Nature, Properties, Dangers and Uses of Rain + + +Author: Anonymous + + + +Release Date: December 18, 2009 [eBook #30706] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RAIN CLOUD*** + + +Transcribed from the 1846 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge +edition by David Price, email ccx074@pglaf.org + + + + + + THE + RAIN CLOUD: + + + OR, + An Account + OF + THE NATURE, PROPERTIES, DANGERS, + AND USES OF RAIN, + + IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD. + + * * * * * + + PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF + THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION + APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING + CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. + + * * * * * + + LONDON: + Printed for the + SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. + SOLD AT THE DEPOSITORY, + GREAT QUEEN STREET, LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS, + AND 4, ROYAL EXCHANGE. + + 1846. + + LONDON: + R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL. + + CONTENTS. + + CHAPTER I. + p. 10. +RAINS PECULIAR TO EACH SEASON--SPRING SHOWERS--MIDSUMMER RAINS--RAINS +OF AUTUMN AND WINTER--MEANS OF SUPPLYING THE EARTH WITH RAIN--RAIN +CLOUDS--DECEPTIVE APPEARANCES OF CLOUDS--THEIR LIGHT AND +SHADE--EFFECTS OF CLOUDS IN MOUNTAINOUS COUNTRIES--ASCENT OF MONTE +PIENTIO--ASCENT TO THE PEAK OF TENERIFFE--GRAND EFFECTS OF CLOUDS IN +THE PYRENEES--VOYAGE IN A BALLOON THROUGH THE CLOUDS. + CHAPTER II. + p. 37. +EFFECTS OF RAIN IN MOUNTAINOUS DISTRICTS--THE DISTRICT OF MORAY--THE +GREAT FLOODS OF 1829--COMMENCEMENT OF THE RAIN--THE SWOLLEN +RIVERS--DISASTROUS EFFECTS OF THE FLOOD--MEANS ADOPTED FOR THE RESCUE +OF COTTAGERS--KERR AND HIS BRAVE DELIVERERS--RESCUE OF FUNNS AND HIS +FAMILY--FLOODS OF THE RHONE IN 1840--OVERFLOWING OF THE MISSISSIPPI. + CHAPTER III. + p. 74. +VARIOUS FORMS OF CLOUDS--THE CIRRUS, OR CURL-CLOUD--THE CUMULUS, OR +STACKEN-CLOUD--THE STRATUS, OR FALL-CLOUD--THE CIRRO-CUMULUS, OR +SONDER-CLOUD--THE CIRRO-STRATUS, OR WANE-CLOUD--THE CUMULO-STRATUS, OR +TWAIN-CLOUD--THE NIMBUS, OR RAIN-CLOUD--ARRANGEMENT OF +RAIN-CLOUDS--APPEARANCES OF A DISTANT SHOWER--SCUD--CAUSE OF +RAIN--FORMATION OF CLOUDS--MISTS--HEIGHTS OF CLOUDS--APPEARANCE OF THE +SKY ABOVE THE CLOUDS. + CHAPTER IV. + p. 107. +ON HAIL--THE HAIL-STORMS OF FRANCE--THE DISASTROUS EFFECTS OF +HAIL--THE HAIL-STORMS OF SOUTH AMERICA--THEIR SURPRISING +EFFECTS--ORIGIN AND NATURE OF HAIL--PERIODICAL FALLS OF HAIL--HAIL +CLOUDS--HAILSTONES--THEIR VARIOUS FORMS--EXTRAORDINARY SIZE OF +HAILSTONES. + CHAPTER V. + p. 117. +METHOD OF MEASURING THE QUANTITY OF RAIN THAT FALLS--THE RAIN +GAUGE--METHODS OF OBSERVING FOR RAIN AND SNOW--EFFECTS OF ELEVATION ON +THE QUANTITY OF RAIN--DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TOP OF A TALL BUILDING +AND THE SUMMIT OF A MOUNTAIN--SIZE OF DROPS OF RAIN--VELOCITY OF THEIR +FALL--QUANTITY OF RAIN IN DIFFERENT LATITUDES--EXTRAORDINARY FALLS OF +RAIN--REMARKS ON THE RAIN OF THIS COUNTRY--INFLUENCE OF THE +MOON--ABSENCE OF RAIN--REMARKABLE DROUGHT IN SOUTH AMERICA--ITS +TERRIBLE EFFECTS AND CONSEQUENCES--ARTIFICIAL RAINS. + CHAPTER VI. + p. 137. +THE RAINBOW--DECOMPOSITION OF WHITE LIGHT BY THE PRISM--FORMATION OF +PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BOWS--RAINBOWS IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS--THE RAINBOW +A SACRED EMBLEM--LUNAR RAINBOW--LIGHT DECOMPOSED BY CLOUDS--THEIR +BEAUTIFUL COLOURS--EXAMPLES. + CHAPTER VII. + p. 157. +REMARKABLE SHOWERS--SHOWERS OF SAND--OF MUD--SHOWERS OF SULPHUR, OR +YELLOW RAIN--LUMINOUS RAIN--RED RAIN, OR SHOWERS OF +BLOOD--SUPERSTITIONS CONNECTED THEREWITH--EXPLANATION OF THE +CAUSE--SHOWERS OF FISH--SHOWERS OF RATS--SHOWERS OF FROGS--INSECT +SHOWER--SHOWERS OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES--MANNA--WHEAT--SHOWERS OF +STONES--METEORIC STONES, OR AEROLITES--METEORIC IRON--SUPPOSITIONS +RESPECTING THEM--FOSSIL RAIN. + CHAPTER VIII. + p. 191. +COMMON SAYINGS RESPECTING THE WEATHER--SAINT SWITHIN'S-DAY--SIGNS OF +RAIN OR OF FAIR WEATHER DERIVED FROM THE APPEARANCE OF THE SUN--FROM +THAT OF THE MOON--FROM THE STARS--FROM THE SKY--FROM THE DISTINCTNESS +OF SOUNDS--FROM THE RISING OF SMOKE--FROM THE PECULIAR ACTIONS OF +PLANTS AND ANIMALS--PROGNOSTICS NOTICED BY SIR HUMPHREY DAVY--SIGNS OF +RAIN COLLECTED BY DR. JENNER--NORTH AMERICAN RAIN-MAKERS--INCIDENT +RELATED BY CATLIN--RAIN-DOCTORS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA--RAIN-DOCTORS OF +CEYLON--SUPERSTITIONS GIVING WAY TO THE TEACHING OF +MISSIONARIES--CONCLUSION. + + [Picture: Clouds among the mountains] + + + + +CHAPTER I: + + +RAINS PECULIAR TO EACH SEASON--SPRING SHOWERS--MIDSUMMER RAINS--RAINS OF +AUTUMN AND WINTER--MEANS OF SUPPLYING THE EARTH WITH +RAIN--RAIN-CLOUDS--DECEPTIVE APPEARANCES OF CLOUDS--THEIR LIGHT AND +SHADE--EFFECTS OF CLOUDS IN MOUNTAINOUS COUNTRIES--ASCENT OF MONTE +PIENTIO--ASCENT TO THE PEAK OF TENERIFFE--GRAND EFFECTS OF CLOUDS IN THE +PYRENEES--VOYAGE IN A BALLOON THROUGH THE CLOUDS. + +Every season has its own peculiar rains. What can be more refreshing or +invigorating than the showers of spring? When the snows of February have +disappeared, and the blustering winds of March have performed their +office of drying up the excess of moisture, and preparing the earth for +fruitfulness, and when the young buds and blossoms of April are peeping +forth beneath the influence of the sun, and the trees and hedges are +attired in their new robes of tender green, how soon would all this +beauty languish but for the showers of spring! Several dry days, +perhaps, have passed, and the wreaths of dust which are raised by the +wind show that the earth wants moisture; but before a drop falls there is +a general lull throughout all nature; not a leaf is heard to rustle; the +birds are mute and the cattle stand in expectation of the refreshing +fall. At last the pools and rivulets are "dimpled" by a few soft drops, +the forerunners of the general shower. And this shower, unlike the +heavier rains of summer, comes stealing on so gently, that the tinkling +sound of its fall is heard among the branches of the bursting trees long +before it is felt by those who walk beneath their slight shelter. +Rapidly does the landscape brighten under the influence of the welcome +shower; and as it becomes more rich and extensive, all nature seems to +rise up and rejoice. The birds chirp merrily among the foliage; the +flowers raise their drooping heads, and the thirsty ground drinks in with +eager haste the mellowing rains. All day long, perhaps, does the rain +continue to fall, until the earth is fully moistened and "enriched with +vegetable life." At length, towards evening, the sun peeps out from +among the broken clouds, and lights up, by his sudden radiance, the +lovely scene. Myriads of rain-drops sparkle like gems beneath his beams; +a soft mist that seems to mingle earth and sky gradually rolls away, and +"moist, and bright, and green, the landscape laughs around." Now pours +forth the evening concert from the woods, while warbling brooks, and +lowing herds, appear to answer to the sound. Such are some of the +delightful effects of spring-showers. + +In summer, when the heat has been very great, the rain is often ushered +in by a thunder-storm, and falls in torrents, which at an earlier season +would do harm to the young buds and blossoms of spring; but now the +vegetation is strong enough to resist the floods so necessary to maintain +moisture in the parched earth. But when the summer has been moderately +warm some gentle rains generally fall about midsummer, which, from the +frequency of their occurrence about this time, have obtained the name of +"Midsummer rains." These rains are popularly associated with St. +Swithin's Day, as will be noticed in another chapter; but when they fall +early, mildly, and in moderate quantity, they operate to a certain extent +as a second spring. "Many of the birds come into song and have second +broods; and it is probable that there is a fresh production of +caterpillars for their food, or, at all events, a larger production of +the late ones than when the rains are more violent and protracted. Many +of the herbaceous plants also bloom anew, and the autumn is long and +pleasant, and has very many of the charms of a summer, though without any +very powerful operation on the productions of nature, further than a very +excellent preparation for the coming year, whether in buds, in roots, or +in the labours of man. Such a season is also one of plenty, or at all +events of excellent quality in all the productions of the soil. The wild +animals partake in the general abundance, as that food which is left for +them in the fields, after man has gathered in his share, is both more +abundant and more nourishing. When there is much moisture from the +protracted time and great quantity of the rains, many of those seeds +germinate, while in mild seasons they are left as food for the wild +animals, chiefly the field-mice and the birds, which again form part of +the food of the predatory ones." + +There is something melancholy and depressing in the rains of autumn and +winter, for they bear away the last traces of summer by stripping the +trees of the many-coloured leaves, which in mild seasons will continue to +adorn the landscape even late in November. The rains of this month, and +their effects, have been skilfully sketched by an accurate observer of +nature. He says:-- + + "Now cold rains come deluging down, till the drenched ground, the + dripping trees, the pouring eaves, and the torn, ragged-skirted + clouds, seemingly dragged downward slantwise by the threads of dusky + rain that descend from them, are all mingled together in one blind + confusion; while the few cattle that are left in open pastures, + forgetful of their till now interminable business of feeding, turn + their backs upon the besieging storm, and, hanging down their heads + till their noses almost touch the ground, stand out in the middle of + the fields motionless, like dead images. + + "Now, too, a single rain-storm, like the above, breaks up all the + paths and ways at once, and makes home no longer 'home' to those who + are not obliged to leave it; while it becomes doubly endeared to + those who are. What sight, for instance, is so pleasant to the + wearied woodman, who has been out all day long in the drenching rains + of this month, as his own distant cottage window seen through the + thickening dusk, lighted up by the blazing fagot that is to greet his + sure return at the accustomed minute?" + +While we watch the effects of the various rains, and their beneficial +influence on the earth, there is also much to excite our gratitude and +admiration; for among the many beautiful contrivances in creation, none +is more remarkable than the means by which the earth is watered and +refreshed by rain. The oceans, seas, lakes, and other waters of the +earth supply the air with moisture, which, rendered elastic and invisible +by the heat of the sun and of the earth, rises to various heights in the +atmosphere, where it forms clouds in all their wonderful beauty and +variety. These are borne by the winds to places far inland, to which +water in sufficient quantity could not come by any other means, and where +moisture is most required; and here the water is poured down, not in +cataracts and water-spouts, but in the form of drops of various sizes. +If the rain-clouds threw down, at once and suddenly, all the water +contained in them, not only would vegetation be destroyed by the force of +the fall, but we should be constantly liable to floods and other +inconveniences. Clouds also serve to screen the earth from the fierce +heat of the sun by day; and, by night, they serve to maintain the heat +which would otherwise escape by radiation, and produce great cold even in +summer. Clouds thus have great influence in regulating the extremes of +heat and cold, and in forming what is called the "climate" of a country. +Clouds also supply the hidden stores of fountains and the fresh water of +rivers; and, as a pious old divine well remarks, "So abundant is this +great blessing, which the most indulgent Creator hath afforded us by +means of this distribution of the waters I am speaking of, that there is +more than a scanty, bare provision, a mere sufficiency; even a plenty, a +surplusage of this useful creature of God, the fresh waters afforded to +the world; and they so well ordered, as not to drown the nations of the +earth, nor to stagnate, stink, and poison, or annoy them; but to be +gently carried through convenient channels back again to their grand +fountain the sea; and many of them through such large tracts of land and +to such prodigious distances, that it is a great wonder the fountains +should be high enough, or the seas low enough, ever to afford so long a +conveyance." {18} + +If rain is not at all seasons pleasant and delightful, neither are +rain-clouds among the most beautiful which diversify the landscape of the +sky; for it has been well remarked, that "all the fine-weather clouds are +beautiful, and those connected with rain and wind mostly the reverse." +What, indeed, can be more striking than the aerial landscapes of fine +weather, in which, by an easy fancy, we can trace trees and towers, +magnificent ruins and glaciers, natural bridges and palaces, all dashed +with torrents of light or frowning in shadow, glowing like burnished +silver, glittering in a golden light, or melting into the most enchanting +hues? But with all this beauty the eye is seldom capable of judging +correctly of the proper size and forms and motions of clouds. The same +cloud which to one observer may be glowing with light, to another may be +enveloped in shadow. That which appears to be its summit may be only a +portion of its outer edge, while that which seems to be its lower bed may +really be a portion of its further border. A spectator, on the summit of +a tall cliff, may observe what he takes to be a single cloud; while a +second spectator, on lower ground, will perceive that there are two +clouds. The motions of clouds are so deceptive, that they often seem to +be moving in a curve over the great concave of heaven, while they are in +fact advancing in nearly a right line. Suppose, for example that a cloud +is moving from the distant horizon towards the place where we stand, in a +uniform horizontal line without changing either in size or form. Such a +cloud, when first seen, will appear to be in contact with the distant +horizon, and consequently much nearer to us than it really is. As it +advances towards us, it will seem to rise into the sky, and to become +gradually larger till it is almost directly overhead. Continuing its +progress, it will then seem again to descend and to lessen in size as +gradually as it had before increased; till at length it disappears in the +distant horizon at a point exactly opposite to that at which it was first +seen. Thus the same cloud, without varying its motion in the least from +a straight line, and remaining throughout of the same size and form, +would seem to be continually varying in magnitude; and the line of its +motion, instead of being straight, would appear to be curved. This is +one of the most simple cases that can be supposed: but the clouds as they +exist in nature do not remain of the same magnitude, but are constantly +changing in form, in size, in direction, and in velocity; so that it is +quite impossible to form an accurate idea of their shape and size, or to +explain their motions. Clouds, at different elevations, may often be +seen to move in different directions under the influence of different +currents of wind. + +[Picture: Different appearance of the same clouds to different observers] + +The distribution of light and shade in clouds is most striking. The +watery particles of which they are composed, yielding constantly to +changes in temperature and moisture, are always changing; so that a most +beautiful cloud may alter in figure and appearance in an instant of time; +the light parts may suddenly become dark, and those that were shaded may +all at once glow in the rays of the sun. Again, the appearance of a +cloud, with respect to the sun, may entirely alter its character. The +same cloud, to one observer, may appear entirely in shade, to another +tipped with silver; to a third it may present brilliant points and +various degrees of shade, or one of its edges only may appear +illuminated; sometimes the middle parts may appear in shadow, while the +margin may be partially luminous, rendering the middle parts all the more +obscure by the contrast. + +A wonderful variety may also be produced by the shadow of one cloud +falling upon another. The accompanying sketch furnishes an example of +this. Sometimes the whole of a cloud projects a shadow through the air +upon some other far distant cloud, and this again upon another, until at +length it reaches the ground. The shadows of moving clouds may often be +traced upon the ground, and they contribute greatly to modify the +appearance of the landscape. A large number of small flickering clouds +produce broken lights and shades which have an unpleasant jarring effect; +but when the clouds are massive, or properly distributed, the shadows +often produce a high degree of repose. + + [Picture: Shadows of clouds] + +Clouds are often seen to advantage in mountainous countries. Here the +aspect of the heavens may be entirely different at different elevations. +A single cloud in the valley may conceal the whole of the upper sky from +an observer; but as he ascends he may gradually get above this and other +layers or bands of cloud, and see a beautifully variegated sky above him, +while the clouds which conceal the valley may be rolling at his feet. +Evelyn, in his Memoirs, notices a scene of this kind. He says,--"Next +morning we rode by Monte Pientio, or, as vulgarly called, Monte +Mantumiato, which is of an excessive height, ever and anon peeping above +airy clouds with its snowy head, till we had climbed to the inn at +Radicofany, built by Ferdinand the greate Duke for the necessary +refreshment of travellers in so inhospitable a place. As we ascended we +entered a very thick, solid, and dark body of cloudes, which looked like +rocks at a little distance, which lasted neare a mile in going up; they +were dry, misty vapours, hanging undissolved for a vast thicknesse, and +obscuring both sun and earth, so that we seemed to be in the sea rather +than in the cloudes, till, having pierced through it, we came into a most +serene heaven, as if we had been above all human conversation, the +mountain appearing more like a great island than joyn'd to any other +hills, for we could perceive nothing but a sea of very thick cloudes +rowling under our feete like huge waves, every now and then suffering the +top of some other mountain to peepe through, which we could discover many +miles off: and betweene some breaches of the cloudes we could see +landskips and villages of the subjacent country. This was one of the +most pleasant, newe, and altogether surprising objects that I had ever +beheld." + +In the following interesting account of the ascent of the Peak of +Teneriffe by Captain Basil Hall, it will be seen that heavy rain clouds +may skirt the mountain, while its summit is in a pure and dry air. + + "On the 24th of August," he says, "we left Oratava to ascend the + Peak. The day was the worst possible for our purpose, as it rained + hard; and was so very foggy that we could not see the Peak, or indeed + any object beyond one hundred yards distant. + + "After riding slowly up a rugged path for four hours, it became + extremely cold, and, as the rain never ceased for an instant, we were + by this time drenched to the skin, and looked with no very agreeable + feelings to the prospect of passing the night in wet clothes. At + length the night began to close in, and the guides talked of the + improbability of reaching the English station before night. It was + still raining hard; but we dismounted, and took our dinner as + cheerfully as possible, and hoping for clearer weather the next day. + On remounting, we soon discovered that the road was no longer so + steep as it had been heretofore, and the surface was comparatively + smooth: we discovered, in short, that we had reached a sort of + table-land, along which we rode with ease. Presently we thought the + fog less dense, and the drops of rain not so large, and the air less + chilling. In about half an hour we got an occasional glimpse of the + blue sky; and as we ascended, (for our road, though comparatively + level, was still upon the rise,) these symptoms became more manifest. + The moon was at the full, and her light now became distinct, and we + could see the stars in the zenith. By this time we had reached the + Llano de los Remenos, or Retamos Plain, which is many thousand feet + above the sea; and we could distinctly see that during the day we had + merely been in a cloud, above which having now ascended, the upper + surface lay beneath us like a country covered with snow. It was + evident, on looking round, that no rain had fallen on the pumice + gravel over which we were travelling. The mules were much fatigued, + and we got off to walk. In a few minutes our stockings and shoes + were completely dried, and in less than half an hour all our clothes + were thoroughly dried. The air was sharp and clear, like that of a + cold frosty morning in England; and though the extreme dryness, and + the consequent rapid evaporation, caused considerable cold, we were + enabled by quick exercise to keep ourselves comfortable. I had + various instruments with me, but no regular hygrometer: accident, + however, furnished me with one sufficiently indicative of the dry + state of the air. My gloves, which I kept on while mounted, were + completely soaked with the rain; and I took them off during this + walk, and, without considering what was likely to happen, rolled them + up, and carried them in my hand. When, at the end of an hour, or + somewhat less, we came to remount our mules, I found the gloves as + thoroughly dried and shrivelled up as if they had been placed in an + oven. During all the time we were at the Peak itself, on the 26th, + the sky was clear, the air quite dry, and we could distinguish, + several thousand feet below us, the upper and level surface of the + stratum of clouds through which we had passed the day before, and + into which we again entered on going down, and found precisely in the + same state as when we started." + +It is not uncommon to observe an effect quite contrary to the one given +in the last two examples, the high summits of mountains being frequently +concealed by heavy clouds of mist, while at a very short distance below +them the air is clear and pure. In ascending to the Port of Venasque, +one of the mountain passes of the Pyrenees, Mr. Murray found the mists so +dense that he despaired of getting above them, or of their clearing away. +But fortunately the wind freshened, and the mist, broken by it, "came +sweeping," he says, "over our heads, sometimes enveloping us in darkness, +sometimes exposing the blue sky, and a part of the mountains. Section +after section of the bald and towering masses which rose above the path +were displayed to us, one after another, as if the whole had been a sight +too great for us to look upon. Sometimes the clouds opened, and the +snows, sparkling in the sun-beams, were before us; at others, an enormous +peak of the mountain would shoot its dark head through the mist, and, +without visible support, seem as if it were about to fall upon us. +Again, when we imagined ourselves hemmed in on all sides by the +mountains, and within a few feet of their rugged sides, a passing breeze +would disclose the dark waters of the lakes hundreds of feet beneath us. + +"Thus the effect of light and darkness, of sunshine and of mist, working +upon materials of such grandeur as those near the Port of Venasque, was a +sight well worthy of admiration, and one which is rarely to be seen. * * +* * Excepting the intervals of light which the gusts of wind, by +dispersing the mists, had bestowed upon us, we had hitherto, +comparatively speaking, been shrouded in darkness, particularly for the +ten minutes preceding our arrival at the Port: my astonishment may +therefore be imagined when, the instant that I stepped beyond the limits +of the Port, I stood in the purest atmosphere--not a particle of mist, +not even a cloud, was perceptible. The phenomenon was curious, and its +interest greatly heightened from the situation in which it took place. +The mist rolling up the valley through which we had passed, was, the +moment that it could be said to reach the Spanish frontier,--the moment +it encircled the edges of the high ridges which separated the countries, +thrown back, as it were, indignantly, by a counter current from the +Spanish side. The conflicting currents of air, seemingly of equal +strength, and unable to overcome each other, carried the mist +perpendicularly from the summits of the ridge, and filling up the +crevices and fissures in its uneven surface, formed a wall many thousand +feet above it, of dark and (from the appearance of solidity which its +massive and perpendicular character bestowed upon it) apparently +impenetrable matter." + +Undoubtedly the various phenomena of clouds may be seen to great +advantage in mountain regions; and there is only one other method of +seeing them to greater perfection, and that is from the car of a balloon. +The following description of an aerial voyage, by Mr. M. Mason, in +October 1836, will convey a better idea of the magnificence of a cloudy +sky than any terrestrial prospect could do. He says,-- + + "Scarcely had we quitted the earth before the clouds, which had + previously overhung us, began to envelop us on all sides, and + gradually to exclude the fading prospect from our sight. It is + scarcely possible to convey an adequate idea of the effect produced + by this apparently trivial occurrence. Unconscious of our own motion + from any direct impression upon our own feelings, the whole world + appeared to be in the act of receding from us in the dim vista of + infinite space; while the vapoury curtain seemed to congregate on all + sides and cover the retreating masses from our view. The trees and + buildings, the spectators and their crowded equipages, and finally, + the earth itself, at first distinctly seen, gradually became obscured + by the thickening mist, and growing whiter in their forms, and + fainter in their outlines, soon faded away 'like the baseless fabric + of a vision,' leaving us, to all appearance, stationary in the cloud + that still continued to involve us in its watery folds. To heighten + the interest and maintain the illusion of the scene, the shouts and + voices of the multitude whom we had left behind us, cheering the + ascent, continued to assail us, (long after the interposing clouds + had effectually concealed them from our eyes,) in accents which every + moment became fainter and fainter till they were finally lost in the + increasing distance. + + "Through this dense body of vapour, which may be said to have + commenced at an altitude of about 1000 feet, we were borne upwards to + perhaps an equal distance, when the increasing light warned us of our + approach to its superior limits, and shortly after, the sun and we + rising together, a scene of splendour and magnificence suddenly burst + upon our view, which it would be vain to expect to render + intelligible by any mode of description within our power. Pursuing + the illusion, which the previous events had been so strongly + calculated to create, the impression upon our senses was that of + entering upon a new world to which we had hitherto been strangers, + and in which not a vestige could be perceived to remind us of that we + had left, except the last faint echo of the voices which still dimly + reached us, as if out of some interminable abyss into which they were + fast retreating. + + "Above us not a single cloud appeared to disfigure the clear blue + sky, in which the sun on one side, and the moon in her first quarter + on the other, reigned in undisturbed tranquillity. Beneath us, in + every direction, as far as the eye could trace, and doubtless much + further, the whole plane of vision was one extended ocean of foam, + broken into a thousand fantastic forms; here swelling into mountains, + there sinking into lengthened fosses, or exhibiting the appearance of + vast whirlpools; with such a perfect mimicry of the real forms of + nature, that, were it not for a previous acquaintance with the + general character of the country below us, we should frequently have + been tempted to assert, without hesitation, the existence of + mountainous islands penetrating through the clouds, and stretching in + protracted ranges along the distant verge of our horizon. + + "In the centre of this hemisphere, and at an elevation of about 3000 + feet above the surface of the clouds, we continued to float in + solitary magnificence; attended only at first by our counterpart--a + vast image of the balloon itself with all its paraphernalia + distinctly thrown by the sun upon the opposite masses of vapour, + until we had risen so high that even that, outreaching the material + basis of its support, at length deserted us; nor did we again + perceive it until, preparatory to our final descent, we had sunk to a + proper elevation to admit of its re-appearance. + + "Not the least striking feature of our, and similar situations, is + the total absence of all perceptible motion, as well as of the sound + which, in ordinary cases, is ever found to accompany it. Silence and + tranquillity appear to hold equal and undisputed sway throughout + these airy regions. No matter what may be the convulsions to which + the atmosphere is subjected, nor how violent its effects in sound and + motion upon the agitated surface of the earth, not the slightest + sensation of either can be detected by the individual who is floating + in its currents. The most violent storm, the most outrageous + hurricane, pass equally unheeded and unfelt; and it is only by + observing the retreating forms of the stable world beneath, that any + certain indication can be obtained as to the amount or violence of + the motion to which the individual is actually subjected. This, + however; was a resource of which we were unable to avail ourselves, + totally excluded as we were from all view of the earth, or any fixed + point connected with it. + + "Once, and only once, for a few moments preparatory to our final + descent, did we obtain a transitory glimpse of the world beneath us. + Upon approaching the upper surface of the vapoury strata, which we + have described as extending in every direction around, a partial + opening in the clouds discovered to us for an instant a portion of + the earth, appearing as if dimly seen through a vast pictorial tube, + rapidly receding behind us, variegated with furrows, and intersected + with roads running in all directions; the whole reduced to a scale of + almost graphic minuteness, and from the fleecy vapour that still + partially obscured it, impressing the beholder with the idea of a + vision of enchantment, which some kindly genius had, for an instant, + consented to disclose. Scarcely had we time to snatch a hasty + glance, ere we had passed over the spot, and the clouds uniting + gradually concealed it from our view. + + "After continuing for a short space further, in the vain hope of + being again favoured with a similar prospect, the approach of night + made it desirable that we should prepare for our return to earth, + which we proceeded to accomplish accordingly." + + [Picture: Kerr and his family in the middle of the flood] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +EFFECTS OF RAIN IN MOUNTAINOUS DISTRICTS--THE DISTRICT OF MORAY--THE +GREAT FLOODS OF 1829--COMMENCEMENT OF THE RAIN--THE SWOLLEN +RIVERS--DISASTROUS EFFECTS OF THE FLOOD--MEANS ADOPTED FOR THE RESCUE OF +COTTAGERS--KERR AND HIS BRAVE DELIVERERS--RESCUE OF FUNNS AND HIS +FAMILY--FLOODS OF THE RHONE IN 1840--OVERFLOWING OF THE MISSISSIPPI. + +It is well known that some years are wetter than others; but to persons +living in tolerably flat countries an unusually wet season causes no +great inconvenience. It interferes, it is true, with outdoor +employments, but people seldom apprehend any danger from the long +continuance of rain. It is not so, however, in hilly or mountainous +regions; an unusual fall of rain swells the rivers to such an extent, +that they often overflow their banks, and occasion much damage to the +surrounding districts; or, where the river's banks are defended on both +sides by perpendicular rocks, the waters sometimes rise so fast as to +attain a height of forty or fifty feet above their natural level, and +from this height they pour with destructive violence over the face of the +country. Such was the case in the great floods of Moray, which happened +in the year 1829, of which the following is a brief abstract, derived +chiefly from Sir Thomas Dick Lauder's interesting volume on this subject, +published soon after the calamity for the benefit of the sufferers. + +The province of Moray, or Murray, is a large district in the north-east +of Scotland, bounded by the Moray Frith on the north-east and north. The +eastern half of the province is lower than the western; in which the +mountains render the whole country characteristically highland. On the +north is a long belt of lowlands, about 240 square miles in extent: this +is greatly diversified with ridgy swells and low hilly ranges, lying +parallel to the frith, and intersected by the rivers Ness, Nairn, +Findhorn, Lossie, and Spey running across it to the sea. The grounds +behind the lowlands appear, as seen from the coast, to be only a narrow +ridge of bold alpine heights, rising like a rampart to guard the +orchards, and woods, and fields: but these really form long and broad +mountain masses, receding, in all the wildness and intricacy of highland +arrangement, to a distant summit line. Some of the broad clifts and long +narrow vales of these mountains form beautiful and romantic pictures; +while many of their declivities are practicable to the plough or other +instruments of cultivation; so that the bottoms and the reclaimed or +reclaimable sides of the valleys are estimated to comprehend about +one-third of the entire area. The lowlands of Moray have long been +celebrated for mildness and luxuriousness of climate, and also for a +certain dryness of atmosphere, which seems to have some intimate +connexion with the mournful calamity about to be described. The high +broad range of mountains on the south-west shelter the lowlands from the +prevailing winds of the country, and exhaust many light vapours and +thinly-charged clouds, which might otherwise produce gentle rains; but, +for just the same reason, they powerfully attract whatever long broad +streams of heavy clouds are sailing through the sky, and, among the +gullies and the upland glens, amass their discharged contents with +amazing rapidity, and in singular largeness of volume. The rivers of the +country are, in consequence, peculiarly liable to become flooded. One +general and tremendous outbreak, in 1829, "afforded an awful exhibition +of the peculiarities of the climate, and will long be remembered, in +connexion with the boasted luxuriousness of Moray, as an illustration of +how chastisement and comfort are blended in a state of things which is +benignly adjusted for the moral discipline of man, and the correction of +moral evil." + +The heat in the province of Moray during the summer of 1829 was unusually +great. In May the drought was so excessive, as to kill many of the +recently planted shrubs and trees. As the season advanced, the +variations in the barometer became so remarkable, that observers began to +lose all confidence in this instrument. + +The deluge of rain, which produced the flood of the 3d and 4th of August, +fell chiefly on the Monadhlradh mountains, rising between the south-east +part of Lochness and Kingussie, in Badenoch, and on that part of the +Grampian range forming the somewhat independent groups of the +Cairngorums. The westerly winds, which prevailed for some time +previously, seem to have produced a gradual accumulation of vapour to the +north of our island, and the column, being suddenly impelled by a strong +north-easterly blast, was driven towards the south-west, its right flank +almost sweeping the Caithness and Sutherland coasts, until rushing up and +across the Moray Frith it was attracted by the lofty mountains just +mentioned, and discharged in fearful torrents. There fell at a great +distance from the mountains, within twenty-four hours, about one-sixth of +the annual allowance of rain; on the mountains themselves the deluge that +descended, must have been so enormous as to occasion surprise that a +flood, even yet more tremendous in its magnitude and consequences, did +not result from it. + +The mouth of the Findhorn is described as the most important scene of +action. The banks of this river are well defended by rocks on either +side, and its whole course is distinguished by the most romantic scenery. +At the part where it is crossed by the old military bridge of Dulsie, the +scenery is of the wildest character. The flood was most tremendous at +this bridge, for the water was so confined that it filled the smaller +arch altogether, and rose in the great arch to within three feet of the +key-stone, that is to say, forty feet above the usual level. This fine +old bridge sustained but little damage, while many of the modern +buildings were entirely swept away. At another part of the river, it is +stated, as a curious illustration of the height to which the stream had +risen, that a gardener waded into the water as it had begun to ebb on the +haugh, and with his umbrella drove ashore and captured a fine salmon, at +an elevation of fifty feet above the ordinary level of the Findhorn. + +At Randolph's bridge the opening expands as the rocks rise upwards, till +the width is about seventy or eighty feet; yet, from the sudden turn of +the river, as it enters this passage, the stream was so checked in its +progress that the flood actually rose over the very top of the rocks, +forty-six feet above the usual height, and inundated the level part that +lies over them to the depth of four feet, making a total perpendicular +rise at this point of not less than fifty feet. + +The effects of the deluge of the 3d and 4th of August, remain on the +Dorbach, in a bank one hundred feet high, which rose with slopes and +terraces covered with birch and alder wood. The soil being naturally +spongy imbibed so much rain, that it became overloaded, and a mass of +about an acre in extent, with all its trees on it, gave way at once, +threw itself headlong down, and bounded across the bed of the Dorbach, +blocking up the waters, flooded and wide as they were at the time. A +farmer, who witnessed this phenomenon, told Sir Thomas Dick Lauder that +it fell "wi' a sort o' a dumb sound," while astonished and confounded he +remained gazing at it. The bottom of the valley is here some two hundred +yards or more wide, and the flood nearly filled it. The stoppage was not +so great, therefore, as altogether to arrest the progress of the stream; +but this sudden obstacle created an accumulation of water behind it, +which went on increasing for nearly an hour, till, becoming too powerful +to be longer resisted, the enormous dam began to yield, and was swept off +at once, and hurled onwards like a floating island. While the farmer +stood lost in wonder to behold his farm thus sailing off to the ocean by +acres at a time, another half acre, or more, was suddenly rent from its +native hill, and descended at once, with a whole grove of trees on it, to +the river, where it rested on its natural base. The flood immediately +assailed this, and carried off the greater part of it piecemeal. At the +time when Sir Thomas was writing, part of it remained with the trees +growing on it in the upright position, after having travelled through a +horizontal distance of sixty or seventy yards, with a perpendicular +descent of not less than sixty feet. + + [Picture: The flood like--Brig of Bannock. (The dotted line shows the + height gained by the flood above the usual level of the stream)] + +At Dunphail, the residence of Mr. Bruce was threatened by the flood, and +that gentleman prevailed on his wife and daughter to quit the house and +seek refuge on higher ground. Before quitting the place, their anxiety +had been extremely excited for the fate of a favourite old pony, then at +pasture in a broad green, and partially-wooded island, of some acres in +extent. As the spot had never been flooded in the memory of man, no one +thought of removing the pony until the wooden bridges having been washed +away rendered it impossible to do so. When the embankment gave way, and +the patches of green gradually diminished, Dobbin, now in his 27th year, +and in shape something like a 74-gun ship cut down to a frigate, was seen +galloping about in great alarm as the wreck of roots and trees floated +past him, and as the last spot of grass disappeared he was given up for +lost. At this moment he made a desperate effort to cross the stream +under the house; the force of the current turned him head over heels, but +he rose again with his head up the river; he made boldly up against it, +but was again borne down and turned over: every one believed him lost, +when rising once more and setting down the waste of water, he crossed +both torrents, and landed safely on the opposite bank. + +At night Mr. Bruce says there was something inexpressibly fearful and +sublime in the roar of the torrent, which by this time filled the valley, +the ceaseless plash of the rain, and the frequent and fitful gusts of the +north wind that groaned among the woods. The river had now undermined +the bank the house stood on, and this bank had already been carried away +to within four paces of the foundation of the kitchen tower, and, as mass +after mass fell with a thundering noise, some fine trees, which had stood +for more than a century on the terrace above it, disappeared in the +stream. The operations of the flood were only dimly discovered by +throwing the faint light of lanterns over its waters, and its progress +was judged of by marking certain intervals of what remained of the +terrace. One by one these fell in, and at about eleven o'clock the river +was still rising, and only a space of three yards remained about the +house, which was now considered as lost. The furniture was ordered to be +removed, and by means of carts and lanterns this was done without any +loss. About one o'clock in the morning, the partial subsidence of the +flood awakened a slight hope, but in an hour it rose again higher than +before. The banks which supported the house were washed away, and the +house itself seemed to be doomed, and the people were therefore sent out +of it. But Providence ordered otherwise; about four o'clock the clouds +appeared higher, the river began again to subside; by degrees a little +sloping beach became visible towards the foot of the precipice; the flood +ceased to undermine, and the house was saved. + +But the ruin and devastation of the place were frightful to behold. The +shrubbery, all along the river side, with its little hill and moss-house, +had vanished; two stone and three wooden buildings were carried off; the +beautiful fringe of wood on both sides of the river, with the ground it +grew on, were washed to the ocean, together with all those sweet and +pastoral projections of the fields which gave so peaceful and fertile a +character to the valley; whilst the once green island, robbed of its +groups of trees and furrowed by a dozen channels, was covered with large +stones, gravel, and torn-up roots. + +At another part of the same river (the Divie) Sir Thomas describes, from +his own observations, the progress of the flood. The noise was a +distinct combination of two kinds of sound: one, an uniform continued +roar; the other, like rapidly repeated discharges of cannon. The first +of these proceeded from the violence of the water; the other, which was +heard through it, and as it were muffled by it, came from the numerous +stones which the stream was hurling over its uneven bed of rock. Above +all this was heard the shrieking of the wind. The leaves were stripped +off the trees and whirled into the air, and their thick boughs and stems +were bending and cracking beneath the tempest. The rain was descending +in sheets, not in drops: and a peculiar lurid, bronze-like hue pervaded +the whole face of nature. And now the magnificent trees were overthrown +faster and faster, offering no more resistance than reeds before the +mower's scythe. Numerous as they were, they were all, individually, +well-known friends. Each, as it fell, gave one enormous plash on the +surface, then a plunge, the root upwards above water for a moment; again +all was submerged--and then up rose the stem disbranched and peeled; +after which, they either toiled round in the cauldron, or darted, like +arrows, down the stream. "A chill ran through our hearts as we beheld +how rapidly the ruin of our favourite and long-cherished spot was going +on. But we remembered that the calamity came from the hand of God; and +seeing that no human power could avail, we prepared ourselves to watch +every circumstance of the spectacle." In the morning the place was seen +cleared completely of shrubs, trees, and soil; and the space so lately +filled with a wilderness of verdure was now one vast and powerful +red-coloured river. + +On the left bank of the Findhorn the discharge of water, wreck, and +stones that burst over the extensive plain of Forres, spreading +devastation abroad on a rich and beautiful country, was truly terrific. +On the 3d of August, Dr. Brands, of Forres, having occasion to go to the +western side of the river, forded it on horseback, but ere he crossed the +second branch of the stream, he saw the flood coming thundering down. +His horse was caught by it; he was compelled to swim; and he had not long +touched dry land ere the river had risen six feet. By the time he had +reached Moy the river had branched out into numerous streams, and soon +came rolling on in awful grandeur; the effect being greatly heightened by +the contrary direction of the northerly wind, then blowing a gale. Many +of the cottages occupied a low level, and the inhabitants were urged to +quit them. Most of them did so; but some, trusting to their apparent +distance from the river, refused to move. + +About ten o'clock the river had risen and washed away several of the +cottages; and on every side were heard reports of suffering cottagers, +whose houses were surrounded by water. One of them was Sandy Smith, an +active boatman, commonly called _Whins_, (or _Funns_, as it is +pronounced,) from his residence on a piece of furzy pasture, at no great +distance from the river. From the situation of his dwelling he was given +up for lost; but for a long time the far-distant gleam of light that +issued from his window showed that he yet lived. + +The barns on the higher grounds accommodated many people; and large +quantities of brose (broth) were made for the dripping and shivering +wretches. Candles were placed in all the windows of the principal house +(that of Mr. Suter) that poor Funns might see he was not forgotten. But, +alas! his light no longer burns, and in the midst of the tempest and +darkness, it was utterly vain to attempt to assist the distressed. + +At daybreak the wide waste of waters was only bounded by the rising +grounds on the south and west: whilst, towards the north and east, the +watery world swept off, uninterruptedly, into the expanding Frith and the +German Ocean. The embankments appeared to have everywhere given way; and +the water that covered the fields, lately so beautiful with yellow wheat, +green turnips, and other crops, rushed with so great impetuosity in +certain directions, as to form numerous currents, setting furiously +through the quieter parts of the inundation, and elevated several feet +above it. As far as the eye could reach the brownish-yellow moving mass +of water was covered with trees and wreck of every description, whirled +along with a force that shivered many of them against unseen obstacles. +There was a sublimity in the mighty power and deafening roar of waters, +heightened by the livid hue of the clouds, the sheeting rain, the howling +of the wind, the lowing of the cattle, and the screaming and wailing of +the assembled people, that riveted the attention. In the distance could +dimly be descried the far-off dwelling of poor Funns, its roof rising +like a speck above the flood, that had evidently made a breach in one of +its ends. + +A family named Kerr, who had refused to quit their dwelling, were the +objects of great anxiety. Their son, Alexander Kerr, had been watching +all night, and in the morning was still gazing towards the spot in an +agony of mind, and weeping for the apparently inevitable destruction of +his parents. His master tried to comfort him; but even whilst he spoke, +the whole gable of Kerr's dwelling, which was the uppermost of three +houses composing the row, gave way, and fell into the raging current. +Dr. Brands, who was looking on intently at the time, with a telescope, +observed a hand thrust through the thatch of the central house. It +worked busily, as if in despair of life; a head soon appeared; and at +last Kerr's whole frame emerged on the roof, and he began to exert +himself in drawing out his wife and niece. Clinging to one another, they +crawled along the roof towards the northern chimney. The sight was +torturing. Kerr, a little a-head of the others, was seen tearing off the +thatch, as if trying to force an entrance through the roof, whilst the +miserable women clung to the house-top, the blankets which they had used +to shelter them almost torn from them by the violence of the hurricane; +and the roof they had left yielding and tottering, fell into the sweeping +flood. The thatch resisted all Kerr's efforts; and he was now seen to +let himself drop from the eaves on a small speck of ground higher than +the rest, close to the foundation of the back wall of the buildings, +which was next the spectators. There he finally succeeded in bringing +down the women; and there he and they stood, without even room to move. + + [Picture: Perilous situation of Kerr and his family] + +Some people went on horseback to try to procure boats. They managed to +get on some way by keeping the line of road. The water was so deep that +the horses were frequently swimming; but at length the current became so +strong that they were compelled to seek the rising grounds. Dr. Brands +attempted to reach the bridge of Findhorn, in hopes of getting one of the +fishermen's cobbles. As he was approaching the bridge he learned that +the last of the three arches had fallen the instant before; and when he +got to the brink, the waters were sweeping on as if it had never been, +making the rocks and houses vibrate with a distinct and tremulous motion. +The current was playing principally against the southern approach of the +bridge, and soon the usually dry arch, at its further end, burst with a +loud report; its fragments, mixed with water, being blown into the air as +if by gunpowder. The boats had all been swept away, and the fishermen's +houses were already one mass of ruin. The centre of the main stream was +hurried on at an elevation many feet higher than the rest of the +surrounding sea of waters; the mighty rush of which displayed its power +in the ruin it occasioned. Magnificent trees, with all their branches, +were dashing and rending against the rock, and the roaring and crashing +sound that prevailed was absolutely deafening. + +As there was no chance of getting a boat the Doctor returned with +difficulty to the house, his mare swimming a great part of the way. On +again looking through the telescope at poor Kerr and his family, they +were seen huddled together on a spot of ground a few feet square, some +forty or fifty yards below their inundated dwelling. {55} He was +sometimes standing and sometimes sitting on a small cask, and, as the +beholders fancied, watching with intense anxiety the progress of the +flood, and trembling for every large tree that it brought sweeping past +them. His wife, covered with a blanket, sat shivering on a bit of a log, +one child in her lap, and a girl of about seventeen, and a boy of about +twelve years of age, leaning against her side. A bottle and a glass on +the ground near the man gave the spectators, as it had doubtless given +him, some degree of comfort. Above a score of sheep were standing +around, or wading, or swimming in the shallows. Three cows and a small +horse picking at a broken rick of straw that seemed to be half afloat, +were also grouped with the family. Dreading that they must all be swept +off, if not soon relieved, the gentlemen hastened to the offices, and +looked anxiously out from the top of the tower for a boat. At last they +had the satisfaction to see one launched from the garden at Earnhill, +about a mile below. The boat had been conveyed by a pair of horses, and +had only just arrived. It was nobly manned by three volunteers, and they +proceeded at once to the rescue of a family who were in a most perilous +situation in the island opposite to Earnhill. The gentlemen on the tower +watched the motions of this boat with the liveliest interest. They saw +it tugging up till it was hid from them by the wood. Again it was seen +beyond, and soon it dashed into the main stream and disappeared again +behind the wood, with a velocity so fearful that they concluded it was +lost. But in a moment it again showed itself, and the brave fellows were +seen plying their oars across the submerged island of Earnhill, making +for John Smith's cottage; the thatch and a small part of the side walls +of which were visible above the water. The poor inmates were dragged out +of the windows from under the water, having been obliged to duck within +ere they could effect their escape. The boat then swept down the stream +towards a place called 'The Lakes,' where John Smith, his wife, and her +mother were safely landed. + +The boat was next conveyed by the horses to a point from which it was +launched for the rescue of the Kerrs. Having pulled up as far as they +could in the still water, they approached the desperate current, and +fearlessly dashed into its tumultuous waves. For a moment the spectators +were in the most anxious doubt as to the result; for, though none could +pull a stronger oar, yet the boat in crossing a distance equal to its own +length was swept down 200 yards. Ten yards more would have dashed them +to atoms on the lower stone wall. But they were now in comparatively +quiet water; and availing themselves of this, they pulled up again to the +park, in the space between two currents, and passed, with a little less +difficulty, though in the same manner, the second and third streams, and +at length reached the houses. The spectators gave them three hearty +cheers. By this time the Kerrs had been left scarcely three feet of +ground to stand on, under the back wall of the houses. A pleasing sight +it was to see the boat touch that tiny strand, and the despairing family +taken on board. How anxiously did the spectators watch every motion of +the little boat, that was now so crowded as very much to impede the +rowers. They crossed the first two streams, and finally drew up for the +last and dreadful trial. There the frail bark was again whirled down; +and notwithstanding all their exertions, the stern just touched the wall. +The prow however was in stiller water; one desperate pull,--she sprang +forward in safety, and a few more strokes of the oar landed the poor +people amongst fifty or sixty of their assembled friends. After mutual +greetings and embraces, and many tears of gratitude, old Kerr related his +simple story. "Seeing their retreat cut off by the flood, they attempted +to wade ashore. But the nearer the shore, the deeper and more powerful +was the current. The moment was awful. The torrent increased on all +sides, and night, dark night, was spread over them. The stream began to +be too deep for the niece, a girl of twelve years of age,--she lost heart +and began to sink. At this alarming crisis Kerr seized the trembling +girl, and placed her on his back, and shoulder to shoulder with his wife, +he providentially, but with the greatest difficulty, regained his own +house. Between eight and nine o'clock he groped his way, and led his +wife and niece up into the garret. He could not tell how long they +remained there, but supposed it might be till about two o'clock next +morning, when the roof began to fail. To avoid being crushed to death, +he worked anxiously till he drove down the partition separating them from +the adjoining house. Fortunately for him it was composed of wood and +clay, and a partial failure he found in it very much facilitated his +operations. Having made their way good, they remained there till about +eight o'clock in the morning, when the strength of the water without +became so great that it bent inwards the bolt of the lock of the +house-door, till it had no greater hold of the staple than the +eighth-part of an inch. Aware, that if the door should give way the back +wall of the house would be swept down by the rush of the water inwards, +and that they would be crushed to atoms, he rummaged the garret and +fortunately found a bit of board and a few nails; and standing on the +stairs, he placed one end of it against the door and the other on the +hatch, forming the entrance to the garret, and so nailed it firmly down. +At last the roof of the second house began to crack over their heads, and +Kerr forced a way for himself and his companions through the thatch as +has been already told." + +Poor Funns and his family were not yet rescued from their little island; +and the boat was declared to be too small and weak for so desperate a +voyage. It was therefore determined to row to a spot where a larger boat +was moored. To effect this, they were compelled to act precisely as they +had done in proceeding to rescue the Kerrs. But unfortunately, on +entering the third stream, they permitted the boat to glide down with it, +in the hope that it would carry them in safety through the gate of the +field, and across the road into that beyond it. In this, however, they +were mistaken, and the boat was swamped. Fortunately for them, they were +carried into smooth water, and by wading shoulder deep they reached the +large boat. + +Having secured the small boat, they attempted to drag the large one +through the gateway against the stream; but it soon filled with water and +swamped, and, in spite of all their exertions, they found it impossible +to get it up. The small boat was now all they had to trust to, and this +was next caught by the strong stream and overwhelmed in a moment; and had +not the men, most providentially, caught and clung to a haycock that +happened to be floating past, they must have been lost. They were +carried along till it stuck on some young alder trees, when each of them +grasped a bough, and the haycock sailed away, leaving them among the weak +and brittle branches. They had been here about two hours, when one of +the men being unable to hold on longer by the boughs, let himself gently +down into the water with the hope of finding bottom; when, to his +surprise, he found that the small boat had actually drifted to the root +of the very tree to which they had been carried. Some salmon nets and +ropes had also, by the strangest accident, been lodged there. The man +contrived to pull up one of these with his foot, and making a noose, and +slipping it on his great toe, he descended once more, and managed to fix +the rope round the stern of the boat, which was then safely hauled up, +the oars, being fixed to the side, being also saved. The boat was +returned to Mr. Suter's and fresh manned, when it proceeded to a house +occupied by a family of the name of Cumin, consisting of an old couple, +their daughter, and grandson. By the time they reached the cottage, its +western side was entirely gone, and the boat was pushed in at the gap. +Not a sound was heard within, and they suspected that all were drowned; +but, on looking through a hole in a partition, they discovered the +unhappy inmates roosted, like fowls, on the beams of the roof. They +were, one by one, transferred safely to the boat, half dead with cold; +and melancholy to relate, the old man's mind, being too much enfeebled to +withstand the agonizing apprehensions he had suffered, was now utterly +deranged. + + [Picture: Rescuing cottagers] + +The poor Funns' were still the last to be relieved. They and their +cattle were clustered on their little speck of land; and the poor +quadrupeds, being chilled by standing so long in the water, were +continually pressing inwards on them. It was between six and seven +o'clock, the weather was clearer, and the waters were subsiding. The +task being the most difficult of all, none but the most skilful rowers +were allowed to undertake it. One wide inundation stretched from Monro's +house to the tiny spot where Funns and his family were; and five +tremendously tumultuous streams raged through it with elevated waves. +The moment they dashed into the first of them they were whirled down for +a great way; but having once got through it, they pulled up in the +quieter water beyond, to prepare for the next; and in doing so, Sergeant +Grant stood in the prow, and with a long rope, the end of which was fixed +to the boat, and wherever he thought he had footing, he sprang out and +dragged them up. The rest followed his example, and in this way they +were enabled to start afresh with a sufficient advantage, and they +crossed all the outer streams in the same manner. The last they +encountered, being towards the middle of the flood, was fearful, and +carried them very far down. But Funns himself, overjoyed to behold them, +waded towards them, and gave them his best help to drag up the boat +again. Glad was he to see his wife and children safely set in the boat. +The perils of their return were not few; but they were at length happily +landed. + +These examples will suffice to show the nature and extent of the great +floods of Moray. The inundation covered a space of something more than +twenty miles in the Plain of Forres, and, as it was expressively remarked +by one of the sufferers, "Before these floods was the Garden of Eden and +behind them a desolate wilderness." And how often did the beautiful +expression of the Psalmist occur to them: "The floods have lifted up, O +Lord, the floods have lifted up their voice; the floods lift up their +waves. The Lord on high is mightier than the noise of many waters; yea, +than the mighty waves of the sea." Ps. xciii. 3, 4. + +But it is not in Scotland alone that the terrors of the floods are +experienced. All rivers which rise in high and cold regions, and pass +into warm lowlands, are naturally very liable to overflow their bounds. +A remarkable example is afforded by the river Rhone, which rises in the +glaciers of Switzerland; and, after passing through the lake of Geneva, +descends into the south-eastern departments of France,--a very level +district, where the climate is mild and genial. Rapid meltings of the +ice in Switzerland, or heavy falls of rain or snow in that country, +greatly affect this river; and never, perhaps, were the effects more +dreadful than in the inundations of 1840. At Lyons, where the Rhone +joins the Saone, the most lamentable scenes took place. Not only were +the whole of the low-lying lands in the vicinity of the city completely +desolated, hundreds of houses overturned, and many cattle swept away, but +the waters reached the city itself, bursting into the gas conduits, and +thus leaving the people in darkness, and rising to a great height in the +streets. The destruction of property, both in-doors and out-of-doors, +was immense, and the loss of life appalling. Charitable people and +public servants went about in boats laden with provisions, which were +sent, at the expense of the magistrates and clergy, to the starving +families pent up in their several abodes, where many of them remained in +total darkness by night, and under hourly expectation that the +foundations of their houses would give way beneath the rushing waters. +In fact, numbers of houses, and even whole streets, were in this way +sapped and overturned. Some of the people had fled to the heights near +the city, at the first rising of the waters, but there they were reduced +to the greatest extremities for want of food, and signal shots were heard +from them continually. This miserable state of things lasted from the +beginning of November until the 20th or 21st of the same month. At the +same time the Rhone appeared like a succession of immense lakes from +Lyons to Avignon, and from Avignon to the sea. A letter from Nismes, a +little to the west of Avignon, thus described the scene:-- + + "As far as the view extends we perceive but one sheet of water, in + the midst of which appear the tops of trees and houses, with the + miserable inhabitants perched upon them. At Valabregue, an island on + the Rhone, they have hung out a black banner from the church-yard, + nearly two thousand persons being assembled in that spot, which is on + an elevation. Steam-boats are attempting to carry bread to + Valabregue, and other similarly situated places, but can scarcely + effect it from the inequality of the ground. For ten days the rains + have never ceased. The space covered by the waters near Avignon is + calculated at about thirty-six leagues in length and sixty leagues in + breadth. Human bodies are seen passing continually on the waters." + +From the 10th to the 20th of November the Rhone fell several inches each +day, but always rose again somewhat during the night. It began +permanently to decline on the 20th, and in a few days the streets were +exposed to view, with about a foot of mud on them. The loss of life and +property, through this calamity, are almost incalculable. + +A still grander display of the power and extent of inundations is +afforded by the American rivers. The mighty waters of the Mississippi, +(a river, whose course extends for several thousand miles,) when swelled, +and overflowing their banks, present a wonderful spectacle. Unlike the +mountain-torrents, and small rivers, of other parts of the world, the +Mississippi rises slowly, continuing for several weeks to increase at the +rate of about an inch in a day. When at its height, it undergoes little +change for some days, and after this subsides as slowly as it rose. A +flood generally lasts from four to six weeks, though it sometimes extends +to two months. The American naturalist, Audubon, has given a striking +account of the rush of waters overspreading the land when once this +mighty river has begun to overflow its banks:-- + + "No sooner has the water reached the upper part of the banks, than it + rushes out, and overspreads the whole of the neighbouring swamps, + presenting an ocean overgrown with stupendous forest trees. So + sudden is the calamity that every individual, whether man or beast, + has to exert his utmost ingenuity to enable him to escape from the + dreaded element. The Indian quickly removes to the hills of the + interior, the cattle and game swim to the different strips of land + that remain uncovered in the midst of the flood, or attempt to force + their way through the waters until they perish from fatigue. Along + the banks of the river the inhabitants have rafts ready-made, on + which they remove themselves, their cattle, and their provisions, and + which they then fasten with ropes or grape-vines to the larger trees, + while they contemplate the melancholy spectacle presented by the + current, as it carries off their houses and wood-yards piece by + piece. Some, who have nothing to lose, and are usually known by the + name of Squatters, take this opportunity of traversing the woods in + canoes, for the purpose of procuring game, and particularly the skins + of animals, such as the deer and bear, which may be converted into + money. They resort to the low ridges surrounded by the waters, and + destroy thousands of deer, merely for their skins, leaving the flesh + to putrify. + + "The river itself, rolling its swollen waters along, presents a + spectacle of the most imposing nature. Although no large vessel, + unless propelled by steam, can now make its way against the current, + it is seen covered by boats laden with produce, which, running out + from all the smaller streams, float silently towards the city of New + Orleans, their owners, meanwhile, not very well assured of finding a + landing-place even there. The water is covered with yellow foam and + pumice, the latter having floated from the rocky mountains of the + north-west. The eddies are larger and more powerful than ever. Here + and there tracts of forest are observed undermined, the trees + gradually giving way, and falling into the stream. Cattle, horses, + bears, and deer are seen at times attempting to swim across the + impetuous mass of foaming and boiling water; whilst, here and there, + a vulture or an eagle is observed perched on a bloated carcass, + tearing it up in pieces, as regardless of the flood, as on former + occasions it would have been of the numerous sawyers and planters + with which the surface of the river is covered when the water is low. + Even the steamer is frequently distressed. The numberless trees and + logs that float along, break its paddles, and retard its progress. + Besides it is on such occasions difficult to procure fuel to maintain + its fires." + +In certain parts, the shores of the Mississippi are protected by +artificial barriers called Levees. In such places, during a flood, the +whole population of the district is engaged in strengthening these +barriers, each proprietor being in great alarm lest a crevasse should +open and let in the waters upon his fields. In spite of all exertions +this disaster generally happens: the torrent rushes impetuously over the +plantations, and lays waste the most luxuriant crops. + +The mighty changes effected by the inundations of the Mississippi are +little known until the waters begin to subside. Large streams are then +found to exist where none had formerly been. These are called by +navigators _short cuts_, and some of them are so considerable as to +interfere with the navigation of the Mississippi. Large sand-banks are +also completely removed by the impetuous whirl of the waters, and are +deposited in other places. Some appear quite new to the navigator, who +has to mark their situation and bearings in his log-book. Trees on the +margin of the river have either disappeared, or are tottering and bending +over the stream preparatory to their fall. The earth is everywhere +covered by a deep deposit of muddy loam, which, in drying, splits into +deep and narrow chasms, forming a sort of network, from which, in warm +weather, noxious exhalations rise, filling the atmosphere with a dense +fog. The Squatter, shouldering his rifle, makes his way through the +morass in search of his lost stock, to drive the survivors home and save +the skins of the drowned. New fences have everywhere to be formed, and +new houses erected; to save which from a like disaster, the settler +places them on a raised platform, supported by pillars made of the trunks +of trees. "The lands must be ploughed anew; and if the season is not too +far advanced, a crop of corn and potatoes may yet be raised. But the +rich prospects of the planter are blasted. The traveller is impeded in +his journey, the creeks and smaller streams having broken up their banks +in a degree proportionate to their size. A bank of sand, which seems +firm and secure, suddenly gives way beneath the traveller's horse, and +the next moment the animal has sunk in the quicksand, either to the chest +in front, or to the crupper behind, leaving its master in a situation not +to be envied." + + [Picture: Mists in the Valley] + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +VARIOUS FORMS OP CLOUDS--THE CIRRUS, OR CURL-CLOUD--THE CUMULUS, OR +STACKEN-CLOUD--THE STRATUS, OR FALL-CLOUD--THE CIRRO-CUMULUS, OR +SONDER-CLOUD--THE CIRRO-STRATUS, OR WANE-CLOUD--THE CUMULO-STRATUS, OR +TWAIN-CLOUD--THE NIMBUS, OR RAIN-CLOUD--ARRANGEMENT OF +RAIN-CLOUDS--APPEARANCES OF A DISTANT SHOWER--SCUD--CAUSE OF +RAIN--FORMATION OF CLOUDS--MISTS--HEIGHTS OF CLOUDS--APPEARANCE OF THE +SKY ABOVE THE CLOUDS. + +Many persons are apt to suppose that the clouds are among the most fitful +and irregular appearances in the world; fleeting and unstable in their +nature, uncertain in their forms, apparently subject to no fixed laws, +and obedient neither to times nor seasons. Attentive observers, however, +have proved that the beauty and harmony which are everywhere found to +prevail in nature when rightly understood, can also be traced, even in +the clouds. Although very much still remains to be discovered respecting +them, yet it is found that, like all the other natural productions, they +admit of being arranged and classified. So obvious was this to persons +whose interest it is to observe the weather, that, long before scientific +men had studied the subject, country people had noticed the different +forms of clouds, and had learned to distinguish them by different names. + +The first scientific man who made the clouds the object of his particular +study, was Luke Howard, who, from an attentive consideration of their +forms and appearances, found that they might all be arranged under three +simple or primary forms, namely:-- + +1. The _Cirrus_--so called from its resemblance to a _curled lock of +hair_. (Figures, 1, 2; page 77.) + +2. The _Cumulus_, from the _heaped_ appearance presented by the convex +masses which form this cloud. (Figure 7.) + +3. The _Stratus_, from its spreading out horizontally in a continuous +layer, and increasing from below. (Figure 10.) + +These three primary forms are subject to four modifications:-- + +The first is the _Cirro-cumulus_, consisting of small roundish and +well-defined masses, in close horizontal arrangement. (Figure 3.) + + [Picture: Various forms of clouds] + +The second is the _Cirro-Stratus_, and the masses which compose it are +small and rounded, but thinned off towards a part, or towards the whole +of their circumference. They are sometimes separate, and sometimes in +groups. (Figures 4, 5, 6.) + +The third is the _Cumulo-Stratus_, which is made up of the cirro-stratus +blended with the cumulus. (Figure 8.) + +The fourth is the _Cumulo-Cirro-Stratus_, or _Nimbus_. This is the true +_rain-cloud_, or system of clouds from which rain is falling. (Figure +9.) + +The term _modification_ applies to the structure or manner in which a +given mass of cloud is made up, and not to its precise form or size, +which in most clouds varies every instant. Mr. Howard remarks, that it +may be at first difficult to distinguish one modification from another, +or to trace the narrow limits which sometimes separate the different +modifications; but a moderate acquaintance with the subject will soon +enable any one to point out the various forms, and to a great extent to +judge of the state of the weather by them. In order, therefore, to +assist the reader in gaining a certain amount of knowledge on this +interesting subject, it may be useful to state more fully the various +phenomena of the different forms of clouds already enumerated. + + [Picture: The Cirrus, or curl-cloud] + +The Cirrus occurs in very great variety, and in some states of the air is +constantly changing. It is the first cloud that appears in serene +weather, and is always at a great height. The first traces of the cirrus +are some fine whitish threads, delicately-pencilled on a clear blue sky; +and as they increase in length others frequently appear at the sides, +until numerous branches are formed, extending in all directions. +Sometimes these lines cross each other and form a sort of delicate +net-work. In dry weather the cirrus is sharp, defined, and fibrous in +texture, the lines vanishing off in fine points. When the air is damp +this cloud may be seen in the intervals of rain, but is not well defined, +and the lines are much less fibrous. Such cirri as these often grow into +other varieties of cloud, and are frequently followed by rain. + +The cirrus may last a few minutes only, or continue for hours. Its +duration is shortest when near other clouds. Although it appears to be +stationary, it has some connexion with the motions of the atmosphere; for +whenever, in fair weather, light variable breezes prevail, cirri are +generally present. When they appear in wet weather, they quickly pass +into the cirro-stratus. + +According to Dalton, these clouds are from three to five miles above the +earth's surface. When viewed from the summits of the highest mountains +they appear as distant as from the plains. Another proof of their great +height is, their continuing to be tinged by the sun's rays in the evening +twilight with the most vivid colours, while the denser clouds are in the +deepest shade. + +The cirrus appears to be stationary; but, on comparison with a fixed +object, it will sometimes be found to make considerable progress. + + + +THE CUMULUS, OR STACKEN-CLOUD. + + + "And now the mists from earth are clouds in heaven: + Clouds, slowly castellating in a calm + Sublimer than a storm; while brighter breathes + O'er the whole firmament the breadth of blue, + Because of that excessive purity + Of all those hanging snow-white palaces, + A gentle contrast, but with power divine." + +The Cumulus is a day cloud; it usually has a dense, compact appearance, +and moves with the wind. In the latter part of a clear morning a small +irregular spot appears suddenly at a moderate elevation. This is the +nucleus or commencement of the cloud, the upper part of which soon +becomes rounded and well defined, while the lower forms an irregular +straight line. The cloud evidently increases in size on the convex +surface, one heap succeeding another, until a pile of cloud is raised or +_stacked_ into one large and elevated mass, or _stacken-cloud_, of +stupendous magnitude and beauty, disclosing mountain summits tipped with +the brightest silver; the whole floating along with its point to the sky, +while the lower surface continues parallel with the horizon. + + [Picture: The Cumulus, or stacken-cloud] + +When several cumuli are present, they are separated by distances +proportioned to their size: the smaller cumuli crowding the sky, while +the larger ones are further apart. But the bases always range in the +same line; and the increase of each cloud keeps pace with that of its +neighbour, the intervening spaces remaining clear. + +The cumulus often attains its greatest size early in the afternoon, when +the heat of the day is most felt. As the sun declines, this cloud +gradually decreases, retaining, however, its characteristic form till +towards sunset, when it is, more or less, hastily broken up and +disappears, leaving the sky clear as in the early part of the morning. +Its tints are often vivid, and pass one into the other in a most pleasing +manner, during this last hour of its existence. + +This cloud accompanies and foretells fine weather. In changeable weather +it sometimes evaporates almost as soon as it is formed; or it appears +suddenly, and then soon passes off to some other modification. + +In fair weather this cloud has a moderate elevation and extent, and a +well-defined rounded surface. Before rain it increases more rapidly than +at other times, and appears lower in the atmosphere, with its surface +full of loose fleeces. + +The formation of large cumuli to leeward, in a strong wind, indicates the +approach of a calm with rain. When they do not disappear or subside +about sun-set, but continue to rise, thunder is to be expected in the +night. + +Independently of the beauty and magnificence which this description of +cloud adds to the face of nature, it serves to screen the earth from the +direct rays of the sun; by its multiplied reflections to diffuse and, as +it were, economise the light; and also to convey immense stores of vapour +from the place of its origin to a region in which moisture may be wanted. + + + +THE STRATUS, OR FALL-CLOUD. + + +As the Cumulus belongs to the day, so does the Stratus to the night. It +is the lowest of all the clouds, and actually rests upon the earth, or +the surface of water. It is of variable extent and thickness, and is +called _Stratus_, _a bed_ or _covering_. It is generally formed by the +_sinking_ of vapour in the atmosphere, and on this account has been +called _Fall-cloud_. It comprehends all those level, creeping mists, +which, in calm evenings, spread like an inundation from the valleys, +lakes, and rivers, to the higher ground. {85} But on the return of the +sun the beautiful level surface of this cloud begins to put on the +appearance of cumulus, the whole, at the same time, rising from the +ground like a magnificent curtain. As the cloud ascends, it is broken up +and evaporates or passes off with the morning breeze. The stratus has +long been regarded as the harbinger of fine weather; and, indeed, there +are few days in the year more serene than those whose morning breaks out +through a stratus. + + [Picture: The Stratus, or fall-cloud] + + + +THE CIRRO-CUMULUS, OR SONDER-CLOUD. + + +The cirrus having continued for some time increasing or stationary, +usually passes either to the cirro-cumulus or to the cirro-stratus, at +the same time descending to a lower station in the atmosphere. + +The Cirro-cumulus is formed from a cirrus, or a number of small separate +cirri, passing into roundish masses, in which the extent of the cirrus is +no longer to be seen. This change takes place either throughout the +whole mass at once, or progressively from one extremity to the other. In +either case the same effect is produced on a number of neighbouring cirri +at the same time, and in the same order. It appears, in some instances, +to be hastened by the approach of other clouds. + + [Picture: The Cirro-Cumulus, or sonder-cloud] + +The cirro-cumulus forms a very beautiful sky, exhibiting sometimes +numerous distinct beds of small connected clouds floating at different +heights. It is frequent in summer, and accompanies warm, dry weather. +On a fine summer's evening the small masses which compose this cloud, are +often well defined, and lying quite _asunder_, or separate from one +another; and on this account the term _sonder-cloud_ has been applied to +this modification. The whole sky is sometimes covered with these small +masses. They are occasionally, and more sparingly, seen in the intervals +of showers, and in winter. + +Bloomfield, in the following beautiful lines, has noticed the appearance +of the sonder-cloud:-- + + "For yet above these wafted clouds are seen + (In a remoter sky still more serene) + Others, detach'd in ranges through the air, + Spotless as snow, and countless as they're fair; + Scatter'd immensely wide from east to west, + The beauteous semblance of a flock at rest: + These, to the raptur'd mind, aloud proclaim + The mighty Shepherd's everlasting name." + +This cloud may either evaporate or disappear, or it may pass to the +cirrus, or sink lower and become a cirro-stratus. In stormy weather, +before thunder, a cirro-cumulus often appears, composed of very dense and +compact round bodies, in very close arrangement. When accompanied by the +cumulo-stratus, it is a sure indication of a coming storm. + + + +THE CIRRO-STRATUS, OR WANE-CLOUD. + + +This cloud appears to be formed from the fibres of the cirrus sinking +into a horizontal position, at the same time that they approach each +other sideways. This cloud is to be distinguished by its flatness and +great horizontal extension, in proportion to its height; a character +which it always retains, under all its various forms. As this cloud is +generally changing its figure, and slowly sinking, it has been called the +_wane-cloud_. A collection of these clouds, when seen in the distance, +frequently give the idea of shoals of fish. Sometimes the whole sky is +so mottled with them, as to obtain for it the name of the _mackerel-back +sky_, from its great resemblance to the back of that fish. Sometimes +they assume an arrangement like discs piled obliquely on each other. But +in this, as in other instances, the structure must be attended to rather +than the form, for this varies much, presenting, at times, the appearance +of parallel bars or interwoven streaks, like the grain of polished wood. +It is thick in the middle and thinned off towards the edge. + + [Picture: The Cirro-Stratus, or wane-cloud] + +These clouds precede wind and rain. The near or distant approach of a +storm may often be judged of from their greater or less abundance and +duration. They are almost always to be seen in the intervals of storms. +Sometimes the cirro-stratus, and the cirro-cumulus, appear together in +the sky, and even alternate with each other in the same cloud, presenting +many curious changes; and a judgment may be formed of the weather likely +to ensue, by observing which prevails at last. + +The cirro-stratus most frequently forms the solar and lunar halo. Hence +the reason of the prognostics of bad weather commonly drawn from the +appearance of halos. + + + +THE CUMULO-STRATUS, OR TWAIN-CLOUD. + + + [Picture: The Cumulo-Stratus, or twain-cloud] + +This is a blending of two kinds of cloud (hence the name of +_twain-cloud_,) and it often presents a grand and beautiful appearance, +being a collection of large fleecy clouds overhanging a flat stratum or +base. When a cumulus increases rapidly a cumulo-stratus frequently forms +around its summit, resting thereon as on a mountain, while the former +cloud continues to be seen, in some degree, through it. This state of +things does not continue long. The cumulo-stratus speedily becomes +denser and spreads, while the upper part of the cumulus extends likewise, +and passes into it, the base continuing as it was. A large, lofty, dense +cloud is thus formed which may be compared to a mushroom with a very +thick, short stem. The cumulo-stratus, when well formed and seen singly, +and in profile, is quite as beautiful an object as the cumulus. Mr. +Howard has occasionally seen specimens constructed almost as finely as a +Corinthian capital; the summit throwing a well-defined shadow upon the +parts beneath. It is sometimes built up to a great height. The finest +examples occur between the first appearance of the fleecy cumuli and the +commencement of rain, while the lower atmosphere is comparatively dry, +and during the approach of thunder storms. The appearance of the +cumulo-stratus, among ranges of hills, presents some interesting +phenomena. It appears like a curtain dropping among them and enveloping +their summits; the hills reminding the spectator of the massy Egyptian +columns which support the flat-roofed temples of Thebes. But when a +whole sky is crowded with these clouds, and the cumulus rises behind +them, and is seen through the interstices, the whole, as it passes off in +the distant horizon, presents to the fancy mountains covered with snow, +intersected with darker ridges, lakes of water, rocks and towers. +Shakspeare seems to have referred to this modification in the well-known +lines:-- + + "Sometimes we see a cloud that's dragonish; + A vapour, sometimes, like a bear or lion, + A towered citadel, a pendent rock, + A forked mountain, a blue promontory, + With trees upon 't that nod unto the world, + And mock our eyes with air.-- + That which is now a horse, even with a thought + The rack dislimns, and makes it indistinct + As water is in water. + +The _distinct_ cumulo-stratus is formed in the interval between the first +appearance of the fleecy _cumulus_ and the commencement of rain, while +the lower atmosphere is yet dry; also during the approach of thunder +storms when it has frequently a reddish appearance. Its _indistinct_ +appearance is chiefly in the longer or shorter intervals of showers of +rain, snow, or hail. + + + +THE CUMULO-CIRRO-STRATUS; NIMBUS OR RAIN-CLOUD. + + +Clouds, in any one of the preceding forms, at the same degree of +elevation, or two or more of these forms at different elevations, may +increase and become so dense as completely to obscure the sky; this, to +an inexperienced observer, would seem to indicate the speedy commencement +of rain. But Mr. Howard is of opinion that clouds, while in any of the +states above described, never let fall rain. + +Before rain the clouds always undergo a change of appearance, +sufficiently remarkable to give them a distinct character. This +appearance, when the rain happens overhead, is but imperfectly seen; but +from the observations of aeronauts, it appears that whenever a fall of +rain occurs, and the sky is at the same time entirely overcast with +clouds, there will be found to exist another stratum of clouds at a +certain elevation above the former. So, also, when the sky is entirely +overcast and rain is altogether or generally absent, the aeronaut, upon +traversing the canopy immediately above him, is sure to enter upon an +upper hemisphere either perfectly cloudless or nearly so. These remarks +were, we believe, first made by Mr. M. Mason, and he states that they +have been verified during many hundred ascents. + +In October, 1837, two ascents were made by Mr. Mason, which well +illustrate what has been said. On the 12th, "the sky was completely +overspread with clouds, and torrents of rain fell incessantly during the +whole of the day. Upon quitting the earth, the balloon was almost +immediately enveloped in the clouds, through which it continued to work +its way upwards for a few seconds. Upon emerging at the other side of +this dense canopy, a vacant space, of some thousand feet in breadth, +intervened, above which lay another stratum of a similar form and +observing a similar character. As the rain, however, still continued to +pour from this second layer of clouds, to preserve the correctness of the +observation, a third layer should, by right, have existed at a still +further elevation; which, accordingly, proved to be the case. On the +subsequent occasion of the ascent of the same balloon, (October 17th,) an +exactly similar condition of the atmosphere, with respect to clouds, +prevailed; unaccompanied, however, with the slightest appearance of rain. +No sooner had the balloon passed the layer of clouds immediately above +the surface of the earth, than, as was anticipated, not a single cloud +was to be found in the firmament beyond; an unbroken expanse of clear +blue sky everywhere embracing the frothy plain that completely +intercepted all view of the world beneath." + +Mr. Howard had not the advantages of a balloon to assist his +observations. He has noticed that during rain and before the arrival of +the denser and lower clouds, or through their interstices, there exists, +at a greater height, a thin light veil or a hazy appearance. When this +has considerably increased, the lower clouds are seen to spread till they +unite in all points and form one uniform sheet. The rain then commences, +and the lower clouds arriving from the windward, move under this sheet +and are successively lost in it. When the latter cease to arrive, or +when the sheet breaks, letting through the sun-beams, every one's +experience teaches him to expect that the rain will abate or leave off. + +But there often follows an immediate and great addition to the quantity +of cloud. At the same time the darkness becomes less, because the +arrangement, which now returns, gives free passage to the rays of light; +the lower broken clouds rise into cumuli, and the upper sheets put on the +various forms of the cumulo-stratus, sometimes passing to the +cirro-cumulus. + +The various phenomena of the rain-cloud are best seen in a distant +shower. If the cumulus be the only cloud at first visible, its upper +part is seen to become tufted with cirri. Several adjacent clouds also +approach and unite at its side. The cirri increase, extending upwards +and sideways, after which the shower is seen to commence. At other +times, the cirro-stratus is first formed above the cumulus, and their +sudden union is attended with the production of cirri and rain. In +either case the cirri spring up in proportion to the quantity of rain +falling, and give the cloud a character by which it is easily known at +great distances, and which has long been called by the name of _nimbus_. + +When one of these arrives hastily with the wind, it brings but little +rain, and frequently some hail or driven snow. + +Since rain may be produced and continue to fall from the slightest +obscuration of the sky by the nimbus, while a cumulus or a +cumulo-stratus, of a very dark and threatening aspect, passes on without +discharging any until some change of state takes place; it would seem as +if nature had destined the latter as reservoirs, in which water is +collected from extensive regions of the air for occasionally irrigating +particular spots in dry seasons; and by means of which it is arrested, at +times, in its descent in wet ones. + +Although the nimbus is one of the least beautiful of clouds, it is, +nevertheless, now and then adorned by the splendid colouring of the +rainbow, which can only be seen in perfection when the dark surface of +this cloud forms for it a background. + +The small ragged clouds which are sometimes seen sailing rapidly through +the air, are called _scud_. They consist of portions of a rain-cloud, +probably broken up by the wind, and are dark or light according as the +sun shines upon them. They are the usual harbingers of rain, and, as +such, are called by various names, such as _messengers_, _carriers_, and +_water-waggons_. + + * * * * * + +In attempting to explain the production of clouds and rain, it is +necessary to observe that the subject is beset with difficulties--the +discussion of which does not belong to this little volume; but the +following notice of Dr. Hutton's theory may not be out of place. + +It has been already stated, that the air supplies itself with moisture +from the surface of the waters of the earth. This it continues to do at +all temperatures, until it is so charged with vapour that it cannot +contain any more. The air is then said to be _saturated_. Now, the +quantity of moisture which a given bulk of air can contain, depends +entirely upon the temperature of the air for the time being. The higher +the temperature of the air the greater will be the quantity of vapour +contained in it; and, although it may be perfectly invisible to the eye, +on account of the elasticity which the heat imparts to it, yet it can +easily be made visible by subtracting a portion of the heat. If, for +example, a glass of cold water be suddenly brought into a warm room, +moisture from the air will be condensed upon the outside of the glass in +the form of dew. A similar change is supposed to take place when two +currents of air having different temperatures, but both saturated with +vapour, are mingled together; an excess of vapour is set free, which +forms a cloud or falls down as rain. If the currents continue to mingle +uniformly, "the clouds soon spread in all directions, so as to occupy the +whole horizon; while the additional moisture, incessantly brought by the +warmer current, keeps up a constant supply for condensation, and produces +a great and continued deposition of moisture in the form of rain. By +degrees, the currents completely intermingle, and acquire a uniform +temperature; condensation then ceases; the clouds are re-dissolved; and +the whole face of nature, after being cooled and refreshed by the +necessary rain, is again enlivened by the sunshine, thus rendered still +more agreeable by its contrast with the previous gloom." + +If the cloud, produced by the mingling of two differently heated currents +of moist air, happen to form in the upper regions of the sky, it may be +heavier than its own bulk of air, and will consequently begin to sink. +Should the atmosphere near the earth be less dense than the cloud, the +latter will continue to descend till it touches the ground, where it +forms a mist. If the vapour has been condensed rapidly and abundantly, +the watery particles will form rain, hail, or snow, according to the +temperature of the air through which they pass. But it may happen that +the cloud, in descending, arrives in a warmer region than that in which +it was formed: in this case, the condensed moisture may again become +vapour, and ascend again to a region where condensation may again take +place. + +Mr. Daniell's explanation of the formation of rain differs from the above +in some of its particulars, which are not sufficiently elementary to be +given here; but it may be instructive to give a few of Mr. Howard's +illustrations respecting the formation of the various clouds. If hot +water be exposed to cool air, it _steams_--that is, the vapour given off +from the surface is condensed in mixing with the air; and the water thus +produced appears in visible particles, the heat of the vapour passing +into the air. This effect may be seen about sunrise, in summer, on the +surface of ponds warmed by the sun of the previous day, and also with +water newly pumped from a well. But the small cloud formed in these +instances usually disappears almost as soon as formed, the air being too +dry to allow it to remain. But in the wide regions of the atmosphere the +case is different, on account of the vast supply of vapour, and the +ascent and descent of the cloud to regions which allow it to remain +tolerably permanent. In the fine evenings of autumn, and occasionally at +other seasons, mists appear suddenly in the valleys, gradually filling +these low places, and even rising to a certain height, forming a foggy +atmosphere for the following day. These collections of visible vapour +resting on the earth, and often cut off so as to form a level surface +above, so nearly resemble a sheet of water, as to have been occasionally +mistaken for an inundation, the occurrence of the previous night. Such +is the origin and appearance of the _stratus_: it constitutes the fog of +the morning, and sometimes, as at the approach of a long frost, occupies +the lower atmosphere for several days. But the sun, we will suppose, has +broken through and dissipated this obscurity, and cleared the lower air. +On looking up to the blue sky, we see some few spots showing the first +formation of a cloud there: these little collections increase in number, +and become clouds, heaped, as it were, on a level base, and presenting +their rounded forms upwards; in which state they are carried along in the +breeze, remaining distinct from each other in the sky. This is the +_cumulus_, or _heap_. + +By and by, if the clouds continue to form, and enough vapour is supplied +from above, these heaps are seen to grow over their base like a mushroom +or cauliflower. Perhaps a flat top is seen forming separately, and this +afterwards joins the simple heap of cloud; or the flat forms and the +heaps become mixed irregularly among each other, occupying the spaces +everywhere, till the sky becomes overcast, and presents the usual +appearance of dense clouds. This is the _cumulo-stratus_, or _heaped and +flat cloud_. It is not productive of rain, and it forms, both in summer +and in winter, the common scenery of a full sky. + +On examining minutely the higher regions of the air, especially after the +sky has been clear for some time, the spectator will probably see the +cirrus descending from above in the form of _threads_ or _locks_ and +_feathers_, which go on increasing until they fill the sky. They are +more commonly seen above the two former kinds, which float upon the clear +air below. On continuing to watch the cirri, they will be seen to pass +to the intermediate form of cirro-cumulus, consisting of smaller rounded +clouds attached to each other, or simply collected together in a flat +aggregate, and forming the mottled or dappled sky. + +The cumulo-stratus is more dense and continuous in its structure; thick +in the middle, and thinned off towards the edges. Over-head it is a mere +bed of haze, more or less dense. In the horizon, when seen sideways, it +often resembles shoals of fish, as already noticed; but it is liable to +put on the most ragged and patchy appearances, making a very ugly sky. + +The nimbus, or rain cloud, is seen to the greatest advantage in profile, +in the horizon, and at a great distance, when it often resembles a lofty +tower raised by its greater height to a conspicuous place among the dark +threatening clouds, and catching the sun's last rays upon its broad +summit and sides. In its nearer approach, it may always be known by +being connected below with an obscurity caused by the rain it lets fall, +and which reaches down to the horizon. + +In ascending from the lower valleys to the tops of lofty mountains, +clouds may be traced through six modifications, the cirrus being seen +from the loftiest summits, while the other forms are only skirting the +sides of the mountains. Mr. Mason remarks, that clouds occasionally lie +so low, that before the balloon seems to have entirely quitted the earth, +it has been received between their limits, and entirely enveloped within +their watery folds. Clouds, on the contrary, are sometimes at such a +height, that the balloon either never comes into contact with them at +all, or, if it passes through one layer, the aeronaut continues to behold +another occupying a still remoter region of the skies above. + +As a general rule, it is stated that the natural region of clouds is a +stratum of the atmosphere lying between the level of the first thousand +feet, and that of one removed about ten thousand feet above it. Of +course it is not supposed but that clouds are occasionally found on both +sides of the bounds here assigned to them; the mist occupies the lowest +valleys, while, on the other hand, long after the aeronaut has attained +the height of ten thousand feet, some faint indications of clouds may +still be seen partially obscuring the dark blue vault above him. As he +continues to ascend, the blue of the sky increases in intensity; and +should a layer of clouds shut out all view of the earth, "above and all +around him extends a firmament dyed in purple of the intensest hue; and +from the apparent regularity of the horizontal plane on which it rests, +bearing the resemblance of a large inverted bowl of dark blue porcelain +standing upon a rich Mosaic floor or tesselated pavement. Ascending +still higher, the colour of the sky, especially about the zenith, is to +be compared with the deepest shade of Prussian blue." + + [Picture: Various forms of hail-stones] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +ON HAIL--THE HAIL-STORMS OF FRANCE--DISASTROUS EFFECTS OF HAIL--THE +HAIL-STORMS OF SOUTH AMERICA--THEIR SURPRISING EFFECTS--ORIGIN AND NATURE +OF HAIL--PERIODICAL FALLS OF HAIL--HAIL CLOUDS--HAILSTONES--THEIR VARIOUS +FORMS--EXTRAORDINARY SIZE OF HAILSTONES. + +As hail seems to be nothing more than frozen rain, it is necessary to +collect a few particulars respecting it in this place. + +Great Britain is essentially a rain country; but there are some parts of +the world which have obtained the unhappy distinction of being _hail_ +countries: such, for example, as some of the most beautiful provinces of +France, which are frequently devastated by hail-storms. One of the most +tremendous hail-storms on record is that which occurred in that country +in July 1788. This fearful storm was ushered in by a dreadful and almost +total darkness which suddenly overspread the whole country. In a single +hour the whole face of nature was so entirely changed, that no person who +had slept during the tempest could have believed himself in the same part +of the world when he awoke. Instead of the smiling bloom of summer, and +the rich prospects of a forward autumn, which were just before spread +over the face of that fertile and beautiful country, it now presented the +dreary aspect of an arctic winter. The soil was changed into a morass; +the standing corn beaten into a quagmire; the vines were broken to +pieces, and their branches bruised in the same manner; the fruit-trees of +every kind were demolished, and the hail lay unmelted in heaps like rocks +of solid ice. Even the robust forest trees were incapable of +withstanding the fury of the tempest; and a large wood of chesnut trees, +in particular, was so much damaged, that it presented, after the storm, +little more than bare and naked trunks. The vines were so miserably +hacked and battered, that four years were estimated as the shortest +period in which they could become again in any degree productive. Of the +sixty-six parishes included in the district of Pontoise, forty-three were +entirely desolated; while, of the remaining twenty-three, some lost +two-thirds, and others above half their harvest. + +This storm began in the south, and proceeded in two parallel bands from +the south-west to the north-east; the extent of one of them being 175 +leagues, and of the other 200; thus traversing nearly the whole length of +that great kingdom, and even a portion of the Low countries. The mean +breadth of the eastern portion was four leagues, and of the western two: +and, what is very remarkable, the interval between the two bands, +amounting to five leagues, was deluged with heavy rain. The largest of +the hail-stones weighed half a pound each. + +The progress of this storm, which was from south to north, was at the +rate of 16.5 leagues an hour; and the velocity of the two bands was +precisely the same. The continuance of the hail was limited to seven or +eight minutes, at each of the principal stations marked. + +There are instances, however, on record, in which hail has produced even +more tremendous results than those above recorded. In some parts of +South America hail-stones are sometimes so large and so hard, and fall +with such violence, that large animals are killed by them. Mr. Darwin, +encamping at the foot of the Sierra Tapalguen, says:--"One of the men had +already found thirteen deer lying dead, and I saw their fresh hides. +Another of the party, a few minutes after my arrival, brought in seven +more. Now I well know that one man without dogs could hardly have killed +seven deer in a week. The men believed they had seen about fifteen dead +ostriches, (part of one of which we had for dinner;) and they said that +several were running about evidently blind in one eye. Numbers of small +birds, as ducks, hawks, and partridges, were killed. I saw one of the +latter with a black mark on its back, as if it had been struck with a +paving-stone. A fence of thistle-stalks round the hovel was nearly +broken down; and my informer, putting his head out to see what was the +matter, received a severe cut, and now wears a bandage. The storm was +said to have been of limited extent: we certainly saw, from our last +night's bivouac, a dense cloud and lightning in this direction. It is +marvellous how such strong animals as deer could thus have been killed; +but, I have no doubt, from the evidence I have given, that the story is +not in the least exaggerated." Dr. Malcolmson informed Mr. Darwin, that +he witnessed, in 1831, in India, a hail-storm, which killed numbers of +large birds, and much injured the cattle. These hail-stones were flat; +one was ten inches in circumference; and another weighed two ounces. +They ploughed up a gravel-walk like musket-balls, and passed through +glass windows, making round holes, but not cracking them. + +There is much in the origin and formation of hail that cannot well be +explained. Volta regarded the formation of small flakes of ice, the +kernels of future hail-stones, in the month of July, during the hottest +hours of the day, as one of the most difficult phenomena in nature to +explain. It is difficult to account for the comparative scarcity of +hail-showers in winter; as also, for the great size which hailstones are +often known to attain. + +It appears from certain resemblances in the descents of rain, snow, and +hail, that they have a common origin, their different formations being +explained by difference of temperature. Howard has observed a huge +nimbus affording hard snowballs and distinct flakes of snow at the same +time. Hail and rain are by no means uncommon from the same cloud. The +size of a cloud may be such, or clouds may exist in different elevations, +which in an upper region produce hail, in a lower region snow, and at a +still lower elevation rain. Rain may also form in an upper region of the +sky, and descend into a colder stratum of the atmosphere, and be frozen +into hail. Hail generally precedes storms of rain. + +Change of wind and the action of opposite currents, so necessary for the +production of rain, are also frequent during hail-storms. While clouds +are agitated with the most rapid motions, rain generally falls in +greatest abundance; and if the agitation be very great it generally +hails. Before the descent of hail a noise is heard, a particular kind of +crackling, which has been compared to the emptying of a bag of walnuts. + +The descent of hail in some countries appears to occur at particular +periods. In the central parts of France, Italy, and Spain, it usually +hails most abundantly during the warmest hours of the day in spring and +summer, and in Europe generally it falls principally during the day; but +there are examples recorded of great hail-storms which have taken place +during the night. Near the equator, it seldom hails in places situated +at a lower level than 350 fathoms, for, although the hail may be formed, +the warmth of the regions prevents it from falling in that state. + +The appearance of hail clouds seems to be distinguished from other stormy +clouds by a very remarkable shadowing. Their edges present a multitude +of indentations, and their surfaces disclose here and there immense +irregular projections. Arago has seen hail-clouds cover with a thick +veil the whole extent of a valley, at a time when the neighbouring hills +enjoyed a fine sky and an agreeable temperature. + +Hailstones of similar forms are produced at similar levels. They are +smaller on the tops of mountains than in the neighbouring plains. If the +temperature or the wind alter, the figures of the hailstones become +immediately changed. Hailstones of the form of a six-sided pyramid have +been known to change, on the wind changing to the north-east, to convex +lenses, so transparent and nicely formed, that they magnified objects +without distorting them. Some hailstones are globular, others elongated, +and others armed with different points. + +In the centres of hailstones small flakes of spungy snow are frequently +found, and this usually is the only opaque point in them. Sometimes the +surface is covered with dust, like fine flour, and is something between +hail and snow. This never falls during summer in southerly countries. +In the Andes hailstones from five to seven lines in diameter are +sometimes formed of layers of different degrees of transparency, so as to +permit rings of ice to be separated from them with a very slight blow. +In Orkney, hailstones have fallen as finely polished as marbles, of a +greyish white colour, not unlike fragments of light-coloured marble. +Hailstones are often so hard and elastic, that those which fall on the +stones rebound without breaking to the height of several yards; and they +have been known to be projected from a cloud almost horizontally, and +with such velocity as to pierce glass windows with a clear round hole. + +On the 7th May, 1822, some remarkable hailstones fell at Bonn, on the +Rhine. Their general size was about an inch and a half in diameter, and +their weight 300 grains. When picked up whole, which was not always the +case, their general outline was elliptical, with a white, or nearly +opaque spot in the centre, about which were arranged concentric layers, +increasing in transparency to the outside. Some of them exhibited a +beautiful star-like and fibrous arrangement, the result of rows of air +bubbles dispersed in different radii. The figures at the head of this +chapter show the external and internal appearances of these hailstones. + +The smaller figures represent pyramidal hail, common in France, and +occasionally in Great Britain. + +Brown hailstones have been noticed. Humboldt saw hail fall of the colour +of blood. + +On the 15th July, 1808, Howard noticed, in Gloucestershire, hailstones +from three to nine inches in circumference; appearing like fragments of a +vast plate of ice which had been broken in its descent to the earth. + +On the 4th June, 1814, Dr. Crookshank noticed, in North America, +hailstones of from thirteen to fifteen inches in circumference. They +seemed to consist of numerous smaller stones fused together. + +On the 24th July, 1818, during a storm in Orkney, Mr. Neill picked up +hailstones weighing from four ounces to nearly half a pound. + + [Picture: Rain gauges] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +METHOD OF MEASURING THE QUANTITY OF RAIN THAT FALLS--THE RAIN +GAUGE--METHODS OF OBSERVING FOR RAIN AND SNOW--EFFECTS OF ELEVATION ON +THE QUANTITY OF RAIN--DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TOP OF A TALL BUILDING AND +THE SUMMIT OF A MOUNTAIN--SIZE OF DROPS OF RAIN--VELOCITY OF THEIR +FALL--QUANTITY OF RAIN IN DIFFERENT LATITUDES--EXTRAORDINARY FALLS OF +RAIN--REMARKS ON THE RAIN OF THIS COUNTRY--INFLUENCE OF THE MOON--ABSENCE +OF RAIN--REMARKABLE DROUGHT IN SOUTH AMERICA--ITS TERRIBLE EFFECTS AND +CONSEQUENCES--ARTIFICIAL RAINS. + +The quantity of rain which falls at different parts of the earth's +surface is very variable; and for the purpose of measuring it instruments +called _Rain-gauges_ have been contrived. The simplest form is a funnel +three or four inches high, and having an area of one hundred square +inches. This may be placed in the mouth of a large bottle, and, after +each fall of rain, the quantity may be measured by a glass jar divided +into inches and parts. This simple gauge being placed on the ground in +an open spot, will evidently represent a portion of the ground, and will +show the depth of rain which would cover it at and about that spot, +supposing the ground to be horizontal, and that the water could neither +flow off nor sink into the soil. Thus, by taking notice of the quantity +of rain which falls day by day, and year by year, and taking the average +of many years, we get the mean annual quantity of rain for the particular +spot in question. By an extension of these observations, it is evident +that the mean annual fall of rain may be known for a district or a +kingdom. + +A more convenient form of rain-gauge than the one just noticed, is made +by placing the funnel at the top of a brass or copper cylinder, connected +with which at the lower point, is a glass tube with a scale, measuring +inches and tenths of an inch. The water stands at the same height in the +glass tube as it does in the cylinder, and being visible in the tube the +height can be immediately read on the scale. The cylinder and the tube +are so constructed, that the sum of the areas of their sections is a +given part, such as a tenth of the area of the mouth of the funnel; so +that each inch of water in the tube is equal to the tenth of an inch of +water which enters the mouth of the funnel. A stop-cock is added for +drawing off the water from the cylinder after each observation is noted +down. + +Some rain-gauges are constructed for showing the quantity of rain which +falls from each of the four principal quarters. Others are made so as to +register, themselves, the quantity of rain fallen. One of this kind, by +Mr. Crosley, consists of a funnel through which the rain passes to a +vibrating trough; when, after a sufficient quantity has fallen into its +higher side, it sinks down and discharges the rain which escapes by a +tube. The vibrating action of this trough moves a train of wheel-work +and indices, which register upon a dial plate the quantity of rain +fallen. + +Whatever form of rain-gauge is adopted, it must be placed in an exposed +situation, at a distance from all buildings, and trees, and other objects +likely to interfere with the free descent of rain into the funnel. It is +usual, in rainy weather, to observe the quantity of water in the gauge +every morning; but this does not seem to be often enough, considering how +freely water evaporates in an exposed situation. An error may also arise +from some of the water adhering to the sides of the vessel, unless an +allowance is made for the quantity thus lost by a contrivance such as the +following:--Let a sponge be made damp, yet so that no water can be +squeezed from it, and with this collect all the water which adheres to +the funnel and cylinder, after as much as possible has been drawn off; +then, if the sponge be squeezed, and the water from it be received in a +vessel which admits of measuring its quantity, an estimate may be made of +the depth due to it; and this being added to the depth given by the +instrument, would probably show correctly the required depth of rain. + +When snow has fallen the rain-gauge may not give a correct quantity, as a +portion of it may be blown out, or a greater quantity may have fallen +than the mouth will contain. In such cases, it is recommended to take a +cylindrical tube and press it perpendicularly into the snow, and it will +bring out with it a cylinder equal to the depth. This, when melted, will +give the quantity of water which can be measured as before. The +proportion of snow to water is about seventeen to one; and hail to water, +about eight to one. These quantities, however, may vary according to the +circumstances under which the snow or hail has fallen, and the time they +have been upon the ground. + +The rain-gauge should be placed as near the surface of the ground as +possible; for it is a perplexing circumstance, that the rain-gauge +indicates very different quantities of rain as falling upon the very same +spot, according to the different heights at which it is placed. Thus it +has been found, that the annual depth of rain at the top of Westminster +Abbey was 12.1 inches nearly, while, on the top of a house sixteen feet +lower, it was rather more than 18.1 inches, and on the ground, in the +garden of the house, it was 22.6 inches. M. Arago has also found from +observations made during twelve years, that on the terrace of the +Observatory at Paris the annual depth was about 2.25 inches less than in +the court thirty yards below. + +It would naturally be expected from these observations, that less rain +falls on high ground than at the level of the sea. Such however is not +the case, except on abrupt elevations; where the elevation is made by the +natural and gradual slope of the earth's surface, the quantity of rain is +greater on the mountain than in the plain. Thus, on the coast of +Lancashire, there is an annual fall of 39 inches; while at Easthwaite, +among the mountains in the same county, the annual depth of rain amounts +to 86 inches. By comparing the registers at Geneva and the convent of +the Great St. Bernard, it appears that at the former place, by a mean of +thirty-two years, the annual fall of rain is about 30.75 inches; while at +the latter, by a mean of twelve years, it is a little over 60 inches. + +In order to explain these remarkable differences, it must not be supposed +that the clouds extend down to the ground, so as to cause more rain at +the foot of Westminster Abbey than on its roof. There is no doubt that +in moist weather the air contains more water near the ground than a few +hundred feet above it; and probably, the same cause which determined a +fall from the cloud, would also throw down the moisture floating at a low +elevation. Much rain also proceeds from drifting showers, of short +duration, and the current moves more slowly along the surface, and allows +the drops to fall as fast as they are formed. In hilly countries, on the +contrary, clouds and vapours rest on the summits without descending into +the plains, and, according to some, the hills attract electricity from +the clouds, and thus occasion rain to fall. Mr. Phillips supposes that +each drop of rain continues to increase in size from the commencement to +the end of its descent, and as it passes successively through the moist +strata of the air, obtains its increase from them; while the rain which +falls on the mountain may leave these moist strata untouched, so that +they may, in fact, not form rain at all. + +The drops of rain are of unequal size, as may be seen from the marks made +by the first drops of a shower upon any smooth surface. They vary in +size from perhaps the twenty-fifth to a quarter of an inch in diameter. +It is supposed that in parting from the clouds they fall with increasing +speed, until the increasing resistance of the air becomes equal to their +weight, when they continue to fall with an uniform velocity. A +thunder-shower pours down much faster than a drizzling rain. A flake of +snow, being perhaps nine times more expanded than water, descends thrice +as slow. But hailstones are often several inches in length, and fall +with a velocity of seventy feet in a second, or at the rate of about +fifty miles an hour, and hence the destructive power of these missiles in +stripping and tearing off fruit and foliage. + +The annual quantity of rain decreases from the equator to the poles, as +appears from the following table, which gives the name of the station, +its latitude, and the average annual number of inches of rain:-- + +Coast of Malabar lat. 11 degrees 30' 135.5 inches. + N. +At Grenada, Antilles 12 degrees 126 +At Cape Francois, St. 19 degrees 46' 120 +Domingo +At Calcutta 22 degrees 23' 81 +At Rome 41 degrees 54' 39 +In England 50 to 55 degrees 31 +At St. Petersburgh 59 degrees 16' 16 +At Uleaborg 65 degrees 30' 13.5 + +The number of rainy days, on the contrary, increases from the equator to +the poles. + +From 12 to 43 degrees N. lat.--the number of rainy days in 78 +the year amounts to +From 43 to 46 degrees 103 +From 46 to 50 degrees 134 +From 50 to 60 degrees 161 + +The greatest depth of rain which falls in the Indian ocean is during the +time when the periodical winds, called the _monsoons_, change their +direction. When the winds blow directly in-shore the rains are very +abundant, so much so that, after a continuance of twenty-four hours, the +surface of the sea has been covered with a stratum of fresh water, good +enough for drinking, and ships have actually filled their casks from it. +Colonel Sykes observes, that the deluge-like character of a monsoon in +the Ghats of Western India, is attested by the annual amount of 302.25 +inches, at Malcolmpait, on the Mahabuleshwar Hills. + +A great depth of rain in a short time has occasionally been witnessed in +Europe. At Genoa, on the 25th of October, 1822, a depth of thirty inches +of rain fell in one day. At Joyeuse, on the 9th of October, 1827, +thirty-one inches of rain fell in twenty-two hours. Previous to the +great floods of Moray, in 1829, the rain is described as being so thick +that the very air itself seemed to be descending in one mass of water +upon the earth. Nothing could withstand it. The best finished windows +were ineffectual against it, and every room exposed to the north-east was +deluged. The smaller animals, the birds, and especially game, of all +kinds, were destroyed in great numbers by the rain alone, and the mother +partridge, with her brood and her mate, were found chilled to death +amidst the drenching wet. It was also noticed, that, as soon as the +flood touched the foundation of a dry stone wall, the sods on the top of +it became as it were alive with mice, all forcing their way out to escape +from the inundation which threatened their citadel; and in the stables, +where the water was three feet deep, rats and moles were swimming about +among the buildings. + +Among the Andes it is said to rain perpetually; but in Peru it never +rains, moisture being supplied during a part of the year by thick fogs, +called _garuas_. In Egypt, and some parts of Arabia, it seldom rains at +all, but the dews are heavy, and supply with moisture the few plants of +the sandy regions. + +There is a great variation in the quantity of rain that falls in the same +latitude, on the different sides of the same continent, and particularly +of the same island. The mean fall of rain at Edinburgh, on the eastern +coast, is 26 inches; while at Glasgow, on the western coast, in nearly +the same latitude, it is 40 inches. At North Shields, on the eastern +coast, it is 25 inches; while at Coniston, in Lancashire, in nearly the +same latitude, on the western coast, it is 85 inches. + +The amount of rain in a district may be changed by destroying or forming +forests, and by the inclosure and drainage of land. By thinning off the +wood in the neighbourhood of Marseilles, there has been a striking +decrease of rain in fifty years. + +In Mr. Howard's observations on the climate of this country, he has +found, on an average of years, that it rains every other day; that more +rain falls in the night than in the day; that the greatest quantity of +rain falls in autumn, and the least in winter; that the quantity which +falls in autumn is nearly double that in spring; that most rain falls in +October and least in February, and that May comes nearest to the mean: +that one year in every five, in this country, may be expected to be +extremely dry, and one in ten extremely wet. + +According to Dalton, the mean annual amount of rain and dew for England +and Wales is 36 inches. The mean all over the globe is stated to be 34 +inches. + +There seems to be some real connexion between the changes of the moon and +the weather. Mr. Daniell says, "No observation is more general; and on +no occasion, perhaps, is the almanac so frequently consulted as in +forming conjectures upon the state of the weather. The common remark, +however, goes no further than that changes from wet to dry, and from dry +to wet, generally happen at the changes of the moon. When to this result +of universal experience we add the philosophical reasons for the +existence of tides in the aerial ocean, we cannot doubt that such a +connexion exists. The subject, however, is involved in much obscurity." +At Viviers, it was observed that the number of rainy days was greatest at +the first quarter, and least at the last. Mr. Howard has observed that, +in this country, when the moon has south declination, there falls but a +moderate quantity of rain, and that the quantity increases till she has +attained the greatest northern declination. He thinks there is "evidence +of a great _tidal wave_, or swell in the atmosphere, caused by the moon's +attraction, preceding her in her approach to us, and following slowly as +she departs from these latitudes." + +Most dry climates are subject to periodical droughts. In Australia, they +return after every ten or twelve years, and are then followed by +excessive rains, which gradually become less and less till another +drought is the consequence. + +When Mr. Darwin was in South America, he passed through a district which +had long been suffering from dry weather. The first rain that had fallen +during that year was on the 17th of May, when it rained lightly for about +five hours. "With this shower," he says, "the farmers, who plant corn +near the sea-coast, where the atmosphere is more humid, would break up +the ground; with a second, put the seed in; and, if a third should fall, +they would reap in the spring a good harvest. It was interesting to +watch the effect of this trifling amount of moisture. Twelve hours +afterwards the ground appeared as dry as ever; yet, after an interval of +ten days, all the hills were faintly tinged with green patches; the grass +being sparingly scattered in hair-like fibres a full inch in length. +Before this shower every part of the surface was bare as on a high road." + +A fortnight after this shower had fallen, Mr. Darwin took an excursion to +a part of the country to which the shower had not extended. "We had, +therefore," he says, "in the first part of our journey a most faint tinge +of green, which soon faded away. Even where brightest, it was scarcely +sufficient to remind one of the fresh turf and budding flowers during the +spring of other countries. While travelling through these deserts, one +feels like a prisoner, shut up in a gloomy courtyard, longing to see +something green, and to smell a moist atmosphere." + +The effects of a great drought in the Pampas are thus described. "The +period included between the years 1827 and 1830 is called the 'gran seco' +or the great drought. During this time so little rain fell, that the +vegetation, even to the thistles, failed; the brooks were dried up, and +the whole country assumed the appearance of a dusty high road. This was +especially the case in the northern part of the province of Buenos Ayres, +and the southern part of St. Fe. Very great numbers of birds, wild +animals, cattle, and horses, perished from the want of food and water. A +man told me that the deer used to come into his courtyard to the well +which he had been obliged to dig to supply his own family with water; and +that the partridges had hardly strength to fly away when pursued. The +lowest estimation of the loss of cattle in the province of Buenos Ayres +alone, was taken at one million head. A proprietor at San Pedro had +previously to these years 20,000 cattle; at the end not one remained. +San Pedro is situated in the midst of the finest country, and even now +again abounds with animals; yet, during the latter part of the 'gran +seco' live cattle were brought in vessels for the consumption of the +inhabitants. The animals roamed from their _estancias_, and wandering +far to the southward, were mingled together in such multitudes that a +government commission was sent from Buenos Ayres to settle the disputes +of the owners. Sir Woodbine Parish informed me of another and very +curious source of dispute; the ground being so long dry, such quantities +of dust were blown about, that in this open country the landmarks became +obliterated, and people could not tell the limits of their estates. + +"I was informed by an eye-witness, that the cattle in herds of thousands +rushed into the river Parana, and being exhausted by hunger they were +unable to crawl up the muddy banks, and thus were drowned. The arm which +runs by San Pedro was so full of putrid carcasses, that the master of a +vessel told me, that the smell rendered it quite impossible to pass that +way. Without doubt, several hundred thousand animals thus perished in +the river. Their bodies, when putrid, floated down the stream, and many +in all probability were deposited in the estuary of the Plata. All the +small rivers became highly saline, and this caused the death of vast +numbers in particular spots, for when an animal drinks of such water it +does not recover. I noticed, but probably it was the effect of a gradual +increase, rather than of any one period, that the smaller streams in the +Pampas were paved with bones. Subsequently to this unusual drought, a +very rainy season commenced, which caused great floods. Hence it is +almost certain, that some thousands of these skeletons were buried by the +deposits of the very next year. What would be the opinion of a geologist +viewing such an enormous collection of bones, of all kinds of animals and +of all ages, thus embedded in one thick earthy mass? Would he not +attribute it to a flood having crept over the surface of the land, rather +than to the common order of things?" + +Captain Owen mentions a curious effect of a drought on the elephants at +Benguela on the western coast of Africa:--"A number of these animals had +some time since entered the town in a body to possess themselves of the +wells, not being able to procure any water in the country. The +inhabitants mustered, when a desperate conflict ensued, which terminated +in the ultimate discomfiture of the invaders, but not until they had +killed one man, and wounded several others." The town is said to have a +population of nearly three thousand. Dr. Malcolmson states, that during +a great drought in India the wild animals entered the tents of some +troops at Ellore, and that a hare drank out of a vessel held by the +adjutant of the regiment. + +In connexion with droughts may be mentioned a plan {133} proposed by Mr. +Espy of the United States of America, for remedying them by means of +_artificial rains_. That gentleman says, that if a large body of heated +air be made to ascend in a column, a large cloud will be generated, and +that such cloud will contain in itself a self-sustaining power, which may +move from the place over which it was formed, and cause the air over +which it passes to rise up into it and thus form more cloud and rain, +until the rain may become general. + +It is proposed to form this ascending column of air by kindling large +fires which, Mr. Espy says, are known to produce rain. Humboldt speaks +of a mysterious connexion between volcanoes and rain, and says that when +a volcano bursts out in South America in a dry season, it sometimes +changes it to a rainy one. The Indians of Paraguay, when their crops are +threatened by drought, set fire to the vast plains with the intention of +producing rain. In Louisiana, heavy rains have been known from time +immemorial to succeed the conflagration of the prairies; and the +inhabitants of Nova Scotia bear testimony to a similar result from the +burning of their forests. Great battles are said to produce rain, and it +is even stated that the spread of manufactures in a particular district +deteriorates the climate of such district, the ascending current +occasioned by the tall chimney of every manufactory tending to produce +rain. In Manchester, for example, it is said to rain six days out of +seven. + + [Picture: Decorative picture of person by pool] + + [Picture: Decorative picture of pastoral scene with rainbow] + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +THE RAINBOW--DECOMPOSITION OF WHITE LIGHT BY THE PRISM--FORMATION OF +PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BOWS--RAINBOWS IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS--THE RAINBOW A +SACRED EMBLEM--LUNAR RAINBOW--LIGHT DECOMPOSED BY CLOUDS--THEIR BEAUTIFUL +COLOURS--EXAMPLES. + +By means of rain and rain clouds we get that beautiful appearance so well +known as the rainbow. In order to form some idea of the manner in which +the rainbow is produced, it is necessary to know something of the manner +in which light is composed. Sir Isaac Newton was the first philosopher +who clearly explained the composition of light, as derived from the sun. +He admitted a ray of the sun into a darkened room through a small hole in +the window shutters; in front of this hole he placed a glass prism, and +at a considerable distance behind the prism he placed a white screen. If +there had been no prism between the hole and the screen, the ray of light +would have proceeded in the direction of the dotted lines, and a bright +spot would have fallen upon the floor of the room, as shown in the +figure. But the effect of the prism is to refract or bend the ray out of +its ordinary course, and in doing so it does not produce a white spot +upon the screen, but a long streak of beautiful colours, in the order +marked in the figure, red being at the bottom, then orange, yellow, +green, blue, indigo, and violet at the top. + + [Picture: Decomposition of white light] + +In order to account for the production of these colours from a ray of +light, Newton supposed that such a ray is actually made up of seven +distinct colours, which being mixed in proper proportions neutralize or +destroy each other. In order to account for the decomposition of the ray +of white light by the prism, and for the lengthened form of the +_spectrum_, as it is called, he supposed that each of the seven coloured +rays was capable of being bent by the prism in a different manner from +the rest. Thus, in the figure, the red appears to be less bent out of +the direction of the original ray than the orange--the orange less than +the yellow, and so on until we arrive at the violet, which is bent most +of all. + +It is scarcely necessary to remark, that these views were found to be +correct, except as regards the number of colours in the solar spectrum; +for it is now ascertained, with tolerable certainty, that there are only +three primitive or pure colours in nature, and these are _red_, _yellow_, +and _blue_; and it is supposed that by mingling two or more of these +colours in various proportions, all the colours in nature are produced. + +Now, to apply this explanation to the production of the rainbow, which is +usually seen under the following circumstances:--The observer is placed +with his back to the sun, and at some distance before him rain is +falling,--the air between the sun and the rain being tolerably clear. He +then often sees two circular arcs or bows immediately in front of him. +The colours of the inner bow are the more striking and vivid of the two. +Each exhibits the same series of colours as in the spectrum formed by the +prism; namely, _red_, _orange_, _yellow_, _green_, _blue_, _indigo_, and +_violet_; but the arrangement of these colours is different in the two +bows, for while in the inner bow the lower edge is violet and the upper +red, in the outer bow the lower edge is red and the upper violet. The +production of both bows is due to the refraction and reflexion of light, +the drops of rain forming, in fact, the prism which decomposes the white +light of the sun. The colours in the rainbow have the same proportional +breadth as the spaces in the prismatic spectrum. "The bow is, +therefore," as Sir D. Brewster remarks, "only an infinite number of +prismatic spectra, arranged in the circumference of a circle; and it +would be easy, by a circular arrangement of prisms, or by covering up all +the central part of a large lens, to produce a small arch of exactly the +same colours. All we require, therefore, to form a rainbow, is a great +number of transparent bodies capable of forming a great number of +prismatic spectra from the light of the sun." + +The manner in which the drops of rain act as prisms, may, perhaps, be +better understood with the assistance of the following diagram. Suppose +the two lower circles to represent drops of rain which assist in forming +the primary bow, and the two upper circles similar drops which help to +produce the secondary bow; and let S represent rays of the sun falling +upon them. The rays of the sun fall upon every part of the drop; but, as +those which pass through or near the centre come out on the opposite side +and form a focus, they need not be taken into account. Those rays, +however, which fall on the upper side of the drops, will be bent or +refracted, the red rays least, and the violet most; and will fall upon +the back of the drop in such a manner as to be reflected to the under +part of the drop; on quitting which they will be again refracted, so as +to be seen at E, where there will appear to the observer a prismatic +spectrum with the red uppermost, and the violet undermost. These remarks +apply to those drops only which form the upper part of the bow, but it is +obvious that a similar reasoning applied to the drops to the right and +left of the observer, will complete the bow. The inclination of the red +ray and the violet ray to the sun's rays, is 42 degrees 2' for the red, +and 40 degrees 17' for the violet, so that the breadth of the primary bow +is 1 degrees 45'. + +Thus it will be seen, that the primary bow is produced by two +refractions, and one intermediate reflection of the rays that fall on the +upper sides of the drops of rain. It is different with the rays which +enter the drops below. The red and violet rays will be bent or refracted +in different directions; and, after being twice reflected, will be again +bent towards the eye of the observer at E; but in this case the violet +forms the upper part, and the red the under part of the spectrum. The +inclination of these rays to the sun's rays at S, is 50 degrees 58' for +the red ray, and 54 degrees 10' for the violet ray; so that the breadth +of the bow is 3 degrees 10', and the distance between the primary and +secondary bows is 8 degrees 15'. Hence the secondary is formed in the +outside of the primary bow, with its colours reversed, in consequence of +their being produced by two reflexions and two refractions. The colours +of the secondary bow are much fainter than those of the primary, because +they undergo two reflexions instead of one. + +There is something very wonderful in the rapidity and perfection with +which these natural prisms, the falling drops of rain, produce these +effects. In the inconceivably short space of time occupied by a drop +falling through those parts of the sky which form the proper angles with +the sun's rays and the eye of the observer, the light enters the surface +of the drop, undergoes within it one or two reflexions, two refractions +and decompositions, and has reached the eye; and all this is done in a +portion of time too small for the drop to have fallen through a space +which we have the means of measuring. + +It will be understood, that since the eyes of different observers cannot +be in precisely the same place at the same time, no two observers can see +the _same_ rainbow; that is to say, the bow produced by one set of drops +to the eye of one observer is produced by another set of drops to the eye +of another observer. + +A rainbow can never be greater than a semicircle, unless the spectator is +on elevated ground; for if it were greater than a semicircle the centre +of the bow would be above the horizon, while the sun, which must be in a +line drawn through that centre and the eye of the observer, would be +below the horizon: but in such a case, the sun could not shine on the +drops of rain, and consequently there could be no rainbow. + +When the rain cloud is of small extent only a portion of a bow is +visible; when the cloud overspreads a large part of the sky a perfect bow +appears. Sometimes the bow may be traced across a portion of blue sky, +or it may appear to rest on the ground. In the former case, there are +vapours in the air too thin to be seen, but sufficient to refract and +reflect the rays of light; in the latter, the drops of rain, adhering to +the grass and foliage, produce the same effect. A coloured bow, similar +to that produced by rain, is sometimes seen in the spray of a fountain or +of a water-fall, and also in mists that lie low upon the ground. + +In mountainous and stormy regions rainbows are often seen to great +advantage. In the islands off the Irish coast the author of "Letters +from the Irish Islands," describes the rainbow of winter "as gradually +advancing before the lowering clouds, sweeping with majestic stride +across the troubled ocean, then, as it gained the beach, and seemed +almost within one's grasp, vanishing amid the storm of which it had been +the lovely but treacherous forerunner. It is, I suppose, a consequence +of our situation, and the close connexion between sea and mountain, that +the rainbows here are so frequent and so peculiarly beautiful. Of an +amazing breadth, and of colours vivid beyond description, I know not +whether most to admire this aerial phenomenon, when suspended in the +western sky, one end of the bow sinks behind the Island of Boffin, while +at the distance of several leagues the other rests upon the misty hills +of Ennis Turc; or when, at a later hour of the day, it has appeared +stretched across the ample sides of Mulbrea, penetrating far into the +deep blue waters that flow at its base. With feelings of grateful +recollection, too, we may hail the repeated visits of this heavenly +messenger, occasionally as often as five or six times in the course of +the same day, in a country exposed to such astonishing, and, at times, +almost incessant floods of rain." + +The beauty of the rainbow is not the only reason why we should regard it +with interest. The rainbow was appointed by God himself as a sign of the +covenant of mercy, made with Noah and with all mankind, after the flood. +The words in which this declaration was made to mankind, are recorded in +the Book of Genesis, chap. ix. ver. 11 to 16. + +Burnet, in his "Sacred Theory of the Earth," has some remarks on the +first appearance of the rainbow to the inhabitants of the earth after the +deluge. He says, "How proper and how apposite a sign would this be for +Providence to pitch upon, to confirm the promise made to Noah and his +posterity, that the world should be no more destroyed by water! It had a +secret connexion with the effect itself, and was so far a natural sign; +but, however, appearing first after the deluge, and in a watery cloud, +there was, methinks, a great easiness and propriety of application for +such a purpose. And if we suppose, that while God Almighty was declaring +his promise to Noah, and the sign of it, there appeared at the same time +in the clouds a fair rainbow, that marvellous and beautiful meteor which +Noah had never seen before; it could not but make a most lively +impression upon him, quickening his faith, and giving him comfort and +assurance that God would be stedfast to his promise." + +A rainbow is sometimes formed by the rays of the moon falling upon drops +of rain, in the same manner as the solar rays, and refracted and +reflected by the drops; but the colours are faint in consequence of the +feeble light of the moon compared with that of the sun. A lunar rainbow +has been thus described by an observer:--"The moon was truly 'walking in +brightness,' brilliant as she could be, not a cloud was to be seen near +her; and over against her, toward the north-west, or perhaps rather more +to the north, was a rainbow, a vast arch, perfect in all its parts, not +interrupted or broken as rainbows frequently are, but unremittedly +visible from one horizon to the other. In order to give some idea of its +extent, it is necessary to say, that, as I stood toward the western +extremity of the parish of Stoke Newington, it seemed to take its rise +from the west of Hampstead, and to end perhaps in the river Lea, the +eastern boundary of Tottenham. Its colour was white, cloudy, or greyish, +but a part of its western limb seemed to exhibit tints of a faint sickly +green. After some time the moon became darkened by clouds, and the +rainbow of course vanished." + + [Picture: Lunar Rainbow] + +The brilliant colours of the solar rainbow are frequently produced by the +clouds without any prismatic arrangement. The light of the sun is +decomposed by a process called absorption: for example, white light is +composed of red, yellow, and blue rays, in certain proportions; now, if +in passing through, or falling upon any substance whatever, the red rays +are stifled or absorbed, while the yellow and blue are allowed to pass or +to be reflected, it is obvious that such a substance cannot appear white, +because one of the elements of white light, namely, the red, is wanting; +it must therefore appear of such a colour as results from the combination +of yellow and blue; the substance will therefore appear green. So, also, +when white light falls upon what we call a _red_ surface, the yellow and +blue rays are stifled or absorbed, leaving the red only to be reflected. +Now, when we consider the various ways in which this absorption may take +place; one or two, or all of the coloured rays being absorbed in every +possible proportion, it is easy to form some idea of the manner by which +the innumerable tints of the sky are produced. + +It has been calculated, that, of the horizontal sunbeams which pass +through two hundred miles of air, scarcely a two thousandth part reaches +the earth. A densely formed cloud must therefore detain a much larger +share; and those dark and sombre forms, which sometimes make the sky so +gloomy, can only result from the abundant absorption of the solar light. +The brilliant whiteness which their edges occasionally exhibit, must +result from the more copious transmission of light, so that the depths of +shade in a cloud may be regarded as comparative measures of the varied +thickness of its mass. + +Sometimes the clouds absorb equally all the solar rays, in which case the +sun and moon appear through them perfectly white. Instances are recorded +in which the sun appeared of a pale blue. It has also been observed to +be orange at its upper part, while the lower was of a brilliant red. + +The position from which clouds are seen, has much to do with their +colours; and it seems difficult sometimes to believe that the clouds, +which in the evening are seen drenched with crimson and gold, are the +same we beheld absolutely colourless in the middle of the day. + +In the immediate neighbourhood of the sun the most brilliant colours may +be disclosed; and their vividness and intensity diminish, and at last +disappear at some distance from it. Parry noticed some white fleecy +clouds, which, at the distance of fifteen or twenty degrees from the sun, +reflected from their edges the most soft and tender tints of yellow, +bluish green, and lake; and as the clouds advanced the colours increased +gradually, until they reached a sort of limit two degrees below the solar +orb. As the current continued to transport them, the vividness of colour +became weakened by almost insensible degrees until the whole assemblage +of tints vanished. + +"Who can venture to imitate, by the pencil, the endless varieties of red +and orange and yellow which the setting sun discloses, and the magical +illusions which all the day diversify the vast and varied space the eye +travels over in rising gradually from the horizon to the upper sky? +Those who have paid any attention to colours, must be aware of the +difficulty of describing the various tints and shades that appear, and +which are known to amount to many thousands." + +The rapid changes of colour which the clouds undergo, seem to depend on +something more than change of position either in the cloud or in the sun. +Forster mentions an instance of some detached cirro-cumuli being of a +fine golden yellow, but in a single minute becoming deep red. On another +occasion he saw the exact counterpart in a cirro-stratus, by its +instantly changing from a beautiful red to a bright golden yellow. +"What, indeed, can be more interesting, than when by the breaking out of +the sun in gleams, a cloud which a moment before seemed only an +unshapened mass devoid of all interest and beauty, is suddenly pierced by +cataracts of light, and imbued with the most splendid colours, varying +every instant in intensity? Numerous examples occur of this beautiful +play of colour, which cannot but remind us of the phenomena displayed by +the pigeon's neck and the peacock's tail, by opal and pearl. + +"After the sun is set, the mild glow of his rays is still diffused over +every part; and it has been remarked, that the clouds assume their +brightest and most splendid colours a few minutes after it is below the +horizon. It is in the finest weather that the colouring of the sky +presents the most perfect examples of harmony, in tempestuous weather it +being almost always inharmonious. At the time of a warm sun-setting, the +whole hemisphere is influenced by the prevailing colour of the light. +The snowy summits of the Alps appear about sunset of a most beautiful +violet colour, approaching to light crimson or pink. It is remarkable, +also, as an example of that general harmony which prevails in the +material world, that the most glowing and magnificent skies occur when +terrestrial objects put on their deepest and most splendid hues. It has +also been observed, that it is not the change of vegetation only, which +gives to the decaying charms of autumn their finest and most golden hues, +but also the atmosphere and the peculiar lights and shadows which then +prevail; and there can be no doubt, on the other hand, that our +perception of beauty in the sky is very much influenced by the +surrounding scenery. In autumn all is matured; and the rich hues of the +ripened fruits and the changing foliage are rendered still more lovely by +the warm haze which a fine day at that season presents. So, also, the +earlier hues of spring have a transparency, and a thousand quivering +lights, which in their turn harmonize with the light and flitting clouds +and uncertain shadows which then prevail." {155} + + [Picture: Decorative picture of lady by river] + + [Picture: Foot-print of a bird, and impression of rain-drops sand-stone] + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +REMARKABLE SHOWERS--SHOWERS OF SAND--OF MUD--SHOWERS OF SULPHUR, OR +YELLOW RAIN--LUMINOUS RAIN--RED RAIN, OR SHOWERS OF BLOOD--SUPERSTITIONS +CONNECTED THEREWITH--EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSE--SHOWERS OF FISH--SHOWERS +OF RATS--SHOWERS OF FROGS--INSECT SHOWER--SHOWERS OF VEGETABLE +SUBSTANCES--MANNA--WHEAT--SHOWERS OF STONES--METEORIC STONES, OR +AEROLITES--METEORIC IRON--SUPPOSITIONS RESPECTING THEM--FOSSIL RAIN. + +Water, in the state of rain, hail, snow, or dew, is generally the only +substance which falls from the atmosphere upon the earth. There are, +however, many well authenticated instances of various substances being +showered down upon the land, to the great alarm of persons who were +ignorant that the powerful action of the wind was, perhaps, the chief +cause of the strange visitations to which we allude. + +We read of showers of sand, mud, sulphur, blood, fishes, frogs, insects, +and stones; and it may be useful, as well as interesting, to quote a few +examples of each description of shower. + +On the west coast of Africa, between Cape Bojador and Cape Verd, and +thence outwards, the land, during the dry season, consists of little else +but dust or sand, which, on account of its extreme fineness, is raised +into the atmosphere by the slightest current of air; while a moderate +wind will convey it to so considerable a distance as even to annoy ships +crossing the Atlantic. On the 14th and 15th January, 1839, the Prussian +ship, _Princess Louisa_, being in N. lat. 24 degrees 20', and W. long. 26 +degrees 42', had her sails made quite yellow by the fine sand which +covered them. This effect was produced when the distance from land was +as much as from 12 to 20 degrees. About a fortnight after the time when +this ship crossed these parts of the Atlantic, a similar effect was +produced on board the English ship _Roxburgh_. One of the passengers, +the Rev. W. B. Clarke, says:--"The sky was overcast, and the weather +thick and insufferably oppressive, though the thermometer was only 72 +degrees. At 3 P.M. Feb. 4, the wind suddenly lulled into a calm; then +rose from the SW. accompanied by rain, and the air appeared to be filled +with dust, which affected the eyes of the passengers and crew. The +weather was clear and fine, and the powder which covered the sails was of +a reddish-brown colour, resembling the ashes ejected from Vesuvius; and +Mr. Clarke thinks that this dust may have proceeded from the volcanic +island of Fogo, one of the Cape de Verds, about forty-five miles from the +place where the ship then was. + +In countries which are subject to long-continued droughts the soil is +frequently converted into dust, which, being carried away by the winds, +leaves the land barren. The climate of Buenos Ayres, in South America, +has of late years been subject to such droughts, as to disappoint the +hopes of the husbandman and the breeder of cattle. In the early part of +1832, the drought had reached to such a height as to convert the whole +province into one continued bleak and dreary desert. The clouds of dust +raised by the winds were so dense as completely to obscure the sun at +mid-day, and envelope the inhabitants in almost total darkness. When the +rains at length commenced, in March, the water, in its passage through +the air, intermingled so completely with the dust suspended in it, as to +descend in the form of showers of mud; and, on some occasions, gave to +the whole exterior of the houses the appearance of having been plastered +over with earth. Many flocks of sheep were smothered on these occasions, +in a similar manner as in the snow-storms which occur in the mountainous +districts of Scotland. + +Showers of sulphur, or yellow rain, have fallen at different times in +various parts of Europe; and sometimes, when falling by night, they have +appeared luminous, to the great alarm of the observers. Yellow rain has +been accounted for in the following way:--The pollen, or impregnating +seed-dust of the flowers of the fir, birch, juniper, and other trees, is +of a yellow colour, and this pollen, by the action of the wind, is +carried to a considerable distance, and descends with falling rain. This +yellow rain has also been found impregnated with sulphur; and during a +shower of this kind which once fell in Germany, matches were made by +being dipped in it. + +Many examples of luminous rain are recorded on good authority. One of +the latest instances is mentioned by Dr. Morel Deville, of Paris, who on +the 1st of November, 1844, at half-past eight o'clock in the evening, +during a heavy fall of rain, noticed, as he was crossing the court of the +College Louis-le-Grand, that the drops, on coming in contact with the +ground, emitted sparks and tufts (_aigrettes_) of light, accompanied by a +rustling and crackling noise; a smell of phosphorus having been +immediately after perceptible. The phenomenon was seen three times. At +the same hour a remarkable brightness was seen in the northern sky. + +An officer of the Algerian army states, that during a violent storm on +the 20th September, 1840, the drops of rain that fell on the beards and +mustachios of the men were luminous. When the hair was wiped the +appearance ceased; but was renewed the moment any fresh drops fell on it. + +But of all these remarkable showers, the greatest alarm has been +occasioned by _red rain_, or showers of blood as they have been +ignorantly called. In the year 1608, considerable alarm was excited in +the city of Aix and its vicinity by the appearance of large red drops +upon the walls of the cemetery of the greater church, which is near the +walls of the city, upon the walls of the city itself, and also upon the +walls of villas, hamlets, and towns, for some miles round the city. The +husbandmen are said to have been so alarmed, that they left their labour +in the fields and fled for safety into the neighbouring houses; and a +report was set on foot, that the appearance was produced by demons or +witches shedding the blood of innocent babes. M. Peiresc, thinking this +story of a bloody shower to be scarcely reconcileable with the goodness +and providence of God, accidentally discovered, as he thought, the true +cause of the phenomenon. He had found, some months before, a chrysalis +of remarkable size and form, which he had enclosed in a box; he thought +no more of it, until hearing a buzz within the box, he opened it, and +perceived that the chrysalis had been changed into a beautiful butterfly, +which immediately flew away, leaving at the bottom of the box a red drop +of the size of a shilling. As this happened about the time when the +shower was supposed to have fallen, and when multitudes of those insects +were observed fluttering through the air in every direction, he concluded +that the drops in question were emitted by them when they alighted upon +the walls. He, therefore, examined the drops again, and remarked that +they were not upon the upper surfaces of stones and buildings, as they +would have been if a shower of blood had fallen from the sky, but rather +in cavities and holes where insects might nestle. He also noticed that +they were to be seen upon the walls of those houses only which were near +the fields; and not upon the more elevated parts of them, but only up to +the same moderate height at which butterflies were accustomed to flutter. +This was, no doubt, the correct explanation of the phenomenon in +question; for it is a curious and well-ascertained fact, that when +insects are evolved from the pupa state, they always discharge some +substance, which, in many butterflies, is of a red colour, resembling +blood, while in several moths it is orange or whitish. + +It appears, however, from the researches of M. Ehrenberg, a distinguished +microscopic observer, that the appearances of blood which have at +different times been observed in Arabia, Siberia, and other places, are +not to be attributed to one, but to various causes. From his account, it +appears that rivers have flowed suddenly with red or bloody water, +without any previous rain of that colour having fallen; that lakes or +stagnant-waters were suddenly or gradually coloured without previous +blood-rain; that dew, rain, snow, hail, and shot-stars, occasionally fall +from the air red-coloured, as blood-dew, blood-rain, and clotted blood; +and, lastly, that the atmosphere is occasionally loaded with red dust, by +which the rain accidentally assumes the appearance of blood-rain, in +consequence of which rivers and stagnant waters assume a red colour. + +The blood-red colour sometimes exhibited by pools, was first +satisfactorily explained at the close of the last century. Girod +Chantran, observing the water of a pond to be of a brilliant red colour, +examined it with the microscope, and found that the sanguine hue resulted +from the presence of innumerable animalculae, not visible to the naked +eye. But, before this investigation, Linnaeus and other naturalists had +shown that red infusoria were capable of giving that colour to water +which, in early times, and still, we fear, in remote districts, was +supposed to forebode great calamities. In the year 1815 an instance of +this superstitious dread occurred in the south of Prussia. A number of +red, violet, or grass-green spots were observed in a lake near Lubotin, +about the end of harvest. In winter the ice was coloured in the same +manner at the surface, while beneath it was colourless. The inhabitants, +in great dismay, anticipated a variety of disasters from the appearance; +but it fortunately happened that the celebrated chemist Klaproth, hearing +of the circumstance, undertook an examination of the waters of the lake. +He found them to contain an albuminous vegetable matter, with a +particular colouring matter similar to indigo, produced, probably, by the +decomposition of vegetables in harvest; while the change of colour from +green to violet and red, he explained by the absorption of more or less +oxygen. A few years ago the blood-red waters of a Siberian lake were +carefully examined by M. Ehrenberg, and found to contain multitudes of +infusoria, by the presence of which this remarkable appearance was +accounted for. Thus it appears that both animals and vegetables are +concerned in giving a peculiar tint to water. It has also been +ascertained that red snow is chiefly occasioned by the presence of red +animalculae. + +Showers of fish and frogs are by no means uncommon, especially in India. +One of these showers, which fell about twenty miles south of Calcutta, is +thus noticed by an observer:--"About two o'clock, P.M., of the 20th +inst., (Sept. 1839,) we had a very smart shower of rain, and with it +descended a quantity of live fish, about three inches in length, and all +of one kind only. They fell in a straight line on the road from my house +to the tank which is about forty or fifty yards distant. Those which +fell on the hard ground were, as a matter of course, killed from the +fall, but those which fell where there was grass sustained no injury; and +I picked up a large quantity of them, 'alive and kicking,' and let them +go into my tank. The most strange thing that ever struck me in connexion +with this event, was, that the fish did not fall helter skelter, +everywhere, or 'here and there;' but they fell in a straight line, not +more than a cubit in breadth." Another shower is said to have taken +place at a village near Allahabad, in the month of May. About noon, the +wind being in the west, and a few distant clouds visible, a blast of high +wind came on, accompanied with so much dust as to change the tint of the +atmosphere to a reddish hue. The blast appeared to extend in breadth +four hundred yards, and was so violent that many large trees were blown +down. When the storm had passed over, the ground, south of the village, +was found to be covered with fish, not less than three or four thousand +in number. They all belonged to a species well known in India, and were +about a span in length. They were all dead and dry. + +It would be easy to multiply these examples to almost any extent, +although they are not so frequent in Great Britain. It is related in +Hasted's History of Kent, that about Easter, 1666, in the parish of +Stanstead, which is a considerable distance from the sea, and a place +where there are no fishponds, and rather a scarcity of water, a pasture +field was scattered all over with small fish, supposed to have been +rained down during a thunder-storm. Several of these fish were sold +publicly at Maidstone and Dartford. In the year 1830, the inhabitants of +the island of Ula, in Argyleshire, after a day of very hard rain, which +occurred on the 9th March, were surprised to find numbers of small +herrings strewed over the fields, perfectly fresh and some of them alive. +Some years ago, during a strong gale, herrings and other fish were +carried from the Frith of Forth so far as Loch-Leven. + +In some countries rats migrate in vast numbers from the high to the low +countries; and it is recorded in the history of Norway, that a shower of +these, transported by the wind, fell in an adjacent valley. + +Several notices have, from time to time, been brought before the French +Academy, of showers of frogs having fallen in different parts of France. +Professor Pontus, of Cahors, states, that in August, 1804, while distant +three leagues from Toulouse, the sky being clear, suddenly a very thick +cloud covered the horizon, and thunder and lightning came on. The cloud +burst over the road about sixty toises (383 feet) from the place where M. +Pontus was. Two gentlemen, returning from Toulouse, were surprised by +being exposed not only to a storm, but to a shower of frogs. Pontus +states that he saw the young frogs on their cloaks. When the diligence +in which he was travelling, arrived at the place where the storm burst, +the road, and the fields alongside of it, were observed full of frogs, in +three or four layers placed one above the other. The feet of the horses +and the wheels of the carriage killed thousands. The diligence travelled +for a quarter of an hour, at least, along this living road, the horses +being at a trot. + +In the "Journal de St. Petersburg," is given an account of the fall of a +shower of insects during a snow-storm in Russia. "On the 17th October, +1827, there fell in the district of Rjev, in the government of Tver, a +heavy shower of snow, in the space of about ten versts (nearly seven +English miles), which contained the village of Pakroff and its environs. +It was accompanied in its fall by a prodigious quantity of worms of a +black colour, ringed, and in length about an inch and a quarter. The +head of these insects was flat and shining, furnished with antennae, and +the hair in the form of whiskers; while the body, from the head to about +one-third of their length, resembled a band of black velvet. They had on +each side three feet, by means of which they appeared to crawl very fast +upon the snow, and assembled in groups about the plants and the holes in +trees and buildings. Several having been exposed to the air in a vessel +filled with snow, lived there till the 26th October; although, in that +interval, the thermometer had fallen to eight degrees below zero. Some +others which had been frozen continued alive equally long; for they were +not found exactly encrusted with the ice, but they had formed round their +bodies a space similar to the hollow of a tree. When they were plunged +into water they swam about as if they had received no injury; but those +which were carried into a warm place perished in a few minutes." + +All these remarkable showers may be accounted for, when we consider the +mighty power of the wind; especially that form of it which is popularly +called the whirlwind. It is now pretty well ascertained, that in all, or +most of the great storms which agitate the atmosphere, the wind has a +circular or rotatory movement; and the same is probably the case in many +of the lesser storms, in which the air is whirled upwards in a spiral +curve with great velocity, carrying up any small bodies which may come +within the circuit. When such a storm happens at sea, the water-spout is +produced. In the deserts of Arabia, pillars of sand are formed; and, in +other places various light bodies are caught up; fishponds have been +entirely emptied in an instant, and the moving column, whether of water, +sand, or air, travels with the wind with great swiftness. When, however, +the storm has subsided, the various substances thus caught up and +sustained in the air, are deposited at great distances from the place +where they were first found, and thus produce these remarkable showers. +In some cases, however, the direct force of the wind has actually blown +small fish out of the water, and conveyed them several miles inland. + +Showers of nutritious substances have been recorded on good authority. +We do not here refer to the manna which fell in such abundance about the +Hebrew camp, for that was a miracle specially wrought by the Almighty for +the preservation of his chosen people; but, it may be noticed here, that +in Arabia, a substance, called "manna," is found in great abundance on +the leaves of many trees and herbs, and may be gathered and removed by +the wind to a distance. A shower of this kind occurred in 1824. In +1828, a substance was exhibited at the French Academy, which fell in the +plains of Persia. It was eaten, and afforded nourishment to cattle, and +many other animals; and, on examination, proved to be a vegetable,--the +_Lichen esculentus_,--which had been conveyed thither by the winds. + +In the Minutes of the proceedings of the Royal Society, 26th June, 1661, +we find the following curious narration:-- + + "Col. Tuke brought, in writing, the following _brief account of the + supposed rain of wheat_, which was registered:-- + + "On the 30th of May, 1661, Mr. Henry Puckering, son to Sir Henry + Puckering, of Warwick, brought some papers of seeds, resembling + wheat, to the king, with a letter written by Mr. William Halyburton, + dated the 27th May, from Warwick; out of which letter I have made + this extract: + + "'Instead of news I send you some papers of wonders. On Saturday + last, it was rumoured in this town, that it rained wheat at + Tuchbrooke, a village about two miles from Warwick. Whereupon some + of the inhabitants of this town went thither; where they saw great + quantities on the way, in the fields, and on the leads of the church, + castle, and priory, and upon the hearths of the chimneys in the + chambers. And Arthur Mason, coming out of Shropshire, reports, that + it hath rained the like in many places of that county. God make us + thankful for this miraculous blessing, &.'" + + "I brought some papers of these seeds, with this letter, to the + Society of Gresham College; who would not enter into any + consideration of it, till they were better informed of the matter of + fact. Hereupon, I entreated Mr. Henry Puckering to write to the + bailiff of the town of Warwick, to the ministers and physicians, to + send us an account of the matter of fact, and their opinions of it. + In the bailiff's letter, dated the 3rd of June, I find this report + verified; affirming that himself, with the inhabitants of the town, + were in a great astonishment at this wonder. But, before the next + day of our meeting, I sent for some ivy-berries, and brought them to + Gresham College with some of these seeds resembling wheat; and taking + off the outward pulp of the ivy-berries, we found in each of the + berries four seeds; which were generally concluded by the Society to + be the same with those that were supposed and believed by the common + people to have been wheat that had been rained; and, that they were + brought to those places, where they were found, by starlings; who, of + all the birds that we know, do assemble in the greatest numbers; and + do, at this time of the year, feed upon these berries; and digesting + the outward pulp, they render these seeds by casting, as hawks do + feathers and bones." + +The remarkable showers already noticed, have excited much interest and +inquiry among learned men, and many superstitious fears among the +ignorant; but, there is another description of shower which affords a +singular instance of popular observation, being greatly in advance of +scientific knowledge. We allude to the showers of stones, called +"aerolites," (from two Greek words, signifying the _atmosphere_, and a +_stone_); they are also called _Meteorolites_, or _Meteoric stones_. + +Writers in all ages have mentioned instances of stony bodies having been +seen to fall from the sky. The Chinese and Japanese carefully note down +the most striking and remarkable phenomena of nature, believing them to +have some connexion with public affairs; and the chronicles of these +people are said to contain many notices of the fall of stony bodies from +the sky. Until within the last fifty years, however, these accounts have +been treated in Europe as idle superstitions; scientific men denying even +the probability of such an occurrence. The first scientific man who was +bold enough to support the popular opinion, that stones actually do fall +from the sky, was Chladni, a German philosopher, who published a pamphlet +on the subject in 1794. This did not excite much attention, until, two +years afterwards, a stone weighing fifty-six pounds was exhibited in +London, which was said to have fallen in Yorkshire in the December of the +preceding year; but, although the fact was attested by several +respectable persons, the possibility of such an occurrence was still +doubted. It was remarked, however, by Sir Joseph Banks, that this stone +was very similar in appearance to one which had been sent to him from +Italy, with an account of its having fallen from the clouds. In the year +1799, a number of stones were received by the Royal Society, from +Benares, in the East Indies, which were also said to have fallen from the +atmosphere, with a minute account of the circumstances attending the +fall, which will be presently noticed; and, as these stones appeared to +be precisely similar to the Yorkshire stone already noticed, attention +was fairly drawn to the subject. In 1802, Mr. Howard published an +analysis of a variety of these stones collected from different places; +and his researches led to the important conclusion, that they are all +composed of the same substances, and in nearly the same proportions. In +1803, a notice was received at Paris, of a shower of stones at L'Aigle in +Normandy; and the Institute of France deputed M. Biot, a well-known and +excellent natural philosopher, to examine, on the spot, all the +circumstances attending this remarkable event. His account will be +noticed presently; but it may here be stated, that the stones he +collected, on being analysed, gave results similar to those obtained by +Mr. Howard. + +The circumstances attending the fall of stones at Krakhut, a village +about fourteen miles from the city of Benares, are briefly as follow:--On +the 19th December, 1798, a very luminous meteor was observed in the +heavens, about eight o'clock in the evening, in the form of a large ball +of fire; it was accompanied by a loud noise, resembling that of thunder, +which was immediately followed by the sound of the fall of heavy bodies. +On examining the ground, it was observed to have been newly torn up in +many places; and in these were found stones of a peculiar appearance, +most of which had buried themselves to the depth of six inches. At the +time the meteor appeared, the sky was perfectly serene, not the smallest +vestige of a cloud had been seen since the 11th of the month; nor were +any observed for many days after. It was seen in the western part of the +hemisphere, and was visible only a short time. The light from it was so +great, as to cast a strong shadow from the bars of a window upon a dark +carpet. Mr. Davis, the judge and magistrate of the district, affirmed, +that in brilliancy it equalled the brightest moonlight. Both he and Mr. +Erskine were induced to send persons in whom they could confide to the +spot where this shower of stones is reported to have taken place, and +thus obtained additional evidence of the phenomena, together with several +of the stones which had penetrated about six inches into fields recently +watered. Mr. Maclane, a gentleman who resided near Krakhut, presented +Mr. Howard with a portion of a stone which had been brought to him the +morning after its fall by the person who was on duty at his house, and +through the roof of whose hut it had passed, and buried itself several +inches in the floor, which was of consolidated earth. Before it was +broken it must have weighed upwards of two pounds. + +M. Biot's summary of the evidence collected by him respecting the great +shower of stones which fell at Aigle, in Normandy, is as follows:-- + + "On Tuesday, 26th April, 1803, about one o'clock, P.M., the weather + being serene, there was observed from Caen, Pont d'Audemer, and the + environs of Alencon, Falaise, and Verneuil, a fiery globe, of a very + brilliant splendour, and which moved in the atmosphere with great + rapidity. Some moments after, there was heard at Aigle, and in the + environs of that town, in the extent of more than thirty leagues in + every direction, a violent explosion, which lasted five or six + minutes. At first there were three or four reports like those of a + cannon, followed by a kind of discharge which resembled the firing of + musketry; after which, there was heard a dreadful rumbling, like the + beating of a drum. The air was calm and the sky serene, except a few + clouds, such as are frequently observed. This noise proceeded from a + small cloud which had a rectangular form; the largest side being in a + direction from east to west. It appeared motionless all the time + that the phenomenon lasted; but the vapours of which it was composed, + were projected momentarily from different sides, by the effect of + successive explosions. This cloud was about half a league to the + north-north-west of the town of Aigle. It was at a great elevation + in the atmosphere; for, the inhabitants of two hamlets, a league + distant from each other, saw it at the same time above their heads. + In the whole canton over which this cloud was suspended, there was a + hissing noise, like that of a stone discharged from a sling; and a + great many mineral masses, exactly similar to those distinguished by + the name of 'meteor-stones,' were seen to fall. The district in + which these masses were projected, forms an elliptical extent of + about two leagues and a half in length, and nearly one in breadth, + the greatest dimension being in a direction from south-east to + north-west; forming a declination of about 22 degrees. This + direction, which the meteor must have followed, is exactly that of + the magnetic meridian, which is a remarkable result. The greatest of + these stones fell at the south-eastern extremity of the large axis of + the ellipse, the middle-sized in the centre, and the smaller at the + other extremity. Hence it appears, that the largest fell first, as + might naturally be supposed. The largest of all those that fell, + weighs seventeen pounds and a half. The smallest which I have seen, + weighs about two _gros_, (a thousandth part of the last.) The number + of all those which fell, is certainly above two or three thousand." + +Meteoric stones have been known to commit great injury in their fall. In +July, 1790, a very bright fire-ball, luminous as the sun, of the size of +an ordinary balloon, appeared near Bourdeaux, which, after filling the +inhabitants with alarm, burst, and disappeared. A few days after, some +peasants brought stones into the town, which they said had fallen from +the meteor; but, the philosophers to whom they offered them laughed at +their statements. One of these stones, fifteen inches in diameter, broke +through the roof of a cottage, and killed a herdsman and a bullock. In +1810, a great stone fell at Shahabad, in India. It burnt a village, and +killed several people. + +The fall of meteoric stones is more frequent than would be supposed. +Chaldni has compiled a Catalogue of all recorded instances from the +earliest times. Of these, twenty-seven are previous to the Christian +era; thirty-five from the beginning of the first to the end of the +fourteenth century; eighty-nine from the beginning of the fifteenth to +the beginning of the present century; from which time, since the +attention of scientific men has been directed to the subject, above sixty +cases have been recorded. These are, doubtless, but a small proportion +of the whole amount of meteoric showers which have fallen, when the small +extent of surface occupied by those capable of recording the event is +compared with the wide expanse of the ocean, the vast uninhabited +deserts, mountains, and forests, and the countries occupied by savage +nations. + +Meteoric stones have generally a broken, irregular surface, coated with a +thin black crust, like varnish. When broken, they appear to have been +made up of a number of small spherical bodies of a grey colour, imbedded +in a gritty substance, and often interspersed with yellow spots. A +considerable proportion of iron is found in all of them, partly in a +malleable state, partly in that of an oxide, and always in combination +with a rather scarce metal called nickel; {181} the earths silica, and +magnesia, and sulphur, form the other chief ingredients; but, the earths +alumina and lime, the metals manganese, chrome, and cobalt, together with +carbon, soda, and water, have also been found in small quantities, but +not in the same specimens. No substance with which chemists were +previously unacquainted, has ever been found in them; but no combination, +similar to that in meteoric stones, has ever been met with in geological +formations, or among the products of any volcano. They are sometimes +very friable, sometimes very hard; and some that are friable when they +first fall, become hard afterwards. When taken up soon after their fall +they are extremely hot. They vary in weight from two drams to several +hundred pounds. Meteoric stones have fallen in all climates, in every +part of the earth, at all seasons, in the night and in the day. + +The meteoric stones already noticed, are not the only metallic bodies +which are supposed to fall from the sky. In many parts of the earth +masses of malleable iron, often of vast size, have been found. An +immense mass seen by Pallas, in Siberia, was discovered at a great height +on a mountain of slate, near the river Jenesei. The Tartars held it in +great veneration, as having fallen from heaven. It was removed in the +year 1749, to the town of Krasnojarsk, by the inspector of iron mines. +The mass, which weighed about 1,400 pounds, was irregular in form, and +cellular, like a sponge. The iron was tough and malleable, and was found +to contain nickel, silica, magnesia, sulphur, and chrome. Another +enormous mass of meteoric iron was found in South America, about the year +1788. It lay in a vast plain, half sunk in the ground, and was supposed, +from its size and the known weight of iron, to contain upwards of +thirteen tons. Specimens of this mass are now in the British Museum, and +have been found to contain 90 per cent. of iron and 10 of nickel. Many +other masses of iron might be mentioned, which, from the places in which +they are found, and from their composition, leave no doubt as to their +being of meteoric origin. The only instance, on record, of iron having +been actually seen to fall from the atmosphere, is that which took place +at Agram in Croatia, on the 26th May, 1751. About six o'clock in the +evening, the sky being quite clear, a ball of fire was seen, which shot +along, with a hollow noise, from west to east, and, after a loud +explosion accompanied by a great smoke, two masses of iron fell from it +in the form of chains welded together. + +It is, perhaps, impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to +account for the origin of these remarkable bodies. Some have supposed +them to have been shot out from volcanoes belonging to our earth; but +this theory is opposed by the fact that no substance, resembling +aerolites, has ever been found in or near any volcano; and they fall from +a height to which no volcano can be supposed to have projected them, and +still less to have given them the horizontal direction in which they +usually move. Another supposition is, that these masses are formed in +the atmosphere; but it is almost ridiculous to imagine a body, weighing +many tons, to be produced by any chemical or electrical forces in the +upper regions of the air. A third explanation is, that they are bodies +thrown out by the volcanoes, which are known to exist in the moon, with +such force as to bring them within the sphere of the earth's attraction. +This notion was supported by the celebrated astronomer and mathematician +La Place. He calculated that a body projected from the moon with the +velocity of 7771 feet in the first second, would reach our earth in about +two days and a half. But other astronomers are of opinion, that the +known velocity of some meteors is too great to admit of the possibility +of their having come from the moon. The theory which agrees best with +known facts and the laws of nature, is that proposed by Chladni, namely, +that the meteors are bodies moving in space, either masses of matter as +originally created, or fragments separated from a larger mass of a +similar nature. This view has also been supported by Sir Humphrey Davy, +who says, "The luminous appearances of shooting-stars and meteors cannot +be owing to any inflammation of elastic fluids, but must depend upon the +ignition of solid bodies. Dr. Halley calculated the height of a meteor +at ninety miles; and the great American meteor, which threw down showers +of stones, was estimated at seventeen miles high. The velocity of motion +of these bodies must, in all cases, be immensely great, and the heat +produced by the compression of the most rarefied air from the velocity of +motion, must be, probably, sufficient to ignite the mass; and all the +phenomena may be explained, if _falling stars_ be supposed to be small +bodies moving round the earth in very eccentric orbits, which become +ignited only when they pass with immense velocity through the upper +region of the atmosphere; and if the meteoric bodies which throw down +stones with explosions, be supposed to be similar bodies which contain +either combustible or elastic matter." + +This chapter ought not to be concluded without a short notice of that +remarkable rain known to geologists as "fossil rain." In the new +red-sandstone of the Storeton quarries, impressions of the foot-prints of +ancient animals have been discovered; and in examining some of the slabs +of stone extracted at the depth of above thirty feet, Mr. Cunningham +observed "that their under surface was thickly covered with minute +hemispherical projections, or casts in relief of circular pits, in the +immediately subjacent layers of clay. The origin of these marks, he is +of opinion, must be ascribed to showers of rain which fell upon an +argillaceous beach exposed by the retiring tide, and their preservation +to the filling up of the indentations by sand. On the same slabs are +impressions of the feet of small reptiles, which appear to have passed +over the clay previously to the shower, since the foot-marks are also +indented with circular pits, but to a less degree; and the difference Mr. +Cunningham explains by the pressure of the animal having rendered these +portions less easily acted upon." The preservation of these marks has +been explained by supposing dry sand, drifted by the wind, to have swept +over and filled up the footprints, rain-pits, and hollows of every kind, +which the soft argillaceous surface had received. + +The frontispiece to the present chapter (p. 156), represents a slab of +sandstone containing impressions of the foot of a bird and of rain drops. +This slab is from a sandstone basin near Turner's Falls, a fine cataract +of the Connecticut river in the State of Massachusetts, and is described +by Dr. Deane in a recent number of the American Journal of Science. "It +is rare," says that gentleman, to "find a stratum containing these +footprints exactly as they were made by the animal, without having +suffered change. They are usually more or less disturbed or obliterated +by the too soft nature of the mud, the coarseness of the materials, and +by many other circumstances which we may easily see would deface them, so +that although the general form of the foot may be apparent, the minute +traces of its appendages are almost invariably lost. In general, except +in thick-toed species, we cannot discover the distinct evidences of the +structure of the toes, each toe appearing to be formed of a single joint, +and seldom terminated by a claw. But, a few specimens hitherto +discovered at this locality completely developed the true characters of +the foot, its ranks of joints, its claws and integuments. So far as I +have seen, the faultless impressions are upon shales of the finest +texture with a smooth glossy surface, such as would retain the beautiful +impressions of rain drops. This kind of surface containing footmarks is +exceedingly rare: I have seen but few detached examples; recently it has +been my good fortune to recover a stratum, containing in all more than +one hundred most beautiful impressions of the feet of four or five +varieties of birds, the entire surface being also pitted by a shower of +fossil rain-drops. The slabs are perfectly smooth on the inferior +surface, and are about two inches in thickness. + +"The impression of a medallion is not more sharp and clear than are most +of these imprints, and it may be proper to observe, that this remarkable +preservation may be ascribed to the circumstance, that the entire surface +of the stratum was incrusted with a layer of micaceous sandstone, +adhering so firmly that it would not cleave off, thereby requiring the +laborious and skilful application of the chisel. The appearance of this +shining layer which is of a gray colour, while the fossil slab is a dark +red, seems to carry the probability that it was washed or blown over the +latter while in a state of loose sand, thus filling up the foot-prints +and rain-drops, and preserving them unchanged until the present +day--unchanged in the smallest particular, so far as relates merely to +configuration, nothing being obliterated; the precise form of the nails, +or claws, and joints, and in the deep impressions of the heel bone, being +exquisitely preserved." + +The small slab figured at p. 156 is described as being an incomparable +specimen. "For purity of impression it is unsurpassed, and the living +reality of the rain-drops, the beautiful colour of the stone, its sound +texture and lightness, renders it a fit member for any collection of +organic remains." + + [Picture: Mandan rain-makers] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +COMMON SAYINGS RESPECTING THE WEATHER--SAINT SWITHIN'S-DAY--SIGNS OF RAIN +OR OF FAIR WEATHER DERIVED FROM THE APPEARANCE OF THE SUN--FROM THAT OF +THE MOON--FROM THE STARS--FROM THE SKY--FROM THE DISTINCTNESS OF +SOUNDS--FROM THE RISING OF SMOKE--FROM THE PECULIAR ACTIONS OF PLANTS AND +ANIMALS--PROGNOSTICS NOTICED BY SIR HUMPHREY DAVY--SIGNS OF RAIN +COLLECTED BY DR. JENNER--NORTH AMERICAN RAIN-MAKERS--INCIDENT RELATED BY +CATLIN--RAIN-DOCTORS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA--RAIN-DOCTORS OF +CEYLON--SUPERSTITIONS GIVING WAY TO THE TEACHING OF +MISSIONARIES--CONCLUSION. + +There are many proverbial sayings among country people concerning the +state of the weather, which, having been derived from long observation, +have become axioms, and were designated by Bacon "the philosophy of the +people." These prognostics are being set aside by the more certain +lights of science, but there is no doubt that many natural objects may +indicate symptoms of change in the atmosphere before any actually takes +place in it to such an extent as to affect our senses. Some of these +prognostics are of a general character applying to all seasons, and there +are others which apply only to a particular season; but they may all be +derived from appearances of the heavenly bodies and of the sky, the state +of meteorological instruments, and the notions and habits of certain +plants and animals. The author of the "Journal of a Naturalist" has some +good observations on this subject. He says:-- + + "Old simplicities, tokens of winds and weather, and the plain + observances of human life, are everywhere waning fast to decay. Some + of them may have been fond conceits; but they accorded with the + ordinary manners of the common people, and marked times, seasons, and + things, with sufficient truth for those who had faith in them. + Little as we retain of these obsolete fancies, we have not quite + abandoned them all; and there are yet found among our peasants a few, + who mark the blooming of the large water-lily (_lilium candidum_), + and think that the number of its blossoms on a stem will indicate the + price of wheat by the bushel for the ensuing year, each blossom + equivalent to a shilling. We expect a sunny day too, when the + pimpernel (_anagallis arvensis_) fully expands its blossoms; a + dubious, or a moist one, when they are closed. In this belief, + however, we have the sanction of some antiquity to support us. Sir + F. Bacon records it; Gerarde notes it as a common opinion entertained + by country people above two centuries ago; and I must not withhold my + own faith in its veracity, but say that I believe this pretty little + flower to afford more certain indication of dryness or moisture in + the air than any of our hygrometers do. But if these be fallible + criterions, we will notice another that seldom deceives us. The + approach of a sleety snow-storm, following a deceitful gleam in + spring, is always announced to us by the loud untuneful voice of the + missel-thrush (_turdus viscivorus_) as it takes its stand on some + tall tree, like an enchanter calling up the gale. It seems to have + no song, no voice, but this harsh predictive note; and it in great + measure ceases with the storms of spring. We hear it occasionally in + autumn, but its voice is not then prognostic of any change of + weather. The missel-thrush is a wild and wary bird, keeping + generally in open fields and commons, heaths and unfrequented places, + feeding upon worms and insects. In severe weather it approaches our + plantations and shrubberies, to feed on the berry of the mistletoe, + the ivy, or the scarlet fruit of the holly or the yew; and, should + the redwing or the fieldfare presume to partake of these with it, we + are sure to hear its voice in clattering and contention with the + intruders, until it drives them from the place, though it watches and + attends, notwithstanding, to its own safety." + +But before we notice more in detail the natural prognostics of the +weather, it is desirable to speak of a superstition which is widely +spread among all classes, in the town as well as in the country. The +superstition referred to, is that connected with St. Swithin's-day, and +is well expressed in a Scotch proverb:-- + + "Saint Swithin's-day, gif ye do rain, + For forty days it will remain; + Saint Swithin's-day, an ye be fair, + For forty days 'twill rain nae mair." + +This superstition originated with Swithin, or Swithum, bishop of +Winchester, who died in the year 868. He desired that he might be buried +in the open churchyard, "where the drops of rain might wet his grave;" +"thinking," says Bishop Hall, "that no vault was so good to cover his +grave as that of heaven." But when Swithin was canonized the monks +resolved to remove his body into the choir of the church. According to +tradition, this was to have been done on the 15th of July; but it rained +so violently for forty days that the design was abandoned. Mr. Howard +remarks, that the tradition is so far valuable, as it proves that the +summers in the southern part of our island were subject, a thousand years +ago, to occasional heavy rains, in the same way as at present. This +accurate observer has endeavoured to ascertain how far the popular notion +is borne out by the fact. In 1807 and 1808, it rained on St. +Swithin's-day, and a dry season followed. In 1818 and 1819, it was dry +on the 15th, and a very dry season followed. The other summers, +occurring between 1807 and 1819, seem to show, "that in a majority of our +summers, a showery period which, with some latitude as to time and local +circumstances, may be admitted to constitute daily rain for forty days, +does come on about the time indicated by the tradition of St. Swithin." + +But in these calculations, it is necessary to bear in mind that the +change of style has very much interfered with St. Swithin. With the day +allowed in the closing year of the last century, St. Swithin's day is how +thirteen days earlier in the calendar than it would have been by the old +style. Thus the true St. Swithin's-day, according to the tradition, is +about the 28th of July, and not the 15th, as set down in the present +calendar. There must, therefore, be a considerable difference as to the +rains and this day. + +We now proceed to collect a number of prognostics connected with the +appearances of the heavenly bodies and of the sky; they are the result of +long experience, but at the same time it is necessary to caution our +readers against attaching much importance to them. + +When the sun rises red, wind and rain may be expected during the day; but +when he rises unclouded, attended by a scorching heat, cloudiness and +perhaps rain will ensue before mid-day. When he rises clouded, with a +few grey clouds, they will soon dissipate, and a fine day will follow. +When his light is dim, vapour exists in the upper regions of the air, and +may be expected to descend shortly after in the form of dense clouds. +When his light, after rain, is of a transparent watery hue, rain will +soon fall again. When his direct rays have a scorching and weakening +effect on the body throughout the greater part of the day, the next day +will be cloudy, and perhaps rainy. When the sun is more or less obscured +by a thicker or thinner cirro-stratus cloud, and when he is said to be +_wading_ in the cloud, rain may come--if the cloud indicates rain it will +come. A halo surrounding the disc of the sun is almost always sure to +precede rain. A red sunset without clouds indicates a doubt of fair +weather; but a fine day may be expected after a red sunset in clouds. A +watery sunset, diverging rays of light, either direct from the sun or +from behind a cloud, is indicative of rain. After a dull black sunset +rain may be expected. + +It is a common saying among country people,-- + + "An evening red, or a morning grey, + Doth betoken a bonnie day; + In an evening grey and a morning red, + Put on your hat, or yell weet your head." + +There are not many prognostics connected with the appearances of the +moon. The changes of the moon produce greater effects than at any other +period. With a clear silvery aspect fair weather may be expected. A +pale moon always indicates rain, and a red one wind. Seeing the "old +moon in the new one's arms," is a sign of stormy weather. Seeing the new +moon very young, "like the paring of a nail," also indicates wet; but +when the horns of the new moon are blunt, they indicate rain, and fair +weather when sharp. It is truly said: + + "In the wane of the moon, + A cloudy morning bodes a fair afternoon." + +And also + + 'New moon's mist + Never dies of thirst.' + +Halos and coronae are oftener seen about the moon than the sun, and they +indicate rain. + +The stars appearing dim indicate rain. Very few stars seen at one time, +when there is no frost, indicate a similar result. + +When the sky is of deeply-coloured blue, it indicates rain. If distant +objects appear very distinct and near through the air, it indicates rain. +When the air feels oppressive to walk in, rain will follow; when it feels +light and pleasant, fair weather will continue. + +When distant sounds are distinctly heard through the air in a calm day, +such as the tolling of bells, barking of dogs, talking of people, +waterfalls, or rapids over mill-dams, the air is loaded with vapour, and +rain may be expected. The sea is often heard to roar, and loudest at +night, as also the noise of a city, when a cloud is seen suspended a very +short way above head. + +If smoke rise perpendicularly upwards from chimneys in calm weather, fair +weather may be expected to continue; but if it fall toward and roll along +the ground, not being easily dispersed, rain will ensue. + +Many of the above prognostics, as well as some of those relating to +animals, are thus noticed by Sir Humphrey Davy, in his "Salmonia, or Days +of Fly-fishing." The conversation is between Halieus, a fly-fisher; +Poietes, a poet; Physicus, a man of science; and Ornither, a sportsman. + + "_Poiet_. I hope we shall have another good day to-morrow, for the + clouds are red in the west. + + _Phys_. I have no doubt of it; for the red has a tint of purple. + + _Hal_. Do you know why this tint portends fine weather? + + _Phys_. The air, when dry, I believe, refracts more red or heating + rays; and as dry air is not perfectly transparent, they are again + reflected in the horizon. I have generally observed a coppery or + yellow sun-set to foretell rain; but, as an indication of wet weather + approaching, nothing is more certain than a halo round the moon, + which is produced by the precipitated water; and the larger the + circle, the nearer the clouds, and consequently the more ready to + fall. + + _Hal_. I have often observed that the old proverb is correct-- + + 'A rainbow in the morning is the shepherd's warning; + A rainbow at night is the shepherd's delight' + + Can you explain this omen? + + _Phys_. A rainbow can only occur when the clouds containing or + depositing the rain are opposite the sun,--and in the evening the + rainbow is in the east, and in the morning in the west. As, + therefore, our heavy rains in this climate are usually brought by the + westerly wind, a rainbow in the west indicates that the bad weather + is on the road, by the wind, to us; whereas, the rainbow in the east + proves that the rain in these clouds is passing from us. + + _Poiet_. I have often observed that when the swallows fly high, fine + weather is to be expected or continued; but when they fly low, and + close to the ground, rain is almost surely approaching. Can you + account for this? + + _Hal_. Swallows follow the flies and gnats, and flies and gnats + usually delight in warm strata of air; and as warm air is lighter, + and usually moister than cold air, when the warm strata of air are + high, there is less chance of moisture being thrown down from them by + the mixture with cold air; but when the warm and moist air is close + to the surface, it is almost certain that, as the cold air flows down + into it, a deposition of water will take place. + + _Poiet_. I have often seen sea-gulls assemble on the land, and have + almost always observed that very stormy and rainy weather was + approaching. I conclude that these animals, sensible of a current of + air approaching from the ocean, retire to the land to shelter + themselves from the storm. + + _Orn_. No such thing. The storm is their element, and the little + petrel enjoys the heaviest gale; because, living on the smaller + sea-insects, he is sure to find his food in the spray of a heavy + wave; and you may see him flitting above the edge of the highest + surge. I believe that the reason of this migration of sea-gulls, and + other sea-birds, to the land, is their security of finding food; and + they may be observed, at this time, feeding greedily on the + earth-worms and larvae driven out of the ground by severe floods; and + the fish on which they prey in fine weather in the sea, leave the + surface, and go deeper in storms. The search after food, as we have + agreed on a former occasion, is the principal cause why animals + change their places. The different tribes of the wading birds always + migrate when rain is about to take place; and I remember once, in + Italy, having been long waiting, in the end of March, for the arrival + of the double snipe in the Campagna of Rome, a great flight appeared + on the 3rd of April, and the day after heavy rain set in, which + greatly interfered with my sport. The vulture, upon the same + principle, follows armies; and I have no doubt that the augury of the + ancients was a good deal founded upon the observation of the + instincts of birds. There are many superstitions of the vulgar owing + to the same source. For anglers, in spring, it is always unlucky to + see single magpies,--but _two_ may always be regarded as a favourable + omen; and the reason is, that in cold and stormy weather one magpie + alone leaves the nest in search of food, the other remaining sitting + upon the eggs or the young ones; but when two go out together, it is + only when the weather is warm and mild, and favourable for fishing. + + _Poiet_. The singular connexions of causes and effects to which you + have just referred, makes superstition less to be wondered at, + particularly amongst the vulgar; and when two facts, naturally + unconnected, have been accidentally coincident, it is not singular + that this coincidence should have been observed and registered, and + that omens of the most absurd kind should be trusted in. In the west + of England, half a century ago, a particular hollow noise on the + sea-coast was referred to a spirit or goblin, called Bucca, and was + supposed to foretell a shipwreck. The philosopher knows that sound + travels much faster than currents in the air; and the sound always + foretold the approach of a very heavy storm, which seldom takes place + on that wild and rocky coast without a shipwreck on some part of its + extensive shores, surrounded by the Atlantic." + +Dr. Jenner has collected in the following amusing lines a large number of +the natural prognostics of rain. They are said to have been addressed to +a lady, who asked the Doctor if he thought it would rain to-morrow. + + "The hollow winds begin to blow, + The clouds look black, the glass is low; + The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep, + And spiders from their cobwebs peep: + Last night the sun went pale to bed, + The moon in halos hid her head: + The boding shepherd heaves a sigh, + For, see! a rainbow spans the sky: + The walls are damp, the ditches smell, + Closed is the pink-eyed pimpernel; + Hark! how the chairs and tables crack; + Old Betty's joints are on the rack; + Loud quack the ducks, the peacocks cry, + The distant hills are seeming nigh. + How restless are the snorting swine,-- + The busy flies disturb the kine. + Low o'er the grass the swallow wings; + The cricket, too, how loud it sings: + Puss on the hearth with velvet paws, + Sits smoothing o'er her whisker'd jaws. + Through the clear stream the fishes rise, + And nimbly catch the incautious flies: + The sheep were seen at early light + Cropping the meads with eager bite. + Though June, the air is cold and chill; + The mellow blackbird's voice is still. + The glow-worms, numerous and bright, + Illum'd the dewy dell last night. + At dusk the squalid toad was seen, + Hopping, and crawling o'er the green. + The frog has lost his yellow vest, + And in a dingy suit is dressed. + The leech, disturb'd, is newly risen, + Quite to the summit of his prison. + The whirling winds the dust obeys, + And in the rapid eddy plays; + My dog, so alter'd in his taste, + Quits mutton-bones on grass to feast; + And see yon rooks, how odd their flight! + They imitate the gliding kite, + Or seem precipitate to fall, + As if they felt the piercing ball:-- + 'Twill surely rain,--I see with sorrow, + Our jaunt must be put off to-morrow." + +Uncivilized nations often entertain the absurd notion that certain +individuals can command the rain whenever they please. Much honour is +shown to persons supposed to possess this power, for they are considered +as having some mysterious intercourse with heaven. Catlin gives a +striking instance of this superstition as it exists among the Mandans of +North America. These people raise a great deal of corn; but their +harvests are sometimes destroyed by long-continued drought. When +threatened with this calamity, the women (who have the care of the +patches of corn) implore their lords to intercede for rain; and +accordingly the chiefs and doctors assemble to deliberate on the case. +When they have decided that it is necessary to produce rain, they wisely +delay the matter for as many days as possible; and it is not until +further urged by the complaints and entreaties of the women, that they +begin to take the usual steps for accomplishing their purpose. At length +they assemble in the council-house with all their apparatus about +them--with abundance of wild sage and aromatic herbs, to burn before the +"Great Spirit." On these occasions the lodge is closed to all except the +doctors and some ten or fifteen young men, the latter being the persons +to whom the honour of making it rain, or the disgrace of having failed in +the attempt, is to belong. + +After having witnessed the conjurations of the doctors inside the lodge, +these young men are called up by lot, one at a time, to spend a day on +the top of the lodge, and to see how far their efforts will avail in +producing rain; at the same time the smoke of the burning herbs ascends +through a hole in the roof. On one of these occasions, when all the +charms were in operation, and when three young men had spent each his day +on the lodge in ineffectual efforts to bring rain, and the fourth was +engaged alternately addressing the crowd of villagers and the spirits of +the air, but in vain, it so happened that the steam-boat "Yellow Stone," +made her first trip up the Missouri river, and about noon approached the +village of the Mandans. Catlin was a passenger on this boat; and helped +to fire a salute of twenty guns of twelve pounds calibre, when they first +came in sight of the village, which was at some three or four miles +distance. These guns introduced a new sound into the country, which the +Mandans naturally enough supposed to be thunder. "The young man upon the +lodge, who turned it to good account, was gathering fame in rounds of +applause, which were repeated and echoed through the whole village; all +eyes were centred upon him--chiefs envied him--mothers' hearts were +beating high, whilst they were decorating and leading up their fair +daughters to offer him in marriage on his signal success. The +medicine-men had left the lodge, and came out to bestow upon him the +envied title of 'medicine-man,' or 'doctor,' which he had so deservedly +won--wreaths were prepared to decorate his brows, and eagle's plumes and +calumets were in readiness for him--his enemies wore on their faces a +silent gloom and hatred; and his old sweethearts who had cast him off, +gazed intensely upon him, as they glowed with the burning fever of +repentance. During all this excitement, Wak-a-dah-ha-hee (or the white +buffalo's hair) kept his position, assuming the most commanding and +threatening attitudes; brandishing his shield in the direction of the +thunder, although there was not a cloud to be seen, until he (poor +fellow) being elevated above the rest of the village, espied, to his +inexpressible amazement, the steamboat ploughing its way up the windings +of the river below, puffing her steam from her pipes, and sending forth +the thunder from a twelve-pounder on her deck. 'The white Buffalo's +hair' stood motionless, and turned pale; he looked awhile, and turned to +the chief and to the multitude, and addressed them with a trembling +lip--'My friends, we will get no rain!--there are, you see, no clouds; +but my medicine is great--I have brought a _thunder-boat_! look and see +it! the thunder you hear is out of her mouth, and the lightning which you +see is on the waters!' + +"At this intelligence, the whole village flew to the tops of their +wigwams, or to the bank of the river, from whence the steamer was in full +view, and ploughing along to their utter dismay and confusion. In this +promiscuous throng, chiefs, doctors, women, children, and dogs, were +mingled, Wak-a-dah-ha-hee having descended from his high place to mingle +with the frightened throng. Dismayed at the approach of so strange and +unaccountable an object, the Mandans stood their ground but a few +moments; when, by an order of the chiefs, all hands were ensconced within +the piquets of their village, and all the warriors armed for desperate +self-defence. A few moments brought the boat in front of the village, +and all was still and quiet as death; not a Mandan was to be seen upon +the banks. The steamer was moored, and three or four of the chiefs soon +after walked boldly down the bank, and on to her deck, with a spear in +one hand, and a calumet, or pipe of peace in the other. The moment they +stepped on board, they met (to their great surprise and joy) their old +friend Major Sanford, their agent, which circumstance put an instant end +to all their fears." + +It was long, however, before the rain-maker could be persuaded to come +forward, or to listen to the assurance that his medicine had nothing +whatever to do with the arrival of the ship. Unwilling to lose the fame +of having produced such a phenomenon, he continued to assert that he knew +of its coming, and by his magic had caused it to approach. But he was +little regarded in the universal bustle and gossip which was going on +respecting the mysteries of the "thunder-boat." + +Meanwhile the day passed on, and towards evening a cloud began to rise +above the horizon. Wak-a-dah-ha-hee no sooner observed this, than, with +shield on his arm and bow in hand, he was again upon the lodge. +"Stiffened and braced to the last sinew, he stood with his face and his +shield presented to the cloud, and his bow drawn. He drew the eyes of +the whole village upon him, as he vaunted forth his superhuman powers; +and at the same time commanded the cloud to come nearer, that he might +draw down its contents upon their heads and the corn-fields of the +Mandans. In this wise he stood, waving his shield over his head, +stamping his foot, and frowning as he drew his bow and threatened the +heavens, commanding it to rain--his bow was bent, and the arrow drawn to +its head, was sent to the cloud, {210} and he exclaimed, 'My friends, it +is done! Wak-a-dah-ha-hee's arrow has entered that black cloud, and the +Mandans will be wet with the water of the skies!' His predictions were +true--in a few moments the cloud was over the village, and the rain fell +in torrents. He stood for some time wielding his weapons, and boasting +of the efficacy of his _medicine_ to those who had been about him, but +were now driven to the shelter of their wigwams; and descended from his +high place (in which he had been perfectly drenched) prepared to receive +the honours and homage that were due to one so potent in his mysteries; +and to receive the style and title of _medicine-man_." Catlin further +informs us, that when the Mandans undertake to make it rain, they always +succeed, for their ceremonies never stop until rain begins to fall: and +also, that he who has once made it rain never attempts it again; his +medicine is undoubted--and on future occasions of the kind he stands +aloof, giving an opportunity to other young men who are ambitious to +signalize themselves in the same way. + +A superstition similar to that of the Mandans prevails also among the +Caffers of Southern Africa, and among the natives of Ceylon. The Caffer +chiefs, attended by their warriors, proceed with much ceremony, and laden +with presents, to the dwelling of the rain-doctor, where a grand feast is +held while certain charms are in process. The impostor at length +dismisses his guests with a variety of instructions, on the due +observance of which the success of their application is to depend. These +instructions are generally of the most trifling kind: they are to travel +home in perfect silence; or they are not to look back; or they are to +compel every one they meet to turn back and go home with them. Should +rain happen to fall, the credit is given to the rain-doctor; but should +the drought continue, the fault is laid upon the failure of the +applicants to fulfil these instructions with sufficient exactness. + +Major Forbes gives an account of an old rain-doctor in Ceylon, who had +plied a lucrative trade for many years, and at length wished to retire +from business. But the people were highly incensed at the idea of losing +his services, especially as a most distressing drought was at that time +the scourge of the land. So persuaded were they of his powers, that they +all agreed, that when required to do so by a whole village, he should be +compelled to furnish rain in sufficient quantities; and that if he was +insensible to rewards, he should be tormented with thorns or beaten into +compliance. In vain did the poor old impostor at length declare the +truth, and assure the people that he had no power whatever to make it +rain. They treated his words with disdain, and dragged their victim from +village to village, inflicting stripes at every halt. Even the chief of +the district had determined on having rain by force, if fair means should +fail, and ordered the rain-doctor to be taken to the village where rain +was most required. On his way thither he was so fortunate as to meet +with Major Forbes, who took him under his protection, and probably saved +his life, though not without some difficulty, for it so happened that a +few slight showers fell near his own village, while all the rest of the +neighbourhood was suffering the extremity of drought. + +Melancholy indeed is the condition of these poor people; in utter +ignorance of the source of all the providential mercies bestowed upon +them, and, therefore, made the dupes and credulous followers of knaves +and impostors of every kind! + +In some cases, however, the missionaries have happily succeeded in +opening the eyes of the deluded people to the cheat which is practised on +them. One of the most intelligent of the Caffers of Southern Africa, +having been led to suspect the integrity of the rain-maker, visited Mr. +Shaw, and told him of his determination to have the question set at rest, +whether or no the rain-maker could produce rain. He had summoned the +rain-maker to meet Mr. Shaw in an open plain, when all the Caffers of the +surrounding kraals were to be present to decide the affair. Accordingly, +at the appointed time and place, thousands of Caffers from the +neighbouring country assembled in their war-dresses. Mr. Shaw, being +confronted with a celebrated rain-maker, declared publicly that God alone +gave rain; and then offered to present the rain-maker with a team of oxen +if he should succeed in making it rain within a certain specified time. +This was agreed to; the rain-maker began his ceremonies, which are said +to have been well calculated to impose upon an ignorant and superstitious +people. The time having expired without any signs of rain, the chief who +had called together the meeting asked the rain-maker why he had so long +imposed upon them? The rain-maker complained that he had not been paid +well enough for his rain; and appealed to all present, whether rain had +not always been produced when he had been properly paid. Mr. Shaw then +pointed out some half-famished cattle belonging to the rain-maker, which +were seen on a neighbouring hill starving for want of pasturage, and +remarked, that if he really possessed his boasted skill, he would not +have neglected his own interests. To this the rain-maker cleverly +replied, "I never found a difficulty in making rain until _he_ (pointing +to Mr. Shaw) came among us; but now, no sooner do I collect the clouds, +and the rain is about to fall, than immediately there begins a sound of +_ting_, _ting_, _ting_, (alluding to the chapel-bell,) which puts the +clouds to flight, and prevents the rain from descending on your land." +Mr. Shaw was not able to tell what effect this ingenious excuse had upon +the majority of the Caffers, but he had the satisfaction of knowing that +the intelligent chief, who consulted him on the subject, never _bought_ +any more rain. + + + + +Already Published in this Series. + + +I.--THE SNOW STORM. +II.--THE FROZEN STREAM. +III.--THE RAIN CLOUD. + + + + +Shortly will be Published. + + +IV.--THE DEW DROP. +V.--THE THUNDER STORM. +VI.--THE TEMPEST. + + + + +Footnotes: + + +{18} Physico-Theology by the Rev. Wm. Derham. + +{55} See Frontispiece to this Chapter, p. 36. + +{85} See Frontispiece to this Chapter, p. 74. + +{133} This plan was brought before the notice of the British Association +for the advancement of Science in the year 1840. + +{155} Harvey's Meteorology, in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. + +{181} One of the stones which fell at L'Aigle, on being analysed by +Thenard, gave-- + +Silica 46 per cent. +Magnesia 10 +Iron 45 +Nickel 2 +Sulphur 5 + +{210} See Frontispiece to this Chapter, p. 190. + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RAIN CLOUD*** + + +******* This file should be named 30706.txt or 30706.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/0/7/0/30706 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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