diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:55:29 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:55:29 -0700 |
| commit | b74277e7080242458f4ec25f8b43c23157da4d4a (patch) | |
| tree | 9914f7530b84d52cf066d691fa7993b307429dd5 | |
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31273-0.txt | 1994 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31273-0.zip | bin | 0 -> 39490 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31273-8.txt | 1988 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31273-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 39197 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31273-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 44543 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31273-h/31273-h.htm | 2649 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31273.txt | 1988 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31273.zip | bin | 0 -> 39010 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
11 files changed, 8635 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/31273-0.txt b/31273-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c11d5d --- /dev/null +++ b/31273-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1994 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arawack Language of Guiana in its +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, by Daniel G. Brinton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Arawack Language of Guiana in its Linguistic and Ethnological Relations + +Author: Daniel G. Brinton + +Release Date: February 14, 2010 [EBook #31273] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA *** + + + + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + +Transcriber’s Note + +A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of +this book. They have been marked with a [TN-#], which refers to a +description in the complete list found at the end of the text. + +The following codes for less common characters were used: + + œ oe ligature + [lr] l printed over r + + + + + THE ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA + + IN ITS + + Linguistic and Ethnological Relations. + + + By D. G. BRINTON, M. D. + + + PHILADELPHIA: + McCALLA & STAVELY, PRINTERS. + 237-9 DOCK STREET. + 1871. + + + + +THE ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA + +IN ITS + +LINGUISTIC AND ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS. + +BY D. G. BRINTON, M. D. + + +The Arawacks are a tribe of Indians who at present dwell in British and +Dutch Guiana, between the Corentyn and Pomeroon rivers. They call +themselves simply _lukkunu_, men, and only their neighbors apply to them +the contemptuous name _aruac_ (corrupted by Europeans into Aroaquis, +Arawaaks, Aroacos, Arawacks, etc.), meal-eaters, from their peaceful +habit of gaining an important article of diet from the amylaceous pith +of the _Mauritia flexuosa_ palm, and the edible root of the cassava +plant. + +They number only about two thousand souls, and may seem to claim no more +attention at the hands of the ethnologist than any other obscure Indian +tribe. But if it can be shown that in former centuries they occupied the +whole of the West Indian archipelago to within a few miles of the shore +of the northern continent, then on the question whether their +affiliations are with the tribes of the northern or southern mainland, +depends our opinion of the course of migration of the primitive +inhabitants of the western world. And if this is the tribe whose +charming simplicity Columbus and Peter Martyr described in such poetic +language, then the historian will acknowledge a desire to acquaint +himself more closely with its past and its present. It is my intention +to show that such was their former geographical position. + +While in general features there is nothing to distinguish them from the +red race elsewhere, they have strong national traits. Physically they +are rather undersized, averaging not over five feet four inches in +height, but strong-limbed, agile, and symmetrical. Their foreheads are +low, their noses more allied to the Aryan types than usual with their +race, and their skulls of that form defined by craniologists as +orthognathic brachycephalic. + +From the earliest times they have borne an excellent character. +Hospitable, peace-loving, quick to accept the humbler arts of +civilization and the simpler precepts of Christianity, they have ever +offered a strong contrast to their neighbors, the cruel and warlike +Caribs. They are not at all prone to steal, lie, or drink, and their +worst faults are an addiction to blood-revenge, and a superstitious +veneration for their priests. + +They are divided into a number of families, over fifty in all, the +genealogies of which are carefully kept in the female line, and the +members of any one of which are forbidden to intermarry. In this +singular institution they resemble many other native tribes. + + +LANGUAGE. + +The earliest specimen of their language under its present name is given +by Johannes de Laet in his _Novus Orbis, seu Descriptio Indiæ +Occidentalis_ (Lugd. Bat. 1633). It was obtained in 1598. In 1738 the +Moravian brethren founded several missionary stations in the country, +but owing to various misfortunes, the last of their posts was given up +in 1808. To them we owe the only valuable monuments of the language in +existence. + +Their first instructor was a mulatto boy, who assisted them in +translating into the Arawack a life of Christ. I cannot learn that this +is extant. Between 1748 and 1755 one of the missionaries, Theophilus +Schumann, composed a dictionary, _Deutsch-Arawakisches Wœrterbuch_, +and a grammar, _Deutsch-Arawakische Sprachlehre_, which have remained +in manuscript in the library of the Moravian community at Paramaribo. +Schumann died in 1760, and as he was the first to compose such works, +the manuscript dictionary in the possession of Bishop Wullschlägel, +erroneously referred by the late Professor von Martius to the first +decade of the last century, is no doubt a copy of Schumann’s. + +In 1807 another missionary, C. Quandt, published a _Nachricht von +Surinam_, the appendix to which contains the best published grammatical +notice of the tongue. The author resided in Surinam from 1769 to 1780. + +Unquestionably, however, the most complete and accurate information in +existence concerning both the verbal wealth and grammatical structure of +the language, is contained in the manuscripts of the Rev. Theodore +Schultz, now in the library of the AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Mr. +Shultz[TN-1] was a Moravian missionary, who was stationed among the +Arawacks from 1790 to 1802, or thereabout. The manuscripts referred to +are a dictionary and a grammar. The former is a quarto volume of 622 +pages. The first 535 pages comprise an Arawack-German lexicon, the +remainder is an appendix containing the names of trees, stars, birds, +insects, grasses, minerals, places, and tribes. The grammar, +_Grammattikalische Sätze von der Aruwakkischen Sprache_, is a 12mo +volume of 173 pages, left in an unfinished condition. Besides these he +left at his death a translation of the Acts of the Apostles, which was +published in 1850 by the American Bible Society under the title _Act +Apostelnu_. It is from these hitherto unused sources that I design to +illustrate the character of the language, and study its former +extension.[1] + + +PHONETICS. + +The Arawack is described as “the softest of all the Indian tongues.”[2] +It is rich in vowels, and free from gutturals. The enunciation is +distinct and melodious. As it has been reduced to writing by Germans, +the German value must be given to the letters employed, a fact which +must always be borne in mind in comparing it with the neighboring +tongues, nearly all of which are written with the Spanish orthography. + +The Arawack alphabet has twenty letters: a, b, d, e, g, h, i, j, k, l, +m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, w. + +Besides these, they have a semi-vowel written [lr] the sound of which in +words of the masculine gender approaches l, in those of the neuter +gender r. The o and u, and the t and d, are also frequently blended. The +w has not the German but the soft English sound, as in _we_. The German +dipthongs[TN-2] æ, œ, eu, ei, ü, are employed. The accents are the +long ^, the acute `, and that indicating the emphasis ´. The latter is +usually placed near the commencement of the word, and must be carefully +observed. + + +NOUNS. + +Like most Indians, the Arawack rarely uses a noun in the abstract. An +object in his mind is always connected with some person or thing, and +this connection is signified by an affix, a suffix, or some change in +the original form of the word. To this rule there are some exceptions, +as _bahü_ a house, _siba_ a stone, _hiäru_ a woman. _Dáddikân hiäru_, I +see a woman. Such nouns are usually roots. Those derived from verbal +roots are still more rarely employed independently. + +NUMBERS. The plural has no regular termination. Often the same form +serves for both numbers, as is the case in many English words. Thus, +_itime_ fish and fishes, _siba_ stone and stones, _känsiti_ a lover and +lovers. The most common plural endings are _ati_, _uti_, and _anu_, +connected to the root by a euphonic letter; as _uju_ mother, _ujunuti_ +mothers, _itti_ father, _ittinati_ fathers, _kansissia_ a loved one, +_kansissiannu_ loved ones. + +Of a dual there is no trace, nor does there seem to be of what is called +the American plural (exclusive or inclusive of those present). But there +is a peculiar plural form with a singular signification in the language, +which is worthy of note. An example will illustrate it; _itti_ is +father, plural _ittinati_; _wattinati_ is our father, not our fathers, +as the form would seem to signify. In other words, singular nouns used +with plural pronouns, or construed with several other nouns, take a +plural form. _Petrus Johannes mutti ujúnatu_, the mother of Peter and +John. + +GENDERS. A peculiarity, which the Arawack shares with the Iroquois[3] +and other aboriginal languages of the Western continent, is that it only +has two genders, and these not the masculine and feminine, as in French, +but the masculine and neuter. Man or nothing was the motto of these +barbarians. Regarded as an index of their mental and social condition, +this is an ominous fact. It hints how utterly destitute they are of +those high, chivalric feelings, which with us centre around woman. + +The termination of the masculine is _i_, of the neuter _u_, and, as I +have already observed, a permutation of the semi-vowels _l_ and _r_ +takes place, the letter becoming _l_ in the masculine, _r_ in the +neuter. A slight difference in many words is noticeable when pronounced +by women or by men. The former would say _keretin_, to marry; the latter +_kerejun_. The gender also appears by more than one of these changes: +_ipillin_, great, strong, masculine; _ipirrun_, feminine and neuter. + +There is no article, either definite or indefinite, and no declension of +nouns. + + +PRONOUNS. + +The demonstrative and possessive personal pronouns are alike in form, +and, as in other American languages, are intimately incorporated with +the words with which they are construed. A single letter is the root of +each: _d_ I, mine, _b_ thou, thine, _l_ he, his, _t_ she, her, it, its, +_w_ we, our, _h_ you, your, _n_ they, their; to these radical letters +the indefinite pronoun _ükküahü_, somebody, is added, and by +abbreviation the following forms are obtained, which are those usually +current: + + dakia, dai, I. + bokkia, bui, thou. + likia, he. + turreha, she, it. + wakia, wai, we. + hukia, hui, you. + nakia, nai, they. + +Except the third person, singular, they are of both genders. In +speaking, the abbreviated form is used, except where for emphasis the +longer is chosen. + +In composition they usually retain their first vowel, but this is +entirely a question of euphony. The methods of their employment with +nouns will be seen in the following examples: + + _üssiquahü_, a house. + dássiqua, my house. + bússiqua, thy house. + + lüssiqua, his house. + + tüssiqua, her, its house. + wássiqua, our house. + + hüssiqua, your house. + nássiqua, their house. + + _uju_, mother. + daiju, my mother. + buju, thy mother. + luju, his mother. + tuju, her mother. + waijunattu, our mother. + hujuattu, your mother. + naijattu, their mother. + waijunuti, our mothers. + hujunuti, your mothers. + naijunuti, their mothers. + +Many of these forms suffer elision in speaking. _Itti_ father, _datti_ +my father, _wattínatti_ our father, contracted to _wattínti_ (_watti_ +rarely used). + +When thus construed with pronouns, most nouns undergo some change of +form, usually by adding an affix; _báru_ an axe, _dábarun_ my axe, +_iulí_ tobacco, _dajulite_ my tobacco. + + +ADJECTIVES. + +The verb is the primitive part of speech in American tongues. To the +aboriginal man every person and object presents itself as either doing +or suffering something, every quality and attribute as something which +is taking place or existing. His philosophy is that of the extreme +idealists or the extreme materialists, who alike maintain that nothing +_is_, beyond the cognizance of our senses. Therefore his adjectives are +all verbal participles, indicating a state of existence. Thus _üssatu_ +good, is from _üssân_ to be good, and means the condition of being good, +a good woman or thing, _üssati_ a good man. + +Some adjectives, principally those from present participles, have the +masculine and neuter terminations _i_ and _u_ in the singular, and in +the plural _i_ for both genders. Adjectives from the past participles +end in the singular in _issia_ or _üssia_, in the plural in _annu_. When +the masculine ends in _illi_, the neuter takes _urru_, as _wadikilli_, +_wadikurru_, long. + +Comparison is expressed by adding _bén_ or _kén_ or _adin_ (a verb +meaning to be above) for the comparative, and _apüdi_ for the +diminutive. _Ubura_, from the verb _uburau_ to be before in time, and +_adiki_, from _adikin_ to be after in time, are also used for the same +purpose. The superlative has to be expressed by a circumlocution; as +_tumaqua aditu ipirrun turreha_, what is great beyond all else; +_bokkia üssá dáuria_, thou art better than I, where the last word is a +compound of _dai uwúria_ of, from, than. The comparative degree of the +adjectives corresponds to the intensive and frequentative forms of the +verbs; thus _ipirrun_ to be strong, _ipirru_ strong, _ipirrubîn_ and +_ipirrubessabun_ to be stronger, _ipirrubetu_ and _ipirrubessabutu_ +stronger, that which is stronger. + +The numerals are wonderfully simple, and well illustrate how the +primitive man began his arithmetic. They are:-- + + 1 abba. + 2 biama, plural biamannu. + 3 kabbuhin, plural kubbuhinínnu. + 4 bibiti, plural bibitinu. + 5 abbatekkábe, plural abbatekabbunu. + 6 abbatiman, plural abbatimannínu. + 7 biamattiman, plural biamattimannínu. + 8 kabbuhintiman, plural kabbuhintimannínu. + 9 bibitiman, plural bibititumannínu. + 10 biamantekábbe, plural biamantekábunu. + +Now if we analyze these words, we discover that _abbatekkábe_ five, is +simply _abba_ one, and _akkabu_, hand; that the word for six is +literally “one [finger] of the other [hand],” for seven “two [fingers] +of the other [hand],” and so on to ten, which is compounded of _biama_ +two, and _akkabu_ hands. Would they count eleven, they say _abba +kutihibena_ one [toe] from the feet, and for twenty the expression is +_abba lukku_ one man, both hands and feet. Thus, in truth, they have +only four numerals, and it is even a question whether these are +primitive, for _kabbuhin_ seems a strengthened form of _abba_, and +_bibuti_ to bear the same relation to _biama_. Therefore we may look +back to a time when this nation knew not how to express any numbers +beyond one and two. + +Although these numbers do not take peculiar terminations when applied to +different objects, as in the languages of Central America and Mexico, +they have a great variety of forms to express the relationship in which +they are used. The ordinals are: + + atenennuati, first. + ibiamattéti, second. + wakábbuhinteti, our third, etc. + +To the question, How many at a time? the answer is: + + likinnekewai, one alone. + biamanuman, two at a time, etc. + +If simply, How many? it is: + + abbahu, one. + biamahu, two. + +If, For which time? it is: + + tibíakuja, for the first time. + tibíamattétu, for the second time. + +and so on. + + +VERBS. + +The verbs are sometimes derived from nouns, sometimes from participles, +sometimes from other verbs, and have reflexive, passive, frequentative, +and other forms. Thus from _lana_, the name of a certain black dye, +comes _lannatün_ to color with this dye, _alannatunna_ to color oneself +with it, _alannattukuttun_ to let oneself be colored with it, +_alanattukuttunnua_ to be colored with it. + +The infinitive ends in _in_, _ün_, _ùn_, _ân_, _unnua_, _ên_, and _ûn_. +Those in _in_, _ün_, _ùn_, and _ân_ are transitive, in _unnua_ are +passive and neuter, the others are transitive, intransitive, or neuter. + +The passive voice is formed by the medium of a verb of permission, thus: + + amalitin, to make. + amalitikittin, to let make. + amalitikittunnua, to be made. + assimakin, to call. + assimakuttün, to let call, + assimakuttùnnua, to be called. + +The personal pronouns are united to the verbs as they are to the nouns. +They precede all verbs except those whose infinitives terminate in _ên_, +_in_, and _ân_, to which they are suffixed as a rule, but not always. +When they follow the verb, the forms of the pronouns are either _de_, +_bu_, _i_ he, _n_ she, it, _u_, _hu_, _je_ or _da_, _ba_, _la_, _ta_, +_wa_, _ha_, _na_. The latter are used chiefly where the negative prefix +_m_, _ma_ or _maya_ is employed. Examples: + + hallikebben, to rejoice. + + hallikebbéde, I rejoice. + hallikebbébu, thou rejoicest. + hallikebbéi, he rejoices. + hallikebbên, she rejoices. + hallikebbéu, we rejoice. + hallikebbéhü, you rejoice. + hallikebbéje, they rejoice. + + majauquan, to remain. + + majáuquada, I remain. + majáuquaba, thou remainest. + majáuquala, he remains. + majáuquata, she remains. + majáuquawa, we remain. + majáuquaha, you remain. + majáuquana, they remain. + +MOODS AND TENSES. Their verbs have four moods, the indicative, optative, +imperative, and infinitive, and five tenses, one present, three +preterites, and one future. The rules of their formation are simple. By +changing the termination of the infinitive into _a_, we have the +indicative present, into _bi_ the first preterite, into _buna_ the +second preterite, into _kuba_ the third preterite, and into _pa_ the +future. The conjugations are six in number, and many of the verbs are +irregular. The following verb of the first conjugation illustrates the +general rules for conjugation: + + _ayahaddin,_ to walk. + +INDICATIVE MOOD. + +Present tense: + + dayahadda, I walk. + bujahadda, thou walkest. + lujahadda, he walks. + tüjahadda, she walks. + wayahádda, we walk. + hujahádda, you walk. + nayuhádda, they walk. + +First preterite--of to-day: + + dayaháddibi, I walked to-day. + bujaháddibi, thou walked to-day. + lijaháddibi, he walked to-day. + tujaháddibi, she walked to-day. + wayaháddibi, we walked to-day. + hujaháddibi, you walked to-day. + nayaháddibi, they walked to-day. + +Second preterite--of yesterday or the day before. + + dayahaddibüna, I walked yesterday or the day before. + bujaháddibüna, thou walked yesterday or the day before. + lijaháddibuna, he walked yesterday or the day before. + tujaháddibüna, she walked yesterday or the day before. + wayaháddibüna, we walked yesterday or the day before. + hujaháddibüna, you walked yesterday or the day before. + nayaháddibüna, they walked yesterday or the day before. + +Third preterite--at some indefinite past time: + + dayaháddakuba, I walked. + bujaháddakuba, thou walked. + lijaháddakuba, he walked. + tujaháddakuba, she walked. + wayaháddakuka, we walked. + hujaháddakuba, you walked. + nayaháddakuba, they walked. + +Future: + + dayaháddipa, I shall walk. + bujaháddipa, thou wilt walk. + lijaháddipa, he will walk. + tujaháddipa, she will walk. + wayaháddipa, we shall walk. + hujahaddipa, you will walk. + nayahaddipa, they will walk. + +OPTATIVE MOOD. + +Present: + + dayahaddama or dayahaddinnika, I may walk. + +First preterite: + + dayahaddinnikábima. + +Second preterite[TN-3] + + dayahaddinbünáma. + +Third preterite: + + dayahaddinnikubáma. + +IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + bujahaddáte or bujahaddalte, walk thou. + hüjahaddáte or hujahaddalte, walk ye. + nayahaddáte, let them walk. + wayahaddali, let us walk. + +PARTICIPLES. + + ayahaddinnibi, to have walked to-day. + ayahaddinnibüna, to have walked yesterday. + ayahaddínnikuba, to have walked. + ayahaddínnipa, to be about to walk. + +GERUND. + + ayahaddinti. + ayahaddinnibia. + +The following forms also belong to this verb: + + ayahaddinnibiakubáma, to may or can walk. + ayahaddahálin, one who walks there (infinitive form). + +As in all polysynthetic languages, other words and particles can be +incorporated in the verb to modify its meaning, thus: + + dayahaddáruka, as I was walking. + dayahaddakanika, I walk a little. + dayahaddahittika, I walk willingly. + +In this way sometimes words of formidable length are manufactured, as: + + massukussukuttunnuanikaebibu, you should not have been washed to-day. + +Negation may be expressed either by the prefix _m_ or _ma_, as +_mayahaddinikade_, I do not walk (where the prefix throws the pronoun to +the end of the word, and gives it the form appropriate for that +position), or else by the adverb _kurru_, not. But if both these +negatives are used, they make an affirmative, as _madittinda kurru +Gott_, I am not unacquainted with God. + + +COMPOSITION OF WORDS AND SENTENCES. + +“In general,” remarks Prof. Von Martius, “this language betrays the +poverty and cumbrousness of other South American languages; yet in many +expressions a glimpse is caught of a far reaching, ideal background.”[4] +We see it in the composition and derivation of some words; from _haikan_ +to pass by, comes _haikahu_ death, the passing away, and _aiihakü_ +marriage, in which, as in death, the girl is lost to her parents; from +_kassan_ to be pregnant, comes _kassaku_ the firmament, big with all +things which are, and _kassahu behü_, the house of the firmament, the +sky, the day; from _ükkü_ the heart, comes _ükkürahü_ the family, the +tribe, those of one blood, whose hearts beat in unison, and _üküahü_ a +person, one whose heart beats and who therefore lives, and also, +singularly enough, _ükkürahü_ pus, no doubt from that strange analogy +which in so many other aboriginal languages and myths identified the +product of suppuration with the _semen masculinum_, the physiological +germ of life. + +The syntax of the language is not clearly set forth by any authorities. +Adjectives generally, but not always, follow the words they qualify, and +prepositions are usually placed after the noun, and often at the end of +a sentence; thus, _peru_ (Spanish _perro_) _assimakaku naha à_, the dog +barks her at. To display more fully the character of the tongue, I shall +quote and analyze a verse from the _Act Apostelnu_, the 11th verse of +the 14th chapter, which in the English Protestant version reads: + +And when the people saw what Paul had done, they lifted up their voices, +saying in the speech of Lycaonia, The gods are come down to us in the +likeness of men. + +In Arawack it is: + +Addikitti uijuhu Paulus anissiäbiru, kakannaküku na assimakâka hürküren +Lÿcaonia adiân ullukku hiddin: Amallitakoananutti lukkunu dia na buté +wakkarruhu, nattukuda aijumüneria wibiti hinna. + +Literally: + +They--seeing (_addin_ to see, gerund) the--people Paulus what--had been +done (_anin_ to do, _anissia_ to have been done), loudly they called +altogether the--Lycaonia speech in, thus, The--gods (present participle +of _amallitin_ to make; the same appellation which the ancient Greeks +gave to poets, [Greek: poiêtai] makers, the Arawacks applied to the +divine powers) men like, us to now (_buté_ nota præsentis) +are--come--down from--above--down--here ourselves because--of. + + +AFFILIATIONS OF THE ARAWACK. + +The Arawacks are essentially of South American origin and affiliations. +The earliest explorers of the mainland report them as living on the +rivers of Guiana, and having settlements even south of the Equator.[5] +De Laet in his map of Guiana locates a large tribe of “Arowaceas” three +degrees south of the line, on the right bank of the Amazon. Dr. Spix +during his travels in Brazil met with fixed villages of them near +Fonteboa, on the river Solimoes and near Tabatinga and Castro +d’Avelaes.[6] They extended westward beyond the mouth of the Orinoco, +and we even hear of them in the province of Santa Marta, in the +mountains south of Lake Maracaybo.[7] + +While their language has great verbal differences from the Tupi of +Brazil and the Carib, it has also many verbal similarities with both. +“The Arawack and the Tupi,” observes Professor Von Martius, “are alike +in their syntax, in their use of the possessive and personal pronouns, +and in their frequent adverbial construction;”[8] and in a letter +written me shortly before his death, he remarks, in speaking of the +similarity of these three tongues: “Ich bin überzeugt dass diese [die +Cariben] eine Elite der Tupis waren, welche erst spät auf die Antillen +gekommen sind, wo die alte Tupi--Sprache in kaum erkennbaren Resten +übrig war, als man sie dort aufzeichnete.” I take pleasure in bringing +forward this opinion of the great naturalist, not only because it is not +expressed so clearly in any of his published writings, but because his +authority on this question is of the greatest weight, and because it +supports the view which I have elsewhere advanced of the migrations of +the Arawack and Carib tribes.[9] These “hardly recognizable remains of +the Tupi tongue,” we shall see belonged also to the ancient Arawack at +an epoch when it was less divergent than it now is from its primitive +form. While these South American affinities are obvious, no relationship +whatever, either verbal or syntactical, exists between the Arawack and +the Maya of Yucatan, or the Chahta-Mvskoki of Florida and the northern +shore of the Gulf of Mexico. + +As it is thus rendered extremely probable that the Arawack is closely +connected with the great linguistic families of South America, it +becomes of prime importance to trace its extension northward, and to +determine if it is in any way affined to the tongues spoken on the West +India Islands, when these were first discovered. + +The Arawacks of to-day when asked concerning their origin point to the +north, and claim at some not very remote time to have lived at _Kairi_, +an island, by which generic name they mean Trinidad. This tradition is +in a measure proved correct by the narrative of Sir Walter Raleigh, who +found them living there in 1595,[10] and by the Belgian explorers who in +1598 collected a short vocabulary of their tongue. This oldest monument +of the language has sufficient interest to deserve copying and comparing +with the modern dialect. It is as follows: + + LATIN. ARAWACK, 1598. ARAWACK, 1800. + pater, pilplii, itti. + mater, saeckee, uju. + caput, wassijehe, waseye. + auris, wadycke, wadihy. + oculus, wackosije, wakusi. + nasus, wassyerii, wasiri. + os, dalerocke, daliroko. + dentes, darii, dari. + crura, dadane, dadaanah. + pedes, dackosye, dakuty. + arbor, hada, adda. + arcus, semarape, semaara-haaba. + sagittæ, symare, semaara. + luna, cattehel, katsi. + sol, adaly, hadalli. + +The syllables _wa_ our, and _da_ my, prefixed to the parts of the human +body, will readily be recognized. When it is remembered that the dialect +of Trinidad no doubt differed slightly from that on the mainland; that +the modern orthography is German and that of De Lact’s[TN-4] list is +Dutch; and that two centuries intervened between the first and second, +it is really a matter of surprise to discover such a close similarity. +Father and mother, the only two words which are not identical, are +doubtless different expressions, relationship in this, as in most native +tongues, being indicated with excessive minuteness. + +The chain of islands which extend from Trinidad to Porto Rico were +called, from their inhabitants, the Caribby islands. The Caribs, +however, made no pretence to have occupied them for any great length of +time. They distinctly remembered that a generation or two back they had +reached them from the mainland, and had found them occupied by a +peaceful race, whom they styled _Ineri_ or _Igneri_. The males of this +race they slew or drove into the interior, but the women they seized for +their own use. Hence arose a marked difference between the languages of +the island Caribs and their women. The fragments of the language of the +latter show clearly that they were of Arawack lineage, and that the +so-called Igneri were members of that nation. It of course became more +or less corrupted by the introduction of Carib words and forms, so that +in 1674 the missionary De la Borde wrote, that “although there is some +difference between the dialects of the men and women, they readily +understand each other;”[11] and Father Breton in his Carib Grammar +(1665) gives the same forms for the declensions and conjugations of +both. + +As the traces of the “island Arawack,” as the tongue of the Igneri may +be called, prove the extension of this tribe over all the Lesser +Antilles, it now remains to inquire whether they had pushed their +conquests still further, and had possessed themselves of the Great +Antilles, the Bahama islands, and any part of the adjacent coasts of +Yucatan or Florida. + +All ancient writers agree that on the Bahamas and Cuba the same speech +prevailed, except Gomara, who avers that on the Bahamas “great diversity +of language” was found.[12] But as Gomara wrote nearly half a century +after those islands were depopulated, and has exposed himself to just +censure for carelessness in his statements regarding the natives,[13] +his expression has no weight. Columbus repeatedly states that all the +islands had one language though differing, more or less, in words. The +natives he took with him from San Salvador understood the dialects in +both Cuba and Haiti. One of them on his second voyage served him as an +interpreter on the southern shore of Cuba.[14] + +In Haiti, there was a tongue current all over the island, called by the +Spaniards _la lengua universal_ and _la lengua cortesana_. This is +distinctly said by all the historians to have been but very slightly +different from that of Cuba, a mere dialectic variation in accent being +observed.[15] Many fragments of this tongue are preserved in the +narratives of the early explorers, and it has been the theme for some +strange and wild theorizing among would-be philologists. Rafinesque +christened it the “Taino” language, and discovered it to be closely akin +to the “Pelasgic” of Europe.[16] The Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg will +have it allied to the Maya, the old Norse or Scandinavian, the ancient +Coptic, and what not. Rafinesque and Jegor von Sivors[17] have made +vocabularies of it, but the former in so uncritical, and the latter in +so superficial a manner, that they are worse than useless. + +Although it is said there were in Haiti two other tongues in the small +contiguous provinces of Macorix de arriba and Macorix de abajo, entirely +dissimilar from the _lengua universal_ and from each other, we are +justified in assuming that the prevalent tongue throughout the whole of +the Great Antilles and the Bahamas, was that most common in Haiti. I +have, therefore, perused with care all the early authorities who throw +any light upon the construction and vocabulary of this language, and +gathered from their pages the scattered information they contain. The +most valuable of these authorities are Peter Martyr de Angleria, who +speaks from conversations with natives brought to Spain by Columbus, on +his first voyage,[18] and who was himself, a fine linguist, and +Bartolomé de las Casas. The latter came as a missionary to Haiti, a few +years after its discovery, was earnestly interested in the natives, and +to some extent acquainted with their language. Besides a few printed +works of small importance, Las Casas left two large and valuable works +in manuscript, the _Historia General de las Indias Occidentales_, and +the _Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentals_. A copy of these, +each in four large folio volumes, exists in the Library of Congress, +where I consulted them. They contain a vast amount of information +relating to the aborigines, especially the _Historia Apologetica_, +though much of the author’s space is occupied with frivolous discussions +and idle comparisons. + +In later times, the scholar who has most carefully examined the relics +of this ancient tongue, is Señor Don Estevan Richardo, a native of +Haiti, but who for many years resided in Cuba. His views are contained +in the preface to his _Diccionario Provincial casi-razonado de Voces +Cubanas_, (Habana, 2da ed, 1849). He has found very many words of the +ancient language retained in the provincial Spanish of the island, but +of course in a corrupt form. In the vocabulary which I have prepared for +the purpose of comparison, I have omitted all such corrupted forms, and +nearly all names of plants and animals, as it is impossible to identify +these with certainty, and in order to obtain greater accuracy, have +used, when possible, the first edition of the authors quoted, and in +most instances, given under each word a reference to some original +authority. + +From the various sources which I have examined, the alphabet of the +_lengua universal_ appears to have been as follows: a, b, d, e, (rarely +used at the commencement of a word), g, j, (an aspirated guttural like +the Catalan j, or as Peter Martyr says, like the Arabic ch), i (rare), l +(rare), m, n, o (rare,) p, q, r, s, t, u, y. These letters, it will be +remembered, are as in Spanish. + +The Spanish sounds z, ce, ci (English th,) ll, and v, were entirely +unknown to the natives, and where they appear in indigenous words, were +falsely written for l and b. The Spaniards also frequently distorted the +native names by writing x for j, s, and z, by giving j the sound of the +Latin y, and by confounding h, j, and f, as the old writers frequently +employ the h to designate the _spiritus asper_, whereas in modern +Spanish it is mute.[19] + +Peter Martyr found that he could reduce all the words of their language +to writing, by means of the Latin letters without difficulty, except in +the single instance of the guttural j. He, and all others who heard it +spoken, describe it as “soft and not less liquid than the Latin,” “rich +in vowels and pleasant to the ear,” an idiom “simple, sweet, and +sonorous.”[20] + +In the following vocabulary I have not altered in the least the Spanish +orthography of the words, and so that the analogy of many of them might +at once be preceived,[TN-5] I have inserted the corresponding Arawack +expression, which, it must be borne in mind, is to be pronounced by the +German alphabet. + + +VOCABULARY OF THE ANCIENT LANGUAGE OF THE GREAT ANTILLES. + +Aji, red pepper. Arawack, _achi_, red pepper. + +Aon, dog (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. I, c. 120). Island Ar. _ánli_, dog. + +Arcabuco, a wood, a spot covered with trees (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. de las +Indias, lib. VI, c,[TN-6] 8). Ar. _arragkaragkadin_ the swaying to and +fro of trees. + +Areito, a song chanted alternately by the priests and the people at +their feasts. (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V, c. 1.) Ar. _aririn_ to name, +rehearse. + +Bagua, the sea. Ar. _bara_, the sea. + +Bajaraque, a large house holding several hundred persons. From this +comes Sp. _barraca_, Eng. _barracks_. Ar. _bajü_, a house. + +Bajari, title applied to sub-chiefs ruling villages, (Las Casas, Hist. +Apol. cap. 120). Probably “house-ruler,” from Ar. _bajü_, house. + +Barbacoa, a loft for drying maize, (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. VII, cap. +1). From this the English barbacue. Ar. _barrabakoa_, a place for +storing provisions. + +Batay, a ball-ground; bates, the ball; batey, the game. (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. c. 204). Ar. _battatan_, to be round, spherical.[21] + +Batea, a trough. (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. c. 241.) + +Bejique, a priest. Ar. _piaye_, a priest. + +Bixa, an ointment. (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 241.) + +Cai, cayo, or cayco, an island. From this the Sp. _cayo_, Eng. _key_, in +the “Florida keys.” Ar. _kairi_, an island. + +Caiman, an alligator, Ar. _kaiman_, an alligator, lit. to be strong. + +Caona or cáuni, gold. (Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. 26, Ed. Colon, 1564). Ar. +_kaijaunan_, to be precious, costly. + +Caracol, a conch, a univalve shell. From this the Sp. _caracol_. +(Richardo, Dicc. Provin. s. v). Probably from Galibi _caracoulis_, +trifles, ornaments. (See Martius, Sprachenkunde, B. II, p. 332.) + +Caney or cansi, a house of conical shape. + +Canoa, a boat. From this Eng. _canoe_. Ar. _kannoa_, a boat. + +Casique, a chief. This word was afterwards applied by Spanish writers to +the native rulers throughout the New World. Ar. _kassiquan_ (from +_ussequa_, house), to have or own a house or houses; equivalent, +therefore, to the Eng. landlord. + +Cimu or simu, the front, forehead; a beginning. (Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. +302.) Ar. _eme_ or _uime_, the mouth of a river, _uimelian_, to be new. + +Coaibai, the abode of the dead. + +Cohóba, the native name of tobacco. + +Conuco, a cultivated field. (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. VII, cap. 2.) + +Duhos or duohos, low seats (unas baxas sillas, Las Casas, Hist. Gen. +lib. I, cap[TN-7] 96. Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V. cap. 1. Richardo, _sub +voce_, by a careless reading of Oviedo says it means images). Ar. +_dulluhu_ or _durruhu_, a seat, a bench. + +Goeiz, the spirit of the living (Pane, p. 444); probably a corruption of +_Guayzas_. Ar. _akkuyaha_, the spirit of a living animal. + +Gua, a very frequent prefix: Peter Martyr says, “Est apud eos articulus +et pauca sunt regum praecipue nominum quae non incipiant ab hoc articulo +_gua_.” (Decad. p. 285.) Very many proper names in Cuba and Hayti still +retain it. The modern Cubans pronounce it like the English w with the +_spiritus lenis_. It is often written _oa_, _ua_, _oua_, and _hua_. It +is not an article, but corresponds to the _ah_ in the Maya, and the +_gue_ in the Tupi of Brazil, from which latter it is probably +derived.[22] + +Guaca, a vault for storing provisions. + +Guacabiua, provisions for a journey, supplies. + +Guacamayo, a species of parrot, macrocercus tricolor. + +Guanara, a retired stop. (Pane, p. 444); a species of dove, columba +zenaida (Richardo, S. V.)[TN-8] + +Guanin, an impure sort of gold. + +Guaoxeri, a term applied to the lowest class of the inhabitants (Las +Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 197.) Ar. _wakaijaru_, worthless, dirty, +_wakaijatti lihi_, a worthless fellow. + +Guatiao, friend, companion (Richardo). Ar. _ahati_, companion, playmate. + +Guayzas, masks or figures (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 61). Ar. +_akkuyaha_, living beings. + +Haba, a basket (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. III, cap. 21). Ar. _habba_, a +basket. + +Haiti, stony, rocky, rough (Pet. Martyr, Decades). Ar. _aessi_ or +_aetti_, a stone. + +Hamaca, a bed, hammock. Ar. _hamaha_, a bed, hammock. + +Hico, a rope, ropes (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V, cap. 2). + +Hobin, gold, brass, any reddish metal. (Navarrete Viages, I, p. 134, +Pet. Martyr, Dec. p. 303). Ar. _hobin_, red. + +Huiho, height. (Pet. Martyr, p. 304). Ar. _aijumün_, above, high up. + +Huracan, a hurricane. From this Sp. _huracan_, Fr. _ouragan_, German +_Orkan_, Eng. _hurricane_. This word is given in the _Livre Sacré des +Quichès_ as the name of their highest divinity, but the resemblance may +be accidental. Father Ximenes, who translated the _Livre Sacrè_, derives +the name from the Quiché _hu rakan_, one foot. Father Thomas Coto, in +his Cakchiquel Dictionary, (MS. in the library of the Am. Phil. Soc.) +translates _diablo_ by _hurakan_, but as the equivalent of the Spanish +_huracan_, he gives _ratinchet_. + +Hyen, a poisonous liquor expressed from the cassava root. (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. cap. 2). + +Itabo, a lagoon, pond. (Richardo). + +Juanna, a serpent. (Pet. Martyr, p. 63). Ar. _joanna_, a lizard; +_jawanaria_, a serpent. + +Macana, a war club. (Navarrete, Viages.[TN-9] I, p. 135). + +Magua, a plain. (Las Casas, Breviss. Relat. p. 7). + +Maguey, a native drum. (Pet. Martyr, p. 280). + +Maisi, maize. From this Eng. _maize_, Sp. _mais_, Ar. _marisi_, maize. + +Matum, liberal, noble. (Pet. Martyr, p. 292). + +Matunheri, a title applied to the highest chiefs. (Las Casas, Hist. +Apol. cap. 197). + +Mayani, of no value, (“nihili,” Pet. Martyr, p. 9). Ar. _ma_, no, not. + +Naborias, servants. (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. III, cap. 32). + +Nacan, middle, center. Ar. _annakan_, center. + +Nagua, or enagua, the breech cloth made of cotton and worn around the +middle. Ar. _annaka_, the middle. + +Nitainos, the title applied to the petty chiefs, (regillos ò guiallos, +Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap,[TN-10] 197); _tayno_ vir bonus, _taynos_ +nobiles, says Pet. Martyr, (Decad. p. 25). The latter truncated form of +the word was adopted by Rafinesque and others, as a general name for the +people and language of Hayti. There is not the slightest authority for +this, nor for supposing, with Von Martius, that the first syllable is a +pronominal prefix. The derivation is undoubtedly Ar. _nüddan_ to look +well, to stand firm, to do anything well or skilfully. + +Nucay or nozay, gold, used especially in Cuba and on the Bahamas. The +words _caona_ and _tuob_ were in vogue in Haiti (Navarrete, Viages, Tom. +1, pp. 45, 134). + +Operito, dead, and + +Opia, the spirit of the dead (Pane, pp. 443, 444). Ar. _aparrün_ to +kill, _apparahun_ dead, _lupparrükittoa_ he is dead. + +Quisquéia, a native name of Haiti; “vastitas et universus ac totus. Uti +Græci suum Panem,” says Pet. Martyr (Decad. p. 279). “Madre de las +tierras,” Valverde translates it (_Idea del valor de la Isla Espanola_, +Introd. p. xviii). The orthography is evidently very false. + +Sabana, a plain covered with grass without trees (terrano llano, Oviedo, +Hist. Gen. lib. vi. cap. 8). From this the Sp. _savana_, Eng. +_savannah_. Charlevoix, on the authority of Mariana, says it is an +ancient Gothic word (Histoire de l’Isle St. Domingue, i. p. 53). But it +is probably from the Ar. _sallaban_, smooth, level. + +Semi, the divinities worshipped by the natives (“Lo mismo que nosotros +llamamos Diablo,” Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. v. cap. 1. Not evil spirits +only, but all spirits). Ar. _semeti_ sorcerers, diviners, priests. + +Siba, a stone. Ar. _siba_, a stone. + +Starei, shining, glowing (relucens, Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. 304). Ar. +_terén_ to be hot, glowing, _terehü_ heat. + +Tabaco, the pipe used in smoking the cohoba. This word has been applied +in all European languages to the plant nicotiana tabacum itself. + +Taita, father (Richardo). Ar. _itta_ father, _daitta_ or _datti_ my +father. + +Taguáguas, ornaments for the ears hammered from native gold (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. cap. 199). + +Tuob, gold, probably akin to _hobin_, q. v. + +Turey, heaven. Idols were called “cosas de _turey_” (Navarrete, Viages, +Tom. i. p. 221). Probably akin to _starei_, q. v. + +The following numerals are given by Las Casas (Hist. Apol. cap. 204). + +1 hequeti. Ar. _hürketai_, that is one, from _hürkün_ to be single or +alone. + +2 yamosa. Ar. _biama_, two. + +3 canocum. Ar. _kannikún_, many, a large number, _kannikukade_, he has +many things. + +4 yamoncobre, evidently formed from yamosa, as Ar. _bibiti_, four, from +_biama_, two. + +The other numerals Las Casas had unfortunately forgotten, but he says +they counted by hands and feet, just as the Arawacks do to this day. + +Various compound words and phrases are found in different writers, some +of which are readily explained from the Arawack. Thus _tureigua hobin_, +which Peter Martyr translates “rex resplendens uti orichalcum,”[23] in +Arawack means “shining like something red.” Oviedo says that at +marriages in Cuba it was customary for the bride to bestow her favors on +every man present of equal rank with her husband before the latter’s +turn came. When all had thus enjoyed her, she ran through the crowd of +guests shouting _manícato, manícato_, “lauding herself, meaning that she +was strong, and brave, and equal to much.”[24] This is evidently the Ar. +_manikade_, from _mân_, _manin_, and means I am unhurt, I am +unconquered. When the natives of Haiti were angry, says Las Casas,[25] +they would not strike each other, but apply such harmless epithets as +_buticaco_, you are blue-eyed (anda para zarco de los ojos), +_xeyticaco_, you are black-eyed (anda para negro de los ojos), or +_mahite_, you have lost a tooth, as the case might be. The termination +_aco_ in the first two of these expressions is clearly the Ar. _acou_, +or _akusi_, eyes, and the last mentioned is not unlike the Ar. +_márikata_, you have no teeth (_ma_ negative, _ari_ tooth). The same +writer gives for “I do not know,” the word _ita_, in Ar. _daitta_.[26] + +Some of the words and phrases I have been unable to identify in the +Arawack. They are _duiheyniquen_, dives fluvius, _maguacochíos_ vestiti +homines, both in Peter Martyr, and the following conversation, which he +says took place between one of the Haitian chieftians[TN-11] and his +wife. + +She. Teítoca teítoca. Técheta cynáto guamechyna. Guaibbá. + +He. Cynáto machabuca guamechyna. + +These words he translated: _teitoca_ be quiet, _técheta_ much, _cynato_ +angry, _guamechyna_ the Lord, _guaibba_ go, _machabuca_ what is it to +me. But they are either very incorrectly spelled, or are not Arawack. + +The proper names of localities in Cuba, Hayti and the Bahamas, furnish +additional evidence that their original inhabitants were Arawacks. +Hayti, I have already shown has now the same meaning in Arawack which +Peter Martyr ascribed to it at the discovery. Cubanacan, a province in +the interior of Cuba, is compounded of _kuba_ and _annakan_, in the +center;[27] Baracoa, the name of province on the coast, is from Ar. +_bara_ sea, _koan_ to be there, “the sea is there;” in Barajagua the +_bara_ again appears; Guaymaya is Ar. _waya_ clay, _mara_ there is none; +Marien is from Ar. _maran_ to be small or poor; Guaniguanico, a province +on the narrow western extremity of the island, with the sea on either +side, is probably Ar. _wuini wuini koa_, water, water is there. The +names of tribes such as Siboneyes, Guantaneyes, owe their termination to +the island Arawack, _eyeri_ men, in the modern dialect _hiaeru_, +captives, slaves. The Siboneyes are said by Las Casas, to have been the +original inhabitants of Cuba.[28] The name is evidently from Ar. _siba_, +rock, _eyeri_ men, “men of the rocks.” The rocky shores of Cuba gave +them this appellation. On the other hand the natives of the islets of +the Bahamas were called _lukku kairi_, abbreviated to _lukkairi_, and +_lucayos_, from _lukku_, man, _kairi_ an island, “men of the islands;” +and the archipelago itself was called by the first explorers “las islas +de los Lucayos,” “isole delle Lucaí.”[29] The province in the western +angle of Haiti was styled Guacaiarima, which Peter Martyr translates +“insulae podex;” dropping the article, _caiarima_ is sufficiently like +the Ar. _kairuina_, which signifies _podex_, Sp. _culata_, and is used +geographically in the same manner as the latter word. + +The word Maya frequently found in the names of places in Cuba and Haiti, +as Mayaba, Mayanabo, Mayajigua, Cajimaya, Jaimayabon, is doubtless the +Ar. negative _ma_, _mân_, _mara_. Some writers have thought it +indicative of the extension of the Maya language of Yucatan over the +Antilles. Prichard, Squier, Waitz, Brasseur de Bourbourg, Bastian and +other ethnologists have felt no hesitation in assigning a large portion +of Cuba and Haiti to the Mayas. It is true the first explorers heard in +Cuba and Jamaica, vague rumors of the Yucatecan peninsula, and found wax +and other products brought from there.[30] This shows that there was +some communication between the two races, but all authorities agree that +there was but one language over the whole of Cuba. The expressions which +would lead to a different opinion are found in Peter Martyr. He relates +that in one place on the southern shore of Cuba, the interpreter whom +Columbus had with him, a native of San Salvador, was at fault. But the +account of the occurrence given by Las Casas, indicates that the native +with whom the interpreter tried to converse simply refused to talk at +all.[31] Again, in Martyr’s account of Grijalva’s voyage to Yucatan in +1517, he relates that this captain took with him a native to serve as an +interpreter; and to explain how this could be, he adds that this +interpreter was one of the Cuban natives “quorum idioma, si non idem, +consanguineum tamen,” to that of Yucatan. This is a mere fabrication, as +the chaplain of Grijalva on this expedition states explicitly in the +narrative of it which he wrote, that the interpreter was a native of +Yucatan, who had been captured a year before.[32] + +Not only is there a very great dissimilarity in sound, words, and +structure, between the Arawack and Maya, but the nations were also far +asunder in culture. The Mayas were the most civilized on the continent, +while the Arawacks possessed little besides the most primitive arts, and +precisely that tribe which lived on the extremity of Cuba nearest +Yucatan, the Guanataneyes, were the most barbarous on the island.[33] + +The natives of the greater Antilles and Bahamas differed little in +culture. They cultivated maize, manioc, yams, potatoes, corn, and +cotton. The latter they wove into what scanty apparel they required. +Their arms were bows with reed arrows, pointed with fish teeth or +stones, stone axes, spears, and a war club armed with sharp stones +called a _macana_. They were a simple hearted, peaceful, contented race, +“all of one language and all friends,” says Columbus; “not given to +wandering, naked, and satisfied with little,” says Peter Martyr; “a +people very poor in all things,” says Las Casas. + +Yet they had some arts. Statues and masks in wood and stone were found, +some of them in the opinion of Bishop Las Casas, “very skilfully +carved.” They hammered the native gold into ornaments, and their rude +sculptures on the face of the rocks are still visible in parts of Cuba +and Haiti. Their boats were formed of single trunks of trees often of +large size, and they managed them adroitly; their houses were of reeds +covered with palm leaves, and usually accommodated a large number of +families; and in their holy places, they set up rows of large stones +like the ancient cromlechs, one of which is still preserved in Hayti, +and is known as _la cercada de los Indios_. + +Physically they were undersized, less muscular than the Spaniards, light +in color, with thick hair and scanty beards. Their foreheads were +naturally low and retreating, and they artificially flattened the skull +by pressure on the forehead or the occiput.[34] + +Three social grades seem to have prevailed, the common herd, the petty +chiefs who ruled villages, and the independent chiefs who governed +provinces. Of the latter there were in Cuba twenty-nine; in Haiti five, +as near as can be now ascertained.[35] Some of those in Cuba had shortly +before the arrival of the Spaniards moved there from Haiti, and at the +conquest one of the principal chiefs of Haiti was a native of the +Lucayos.[36] + +The fate of these Indians is something terrible to contemplate. At the +discovery there were probably 150,000 on Cuba, Haiti, and the +Bahamas.[37] Those on the latter were carried as slaves to Haiti to work +in the mines, and all of the Lucayos exterminated in three or four years +(1508-1512).[38] The sufferings of the Haitians have been told in a +graphic manner by Las Casas in an oft-quoted work.[39] His statements +have frequently been condemned as grossly exaggerated, but the official +documents of the early history of Cuba prove but too conclusively that +the worthy missionary reports correctly what terrible cruelties the +Spaniards committed. Cuba was conquered in 1514, and was then quite +densely populated. Fourteen years afterwards we find the Governor, +Gonzalo de Guzman, complaining that while troops of hunters were +formerly traversing the island constantly, asking no other pay than the +right of keeping as slaves the natives whom they captured, he now has to +pay patrolmen, as the Indians are so scarce.[40] The next year (1529) +the treasurer, Lope de Hurtado, writes that the Indians are in such +despair that they are hanging themselves twenty and thirty at a +time.[41] In 1530 the king is petitioned to relinquish his royalty on +the produce of the mines, because nearly all the Indians on the island +are dead.[42] And in 1532 the licentiate, Vadillo, estimates the total +number of Indians on the island, including the large percentage brought +from the mainland by the slavers, at only 4,500.[43] + +As a specimen of what the treatment of the Indians was, we have an +accusation in 1522 against Vasco Porcallo, afterwards one of the +companions of Hernando de Soto. He captured several Indians, cut off +their genitals, and forced them to eat them, cramming them down their +throats when they could not swallow. When asked for his defence, +Porcallo replied that he did it to prevent his own Indians from +committing suicide, as he had already lost two-thirds of his slaves in +that way. The defence was apparently deemed valid, for he was +released![44] + +The myths and traditions of the Haitians have fortunately been +preserved, though not in so perfect a form as might be wished. When +Bartholomew Columbus left Rome for the Indies, he took with him a lay +brother of the order of the Hermits of St. Jerome, Ramon Pane by name, a +Catalan by birth, a worthy but credulous and ignorant man.[45] On +reaching Haiti brother Pane was first sent among the natives of the +small province called Macorix de abajo, which had a language peculiar to +itself, but he was subsequently transferred to the province of Guarinoex +on the southeastern part of the island where the _lengua universal_ +prevailed. He remained there two years, and at the request of Columbus +collected and wrote down the legends and beliefs of the natives. + +He is not a model authority. In the first place, being a Catalan he did +not write Spanish correctly; he was very imperfectly acquainted with the +native tongue; he wrote hastily, and had not enough paper to write in +full; he is not sure that he commences their legends at the right end. +Moreover his manuscript is lost, and the only means we have of knowing +anything about it is by a very incorrectly printed Italian version, +printed in 1571, and two early synopses, one in Latin in the Decades of +Peter Martyr, the other in Italian, by Messer Zuane de Strozi of +Ferrara, which has been quite recently published for the first time.[46] +By comparing these we can arrive at the meaning of Brother Pane with +considerable accuracy. + +His work contains fragments of two distinct cycles of legends, the one +describing the history of the gods, the other the history of the human +race. + +Earliest of creatures was the woman, Atabéira or Ataves, who also bore +the other names Mamóna, Guacarapíta, Iiélla, and Guimazóa. Her son was +the supreme ruler of all things, and chiefest of divinities. His names +were Yocaúna, Guamaónocon, and Yocahu-vaguaniao-vocoti. He had a brother +called Guaca, and a son Iaiael. The latter rebelled against his father, +and was exiled for four mouths and then killed. The legend goes on to +relate that his bones were placed in a calabash and hung up in his +father’s house. Here they changed into fishes, and the calabash filled +with water. One day four brothers passed that way, who had all been born +at one time, and whose mother, Itaba tahuana, had died in bringing them +into the world. Seeing the calabash filled with fish the oldest of the +four, Caracaracol, the Scabby, lifted it down, and all commenced to eat. +While thus occupied, Yocaúna suddenly made his appearance, which so +terrified the brothers that they dropped the gourd and broke it into +pieces. From it ran all the waters of the world, and formed the oceans, +lakes, and rivers as they now are. + +At this time there were men but no women, and the men did not dare to +venture into the sunlight. Once, as they were out in the rain, they +perceived four creatures, swift as eagles and slippery as eels. The men +called to their aid Caracaracol and his brothers, who caught these +creatures and transformed them into women. In time, these became the +mothers of mankind. + +The earliest natives of Haiti came under the leadership of the hero-god, +Vaguoniona, a name applied by Las Casas to Yocahu, from an island to the +south called in the legend Matininó, which all the authors identify, I +know not why, with Martinique. They landed first on the banks of the +river Bahoboni in the western part of Haiti, and there erected the first +house, called Camotéia. This was ever after preserved and regarded with +respectful veneration. + +Such, in brief, were their national myths. Conspicuously marked in them +we note the sacred number four, the four brothers typifying the cardinal +points, whose mother, the Dawn, dies in giving them birth, just as in +the Algonkin myths. These brothers aid the men in their struggles for +life, and bring to them the four women, the rain-bringing winds. Here, +too, the first of existences is the woman, whose son is at once highest +of divinities and the guide and instructor of their nation. These +peculiarities I have elsewhere shown to be general throughout the +religions of America.[47] + +The myth of the thunder storm also appears among them in its triplicate +nature so common to the American mind. God of the storm was Guabancex, +whose statue was made of stones. When angry he sent before him as +messenger, Guatauva, to gather the winds, and accompanied by +Coatrischie, who collected the rain-clouds in the valleys of the +mountains, he swept down upon the plain, surrounded by the awful +paraphernalia of the thunder storm.[48] + +Let us place side by side with these ancient myths the national legend +of the Arawacks.[49] They tell of a supreme spiritual being Yauwahu or +Yauhahu. Pain and sickness are the invisible shafts he shoots at men, +_yauhahu simaira_ the arrows of Yauhahu, and he it is whom the priests +invoke in their incantations. Once upon a time, men lived without any +means to propitiate this unseen divinity; they knew not how to ward off +his anger or conciliate him. At that time the Arawacks did not live in +Guiana, but in an island to the north. One day a man named Arawanili +walked by the waters grieving over the ignorance and suffering of his +nation. Suddenly the spirit of the waters, the woman Orehu, rose from +the waves and addressed him. She taught him the mysteries of _semeci_, +the sorcery which pleases and controls Yauhahu, and presented him with +the _maraka_, the holy calabash containing white pebbles which they +rattle during their exorcisms, and the sound of which summons the beings +of the unseen world. Arawanili faithfully instructed his people in all +that Orehu had said, and thus rescued them from their wretchedness. When +after a life of wisdom and good deeds the hour of his departure came, he +“did not die, but went up.” + +Orehu accompanied the Arawacks when they moved to the main, and still +dwells in a treeless, desolate spot, on the banks of the Pomeroon. The +negroes of the colony have learned of her, and call her in their broken +English, the “watra-mamma,” the water-mother. + +The proper names which occur in these myths, date back to the earliest +existence of the Arawacks as an independent tribe, and are not readily +analyzed by the language as it now exists. The Haitian Yocauna seems +indeed identical with the modern Yauhahu. Atabes or Atabéira is probably +from _itabo_, lake, lagoon, and _era_, water, (the latter only in +composition, as _hurruru_, mountain, _era_, water, mountain-water, a +spring, a source), and in some of her actions corresponds with Orehu. +Caracaracol is translated by Brother Pane, as “the Scabby” or the one +having ulcers, and in this respect the myth presents a curious analogy +with many others in America. In modern Arawack _karrikala_ is a form, in +the third person singular, from _karrin_, to be sick, to be pregnant. +Arawanili, which one might be tempted to suppose gave the name Arawack +to the tribe, did not all writers derive this differently, may be a form +of _awawa_, father. In the old language, the termination _el_, is said +to have meant son. + +Of the two remaining languages said to have been spoken in the small +provinces of Macorix de arriba and Macorix de abajo, in Hayti, we have +no certain knowledge.[50] Las Casas gives one word from the former. It +is _bazca_, no, not. I cannot identify it. There is reason, however, to +suppose one of them was the Tupi or “lengua geral,” of Brazil. Pane +gives at least two words which are pure Tupi, and not Arawack. They are +the names of two hideous idols supposed to be inimical to men. The one +was Bugi, in Tupi, _ugly_, the other Aiba, in Tupi, _bad_. It is +noteworthy, also, that Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan on his voyage +around the world, gives a number of words, ostensibly in the language of +the natives of Rio Janeiro, where the Tupi was spoken, which are +identical with those of Haiti, as _cacich_, chief, _boi_, house, +_hamac_, bed, _canoe_, boat. But Pigafetta acknowledges that he obtained +these words not from the natives themselves, but from the pilot Juan +Carvalhos, who had been for years sailing over the West Indian seas, and +had no doubt learned these words in the Antilles.[51] + +The remaining idiom may be supposed to have been Carib, although we have +actually no evidence that the Caribs had gained a permanent foothold on +any of the Great Antilles at the period of the discovery, some careless +assertions of the old authors to the contrary, notwithstanding. + +The investigation which I here close, shows that man in his migrations +on the Western Continent followed the lead of organic nature around him. +For it is well known that the flora and fauna of the Antilles are South +American in character, and also, that the geological structure of the +archipelago connects it with the southern mainland. So also its earliest +known human inhabitants were descended from an ancestry whose homes were +in the far south, and who by slow degrees moved from river to river, +island to island, until they came within a few miles of the northern +continent. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: Since reading this article before the Society, Prof. S. S. +Haldeman has shown me a copy of a work with the title: “_Die Geschichte +von der Marterwoche, Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt unsers Herrn und +Heilandes Jesu Christi. Uebersetzt in die Aruwackische Sprache und +erklärend umschrieben. Philadelphia: Gedruckt bey Carl List, 1799_,” +8vo. pages 213, then one blank leaf, then 40 pages of “Anmerkungen.” +There is also a second title, in Arawack, and neither title page is +included in the pagination. The Arawack title begins: “_Wadaijahun +Wüüssada-goanti, Wappussida-goanti baddia Jesus Christus_,” etc. The +remarks at the end are chiefly grammatical and critical, and contain +many valuable hints to the student of the language. I have no doubt this +book is the Life of Christ mentioned in the text. The name of the +translator or editor is nowhere mentioned, but I have no doubt Mr. +Schultz wrote the “Anmerkungen,” and read the proof, as not only are his +grammatical signs and orthography adopted throughout, but also we know +from other sources that he was in Philadelphia at that time.] + +[Footnote 2: Brett, _The Indian Tribes of Guiana_, p. 117 (London, +1868).] + +[Footnote 3: _Etudes Philologiques sur quelquee[TN-12] Langues Sauvages +de l’Amerique_, p. 87 (Montreal, 1866).] + +[Footnote 4: _Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika’s +zumal Brasiliens_, B. I., p. 705 (Leipzig, 1867).] + +[Footnote 5: De Laet. _Novus Orbis_, lib. xvii., cap. vi.] + +[Footnote 6: Martius, _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika’s_, B. I., +S. 687.] + +[Footnote 7: Antonio Julian, _La Perla de la America, la Provincia de +Santa Marta_, p. 149.] + +[Footnote 8: _Ethnographie, etc._, B. I., S. 714.] + +[Footnote 9: _The Myths of the New World; a Treatise on the Symbolism +and Mythology of the Red Race of America_, p. 32 (New York, 1868).] + +[Footnote 10: _The Discoverie of Guiana_, p[TN-13] 4 (Hackluyt, Soc., +London, 1842).] + +[Footnote 11: _Relation de l’Origine, etc., des Caraibes_, p. 39 (Paris, +1674).] + +[Footnote 12: “Havia mas policia entre ellos [los Lucayos,] i mucha +diversidad de Lenguas.” _Hist. de las Indias_, cap. 41.] + +[Footnote 13: Las Casas, in the _Historia General de las Indias +Occid[TN-14]_, lib. III, cap. 27, criticizes him severely.] + +[Footnote 14: Columbus says of the Bahamas and Cuba: “toda la lengua es +una y todos amigos” (Navarrete, _Viages_, Tomo I, p. 46.) The natives of +Guanahani conversed with those of Haiti “porque todos tenian una +lengua,” (_ibid_, p. 86.) In the Bay of Samana a different dialect but +the same language was found (p. 135).] + +[Footnote 15: Gomara says the language of Cuba is “algo diversa,” from +that of Espanola. (_Hist. de las Indias_, cap. 41.) Oviedo says that +though the natives of the two islands differ in many words, yet they +readily understand each other. (_Hist. de las Indias_, lib. XVII. cap. +4.)] + +[Footnote 16: The American Nations, chap. VII, (Philadelphia, 1836.)] + +[Footnote 17: _Cuba, die Perle der Antillen_, p. 72. (Leipzig, 1831.) +The vocabulary contains 33 words, “_aus dem Cubanischen_.” Many are +incorrect both in spelling and pronunciation.] + +[Footnote 18: When Columbus returned from his first voyage, he brought +with him ten natives from the Bay of Samana in Haiti, and a few from +Guanahani.] + +[Footnote 19: See the remarks of Richardo in the Prologo to his +_Diccionario Provincial_.] + +[Footnote 20: The remarks of Peter Martyr are; “posse omnium illarum +linguam nostris literis Latinis, sine ullo discrimine, scribi compertum +est,” (_De Rebus Oceanicis et Novo Orbe_, Decades Tres, p. 9.) +“Advertendum est, nullam inesse adspirationem vocabulis corum, quae non +habeat effectum literae consonantis; immo gravius adspirationem +proferunt, quam nos f consonantem. Proferendumque est quicquid est +adspiratum eodum halitu quo f, sed minime admoto ad superiores dentes +inferiore labello, ore aut aperto ha, he hi, ho, hu, et concusso +pectore. Hebraeos et Arabicos eodem modo suas proferre adspirationes +vides,” (id. pp. 285, 286.)] + +[Footnote 21: There was a ball-ground in every village. It was “tres +veces mas luenga que ancha, cercada de unos lomillos de un palmo o dos +de alto.” The ball was “como las de viento nuestras mas no cuanto al +salto, que era mayor que seis de las de viento.” (Las Casas, _Historia +Apologetica_, caps. 46, 204.) Perhaps the ball was of India rubber.] + +[Footnote 22: “Gue ou Gui, signal de vocativo, mas so empregado pelos +homems.” Dias _Diccionario da Lingua Tupy chamada Lingua Geral dos +Indigenas do Brazil_, p. 60 (Lipsia, 1858).] + +[Footnote 23: _De Rebus Oceanicis_, p. 303.] + +[Footnote 24: _Hist. de las Indias_, lib. xvii. cap. 4, Las Casas denies +the story, and says Oviedo told it in order to prejudice people against +the natives (_Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, lib. iii. cap. xxiv). It is, +however, probably true.] + +[Footnote 25: _Historia Apologetica_, cap. 198.] + +[Footnote 26: He compares the signification of _ita_ in Haytian to _ita_ +in Latin, and translates the former _ita_ by _no se_; this is plainly an +error of the transcriber for _yo se_ (_Hist. Apologetica_, cap. 241).] + +[Footnote 27: _Kuba_ in Arawack is the sign of past time and is used as +a prefix to nouns, as well as a suffix to verbs. _Kubakanan_ ancestors, +those passed away, those who lived in past times.] + +[Footnote 28: “Toda la mas de la gente de que estaba poblaba aquella +isla [Cuba] era passada y natural desta ysla Espanola, puesto que la mas +antigua y natural de aquella ysla era como la de los Lucayos de quien +ablamos en el primero y segundo libro ser como los seres que parecia no +haber pecado nuestro padre Adan en ellos, gente simplicissima, +bonissima, careciente de todos vicios, y beatissima. Esta era la natural +y native de aquella ysla, y llamabanse en su lengua, Ciboneyes, la +penultima silaba luenga; y los desta por grado o por fuerza se apodearon +de aquella ysla y gente della, y los tenian como sirvientes suyos.” (Las +Casas _Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, MSS. lib. iii, cap. 21). Elsewhere +(cap. 23) he says this occurred “mayormente” after the Spaniards had +settled in Haiti.] + +[Footnote 29: “Lucayos o por mejor decir Yucayos” says Las Casas, +(_Hist. Gen._ lib. ii. cap. 44) and after him Herrera. But the +correction which was based apparently on some supposed connection of the +word with _yuca_, the Haitian name of an esculent plant, is superfluous, +and Las Casas himself never employs it, nor a single other writer.] + +[Footnote 30: Las Casas. _Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, lib. iv. cap. 48, +MSS. Bees were native to Yucatan long before the discovery, but not to +the north temperate zone.] + +[Footnote 31: “Varia enim esse idiomata in varils Cubae provinelis +perpenderunt.” (Pet. Martyr, _De Rebus Oceanicis_, v. 42). Las Casas +says that a sailor told Columbus that he saw one Indian cacique in a +long white tunic who refused to speak, but stalked silently away. +(_Hist. de las Indias_, lib. I. cap. 95). Martyr says there were +several. Peschel suggests they were tall white flamingoes, that scared +the adventurous tar out of his wits. (_Geschichte des Zeitalters der +Entdeckungen_, p. 253). At any rate the story gives no foundation at all +for Peter Martyr’s philogical[TN-15] opinion.] + +[Footnote 32: Pet. Martyr, _De Insulis Nuper Inventis_, p. 335. “Traia +consigo Grisalva un Indio per lengua de los que de aquella tierra habian +llevado consigo a la ysla de Cuba Francisco Hernandez.[TN-16] Las Casas +_Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, lib. III, cap. 108, MSS. See also the +chaplain’s account in Terneaux Compans, _Recueil de Pieces rel. a la +Conquête de Mexique_, p. 56.] + +[Footnote 33: Bernal Dias says the vicinity of cape San Antonio was +inhabited by the “Guanataneys que son unos Indias como salvages.” He +expressly adds that their clothing differed from that of the Mayas, and +that the Cuban natives with him could not understand the Maya language. +_Historia Verdadera_, cap. II.] + +[Footnote 34: “Presso capite, fronte lata” (Nicolaus Syllacius, _De +Insulis nuper Inventis_, p. 86. Reprint, New York, 1859. This is the +extremely rare account of Columbus’ second voyage). Six not very perfect +skulls were obtained in 1860, by Col. F. S. Heneken, from a cavern 15 +miles south-west from Porto Plata. They are all more or less distorted +in a discoidal manner, one by pressure over the frontal sinus, reducing +the calvaria to a disk. (J. Barnard Davis, _Thesaurus Craniorum_, p. +236, London, 1867. Mr. Davis erroneously calls them Carib skulls).] + +[Footnote 35: The provinces of Cuba are laid down on the _Mapa de la +Isla de Cuba segun la division de los Naturales_, por D. Jose Maria de +la Torre y de la Torre, in the _Memorias de la Sociedad Patriotica de la +Habana_, 1841. See also Felipe Poey, _Geografia de la Isla de Cuba_, +Habana, 1853. _Apendice sobre la Geografia Antigua._ Las Casas gives the +five provinces of Hayti by the names of their chiefs, Guarinox, +Guacanagari, Behechio, Caonabo and Higuey. For their relative position +see the map in Charlevoix’s _Histoire de l’Isle San Domingue_, Paris, +1740, and in Baumgarten’s _Geschichte von Amerika_, B. II.] + +[Footnote 36: This was Caonabo. Oviedo, and following him Charlevoix, +say he was a Carib, but Las Casas, who having lived twenty years in +Haiti immediately after the discovery, is infinitely the best authority, +says: “Era de nacion Lucayo, natural de las islas de los Lucayos, que se +pasó de ellas aca.” (_Historia Apologetica_, cap. 179, MSS[TN-17]).] + +[Footnote 37: I put the figures very low. Peter Martyr, whose estimates +are the lowest of any writer, says there were more than 200,000 natives +on Haiti alone. (_De Rebus Oceanicis_, p. 295.)] + +[Footnote 38: More than 40,000 were brought to Haiti to enjoy the +benefits of Christian instruction, says Herrera, with what might pass as +a ghastly sarcasm. (_Historia General de las Indias_, Dec. I, lib. VIII. +cap. 3).] + +[Footnote 39: _Brevissima Relacion de la Destruccion de las Indias +Occidentales par los Castellanos_, Sevilla, 1552.] + +[Footnote 40: Ramon de de[TN-18] la Sagra, _Historia de la Isla de Cuba_, +Tom. II, p. 381.] + +[Footnote 41: Ibid, p. 394.] + +[Footnote 42: Ibid, p. 396.] + +[Footnote 43: Ibid, p. 414.] + +[Footnote 44: Ibid, p. 385. These references to De la Sagra’s work are +all to the original documents in his Appendix.] + +[Footnote 45: Las Casas knew Pane personally, and gives his name +correctly (not _Roman_, as all the printed authorities have it). He +described him as “hombre simple y de buena intencion;” “fuese Catalan de +nacion y no habla del todo bien nuestra lengua Castellana.” Ramon came +to Haiti four or five years before Las Casas, and the latter speaks of +him in a disparaging tone. “Este Fray Ramon escudrino lo que pudó, segun +lo que alcanzo de las lenguas que fueron tres, las que habia en esta +ysia: pero no supo sino la una de una chica provincia, que arriba +dejimos llamarse Macaria de abajo, y aquella no perfectamente.[TN-19] +(_Historia Apologetica, MSS._[TN-20] cap. 120, see also cap. 162). This +statement is not quite true, as according to Las Casas’ own admission +Pane dwelt two years in the province of Guarinoex, where the _lengua +universal_ was spoken, and _there_ collected these traditions.] + +[Footnote 46: Pane’s account was first published in the _Historie del +Frenando[TN-21] Colombo_, Venetia, 1571, from which it has recently been +translated and published with notes by Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, +1864. The version of Zuane de Strozi is in the Appendix to Harrisse’s +_Bibliotheca Primordia Americana_, p. 474.] + +[Footnote 47: _The myths of the New World_, (New York, 1868).] + +[Footnote 48: See the work last quoted, p. 156, for a number of similar +myths of the trinity of the storm.] + +[Footnote 49: I take these as they are related in Bretts, _Indian Tribes +of Guiana_, Part ii, chap. x.] + +[Footnote 50: The most trustworthy author is Las Casas. As his works are +still in manuscript, I give his words. “Tres lenguas habia en esta ysla +distintas que la una a la otra no se entendia. La una era de la gente +que llamabamos Macorix de abajo y la otra de los vecinos del Macorix de +arriba. La otra lengua fue la universal de toda la tierra, y esta era +mas elegante y mas copiosa de vocablos, y mas dulce al sonido. En esto +la de Xaragua en todo llevaba ventaja, y era mui mas prima.” (_Historia +Apologetica_, cap. 197). “Es aqui de saber que un gran pedajo de esta +costa (that of the northern part of Haiti), bien mas de veinte y cinco o +treinta leguas y quince buenas y aun veinte de ancho hasta las sierras +que haren desta parte del norte la gran Vega inclusive, era poblado de +una gente que se llamaron Mazoriges, y otras Ciguayos, y tenian diversas +lenguas de la universal de todas las islas.” (_Historia General_, lib. +I, cap. 77). “Llamaban Ciguayos porque trayan todos los cabellos mui +luengos como en Nueva Castilla las mujeres,” (id. cap. 77). The cacique +of the Ciguayos was named Mayomanex or Mayobanex, (id. lib. I, cap. +120). They went almost naked, and had no arms, “eran Gallinas almenos +para con los uños, como no tuviesen armas,” (id. cap. 120.)] + +[Footnote 51: Pigafetta, _Reise um die Welt_, so. 21, 26, 247, (Gotha, +1802; a translation of the Italian original in the library at Milan).] + + + + +Transcriber’s Note + + +The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained. + + Page Error + TN-1 2 Mr. Shultz should read Schultz + TN-2 2 dipthongs should read diphthongs + TN-3 7 Second preterite should read Second preterite: + TN-4 9 Lact’s should read Laet’s + TN-5 11 preceived should read perceived + TN-6 11 VI, c, 8 should read VI, c. 8 + TN-7 12 lib. I, cap 96 should read lib. I, cap. 96 + TN-8 12 S. V.) should read S. V.). + TN-9 13 Navarrete, Viages. should read Navarrete, Viages, + TN-10 13 Apol. cap, should read Apol. cap. + TN-11 14 chieftians should read chieftains + TN-12 fn. 3 quelquee should read quelques + TN-13 fn. 10 p 4 should read p. 4 + TN-14 fn. 13 Indias Occid should read Indias Occid. + TN-15 fn. 31 philogical should read philological + TN-16 fn. 32 Hernandez. should read Hernandez.” + TN-17 fn. 36 MSS should read MSS. + TN-18 fn. 40 Ramon de de should read Ramon de + TN-19 fn. 45 perfectamente. should read perfectamente.” + TN-20 fn. 45 _MSS._ should read MSS. + TN-21 fn. 46 Frenando should read Fernando + +Other inconsistencies: + +The relative position of , and ) is not consistent. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arawack Language of Guiana in its +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, by Daniel G. Brinton + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA *** + +***** This file should be named 31273-0.txt or 31273-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/2/7/31273/ + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/31273-0.zip b/31273-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..312f4b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/31273-0.zip diff --git a/31273-8.txt b/31273-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..af2e7c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/31273-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1988 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arawack Language of Guiana in its +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, by Daniel G. Brinton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Arawack Language of Guiana in its Linguistic and Ethnological Relations + +Author: Daniel G. Brinton + +Release Date: February 14, 2010 [EBook #31273] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA *** + + + + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of +this book. They have been marked with a [TN-#], which refers to a +description in the complete list found at the end of the text. + +The following codes for less common characters were used: + +[oe] oe ligature +[lr] l printed over r + + + + + + THE ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA + + IN ITS + + Linguistic and Ethnological Relations. + + + By D. G. BRINTON, M. D. + + + PHILADELPHIA: + McCALLA & STAVELY, PRINTERS. + 237-9 DOCK STREET. + 1871. + + + + +THE ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA + +IN ITS + +LINGUISTIC AND ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS. + +BY D. G. BRINTON, M. D. + + +The Arawacks are a tribe of Indians who at present dwell in British and +Dutch Guiana, between the Corentyn and Pomeroon rivers. They call +themselves simply _lukkunu_, men, and only their neighbors apply to them +the contemptuous name _aruac_ (corrupted by Europeans into Aroaquis, +Arawaaks, Aroacos, Arawacks, etc.), meal-eaters, from their peaceful +habit of gaining an important article of diet from the amylaceous pith +of the _Mauritia flexuosa_ palm, and the edible root of the cassava +plant. + +They number only about two thousand souls, and may seem to claim no more +attention at the hands of the ethnologist than any other obscure Indian +tribe. But if it can be shown that in former centuries they occupied the +whole of the West Indian archipelago to within a few miles of the shore +of the northern continent, then on the question whether their +affiliations are with the tribes of the northern or southern mainland, +depends our opinion of the course of migration of the primitive +inhabitants of the western world. And if this is the tribe whose +charming simplicity Columbus and Peter Martyr described in such poetic +language, then the historian will acknowledge a desire to acquaint +himself more closely with its past and its present. It is my intention +to show that such was their former geographical position. + +While in general features there is nothing to distinguish them from the +red race elsewhere, they have strong national traits. Physically they +are rather undersized, averaging not over five feet four inches in +height, but strong-limbed, agile, and symmetrical. Their foreheads are +low, their noses more allied to the Aryan types than usual with their +race, and their skulls of that form defined by craniologists as +orthognathic brachycephalic. + +From the earliest times they have borne an excellent character. +Hospitable, peace-loving, quick to accept the humbler arts of +civilization and the simpler precepts of Christianity, they have ever +offered a strong contrast to their neighbors, the cruel and warlike +Caribs. They are not at all prone to steal, lie, or drink, and their +worst faults are an addiction to blood-revenge, and a superstitious +veneration for their priests. + +They are divided into a number of families, over fifty in all, the +genealogies of which are carefully kept in the female line, and the +members of any one of which are forbidden to intermarry. In this +singular institution they resemble many other native tribes. + + +LANGUAGE. + +The earliest specimen of their language under its present name is given +by Johannes de Laet in his _Novus Orbis, seu Descriptio Indi +Occidentalis_ (Lugd. Bat. 1633). It was obtained in 1598. In 1738 the +Moravian brethren founded several missionary stations in the country, +but owing to various misfortunes, the last of their posts was given up +in 1808. To them we owe the only valuable monuments of the language in +existence. + +Their first instructor was a mulatto boy, who assisted them in +translating into the Arawack a life of Christ. I cannot learn that this +is extant. Between 1748 and 1755 one of the missionaries, Theophilus +Schumann, composed a dictionary, _Deutsch-Arawakisches W[oe]rterbuch_, +and a grammar, _Deutsch-Arawakische Sprachlehre_, which have remained +in manuscript in the library of the Moravian community at Paramaribo. +Schumann died in 1760, and as he was the first to compose such works, +the manuscript dictionary in the possession of Bishop Wullschlgel, +erroneously referred by the late Professor von Martius to the first +decade of the last century, is no doubt a copy of Schumann's. + +In 1807 another missionary, C. Quandt, published a _Nachricht von +Surinam_, the appendix to which contains the best published grammatical +notice of the tongue. The author resided in Surinam from 1769 to 1780. + +Unquestionably, however, the most complete and accurate information in +existence concerning both the verbal wealth and grammatical structure of +the language, is contained in the manuscripts of the Rev. Theodore +Schultz, now in the library of the AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Mr. +Shultz[TN-1] was a Moravian missionary, who was stationed among the +Arawacks from 1790 to 1802, or thereabout. The manuscripts referred to +are a dictionary and a grammar. The former is a quarto volume of 622 +pages. The first 535 pages comprise an Arawack-German lexicon, the +remainder is an appendix containing the names of trees, stars, birds, +insects, grasses, minerals, places, and tribes. The grammar, +_Grammattikalische Stze von der Aruwakkischen Sprache_, is a 12mo +volume of 173 pages, left in an unfinished condition. Besides these he +left at his death a translation of the Acts of the Apostles, which was +published in 1850 by the American Bible Society under the title _Act +Apostelnu_. It is from these hitherto unused sources that I design to +illustrate the character of the language, and study its former +extension.[1] + + +PHONETICS. + +The Arawack is described as "the softest of all the Indian tongues."[2] +It is rich in vowels, and free from gutturals. The enunciation is +distinct and melodious. As it has been reduced to writing by Germans, +the German value must be given to the letters employed, a fact which +must always be borne in mind in comparing it with the neighboring +tongues, nearly all of which are written with the Spanish orthography. + +The Arawack alphabet has twenty letters: a, b, d, e, g, h, i, j, k, l, +m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, w. + +Besides these, they have a semi-vowel written [lr] the sound of which in +words of the masculine gender approaches l, in those of the neuter +gender r. The o and u, and the t and d, are also frequently blended. The +w has not the German but the soft English sound, as in _we_. The German +dipthongs[TN-2] , [oe], eu, ei, , are employed. The accents are the +long ^, the acute `, and that indicating the emphasis . The latter is +usually placed near the commencement of the word, and must be carefully +observed. + + +NOUNS. + +Like most Indians, the Arawack rarely uses a noun in the abstract. An +object in his mind is always connected with some person or thing, and +this connection is signified by an affix, a suffix, or some change in +the original form of the word. To this rule there are some exceptions, +as _bah_ a house, _siba_ a stone, _hiru_ a woman. _Dddikn hiru_, I +see a woman. Such nouns are usually roots. Those derived from verbal +roots are still more rarely employed independently. + +NUMBERS. The plural has no regular termination. Often the same form +serves for both numbers, as is the case in many English words. Thus, +_itime_ fish and fishes, _siba_ stone and stones, _knsiti_ a lover and +lovers. The most common plural endings are _ati_, _uti_, and _anu_, +connected to the root by a euphonic letter; as _uju_ mother, _ujunuti_ +mothers, _itti_ father, _ittinati_ fathers, _kansissia_ a loved one, +_kansissiannu_ loved ones. + +Of a dual there is no trace, nor does there seem to be of what is called +the American plural (exclusive or inclusive of those present). But there +is a peculiar plural form with a singular signification in the language, +which is worthy of note. An example will illustrate it; _itti_ is +father, plural _ittinati_; _wattinati_ is our father, not our fathers, +as the form would seem to signify. In other words, singular nouns used +with plural pronouns, or construed with several other nouns, take a +plural form. _Petrus Johannes mutti ujnatu_, the mother of Peter and +John. + +GENDERS. A peculiarity, which the Arawack shares with the Iroquois[3] +and other aboriginal languages of the Western continent, is that it only +has two genders, and these not the masculine and feminine, as in French, +but the masculine and neuter. Man or nothing was the motto of these +barbarians. Regarded as an index of their mental and social condition, +this is an ominous fact. It hints how utterly destitute they are of +those high, chivalric feelings, which with us centre around woman. + +The termination of the masculine is _i_, of the neuter _u_, and, as I +have already observed, a permutation of the semi-vowels _l_ and _r_ +takes place, the letter becoming _l_ in the masculine, _r_ in the +neuter. A slight difference in many words is noticeable when pronounced +by women or by men. The former would say _keretin_, to marry; the latter +_kerejun_. The gender also appears by more than one of these changes: +_ipillin_, great, strong, masculine; _ipirrun_, feminine and neuter. + +There is no article, either definite or indefinite, and no declension of +nouns. + + +PRONOUNS. + +The demonstrative and possessive personal pronouns are alike in form, +and, as in other American languages, are intimately incorporated with +the words with which they are construed. A single letter is the root of +each: _d_ I, mine, _b_ thou, thine, _l_ he, his, _t_ she, her, it, its, +_w_ we, our, _h_ you, your, _n_ they, their; to these radical letters +the indefinite pronoun _kkah_, somebody, is added, and by +abbreviation the following forms are obtained, which are those usually +current: + + dakia, dai, I. + bokkia, bui, thou. + likia, he. + turreha, she, it. + wakia, wai, we. + hukia, hui, you. + nakia, nai, they. + +Except the third person, singular, they are of both genders. In +speaking, the abbreviated form is used, except where for emphasis the +longer is chosen. + +In composition they usually retain their first vowel, but this is +entirely a question of euphony. The methods of their employment with +nouns will be seen in the following examples: + + _ssiquah_, a house. + dssiqua, my house. + bssiqua, thy house. + + lssiqua, his house. + + tssiqua, her, its house. + wssiqua, our house. + + hssiqua, your house. + nssiqua, their house. + + _uju_, mother. + daiju, my mother. + buju, thy mother. + luju, his mother. + tuju, her mother. + waijunattu, our mother. + hujuattu, your mother. + naijattu, their mother. + waijunuti, our mothers. + hujunuti, your mothers. + naijunuti, their mothers. + +Many of these forms suffer elision in speaking. _Itti_ father, _datti_ +my father, _wattnatti_ our father, contracted to _wattnti_ (_watti_ +rarely used). + +When thus construed with pronouns, most nouns undergo some change of +form, usually by adding an affix; _bru_ an axe, _dbarun_ my axe, +_iul_ tobacco, _dajulite_ my tobacco. + + +ADJECTIVES. + +The verb is the primitive part of speech in American tongues. To the +aboriginal man every person and object presents itself as either doing +or suffering something, every quality and attribute as something which +is taking place or existing. His philosophy is that of the extreme +idealists or the extreme materialists, who alike maintain that nothing +_is_, beyond the cognizance of our senses. Therefore his adjectives are +all verbal participles, indicating a state of existence. Thus _ssatu_ +good, is from _ssn_ to be good, and means the condition of being good, +a good woman or thing, _ssati_ a good man. + +Some adjectives, principally those from present participles, have the +masculine and neuter terminations _i_ and _u_ in the singular, and in +the plural _i_ for both genders. Adjectives from the past participles +end in the singular in _issia_ or _ssia_, in the plural in _annu_. When +the masculine ends in _illi_, the neuter takes _urru_, as _wadikilli_, +_wadikurru_, long. + +Comparison is expressed by adding _bn_ or _kn_ or _adin_ (a verb +meaning to be above) for the comparative, and _apdi_ for the +diminutive. _Ubura_, from the verb _uburau_ to be before in time, and +_adiki_, from _adikin_ to be after in time, are also used for the same +purpose. The superlative has to be expressed by a circumlocution; as +_tumaqua aditu ipirrun turreha_, what is great beyond all else; +_bokkia ss duria_, thou art better than I, where the last word is a +compound of _dai uwria_ of, from, than. The comparative degree of the +adjectives corresponds to the intensive and frequentative forms of the +verbs; thus _ipirrun_ to be strong, _ipirru_ strong, _ipirrubn_ and +_ipirrubessabun_ to be stronger, _ipirrubetu_ and _ipirrubessabutu_ +stronger, that which is stronger. + +The numerals are wonderfully simple, and well illustrate how the +primitive man began his arithmetic. They are:-- + + 1 abba. + 2 biama, plural biamannu. + 3 kabbuhin, plural kubbuhinnnu. + 4 bibiti, plural bibitinu. + 5 abbatekkbe, plural abbatekabbunu. + 6 abbatiman, plural abbatimannnu. + 7 biamattiman, plural biamattimannnu. + 8 kabbuhintiman, plural kabbuhintimannnu. + 9 bibitiman, plural bibititumannnu. + 10 biamantekbbe, plural biamantekbunu. + +Now if we analyze these words, we discover that _abbatekkbe_ five, is +simply _abba_ one, and _akkabu_, hand; that the word for six is +literally "one [finger] of the other [hand]," for seven "two [fingers] +of the other [hand]," and so on to ten, which is compounded of _biama_ +two, and _akkabu_ hands. Would they count eleven, they say _abba +kutihibena_ one [toe] from the feet, and for twenty the expression is +_abba lukku_ one man, both hands and feet. Thus, in truth, they have +only four numerals, and it is even a question whether these are +primitive, for _kabbuhin_ seems a strengthened form of _abba_, and +_bibuti_ to bear the same relation to _biama_. Therefore we may look +back to a time when this nation knew not how to express any numbers +beyond one and two. + +Although these numbers do not take peculiar terminations when applied to +different objects, as in the languages of Central America and Mexico, +they have a great variety of forms to express the relationship in which +they are used. The ordinals are: + + atenennuati, first. + ibiamattti, second. + wakbbuhinteti, our third, etc. + +To the question, How many at a time? the answer is: + + likinnekewai, one alone. + biamanuman, two at a time, etc. + +If simply, How many? it is: + + abbahu, one. + biamahu, two. + +If, For which time? it is: + + tibakuja, for the first time. + tibamatttu, for the second time. + +and so on. + + +VERBS. + +The verbs are sometimes derived from nouns, sometimes from participles, +sometimes from other verbs, and have reflexive, passive, frequentative, +and other forms. Thus from _lana_, the name of a certain black dye, +comes _lannatn_ to color with this dye, _alannatunna_ to color oneself +with it, _alannattukuttun_ to let oneself be colored with it, +_alanattukuttunnua_ to be colored with it. + +The infinitive ends in _in_, _n_, _n_, _n_, _unnua_, _n_, and _n_. +Those in _in_, _n_, _n_, and _n_ are transitive, in _unnua_ are +passive and neuter, the others are transitive, intransitive, or neuter. + +The passive voice is formed by the medium of a verb of permission, thus: + + amalitin, to make. + amalitikittin, to let make. + amalitikittunnua, to be made. + assimakin, to call. + assimakuttn, to let call, + assimakuttnnua, to be called. + +The personal pronouns are united to the verbs as they are to the nouns. +They precede all verbs except those whose infinitives terminate in _n_, +_in_, and _n_, to which they are suffixed as a rule, but not always. +When they follow the verb, the forms of the pronouns are either _de_, +_bu_, _i_ he, _n_ she, it, _u_, _hu_, _je_ or _da_, _ba_, _la_, _ta_, +_wa_, _ha_, _na_. The latter are used chiefly where the negative prefix +_m_, _ma_ or _maya_ is employed. Examples: + + hallikebben, to rejoice. + + hallikebbde, I rejoice. + hallikebbbu, thou rejoicest. + hallikebbi, he rejoices. + hallikebbn, she rejoices. + hallikebbu, we rejoice. + hallikebbh, you rejoice. + hallikebbje, they rejoice. + + majauquan, to remain. + + majuquada, I remain. + majuquaba, thou remainest. + majuquala, he remains. + majuquata, she remains. + majuquawa, we remain. + majuquaha, you remain. + majuquana, they remain. + +MOODS AND TENSES. Their verbs have four moods, the indicative, optative, +imperative, and infinitive, and five tenses, one present, three +preterites, and one future. The rules of their formation are simple. By +changing the termination of the infinitive into _a_, we have the +indicative present, into _bi_ the first preterite, into _buna_ the +second preterite, into _kuba_ the third preterite, and into _pa_ the +future. The conjugations are six in number, and many of the verbs are +irregular. The following verb of the first conjugation illustrates the +general rules for conjugation: + + _ayahaddin,_ to walk. + +INDICATIVE MOOD. + +Present tense: + + dayahadda, I walk. + bujahadda, thou walkest. + lujahadda, he walks. + tjahadda, she walks. + wayahdda, we walk. + hujahdda, you walk. + nayuhdda, they walk. + +First preterite--of to-day: + + dayahddibi, I walked to-day. + bujahddibi, thou walked to-day. + lijahddibi, he walked to-day. + tujahddibi, she walked to-day. + wayahddibi, we walked to-day. + hujahddibi, you walked to-day. + nayahddibi, they walked to-day. + +Second preterite--of yesterday or the day before. + + dayahaddibna, I walked yesterday or the day before. + bujahddibna, thou walked yesterday or the day before. + lijahddibuna, he walked yesterday or the day before. + tujahddibna, she walked yesterday or the day before. + wayahddibna, we walked yesterday or the day before. + hujahddibna, you walked yesterday or the day before. + nayahddibna, they walked yesterday or the day before. + +Third preterite--at some indefinite past time: + + dayahddakuba, I walked. + bujahddakuba, thou walked. + lijahddakuba, he walked. + tujahddakuba, she walked. + wayahddakuka, we walked. + hujahddakuba, you walked. + nayahddakuba, they walked. + +Future: + + dayahddipa, I shall walk. + bujahddipa, thou wilt walk. + lijahddipa, he will walk. + tujahddipa, she will walk. + wayahddipa, we shall walk. + hujahaddipa, you will walk. + nayahaddipa, they will walk. + +OPTATIVE MOOD. + +Present: + + dayahaddama or dayahaddinnika, I may walk. + +First preterite: + + dayahaddinnikbima. + +Second preterite[TN-3] + + dayahaddinbnma. + +Third preterite: + + dayahaddinnikubma. + +IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + bujahaddte or bujahaddalte, walk thou. + hjahaddte or hujahaddalte, walk ye. + nayahaddte, let them walk. + wayahaddali, let us walk. + +PARTICIPLES. + + ayahaddinnibi, to have walked to-day. + ayahaddinnibna, to have walked yesterday. + ayahaddnnikuba, to have walked. + ayahaddnnipa, to be about to walk. + +GERUND. + + ayahaddinti. + ayahaddinnibia. + +The following forms also belong to this verb: + + ayahaddinnibiakubma, to may or can walk. + ayahaddahlin, one who walks there (infinitive form). + +As in all polysynthetic languages, other words and particles can be +incorporated in the verb to modify its meaning, thus: + + dayahaddruka, as I was walking. + dayahaddakanika, I walk a little. + dayahaddahittika, I walk willingly. + +In this way sometimes words of formidable length are manufactured, as: + + massukussukuttunnuanikaebibu, you should not have been washed to-day. + +Negation may be expressed either by the prefix _m_ or _ma_, as +_mayahaddinikade_, I do not walk (where the prefix throws the pronoun to +the end of the word, and gives it the form appropriate for that +position), or else by the adverb _kurru_, not. But if both these +negatives are used, they make an affirmative, as _madittinda kurru +Gott_, I am not unacquainted with God. + + +COMPOSITION OF WORDS AND SENTENCES. + +"In general," remarks Prof. Von Martius, "this language betrays the +poverty and cumbrousness of other South American languages; yet in many +expressions a glimpse is caught of a far reaching, ideal background."[4] +We see it in the composition and derivation of some words; from _haikan_ +to pass by, comes _haikahu_ death, the passing away, and _aiihak_ +marriage, in which, as in death, the girl is lost to her parents; from +_kassan_ to be pregnant, comes _kassaku_ the firmament, big with all +things which are, and _kassahu beh_, the house of the firmament, the +sky, the day; from _kk_ the heart, comes _kkrah_ the family, the +tribe, those of one blood, whose hearts beat in unison, and _kah_ a +person, one whose heart beats and who therefore lives, and also, +singularly enough, _kkrah_ pus, no doubt from that strange analogy +which in so many other aboriginal languages and myths identified the +product of suppuration with the _semen masculinum_, the physiological +germ of life. + +The syntax of the language is not clearly set forth by any authorities. +Adjectives generally, but not always, follow the words they qualify, and +prepositions are usually placed after the noun, and often at the end of +a sentence; thus, _peru_ (Spanish _perro_) _assimakaku naha _, the dog +barks her at. To display more fully the character of the tongue, I shall +quote and analyze a verse from the _Act Apostelnu_, the 11th verse of +the 14th chapter, which in the English Protestant version reads: + +And when the people saw what Paul had done, they lifted up their voices, +saying in the speech of Lycaonia, The gods are come down to us in the +likeness of men. + +In Arawack it is: + +Addikitti uijuhu Paulus anissibiru, kakannakku na assimakka hrkren +Lcaonia adin ullukku hiddin: Amallitakoananutti lukkunu dia na but +wakkarruhu, nattukuda aijumneria wibiti hinna. + +Literally: + +They--seeing (_addin_ to see, gerund) the--people Paulus what--had been +done (_anin_ to do, _anissia_ to have been done), loudly they called +altogether the--Lycaonia speech in, thus, The--gods (present participle +of _amallitin_ to make; the same appellation which the ancient Greeks +gave to poets, [Greek: poitai] makers, the Arawacks applied to the +divine powers) men like, us to now (_but_ nota prsentis) +are--come--down from--above--down--here ourselves because--of. + + +AFFILIATIONS OF THE ARAWACK. + +The Arawacks are essentially of South American origin and affiliations. +The earliest explorers of the mainland report them as living on the +rivers of Guiana, and having settlements even south of the Equator.[5] +De Laet in his map of Guiana locates a large tribe of "Arowaceas" three +degrees south of the line, on the right bank of the Amazon. Dr. Spix +during his travels in Brazil met with fixed villages of them near +Fonteboa, on the river Solimoes and near Tabatinga and Castro +d'Avelaes.[6] They extended westward beyond the mouth of the Orinoco, +and we even hear of them in the province of Santa Marta, in the +mountains south of Lake Maracaybo.[7] + +While their language has great verbal differences from the Tupi of +Brazil and the Carib, it has also many verbal similarities with both. +"The Arawack and the Tupi," observes Professor Von Martius, "are alike +in their syntax, in their use of the possessive and personal pronouns, +and in their frequent adverbial construction;"[8] and in a letter +written me shortly before his death, he remarks, in speaking of the +similarity of these three tongues: "Ich bin berzeugt dass diese [die +Cariben] eine Elite der Tupis waren, welche erst spt auf die Antillen +gekommen sind, wo die alte Tupi--Sprache in kaum erkennbaren Resten +brig war, als man sie dort aufzeichnete." I take pleasure in bringing +forward this opinion of the great naturalist, not only because it is not +expressed so clearly in any of his published writings, but because his +authority on this question is of the greatest weight, and because it +supports the view which I have elsewhere advanced of the migrations of +the Arawack and Carib tribes.[9] These "hardly recognizable remains of +the Tupi tongue," we shall see belonged also to the ancient Arawack at +an epoch when it was less divergent than it now is from its primitive +form. While these South American affinities are obvious, no relationship +whatever, either verbal or syntactical, exists between the Arawack and +the Maya of Yucatan, or the Chahta-Mvskoki of Florida and the northern +shore of the Gulf of Mexico. + +As it is thus rendered extremely probable that the Arawack is closely +connected with the great linguistic families of South America, it +becomes of prime importance to trace its extension northward, and to +determine if it is in any way affined to the tongues spoken on the West +India Islands, when these were first discovered. + +The Arawacks of to-day when asked concerning their origin point to the +north, and claim at some not very remote time to have lived at _Kairi_, +an island, by which generic name they mean Trinidad. This tradition is +in a measure proved correct by the narrative of Sir Walter Raleigh, who +found them living there in 1595,[10] and by the Belgian explorers who in +1598 collected a short vocabulary of their tongue. This oldest monument +of the language has sufficient interest to deserve copying and comparing +with the modern dialect. It is as follows: + + LATIN. ARAWACK, 1598. ARAWACK, 1800. + pater, pilplii, itti. + mater, saeckee, uju. + caput, wassijehe, waseye. + auris, wadycke, wadihy. + oculus, wackosije, wakusi. + nasus, wassyerii, wasiri. + os, dalerocke, daliroko. + dentes, darii, dari. + crura, dadane, dadaanah. + pedes, dackosye, dakuty. + arbor, hada, adda. + arcus, semarape, semaara-haaba. + sagitt, symare, semaara. + luna, cattehel, katsi. + sol, adaly, hadalli. + +The syllables _wa_ our, and _da_ my, prefixed to the parts of the human +body, will readily be recognized. When it is remembered that the dialect +of Trinidad no doubt differed slightly from that on the mainland; that +the modern orthography is German and that of De Lact's[TN-4] list is +Dutch; and that two centuries intervened between the first and second, +it is really a matter of surprise to discover such a close similarity. +Father and mother, the only two words which are not identical, are +doubtless different expressions, relationship in this, as in most native +tongues, being indicated with excessive minuteness. + +The chain of islands which extend from Trinidad to Porto Rico were +called, from their inhabitants, the Caribby islands. The Caribs, +however, made no pretence to have occupied them for any great length of +time. They distinctly remembered that a generation or two back they had +reached them from the mainland, and had found them occupied by a +peaceful race, whom they styled _Ineri_ or _Igneri_. The males of this +race they slew or drove into the interior, but the women they seized for +their own use. Hence arose a marked difference between the languages of +the island Caribs and their women. The fragments of the language of the +latter show clearly that they were of Arawack lineage, and that the +so-called Igneri were members of that nation. It of course became more +or less corrupted by the introduction of Carib words and forms, so that +in 1674 the missionary De la Borde wrote, that "although there is some +difference between the dialects of the men and women, they readily +understand each other;"[11] and Father Breton in his Carib Grammar +(1665) gives the same forms for the declensions and conjugations of +both. + +As the traces of the "island Arawack," as the tongue of the Igneri may +be called, prove the extension of this tribe over all the Lesser +Antilles, it now remains to inquire whether they had pushed their +conquests still further, and had possessed themselves of the Great +Antilles, the Bahama islands, and any part of the adjacent coasts of +Yucatan or Florida. + +All ancient writers agree that on the Bahamas and Cuba the same speech +prevailed, except Gomara, who avers that on the Bahamas "great diversity +of language" was found.[12] But as Gomara wrote nearly half a century +after those islands were depopulated, and has exposed himself to just +censure for carelessness in his statements regarding the natives,[13] +his expression has no weight. Columbus repeatedly states that all the +islands had one language though differing, more or less, in words. The +natives he took with him from San Salvador understood the dialects in +both Cuba and Haiti. One of them on his second voyage served him as an +interpreter on the southern shore of Cuba.[14] + +In Haiti, there was a tongue current all over the island, called by the +Spaniards _la lengua universal_ and _la lengua cortesana_. This is +distinctly said by all the historians to have been but very slightly +different from that of Cuba, a mere dialectic variation in accent being +observed.[15] Many fragments of this tongue are preserved in the +narratives of the early explorers, and it has been the theme for some +strange and wild theorizing among would-be philologists. Rafinesque +christened it the "Taino" language, and discovered it to be closely akin +to the "Pelasgic" of Europe.[16] The Abb Brasseur de Bourbourg will +have it allied to the Maya, the old Norse or Scandinavian, the ancient +Coptic, and what not. Rafinesque and Jegor von Sivors[17] have made +vocabularies of it, but the former in so uncritical, and the latter in +so superficial a manner, that they are worse than useless. + +Although it is said there were in Haiti two other tongues in the small +contiguous provinces of Macorix de arriba and Macorix de abajo, entirely +dissimilar from the _lengua universal_ and from each other, we are +justified in assuming that the prevalent tongue throughout the whole of +the Great Antilles and the Bahamas, was that most common in Haiti. I +have, therefore, perused with care all the early authorities who throw +any light upon the construction and vocabulary of this language, and +gathered from their pages the scattered information they contain. The +most valuable of these authorities are Peter Martyr de Angleria, who +speaks from conversations with natives brought to Spain by Columbus, on +his first voyage,[18] and who was himself, a fine linguist, and +Bartolom de las Casas. The latter came as a missionary to Haiti, a few +years after its discovery, was earnestly interested in the natives, and +to some extent acquainted with their language. Besides a few printed +works of small importance, Las Casas left two large and valuable works +in manuscript, the _Historia General de las Indias Occidentales_, and +the _Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentals_. A copy of these, +each in four large folio volumes, exists in the Library of Congress, +where I consulted them. They contain a vast amount of information +relating to the aborigines, especially the _Historia Apologetica_, +though much of the author's space is occupied with frivolous discussions +and idle comparisons. + +In later times, the scholar who has most carefully examined the relics +of this ancient tongue, is Seor Don Estevan Richardo, a native of +Haiti, but who for many years resided in Cuba. His views are contained +in the preface to his _Diccionario Provincial casi-razonado de Voces +Cubanas_, (Habana, 2da ed, 1849). He has found very many words of the +ancient language retained in the provincial Spanish of the island, but +of course in a corrupt form. In the vocabulary which I have prepared for +the purpose of comparison, I have omitted all such corrupted forms, and +nearly all names of plants and animals, as it is impossible to identify +these with certainty, and in order to obtain greater accuracy, have +used, when possible, the first edition of the authors quoted, and in +most instances, given under each word a reference to some original +authority. + +From the various sources which I have examined, the alphabet of the +_lengua universal_ appears to have been as follows: a, b, d, e, (rarely +used at the commencement of a word), g, j, (an aspirated guttural like +the Catalan j, or as Peter Martyr says, like the Arabic ch), i (rare), l +(rare), m, n, o (rare,) p, q, r, s, t, u, y. These letters, it will be +remembered, are as in Spanish. + +The Spanish sounds z, ce, ci (English th,) ll, and v, were entirely +unknown to the natives, and where they appear in indigenous words, were +falsely written for l and b. The Spaniards also frequently distorted the +native names by writing x for j, s, and z, by giving j the sound of the +Latin y, and by confounding h, j, and f, as the old writers frequently +employ the h to designate the _spiritus asper_, whereas in modern +Spanish it is mute.[19] + +Peter Martyr found that he could reduce all the words of their language +to writing, by means of the Latin letters without difficulty, except in +the single instance of the guttural j. He, and all others who heard it +spoken, describe it as "soft and not less liquid than the Latin," "rich +in vowels and pleasant to the ear," an idiom "simple, sweet, and +sonorous."[20] + +In the following vocabulary I have not altered in the least the Spanish +orthography of the words, and so that the analogy of many of them might +at once be preceived,[TN-5] I have inserted the corresponding Arawack +expression, which, it must be borne in mind, is to be pronounced by the +German alphabet. + + +VOCABULARY OF THE ANCIENT LANGUAGE OF THE GREAT ANTILLES. + +Aji, red pepper. Arawack, _achi_, red pepper. + +Aon, dog (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. I, c. 120). Island Ar. _nli_, dog. + +Arcabuco, a wood, a spot covered with trees (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. de las +Indias, lib. VI, c,[TN-6] 8). Ar. _arragkaragkadin_ the swaying to and +fro of trees. + +Areito, a song chanted alternately by the priests and the people at +their feasts. (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V, c. 1.) Ar. _aririn_ to name, +rehearse. + +Bagua, the sea. Ar. _bara_, the sea. + +Bajaraque, a large house holding several hundred persons. From this +comes Sp. _barraca_, Eng. _barracks_. Ar. _baj_, a house. + +Bajari, title applied to sub-chiefs ruling villages, (Las Casas, Hist. +Apol. cap. 120). Probably "house-ruler," from Ar. _baj_, house. + +Barbacoa, a loft for drying maize, (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. VII, cap. +1). From this the English barbacue. Ar. _barrabakoa_, a place for +storing provisions. + +Batay, a ball-ground; bates, the ball; batey, the game. (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. c. 204). Ar. _battatan_, to be round, spherical.[21] + +Batea, a trough. (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. c. 241.) + +Bejique, a priest. Ar. _piaye_, a priest. + +Bixa, an ointment. (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 241.) + +Cai, cayo, or cayco, an island. From this the Sp. _cayo_, Eng. _key_, in +the "Florida keys." Ar. _kairi_, an island. + +Caiman, an alligator, Ar. _kaiman_, an alligator, lit. to be strong. + +Caona or cuni, gold. (Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. 26, Ed. Colon, 1564). Ar. +_kaijaunan_, to be precious, costly. + +Caracol, a conch, a univalve shell. From this the Sp. _caracol_. +(Richardo, Dicc. Provin. s. v). Probably from Galibi _caracoulis_, +trifles, ornaments. (See Martius, Sprachenkunde, B. II, p. 332.) + +Caney or cansi, a house of conical shape. + +Canoa, a boat. From this Eng. _canoe_. Ar. _kannoa_, a boat. + +Casique, a chief. This word was afterwards applied by Spanish writers to +the native rulers throughout the New World. Ar. _kassiquan_ (from +_ussequa_, house), to have or own a house or houses; equivalent, +therefore, to the Eng. landlord. + +Cimu or simu, the front, forehead; a beginning. (Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. +302.) Ar. _eme_ or _uime_, the mouth of a river, _uimelian_, to be new. + +Coaibai, the abode of the dead. + +Cohba, the native name of tobacco. + +Conuco, a cultivated field. (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. VII, cap. 2.) + +Duhos or duohos, low seats (unas baxas sillas, Las Casas, Hist. Gen. +lib. I, cap[TN-7] 96. Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V. cap. 1. Richardo, _sub +voce_, by a careless reading of Oviedo says it means images). Ar. +_dulluhu_ or _durruhu_, a seat, a bench. + +Goeiz, the spirit of the living (Pane, p. 444); probably a corruption of +_Guayzas_. Ar. _akkuyaha_, the spirit of a living animal. + +Gua, a very frequent prefix: Peter Martyr says, "Est apud eos articulus +et pauca sunt regum praecipue nominum quae non incipiant ab hoc articulo +_gua_." (Decad. p. 285.) Very many proper names in Cuba and Hayti still +retain it. The modern Cubans pronounce it like the English w with the +_spiritus lenis_. It is often written _oa_, _ua_, _oua_, and _hua_. It +is not an article, but corresponds to the _ah_ in the Maya, and the +_gue_ in the Tupi of Brazil, from which latter it is probably +derived.[22] + +Guaca, a vault for storing provisions. + +Guacabiua, provisions for a journey, supplies. + +Guacamayo, a species of parrot, macrocercus tricolor. + +Guanara, a retired stop. (Pane, p. 444); a species of dove, columba +zenaida (Richardo, S. V.)[TN-8] + +Guanin, an impure sort of gold. + +Guaoxeri, a term applied to the lowest class of the inhabitants (Las +Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 197.) Ar. _wakaijaru_, worthless, dirty, +_wakaijatti lihi_, a worthless fellow. + +Guatiao, friend, companion (Richardo). Ar. _ahati_, companion, playmate. + +Guayzas, masks or figures (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 61). Ar. +_akkuyaha_, living beings. + +Haba, a basket (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. III, cap. 21). Ar. _habba_, a +basket. + +Haiti, stony, rocky, rough (Pet. Martyr, Decades). Ar. _aessi_ or +_aetti_, a stone. + +Hamaca, a bed, hammock. Ar. _hamaha_, a bed, hammock. + +Hico, a rope, ropes (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V, cap. 2). + +Hobin, gold, brass, any reddish metal. (Navarrete Viages, I, p. 134, +Pet. Martyr, Dec. p. 303). Ar. _hobin_, red. + +Huiho, height. (Pet. Martyr, p. 304). Ar. _aijumn_, above, high up. + +Huracan, a hurricane. From this Sp. _huracan_, Fr. _ouragan_, German +_Orkan_, Eng. _hurricane_. This word is given in the _Livre Sacr des +Quichs_ as the name of their highest divinity, but the resemblance may +be accidental. Father Ximenes, who translated the _Livre Sacr_, derives +the name from the Quich _hu rakan_, one foot. Father Thomas Coto, in +his Cakchiquel Dictionary, (MS. in the library of the Am. Phil. Soc.) +translates _diablo_ by _hurakan_, but as the equivalent of the Spanish +_huracan_, he gives _ratinchet_. + +Hyen, a poisonous liquor expressed from the cassava root. (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. cap. 2). + +Itabo, a lagoon, pond. (Richardo). + +Juanna, a serpent. (Pet. Martyr, p. 63). Ar. _joanna_, a lizard; +_jawanaria_, a serpent. + +Macana, a war club. (Navarrete, Viages.[TN-9] I, p. 135). + +Magua, a plain. (Las Casas, Breviss. Relat. p. 7). + +Maguey, a native drum. (Pet. Martyr, p. 280). + +Maisi, maize. From this Eng. _maize_, Sp. _mais_, Ar. _marisi_, maize. + +Matum, liberal, noble. (Pet. Martyr, p. 292). + +Matunheri, a title applied to the highest chiefs. (Las Casas, Hist. +Apol. cap. 197). + +Mayani, of no value, ("nihili," Pet. Martyr, p. 9). Ar. _ma_, no, not. + +Naborias, servants. (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. III, cap. 32). + +Nacan, middle, center. Ar. _annakan_, center. + +Nagua, or enagua, the breech cloth made of cotton and worn around the +middle. Ar. _annaka_, the middle. + +Nitainos, the title applied to the petty chiefs, (regillos guiallos, +Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap,[TN-10] 197); _tayno_ vir bonus, _taynos_ +nobiles, says Pet. Martyr, (Decad. p. 25). The latter truncated form of +the word was adopted by Rafinesque and others, as a general name for the +people and language of Hayti. There is not the slightest authority for +this, nor for supposing, with Von Martius, that the first syllable is a +pronominal prefix. The derivation is undoubtedly Ar. _nddan_ to look +well, to stand firm, to do anything well or skilfully. + +Nucay or nozay, gold, used especially in Cuba and on the Bahamas. The +words _caona_ and _tuob_ were in vogue in Haiti (Navarrete, Viages, Tom. +1, pp. 45, 134). + +Operito, dead, and + +Opia, the spirit of the dead (Pane, pp. 443, 444). Ar. _aparrn_ to +kill, _apparahun_ dead, _lupparrkittoa_ he is dead. + +Quisquia, a native name of Haiti; "vastitas et universus ac totus. Uti +Grci suum Panem," says Pet. Martyr (Decad. p. 279). "Madre de las +tierras," Valverde translates it (_Idea del valor de la Isla Espanola_, +Introd. p. xviii). The orthography is evidently very false. + +Sabana, a plain covered with grass without trees (terrano llano, Oviedo, +Hist. Gen. lib. vi. cap. 8). From this the Sp. _savana_, Eng. +_savannah_. Charlevoix, on the authority of Mariana, says it is an +ancient Gothic word (Histoire de l'Isle St. Domingue, i. p. 53). But it +is probably from the Ar. _sallaban_, smooth, level. + +Semi, the divinities worshipped by the natives ("Lo mismo que nosotros +llamamos Diablo," Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. v. cap. 1. Not evil spirits +only, but all spirits). Ar. _semeti_ sorcerers, diviners, priests. + +Siba, a stone. Ar. _siba_, a stone. + +Starei, shining, glowing (relucens, Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. 304). Ar. +_tern_ to be hot, glowing, _tereh_ heat. + +Tabaco, the pipe used in smoking the cohoba. This word has been applied +in all European languages to the plant nicotiana tabacum itself. + +Taita, father (Richardo). Ar. _itta_ father, _daitta_ or _datti_ my +father. + +Taguguas, ornaments for the ears hammered from native gold (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. cap. 199). + +Tuob, gold, probably akin to _hobin_, q. v. + +Turey, heaven. Idols were called "cosas de _turey_" (Navarrete, Viages, +Tom. i. p. 221). Probably akin to _starei_, q. v. + +The following numerals are given by Las Casas (Hist. Apol. cap. 204). + +1 hequeti. Ar. _hrketai_, that is one, from _hrkn_ to be single or +alone. + +2 yamosa. Ar. _biama_, two. + +3 canocum. Ar. _kannikn_, many, a large number, _kannikukade_, he has +many things. + +4 yamoncobre, evidently formed from yamosa, as Ar. _bibiti_, four, from +_biama_, two. + +The other numerals Las Casas had unfortunately forgotten, but he says +they counted by hands and feet, just as the Arawacks do to this day. + +Various compound words and phrases are found in different writers, some +of which are readily explained from the Arawack. Thus _tureigua hobin_, +which Peter Martyr translates "rex resplendens uti orichalcum,"[23] in +Arawack means "shining like something red." Oviedo says that at +marriages in Cuba it was customary for the bride to bestow her favors on +every man present of equal rank with her husband before the latter's +turn came. When all had thus enjoyed her, she ran through the crowd of +guests shouting _mancato, mancato_, "lauding herself, meaning that she +was strong, and brave, and equal to much."[24] This is evidently the Ar. +_manikade_, from _mn_, _manin_, and means I am unhurt, I am +unconquered. When the natives of Haiti were angry, says Las Casas,[25] +they would not strike each other, but apply such harmless epithets as +_buticaco_, you are blue-eyed (anda para zarco de los ojos), +_xeyticaco_, you are black-eyed (anda para negro de los ojos), or +_mahite_, you have lost a tooth, as the case might be. The termination +_aco_ in the first two of these expressions is clearly the Ar. _acou_, +or _akusi_, eyes, and the last mentioned is not unlike the Ar. +_mrikata_, you have no teeth (_ma_ negative, _ari_ tooth). The same +writer gives for "I do not know," the word _ita_, in Ar. _daitta_.[26] + +Some of the words and phrases I have been unable to identify in the +Arawack. They are _duiheyniquen_, dives fluvius, _maguacochos_ vestiti +homines, both in Peter Martyr, and the following conversation, which he +says took place between one of the Haitian chieftians[TN-11] and his +wife. + +She. Tetoca tetoca. Tcheta cynto guamechyna. Guaibb. + +He. Cynto machabuca guamechyna. + +These words he translated: _teitoca_ be quiet, _tcheta_ much, _cynato_ +angry, _guamechyna_ the Lord, _guaibba_ go, _machabuca_ what is it to +me. But they are either very incorrectly spelled, or are not Arawack. + +The proper names of localities in Cuba, Hayti and the Bahamas, furnish +additional evidence that their original inhabitants were Arawacks. +Hayti, I have already shown has now the same meaning in Arawack which +Peter Martyr ascribed to it at the discovery. Cubanacan, a province in +the interior of Cuba, is compounded of _kuba_ and _annakan_, in the +center;[27] Baracoa, the name of province on the coast, is from Ar. +_bara_ sea, _koan_ to be there, "the sea is there;" in Barajagua the +_bara_ again appears; Guaymaya is Ar. _waya_ clay, _mara_ there is none; +Marien is from Ar. _maran_ to be small or poor; Guaniguanico, a province +on the narrow western extremity of the island, with the sea on either +side, is probably Ar. _wuini wuini koa_, water, water is there. The +names of tribes such as Siboneyes, Guantaneyes, owe their termination to +the island Arawack, _eyeri_ men, in the modern dialect _hiaeru_, +captives, slaves. The Siboneyes are said by Las Casas, to have been the +original inhabitants of Cuba.[28] The name is evidently from Ar. _siba_, +rock, _eyeri_ men, "men of the rocks." The rocky shores of Cuba gave +them this appellation. On the other hand the natives of the islets of +the Bahamas were called _lukku kairi_, abbreviated to _lukkairi_, and +_lucayos_, from _lukku_, man, _kairi_ an island, "men of the islands;" +and the archipelago itself was called by the first explorers "las islas +de los Lucayos," "isole delle Luca."[29] The province in the western +angle of Haiti was styled Guacaiarima, which Peter Martyr translates +"insulae podex;" dropping the article, _caiarima_ is sufficiently like +the Ar. _kairuina_, which signifies _podex_, Sp. _culata_, and is used +geographically in the same manner as the latter word. + +The word Maya frequently found in the names of places in Cuba and Haiti, +as Mayaba, Mayanabo, Mayajigua, Cajimaya, Jaimayabon, is doubtless the +Ar. negative _ma_, _mn_, _mara_. Some writers have thought it +indicative of the extension of the Maya language of Yucatan over the +Antilles. Prichard, Squier, Waitz, Brasseur de Bourbourg, Bastian and +other ethnologists have felt no hesitation in assigning a large portion +of Cuba and Haiti to the Mayas. It is true the first explorers heard in +Cuba and Jamaica, vague rumors of the Yucatecan peninsula, and found wax +and other products brought from there.[30] This shows that there was +some communication between the two races, but all authorities agree that +there was but one language over the whole of Cuba. The expressions which +would lead to a different opinion are found in Peter Martyr. He relates +that in one place on the southern shore of Cuba, the interpreter whom +Columbus had with him, a native of San Salvador, was at fault. But the +account of the occurrence given by Las Casas, indicates that the native +with whom the interpreter tried to converse simply refused to talk at +all.[31] Again, in Martyr's account of Grijalva's voyage to Yucatan in +1517, he relates that this captain took with him a native to serve as an +interpreter; and to explain how this could be, he adds that this +interpreter was one of the Cuban natives "quorum idioma, si non idem, +consanguineum tamen," to that of Yucatan. This is a mere fabrication, as +the chaplain of Grijalva on this expedition states explicitly in the +narrative of it which he wrote, that the interpreter was a native of +Yucatan, who had been captured a year before.[32] + +Not only is there a very great dissimilarity in sound, words, and +structure, between the Arawack and Maya, but the nations were also far +asunder in culture. The Mayas were the most civilized on the continent, +while the Arawacks possessed little besides the most primitive arts, and +precisely that tribe which lived on the extremity of Cuba nearest +Yucatan, the Guanataneyes, were the most barbarous on the island.[33] + +The natives of the greater Antilles and Bahamas differed little in +culture. They cultivated maize, manioc, yams, potatoes, corn, and +cotton. The latter they wove into what scanty apparel they required. +Their arms were bows with reed arrows, pointed with fish teeth or +stones, stone axes, spears, and a war club armed with sharp stones +called a _macana_. They were a simple hearted, peaceful, contented race, +"all of one language and all friends," says Columbus; "not given to +wandering, naked, and satisfied with little," says Peter Martyr; "a +people very poor in all things," says Las Casas. + +Yet they had some arts. Statues and masks in wood and stone were found, +some of them in the opinion of Bishop Las Casas, "very skilfully +carved." They hammered the native gold into ornaments, and their rude +sculptures on the face of the rocks are still visible in parts of Cuba +and Haiti. Their boats were formed of single trunks of trees often of +large size, and they managed them adroitly; their houses were of reeds +covered with palm leaves, and usually accommodated a large number of +families; and in their holy places, they set up rows of large stones +like the ancient cromlechs, one of which is still preserved in Hayti, +and is known as _la cercada de los Indios_. + +Physically they were undersized, less muscular than the Spaniards, light +in color, with thick hair and scanty beards. Their foreheads were +naturally low and retreating, and they artificially flattened the skull +by pressure on the forehead or the occiput.[34] + +Three social grades seem to have prevailed, the common herd, the petty +chiefs who ruled villages, and the independent chiefs who governed +provinces. Of the latter there were in Cuba twenty-nine; in Haiti five, +as near as can be now ascertained.[35] Some of those in Cuba had shortly +before the arrival of the Spaniards moved there from Haiti, and at the +conquest one of the principal chiefs of Haiti was a native of the +Lucayos.[36] + +The fate of these Indians is something terrible to contemplate. At the +discovery there were probably 150,000 on Cuba, Haiti, and the +Bahamas.[37] Those on the latter were carried as slaves to Haiti to work +in the mines, and all of the Lucayos exterminated in three or four years +(1508-1512).[38] The sufferings of the Haitians have been told in a +graphic manner by Las Casas in an oft-quoted work.[39] His statements +have frequently been condemned as grossly exaggerated, but the official +documents of the early history of Cuba prove but too conclusively that +the worthy missionary reports correctly what terrible cruelties the +Spaniards committed. Cuba was conquered in 1514, and was then quite +densely populated. Fourteen years afterwards we find the Governor, +Gonzalo de Guzman, complaining that while troops of hunters were +formerly traversing the island constantly, asking no other pay than the +right of keeping as slaves the natives whom they captured, he now has to +pay patrolmen, as the Indians are so scarce.[40] The next year (1529) +the treasurer, Lope de Hurtado, writes that the Indians are in such +despair that they are hanging themselves twenty and thirty at a +time.[41] In 1530 the king is petitioned to relinquish his royalty on +the produce of the mines, because nearly all the Indians on the island +are dead.[42] And in 1532 the licentiate, Vadillo, estimates the total +number of Indians on the island, including the large percentage brought +from the mainland by the slavers, at only 4,500.[43] + +As a specimen of what the treatment of the Indians was, we have an +accusation in 1522 against Vasco Porcallo, afterwards one of the +companions of Hernando de Soto. He captured several Indians, cut off +their genitals, and forced them to eat them, cramming them down their +throats when they could not swallow. When asked for his defence, +Porcallo replied that he did it to prevent his own Indians from +committing suicide, as he had already lost two-thirds of his slaves in +that way. The defence was apparently deemed valid, for he was +released![44] + +The myths and traditions of the Haitians have fortunately been +preserved, though not in so perfect a form as might be wished. When +Bartholomew Columbus left Rome for the Indies, he took with him a lay +brother of the order of the Hermits of St. Jerome, Ramon Pane by name, a +Catalan by birth, a worthy but credulous and ignorant man.[45] On +reaching Haiti brother Pane was first sent among the natives of the +small province called Macorix de abajo, which had a language peculiar to +itself, but he was subsequently transferred to the province of Guarinoex +on the southeastern part of the island where the _lengua universal_ +prevailed. He remained there two years, and at the request of Columbus +collected and wrote down the legends and beliefs of the natives. + +He is not a model authority. In the first place, being a Catalan he did +not write Spanish correctly; he was very imperfectly acquainted with the +native tongue; he wrote hastily, and had not enough paper to write in +full; he is not sure that he commences their legends at the right end. +Moreover his manuscript is lost, and the only means we have of knowing +anything about it is by a very incorrectly printed Italian version, +printed in 1571, and two early synopses, one in Latin in the Decades of +Peter Martyr, the other in Italian, by Messer Zuane de Strozi of +Ferrara, which has been quite recently published for the first time.[46] +By comparing these we can arrive at the meaning of Brother Pane with +considerable accuracy. + +His work contains fragments of two distinct cycles of legends, the one +describing the history of the gods, the other the history of the human +race. + +Earliest of creatures was the woman, Atabira or Ataves, who also bore +the other names Mamna, Guacarapta, Iilla, and Guimaza. Her son was +the supreme ruler of all things, and chiefest of divinities. His names +were Yocana, Guamanocon, and Yocahu-vaguaniao-vocoti. He had a brother +called Guaca, and a son Iaiael. The latter rebelled against his father, +and was exiled for four mouths and then killed. The legend goes on to +relate that his bones were placed in a calabash and hung up in his +father's house. Here they changed into fishes, and the calabash filled +with water. One day four brothers passed that way, who had all been born +at one time, and whose mother, Itaba tahuana, had died in bringing them +into the world. Seeing the calabash filled with fish the oldest of the +four, Caracaracol, the Scabby, lifted it down, and all commenced to eat. +While thus occupied, Yocana suddenly made his appearance, which so +terrified the brothers that they dropped the gourd and broke it into +pieces. From it ran all the waters of the world, and formed the oceans, +lakes, and rivers as they now are. + +At this time there were men but no women, and the men did not dare to +venture into the sunlight. Once, as they were out in the rain, they +perceived four creatures, swift as eagles and slippery as eels. The men +called to their aid Caracaracol and his brothers, who caught these +creatures and transformed them into women. In time, these became the +mothers of mankind. + +The earliest natives of Haiti came under the leadership of the hero-god, +Vaguoniona, a name applied by Las Casas to Yocahu, from an island to the +south called in the legend Matinin, which all the authors identify, I +know not why, with Martinique. They landed first on the banks of the +river Bahoboni in the western part of Haiti, and there erected the first +house, called Camotia. This was ever after preserved and regarded with +respectful veneration. + +Such, in brief, were their national myths. Conspicuously marked in them +we note the sacred number four, the four brothers typifying the cardinal +points, whose mother, the Dawn, dies in giving them birth, just as in +the Algonkin myths. These brothers aid the men in their struggles for +life, and bring to them the four women, the rain-bringing winds. Here, +too, the first of existences is the woman, whose son is at once highest +of divinities and the guide and instructor of their nation. These +peculiarities I have elsewhere shown to be general throughout the +religions of America.[47] + +The myth of the thunder storm also appears among them in its triplicate +nature so common to the American mind. God of the storm was Guabancex, +whose statue was made of stones. When angry he sent before him as +messenger, Guatauva, to gather the winds, and accompanied by +Coatrischie, who collected the rain-clouds in the valleys of the +mountains, he swept down upon the plain, surrounded by the awful +paraphernalia of the thunder storm.[48] + +Let us place side by side with these ancient myths the national legend +of the Arawacks.[49] They tell of a supreme spiritual being Yauwahu or +Yauhahu. Pain and sickness are the invisible shafts he shoots at men, +_yauhahu simaira_ the arrows of Yauhahu, and he it is whom the priests +invoke in their incantations. Once upon a time, men lived without any +means to propitiate this unseen divinity; they knew not how to ward off +his anger or conciliate him. At that time the Arawacks did not live in +Guiana, but in an island to the north. One day a man named Arawanili +walked by the waters grieving over the ignorance and suffering of his +nation. Suddenly the spirit of the waters, the woman Orehu, rose from +the waves and addressed him. She taught him the mysteries of _semeci_, +the sorcery which pleases and controls Yauhahu, and presented him with +the _maraka_, the holy calabash containing white pebbles which they +rattle during their exorcisms, and the sound of which summons the beings +of the unseen world. Arawanili faithfully instructed his people in all +that Orehu had said, and thus rescued them from their wretchedness. When +after a life of wisdom and good deeds the hour of his departure came, he +"did not die, but went up." + +Orehu accompanied the Arawacks when they moved to the main, and still +dwells in a treeless, desolate spot, on the banks of the Pomeroon. The +negroes of the colony have learned of her, and call her in their broken +English, the "watra-mamma," the water-mother. + +The proper names which occur in these myths, date back to the earliest +existence of the Arawacks as an independent tribe, and are not readily +analyzed by the language as it now exists. The Haitian Yocauna seems +indeed identical with the modern Yauhahu. Atabes or Atabira is probably +from _itabo_, lake, lagoon, and _era_, water, (the latter only in +composition, as _hurruru_, mountain, _era_, water, mountain-water, a +spring, a source), and in some of her actions corresponds with Orehu. +Caracaracol is translated by Brother Pane, as "the Scabby" or the one +having ulcers, and in this respect the myth presents a curious analogy +with many others in America. In modern Arawack _karrikala_ is a form, in +the third person singular, from _karrin_, to be sick, to be pregnant. +Arawanili, which one might be tempted to suppose gave the name Arawack +to the tribe, did not all writers derive this differently, may be a form +of _awawa_, father. In the old language, the termination _el_, is said +to have meant son. + +Of the two remaining languages said to have been spoken in the small +provinces of Macorix de arriba and Macorix de abajo, in Hayti, we have +no certain knowledge.[50] Las Casas gives one word from the former. It +is _bazca_, no, not. I cannot identify it. There is reason, however, to +suppose one of them was the Tupi or "lengua geral," of Brazil. Pane +gives at least two words which are pure Tupi, and not Arawack. They are +the names of two hideous idols supposed to be inimical to men. The one +was Bugi, in Tupi, _ugly_, the other Aiba, in Tupi, _bad_. It is +noteworthy, also, that Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan on his voyage +around the world, gives a number of words, ostensibly in the language of +the natives of Rio Janeiro, where the Tupi was spoken, which are +identical with those of Haiti, as _cacich_, chief, _boi_, house, +_hamac_, bed, _canoe_, boat. But Pigafetta acknowledges that he obtained +these words not from the natives themselves, but from the pilot Juan +Carvalhos, who had been for years sailing over the West Indian seas, and +had no doubt learned these words in the Antilles.[51] + +The remaining idiom may be supposed to have been Carib, although we have +actually no evidence that the Caribs had gained a permanent foothold on +any of the Great Antilles at the period of the discovery, some careless +assertions of the old authors to the contrary, notwithstanding. + +The investigation which I here close, shows that man in his migrations +on the Western Continent followed the lead of organic nature around him. +For it is well known that the flora and fauna of the Antilles are South +American in character, and also, that the geological structure of the +archipelago connects it with the southern mainland. So also its earliest +known human inhabitants were descended from an ancestry whose homes were +in the far south, and who by slow degrees moved from river to river, +island to island, until they came within a few miles of the northern +continent. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Since reading this article before the Society, Prof. S. S. Haldeman +has shown me a copy of a work with the title: "_Die Geschichte von der +Marterwoche, Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt unsers Herrn und Heilandes +Jesu Christi. Uebersetzt in die Aruwackische Sprache und erklrend +umschrieben. Philadelphia: Gedruckt bey Carl List, 1799_," 8vo. pages +213, then one blank leaf, then 40 pages of "Anmerkungen." There is also +a second title, in Arawack, and neither title page is included in the +pagination. The Arawack title begins: "_Wadaijahun Wssada-goanti, +Wappussida-goanti baddia Jesus Christus_," etc. The remarks at the end +are chiefly grammatical and critical, and contain many valuable hints to +the student of the language. I have no doubt this book is the Life of +Christ mentioned in the text. The name of the translator or editor is +nowhere mentioned, but I have no doubt Mr. Schultz wrote the +"Anmerkungen," and read the proof, as not only are his grammatical signs +and orthography adopted throughout, but also we know from other sources +that he was in Philadelphia at that time. + +[2] Brett, _The Indian Tribes of Guiana_, p. 117 (London, 1868). + +[3] _Etudes Philologiques sur quelquee[TN-12] Langues Sauvages de +l'Amerique_, p. 87 (Montreal, 1866). + +[4] _Beitrge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika's zumal +Brasiliens_, B. I., p. 705 (Leipzig, 1867). + +[5] De Laet. _Novus Orbis_, lib. xvii., cap. vi. + +[6] Martius, _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika's_, B. I., S. 687. + +[7] Antonio Julian, _La Perla de la America, la Provincia de Santa +Marta_, p. 149. + +[8] _Ethnographie, etc._, B. I., S. 714. + +[9] _The Myths of the New World; a Treatise on the Symbolism and +Mythology of the Red Race of America_, p. 32 (New York, 1868). + +[10] _The Discoverie of Guiana_, p[TN-13] 4 (Hackluyt, Soc., London, +1842). + +[11] _Relation de l'Origine, etc., des Caraibes_, p. 39 (Paris, 1674). + +[12] "Havia mas policia entre ellos [los Lucayos,] i mucha diversidad de +Lenguas." _Hist. de las Indias_, cap. 41. + +[13] Las Casas, in the _Historia General de las Indias Occid[TN-14]_, +lib. III, cap. 27, criticizes him severely. + +[14] Columbus says of the Bahamas and Cuba: "toda la lengua es una y +todos amigos" (Navarrete, _Viages_, Tomo I, p. 46.) The natives of +Guanahani conversed with those of Haiti "porque todos tenian una +lengua," (_ibid_, p. 86.) In the Bay of Samana a different dialect but +the same language was found (p. 135). + +[15] Gomara says the language of Cuba is "algo diversa," from that of +Espanola. (_Hist. de las Indias_, cap. 41.) Oviedo says that though the +natives of the two islands differ in many words, yet they readily +understand each other. (_Hist. de las Indias_, lib. XVII. cap. 4.) + +[16] The American Nations, chap. VII, (Philadelphia, 1836.) + +[17] _Cuba, die Perle der Antillen_, p. 72. (Leipzig, 1831.) The +vocabulary contains 33 words, "_aus dem Cubanischen_." Many are +incorrect both in spelling and pronunciation. + +[18] When Columbus returned from his first voyage, he brought with him +ten natives from the Bay of Samana in Haiti, and a few from Guanahani. + +[19] See the remarks of Richardo in the Prologo to his _Diccionario +Provincial_. + +[20] The remarks of Peter Martyr are; "posse omnium illarum linguam +nostris literis Latinis, sine ullo discrimine, scribi compertum est," +(_De Rebus Oceanicis et Novo Orbe_, Decades Tres, p. 9.) "Advertendum +est, nullam inesse adspirationem vocabulis corum, quae non habeat +effectum literae consonantis; immo gravius adspirationem proferunt, quam +nos f consonantem. Proferendumque est quicquid est adspiratum eodum +halitu quo f, sed minime admoto ad superiores dentes inferiore labello, +ore aut aperto ha, he hi, ho, hu, et concusso pectore. Hebraeos et +Arabicos eodem modo suas proferre adspirationes vides," (id. pp. 285, +286.) + +[21] There was a ball-ground in every village. It was "tres veces mas +luenga que ancha, cercada de unos lomillos de un palmo o dos de alto." +The ball was "como las de viento nuestras mas no cuanto al salto, que +era mayor que seis de las de viento." (Las Casas, _Historia +Apologetica_, caps. 46, 204.) Perhaps the ball was of India rubber. + +[22] "Gue ou Gui, signal de vocativo, mas so empregado pelos homems." +Dias _Diccionario da Lingua Tupy chamada Lingua Geral dos Indigenas do +Brazil_, p. 60 (Lipsia, 1858). + +[23] _De Rebus Oceanicis_, p. 303. + +[24] _Hist. de las Indias_, lib. xvii. cap. 4, Las Casas denies the +story, and says Oviedo told it in order to prejudice people against the +natives (_Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, lib. iii. cap. xxiv). It is, +however, probably true. + +[25] _Historia Apologetica_, cap. 198. + +[26] He compares the signification of _ita_ in Haytian to _ita_ in +Latin, and translates the former _ita_ by _no se_; this is plainly an +error of the transcriber for _yo se_ (_Hist. Apologetica_, cap. 241). + +[27] _Kuba_ in Arawack is the sign of past time and is used as a prefix +to nouns, as well as a suffix to verbs. _Kubakanan_ ancestors, those +passed away, those who lived in past times. + +[28] "Toda la mas de la gente de que estaba poblaba aquella isla [Cuba] +era passada y natural desta ysla Espanola, puesto que la mas antigua y +natural de aquella ysla era como la de los Lucayos de quien ablamos en +el primero y segundo libro ser como los seres que parecia no haber +pecado nuestro padre Adan en ellos, gente simplicissima, bonissima, +careciente de todos vicios, y beatissima. Esta era la natural y native +de aquella ysla, y llamabanse en su lengua, Ciboneyes, la penultima +silaba luenga; y los desta por grado o por fuerza se apodearon de +aquella ysla y gente della, y los tenian como sirvientes suyos." (Las +Casas _Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, MSS. lib. iii, cap. 21). Elsewhere +(cap. 23) he says this occurred "mayormente" after the Spaniards had +settled in Haiti. + +[29] "Lucayos o por mejor decir Yucayos" says Las Casas, (_Hist. Gen._ +lib. ii. cap. 44) and after him Herrera. But the correction which was +based apparently on some supposed connection of the word with _yuca_, +the Haitian name of an esculent plant, is superfluous, and Las Casas +himself never employs it, nor a single other writer. + +[30] Las Casas. _Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, lib. iv. cap. 48, MSS. Bees +were native to Yucatan long before the discovery, but not to the north +temperate zone. + +[31] "Varia enim esse idiomata in varils Cubae provinelis perpenderunt." +(Pet. Martyr, _De Rebus Oceanicis_, v. 42). Las Casas says that a sailor +told Columbus that he saw one Indian cacique in a long white tunic who +refused to speak, but stalked silently away. (_Hist. de las Indias_, +lib. I. cap. 95). Martyr says there were several. Peschel suggests they +were tall white flamingoes, that scared the adventurous tar out of his +wits. (_Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen_, p. 253). At any +rate the story gives no foundation at all for Peter Martyr's +philogical[TN-15] opinion. + +[32] Pet. Martyr, _De Insulis Nuper Inventis_, p. 335. "Traia consigo +Grisalva un Indio per lengua de los que de aquella tierra habian llevado +consigo a la ysla de Cuba Francisco Hernandez.[TN-16] Las Casas _Hist. +Gen. de las Indias_, lib. III, cap. 108, MSS. See also the chaplain's +account in Terneaux Compans, _Recueil de Pieces rel. a la Conqute de +Mexique_, p. 56. + +[33] Bernal Dias says the vicinity of cape San Antonio was inhabited by +the "Guanataneys que son unos Indias como salvages." He expressly adds +that their clothing differed from that of the Mayas, and that the Cuban +natives with him could not understand the Maya language. _Historia +Verdadera_, cap. II. + +[34] "Presso capite, fronte lata" (Nicolaus Syllacius, _De Insulis nuper +Inventis_, p. 86. Reprint, New York, 1859. This is the extremely rare +account of Columbus' second voyage). Six not very perfect skulls were +obtained in 1860, by Col. F. S. Heneken, from a cavern 15 miles +south-west from Porto Plata. They are all more or less distorted in a +discoidal manner, one by pressure over the frontal sinus, reducing the +calvaria to a disk. (J. Barnard Davis, _Thesaurus Craniorum_, p. 236, +London, 1867. Mr. Davis erroneously calls them Carib skulls). + +[35] The provinces of Cuba are laid down on the _Mapa de la Isla de Cuba +segun la division de los Naturales_, por D. Jose Maria de la Torre y de +la Torre, in the _Memorias de la Sociedad Patriotica de la Habana_, +1841. See also Felipe Poey, _Geografia de la Isla de Cuba_, Habana, +1853. _Apendice sobre la Geografia Antigua._ Las Casas gives the five +provinces of Hayti by the names of their chiefs, Guarinox, Guacanagari, +Behechio, Caonabo and Higuey. For their relative position see the map in +Charlevoix's _Histoire de l'Isle San Domingue_, Paris, 1740, and in +Baumgarten's _Geschichte von Amerika_, B. II. + +[36] This was Caonabo. Oviedo, and following him Charlevoix, say he was +a Carib, but Las Casas, who having lived twenty years in Haiti +immediately after the discovery, is infinitely the best authority, says: +"Era de nacion Lucayo, natural de las islas de los Lucayos, que se pas +de ellas aca." (_Historia Apologetica_, cap. 179, MSS[TN-17]). + +[37] I put the figures very low. Peter Martyr, whose estimates are the +lowest of any writer, says there were more than 200,000 natives on Haiti +alone. (_De Rebus Oceanicis_, p. 295.) + +[38] More than 40,000 were brought to Haiti to enjoy the benefits of +Christian instruction, says Herrera, with what might pass as a ghastly +sarcasm. (_Historia General de las Indias_, Dec. I, lib. VIII. cap. 3). + +[39] _Brevissima Relacion de la Destruccion de las Indias Occidentales +par los Castellanos_, Sevilla, 1552. + +[40] Ramon de de[TN-18] la Sagra, _Historia de la Isla de Cuba_, Tom. II, +p. 381. + +[41] Ibid, p. 394. + +[42] Ibid, p. 396. + +[43] Ibid, p. 414. + +[44] Ibid, p. 385. These references to De la Sagra's work are all to the +original documents in his Appendix. + +[45] Las Casas knew Pane personally, and gives his name correctly (not +_Roman_, as all the printed authorities have it). He described him as +"hombre simple y de buena intencion;" "fuese Catalan de nacion y no +habla del todo bien nuestra lengua Castellana." Ramon came to Haiti four +or five years before Las Casas, and the latter speaks of him in a +disparaging tone. "Este Fray Ramon escudrino lo que pud, segun lo que +alcanzo de las lenguas que fueron tres, las que habia en esta ysia: pero +no supo sino la una de una chica provincia, que arriba dejimos llamarse +Macaria de abajo, y aquella no perfectamente.[TN-19] (_Historia +Apologetica, MSS._[TN-20] cap. 120, see also cap. 162). This statement is +not quite true, as according to Las Casas' own admission Pane dwelt two +years in the province of Guarinoex, where the _lengua universal_ was +spoken, and _there_ collected these traditions. + +[46] Pane's account was first published in the _Historie del +Frenando[TN-21] Colombo_, Venetia, 1571, from which it has recently been +translated and published with notes by Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, +1864. The version of Zuane de Strozi is in the Appendix to Harrisse's +_Bibliotheca Primordia Americana_, p. 474. + +[47] _The myths of the New World_, (New York, 1868). + +[48] See the work last quoted, p. 156, for a number of similar myths of +the trinity of the storm. + +[49] I take these as they are related in Bretts, _Indian Tribes of +Guiana_, Part ii, chap. x. + +[50] The most trustworthy author is Las Casas. As his works are still in +manuscript, I give his words. "Tres lenguas habia en esta ysla distintas +que la una a la otra no se entendia. La una era de la gente que +llamabamos Macorix de abajo y la otra de los vecinos del Macorix de +arriba. La otra lengua fue la universal de toda la tierra, y esta era +mas elegante y mas copiosa de vocablos, y mas dulce al sonido. En esto +la de Xaragua en todo llevaba ventaja, y era mui mas prima." (_Historia +Apologetica_, cap. 197). "Es aqui de saber que un gran pedajo de esta +costa (that of the northern part of Haiti), bien mas de veinte y cinco o +treinta leguas y quince buenas y aun veinte de ancho hasta las sierras +que haren desta parte del norte la gran Vega inclusive, era poblado de +una gente que se llamaron Mazoriges, y otras Ciguayos, y tenian diversas +lenguas de la universal de todas las islas." (_Historia General_, lib. +I, cap. 77). "Llamaban Ciguayos porque trayan todos los cabellos mui +luengos como en Nueva Castilla las mujeres," (id. cap. 77). The cacique +of the Ciguayos was named Mayomanex or Mayobanex, (id. lib. I, cap. +120). They went almost naked, and had no arms, "eran Gallinas almenos +para con los uos, como no tuviesen armas," (id. cap. 120.) + +[51] Pigafetta, _Reise um die Welt_, so. 21, 26, 247, (Gotha, 1802; a +translation of the Italian original in the library at Milan). + + + + +Transcriber's Note + + +The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained. + + Page Error + TN-1 2 Mr. Shultz should read Schultz + TN-2 2 dipthongs should read diphthongs + TN-3 7 Second preterite should read Second preterite: + TN-4 9 Lact's should read Laet's + TN-5 11 preceived should read perceived + TN-6 11 VI, c, 8 should read VI, c. 8 + TN-7 12 lib. I, cap 96 should read lib. I, cap. 96 + TN-8 12 S. V.) should read S. V.). + TN-9 13 Navarrete, Viages. should read Navarrete, Viages, + TN-10 13 Apol. cap, should read Apol. cap. + TN-11 14 chieftians should read chieftains + TN-12 fn. 3 quelquee should read quelques + TN-13 fn. 10 p 4 should read p. 4 + TN-14 fn. 13 Indias Occid should read Indias Occid. + TN-15 fn. 31 philogical should read philological + TN-16 fn. 32 Hernandez. should read Hernandez." + TN-17 fn. 36 MSS should read MSS. + TN-18 fn. 40 Ramon de de should read Ramon de + TN-19 fn. 45 perfectamente. should read perfectamente." + TN-20 fn. 45 <i>MSS.</i> should read MSS. + TN-21 fn. 46 Frenando should read Fernando + +Other inconsistencies: + +The relative position of , and ) is not consistent. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arawack Language of Guiana in its +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, by Daniel G. Brinton + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA *** + +***** This file should be named 31273-8.txt or 31273-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/2/7/31273/ + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/31273-8.zip b/31273-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f35a9cc --- /dev/null +++ b/31273-8.zip diff --git a/31273-h.zip b/31273-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e06e266 --- /dev/null +++ b/31273-h.zip diff --git a/31273-h/31273-h.htm b/31273-h/31273-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..db2df46 --- /dev/null +++ b/31273-h/31273-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2649 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Transcriber’s Note, by D. G. Brinton, M. D.. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + p.noindent {text-indent: 0em;} + p.titlepage {text-indent: 0em; text-align: center; } + p.gramcenter {text-indent: 0em; text-align: center; } + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + .chapterhead {margin-top: 4em; font-weight: normal;} + .sectionhead {margin-top: 2em; font-weight: normal;} + + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + .chapbreak {width: 65%; } + .declong {width: 8em; border: solid black 1px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + .decshort {width: 3em; border: solid black 1px; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + td {padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align: top;} + .grammar {margin-left: 30%; } + .gramleft {width: 12em; } + .tntable {margin-left: 0;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + a:focus, a:active { outline:#ffee66 solid 2px; background-color:#ffee66;} + a:focus img, a:active img {outline: #ffee66 solid 2px; } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-align: right; + text-indent: 0em; + } /* page numbers */ + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .smrom {font-size: smaller;} + .size50per {font-size: 50%;} + .shiftleft {margin-left: -0.25em;} + + .footnotes {border-top: solid 1px; text-indent: 0.5em; font-size: 0.9em; text-align: justify; } + .label {font-size: 0.8em; vertical-align: 0.3em; } + .fnanchor {vertical-align: 0.3em; font-size: 0.8em; padding-left: 0.1em;} + + ul.ix {list-style-type: none; font-size:inherit;} + + ins.correction {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray;} + + .tn {background-color: #EEE; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arawack Language of Guiana in its +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, by Daniel G. Brinton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Arawack Language of Guiana in its Linguistic and Ethnological Relations + +Author: Daniel G. Brinton + +Release Date: February 14, 2010 [EBook #31273] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA *** + + + + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="tn"> +<p class="titlepage"><b>Transcriber’s Note</b></p> + +<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of +this book. They are <ins class="correction" title="correction">marked</ins> and the corrected text is shown in the popup. +A description of the errors is found in the <a href="#trans_note">list</a> at the end of the text. +Inconsistent spelling, hyphenation, and capitalization have been maintained.</p> + +<p class="noindent">The following less-common characters are used in this version of the book. +If they do not display properly, please try changing your font.</p> + +<ul class="ix"> + <li>œ oe ligature</li> +</ul> +</div> + + + + +<h1 class="chapterhead">THE ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA<br /> +<br /> +<span class="size50per">IN ITS</span><br /> +<br /> +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations.</h1> + +<hr class="declong" /> + +<p class="titlepage">By D. G. BRINTON, M. D.</p> + +<hr class="declong" /> + +<p class="titlepage">PHILADELPHIA:<br /> +McCALLA & STAVELY, PRINTERS.<br /> +<span class="smcap">237-9 Dock Street</span>.<br /> +1871.</p> + + + +<hr class="chapbreak" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<h2 class="chapterhead">THE ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA<br /> + +<span class="size50per">IN ITS</span><br /> + +LINGUISTIC AND ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS.</h2> + +<p class="titlepage">BY D. G. BRINTON, M. D.</p> + +<hr class="decshort" /> + + +<p>The Arawacks are a tribe of Indians who at present dwell in British and +Dutch Guiana, between the Corentyn and Pomeroon rivers. They call +themselves simply <i>lukkunu</i>, men, and only their neighbors apply to them +the contemptuous name <i>aruac</i> (corrupted by Europeans into Aroaquis, +Arawaaks, Aroacos, Arawacks, etc.), meal-eaters, from their peaceful +habit of gaining an important article of diet from the amylaceous pith +of the <i>Mauritia flexuosa</i> palm, and the edible root of the cassava +plant.</p> + +<p>They number only about two thousand souls, and may seem to claim no more +attention at the hands of the ethnologist than any other obscure Indian +tribe. But if it can be shown that in former centuries they occupied the +whole of the West Indian archipelago to within a few miles of the shore +of the northern continent, then on the question whether their +affiliations are with the tribes of the northern or southern mainland, +depends our opinion of the course of migration of the primitive +inhabitants of the western world. And if this is the tribe whose +charming simplicity Columbus and Peter Martyr described in such poetic +language, then the historian will acknowledge a desire to acquaint +himself more closely with its past and its present. It is my intention +to show that such was their former geographical position.</p> + +<p>While in general features there is nothing to distinguish them from the +red race elsewhere, they have strong national traits. Physically they +are rather undersized, averaging not over five feet four inches in +height, but strong-limbed, agile, and symmetrical. Their foreheads are +low, their noses more allied to the Aryan types than usual with their +race, and their skulls of that form defined by craniologists as +orthognathic brachycephalic.</p> + +<p>From the earliest times they have borne an excellent character. +Hospitable, peace-loving, quick to accept the humbler arts of +civilization and the simpler precepts of Christianity, they have ever +offered a strong contrast to their neighbors, the cruel and warlike +Caribs. They are not at all prone to steal, lie, or drink, and their +worst faults are an addiction to blood-revenge, and a superstitious +veneration for their priests.</p> + +<p>They are divided into a number of families, over fifty in all, the +genealogies of which are carefully kept in the female line, and the +members of any one of which are forbidden to intermarry. In this +singular institution they resemble many other native tribes.</p> + + +<h3 class="sectionhead">LANGUAGE.</h3> + +<p>The earliest specimen of their language under its present name is given +by Johannes de Laet in his <i>Novus Orbis, seu Descriptio Indiæ +Occidentalis</i> (Lugd. Bat. 1633). It was obtained in 1598. In 1738 the +Moravian brethren founded several missionary stations in the country, +but owing to various misfortunes, the last of their posts was given up +in 1808. To them we owe the only valuable monuments of the language in +existence.</p> + +<p>Their first instructor was a mulatto boy, who assisted them in +translating into the Arawack a life of Christ. I cannot learn that this +is extant. Between 1748 and 1755 one of the missionaries, Theophilus +Schumann, composed a dictionary, <i>Deutsch-Arawakisches Wœrterbuch</i>, +and a grammar, <i>Deutsch-Arawakische Sprachlehre</i>, which have remained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +in manuscript in the library of the Moravian community at Paramaribo. +Schumann died in 1760, and as he was the first to compose such works, +the manuscript dictionary in the possession of Bishop Wullschlägel, +erroneously referred by the late Professor von Martius to the first +decade of the last century, is no doubt a copy of Schumann’s.</p> + +<p>In 1807 another missionary, C. Quandt, published a <i>Nachricht von +Surinam</i>, the appendix to which contains the best published grammatical +notice of the tongue. The author resided in Surinam from 1769 to 1780.</p> + +<p>Unquestionably, however, the most complete and accurate information in +existence concerning both the verbal wealth and grammatical structure of +the language, is contained in the manuscripts of the Rev. Theodore +Schultz, now in the library of the <span class="smcap">American Philosophical Society</span>. Mr. +<a name="corr1" id="corr1"></a><ins class="correction" title="Schultz">Shultz</ins> was a Moravian missionary, who was stationed among the +Arawacks from 1790 to 1802, or thereabout. The manuscripts referred to +are a dictionary and a grammar. The former is a quarto volume of 622 +pages. The first 535 pages comprise an Arawack-German lexicon, the +remainder is an appendix containing the names of trees, stars, birds, +insects, grasses, minerals, places, and tribes. The grammar, +<i>Grammattikalische Sätze von der Aruwakkischen Sprache</i>, is a 12mo +volume of 173 pages, left in an unfinished condition. Besides these he +left at his death a translation of the Acts of the Apostles, which was +published in 1850 by the American Bible Society under the title <i>Act +Apostelnu</i>. It is from these hitherto unused sources that I design to +illustrate the character of the language, and study its former +extension.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p> + + +<h3 class="sectionhead">PHONETICS.</h3> + +<p>The Arawack is described as “the softest of all the Indian tongues.”<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> +It is rich in vowels, and free from gutturals. The enunciation is +distinct and melodious. As it has been reduced to writing by Germans, +the German value must be given to the letters employed, a fact which +must always be borne in mind in comparing it with the neighboring +tongues, nearly all of which are written with the Spanish orthography.</p> + +<p>The Arawack alphabet has twenty letters: a, b, d, e, g, h, i, j, k, l, +m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, w.</p> + +<p>Besides these, they have a semi-vowel written <sup>l</sup><sub class="shiftleft">r</sub> the sound of which in +words of the masculine gender approaches l, in those of the neuter +gender r. The o and u, and the t and d, are also frequently blended. The +w has not the German but the soft English sound, as in <i>we</i>. The German +<a name="corr2" id="corr2"></a><ins class="correction" title="diphthongs">dipthongs</ins> æ, œ, eu, ei, ü, are employed. The accents are the +long ^, the acute `, and that indicating the emphasis ´. The latter is +usually placed near the commencement of the word, and must be carefully +observed.</p> + + +<h3 class="sectionhead">NOUNS.</h3> + +<p>Like most Indians, the Arawack rarely uses a noun in the abstract. An +object in his mind is always connected with some person or thing, and +this connection is signified by an affix, a suffix, or some change in +the original form of the word. To this rule there are some exceptions, +as <i>bahü</i> a house, <i>siba</i> a stone, <i>hiäru</i> a woman. <i>Dáddikân hiäru</i>, I +see a woman. Such nouns are usually roots. Those derived from verbal +roots are still more rarely employed independently.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Numbers.</span> The plural has no regular termination. Often the same form +serves for both numbers, as is the case in many English words. Thus, +<i>itime</i> fish and fishes, <i>siba</i> stone and stones, <i>känsiti</i> a lover and +lovers. The most common plural endings are <i>ati</i>, <i>uti</i>, and <i>anu</i>, +connected to the root by a euphonic letter; as <i>uju</i> mother, <i>ujunuti</i> +mothers, <i>itti</i> father, <i>ittinati</i> fathers, <i>kansissia</i> a loved one, +<i>kansissiannu</i> loved ones.</p> + +<p>Of a dual there is no trace, nor does there seem to be of what is called +the American plural (exclusive or inclusive of those present). But there +is a peculiar plural form with a singular signification in the language, +which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> worthy of note. An example will illustrate it; <i>itti</i> is +father, plural <i>ittinati</i>; <i>wattinati</i> is our father, not our fathers, +as the form would seem to signify. In other words, singular nouns used +with plural pronouns, or construed with several other nouns, take a +plural form. <i>Petrus Johannes mutti ujúnatu</i>, the mother of Peter and +John.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Genders.</span> A peculiarity, which the Arawack shares with the Iroquois<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> +and other aboriginal languages of the Western continent, is that it only +has two genders, and these not the masculine and feminine, as in French, +but the masculine and neuter. Man or nothing was the motto of these +barbarians. Regarded as an index of their mental and social condition, +this is an ominous fact. It hints how utterly destitute they are of +those high, chivalric feelings, which with us centre around woman.</p> + +<p>The termination of the masculine is <i>i</i>, of the neuter <i>u</i>, and, as I +have already observed, a permutation of the semi-vowels <i>l</i> and <i>r</i> +takes place, the letter becoming <i>l</i> in the masculine, <i>r</i> in the +neuter. A slight difference in many words is noticeable when pronounced +by women or by men. The former would say <i>keretin</i>, to marry; the latter +<i>kerejun</i>. The gender also appears by more than one of these changes: +<i>ipillin</i>, great, strong, masculine; <i>ipirrun</i>, feminine and neuter.</p> + +<p>There is no article, either definite or indefinite, and no declension of +nouns.</p> + + +<h3 class="sectionhead">PRONOUNS.</h3> + +<p>The demonstrative and possessive personal pronouns are alike in form, +and, as in other American languages, are intimately incorporated with +the words with which they are construed. A single letter is the root of +each: <i>d</i> I, mine, <i>b</i> thou, thine, <i>l</i> he, his, <i>t</i> she, her, it, its, +<i>w</i> we, our, <i>h</i> you, your, <i>n</i> they, their; to these radical letters +the indefinite pronoun <i>ükküahü</i>, somebody, is added, and by +abbreviation the following forms are obtained, which are those usually +current:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dakia, dai,</td> + <td>I.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">bokkia, bui,</td> + <td>thou.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">likia,</td> + <td>he.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">turreha,</td> + <td>she, it.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">wakia, wai,</td> + <td>we.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hukia, hui,</td> + <td>you.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">nakia, nai,</td> + <td>they.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">Except the third person, singular, they are of both genders. In +speaking, the abbreviated form is used, except where for emphasis the +longer is chosen.</p> + +<p>In composition they usually retain their first vowel, but this is +entirely a question of euphony. The methods of their employment with +nouns will be seen in the following examples:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft"><i>üssiquahü</i>,</td> + <td>a house.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dássiqua,</td> + <td>my house.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">bússiqua,</td> + <td>thy house.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">lüssiqua,</td> + <td>his house.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">tüssiqua,</td> + <td>her, its house.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">wássiqua,</td> + <td>our house.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hüssiqua,</td> + <td>your house.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">nássiqua,</td> + <td>their house.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft"><i>uju</i>,</td> + <td>mother.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">daiju,</td> + <td>my mother.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>buju,</td> + <td>thy mother.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">luju,</td> + <td>his mother.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">tuju,</td> + <td>her mother.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">waijunattu,</td> + <td>our mother.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hujuattu,</td> + <td>your mother.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">naijattu,</td> + <td>their mother.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">waijunuti,</td> + <td>our mothers.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hujunuti,</td> + <td>your mothers.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">naijunuti,</td> + <td>their mothers.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Many of these forms suffer elision in speaking. <i>Itti</i> father, <i>datti</i> +my father, <i>wattínatti</i> our father, contracted to <i>wattínti</i> (<i>watti</i> +rarely used).</p> + +<p>When thus construed with pronouns, most nouns undergo some change of +form, usually by adding an affix; <i>báru</i> an axe, <i>dábarun</i> my axe, +<i>iulí</i> tobacco, <i>dajulite</i> my tobacco.</p> + + +<h3 class="sectionhead">ADJECTIVES.</h3> + +<p>The verb is the primitive part of speech in American tongues. To the +aboriginal man every person and object presents itself as either doing +or suffering something, every quality and attribute as something which +is taking place or existing. His philosophy is that of the extreme +idealists or the extreme materialists, who alike maintain that nothing +<i>is</i>, beyond the cognizance of our senses. Therefore his adjectives are +all verbal participles, indicating a state of existence. Thus <i>üssatu</i> +good, is from <i>üssân</i> to be good, and means the condition of being good, +a good woman or thing, <i>üssati</i> a good man.</p> + +<p>Some adjectives, principally those from present participles, have the +masculine and neuter terminations <i>i</i> and <i>u</i> in the singular, and in +the plural <i>i</i> for both genders. Adjectives from the past participles +end in the singular in <i>issia</i> or <i>üssia</i>, in the plural in <i>annu</i>. When +the masculine ends in <i>illi</i>, the neuter takes <i>urru</i>, as <i>wadikilli</i>, +<i>wadikurru</i>, long.</p> + +<p>Comparison is expressed by adding <i>bén</i> or <i>kén</i> or <i>adin</i> (a verb +meaning to be above) for the comparative, and <i>apüdi</i> for the +diminutive. <i>Ubura</i>, from the verb <i>uburau</i> to be before in time, and +<i>adiki</i>, from <i>adikin</i> to be after in time, are also used for the same +purpose. The superlative has to be expressed by a circumlocution; as +<i>tumaqua aditu ipirrun turreha</i>, what is great beyond all else; +<i>bokkia üssá dáuria</i>, thou art better than I, where the last word is a +compound of <i>dai uwúria</i> of, from, than. The comparative degree of the +adjectives corresponds to the intensive and frequentative forms of the +verbs; thus <i>ipirrun</i> to be strong, <i>ipirru</i> strong, <i>ipirrubîn</i> and +<i>ipirrubessabun</i> to be stronger, <i>ipirrubetu</i> and <i>ipirrubessabutu</i> +stronger, that which is stronger.</p> + +<p>The numerals are wonderfully simple, and well illustrate how the +primitive man began his arithmetic. They are:—</p> + +<ul class="ix"> + <li>1 abba.</li> + <li>2 biama, plural biamannu.</li> + <li>3 kabbuhin, plural kubbuhinínnu.</li> + <li>4 bibiti, plural bibitinu.</li> + <li>5 abbatekkábe, plural abbatekabbunu.</li> + <li>6 abbatiman, plural abbatimannínu.</li> + <li>7 biamattiman, plural biamattimannínu.</li> + <li>8 kabbuhintiman, plural kabbuhintimannínu.</li> + <li>9 bibitiman, plural bibititumannínu.</li> + <li>10 biamantekábbe, plural biamantekábunu.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Now if we analyze these words, we discover that <i>abbatekkábe</i> five, is +simply <i>abba</i> one, and <i>akkabu</i>, hand; that the word for six is +literally “one [finger] of the other [hand],” for seven “two [fingers] +of the other [hand],” and so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> on to ten, which is compounded of <i>biama</i> +two, and <i>akkabu</i> hands. Would they count eleven, they say <i>abba +kutihibena</i> one [toe] from the feet, and for twenty the expression is +<i>abba lukku</i> one man, both hands and feet. Thus, in truth, they have +only four numerals, and it is even a question whether these are +primitive, for <i>kabbuhin</i> seems a strengthened form of <i>abba</i>, and +<i>bibuti</i> to bear the same relation to <i>biama</i>. Therefore we may look +back to a time when this nation knew not how to express any numbers +beyond one and two.</p> + +<p>Although these numbers do not take peculiar terminations when applied to +different objects, as in the languages of Central America and Mexico, +they have a great variety of forms to express the relationship in which +they are used. The ordinals are:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">atenennuati,</td> + <td>first.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">ibiamattéti,</td> + <td>second.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">wakábbuhinteti,</td> + <td>our third, etc.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">To the question, How many at a time? the answer is:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">likinnekewai,</td> + <td>one alone.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">biamanuman,</td> + <td>two at a time, etc.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">If simply, How many? it is:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">abbahu,</td> + <td>one.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">biamahu,</td> + <td>two.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">If, For which time? it is:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">tibíakuja,</td> + <td>for the first time.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">tibíamattétu,</td> + <td>for the second time.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">and so on.</p> + + +<h3 class="sectionhead">VERBS.</h3> + +<p>The verbs are sometimes derived from nouns, sometimes from participles, +sometimes from other verbs, and have reflexive, passive, frequentative, +and other forms. Thus from <i>lana</i>, the name of a certain black dye, +comes <i>lannatün</i> to color with this dye, <i>alannatunna</i> to color oneself +with it, <i>alannattukuttun</i> to let oneself be colored with it, +<i>alanattukuttunnua</i> to be colored with it.</p> + +<p>The infinitive ends in <i>in</i>, <i>ün</i>, <i>ùn</i>, <i>ân</i>, <i>unnua</i>, <i>ên</i>, and <i>ûn</i>. +Those in <i>in</i>, <i>ün</i>, <i>ùn</i>, and <i>ân</i> are transitive, in <i>unnua</i> are +passive and neuter, the others are transitive, intransitive, or neuter.</p> + +<p>The passive voice is formed by the medium of a verb of permission, thus:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">amalitin,</td> + <td>to make.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">amalitikittin,</td> + <td>to let make.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">amalitikittunnua,</td> + <td>to be made.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">assimakin,</td> + <td>to call.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">assimakuttün,</td> + <td>to let call,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">assimakuttùnnua,</td> + <td>to be called.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The personal pronouns are united to the verbs as they are to the nouns. +They precede all verbs except those whose infinitives terminate in <i>ên</i>, +<i>in</i>, and <i>ân</i>, to which they are suffixed as a rule, but not always. +When they follow the verb, the forms of the pronouns are either <i>de</i>, +<i>bu</i>, <i>i</i> he, <i>n</i> she, it, <i>u</i>, <i>hu</i>, <i>je</i> or <i>da</i>, <i>ba</i>, <i>la</i>, <i>ta</i>, +<i>wa</i>, <i>ha</i>, <i>na</i>. The latter are used chiefly where the negative prefix +<i>m</i>, <i>ma</i> or <i>maya</i> is employed. Examples:</p> + +<p class="gramcenter">hallikebben, to rejoice.</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hallikebbéde,</td> + <td>I rejoice.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>hallikebbébu,</td> + <td>thou rejoicest.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hallikebbéi,</td> + <td>he rejoices.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hallikebbên,</td> + <td>she rejoices.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hallikebbéu,</td> + <td>we rejoice.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hallikebbéhü,</td> + <td>you rejoice.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hallikebbéje,</td> + <td>they rejoice.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="gramcenter">majauquan, to remain.</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">majáuquada,</td> + <td>I remain.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">majáuquaba,</td> + <td>thou remainest.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">majáuquala,</td> + <td>he remains.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">majáuquata,</td> + <td>she remains.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">majáuquawa,</td> + <td>we remain.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">majáuquaha,</td> + <td>you remain.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">majáuquana,</td> + <td>they remain.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="smcap">Moods and Tenses.</span> Their verbs have four moods, the indicative, optative, +imperative, and infinitive, and five tenses, one present, three +preterites, and one future. The rules of their formation are simple. By +changing the termination of the infinitive into <i>a</i>, we have the +indicative present, into <i>bi</i> the first preterite, into <i>buna</i> the +second preterite, into <i>kuba</i> the third preterite, and into <i>pa</i> the +future. The conjugations are six in number, and many of the verbs are +irregular. The following verb of the first conjugation illustrates the +general rules for conjugation:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft"><i>ayahaddin,</i></td> + <td>to walk.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="gramcenter"><span class="smcap">Indicative Mood.</span></p> + +<p>Present tense:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dayahadda,</td> + <td>I walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">bujahadda,</td> + <td>thou walkest.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">lujahadda,</td> + <td>he walks.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">tüjahadda,</td> + <td>she walks.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">wayahádda,</td> + <td>we walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hujahádda,</td> + <td>you walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">nayuhádda,</td> + <td>they walk.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>First preterite—of to-day:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dayaháddibi,</td> + <td>I walked to-day.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">bujaháddibi,</td> + <td>thou walked to-day.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">lijaháddibi,</td> + <td>he walked to-day.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">tujaháddibi,</td> + <td>she walked to-day.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">wayaháddibi,</td> + <td>we walked to-day.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hujaháddibi,</td> + <td>you walked to-day.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">nayaháddibi,</td> + <td>they walked to-day.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Second preterite—of yesterday or the day before.</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dayahaddibüna,</td> + <td>I walked yesterday or the day before.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">bujaháddibüna,</td> + <td>thou walked yesterday or the day before.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">lijaháddibuna,</td> + <td>he walked yesterday or the day before.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">tujaháddibüna,</td> + <td>she walked yesterday or the day before.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">wayaháddibüna,</td> + <td>we walked yesterday or the day before.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hujaháddibüna,</td> + <td>you walked yesterday or the day before.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">nayaháddibüna,</td> + <td>they walked yesterday or the day before.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> + +<p>Third preterite—at some indefinite past time:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dayaháddakuba,</td> + <td>I walked.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">bujaháddakuba,</td> + <td>thou walked.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">lijaháddakuba,</td> + <td>he walked.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">tujaháddakuba,</td> + <td>she walked.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">wayaháddakuka,</td> + <td>we walked.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hujaháddakuba,</td> + <td>you walked.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">nayaháddakuba,</td> + <td>they walked.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Future:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dayaháddipa,</td> + <td>I shall walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">bujaháddipa,</td> + <td>thou wilt walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">lijaháddipa,</td> + <td>he will walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">tujaháddipa,</td> + <td>she will walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">wayaháddipa,</td> + <td>we shall walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hujahaddipa,</td> + <td>you will walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">nayahaddipa,</td> + <td>they will walk.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="gramcenter"><span class="smcap">Optative Mood.</span></p> + +<p>Present:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dayahaddama or dayahaddinnika,</td> + <td>I may walk.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>First preterite:</p> + +<p class="gramcenter">dayahaddinnikábima.</p> + +<p>Second <a name="corr3" id="corr3"></a><ins class="correction" title="preterite:">preterite</ins></p> + +<p class="gramcenter">dayahaddinbünáma.</p> + +<p>Third preterite:</p> + +<p class="gramcenter">dayahaddinnikubáma.</p> + +<p class="gramcenter"><span class="smcap">Imperative Mood.</span></p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">bujahaddáte or bujahaddalte,</td> + <td>walk thou.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">hüjahaddáte or hujahaddalte,</td> + <td>walk ye.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">nayahaddáte,</td> + <td>let them walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">wayahaddali,</td> + <td>let us walk.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="gramcenter"><span class="smcap">Participles.</span></p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">ayahaddinnibi,</td> + <td>to have walked to-day.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">ayahaddinnibüna,</td> + <td>to have walked yesterday.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">ayahaddínnikuba,</td> + <td>to have walked.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">ayahaddínnipa,</td> + <td>to be about to walk.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="gramcenter"><span class="smcap">Gerund.</span></p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">ayahaddinti.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">ayahaddinnibia.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The following forms also belong to this verb:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">ayahaddinnibiakubáma,</td> + <td>to may or can walk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">ayahaddahálin,</td> + <td>one who walks there (infinitive form).</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>As in all polysynthetic languages, other words and particles can be +incorporated in the verb to modify its meaning, thus:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dayahaddáruka,</td> + <td>as I was walking.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dayahaddakanika,</td> + <td>I walk a little.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">dayahaddahittika,</td> + <td>I walk willingly.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> + +<p class="noindent">In this way sometimes words of formidable length are manufactured, as:</p> + +<table class="grammar" summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td class="gramleft">massukussukuttunnuanikaebibu,</td> + <td>you should not have been washed to-day.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Negation may be expressed either by the prefix <i>m</i> or <i>ma</i>, as +<i>mayahaddinikade</i>, I do not walk (where the prefix throws the pronoun to +the end of the word, and gives it the form appropriate for that +position), or else by the adverb <i>kurru</i>, not. But if both these +negatives are used, they make an affirmative, as <i>madittinda kurru +Gott</i>, I am not unacquainted with God.</p> + + +<h3 class="sectionhead">COMPOSITION OF WORDS AND SENTENCES.</h3> + +<p>“In general,” remarks Prof. Von Martius, “this language betrays the +poverty and cumbrousness of other South American languages; yet in many +expressions a glimpse is caught of a far reaching, ideal background.”<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> +We see it in the composition and derivation of some words; from <i>haikan</i> +to pass by, comes <i>haikahu</i> death, the passing away, and <i>aiihakü</i> +marriage, in which, as in death, the girl is lost to her parents; from +<i>kassan</i> to be pregnant, comes <i>kassaku</i> the firmament, big with all +things which are, and <i>kassahu behü</i>, the house of the firmament, the +sky, the day; from <i>ükkü</i> the heart, comes <i>ükkürahü</i> the family, the +tribe, those of one blood, whose hearts beat in unison, and <i>üküahü</i> a +person, one whose heart beats and who therefore lives, and also, +singularly enough, <i>ükkürahü</i> pus, no doubt from that strange analogy +which in so many other aboriginal languages and myths identified the +product of suppuration with the <i>semen masculinum</i>, the physiological +germ of life.</p> + +<p>The syntax of the language is not clearly set forth by any authorities. +Adjectives generally, but not always, follow the words they qualify, and +prepositions are usually placed after the noun, and often at the end of +a sentence; thus, <i>peru</i> (Spanish <i>perro</i>) <i>assimakaku naha à</i>, the dog +barks her at. To display more fully the character of the tongue, I shall +quote and analyze a verse from the <i>Act Apostelnu</i>, the 11th verse of +the 14th chapter, which in the English Protestant version reads:</p> + +<p>And when the people saw what Paul had done, they lifted up their voices, +saying in the speech of Lycaonia, The gods are come down to us in the +likeness of men.</p> + +<p>In Arawack it is:</p> + +<p>Addikitti uijuhu Paulus anissiäbiru, kakannaküku na assimakâka hürküren +Lÿcaonia adiân ullukku hiddin: Amallitakoananutti lukkunu dia na buté +wakkarruhu, nattukuda aijumüneria wibiti hinna.</p> + +<p>Literally:</p> + +<p>They—seeing (<i>addin</i> to see, gerund) the—people Paulus what—had been +done (<i>anin</i> to do, <i>anissia</i> to have been done), loudly they called +altogether the—Lycaonia speech in, thus, The—gods (present participle +of <i>amallitin</i> to make; the same appellation which the ancient Greeks +gave to poets, [Greek: poiêtai] makers, the Arawacks applied to the +divine powers) men like, us to now (<i>buté</i> nota præsentis) +are—come—down from—above—down—here ourselves because—of.</p> + + +<h3 class="sectionhead">AFFILIATIONS OF THE ARAWACK.</h3> + +<p>The Arawacks are essentially of South American origin and affiliations. +The earliest explorers of the mainland report them as living on the +rivers of Guiana, and having settlements even south of the Equator.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> +De Laet in his map of Guiana locates a large tribe of “Arowaceas” three +degrees south of the line, on the right bank of the Amazon. Dr. Spix +during his travels in Brazil met with fixed villages of them near +Fonteboa, on the river Solimoes and near Tabatinga and Castro +d’Avelaes.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> They extended westward beyond the mouth of the Orinoco, +and we even hear of them in the province of Santa Marta, in the +mountains south of Lake Maracaybo.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p> + +<p>While their language has great verbal differences from the Tupi of +Brazil and the Carib, it has also many verbal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> similarities with both. +“The Arawack and the Tupi,” observes Professor Von Martius, “are alike +in their syntax, in their use of the possessive and personal pronouns, +and in their frequent adverbial construction;”<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> and in a letter +written me shortly before his death, he remarks, in speaking of the +similarity of these three tongues: “Ich bin überzeugt dass diese [die +Cariben] eine Elite der Tupis waren, welche erst spät auf die Antillen +gekommen sind, wo die alte Tupi—Sprache in kaum erkennbaren Resten +übrig war, als man sie dort aufzeichnete.” I take pleasure in bringing +forward this opinion of the great naturalist, not only because it is not +expressed so clearly in any of his published writings, but because his +authority on this question is of the greatest weight, and because it +supports the view which I have elsewhere advanced of the migrations of +the Arawack and Carib tribes.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> These “hardly recognizable remains of +the Tupi tongue,” we shall see belonged also to the ancient Arawack at +an epoch when it was less divergent than it now is from its primitive +form. While these South American affinities are obvious, no relationship +whatever, either verbal or syntactical, exists between the Arawack and +the Maya of Yucatan, or the Chahta-Mvskoki of Florida and the northern +shore of the Gulf of Mexico.</p> + +<p>As it is thus rendered extremely probable that the Arawack is closely +connected with the great linguistic families of South America, it +becomes of prime importance to trace its extension northward, and to +determine if it is in any way affined to the tongues spoken on the West +India Islands, when these were first discovered.</p> + +<p>The Arawacks of to-day when asked concerning their origin point to the +north, and claim at some not very remote time to have lived at <i>Kairi</i>, +an island, by which generic name they mean Trinidad. This tradition is +in a measure proved correct by the narrative of Sir Walter Raleigh, who +found them living there in 1595,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> and by the Belgian explorers who in +1598 collected a short vocabulary of their tongue. This oldest monument +of the language has sufficient interest to deserve copying and comparing +with the modern dialect. It is as follows:</p> + +<table summary="examples"> +<tr> + <td><span class="smcap">Latin.</span></td> + <td><span class="smcap">Arawack, 1598.</span></td> + <td><span class="smcap">Arawack, 1800.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>pater, </td> + <td>pilplii, </td> + <td>itti.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>mater, </td> + <td>saeckee, </td> + <td>uju.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>caput, </td> + <td>wassijehe, </td> + <td>waseye.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>auris, </td> + <td>wadycke, </td> + <td>wadihy.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>oculus, </td> + <td>wackosije, </td> + <td>wakusi.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>nasus, </td> + <td>wassyerii, </td> + <td>wasiri.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>os, </td> + <td>dalerocke, </td> + <td>daliroko.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>dentes, </td> + <td>darii, </td> + <td>dari.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>crura, </td> + <td>dadane, </td> + <td>dadaanah.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>pedes, </td> + <td>dackosye, </td> + <td>dakuty.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>arbor, </td> + <td>hada, </td> + <td>adda.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>arcus, </td> + <td>semarape, </td> + <td>semaara-haaba.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>sagittæ, </td> + <td>symare, </td> + <td>semaara.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>luna, </td> + <td>cattehel, </td> + <td>katsi.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>sol, </td> + <td>adaly, </td> + <td>hadalli.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The syllables <i>wa</i> our, and <i>da</i> my, prefixed to the parts of the human +body, will readily be recognized. When it is remembered that the dialect +of Trinidad no doubt differed slightly from that on the mainland; that +the modern orthography is German and that of De <a name="corr4" id="corr4"></a><ins class="correction" title="Laet’s">Lact’s</ins> list is +Dutch; and that two centuries intervened between the first and second, +it is really a matter of surprise to discover such a close similarity. +Father and mother, the only two words which are not identical, are +doubtless different expressions, relationship in this, as in most native +tongues, being indicated with excessive minuteness.</p> + +<p>The chain of islands which extend from Trinidad to Porto Rico were +called, from their inhabitants, the Caribby islands. The Caribs, +however, made no pretence to have occupied them for any great length of +time. They dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>tinctly remembered that a generation or two back they had +reached them from the mainland, and had found them occupied by a +peaceful race, whom they styled <i>Ineri</i> or <i>Igneri</i>. The males of this +race they slew or drove into the interior, but the women they seized for +their own use. Hence arose a marked difference between the languages of +the island Caribs and their women. The fragments of the language of the +latter show clearly that they were of Arawack lineage, and that the +so-called Igneri were members of that nation. It of course became more +or less corrupted by the introduction of Carib words and forms, so that +in 1674 the missionary De la Borde wrote, that “although there is some +difference between the dialects of the men and women, they readily +understand each other;”<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> and Father Breton in his Carib Grammar +(1665) gives the same forms for the declensions and conjugations of +both.</p> + +<p>As the traces of the “island Arawack,” as the tongue of the Igneri may +be called, prove the extension of this tribe over all the Lesser +Antilles, it now remains to inquire whether they had pushed their +conquests still further, and had possessed themselves of the Great +Antilles, the Bahama islands, and any part of the adjacent coasts of +Yucatan or Florida.</p> + +<p>All ancient writers agree that on the Bahamas and Cuba the same speech +prevailed, except Gomara, who avers that on the Bahamas “great diversity +of language” was found.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> But as Gomara wrote nearly half a century +after those islands were depopulated, and has exposed himself to just +censure for carelessness in his statements regarding the natives,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> +his expression has no weight. Columbus repeatedly states that all the +islands had one language though differing, more or less, in words. The +natives he took with him from San Salvador understood the dialects in +both Cuba and Haiti. One of them on his second voyage served him as an +interpreter on the southern shore of Cuba.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p> + +<p>In Haiti, there was a tongue current all over the island, called by the +Spaniards <i>la lengua universal</i> and <i>la lengua cortesana</i>. This is +distinctly said by all the historians to have been but very slightly +different from that of Cuba, a mere dialectic variation in accent being +observed.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> Many fragments of this tongue are preserved in the +narratives of the early explorers, and it has been the theme for some +strange and wild theorizing among would-be philologists. Rafinesque +christened it the “Taino” language, and discovered it to be closely akin +to the “Pelasgic” of Europe.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> The Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg will +have it allied to the Maya, the old Norse or Scandinavian, the ancient +Coptic, and what not. Rafinesque and Jegor von Sivors<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> have made +vocabularies of it, but the former in so uncritical, and the latter in +so superficial a manner, that they are worse than useless.</p> + +<p>Although it is said there were in Haiti two other tongues in the small +contiguous provinces of Macorix de arriba and Macorix de abajo, entirely +dissimilar from the <i>lengua universal</i> and from each other, we are +justified in assuming that the prevalent tongue throughout the whole of +the Great Antilles and the Bahamas, was that most common in Haiti. I +have, therefore, perused with care all the early authorities who throw +any light upon the construction and vocabulary of this language, and +gathered from their pages the scattered information they contain. The +most valuable of these authorities are Peter Martyr de Angleria, who +speaks from conversations with natives brought to Spain by Columbus, on +his first voyage,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> and who was himself, a fine linguist, and +Bartolomé de las Casas. The latter came as a missionary to Haiti, a few +years after its discovery, was earnestly interested in the natives, and +to some extent acquainted with their language. Besides a few printed +works of small importance, Las Casas left two large and valuable works +in manuscript, the <i>Historia General de las Indias Occidentales</i>, and +the <i>Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentals</i>. A copy of these, +each in four large folio volumes, exists in the Library of Congress, +where I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> consulted them. They contain a vast amount of information +relating to the aborigines, especially the <i>Historia Apologetica</i>, +though much of the author’s space is occupied with frivolous discussions +and idle comparisons.</p> + +<p>In later times, the scholar who has most carefully examined the relics +of this ancient tongue, is Señor Don Estevan Richardo, a native of +Haiti, but who for many years resided in Cuba. His views are contained +in the preface to his <i>Diccionario Provincial casi-razonado de Voces +Cubanas</i>, (Habana, 2da ed, 1849). He has found very many words of the +ancient language retained in the provincial Spanish of the island, but +of course in a corrupt form. In the vocabulary which I have prepared for +the purpose of comparison, I have omitted all such corrupted forms, and +nearly all names of plants and animals, as it is impossible to identify +these with certainty, and in order to obtain greater accuracy, have +used, when possible, the first edition of the authors quoted, and in +most instances, given under each word a reference to some original +authority.</p> + +<p>From the various sources which I have examined, the alphabet of the +<i>lengua universal</i> appears to have been as follows: a, b, d, e, (rarely +used at the commencement of a word), g, j, (an aspirated guttural like +the Catalan j, or as Peter Martyr says, like the Arabic ch), i (rare), l +(rare), m, n, o (rare,) p, q, r, s, t, u, y. These letters, it will be +remembered, are as in Spanish.</p> + +<p>The Spanish sounds z, ce, ci (English th,) ll, and v, were entirely +unknown to the natives, and where they appear in indigenous words, were +falsely written for l and b. The Spaniards also frequently distorted the +native names by writing x for j, s, and z, by giving j the sound of the +Latin y, and by confounding h, j, and f, as the old writers frequently +employ the h to designate the <i>spiritus asper</i>, whereas in modern +Spanish it is mute.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p> + +<p>Peter Martyr found that he could reduce all the words of their language +to writing, by means of the Latin letters without difficulty, except in +the single instance of the guttural j. He, and all others who heard it +spoken, describe it as “soft and not less liquid than the Latin,” “rich +in vowels and pleasant to the ear,” an idiom “simple, sweet, and +sonorous.”<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a></p> + +<p>In the following vocabulary I have not altered in the least the Spanish +orthography of the words, and so that the analogy of many of them might +at once be <a name="corr5" id="corr5"></a><ins class="correction" title="perceived,">preceived,</ins> I have inserted the corresponding Arawack +expression, which, it must be borne in mind, is to be pronounced by the +German alphabet.</p> + + +<h3 class="sectionhead"><span class="smcap">Vocabulary of the Ancient Language of the Great Antilles.</span></h3> + +<p>Aji, red pepper. Arawack, <i>achi</i>, red pepper.</p> + +<p>Aon, dog (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. I, c. 120). Island Ar. <i>ánli</i>, dog.</p> + +<p>Arcabuco, a wood, a spot covered with trees (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. de las +Indias, lib. VI, <a name="corr6" id="corr6"></a><ins class="correction" title="c.">c,</ins> 8). Ar. <i>arragkaragkadin</i> the swaying to and +fro of trees.</p> + +<p>Areito, a song chanted alternately by the priests and the people at +their feasts. (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V, c. 1.) Ar. <i>aririn</i> to name, +rehearse.</p> + +<p>Bagua, the sea. Ar. <i>bara</i>, the sea.</p> + +<p>Bajaraque, a large house holding several hundred persons. From this +comes Sp. <i>barraca</i>, Eng. <i>barracks</i>. Ar. <i>bajü</i>, a house.</p> + +<p>Bajari, title applied to sub-chiefs ruling villages, (Las Casas, Hist. +Apol. cap. 120). Probably “house-ruler,” from Ar. <i>bajü</i>, house.</p> + +<p>Barbacoa, a loft for drying maize, (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. VII, cap. +1). From this the English barbacue. Ar. <i>barrabakoa</i>, a place for +storing provisions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>Batay, a ball-ground; bates, the ball; batey, the game. (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. c. 204). Ar. <i>battatan</i>, to be round, spherical.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a></p> + +<p>Batea, a trough. (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. c. 241.)</p> + +<p>Bejique, a priest. Ar. <i>piaye</i>, a priest.</p> + +<p>Bixa, an ointment. (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 241.)</p> + +<p>Cai, cayo, or cayco, an island. From this the Sp. <i>cayo</i>, Eng. <i>key</i>, in +the “Florida keys.” Ar. <i>kairi</i>, an island.</p> + +<p>Caiman, an alligator, Ar. <i>kaiman</i>, an alligator, lit. to be strong.</p> + +<p>Caona or cáuni, gold. (Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. 26, Ed. Colon, 1564). Ar. +<i>kaijaunan</i>, to be precious, costly.</p> + +<p>Caracol, a conch, a univalve shell. From this the Sp. <i>caracol</i>. +(Richardo, Dicc. Provin. s. v). Probably from Galibi <i>caracoulis</i>, +trifles, ornaments. (See Martius, Sprachenkunde, B. <span class="smrom">II</span>, p. 332.)</p> + +<p>Caney or cansi, a house of conical shape.</p> + +<p>Canoa, a boat. From this Eng. <i>canoe</i>. Ar. <i>kannoa</i>, a boat.</p> + +<p>Casique, a chief. This word was afterwards applied by Spanish writers to +the native rulers throughout the New World. Ar. <i>kassiquan</i> (from +<i>ussequa</i>, house), to have or own a house or houses; equivalent, +therefore, to the Eng. landlord.</p> + +<p>Cimu or simu, the front, forehead; a beginning. (Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. +302.) Ar. <i>eme</i> or <i>uime</i>, the mouth of a river, <i>uimelian</i>, to be new.</p> + +<p>Coaibai, the abode of the dead.</p> + +<p>Cohóba, the native name of tobacco.</p> + +<p>Conuco, a cultivated field. (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. <span class="smrom">VII</span>, cap. 2.)</p> + +<p>Duhos or duohos, low seats (unas baxas sillas, Las Casas, Hist. Gen. +lib. I, <a name="corr7" id="corr7"></a><ins class="correction" title="cap.">cap</ins> 96. Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V. cap. 1. Richardo, <i>sub +voce</i>, by a careless reading of Oviedo says it means images). Ar. +<i>dulluhu</i> or <i>durruhu</i>, a seat, a bench.</p> + +<p>Goeiz, the spirit of the living (Pane, p. 444); probably a corruption of +<i>Guayzas</i>. Ar. <i>akkuyaha</i>, the spirit of a living animal.</p> + +<p>Gua, a very frequent prefix: Peter Martyr says, “Est apud eos articulus +et pauca sunt regum praecipue nominum quae non incipiant ab hoc articulo +<i>gua</i>.” (Decad. p. 285.) Very many proper names in Cuba and Hayti still +retain it. The modern Cubans pronounce it like the English w with the +<i>spiritus lenis</i>. It is often written <i>oa</i>, <i>ua</i>, <i>oua</i>, and <i>hua</i>. It +is not an article, but corresponds to the <i>ah</i> in the Maya, and the +<i>gue</i> in the Tupi of Brazil, from which latter it is probably +derived.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p> + +<p>Guaca, a vault for storing provisions.</p> + +<p>Guacabiua, provisions for a journey, supplies.</p> + +<p>Guacamayo, a species of parrot, macrocercus tricolor.</p> + +<p>Guanara, a retired stop. (Pane, p. 444); a species of dove, columba +zenaida (Richardo, S. <a name="corr8" id="corr8"></a><ins class="correction" title="V.).">V.)</ins></p> + +<p>Guanin, an impure sort of gold.</p> + +<p>Guaoxeri, a term applied to the lowest class of the inhabitants (Las +Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 197.) Ar. <i>wakaijaru</i>, worthless, dirty, +<i>wakaijatti lihi</i>, a worthless fellow.</p> + +<p>Guatiao, friend, companion (Richardo). Ar. <i>ahati</i>, companion, playmate.</p> + +<p>Guayzas, masks or figures (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 61). Ar. +<i>akkuyaha</i>, living beings.</p> + +<p>Haba, a basket (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. <span class="smrom">III</span>, cap. 21). Ar. <i>habba</i>, a +basket.</p> + +<p>Haiti, stony, rocky, rough (Pet. Martyr, Decades). Ar. <i>aessi</i> or +<i>aetti</i>, a stone.</p> + +<p>Hamaca, a bed, hammock. Ar. <i>hamaha</i>, a bed, hammock.</p> + +<p>Hico, a rope, ropes (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. <span class="smrom">V</span>, cap. 2).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>Hobin, gold, brass, any reddish metal. (Navarrete Viages, <span class="smrom">I</span>, p. 134, +Pet. Martyr, Dec. p. 303). Ar. <i>hobin</i>, red.</p> + +<p>Huiho, height. (Pet. Martyr, p. 304). Ar. <i>aijumün</i>, above, high up.</p> + +<p>Huracan, a hurricane. From this Sp. <i>huracan</i>, Fr. <i>ouragan</i>, German +<i>Orkan</i>, Eng. <i>hurricane</i>. This word is given in the <i>Livre Sacré des +Quichès</i> as the name of their highest divinity, but the resemblance may +be accidental. Father Ximenes, who translated the <i>Livre Sacrè</i>, derives +the name from the Quiché <i>hu rakan</i>, one foot. Father Thomas Coto, in +his Cakchiquel Dictionary, (MS. in the library of the Am. Phil. Soc.) +translates <i>diablo</i> by <i>hurakan</i>, but as the equivalent of the Spanish +<i>huracan</i>, he gives <i>ratinchet</i>.</p> + +<p>Hyen, a poisonous liquor expressed from the cassava root. (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. cap. 2).</p> + +<p>Itabo, a lagoon, pond. (Richardo).</p> + +<p>Juanna, a serpent. (Pet. Martyr, p. 63). Ar. <i>joanna</i>, a lizard; +<i>jawanaria</i>, a serpent.</p> + +<p>Macana, a war club. (Navarrete, <a name="corr9" id="corr9"></a><ins class="correction" title="Viages,">Viages.</ins> <span class="smrom">I</span>, p. 135).</p> + +<p>Magua, a plain. (Las Casas, Breviss. Relat. p. 7).</p> + +<p>Maguey, a native drum. (Pet. Martyr, p. 280).</p> + +<p>Maisi, maize. From this Eng. <i>maize</i>, Sp. <i>mais</i>, Ar. <i>marisi</i>, maize.</p> + +<p>Matum, liberal, noble. (Pet. Martyr, p. 292).</p> + +<p>Matunheri, a title applied to the highest chiefs. (Las Casas, Hist. +Apol. cap. 197).</p> + +<p>Mayani, of no value, (“nihili,” Pet. Martyr, p. 9). Ar. <i>ma</i>, no, not.</p> + +<p>Naborias, servants. (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. <span class="smrom">III</span>, cap. 32).</p> + +<p>Nacan, middle, center. Ar. <i>annakan</i>, center.</p> + +<p>Nagua, or enagua, the breech cloth made of cotton and worn around the +middle. Ar. <i>annaka</i>, the middle.</p> + +<p>Nitainos, the title applied to the petty chiefs, (regillos ò guiallos, +Las Casas, Hist. Apol. <a name="corr10" id="corr10"></a><ins class="correction" title="cap.">cap,</ins> 197); <i>tayno</i> vir bonus, <i>taynos</i> +nobiles, says Pet. Martyr, (Decad. p. 25). The latter truncated form of +the word was adopted by Rafinesque and others, as a general name for the +people and language of Hayti. There is not the slightest authority for +this, nor for supposing, with Von Martius, that the first syllable is a +pronominal prefix. The derivation is undoubtedly Ar. <i>nüddan</i> to look +well, to stand firm, to do anything well or skilfully.</p> + +<p>Nucay or nozay, gold, used especially in Cuba and on the Bahamas. The +words <i>caona</i> and <i>tuob</i> were in vogue in Haiti (Navarrete, Viages, Tom. +1, pp. 45, 134).</p> + +<p>Operito, dead, and</p> + +<p>Opia, the spirit of the dead (Pane, pp. 443, 444). Ar. <i>aparrün</i> to +kill, <i>apparahun</i> dead, <i>lupparrükittoa</i> he is dead.</p> + +<p>Quisquéia, a native name of Haiti; “vastitas et universus ac totus. Uti +Græci suum Panem,” says Pet. Martyr (Decad. p. 279). “Madre de las +tierras,” Valverde translates it (<i>Idea del valor de la Isla Espanola</i>, +Introd. p. xviii). The orthography is evidently very false.</p> + +<p>Sabana, a plain covered with grass without trees (terrano llano, Oviedo, +Hist. Gen. lib. vi. cap. 8). From this the Sp. <i>savana</i>, Eng. +<i>savannah</i>. Charlevoix, on the authority of Mariana, says it is an +ancient Gothic word (Histoire de l’Isle St. Domingue, i. p. 53). But it +is probably from the Ar. <i>sallaban</i>, smooth, level.</p> + +<p>Semi, the divinities worshipped by the natives (“Lo mismo que nosotros +llamamos Diablo,” Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. v. cap. 1. Not evil spirits +only, but all spirits). Ar. <i>semeti</i> sorcerers, diviners, priests.</p> + +<p>Siba, a stone. Ar. <i>siba</i>, a stone.</p> + +<p>Starei, shining, glowing (relucens, Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. 304). Ar. +<i>terén</i> to be hot, glowing, <i>terehü</i> heat.</p> + +<p>Tabaco, the pipe used in smoking the cohoba. This word has been applied +in all European languages to the plant nicotiana tabacum itself.</p> + +<p>Taita, father (Richardo). Ar. <i>itta</i> father, <i>daitta</i> or <i>datti</i> my +father.</p> + +<p>Taguáguas, ornaments for the ears hammered from native gold (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. cap. 199).</p> + +<p>Tuob, gold, probably akin to <i>hobin</i>, q. v.</p> + +<p>Turey, heaven. Idols were called “cosas de <i>turey</i>” (Navarrete, Viages, +Tom. i. p. 221). Probably akin to <i>starei</i>, q. v.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>The following numerals are given by Las Casas (Hist. Apol. cap. 204).</p> + +<p>1 hequeti. Ar. <i>hürketai</i>, that is one, from <i>hürkün</i> to be single or +alone.</p> + +<p>2 yamosa. Ar. <i>biama</i>, two.</p> + +<p>3 canocum. Ar. <i>kannikún</i>, many, a large number, <i>kannikukade</i>, he has +many things.</p> + +<p>4 yamoncobre, evidently formed from yamosa, as Ar. <i>bibiti</i>, four, from +<i>biama</i>, two.</p> + +<p>The other numerals Las Casas had unfortunately forgotten, but he says +they counted by hands and feet, just as the Arawacks do to this day.</p> + +<p>Various compound words and phrases are found in different writers, some +of which are readily explained from the Arawack. Thus <i>tureigua hobin</i>, +which Peter Martyr translates “rex resplendens uti orichalcum,”<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> in +Arawack means “shining like something red.” Oviedo says that at +marriages in Cuba it was customary for the bride to bestow her favors on +every man present of equal rank with her husband before the latter’s +turn came. When all had thus enjoyed her, she ran through the crowd of +guests shouting <i>manícato, manícato</i>, “lauding herself, meaning that she +was strong, and brave, and equal to much.”<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> This is evidently the Ar. +<i>manikade</i>, from <i>mân</i>, <i>manin</i>, and means I am unhurt, I am +unconquered. When the natives of Haiti were angry, says Las Casas,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> +they would not strike each other, but apply such harmless epithets as +<i>buticaco</i>, you are blue-eyed (anda para zarco de los ojos), +<i>xeyticaco</i>, you are black-eyed (anda para negro de los ojos), or +<i>mahite</i>, you have lost a tooth, as the case might be. The termination +<i>aco</i> in the first two of these expressions is clearly the Ar. <i>acou</i>, +or <i>akusi</i>, eyes, and the last mentioned is not unlike the Ar. +<i>márikata</i>, you have no teeth (<i>ma</i> negative, <i>ari</i> tooth). The same +writer gives for “I do not know,” the word <i>ita</i>, in Ar. <i>daitta</i>.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p> + +<p>Some of the words and phrases I have been unable to identify in the +Arawack. They are <i>duiheyniquen</i>, dives fluvius, <i>maguacochíos</i> vestiti +homines, both in Peter Martyr, and the following conversation, which he +says took place between one of the Haitian <a name="corr11" id="corr11"></a><ins class="correction" title="chieftains">chieftians</ins> and his +wife.</p> + +<p>She. Teítoca teítoca. Técheta cynáto guamechyna. Guaibbá.</p> + +<p>He. Cynáto machabuca guamechyna.</p> + +<p>These words he translated: <i>teitoca</i> be quiet, <i>técheta</i> much, <i>cynato</i> +angry, <i>guamechyna</i> the Lord, <i>guaibba</i> go, <i>machabuca</i> what is it to +me. But they are either very incorrectly spelled, or are not Arawack.</p> + +<p>The proper names of localities in Cuba, Hayti and the Bahamas, furnish +additional evidence that their original inhabitants were Arawacks. +Hayti, I have already shown has now the same meaning in Arawack which +Peter Martyr ascribed to it at the discovery. Cubanacan, a province in +the interior of Cuba, is compounded of <i>kuba</i> and <i>annakan</i>, in the +center;<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> Baracoa, the name of province on the coast, is from Ar. +<i>bara</i> sea, <i>koan</i> to be there, “the sea is there;” in Barajagua the +<i>bara</i> again appears; Guaymaya is Ar. <i>waya</i> clay, <i>mara</i> there is none; +Marien is from Ar. <i>maran</i> to be small or poor; Guaniguanico, a province +on the narrow western extremity of the island, with the sea on either +side, is probably Ar. <i>wuini wuini koa</i>, water, water is there. The +names of tribes such as Siboneyes, Guantaneyes, owe their termination to +the island Arawack, <i>eyeri</i> men, in the modern dialect <i>hiaeru</i>, +captives, slaves. The Siboneyes are said by Las Casas, to have been the +original inhabitants of Cuba.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> The name is evidently from Ar. <i>siba</i>, +rock, <i>eyeri</i> men, “men of the rocks.” The rocky shores of Cuba gave +them this appellation. On the other hand the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> natives of the islets of +the Bahamas were called <i>lukku kairi</i>, abbreviated to <i>lukkairi</i>, and +<i>lucayos</i>, from <i>lukku</i>, man, <i>kairi</i> an island, “men of the islands;” +and the archipelago itself was called by the first explorers “las islas +de los Lucayos,” “isole delle Lucaí.”<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> The province in the western +angle of Haiti was styled Guacaiarima, which Peter Martyr translates +“insulae podex;” dropping the article, <i>caiarima</i> is sufficiently like +the Ar. <i>kairuina</i>, which signifies <i>podex</i>, Sp. <i>culata</i>, and is used +geographically in the same manner as the latter word.</p> + +<p>The word Maya frequently found in the names of places in Cuba and Haiti, +as Mayaba, Mayanabo, Mayajigua, Cajimaya, Jaimayabon, is doubtless the +Ar. negative <i>ma</i>, <i>mân</i>, <i>mara</i>. Some writers have thought it +indicative of the extension of the Maya language of Yucatan over the +Antilles. Prichard, Squier, Waitz, Brasseur de Bourbourg, Bastian and +other ethnologists have felt no hesitation in assigning a large portion +of Cuba and Haiti to the Mayas. It is true the first explorers heard in +Cuba and Jamaica, vague rumors of the Yucatecan peninsula, and found wax +and other products brought from there.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> This shows that there was +some communication between the two races, but all authorities agree that +there was but one language over the whole of Cuba. The expressions which +would lead to a different opinion are found in Peter Martyr. He relates +that in one place on the southern shore of Cuba, the interpreter whom +Columbus had with him, a native of San Salvador, was at fault. But the +account of the occurrence given by Las Casas, indicates that the native +with whom the interpreter tried to converse simply refused to talk at +all.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> Again, in Martyr’s account of Grijalva’s voyage to Yucatan in +1517, he relates that this captain took with him a native to serve as an +interpreter; and to explain how this could be, he adds that this +interpreter was one of the Cuban natives “quorum idioma, si non idem, +consanguineum tamen,” to that of Yucatan. This is a mere fabrication, as +the chaplain of Grijalva on this expedition states explicitly in the +narrative of it which he wrote, that the interpreter was a native of +Yucatan, who had been captured a year before.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">32</a></p> + +<p>Not only is there a very great dissimilarity in sound, words, and +structure, between the Arawack and Maya, but the nations were also far +asunder in culture. The Mayas were the most civilized on the continent, +while the Arawacks possessed little besides the most primitive arts, and +precisely that tribe which lived on the extremity of Cuba nearest +Yucatan, the Guanataneyes, were the most barbarous on the island.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33" href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">33</a></p> + +<p>The natives of the greater Antilles and Bahamas differed little in +culture. They cultivated maize, manioc, yams, potatoes, corn, and +cotton. The latter they wove into what scanty apparel they required. +Their arms were bows with reed arrows, pointed with fish teeth or +stones, stone axes, spears, and a war club armed with sharp stones +called a <i>macana</i>. They were a simple hearted, peaceful, contented race, +“all of one language and all friends,” says Columbus; “not given to +wandering, naked, and satisfied with little,” says Peter Martyr; “a +people very poor in all things,” says Las Casas.</p> + +<p>Yet they had some arts. Statues and masks in wood and stone were found, +some of them in the opinion of Bishop Las Casas, “very skilfully +carved.” They hammered the native gold into ornaments, and their rude +sculptures on the face of the rocks are still visible in parts of Cuba +and Haiti. Their boats were formed of single trunks of trees often of +large size, and they managed them adroitly; their houses were of reeds +covered with palm leaves, and usually accommodated a large number of +families; and in their holy places, they set up rows of large stones +like the ancient cromlechs, one of which is still preserved in Hayti, +and is known as <i>la cercada de los Indios</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>Physically they were undersized, less muscular than the Spaniards, light +in color, with thick hair and scanty beards. Their foreheads were +naturally low and retreating, and they artificially flattened the skull +by pressure on the forehead or the occiput.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34" href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">34</a></p> + +<p>Three social grades seem to have prevailed, the common herd, the petty +chiefs who ruled villages, and the independent chiefs who governed +provinces. Of the latter there were in Cuba twenty-nine; in Haiti five, +as near as can be now ascertained.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35" href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> Some of those in Cuba had shortly +before the arrival of the Spaniards moved there from Haiti, and at the +conquest one of the principal chiefs of Haiti was a native of the +Lucayos.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36" href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p> + +<p>The fate of these Indians is something terrible to contemplate. At the +discovery there were probably 150,000 on Cuba, Haiti, and the +Bahamas.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37" href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> Those on the latter were carried as slaves to Haiti to work +in the mines, and all of the Lucayos exterminated in three or four years +(1508-1512).<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38" href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> The sufferings of the Haitians have been told in a +graphic manner by Las Casas in an oft-quoted work.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39" href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> His statements +have frequently been condemned as grossly exaggerated, but the official +documents of the early history of Cuba prove but too conclusively that +the worthy missionary reports correctly what terrible cruelties the +Spaniards committed. Cuba was conquered in 1514, and was then quite +densely populated. Fourteen years afterwards we find the Governor, +Gonzalo de Guzman, complaining that while troops of hunters were +formerly traversing the island constantly, asking no other pay than the +right of keeping as slaves the natives whom they captured, he now has to +pay patrolmen, as the Indians are so scarce.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40" href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> The next year (1529) +the treasurer, Lope de Hurtado, writes that the Indians are in such +despair that they are hanging themselves twenty and thirty at a +time.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41" href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> In 1530 the king is petitioned to relinquish his royalty on +the produce of the mines, because nearly all the Indians on the island +are dead.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42" href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> And in 1532 the licentiate, Vadillo, estimates the total +number of Indians on the island, including the large percentage brought +from the mainland by the slavers, at only 4,500.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43" href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">43</a></p> + +<p>As a specimen of what the treatment of the Indians was, we have an +accusation in 1522 against Vasco Porcallo, afterwards one of the +companions of Hernando de Soto. He captured several Indians, cut off +their genitals, and forced them to eat them, cramming them down their +throats when they could not swallow. When asked for his defence, +Porcallo replied that he did it to prevent his own Indians from +committing suicide, as he had already lost two-thirds of his slaves in +that way. The defence was apparently deemed valid, for he was +released!<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44" href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p> + +<p>The myths and traditions of the Haitians have fortunately been +preserved, though not in so perfect a form as might be wished. When +Bartholomew Columbus left Rome for the Indies, he took with him a lay +brother of the order of the Hermits of St. Jerome, Ramon Pane by name, a +Catalan by birth, a worthy but credulous and ignorant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> man.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45" href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> On +reaching Haiti brother Pane was first sent among the natives of the +small province called Macorix de abajo, which had a language peculiar to +itself, but he was subsequently transferred to the province of Guarinoex +on the southeastern part of the island where the <i>lengua universal</i> +prevailed. He remained there two years, and at the request of Columbus +collected and wrote down the legends and beliefs of the natives.</p> + +<p>He is not a model authority. In the first place, being a Catalan he did +not write Spanish correctly; he was very imperfectly acquainted with the +native tongue; he wrote hastily, and had not enough paper to write in +full; he is not sure that he commences their legends at the right end. +Moreover his manuscript is lost, and the only means we have of knowing +anything about it is by a very incorrectly printed Italian version, +printed in 1571, and two early synopses, one in Latin in the Decades of +Peter Martyr, the other in Italian, by Messer Zuane de Strozi of +Ferrara, which has been quite recently published for the first time.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46" href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> +By comparing these we can arrive at the meaning of Brother Pane with +considerable accuracy.</p> + +<p>His work contains fragments of two distinct cycles of legends, the one +describing the history of the gods, the other the history of the human +race.</p> + +<p>Earliest of creatures was the woman, Atabéira or Ataves, who also bore +the other names Mamóna, Guacarapíta, Iiélla, and Guimazóa. Her son was +the supreme ruler of all things, and chiefest of divinities. His names +were Yocaúna, Guamaónocon, and Yocahu-vaguaniao-vocoti. He had a brother +called Guaca, and a son Iaiael. The latter rebelled against his father, +and was exiled for four mouths and then killed. The legend goes on to +relate that his bones were placed in a calabash and hung up in his +father’s house. Here they changed into fishes, and the calabash filled +with water. One day four brothers passed that way, who had all been born +at one time, and whose mother, Itaba tahuana, had died in bringing them +into the world. Seeing the calabash filled with fish the oldest of the +four, Caracaracol, the Scabby, lifted it down, and all commenced to eat. +While thus occupied, Yocaúna suddenly made his appearance, which so +terrified the brothers that they dropped the gourd and broke it into +pieces. From it ran all the waters of the world, and formed the oceans, +lakes, and rivers as they now are.</p> + +<p>At this time there were men but no women, and the men did not dare to +venture into the sunlight. Once, as they were out in the rain, they +perceived four creatures, swift as eagles and slippery as eels. The men +called to their aid Caracaracol and his brothers, who caught these +creatures and transformed them into women. In time, these became the +mothers of mankind.</p> + +<p>The earliest natives of Haiti came under the leadership of the hero-god, +Vaguoniona, a name applied by Las Casas to Yocahu, from an island to the +south called in the legend Matininó, which all the authors identify, I +know not why, with Martinique. They landed first on the banks of the +river Bahoboni in the western part of Haiti, and there erected the first +house, called Camotéia. This was ever after preserved and regarded with +respectful veneration.</p> + +<p>Such, in brief, were their national myths. Conspicuously marked in them +we note the sacred number four, the four brothers typifying the cardinal +points, whose mother, the Dawn, dies in giving them birth, just as in +the Algonkin myths. These brothers aid the men in their struggles for +life, and bring to them the four women, the rain-bringing winds. Here, +too, the first of existences is the woman, whose son is at once highest +of divinities and the guide and instructor of their nation. These +peculiarities I have elsewhere shown to be general throughout the +religions of America.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47" href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">47</a></p> + +<p>The myth of the thunder storm also appears among them in its triplicate +nature so common to the American mind. God of the storm was Guabancex, +whose statue was made of stones. When angry he sent before him as +messenger, Guatauva, to gather the winds, and accompanied by +Coatrischie, who collected the rain-clouds in the valleys of the +mountains, he swept down upon the plain, surrounded by the awful +paraphernalia of the thunder storm.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48" href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>Let us place side by side with these ancient myths the national legend +of the Arawacks.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49" href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> They tell of a supreme spiritual being Yauwahu or +Yauhahu. Pain and sickness are the invisible shafts he shoots at men, +<i>yauhahu simaira</i> the arrows of Yauhahu, and he it is whom the priests +invoke in their incantations. Once upon a time, men lived without any +means to propitiate this unseen divinity; they knew not how to ward off +his anger or conciliate him. At that time the Arawacks did not live in +Guiana, but in an island to the north. One day a man named Arawanili +walked by the waters grieving over the ignorance and suffering of his +nation. Suddenly the spirit of the waters, the woman Orehu, rose from +the waves and addressed him. She taught him the mysteries of <i>semeci</i>, +the sorcery which pleases and controls Yauhahu, and presented him with +the <i>maraka</i>, the holy calabash containing white pebbles which they +rattle during their exorcisms, and the sound of which summons the beings +of the unseen world. Arawanili faithfully instructed his people in all +that Orehu had said, and thus rescued them from their wretchedness. When +after a life of wisdom and good deeds the hour of his departure came, he +“did not die, but went up.”</p> + +<p>Orehu accompanied the Arawacks when they moved to the main, and still +dwells in a treeless, desolate spot, on the banks of the Pomeroon. The +negroes of the colony have learned of her, and call her in their broken +English, the “watra-mamma,” the water-mother.</p> + +<p>The proper names which occur in these myths, date back to the earliest +existence of the Arawacks as an independent tribe, and are not readily +analyzed by the language as it now exists. The Haitian Yocauna seems +indeed identical with the modern Yauhahu. Atabes or Atabéira is probably +from <i>itabo</i>, lake, lagoon, and <i>era</i>, water, (the latter only in +composition, as <i>hurruru</i>, mountain, <i>era</i>, water, mountain-water, a +spring, a source), and in some of her actions corresponds with Orehu. +Caracaracol is translated by Brother Pane, as “the Scabby” or the one +having ulcers, and in this respect the myth presents a curious analogy +with many others in America. In modern Arawack <i>karrikala</i> is a form, in +the third person singular, from <i>karrin</i>, to be sick, to be pregnant. +Arawanili, which one might be tempted to suppose gave the name Arawack +to the tribe, did not all writers derive this differently, may be a form +of <i>awawa</i>, father. In the old language, the termination <i>el</i>, is said +to have meant son.</p> + +<p>Of the two remaining languages said to have been spoken in the small +provinces of Macorix de arriba and Macorix de abajo, in Hayti, we have +no certain knowledge.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50" href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> Las Casas gives one word from the former. It +is <i>bazca</i>, no, not. I cannot identify it. There is reason, however, to +suppose one of them was the Tupi or “lengua geral,” of Brazil. Pane +gives at least two words which are pure Tupi, and not Arawack. They are +the names of two hideous idols supposed to be inimical to men. The one +was Bugi, in Tupi, <i>ugly</i>, the other Aiba, in Tupi, <i>bad</i>. It is +noteworthy, also, that Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan on his voyage +around the world, gives a number of words, ostensibly in the language of +the natives of Rio Janeiro, where the Tupi was spoken, which are +identical with those of Haiti, as <i>cacich</i>, chief, <i>boi</i>, house, +<i>hamac</i>, bed, <i>canoe</i>, boat. But Pigafetta acknowledges that he obtained +these words not from the natives themselves, but from the pilot Juan +Carvalhos, who had been for years sailing over the West Indian seas, and +had no doubt learned these words in the Antilles.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51" href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p> + +<p>The remaining idiom may be supposed to have been Carib, although we have +actually no evidence that the Caribs had gained a permanent foothold on +any of the Great Antilles at the period of the discovery, some careless +assertions of the old authors to the contrary, notwithstanding.</p> + +<p>The investigation which I here close, shows that man in his migrations +on the Western Continent followed the lead of organic nature around him. +For it is well known that the flora and fauna of the Antilles are South +American in character, and also, that the geological structure of the +archipelago connects it with the southern mainland. So also its earliest +known human inhabitants were descended from an ancestry whose homes were +in the far south, and who by slow degrees moved from river to river, +island to island, until they came within a few miles of the northern +continent.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">1</a> Since reading this article before the Society, Prof. S. S. +Haldeman has shown me a copy of a work with the title: “<i>Die Geschichte +von der Marterwoche, Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt unsers Herrn und +Heilandes Jesu Christi. Uebersetzt in die Aruwackische Sprache und +erklärend umschrieben. Philadelphia: Gedruckt bey Carl List, 1799</i>,” +8vo. pages 213, then one blank leaf, then 40 pages of “Anmerkungen.” +There is also a second title, in Arawack, and neither title page is +included in the pagination. The Arawack title begins: “<i>Wadaijahun +Wüüssada-goanti, Wappussida-goanti baddia Jesus Christus</i>,” etc. The +remarks at the end are chiefly grammatical and critical, and contain +many valuable hints to the student of the language. I have no doubt this +book is the Life of Christ mentioned in the text. The name of the +translator or editor is nowhere mentioned, but I have no doubt Mr. +Schultz wrote the “Anmerkungen,” and read the proof, as not only are his +grammatical signs and orthography adopted throughout, but also we know +from other sources that he was in Philadelphia at that time.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">2</a> Brett, <i>The Indian Tribes of Guiana</i>, p. 117 (London, +1868).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">3</a> <i>Etudes Philologiques sur <a name="corr12" id="corr12"></a><ins class="correction" title="quelques">quelquee</ins> Langues Sauvages +de l’Amerique</i>, p. 87 (Montreal, 1866).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">4</a> <i>Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika’s +zumal Brasiliens</i>, B. I., p. 705 (Leipzig, 1867).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">5</a> De Laet. <i>Novus Orbis</i>, lib. xvii., cap. vi.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">6</a> Martius, <i>Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika’s</i>, B. I., +S. 687.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">7</a> Antonio Julian, <i>La Perla de la America, la Provincia de +Santa Marta</i>, p. 149.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">8</a> <i>Ethnographie, etc.</i>, B. I., S. 714.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9" class="label">9</a> <i>The Myths of the New World; a Treatise on the Symbolism +and Mythology of the Red Race of America</i>, p. 32 (New York, 1868).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10" class="label">10</a> <i>The Discoverie of Guiana</i>, <a name="corr13" id="corr13"></a><ins class="correction" title="p.">p</ins> 4 (Hackluyt, Soc., +London, 1842).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11" class="label">11</a> <i>Relation de l’Origine, etc., des Caraibes</i>, p. 39 (Paris, +1674).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12" class="label">12</a> “Havia mas policia entre ellos [los Lucayos,] i mucha +diversidad de Lenguas.” <i>Hist. de las Indias</i>, cap. 41.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13" class="label">13</a> Las Casas, in the <i>Historia General de las Indias +<a name="corr14" id="corr14"></a><ins class="correction" title="Occid.">Occid</ins></i>, lib. <span class="smrom">III</span>, cap. 27, criticizes him severely.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14" class="label">14</a> Columbus says of the Bahamas and Cuba: “toda la lengua es +una y todos amigos” (Navarrete, <i>Viages</i>, Tomo <span class="smrom">I</span>, p. 46.) The natives of +Guanahani conversed with those of Haiti “porque todos tenian una +lengua,” (<i>ibid</i>, p. 86.) In the Bay of Samana a different dialect but +the same language was found (p. 135).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15" class="label">15</a> Gomara says the language of Cuba is “algo diversa,” from +that of Espanola. (<i>Hist. de las Indias</i>, cap. 41.) Oviedo says that +though the natives of the two islands differ in many words, yet they +readily understand each other. (<i>Hist. de las Indias</i>, lib. <span class="smrom">XVII.</span> cap. +4.)</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16" class="label">16</a> The American Nations, chap. <span class="smrom">VII</span>, (Philadelphia, 1836.)</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17" class="label">17</a> <i>Cuba, die Perle der Antillen</i>, p. 72. (Leipzig, 1831.) +The vocabulary contains 33 words, “<i>aus dem Cubanischen</i>.” Many are +incorrect both in spelling and pronunciation.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18" class="label">18</a> When Columbus returned from his first voyage, he brought +with him ten natives from the Bay of Samana in Haiti, and a few from +Guanahani.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19" class="label">19</a> See the remarks of Richardo in the Prologo to his +<i>Diccionario Provincial</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20" class="label">20</a> The remarks of Peter Martyr are; “posse omnium illarum +linguam nostris literis Latinis, sine ullo discrimine, scribi compertum +est,” (<i>De Rebus Oceanicis et Novo Orbe</i>, Decades Tres, p. 9.) +“Advertendum est, nullam inesse adspirationem vocabulis corum, quae non +habeat effectum literae consonantis; immo gravius adspirationem +proferunt, quam nos f consonantem. Proferendumque est quicquid est +adspiratum eodum halitu quo f, sed minime admoto ad superiores dentes +inferiore labello, ore aut aperto ha, he hi, ho, hu, et concusso +pectore. Hebraeos et Arabicos eodem modo suas proferre adspirationes +vides,” (id. pp. 285, 286.)</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21" class="label">21</a> There was a ball-ground in every village. It was “tres +veces mas luenga que ancha, cercada de unos lomillos de un palmo o dos +de alto.” The ball was “como las de viento nuestras mas no cuanto al +salto, que era mayor que seis de las de viento.” (Las Casas, <i>Historia +Apologetica</i>, caps. 46, 204.) Perhaps the ball was of India rubber.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22" class="label">22</a> “Gue ou Gui, signal de vocativo, mas so empregado pelos +homems.” Dias <i>Diccionario da Lingua Tupy chamada Lingua Geral dos +Indigenas do Brazil</i>, p. 60 (Lipsia, 1858).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23" class="label">23</a> <i>De Rebus Oceanicis</i>, p. 303.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24" class="label">24</a> <i>Hist. de las Indias</i>, lib. xvii. cap. 4, Las Casas denies +the story, and says Oviedo told it in order to prejudice people against +the natives (<i>Hist. Gen. de las Indias</i>, lib. iii. cap. xxiv). It is, +however, probably true.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25" class="label">25</a> <i>Historia Apologetica</i>, cap. 198.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26" class="label">26</a> He compares the signification of <i>ita</i> in Haytian to <i>ita</i> +in Latin, and translates the former <i>ita</i> by <i>no se</i>; this is plainly an +error of the transcriber for <i>yo se</i> (<i>Hist. Apologetica</i>, cap. 241).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27" class="label">27</a> <i>Kuba</i> in Arawack is the sign of past time and is used as +a prefix to nouns, as well as a suffix to verbs. <i>Kubakanan</i> ancestors, +those passed away, those who lived in past times.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28" class="label">28</a> “Toda la mas de la gente de que estaba poblaba aquella +isla [Cuba] era passada y natural desta ysla Espanola, puesto que la mas +antigua y natural de aquella ysla era como la de los Lucayos de quien +ablamos en el primero y segundo libro ser como los seres que parecia no +haber pecado nuestro padre Adan en ellos, gente simplicissima, +bonissima, careciente de todos vicios, y beatissima. Esta era la natural +y native de aquella ysla, y llamabanse en su lengua, Ciboneyes, la +penultima silaba luenga; y los desta por grado o por fuerza se apodearon +de aquella ysla y gente della, y los tenian como sirvientes suyos.” (Las +Casas <i>Hist. Gen. de las Indias</i>, MSS. lib. iii, cap. 21). Elsewhere +(cap. 23) he says this occurred “mayormente” after the Spaniards had +settled in Haiti.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29" class="label">29</a> “Lucayos o por mejor decir Yucayos” says Las Casas, +(<i>Hist. Gen.</i> lib. ii. cap. 44) and after him Herrera. But the +correction which was based apparently on some supposed connection of the +word with <i>yuca</i>, the Haitian name of an esculent plant, is superfluous, +and Las Casas himself never employs it, nor a single other writer.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30" class="label">30</a> Las Casas. <i>Hist. Gen. de las Indias</i>, lib. iv. cap. 48, +MSS. Bees were native to Yucatan long before the discovery, but not to +the north temperate zone.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31" class="label">31</a> “Varia enim esse idiomata in varils Cubae provinelis +perpenderunt.” (Pet. Martyr, <i>De Rebus Oceanicis</i>, v. 42). Las Casas +says that a sailor told Columbus that he saw one Indian cacique in a +long white tunic who refused to speak, but stalked silently away. +(<i>Hist. de las Indias</i>, lib. I. cap. 95). Martyr says there were +several. Peschel suggests they were tall white flamingoes, that scared +the adventurous tar out of his wits. (<i>Geschichte des Zeitalters der +Entdeckungen</i>, p. 253). At any rate the story gives no foundation at all +for Peter Martyr’s <a name="corr15" id="corr15"></a><ins class="correction" title="philological">philogical</ins> opinion.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32" class="label">32</a> Pet. Martyr, <i>De Insulis Nuper Inventis</i>, p. 335. “Traia +consigo Grisalva un Indio per lengua de los que de aquella tierra habian +llevado consigo a la ysla de Cuba Francisco <a name="corr16" id="corr16"></a><ins class="correction" title="Hernandez.”">Hernandez.</ins> Las Casas +<i>Hist. Gen. de las Indias</i>, lib. III, cap. 108, MSS. See also the +chaplain’s account in Terneaux Compans, <i>Recueil de Pieces rel. a la +Conquête de Mexique</i>, p. 56.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33" href="#FNanchor_33_33" class="label">33</a> Bernal Dias says the vicinity of cape San Antonio was +inhabited by the “Guanataneys que son unos Indias como salvages.” He +expressly adds that their clothing differed from that of the Mayas, and +that the Cuban natives with him could not understand the Maya language. +<i>Historia Verdadera</i>, cap. II.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34" href="#FNanchor_34_34" class="label">34</a> “Presso capite, fronte lata” (Nicolaus Syllacius, <i>De +Insulis nuper Inventis</i>, p. 86. Reprint, New York, 1859. This is the +extremely rare account of Columbus’ second voyage). Six not very perfect +skulls were obtained in 1860, by Col. F. S. Heneken, from a cavern 15 +miles south-west from Porto Plata. They are all more or less distorted +in a discoidal manner, one by pressure over the frontal sinus, reducing +the calvaria to a disk. (J. Barnard Davis, <i>Thesaurus Craniorum</i>, p. +236, London, 1867. Mr. Davis erroneously calls them Carib skulls).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35" href="#FNanchor_35_35" class="label">35</a> The provinces of Cuba are laid down on the <i>Mapa de la +Isla de Cuba segun la division de los Naturales</i>, por D. Jose Maria de +la Torre y de la Torre, in the <i>Memorias de la Sociedad Patriotica de la +Habana</i>, 1841. See also Felipe Poey, <i>Geografia de la Isla de Cuba</i>, +Habana, 1853. <i>Apendice sobre la Geografia Antigua.</i> Las Casas gives the +five provinces of Hayti by the names of their chiefs, Guarinox, +Guacanagari, Behechio, Caonabo and Higuey. For their relative position +see the map in Charlevoix’s <i>Histoire de l’Isle San Domingue</i>, Paris, +1740, and in Baumgarten’s <i>Geschichte von Amerika</i>, B. II.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36" href="#FNanchor_36_36" class="label">36</a> This was Caonabo. Oviedo, and following him Charlevoix, +say he was a Carib, but Las Casas, who having lived twenty years in +Haiti immediately after the discovery, is infinitely the best authority, +says: “Era de nacion Lucayo, natural de las islas de los Lucayos, que se +pasó de ellas aca.” (<i>Historia Apologetica</i>, cap. 179, <a name="corr17" id="corr17"></a><ins class="correction" title="MSS.">MSS</ins>).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37" href="#FNanchor_37_37" class="label">37</a> I put the figures very low. Peter Martyr, whose estimates +are the lowest of any writer, says there were more than 200,000 natives +on Haiti alone. (<i>De Rebus Oceanicis</i>, p. 295.)</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38" href="#FNanchor_38_38" class="label">38</a> More than 40,000 were brought to Haiti to enjoy the +benefits of Christian instruction, says Herrera, with what might pass as +a ghastly sarcasm. (<i>Historia General de las Indias</i>, Dec. I, lib. VIII. +cap. 3).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39" href="#FNanchor_39_39" class="label">39</a> <i>Brevissima Relacion de la Destruccion de las Indias +Occidentales par los Castellanos</i>, Sevilla, 1552.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40" href="#FNanchor_40_40" class="label">40</a> Ramon <a name="corr18" id="corr18"></a><ins class="correction" title="de">de de</ins> la Sagra, <i>Historia de la Isla de Cuba</i>, +Tom. II, p. 381.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41" href="#FNanchor_41_41" class="label">41</a> Ibid, p. 394.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42" href="#FNanchor_42_42" class="label">42</a> Ibid, p. 396.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43" href="#FNanchor_43_43" class="label">43</a> Ibid, p. 414.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44" href="#FNanchor_44_44" class="label">44</a> Ibid, p. 385. These references to De la Sagra’s work are +all to the original documents in his Appendix.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45" href="#FNanchor_45_45" class="label">45</a> Las Casas knew Pane personally, and gives his name +correctly (not <i>Roman</i>, as all the printed authorities have it). He +described him as “hombre simple y de buena intencion;” “fuese Catalan de +nacion y no habla del todo bien nuestra lengua Castellana.” Ramon came +to Haiti four or five years before Las Casas, and the latter speaks of +him in a disparaging tone. “Este Fray Ramon escudrino lo que pudó, segun +lo que alcanzo de las lenguas que fueron tres, las que habia en esta +ysia: pero no supo sino la una de una chica provincia, que arriba +dejimos llamarse Macaria de abajo, y aquella no <a name="corr19" id="corr19"></a><ins class="correction" title="perfectamente.”">perfectamente.</ins> +(<i>Historia Apologetica, <a name="corr20" id="corr20"></a><ins class="correction" title="should be unitalicized">MSS.</ins></i> cap. 120, see also cap. 162). This +statement is not quite true, as according to Las Casas’ own admission +Pane dwelt two years in the province of Guarinoex, where the <i>lengua +universal</i> was spoken, and <i>there</i> collected these traditions.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46" href="#FNanchor_46_46" class="label">46</a> Pane’s account was first published in the <i>Historie del +<a name="corr21" id="corr21"></a><ins class="correction" title="Fernando">Frenando</ins> Colombo</i>, Venetia, 1571, from which it has recently been +translated and published with notes by Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, +1864. The version of Zuane de Strozi is in the Appendix to Harrisse’s +<i>Bibliotheca Primordia Americana</i>, p. 474.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47" href="#FNanchor_47_47" class="label">47</a> <i>The myths of the New World</i>, (New York, 1868).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48" href="#FNanchor_48_48" class="label">48</a> See the work last quoted, p. 156, for a number of similar +myths of the trinity of the storm.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49" href="#FNanchor_49_49" class="label">49</a> I take these as they are related in Bretts, <i>Indian Tribes +of Guiana</i>, Part ii, chap. x.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50" href="#FNanchor_50_50" class="label">50</a> The most trustworthy author is Las Casas. As his works are +still in manuscript, I give his words. “Tres lenguas habia en esta ysla +distintas que la una a la otra no se entendia. La una era de la gente +que llamabamos Macorix de abajo y la otra de los vecinos del Macorix de +arriba. La otra lengua fue la universal de toda la tierra, y esta era +mas elegante y mas copiosa de vocablos, y mas dulce al sonido. En esto +la de Xaragua en todo llevaba ventaja, y era mui mas prima.” (<i>Historia +Apologetica</i>, cap. 197). “Es aqui de saber que un gran pedajo de esta +costa (that of the northern part of Haiti), bien mas de veinte y cinco o +treinta leguas y quince buenas y aun veinte de ancho hasta las sierras +que haren desta parte del norte la gran Vega inclusive, era poblado de +una gente que se llamaron Mazoriges, y otras Ciguayos, y tenian diversas +lenguas de la universal de todas las islas.” (<i>Historia General</i>, lib. +I, cap. 77). “Llamaban Ciguayos porque trayan todos los cabellos mui +luengos como en Nueva Castilla las mujeres,” (id. cap. 77). The cacique +of the Ciguayos was named Mayomanex or Mayobanex, (id. lib. I, cap. +120). They went almost naked, and had no arms, “eran Gallinas almenos +para con los uños, como no tuviesen armas,” (id. cap. 120.)</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51" href="#FNanchor_51_51" class="label">51</a> Pigafetta, <i>Reise um die Welt</i>, so. 21, 26, 247, (Gotha, +1802; a translation of the Italian original in the library at Milan).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="chapbreak" /> + +<div class="tn"> +<p class="titlepage"><a name="trans_note" id="trans_note"></a><b>Transcriber’s Note</b></p> + +<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p> + +<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p> + +<table class="tntable" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="typos"> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr1">2</a></td> + <td>Mr. Shultz</td> + <td>Schultz</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr2">2</a></td> + <td>dipthongs</td> + <td>diphthongs</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr3">7</a></td> + <td>Second preterite</td> + <td>Second preterite:</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr4">9</a></td> + <td>Lact’s</td> + <td>Laet’s</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr5">11</a></td> + <td>preceived</td> + <td>perceived</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr6">11</a></td> + <td>VI, c, 8</td> + <td>VI, c. 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr7">12</a></td> + <td>lib. I, cap 96</td> + <td>lib. I, cap. 96</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr8">12</a></td> + <td>S. V.)</td> + <td>S. V.).</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr9">13</a></td> + <td>Navarrete, Viages.</td> + <td>Navarrete, Viages,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr10">13</a></td> + <td>Apol. cap,</td> + <td>Apol. cap.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr11">14</a></td> + <td>chieftians</td> + <td>chieftains</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr12">fn. 3</a></td> + <td>quelquee</td> + <td>quelques</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr13">fn. 10</a></td> + <td>p 4</td> + <td>p. 4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr14">fn. 13</a></td> + <td>Indias Occid</td> + <td>Indias Occid.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr15">fn. 31</a></td> + <td>philogical</td> + <td>philological</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr16">fn. 32</a></td> + <td>Hernandez.</td> + <td>Hernandez.”</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr17">fn. 36</a></td> + <td>MSS</td> + <td>MSS.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr18">fn. 40</a></td> + <td>Ramon de de</td> + <td>Ramon de</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr19">fn. 45</a></td> + <td>perfectamente.</td> + <td>perfectamente.”</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr20">fn. 45</a></td> + <td><i>MSS.</i></td> + <td>MSS.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr21">fn. 46</a></td> + <td>Frenando</td> + <td>Fernando</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">Other inconsistencies:</p> + +<p class="noindent">The relative position of , and ) is not consistent.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arawack Language of Guiana in its +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, by Daniel G. Brinton + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA *** + +***** This file should be named 31273-h.htm or 31273-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/2/7/31273/ + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/31273.txt b/31273.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..18a8202 --- /dev/null +++ b/31273.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1988 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arawack Language of Guiana in its +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, by Daniel G. Brinton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Arawack Language of Guiana in its Linguistic and Ethnological Relations + +Author: Daniel G. Brinton + +Release Date: February 14, 2010 [EBook #31273] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA *** + + + + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of +this book. They have been marked with a [TN-#], which refers to a +description in the complete list found at the end of the text. + +The following codes for less common characters were used: + +[oe] oe ligature +[lr] l printed over r + + + + + + THE ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA + + IN ITS + + Linguistic and Ethnological Relations. + + + By D. G. BRINTON, M. D. + + + PHILADELPHIA: + McCALLA & STAVELY, PRINTERS. + 237-9 DOCK STREET. + 1871. + + + + +THE ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA + +IN ITS + +LINGUISTIC AND ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS. + +BY D. G. BRINTON, M. D. + + +The Arawacks are a tribe of Indians who at present dwell in British and +Dutch Guiana, between the Corentyn and Pomeroon rivers. They call +themselves simply _lukkunu_, men, and only their neighbors apply to them +the contemptuous name _aruac_ (corrupted by Europeans into Aroaquis, +Arawaaks, Aroacos, Arawacks, etc.), meal-eaters, from their peaceful +habit of gaining an important article of diet from the amylaceous pith +of the _Mauritia flexuosa_ palm, and the edible root of the cassava +plant. + +They number only about two thousand souls, and may seem to claim no more +attention at the hands of the ethnologist than any other obscure Indian +tribe. But if it can be shown that in former centuries they occupied the +whole of the West Indian archipelago to within a few miles of the shore +of the northern continent, then on the question whether their +affiliations are with the tribes of the northern or southern mainland, +depends our opinion of the course of migration of the primitive +inhabitants of the western world. And if this is the tribe whose +charming simplicity Columbus and Peter Martyr described in such poetic +language, then the historian will acknowledge a desire to acquaint +himself more closely with its past and its present. It is my intention +to show that such was their former geographical position. + +While in general features there is nothing to distinguish them from the +red race elsewhere, they have strong national traits. Physically they +are rather undersized, averaging not over five feet four inches in +height, but strong-limbed, agile, and symmetrical. Their foreheads are +low, their noses more allied to the Aryan types than usual with their +race, and their skulls of that form defined by craniologists as +orthognathic brachycephalic. + +From the earliest times they have borne an excellent character. +Hospitable, peace-loving, quick to accept the humbler arts of +civilization and the simpler precepts of Christianity, they have ever +offered a strong contrast to their neighbors, the cruel and warlike +Caribs. They are not at all prone to steal, lie, or drink, and their +worst faults are an addiction to blood-revenge, and a superstitious +veneration for their priests. + +They are divided into a number of families, over fifty in all, the +genealogies of which are carefully kept in the female line, and the +members of any one of which are forbidden to intermarry. In this +singular institution they resemble many other native tribes. + + +LANGUAGE. + +The earliest specimen of their language under its present name is given +by Johannes de Laet in his _Novus Orbis, seu Descriptio Indiae +Occidentalis_ (Lugd. Bat. 1633). It was obtained in 1598. In 1738 the +Moravian brethren founded several missionary stations in the country, +but owing to various misfortunes, the last of their posts was given up +in 1808. To them we owe the only valuable monuments of the language in +existence. + +Their first instructor was a mulatto boy, who assisted them in +translating into the Arawack a life of Christ. I cannot learn that this +is extant. Between 1748 and 1755 one of the missionaries, Theophilus +Schumann, composed a dictionary, _Deutsch-Arawakisches W[oe]rterbuch_, +and a grammar, _Deutsch-Arawakische Sprachlehre_, which have remained +in manuscript in the library of the Moravian community at Paramaribo. +Schumann died in 1760, and as he was the first to compose such works, +the manuscript dictionary in the possession of Bishop Wullschlaegel, +erroneously referred by the late Professor von Martius to the first +decade of the last century, is no doubt a copy of Schumann's. + +In 1807 another missionary, C. Quandt, published a _Nachricht von +Surinam_, the appendix to which contains the best published grammatical +notice of the tongue. The author resided in Surinam from 1769 to 1780. + +Unquestionably, however, the most complete and accurate information in +existence concerning both the verbal wealth and grammatical structure of +the language, is contained in the manuscripts of the Rev. Theodore +Schultz, now in the library of the AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Mr. +Shultz[TN-1] was a Moravian missionary, who was stationed among the +Arawacks from 1790 to 1802, or thereabout. The manuscripts referred to +are a dictionary and a grammar. The former is a quarto volume of 622 +pages. The first 535 pages comprise an Arawack-German lexicon, the +remainder is an appendix containing the names of trees, stars, birds, +insects, grasses, minerals, places, and tribes. The grammar, +_Grammattikalische Saetze von der Aruwakkischen Sprache_, is a 12mo +volume of 173 pages, left in an unfinished condition. Besides these he +left at his death a translation of the Acts of the Apostles, which was +published in 1850 by the American Bible Society under the title _Act +Apostelnu_. It is from these hitherto unused sources that I design to +illustrate the character of the language, and study its former +extension.[1] + + +PHONETICS. + +The Arawack is described as "the softest of all the Indian tongues."[2] +It is rich in vowels, and free from gutturals. The enunciation is +distinct and melodious. As it has been reduced to writing by Germans, +the German value must be given to the letters employed, a fact which +must always be borne in mind in comparing it with the neighboring +tongues, nearly all of which are written with the Spanish orthography. + +The Arawack alphabet has twenty letters: a, b, d, e, g, h, i, j, k, l, +m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, w. + +Besides these, they have a semi-vowel written [lr] the sound of which in +words of the masculine gender approaches l, in those of the neuter +gender r. The o and u, and the t and d, are also frequently blended. The +w has not the German but the soft English sound, as in _we_. The German +dipthongs[TN-2] ae, [oe], eu, ei, ue, are employed. The accents are the +long ^, the acute `, and that indicating the emphasis '. The latter is +usually placed near the commencement of the word, and must be carefully +observed. + + +NOUNS. + +Like most Indians, the Arawack rarely uses a noun in the abstract. An +object in his mind is always connected with some person or thing, and +this connection is signified by an affix, a suffix, or some change in +the original form of the word. To this rule there are some exceptions, +as _bahue_ a house, _siba_ a stone, _hiaeru_ a woman. _Daddikan hiaeru_, I +see a woman. Such nouns are usually roots. Those derived from verbal +roots are still more rarely employed independently. + +NUMBERS. The plural has no regular termination. Often the same form +serves for both numbers, as is the case in many English words. Thus, +_itime_ fish and fishes, _siba_ stone and stones, _kaensiti_ a lover and +lovers. The most common plural endings are _ati_, _uti_, and _anu_, +connected to the root by a euphonic letter; as _uju_ mother, _ujunuti_ +mothers, _itti_ father, _ittinati_ fathers, _kansissia_ a loved one, +_kansissiannu_ loved ones. + +Of a dual there is no trace, nor does there seem to be of what is called +the American plural (exclusive or inclusive of those present). But there +is a peculiar plural form with a singular signification in the language, +which is worthy of note. An example will illustrate it; _itti_ is +father, plural _ittinati_; _wattinati_ is our father, not our fathers, +as the form would seem to signify. In other words, singular nouns used +with plural pronouns, or construed with several other nouns, take a +plural form. _Petrus Johannes mutti ujunatu_, the mother of Peter and +John. + +GENDERS. A peculiarity, which the Arawack shares with the Iroquois[3] +and other aboriginal languages of the Western continent, is that it only +has two genders, and these not the masculine and feminine, as in French, +but the masculine and neuter. Man or nothing was the motto of these +barbarians. Regarded as an index of their mental and social condition, +this is an ominous fact. It hints how utterly destitute they are of +those high, chivalric feelings, which with us centre around woman. + +The termination of the masculine is _i_, of the neuter _u_, and, as I +have already observed, a permutation of the semi-vowels _l_ and _r_ +takes place, the letter becoming _l_ in the masculine, _r_ in the +neuter. A slight difference in many words is noticeable when pronounced +by women or by men. The former would say _keretin_, to marry; the latter +_kerejun_. The gender also appears by more than one of these changes: +_ipillin_, great, strong, masculine; _ipirrun_, feminine and neuter. + +There is no article, either definite or indefinite, and no declension of +nouns. + + +PRONOUNS. + +The demonstrative and possessive personal pronouns are alike in form, +and, as in other American languages, are intimately incorporated with +the words with which they are construed. A single letter is the root of +each: _d_ I, mine, _b_ thou, thine, _l_ he, his, _t_ she, her, it, its, +_w_ we, our, _h_ you, your, _n_ they, their; to these radical letters +the indefinite pronoun _uekkueahue_, somebody, is added, and by +abbreviation the following forms are obtained, which are those usually +current: + + dakia, dai, I. + bokkia, bui, thou. + likia, he. + turreha, she, it. + wakia, wai, we. + hukia, hui, you. + nakia, nai, they. + +Except the third person, singular, they are of both genders. In +speaking, the abbreviated form is used, except where for emphasis the +longer is chosen. + +In composition they usually retain their first vowel, but this is +entirely a question of euphony. The methods of their employment with +nouns will be seen in the following examples: + + _uessiquahue_, a house. + dassiqua, my house. + bussiqua, thy house. + + luessiqua, his house. + + tuessiqua, her, its house. + wassiqua, our house. + + huessiqua, your house. + nassiqua, their house. + + _uju_, mother. + daiju, my mother. + buju, thy mother. + luju, his mother. + tuju, her mother. + waijunattu, our mother. + hujuattu, your mother. + naijattu, their mother. + waijunuti, our mothers. + hujunuti, your mothers. + naijunuti, their mothers. + +Many of these forms suffer elision in speaking. _Itti_ father, _datti_ +my father, _wattinatti_ our father, contracted to _wattinti_ (_watti_ +rarely used). + +When thus construed with pronouns, most nouns undergo some change of +form, usually by adding an affix; _baru_ an axe, _dabarun_ my axe, +_iuli_ tobacco, _dajulite_ my tobacco. + + +ADJECTIVES. + +The verb is the primitive part of speech in American tongues. To the +aboriginal man every person and object presents itself as either doing +or suffering something, every quality and attribute as something which +is taking place or existing. His philosophy is that of the extreme +idealists or the extreme materialists, who alike maintain that nothing +_is_, beyond the cognizance of our senses. Therefore his adjectives are +all verbal participles, indicating a state of existence. Thus _uessatu_ +good, is from _uessan_ to be good, and means the condition of being good, +a good woman or thing, _uessati_ a good man. + +Some adjectives, principally those from present participles, have the +masculine and neuter terminations _i_ and _u_ in the singular, and in +the plural _i_ for both genders. Adjectives from the past participles +end in the singular in _issia_ or _uessia_, in the plural in _annu_. When +the masculine ends in _illi_, the neuter takes _urru_, as _wadikilli_, +_wadikurru_, long. + +Comparison is expressed by adding _ben_ or _ken_ or _adin_ (a verb +meaning to be above) for the comparative, and _apuedi_ for the +diminutive. _Ubura_, from the verb _uburau_ to be before in time, and +_adiki_, from _adikin_ to be after in time, are also used for the same +purpose. The superlative has to be expressed by a circumlocution; as +_tumaqua aditu ipirrun turreha_, what is great beyond all else; +_bokkia uessa dauria_, thou art better than I, where the last word is a +compound of _dai uwuria_ of, from, than. The comparative degree of the +adjectives corresponds to the intensive and frequentative forms of the +verbs; thus _ipirrun_ to be strong, _ipirru_ strong, _ipirrubin_ and +_ipirrubessabun_ to be stronger, _ipirrubetu_ and _ipirrubessabutu_ +stronger, that which is stronger. + +The numerals are wonderfully simple, and well illustrate how the +primitive man began his arithmetic. They are:-- + + 1 abba. + 2 biama, plural biamannu. + 3 kabbuhin, plural kubbuhininnu. + 4 bibiti, plural bibitinu. + 5 abbatekkabe, plural abbatekabbunu. + 6 abbatiman, plural abbatimanninu. + 7 biamattiman, plural biamattimanninu. + 8 kabbuhintiman, plural kabbuhintimanninu. + 9 bibitiman, plural bibititumanninu. + 10 biamantekabbe, plural biamantekabunu. + +Now if we analyze these words, we discover that _abbatekkabe_ five, is +simply _abba_ one, and _akkabu_, hand; that the word for six is +literally "one [finger] of the other [hand]," for seven "two [fingers] +of the other [hand]," and so on to ten, which is compounded of _biama_ +two, and _akkabu_ hands. Would they count eleven, they say _abba +kutihibena_ one [toe] from the feet, and for twenty the expression is +_abba lukku_ one man, both hands and feet. Thus, in truth, they have +only four numerals, and it is even a question whether these are +primitive, for _kabbuhin_ seems a strengthened form of _abba_, and +_bibuti_ to bear the same relation to _biama_. Therefore we may look +back to a time when this nation knew not how to express any numbers +beyond one and two. + +Although these numbers do not take peculiar terminations when applied to +different objects, as in the languages of Central America and Mexico, +they have a great variety of forms to express the relationship in which +they are used. The ordinals are: + + atenennuati, first. + ibiamatteti, second. + wakabbuhinteti, our third, etc. + +To the question, How many at a time? the answer is: + + likinnekewai, one alone. + biamanuman, two at a time, etc. + +If simply, How many? it is: + + abbahu, one. + biamahu, two. + +If, For which time? it is: + + tibiakuja, for the first time. + tibiamattetu, for the second time. + +and so on. + + +VERBS. + +The verbs are sometimes derived from nouns, sometimes from participles, +sometimes from other verbs, and have reflexive, passive, frequentative, +and other forms. Thus from _lana_, the name of a certain black dye, +comes _lannatuen_ to color with this dye, _alannatunna_ to color oneself +with it, _alannattukuttun_ to let oneself be colored with it, +_alanattukuttunnua_ to be colored with it. + +The infinitive ends in _in_, _uen_, _un_, _an_, _unnua_, _en_, and _un_. +Those in _in_, _uen_, _un_, and _an_ are transitive, in _unnua_ are +passive and neuter, the others are transitive, intransitive, or neuter. + +The passive voice is formed by the medium of a verb of permission, thus: + + amalitin, to make. + amalitikittin, to let make. + amalitikittunnua, to be made. + assimakin, to call. + assimakuttuen, to let call, + assimakuttunnua, to be called. + +The personal pronouns are united to the verbs as they are to the nouns. +They precede all verbs except those whose infinitives terminate in _en_, +_in_, and _an_, to which they are suffixed as a rule, but not always. +When they follow the verb, the forms of the pronouns are either _de_, +_bu_, _i_ he, _n_ she, it, _u_, _hu_, _je_ or _da_, _ba_, _la_, _ta_, +_wa_, _ha_, _na_. The latter are used chiefly where the negative prefix +_m_, _ma_ or _maya_ is employed. Examples: + + hallikebben, to rejoice. + + hallikebbede, I rejoice. + hallikebbebu, thou rejoicest. + hallikebbei, he rejoices. + hallikebben, she rejoices. + hallikebbeu, we rejoice. + hallikebbehue, you rejoice. + hallikebbeje, they rejoice. + + majauquan, to remain. + + majauquada, I remain. + majauquaba, thou remainest. + majauquala, he remains. + majauquata, she remains. + majauquawa, we remain. + majauquaha, you remain. + majauquana, they remain. + +MOODS AND TENSES. Their verbs have four moods, the indicative, optative, +imperative, and infinitive, and five tenses, one present, three +preterites, and one future. The rules of their formation are simple. By +changing the termination of the infinitive into _a_, we have the +indicative present, into _bi_ the first preterite, into _buna_ the +second preterite, into _kuba_ the third preterite, and into _pa_ the +future. The conjugations are six in number, and many of the verbs are +irregular. The following verb of the first conjugation illustrates the +general rules for conjugation: + + _ayahaddin,_ to walk. + +INDICATIVE MOOD. + +Present tense: + + dayahadda, I walk. + bujahadda, thou walkest. + lujahadda, he walks. + tuejahadda, she walks. + wayahadda, we walk. + hujahadda, you walk. + nayuhadda, they walk. + +First preterite--of to-day: + + dayahaddibi, I walked to-day. + bujahaddibi, thou walked to-day. + lijahaddibi, he walked to-day. + tujahaddibi, she walked to-day. + wayahaddibi, we walked to-day. + hujahaddibi, you walked to-day. + nayahaddibi, they walked to-day. + +Second preterite--of yesterday or the day before. + + dayahaddibuena, I walked yesterday or the day before. + bujahaddibuena, thou walked yesterday or the day before. + lijahaddibuna, he walked yesterday or the day before. + tujahaddibuena, she walked yesterday or the day before. + wayahaddibuena, we walked yesterday or the day before. + hujahaddibuena, you walked yesterday or the day before. + nayahaddibuena, they walked yesterday or the day before. + +Third preterite--at some indefinite past time: + + dayahaddakuba, I walked. + bujahaddakuba, thou walked. + lijahaddakuba, he walked. + tujahaddakuba, she walked. + wayahaddakuka, we walked. + hujahaddakuba, you walked. + nayahaddakuba, they walked. + +Future: + + dayahaddipa, I shall walk. + bujahaddipa, thou wilt walk. + lijahaddipa, he will walk. + tujahaddipa, she will walk. + wayahaddipa, we shall walk. + hujahaddipa, you will walk. + nayahaddipa, they will walk. + +OPTATIVE MOOD. + +Present: + + dayahaddama or dayahaddinnika, I may walk. + +First preterite: + + dayahaddinnikabima. + +Second preterite[TN-3] + + dayahaddinbuenama. + +Third preterite: + + dayahaddinnikubama. + +IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + bujahaddate or bujahaddalte, walk thou. + huejahaddate or hujahaddalte, walk ye. + nayahaddate, let them walk. + wayahaddali, let us walk. + +PARTICIPLES. + + ayahaddinnibi, to have walked to-day. + ayahaddinnibuena, to have walked yesterday. + ayahaddinnikuba, to have walked. + ayahaddinnipa, to be about to walk. + +GERUND. + + ayahaddinti. + ayahaddinnibia. + +The following forms also belong to this verb: + + ayahaddinnibiakubama, to may or can walk. + ayahaddahalin, one who walks there (infinitive form). + +As in all polysynthetic languages, other words and particles can be +incorporated in the verb to modify its meaning, thus: + + dayahaddaruka, as I was walking. + dayahaddakanika, I walk a little. + dayahaddahittika, I walk willingly. + +In this way sometimes words of formidable length are manufactured, as: + + massukussukuttunnuanikaebibu, you should not have been washed to-day. + +Negation may be expressed either by the prefix _m_ or _ma_, as +_mayahaddinikade_, I do not walk (where the prefix throws the pronoun to +the end of the word, and gives it the form appropriate for that +position), or else by the adverb _kurru_, not. But if both these +negatives are used, they make an affirmative, as _madittinda kurru +Gott_, I am not unacquainted with God. + + +COMPOSITION OF WORDS AND SENTENCES. + +"In general," remarks Prof. Von Martius, "this language betrays the +poverty and cumbrousness of other South American languages; yet in many +expressions a glimpse is caught of a far reaching, ideal background."[4] +We see it in the composition and derivation of some words; from _haikan_ +to pass by, comes _haikahu_ death, the passing away, and _aiihakue_ +marriage, in which, as in death, the girl is lost to her parents; from +_kassan_ to be pregnant, comes _kassaku_ the firmament, big with all +things which are, and _kassahu behue_, the house of the firmament, the +sky, the day; from _uekkue_ the heart, comes _uekkuerahue_ the family, the +tribe, those of one blood, whose hearts beat in unison, and _uekueahue_ a +person, one whose heart beats and who therefore lives, and also, +singularly enough, _uekkuerahue_ pus, no doubt from that strange analogy +which in so many other aboriginal languages and myths identified the +product of suppuration with the _semen masculinum_, the physiological +germ of life. + +The syntax of the language is not clearly set forth by any authorities. +Adjectives generally, but not always, follow the words they qualify, and +prepositions are usually placed after the noun, and often at the end of +a sentence; thus, _peru_ (Spanish _perro_) _assimakaku naha a_, the dog +barks her at. To display more fully the character of the tongue, I shall +quote and analyze a verse from the _Act Apostelnu_, the 11th verse of +the 14th chapter, which in the English Protestant version reads: + +And when the people saw what Paul had done, they lifted up their voices, +saying in the speech of Lycaonia, The gods are come down to us in the +likeness of men. + +In Arawack it is: + +Addikitti uijuhu Paulus anissiaebiru, kakannakueku na assimakaka huerkueren +Lycaonia adian ullukku hiddin: Amallitakoananutti lukkunu dia na bute +wakkarruhu, nattukuda aijumueneria wibiti hinna. + +Literally: + +They--seeing (_addin_ to see, gerund) the--people Paulus what--had been +done (_anin_ to do, _anissia_ to have been done), loudly they called +altogether the--Lycaonia speech in, thus, The--gods (present participle +of _amallitin_ to make; the same appellation which the ancient Greeks +gave to poets, [Greek: poietai] makers, the Arawacks applied to the +divine powers) men like, us to now (_bute_ nota praesentis) +are--come--down from--above--down--here ourselves because--of. + + +AFFILIATIONS OF THE ARAWACK. + +The Arawacks are essentially of South American origin and affiliations. +The earliest explorers of the mainland report them as living on the +rivers of Guiana, and having settlements even south of the Equator.[5] +De Laet in his map of Guiana locates a large tribe of "Arowaceas" three +degrees south of the line, on the right bank of the Amazon. Dr. Spix +during his travels in Brazil met with fixed villages of them near +Fonteboa, on the river Solimoes and near Tabatinga and Castro +d'Avelaes.[6] They extended westward beyond the mouth of the Orinoco, +and we even hear of them in the province of Santa Marta, in the +mountains south of Lake Maracaybo.[7] + +While their language has great verbal differences from the Tupi of +Brazil and the Carib, it has also many verbal similarities with both. +"The Arawack and the Tupi," observes Professor Von Martius, "are alike +in their syntax, in their use of the possessive and personal pronouns, +and in their frequent adverbial construction;"[8] and in a letter +written me shortly before his death, he remarks, in speaking of the +similarity of these three tongues: "Ich bin ueberzeugt dass diese [die +Cariben] eine Elite der Tupis waren, welche erst spaet auf die Antillen +gekommen sind, wo die alte Tupi--Sprache in kaum erkennbaren Resten +uebrig war, als man sie dort aufzeichnete." I take pleasure in bringing +forward this opinion of the great naturalist, not only because it is not +expressed so clearly in any of his published writings, but because his +authority on this question is of the greatest weight, and because it +supports the view which I have elsewhere advanced of the migrations of +the Arawack and Carib tribes.[9] These "hardly recognizable remains of +the Tupi tongue," we shall see belonged also to the ancient Arawack at +an epoch when it was less divergent than it now is from its primitive +form. While these South American affinities are obvious, no relationship +whatever, either verbal or syntactical, exists between the Arawack and +the Maya of Yucatan, or the Chahta-Mvskoki of Florida and the northern +shore of the Gulf of Mexico. + +As it is thus rendered extremely probable that the Arawack is closely +connected with the great linguistic families of South America, it +becomes of prime importance to trace its extension northward, and to +determine if it is in any way affined to the tongues spoken on the West +India Islands, when these were first discovered. + +The Arawacks of to-day when asked concerning their origin point to the +north, and claim at some not very remote time to have lived at _Kairi_, +an island, by which generic name they mean Trinidad. This tradition is +in a measure proved correct by the narrative of Sir Walter Raleigh, who +found them living there in 1595,[10] and by the Belgian explorers who in +1598 collected a short vocabulary of their tongue. This oldest monument +of the language has sufficient interest to deserve copying and comparing +with the modern dialect. It is as follows: + + LATIN. ARAWACK, 1598. ARAWACK, 1800. + pater, pilplii, itti. + mater, saeckee, uju. + caput, wassijehe, waseye. + auris, wadycke, wadihy. + oculus, wackosije, wakusi. + nasus, wassyerii, wasiri. + os, dalerocke, daliroko. + dentes, darii, dari. + crura, dadane, dadaanah. + pedes, dackosye, dakuty. + arbor, hada, adda. + arcus, semarape, semaara-haaba. + sagittae, symare, semaara. + luna, cattehel, katsi. + sol, adaly, hadalli. + +The syllables _wa_ our, and _da_ my, prefixed to the parts of the human +body, will readily be recognized. When it is remembered that the dialect +of Trinidad no doubt differed slightly from that on the mainland; that +the modern orthography is German and that of De Lact's[TN-4] list is +Dutch; and that two centuries intervened between the first and second, +it is really a matter of surprise to discover such a close similarity. +Father and mother, the only two words which are not identical, are +doubtless different expressions, relationship in this, as in most native +tongues, being indicated with excessive minuteness. + +The chain of islands which extend from Trinidad to Porto Rico were +called, from their inhabitants, the Caribby islands. The Caribs, +however, made no pretence to have occupied them for any great length of +time. They distinctly remembered that a generation or two back they had +reached them from the mainland, and had found them occupied by a +peaceful race, whom they styled _Ineri_ or _Igneri_. The males of this +race they slew or drove into the interior, but the women they seized for +their own use. Hence arose a marked difference between the languages of +the island Caribs and their women. The fragments of the language of the +latter show clearly that they were of Arawack lineage, and that the +so-called Igneri were members of that nation. It of course became more +or less corrupted by the introduction of Carib words and forms, so that +in 1674 the missionary De la Borde wrote, that "although there is some +difference between the dialects of the men and women, they readily +understand each other;"[11] and Father Breton in his Carib Grammar +(1665) gives the same forms for the declensions and conjugations of +both. + +As the traces of the "island Arawack," as the tongue of the Igneri may +be called, prove the extension of this tribe over all the Lesser +Antilles, it now remains to inquire whether they had pushed their +conquests still further, and had possessed themselves of the Great +Antilles, the Bahama islands, and any part of the adjacent coasts of +Yucatan or Florida. + +All ancient writers agree that on the Bahamas and Cuba the same speech +prevailed, except Gomara, who avers that on the Bahamas "great diversity +of language" was found.[12] But as Gomara wrote nearly half a century +after those islands were depopulated, and has exposed himself to just +censure for carelessness in his statements regarding the natives,[13] +his expression has no weight. Columbus repeatedly states that all the +islands had one language though differing, more or less, in words. The +natives he took with him from San Salvador understood the dialects in +both Cuba and Haiti. One of them on his second voyage served him as an +interpreter on the southern shore of Cuba.[14] + +In Haiti, there was a tongue current all over the island, called by the +Spaniards _la lengua universal_ and _la lengua cortesana_. This is +distinctly said by all the historians to have been but very slightly +different from that of Cuba, a mere dialectic variation in accent being +observed.[15] Many fragments of this tongue are preserved in the +narratives of the early explorers, and it has been the theme for some +strange and wild theorizing among would-be philologists. Rafinesque +christened it the "Taino" language, and discovered it to be closely akin +to the "Pelasgic" of Europe.[16] The Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg will +have it allied to the Maya, the old Norse or Scandinavian, the ancient +Coptic, and what not. Rafinesque and Jegor von Sivors[17] have made +vocabularies of it, but the former in so uncritical, and the latter in +so superficial a manner, that they are worse than useless. + +Although it is said there were in Haiti two other tongues in the small +contiguous provinces of Macorix de arriba and Macorix de abajo, entirely +dissimilar from the _lengua universal_ and from each other, we are +justified in assuming that the prevalent tongue throughout the whole of +the Great Antilles and the Bahamas, was that most common in Haiti. I +have, therefore, perused with care all the early authorities who throw +any light upon the construction and vocabulary of this language, and +gathered from their pages the scattered information they contain. The +most valuable of these authorities are Peter Martyr de Angleria, who +speaks from conversations with natives brought to Spain by Columbus, on +his first voyage,[18] and who was himself, a fine linguist, and +Bartolome de las Casas. The latter came as a missionary to Haiti, a few +years after its discovery, was earnestly interested in the natives, and +to some extent acquainted with their language. Besides a few printed +works of small importance, Las Casas left two large and valuable works +in manuscript, the _Historia General de las Indias Occidentales_, and +the _Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentals_. A copy of these, +each in four large folio volumes, exists in the Library of Congress, +where I consulted them. They contain a vast amount of information +relating to the aborigines, especially the _Historia Apologetica_, +though much of the author's space is occupied with frivolous discussions +and idle comparisons. + +In later times, the scholar who has most carefully examined the relics +of this ancient tongue, is Senor Don Estevan Richardo, a native of +Haiti, but who for many years resided in Cuba. His views are contained +in the preface to his _Diccionario Provincial casi-razonado de Voces +Cubanas_, (Habana, 2da ed, 1849). He has found very many words of the +ancient language retained in the provincial Spanish of the island, but +of course in a corrupt form. In the vocabulary which I have prepared for +the purpose of comparison, I have omitted all such corrupted forms, and +nearly all names of plants and animals, as it is impossible to identify +these with certainty, and in order to obtain greater accuracy, have +used, when possible, the first edition of the authors quoted, and in +most instances, given under each word a reference to some original +authority. + +From the various sources which I have examined, the alphabet of the +_lengua universal_ appears to have been as follows: a, b, d, e, (rarely +used at the commencement of a word), g, j, (an aspirated guttural like +the Catalan j, or as Peter Martyr says, like the Arabic ch), i (rare), l +(rare), m, n, o (rare,) p, q, r, s, t, u, y. These letters, it will be +remembered, are as in Spanish. + +The Spanish sounds z, ce, ci (English th,) ll, and v, were entirely +unknown to the natives, and where they appear in indigenous words, were +falsely written for l and b. The Spaniards also frequently distorted the +native names by writing x for j, s, and z, by giving j the sound of the +Latin y, and by confounding h, j, and f, as the old writers frequently +employ the h to designate the _spiritus asper_, whereas in modern +Spanish it is mute.[19] + +Peter Martyr found that he could reduce all the words of their language +to writing, by means of the Latin letters without difficulty, except in +the single instance of the guttural j. He, and all others who heard it +spoken, describe it as "soft and not less liquid than the Latin," "rich +in vowels and pleasant to the ear," an idiom "simple, sweet, and +sonorous."[20] + +In the following vocabulary I have not altered in the least the Spanish +orthography of the words, and so that the analogy of many of them might +at once be preceived,[TN-5] I have inserted the corresponding Arawack +expression, which, it must be borne in mind, is to be pronounced by the +German alphabet. + + +VOCABULARY OF THE ANCIENT LANGUAGE OF THE GREAT ANTILLES. + +Aji, red pepper. Arawack, _achi_, red pepper. + +Aon, dog (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. I, c. 120). Island Ar. _anli_, dog. + +Arcabuco, a wood, a spot covered with trees (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. de las +Indias, lib. VI, c,[TN-6] 8). Ar. _arragkaragkadin_ the swaying to and +fro of trees. + +Areito, a song chanted alternately by the priests and the people at +their feasts. (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V, c. 1.) Ar. _aririn_ to name, +rehearse. + +Bagua, the sea. Ar. _bara_, the sea. + +Bajaraque, a large house holding several hundred persons. From this +comes Sp. _barraca_, Eng. _barracks_. Ar. _bajue_, a house. + +Bajari, title applied to sub-chiefs ruling villages, (Las Casas, Hist. +Apol. cap. 120). Probably "house-ruler," from Ar. _bajue_, house. + +Barbacoa, a loft for drying maize, (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. VII, cap. +1). From this the English barbacue. Ar. _barrabakoa_, a place for +storing provisions. + +Batay, a ball-ground; bates, the ball; batey, the game. (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. c. 204). Ar. _battatan_, to be round, spherical.[21] + +Batea, a trough. (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. c. 241.) + +Bejique, a priest. Ar. _piaye_, a priest. + +Bixa, an ointment. (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 241.) + +Cai, cayo, or cayco, an island. From this the Sp. _cayo_, Eng. _key_, in +the "Florida keys." Ar. _kairi_, an island. + +Caiman, an alligator, Ar. _kaiman_, an alligator, lit. to be strong. + +Caona or cauni, gold. (Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. 26, Ed. Colon, 1564). Ar. +_kaijaunan_, to be precious, costly. + +Caracol, a conch, a univalve shell. From this the Sp. _caracol_. +(Richardo, Dicc. Provin. s. v). Probably from Galibi _caracoulis_, +trifles, ornaments. (See Martius, Sprachenkunde, B. II, p. 332.) + +Caney or cansi, a house of conical shape. + +Canoa, a boat. From this Eng. _canoe_. Ar. _kannoa_, a boat. + +Casique, a chief. This word was afterwards applied by Spanish writers to +the native rulers throughout the New World. Ar. _kassiquan_ (from +_ussequa_, house), to have or own a house or houses; equivalent, +therefore, to the Eng. landlord. + +Cimu or simu, the front, forehead; a beginning. (Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. +302.) Ar. _eme_ or _uime_, the mouth of a river, _uimelian_, to be new. + +Coaibai, the abode of the dead. + +Cohoba, the native name of tobacco. + +Conuco, a cultivated field. (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. VII, cap. 2.) + +Duhos or duohos, low seats (unas baxas sillas, Las Casas, Hist. Gen. +lib. I, cap[TN-7] 96. Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V. cap. 1. Richardo, _sub +voce_, by a careless reading of Oviedo says it means images). Ar. +_dulluhu_ or _durruhu_, a seat, a bench. + +Goeiz, the spirit of the living (Pane, p. 444); probably a corruption of +_Guayzas_. Ar. _akkuyaha_, the spirit of a living animal. + +Gua, a very frequent prefix: Peter Martyr says, "Est apud eos articulus +et pauca sunt regum praecipue nominum quae non incipiant ab hoc articulo +_gua_." (Decad. p. 285.) Very many proper names in Cuba and Hayti still +retain it. The modern Cubans pronounce it like the English w with the +_spiritus lenis_. It is often written _oa_, _ua_, _oua_, and _hua_. It +is not an article, but corresponds to the _ah_ in the Maya, and the +_gue_ in the Tupi of Brazil, from which latter it is probably +derived.[22] + +Guaca, a vault for storing provisions. + +Guacabiua, provisions for a journey, supplies. + +Guacamayo, a species of parrot, macrocercus tricolor. + +Guanara, a retired stop. (Pane, p. 444); a species of dove, columba +zenaida (Richardo, S. V.)[TN-8] + +Guanin, an impure sort of gold. + +Guaoxeri, a term applied to the lowest class of the inhabitants (Las +Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 197.) Ar. _wakaijaru_, worthless, dirty, +_wakaijatti lihi_, a worthless fellow. + +Guatiao, friend, companion (Richardo). Ar. _ahati_, companion, playmate. + +Guayzas, masks or figures (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 61). Ar. +_akkuyaha_, living beings. + +Haba, a basket (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. III, cap. 21). Ar. _habba_, a +basket. + +Haiti, stony, rocky, rough (Pet. Martyr, Decades). Ar. _aessi_ or +_aetti_, a stone. + +Hamaca, a bed, hammock. Ar. _hamaha_, a bed, hammock. + +Hico, a rope, ropes (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V, cap. 2). + +Hobin, gold, brass, any reddish metal. (Navarrete Viages, I, p. 134, +Pet. Martyr, Dec. p. 303). Ar. _hobin_, red. + +Huiho, height. (Pet. Martyr, p. 304). Ar. _aijumuen_, above, high up. + +Huracan, a hurricane. From this Sp. _huracan_, Fr. _ouragan_, German +_Orkan_, Eng. _hurricane_. This word is given in the _Livre Sacre des +Quiches_ as the name of their highest divinity, but the resemblance may +be accidental. Father Ximenes, who translated the _Livre Sacre_, derives +the name from the Quiche _hu rakan_, one foot. Father Thomas Coto, in +his Cakchiquel Dictionary, (MS. in the library of the Am. Phil. Soc.) +translates _diablo_ by _hurakan_, but as the equivalent of the Spanish +_huracan_, he gives _ratinchet_. + +Hyen, a poisonous liquor expressed from the cassava root. (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. cap. 2). + +Itabo, a lagoon, pond. (Richardo). + +Juanna, a serpent. (Pet. Martyr, p. 63). Ar. _joanna_, a lizard; +_jawanaria_, a serpent. + +Macana, a war club. (Navarrete, Viages.[TN-9] I, p. 135). + +Magua, a plain. (Las Casas, Breviss. Relat. p. 7). + +Maguey, a native drum. (Pet. Martyr, p. 280). + +Maisi, maize. From this Eng. _maize_, Sp. _mais_, Ar. _marisi_, maize. + +Matum, liberal, noble. (Pet. Martyr, p. 292). + +Matunheri, a title applied to the highest chiefs. (Las Casas, Hist. +Apol. cap. 197). + +Mayani, of no value, ("nihili," Pet. Martyr, p. 9). Ar. _ma_, no, not. + +Naborias, servants. (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. III, cap. 32). + +Nacan, middle, center. Ar. _annakan_, center. + +Nagua, or enagua, the breech cloth made of cotton and worn around the +middle. Ar. _annaka_, the middle. + +Nitainos, the title applied to the petty chiefs, (regillos o guiallos, +Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap,[TN-10] 197); _tayno_ vir bonus, _taynos_ +nobiles, says Pet. Martyr, (Decad. p. 25). The latter truncated form of +the word was adopted by Rafinesque and others, as a general name for the +people and language of Hayti. There is not the slightest authority for +this, nor for supposing, with Von Martius, that the first syllable is a +pronominal prefix. The derivation is undoubtedly Ar. _nueddan_ to look +well, to stand firm, to do anything well or skilfully. + +Nucay or nozay, gold, used especially in Cuba and on the Bahamas. The +words _caona_ and _tuob_ were in vogue in Haiti (Navarrete, Viages, Tom. +1, pp. 45, 134). + +Operito, dead, and + +Opia, the spirit of the dead (Pane, pp. 443, 444). Ar. _aparruen_ to +kill, _apparahun_ dead, _lupparruekittoa_ he is dead. + +Quisqueia, a native name of Haiti; "vastitas et universus ac totus. Uti +Graeci suum Panem," says Pet. Martyr (Decad. p. 279). "Madre de las +tierras," Valverde translates it (_Idea del valor de la Isla Espanola_, +Introd. p. xviii). The orthography is evidently very false. + +Sabana, a plain covered with grass without trees (terrano llano, Oviedo, +Hist. Gen. lib. vi. cap. 8). From this the Sp. _savana_, Eng. +_savannah_. Charlevoix, on the authority of Mariana, says it is an +ancient Gothic word (Histoire de l'Isle St. Domingue, i. p. 53). But it +is probably from the Ar. _sallaban_, smooth, level. + +Semi, the divinities worshipped by the natives ("Lo mismo que nosotros +llamamos Diablo," Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. v. cap. 1. Not evil spirits +only, but all spirits). Ar. _semeti_ sorcerers, diviners, priests. + +Siba, a stone. Ar. _siba_, a stone. + +Starei, shining, glowing (relucens, Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. 304). Ar. +_teren_ to be hot, glowing, _terehue_ heat. + +Tabaco, the pipe used in smoking the cohoba. This word has been applied +in all European languages to the plant nicotiana tabacum itself. + +Taita, father (Richardo). Ar. _itta_ father, _daitta_ or _datti_ my +father. + +Taguaguas, ornaments for the ears hammered from native gold (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. cap. 199). + +Tuob, gold, probably akin to _hobin_, q. v. + +Turey, heaven. Idols were called "cosas de _turey_" (Navarrete, Viages, +Tom. i. p. 221). Probably akin to _starei_, q. v. + +The following numerals are given by Las Casas (Hist. Apol. cap. 204). + +1 hequeti. Ar. _huerketai_, that is one, from _huerkuen_ to be single or +alone. + +2 yamosa. Ar. _biama_, two. + +3 canocum. Ar. _kannikun_, many, a large number, _kannikukade_, he has +many things. + +4 yamoncobre, evidently formed from yamosa, as Ar. _bibiti_, four, from +_biama_, two. + +The other numerals Las Casas had unfortunately forgotten, but he says +they counted by hands and feet, just as the Arawacks do to this day. + +Various compound words and phrases are found in different writers, some +of which are readily explained from the Arawack. Thus _tureigua hobin_, +which Peter Martyr translates "rex resplendens uti orichalcum,"[23] in +Arawack means "shining like something red." Oviedo says that at +marriages in Cuba it was customary for the bride to bestow her favors on +every man present of equal rank with her husband before the latter's +turn came. When all had thus enjoyed her, she ran through the crowd of +guests shouting _manicato, manicato_, "lauding herself, meaning that she +was strong, and brave, and equal to much."[24] This is evidently the Ar. +_manikade_, from _man_, _manin_, and means I am unhurt, I am +unconquered. When the natives of Haiti were angry, says Las Casas,[25] +they would not strike each other, but apply such harmless epithets as +_buticaco_, you are blue-eyed (anda para zarco de los ojos), +_xeyticaco_, you are black-eyed (anda para negro de los ojos), or +_mahite_, you have lost a tooth, as the case might be. The termination +_aco_ in the first two of these expressions is clearly the Ar. _acou_, +or _akusi_, eyes, and the last mentioned is not unlike the Ar. +_marikata_, you have no teeth (_ma_ negative, _ari_ tooth). The same +writer gives for "I do not know," the word _ita_, in Ar. _daitta_.[26] + +Some of the words and phrases I have been unable to identify in the +Arawack. They are _duiheyniquen_, dives fluvius, _maguacochios_ vestiti +homines, both in Peter Martyr, and the following conversation, which he +says took place between one of the Haitian chieftians[TN-11] and his +wife. + +She. Teitoca teitoca. Techeta cynato guamechyna. Guaibba. + +He. Cynato machabuca guamechyna. + +These words he translated: _teitoca_ be quiet, _techeta_ much, _cynato_ +angry, _guamechyna_ the Lord, _guaibba_ go, _machabuca_ what is it to +me. But they are either very incorrectly spelled, or are not Arawack. + +The proper names of localities in Cuba, Hayti and the Bahamas, furnish +additional evidence that their original inhabitants were Arawacks. +Hayti, I have already shown has now the same meaning in Arawack which +Peter Martyr ascribed to it at the discovery. Cubanacan, a province in +the interior of Cuba, is compounded of _kuba_ and _annakan_, in the +center;[27] Baracoa, the name of province on the coast, is from Ar. +_bara_ sea, _koan_ to be there, "the sea is there;" in Barajagua the +_bara_ again appears; Guaymaya is Ar. _waya_ clay, _mara_ there is none; +Marien is from Ar. _maran_ to be small or poor; Guaniguanico, a province +on the narrow western extremity of the island, with the sea on either +side, is probably Ar. _wuini wuini koa_, water, water is there. The +names of tribes such as Siboneyes, Guantaneyes, owe their termination to +the island Arawack, _eyeri_ men, in the modern dialect _hiaeru_, +captives, slaves. The Siboneyes are said by Las Casas, to have been the +original inhabitants of Cuba.[28] The name is evidently from Ar. _siba_, +rock, _eyeri_ men, "men of the rocks." The rocky shores of Cuba gave +them this appellation. On the other hand the natives of the islets of +the Bahamas were called _lukku kairi_, abbreviated to _lukkairi_, and +_lucayos_, from _lukku_, man, _kairi_ an island, "men of the islands;" +and the archipelago itself was called by the first explorers "las islas +de los Lucayos," "isole delle Lucai."[29] The province in the western +angle of Haiti was styled Guacaiarima, which Peter Martyr translates +"insulae podex;" dropping the article, _caiarima_ is sufficiently like +the Ar. _kairuina_, which signifies _podex_, Sp. _culata_, and is used +geographically in the same manner as the latter word. + +The word Maya frequently found in the names of places in Cuba and Haiti, +as Mayaba, Mayanabo, Mayajigua, Cajimaya, Jaimayabon, is doubtless the +Ar. negative _ma_, _man_, _mara_. Some writers have thought it +indicative of the extension of the Maya language of Yucatan over the +Antilles. Prichard, Squier, Waitz, Brasseur de Bourbourg, Bastian and +other ethnologists have felt no hesitation in assigning a large portion +of Cuba and Haiti to the Mayas. It is true the first explorers heard in +Cuba and Jamaica, vague rumors of the Yucatecan peninsula, and found wax +and other products brought from there.[30] This shows that there was +some communication between the two races, but all authorities agree that +there was but one language over the whole of Cuba. The expressions which +would lead to a different opinion are found in Peter Martyr. He relates +that in one place on the southern shore of Cuba, the interpreter whom +Columbus had with him, a native of San Salvador, was at fault. But the +account of the occurrence given by Las Casas, indicates that the native +with whom the interpreter tried to converse simply refused to talk at +all.[31] Again, in Martyr's account of Grijalva's voyage to Yucatan in +1517, he relates that this captain took with him a native to serve as an +interpreter; and to explain how this could be, he adds that this +interpreter was one of the Cuban natives "quorum idioma, si non idem, +consanguineum tamen," to that of Yucatan. This is a mere fabrication, as +the chaplain of Grijalva on this expedition states explicitly in the +narrative of it which he wrote, that the interpreter was a native of +Yucatan, who had been captured a year before.[32] + +Not only is there a very great dissimilarity in sound, words, and +structure, between the Arawack and Maya, but the nations were also far +asunder in culture. The Mayas were the most civilized on the continent, +while the Arawacks possessed little besides the most primitive arts, and +precisely that tribe which lived on the extremity of Cuba nearest +Yucatan, the Guanataneyes, were the most barbarous on the island.[33] + +The natives of the greater Antilles and Bahamas differed little in +culture. They cultivated maize, manioc, yams, potatoes, corn, and +cotton. The latter they wove into what scanty apparel they required. +Their arms were bows with reed arrows, pointed with fish teeth or +stones, stone axes, spears, and a war club armed with sharp stones +called a _macana_. They were a simple hearted, peaceful, contented race, +"all of one language and all friends," says Columbus; "not given to +wandering, naked, and satisfied with little," says Peter Martyr; "a +people very poor in all things," says Las Casas. + +Yet they had some arts. Statues and masks in wood and stone were found, +some of them in the opinion of Bishop Las Casas, "very skilfully +carved." They hammered the native gold into ornaments, and their rude +sculptures on the face of the rocks are still visible in parts of Cuba +and Haiti. Their boats were formed of single trunks of trees often of +large size, and they managed them adroitly; their houses were of reeds +covered with palm leaves, and usually accommodated a large number of +families; and in their holy places, they set up rows of large stones +like the ancient cromlechs, one of which is still preserved in Hayti, +and is known as _la cercada de los Indios_. + +Physically they were undersized, less muscular than the Spaniards, light +in color, with thick hair and scanty beards. Their foreheads were +naturally low and retreating, and they artificially flattened the skull +by pressure on the forehead or the occiput.[34] + +Three social grades seem to have prevailed, the common herd, the petty +chiefs who ruled villages, and the independent chiefs who governed +provinces. Of the latter there were in Cuba twenty-nine; in Haiti five, +as near as can be now ascertained.[35] Some of those in Cuba had shortly +before the arrival of the Spaniards moved there from Haiti, and at the +conquest one of the principal chiefs of Haiti was a native of the +Lucayos.[36] + +The fate of these Indians is something terrible to contemplate. At the +discovery there were probably 150,000 on Cuba, Haiti, and the +Bahamas.[37] Those on the latter were carried as slaves to Haiti to work +in the mines, and all of the Lucayos exterminated in three or four years +(1508-1512).[38] The sufferings of the Haitians have been told in a +graphic manner by Las Casas in an oft-quoted work.[39] His statements +have frequently been condemned as grossly exaggerated, but the official +documents of the early history of Cuba prove but too conclusively that +the worthy missionary reports correctly what terrible cruelties the +Spaniards committed. Cuba was conquered in 1514, and was then quite +densely populated. Fourteen years afterwards we find the Governor, +Gonzalo de Guzman, complaining that while troops of hunters were +formerly traversing the island constantly, asking no other pay than the +right of keeping as slaves the natives whom they captured, he now has to +pay patrolmen, as the Indians are so scarce.[40] The next year (1529) +the treasurer, Lope de Hurtado, writes that the Indians are in such +despair that they are hanging themselves twenty and thirty at a +time.[41] In 1530 the king is petitioned to relinquish his royalty on +the produce of the mines, because nearly all the Indians on the island +are dead.[42] And in 1532 the licentiate, Vadillo, estimates the total +number of Indians on the island, including the large percentage brought +from the mainland by the slavers, at only 4,500.[43] + +As a specimen of what the treatment of the Indians was, we have an +accusation in 1522 against Vasco Porcallo, afterwards one of the +companions of Hernando de Soto. He captured several Indians, cut off +their genitals, and forced them to eat them, cramming them down their +throats when they could not swallow. When asked for his defence, +Porcallo replied that he did it to prevent his own Indians from +committing suicide, as he had already lost two-thirds of his slaves in +that way. The defence was apparently deemed valid, for he was +released![44] + +The myths and traditions of the Haitians have fortunately been +preserved, though not in so perfect a form as might be wished. When +Bartholomew Columbus left Rome for the Indies, he took with him a lay +brother of the order of the Hermits of St. Jerome, Ramon Pane by name, a +Catalan by birth, a worthy but credulous and ignorant man.[45] On +reaching Haiti brother Pane was first sent among the natives of the +small province called Macorix de abajo, which had a language peculiar to +itself, but he was subsequently transferred to the province of Guarinoex +on the southeastern part of the island where the _lengua universal_ +prevailed. He remained there two years, and at the request of Columbus +collected and wrote down the legends and beliefs of the natives. + +He is not a model authority. In the first place, being a Catalan he did +not write Spanish correctly; he was very imperfectly acquainted with the +native tongue; he wrote hastily, and had not enough paper to write in +full; he is not sure that he commences their legends at the right end. +Moreover his manuscript is lost, and the only means we have of knowing +anything about it is by a very incorrectly printed Italian version, +printed in 1571, and two early synopses, one in Latin in the Decades of +Peter Martyr, the other in Italian, by Messer Zuane de Strozi of +Ferrara, which has been quite recently published for the first time.[46] +By comparing these we can arrive at the meaning of Brother Pane with +considerable accuracy. + +His work contains fragments of two distinct cycles of legends, the one +describing the history of the gods, the other the history of the human +race. + +Earliest of creatures was the woman, Atabeira or Ataves, who also bore +the other names Mamona, Guacarapita, Iiella, and Guimazoa. Her son was +the supreme ruler of all things, and chiefest of divinities. His names +were Yocauna, Guamaonocon, and Yocahu-vaguaniao-vocoti. He had a brother +called Guaca, and a son Iaiael. The latter rebelled against his father, +and was exiled for four mouths and then killed. The legend goes on to +relate that his bones were placed in a calabash and hung up in his +father's house. Here they changed into fishes, and the calabash filled +with water. One day four brothers passed that way, who had all been born +at one time, and whose mother, Itaba tahuana, had died in bringing them +into the world. Seeing the calabash filled with fish the oldest of the +four, Caracaracol, the Scabby, lifted it down, and all commenced to eat. +While thus occupied, Yocauna suddenly made his appearance, which so +terrified the brothers that they dropped the gourd and broke it into +pieces. From it ran all the waters of the world, and formed the oceans, +lakes, and rivers as they now are. + +At this time there were men but no women, and the men did not dare to +venture into the sunlight. Once, as they were out in the rain, they +perceived four creatures, swift as eagles and slippery as eels. The men +called to their aid Caracaracol and his brothers, who caught these +creatures and transformed them into women. In time, these became the +mothers of mankind. + +The earliest natives of Haiti came under the leadership of the hero-god, +Vaguoniona, a name applied by Las Casas to Yocahu, from an island to the +south called in the legend Matinino, which all the authors identify, I +know not why, with Martinique. They landed first on the banks of the +river Bahoboni in the western part of Haiti, and there erected the first +house, called Camoteia. This was ever after preserved and regarded with +respectful veneration. + +Such, in brief, were their national myths. Conspicuously marked in them +we note the sacred number four, the four brothers typifying the cardinal +points, whose mother, the Dawn, dies in giving them birth, just as in +the Algonkin myths. These brothers aid the men in their struggles for +life, and bring to them the four women, the rain-bringing winds. Here, +too, the first of existences is the woman, whose son is at once highest +of divinities and the guide and instructor of their nation. These +peculiarities I have elsewhere shown to be general throughout the +religions of America.[47] + +The myth of the thunder storm also appears among them in its triplicate +nature so common to the American mind. God of the storm was Guabancex, +whose statue was made of stones. When angry he sent before him as +messenger, Guatauva, to gather the winds, and accompanied by +Coatrischie, who collected the rain-clouds in the valleys of the +mountains, he swept down upon the plain, surrounded by the awful +paraphernalia of the thunder storm.[48] + +Let us place side by side with these ancient myths the national legend +of the Arawacks.[49] They tell of a supreme spiritual being Yauwahu or +Yauhahu. Pain and sickness are the invisible shafts he shoots at men, +_yauhahu simaira_ the arrows of Yauhahu, and he it is whom the priests +invoke in their incantations. Once upon a time, men lived without any +means to propitiate this unseen divinity; they knew not how to ward off +his anger or conciliate him. At that time the Arawacks did not live in +Guiana, but in an island to the north. One day a man named Arawanili +walked by the waters grieving over the ignorance and suffering of his +nation. Suddenly the spirit of the waters, the woman Orehu, rose from +the waves and addressed him. She taught him the mysteries of _semeci_, +the sorcery which pleases and controls Yauhahu, and presented him with +the _maraka_, the holy calabash containing white pebbles which they +rattle during their exorcisms, and the sound of which summons the beings +of the unseen world. Arawanili faithfully instructed his people in all +that Orehu had said, and thus rescued them from their wretchedness. When +after a life of wisdom and good deeds the hour of his departure came, he +"did not die, but went up." + +Orehu accompanied the Arawacks when they moved to the main, and still +dwells in a treeless, desolate spot, on the banks of the Pomeroon. The +negroes of the colony have learned of her, and call her in their broken +English, the "watra-mamma," the water-mother. + +The proper names which occur in these myths, date back to the earliest +existence of the Arawacks as an independent tribe, and are not readily +analyzed by the language as it now exists. The Haitian Yocauna seems +indeed identical with the modern Yauhahu. Atabes or Atabeira is probably +from _itabo_, lake, lagoon, and _era_, water, (the latter only in +composition, as _hurruru_, mountain, _era_, water, mountain-water, a +spring, a source), and in some of her actions corresponds with Orehu. +Caracaracol is translated by Brother Pane, as "the Scabby" or the one +having ulcers, and in this respect the myth presents a curious analogy +with many others in America. In modern Arawack _karrikala_ is a form, in +the third person singular, from _karrin_, to be sick, to be pregnant. +Arawanili, which one might be tempted to suppose gave the name Arawack +to the tribe, did not all writers derive this differently, may be a form +of _awawa_, father. In the old language, the termination _el_, is said +to have meant son. + +Of the two remaining languages said to have been spoken in the small +provinces of Macorix de arriba and Macorix de abajo, in Hayti, we have +no certain knowledge.[50] Las Casas gives one word from the former. It +is _bazca_, no, not. I cannot identify it. There is reason, however, to +suppose one of them was the Tupi or "lengua geral," of Brazil. Pane +gives at least two words which are pure Tupi, and not Arawack. They are +the names of two hideous idols supposed to be inimical to men. The one +was Bugi, in Tupi, _ugly_, the other Aiba, in Tupi, _bad_. It is +noteworthy, also, that Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan on his voyage +around the world, gives a number of words, ostensibly in the language of +the natives of Rio Janeiro, where the Tupi was spoken, which are +identical with those of Haiti, as _cacich_, chief, _boi_, house, +_hamac_, bed, _canoe_, boat. But Pigafetta acknowledges that he obtained +these words not from the natives themselves, but from the pilot Juan +Carvalhos, who had been for years sailing over the West Indian seas, and +had no doubt learned these words in the Antilles.[51] + +The remaining idiom may be supposed to have been Carib, although we have +actually no evidence that the Caribs had gained a permanent foothold on +any of the Great Antilles at the period of the discovery, some careless +assertions of the old authors to the contrary, notwithstanding. + +The investigation which I here close, shows that man in his migrations +on the Western Continent followed the lead of organic nature around him. +For it is well known that the flora and fauna of the Antilles are South +American in character, and also, that the geological structure of the +archipelago connects it with the southern mainland. So also its earliest +known human inhabitants were descended from an ancestry whose homes were +in the far south, and who by slow degrees moved from river to river, +island to island, until they came within a few miles of the northern +continent. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Since reading this article before the Society, Prof. S. S. Haldeman +has shown me a copy of a work with the title: "_Die Geschichte von der +Marterwoche, Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt unsers Herrn und Heilandes +Jesu Christi. Uebersetzt in die Aruwackische Sprache und erklaerend +umschrieben. Philadelphia: Gedruckt bey Carl List, 1799_," 8vo. pages +213, then one blank leaf, then 40 pages of "Anmerkungen." There is also +a second title, in Arawack, and neither title page is included in the +pagination. The Arawack title begins: "_Wadaijahun Wueuessada-goanti, +Wappussida-goanti baddia Jesus Christus_," etc. The remarks at the end +are chiefly grammatical and critical, and contain many valuable hints to +the student of the language. I have no doubt this book is the Life of +Christ mentioned in the text. The name of the translator or editor is +nowhere mentioned, but I have no doubt Mr. Schultz wrote the +"Anmerkungen," and read the proof, as not only are his grammatical signs +and orthography adopted throughout, but also we know from other sources +that he was in Philadelphia at that time. + +[2] Brett, _The Indian Tribes of Guiana_, p. 117 (London, 1868). + +[3] _Etudes Philologiques sur quelquee[TN-12] Langues Sauvages de +l'Amerique_, p. 87 (Montreal, 1866). + +[4] _Beitraege zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika's zumal +Brasiliens_, B. I., p. 705 (Leipzig, 1867). + +[5] De Laet. _Novus Orbis_, lib. xvii., cap. vi. + +[6] Martius, _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika's_, B. I., S. 687. + +[7] Antonio Julian, _La Perla de la America, la Provincia de Santa +Marta_, p. 149. + +[8] _Ethnographie, etc._, B. I., S. 714. + +[9] _The Myths of the New World; a Treatise on the Symbolism and +Mythology of the Red Race of America_, p. 32 (New York, 1868). + +[10] _The Discoverie of Guiana_, p[TN-13] 4 (Hackluyt, Soc., London, +1842). + +[11] _Relation de l'Origine, etc., des Caraibes_, p. 39 (Paris, 1674). + +[12] "Havia mas policia entre ellos [los Lucayos,] i mucha diversidad de +Lenguas." _Hist. de las Indias_, cap. 41. + +[13] Las Casas, in the _Historia General de las Indias Occid[TN-14]_, +lib. III, cap. 27, criticizes him severely. + +[14] Columbus says of the Bahamas and Cuba: "toda la lengua es una y +todos amigos" (Navarrete, _Viages_, Tomo I, p. 46.) The natives of +Guanahani conversed with those of Haiti "porque todos tenian una +lengua," (_ibid_, p. 86.) In the Bay of Samana a different dialect but +the same language was found (p. 135). + +[15] Gomara says the language of Cuba is "algo diversa," from that of +Espanola. (_Hist. de las Indias_, cap. 41.) Oviedo says that though the +natives of the two islands differ in many words, yet they readily +understand each other. (_Hist. de las Indias_, lib. XVII. cap. 4.) + +[16] The American Nations, chap. VII, (Philadelphia, 1836.) + +[17] _Cuba, die Perle der Antillen_, p. 72. (Leipzig, 1831.) The +vocabulary contains 33 words, "_aus dem Cubanischen_." Many are +incorrect both in spelling and pronunciation. + +[18] When Columbus returned from his first voyage, he brought with him +ten natives from the Bay of Samana in Haiti, and a few from Guanahani. + +[19] See the remarks of Richardo in the Prologo to his _Diccionario +Provincial_. + +[20] The remarks of Peter Martyr are; "posse omnium illarum linguam +nostris literis Latinis, sine ullo discrimine, scribi compertum est," +(_De Rebus Oceanicis et Novo Orbe_, Decades Tres, p. 9.) "Advertendum +est, nullam inesse adspirationem vocabulis corum, quae non habeat +effectum literae consonantis; immo gravius adspirationem proferunt, quam +nos f consonantem. Proferendumque est quicquid est adspiratum eodum +halitu quo f, sed minime admoto ad superiores dentes inferiore labello, +ore aut aperto ha, he hi, ho, hu, et concusso pectore. Hebraeos et +Arabicos eodem modo suas proferre adspirationes vides," (id. pp. 285, +286.) + +[21] There was a ball-ground in every village. It was "tres veces mas +luenga que ancha, cercada de unos lomillos de un palmo o dos de alto." +The ball was "como las de viento nuestras mas no cuanto al salto, que +era mayor que seis de las de viento." (Las Casas, _Historia +Apologetica_, caps. 46, 204.) Perhaps the ball was of India rubber. + +[22] "Gue ou Gui, signal de vocativo, mas so empregado pelos homems." +Dias _Diccionario da Lingua Tupy chamada Lingua Geral dos Indigenas do +Brazil_, p. 60 (Lipsia, 1858). + +[23] _De Rebus Oceanicis_, p. 303. + +[24] _Hist. de las Indias_, lib. xvii. cap. 4, Las Casas denies the +story, and says Oviedo told it in order to prejudice people against the +natives (_Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, lib. iii. cap. xxiv). It is, +however, probably true. + +[25] _Historia Apologetica_, cap. 198. + +[26] He compares the signification of _ita_ in Haytian to _ita_ in +Latin, and translates the former _ita_ by _no se_; this is plainly an +error of the transcriber for _yo se_ (_Hist. Apologetica_, cap. 241). + +[27] _Kuba_ in Arawack is the sign of past time and is used as a prefix +to nouns, as well as a suffix to verbs. _Kubakanan_ ancestors, those +passed away, those who lived in past times. + +[28] "Toda la mas de la gente de que estaba poblaba aquella isla [Cuba] +era passada y natural desta ysla Espanola, puesto que la mas antigua y +natural de aquella ysla era como la de los Lucayos de quien ablamos en +el primero y segundo libro ser como los seres que parecia no haber +pecado nuestro padre Adan en ellos, gente simplicissima, bonissima, +careciente de todos vicios, y beatissima. Esta era la natural y native +de aquella ysla, y llamabanse en su lengua, Ciboneyes, la penultima +silaba luenga; y los desta por grado o por fuerza se apodearon de +aquella ysla y gente della, y los tenian como sirvientes suyos." (Las +Casas _Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, MSS. lib. iii, cap. 21). Elsewhere +(cap. 23) he says this occurred "mayormente" after the Spaniards had +settled in Haiti. + +[29] "Lucayos o por mejor decir Yucayos" says Las Casas, (_Hist. Gen._ +lib. ii. cap. 44) and after him Herrera. But the correction which was +based apparently on some supposed connection of the word with _yuca_, +the Haitian name of an esculent plant, is superfluous, and Las Casas +himself never employs it, nor a single other writer. + +[30] Las Casas. _Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, lib. iv. cap. 48, MSS. Bees +were native to Yucatan long before the discovery, but not to the north +temperate zone. + +[31] "Varia enim esse idiomata in varils Cubae provinelis perpenderunt." +(Pet. Martyr, _De Rebus Oceanicis_, v. 42). Las Casas says that a sailor +told Columbus that he saw one Indian cacique in a long white tunic who +refused to speak, but stalked silently away. (_Hist. de las Indias_, +lib. I. cap. 95). Martyr says there were several. Peschel suggests they +were tall white flamingoes, that scared the adventurous tar out of his +wits. (_Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen_, p. 253). At any +rate the story gives no foundation at all for Peter Martyr's +philogical[TN-15] opinion. + +[32] Pet. Martyr, _De Insulis Nuper Inventis_, p. 335. "Traia consigo +Grisalva un Indio per lengua de los que de aquella tierra habian llevado +consigo a la ysla de Cuba Francisco Hernandez.[TN-16] Las Casas _Hist. +Gen. de las Indias_, lib. III, cap. 108, MSS. See also the chaplain's +account in Terneaux Compans, _Recueil de Pieces rel. a la Conquete de +Mexique_, p. 56. + +[33] Bernal Dias says the vicinity of cape San Antonio was inhabited by +the "Guanataneys que son unos Indias como salvages." He expressly adds +that their clothing differed from that of the Mayas, and that the Cuban +natives with him could not understand the Maya language. _Historia +Verdadera_, cap. II. + +[34] "Presso capite, fronte lata" (Nicolaus Syllacius, _De Insulis nuper +Inventis_, p. 86. Reprint, New York, 1859. This is the extremely rare +account of Columbus' second voyage). Six not very perfect skulls were +obtained in 1860, by Col. F. S. Heneken, from a cavern 15 miles +south-west from Porto Plata. They are all more or less distorted in a +discoidal manner, one by pressure over the frontal sinus, reducing the +calvaria to a disk. (J. Barnard Davis, _Thesaurus Craniorum_, p. 236, +London, 1867. Mr. Davis erroneously calls them Carib skulls). + +[35] The provinces of Cuba are laid down on the _Mapa de la Isla de Cuba +segun la division de los Naturales_, por D. Jose Maria de la Torre y de +la Torre, in the _Memorias de la Sociedad Patriotica de la Habana_, +1841. See also Felipe Poey, _Geografia de la Isla de Cuba_, Habana, +1853. _Apendice sobre la Geografia Antigua._ Las Casas gives the five +provinces of Hayti by the names of their chiefs, Guarinox, Guacanagari, +Behechio, Caonabo and Higuey. For their relative position see the map in +Charlevoix's _Histoire de l'Isle San Domingue_, Paris, 1740, and in +Baumgarten's _Geschichte von Amerika_, B. II. + +[36] This was Caonabo. Oviedo, and following him Charlevoix, say he was +a Carib, but Las Casas, who having lived twenty years in Haiti +immediately after the discovery, is infinitely the best authority, says: +"Era de nacion Lucayo, natural de las islas de los Lucayos, que se paso +de ellas aca." (_Historia Apologetica_, cap. 179, MSS[TN-17]). + +[37] I put the figures very low. Peter Martyr, whose estimates are the +lowest of any writer, says there were more than 200,000 natives on Haiti +alone. (_De Rebus Oceanicis_, p. 295.) + +[38] More than 40,000 were brought to Haiti to enjoy the benefits of +Christian instruction, says Herrera, with what might pass as a ghastly +sarcasm. (_Historia General de las Indias_, Dec. I, lib. VIII. cap. 3). + +[39] _Brevissima Relacion de la Destruccion de las Indias Occidentales +par los Castellanos_, Sevilla, 1552. + +[40] Ramon de de[TN-18] la Sagra, _Historia de la Isla de Cuba_, Tom. II, +p. 381. + +[41] Ibid, p. 394. + +[42] Ibid, p. 396. + +[43] Ibid, p. 414. + +[44] Ibid, p. 385. These references to De la Sagra's work are all to the +original documents in his Appendix. + +[45] Las Casas knew Pane personally, and gives his name correctly (not +_Roman_, as all the printed authorities have it). He described him as +"hombre simple y de buena intencion;" "fuese Catalan de nacion y no +habla del todo bien nuestra lengua Castellana." Ramon came to Haiti four +or five years before Las Casas, and the latter speaks of him in a +disparaging tone. "Este Fray Ramon escudrino lo que pudo, segun lo que +alcanzo de las lenguas que fueron tres, las que habia en esta ysia: pero +no supo sino la una de una chica provincia, que arriba dejimos llamarse +Macaria de abajo, y aquella no perfectamente.[TN-19] (_Historia +Apologetica, MSS._[TN-20] cap. 120, see also cap. 162). This statement is +not quite true, as according to Las Casas' own admission Pane dwelt two +years in the province of Guarinoex, where the _lengua universal_ was +spoken, and _there_ collected these traditions. + +[46] Pane's account was first published in the _Historie del +Frenando[TN-21] Colombo_, Venetia, 1571, from which it has recently been +translated and published with notes by Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, +1864. The version of Zuane de Strozi is in the Appendix to Harrisse's +_Bibliotheca Primordia Americana_, p. 474. + +[47] _The myths of the New World_, (New York, 1868). + +[48] See the work last quoted, p. 156, for a number of similar myths of +the trinity of the storm. + +[49] I take these as they are related in Bretts, _Indian Tribes of +Guiana_, Part ii, chap. x. + +[50] The most trustworthy author is Las Casas. As his works are still in +manuscript, I give his words. "Tres lenguas habia en esta ysla distintas +que la una a la otra no se entendia. La una era de la gente que +llamabamos Macorix de abajo y la otra de los vecinos del Macorix de +arriba. La otra lengua fue la universal de toda la tierra, y esta era +mas elegante y mas copiosa de vocablos, y mas dulce al sonido. En esto +la de Xaragua en todo llevaba ventaja, y era mui mas prima." (_Historia +Apologetica_, cap. 197). "Es aqui de saber que un gran pedajo de esta +costa (that of the northern part of Haiti), bien mas de veinte y cinco o +treinta leguas y quince buenas y aun veinte de ancho hasta las sierras +que haren desta parte del norte la gran Vega inclusive, era poblado de +una gente que se llamaron Mazoriges, y otras Ciguayos, y tenian diversas +lenguas de la universal de todas las islas." (_Historia General_, lib. +I, cap. 77). "Llamaban Ciguayos porque trayan todos los cabellos mui +luengos como en Nueva Castilla las mujeres," (id. cap. 77). The cacique +of the Ciguayos was named Mayomanex or Mayobanex, (id. lib. I, cap. +120). They went almost naked, and had no arms, "eran Gallinas almenos +para con los unos, como no tuviesen armas," (id. cap. 120.) + +[51] Pigafetta, _Reise um die Welt_, so. 21, 26, 247, (Gotha, 1802; a +translation of the Italian original in the library at Milan). + + + + +Transcriber's Note + + +The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained. + + Page Error + TN-1 2 Mr. Shultz should read Schultz + TN-2 2 dipthongs should read diphthongs + TN-3 7 Second preterite should read Second preterite: + TN-4 9 Lact's should read Laet's + TN-5 11 preceived should read perceived + TN-6 11 VI, c, 8 should read VI, c. 8 + TN-7 12 lib. I, cap 96 should read lib. I, cap. 96 + TN-8 12 S. V.) should read S. V.). + TN-9 13 Navarrete, Viages. should read Navarrete, Viages, + TN-10 13 Apol. cap, should read Apol. cap. + TN-11 14 chieftians should read chieftains + TN-12 fn. 3 quelquee should read quelques + TN-13 fn. 10 p 4 should read p. 4 + TN-14 fn. 13 Indias Occid should read Indias Occid. + TN-15 fn. 31 philogical should read philological + TN-16 fn. 32 Hernandez. should read Hernandez." + TN-17 fn. 36 MSS should read MSS. + TN-18 fn. 40 Ramon de de should read Ramon de + TN-19 fn. 45 perfectamente. should read perfectamente." + TN-20 fn. 45 <i>MSS.</i> should read MSS. + TN-21 fn. 46 Frenando should read Fernando + +Other inconsistencies: + +The relative position of , and ) is not consistent. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arawack Language of Guiana in its +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, by Daniel G. Brinton + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA *** + +***** This file should be named 31273.txt or 31273.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/2/7/31273/ + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/31273.zip b/31273.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b55d00f --- /dev/null +++ b/31273.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..51b51f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #31273 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/31273) |