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diff --git a/31273-8.txt b/31273-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..af2e7c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/31273-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1988 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arawack Language of Guiana in its +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, by Daniel G. Brinton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Arawack Language of Guiana in its Linguistic and Ethnological Relations + +Author: Daniel G. Brinton + +Release Date: February 14, 2010 [EBook #31273] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA *** + + + + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of +this book. They have been marked with a [TN-#], which refers to a +description in the complete list found at the end of the text. + +The following codes for less common characters were used: + +[oe] oe ligature +[lr] l printed over r + + + + + + THE ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA + + IN ITS + + Linguistic and Ethnological Relations. + + + By D. G. BRINTON, M. D. + + + PHILADELPHIA: + McCALLA & STAVELY, PRINTERS. + 237-9 DOCK STREET. + 1871. + + + + +THE ARAWACK LANGUAGE OF GUIANA + +IN ITS + +LINGUISTIC AND ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS. + +BY D. G. BRINTON, M. D. + + +The Arawacks are a tribe of Indians who at present dwell in British and +Dutch Guiana, between the Corentyn and Pomeroon rivers. They call +themselves simply _lukkunu_, men, and only their neighbors apply to them +the contemptuous name _aruac_ (corrupted by Europeans into Aroaquis, +Arawaaks, Aroacos, Arawacks, etc.), meal-eaters, from their peaceful +habit of gaining an important article of diet from the amylaceous pith +of the _Mauritia flexuosa_ palm, and the edible root of the cassava +plant. + +They number only about two thousand souls, and may seem to claim no more +attention at the hands of the ethnologist than any other obscure Indian +tribe. But if it can be shown that in former centuries they occupied the +whole of the West Indian archipelago to within a few miles of the shore +of the northern continent, then on the question whether their +affiliations are with the tribes of the northern or southern mainland, +depends our opinion of the course of migration of the primitive +inhabitants of the western world. And if this is the tribe whose +charming simplicity Columbus and Peter Martyr described in such poetic +language, then the historian will acknowledge a desire to acquaint +himself more closely with its past and its present. It is my intention +to show that such was their former geographical position. + +While in general features there is nothing to distinguish them from the +red race elsewhere, they have strong national traits. Physically they +are rather undersized, averaging not over five feet four inches in +height, but strong-limbed, agile, and symmetrical. Their foreheads are +low, their noses more allied to the Aryan types than usual with their +race, and their skulls of that form defined by craniologists as +orthognathic brachycephalic. + +From the earliest times they have borne an excellent character. +Hospitable, peace-loving, quick to accept the humbler arts of +civilization and the simpler precepts of Christianity, they have ever +offered a strong contrast to their neighbors, the cruel and warlike +Caribs. They are not at all prone to steal, lie, or drink, and their +worst faults are an addiction to blood-revenge, and a superstitious +veneration for their priests. + +They are divided into a number of families, over fifty in all, the +genealogies of which are carefully kept in the female line, and the +members of any one of which are forbidden to intermarry. In this +singular institution they resemble many other native tribes. + + +LANGUAGE. + +The earliest specimen of their language under its present name is given +by Johannes de Laet in his _Novus Orbis, seu Descriptio Indiæ +Occidentalis_ (Lugd. Bat. 1633). It was obtained in 1598. In 1738 the +Moravian brethren founded several missionary stations in the country, +but owing to various misfortunes, the last of their posts was given up +in 1808. To them we owe the only valuable monuments of the language in +existence. + +Their first instructor was a mulatto boy, who assisted them in +translating into the Arawack a life of Christ. I cannot learn that this +is extant. Between 1748 and 1755 one of the missionaries, Theophilus +Schumann, composed a dictionary, _Deutsch-Arawakisches W[oe]rterbuch_, +and a grammar, _Deutsch-Arawakische Sprachlehre_, which have remained +in manuscript in the library of the Moravian community at Paramaribo. +Schumann died in 1760, and as he was the first to compose such works, +the manuscript dictionary in the possession of Bishop Wullschlägel, +erroneously referred by the late Professor von Martius to the first +decade of the last century, is no doubt a copy of Schumann's. + +In 1807 another missionary, C. Quandt, published a _Nachricht von +Surinam_, the appendix to which contains the best published grammatical +notice of the tongue. The author resided in Surinam from 1769 to 1780. + +Unquestionably, however, the most complete and accurate information in +existence concerning both the verbal wealth and grammatical structure of +the language, is contained in the manuscripts of the Rev. Theodore +Schultz, now in the library of the AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Mr. +Shultz[TN-1] was a Moravian missionary, who was stationed among the +Arawacks from 1790 to 1802, or thereabout. The manuscripts referred to +are a dictionary and a grammar. The former is a quarto volume of 622 +pages. The first 535 pages comprise an Arawack-German lexicon, the +remainder is an appendix containing the names of trees, stars, birds, +insects, grasses, minerals, places, and tribes. The grammar, +_Grammattikalische Sätze von der Aruwakkischen Sprache_, is a 12mo +volume of 173 pages, left in an unfinished condition. Besides these he +left at his death a translation of the Acts of the Apostles, which was +published in 1850 by the American Bible Society under the title _Act +Apostelnu_. It is from these hitherto unused sources that I design to +illustrate the character of the language, and study its former +extension.[1] + + +PHONETICS. + +The Arawack is described as "the softest of all the Indian tongues."[2] +It is rich in vowels, and free from gutturals. The enunciation is +distinct and melodious. As it has been reduced to writing by Germans, +the German value must be given to the letters employed, a fact which +must always be borne in mind in comparing it with the neighboring +tongues, nearly all of which are written with the Spanish orthography. + +The Arawack alphabet has twenty letters: a, b, d, e, g, h, i, j, k, l, +m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, w. + +Besides these, they have a semi-vowel written [lr] the sound of which in +words of the masculine gender approaches l, in those of the neuter +gender r. The o and u, and the t and d, are also frequently blended. The +w has not the German but the soft English sound, as in _we_. The German +dipthongs[TN-2] æ, [oe], eu, ei, ü, are employed. The accents are the +long ^, the acute `, and that indicating the emphasis ´. The latter is +usually placed near the commencement of the word, and must be carefully +observed. + + +NOUNS. + +Like most Indians, the Arawack rarely uses a noun in the abstract. An +object in his mind is always connected with some person or thing, and +this connection is signified by an affix, a suffix, or some change in +the original form of the word. To this rule there are some exceptions, +as _bahü_ a house, _siba_ a stone, _hiäru_ a woman. _Dáddikân hiäru_, I +see a woman. Such nouns are usually roots. Those derived from verbal +roots are still more rarely employed independently. + +NUMBERS. The plural has no regular termination. Often the same form +serves for both numbers, as is the case in many English words. Thus, +_itime_ fish and fishes, _siba_ stone and stones, _känsiti_ a lover and +lovers. The most common plural endings are _ati_, _uti_, and _anu_, +connected to the root by a euphonic letter; as _uju_ mother, _ujunuti_ +mothers, _itti_ father, _ittinati_ fathers, _kansissia_ a loved one, +_kansissiannu_ loved ones. + +Of a dual there is no trace, nor does there seem to be of what is called +the American plural (exclusive or inclusive of those present). But there +is a peculiar plural form with a singular signification in the language, +which is worthy of note. An example will illustrate it; _itti_ is +father, plural _ittinati_; _wattinati_ is our father, not our fathers, +as the form would seem to signify. In other words, singular nouns used +with plural pronouns, or construed with several other nouns, take a +plural form. _Petrus Johannes mutti ujúnatu_, the mother of Peter and +John. + +GENDERS. A peculiarity, which the Arawack shares with the Iroquois[3] +and other aboriginal languages of the Western continent, is that it only +has two genders, and these not the masculine and feminine, as in French, +but the masculine and neuter. Man or nothing was the motto of these +barbarians. Regarded as an index of their mental and social condition, +this is an ominous fact. It hints how utterly destitute they are of +those high, chivalric feelings, which with us centre around woman. + +The termination of the masculine is _i_, of the neuter _u_, and, as I +have already observed, a permutation of the semi-vowels _l_ and _r_ +takes place, the letter becoming _l_ in the masculine, _r_ in the +neuter. A slight difference in many words is noticeable when pronounced +by women or by men. The former would say _keretin_, to marry; the latter +_kerejun_. The gender also appears by more than one of these changes: +_ipillin_, great, strong, masculine; _ipirrun_, feminine and neuter. + +There is no article, either definite or indefinite, and no declension of +nouns. + + +PRONOUNS. + +The demonstrative and possessive personal pronouns are alike in form, +and, as in other American languages, are intimately incorporated with +the words with which they are construed. A single letter is the root of +each: _d_ I, mine, _b_ thou, thine, _l_ he, his, _t_ she, her, it, its, +_w_ we, our, _h_ you, your, _n_ they, their; to these radical letters +the indefinite pronoun _ükküahü_, somebody, is added, and by +abbreviation the following forms are obtained, which are those usually +current: + + dakia, dai, I. + bokkia, bui, thou. + likia, he. + turreha, she, it. + wakia, wai, we. + hukia, hui, you. + nakia, nai, they. + +Except the third person, singular, they are of both genders. In +speaking, the abbreviated form is used, except where for emphasis the +longer is chosen. + +In composition they usually retain their first vowel, but this is +entirely a question of euphony. The methods of their employment with +nouns will be seen in the following examples: + + _üssiquahü_, a house. + dássiqua, my house. + bússiqua, thy house. + + lüssiqua, his house. + + tüssiqua, her, its house. + wássiqua, our house. + + hüssiqua, your house. + nássiqua, their house. + + _uju_, mother. + daiju, my mother. + buju, thy mother. + luju, his mother. + tuju, her mother. + waijunattu, our mother. + hujuattu, your mother. + naijattu, their mother. + waijunuti, our mothers. + hujunuti, your mothers. + naijunuti, their mothers. + +Many of these forms suffer elision in speaking. _Itti_ father, _datti_ +my father, _wattínatti_ our father, contracted to _wattínti_ (_watti_ +rarely used). + +When thus construed with pronouns, most nouns undergo some change of +form, usually by adding an affix; _báru_ an axe, _dábarun_ my axe, +_iulí_ tobacco, _dajulite_ my tobacco. + + +ADJECTIVES. + +The verb is the primitive part of speech in American tongues. To the +aboriginal man every person and object presents itself as either doing +or suffering something, every quality and attribute as something which +is taking place or existing. His philosophy is that of the extreme +idealists or the extreme materialists, who alike maintain that nothing +_is_, beyond the cognizance of our senses. Therefore his adjectives are +all verbal participles, indicating a state of existence. Thus _üssatu_ +good, is from _üssân_ to be good, and means the condition of being good, +a good woman or thing, _üssati_ a good man. + +Some adjectives, principally those from present participles, have the +masculine and neuter terminations _i_ and _u_ in the singular, and in +the plural _i_ for both genders. Adjectives from the past participles +end in the singular in _issia_ or _üssia_, in the plural in _annu_. When +the masculine ends in _illi_, the neuter takes _urru_, as _wadikilli_, +_wadikurru_, long. + +Comparison is expressed by adding _bén_ or _kén_ or _adin_ (a verb +meaning to be above) for the comparative, and _apüdi_ for the +diminutive. _Ubura_, from the verb _uburau_ to be before in time, and +_adiki_, from _adikin_ to be after in time, are also used for the same +purpose. The superlative has to be expressed by a circumlocution; as +_tumaqua aditu ipirrun turreha_, what is great beyond all else; +_bokkia üssá dáuria_, thou art better than I, where the last word is a +compound of _dai uwúria_ of, from, than. The comparative degree of the +adjectives corresponds to the intensive and frequentative forms of the +verbs; thus _ipirrun_ to be strong, _ipirru_ strong, _ipirrubîn_ and +_ipirrubessabun_ to be stronger, _ipirrubetu_ and _ipirrubessabutu_ +stronger, that which is stronger. + +The numerals are wonderfully simple, and well illustrate how the +primitive man began his arithmetic. They are:-- + + 1 abba. + 2 biama, plural biamannu. + 3 kabbuhin, plural kubbuhinínnu. + 4 bibiti, plural bibitinu. + 5 abbatekkábe, plural abbatekabbunu. + 6 abbatiman, plural abbatimannínu. + 7 biamattiman, plural biamattimannínu. + 8 kabbuhintiman, plural kabbuhintimannínu. + 9 bibitiman, plural bibititumannínu. + 10 biamantekábbe, plural biamantekábunu. + +Now if we analyze these words, we discover that _abbatekkábe_ five, is +simply _abba_ one, and _akkabu_, hand; that the word for six is +literally "one [finger] of the other [hand]," for seven "two [fingers] +of the other [hand]," and so on to ten, which is compounded of _biama_ +two, and _akkabu_ hands. Would they count eleven, they say _abba +kutihibena_ one [toe] from the feet, and for twenty the expression is +_abba lukku_ one man, both hands and feet. Thus, in truth, they have +only four numerals, and it is even a question whether these are +primitive, for _kabbuhin_ seems a strengthened form of _abba_, and +_bibuti_ to bear the same relation to _biama_. Therefore we may look +back to a time when this nation knew not how to express any numbers +beyond one and two. + +Although these numbers do not take peculiar terminations when applied to +different objects, as in the languages of Central America and Mexico, +they have a great variety of forms to express the relationship in which +they are used. The ordinals are: + + atenennuati, first. + ibiamattéti, second. + wakábbuhinteti, our third, etc. + +To the question, How many at a time? the answer is: + + likinnekewai, one alone. + biamanuman, two at a time, etc. + +If simply, How many? it is: + + abbahu, one. + biamahu, two. + +If, For which time? it is: + + tibíakuja, for the first time. + tibíamattétu, for the second time. + +and so on. + + +VERBS. + +The verbs are sometimes derived from nouns, sometimes from participles, +sometimes from other verbs, and have reflexive, passive, frequentative, +and other forms. Thus from _lana_, the name of a certain black dye, +comes _lannatün_ to color with this dye, _alannatunna_ to color oneself +with it, _alannattukuttun_ to let oneself be colored with it, +_alanattukuttunnua_ to be colored with it. + +The infinitive ends in _in_, _ün_, _ùn_, _ân_, _unnua_, _ên_, and _ûn_. +Those in _in_, _ün_, _ùn_, and _ân_ are transitive, in _unnua_ are +passive and neuter, the others are transitive, intransitive, or neuter. + +The passive voice is formed by the medium of a verb of permission, thus: + + amalitin, to make. + amalitikittin, to let make. + amalitikittunnua, to be made. + assimakin, to call. + assimakuttün, to let call, + assimakuttùnnua, to be called. + +The personal pronouns are united to the verbs as they are to the nouns. +They precede all verbs except those whose infinitives terminate in _ên_, +_in_, and _ân_, to which they are suffixed as a rule, but not always. +When they follow the verb, the forms of the pronouns are either _de_, +_bu_, _i_ he, _n_ she, it, _u_, _hu_, _je_ or _da_, _ba_, _la_, _ta_, +_wa_, _ha_, _na_. The latter are used chiefly where the negative prefix +_m_, _ma_ or _maya_ is employed. Examples: + + hallikebben, to rejoice. + + hallikebbéde, I rejoice. + hallikebbébu, thou rejoicest. + hallikebbéi, he rejoices. + hallikebbên, she rejoices. + hallikebbéu, we rejoice. + hallikebbéhü, you rejoice. + hallikebbéje, they rejoice. + + majauquan, to remain. + + majáuquada, I remain. + majáuquaba, thou remainest. + majáuquala, he remains. + majáuquata, she remains. + majáuquawa, we remain. + majáuquaha, you remain. + majáuquana, they remain. + +MOODS AND TENSES. Their verbs have four moods, the indicative, optative, +imperative, and infinitive, and five tenses, one present, three +preterites, and one future. The rules of their formation are simple. By +changing the termination of the infinitive into _a_, we have the +indicative present, into _bi_ the first preterite, into _buna_ the +second preterite, into _kuba_ the third preterite, and into _pa_ the +future. The conjugations are six in number, and many of the verbs are +irregular. The following verb of the first conjugation illustrates the +general rules for conjugation: + + _ayahaddin,_ to walk. + +INDICATIVE MOOD. + +Present tense: + + dayahadda, I walk. + bujahadda, thou walkest. + lujahadda, he walks. + tüjahadda, she walks. + wayahádda, we walk. + hujahádda, you walk. + nayuhádda, they walk. + +First preterite--of to-day: + + dayaháddibi, I walked to-day. + bujaháddibi, thou walked to-day. + lijaháddibi, he walked to-day. + tujaháddibi, she walked to-day. + wayaháddibi, we walked to-day. + hujaháddibi, you walked to-day. + nayaháddibi, they walked to-day. + +Second preterite--of yesterday or the day before. + + dayahaddibüna, I walked yesterday or the day before. + bujaháddibüna, thou walked yesterday or the day before. + lijaháddibuna, he walked yesterday or the day before. + tujaháddibüna, she walked yesterday or the day before. + wayaháddibüna, we walked yesterday or the day before. + hujaháddibüna, you walked yesterday or the day before. + nayaháddibüna, they walked yesterday or the day before. + +Third preterite--at some indefinite past time: + + dayaháddakuba, I walked. + bujaháddakuba, thou walked. + lijaháddakuba, he walked. + tujaháddakuba, she walked. + wayaháddakuka, we walked. + hujaháddakuba, you walked. + nayaháddakuba, they walked. + +Future: + + dayaháddipa, I shall walk. + bujaháddipa, thou wilt walk. + lijaháddipa, he will walk. + tujaháddipa, she will walk. + wayaháddipa, we shall walk. + hujahaddipa, you will walk. + nayahaddipa, they will walk. + +OPTATIVE MOOD. + +Present: + + dayahaddama or dayahaddinnika, I may walk. + +First preterite: + + dayahaddinnikábima. + +Second preterite[TN-3] + + dayahaddinbünáma. + +Third preterite: + + dayahaddinnikubáma. + +IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + bujahaddáte or bujahaddalte, walk thou. + hüjahaddáte or hujahaddalte, walk ye. + nayahaddáte, let them walk. + wayahaddali, let us walk. + +PARTICIPLES. + + ayahaddinnibi, to have walked to-day. + ayahaddinnibüna, to have walked yesterday. + ayahaddínnikuba, to have walked. + ayahaddínnipa, to be about to walk. + +GERUND. + + ayahaddinti. + ayahaddinnibia. + +The following forms also belong to this verb: + + ayahaddinnibiakubáma, to may or can walk. + ayahaddahálin, one who walks there (infinitive form). + +As in all polysynthetic languages, other words and particles can be +incorporated in the verb to modify its meaning, thus: + + dayahaddáruka, as I was walking. + dayahaddakanika, I walk a little. + dayahaddahittika, I walk willingly. + +In this way sometimes words of formidable length are manufactured, as: + + massukussukuttunnuanikaebibu, you should not have been washed to-day. + +Negation may be expressed either by the prefix _m_ or _ma_, as +_mayahaddinikade_, I do not walk (where the prefix throws the pronoun to +the end of the word, and gives it the form appropriate for that +position), or else by the adverb _kurru_, not. But if both these +negatives are used, they make an affirmative, as _madittinda kurru +Gott_, I am not unacquainted with God. + + +COMPOSITION OF WORDS AND SENTENCES. + +"In general," remarks Prof. Von Martius, "this language betrays the +poverty and cumbrousness of other South American languages; yet in many +expressions a glimpse is caught of a far reaching, ideal background."[4] +We see it in the composition and derivation of some words; from _haikan_ +to pass by, comes _haikahu_ death, the passing away, and _aiihakü_ +marriage, in which, as in death, the girl is lost to her parents; from +_kassan_ to be pregnant, comes _kassaku_ the firmament, big with all +things which are, and _kassahu behü_, the house of the firmament, the +sky, the day; from _ükkü_ the heart, comes _ükkürahü_ the family, the +tribe, those of one blood, whose hearts beat in unison, and _üküahü_ a +person, one whose heart beats and who therefore lives, and also, +singularly enough, _ükkürahü_ pus, no doubt from that strange analogy +which in so many other aboriginal languages and myths identified the +product of suppuration with the _semen masculinum_, the physiological +germ of life. + +The syntax of the language is not clearly set forth by any authorities. +Adjectives generally, but not always, follow the words they qualify, and +prepositions are usually placed after the noun, and often at the end of +a sentence; thus, _peru_ (Spanish _perro_) _assimakaku naha à_, the dog +barks her at. To display more fully the character of the tongue, I shall +quote and analyze a verse from the _Act Apostelnu_, the 11th verse of +the 14th chapter, which in the English Protestant version reads: + +And when the people saw what Paul had done, they lifted up their voices, +saying in the speech of Lycaonia, The gods are come down to us in the +likeness of men. + +In Arawack it is: + +Addikitti uijuhu Paulus anissiäbiru, kakannaküku na assimakâka hürküren +Lÿcaonia adiân ullukku hiddin: Amallitakoananutti lukkunu dia na buté +wakkarruhu, nattukuda aijumüneria wibiti hinna. + +Literally: + +They--seeing (_addin_ to see, gerund) the--people Paulus what--had been +done (_anin_ to do, _anissia_ to have been done), loudly they called +altogether the--Lycaonia speech in, thus, The--gods (present participle +of _amallitin_ to make; the same appellation which the ancient Greeks +gave to poets, [Greek: poiêtai] makers, the Arawacks applied to the +divine powers) men like, us to now (_buté_ nota præsentis) +are--come--down from--above--down--here ourselves because--of. + + +AFFILIATIONS OF THE ARAWACK. + +The Arawacks are essentially of South American origin and affiliations. +The earliest explorers of the mainland report them as living on the +rivers of Guiana, and having settlements even south of the Equator.[5] +De Laet in his map of Guiana locates a large tribe of "Arowaceas" three +degrees south of the line, on the right bank of the Amazon. Dr. Spix +during his travels in Brazil met with fixed villages of them near +Fonteboa, on the river Solimoes and near Tabatinga and Castro +d'Avelaes.[6] They extended westward beyond the mouth of the Orinoco, +and we even hear of them in the province of Santa Marta, in the +mountains south of Lake Maracaybo.[7] + +While their language has great verbal differences from the Tupi of +Brazil and the Carib, it has also many verbal similarities with both. +"The Arawack and the Tupi," observes Professor Von Martius, "are alike +in their syntax, in their use of the possessive and personal pronouns, +and in their frequent adverbial construction;"[8] and in a letter +written me shortly before his death, he remarks, in speaking of the +similarity of these three tongues: "Ich bin überzeugt dass diese [die +Cariben] eine Elite der Tupis waren, welche erst spät auf die Antillen +gekommen sind, wo die alte Tupi--Sprache in kaum erkennbaren Resten +übrig war, als man sie dort aufzeichnete." I take pleasure in bringing +forward this opinion of the great naturalist, not only because it is not +expressed so clearly in any of his published writings, but because his +authority on this question is of the greatest weight, and because it +supports the view which I have elsewhere advanced of the migrations of +the Arawack and Carib tribes.[9] These "hardly recognizable remains of +the Tupi tongue," we shall see belonged also to the ancient Arawack at +an epoch when it was less divergent than it now is from its primitive +form. While these South American affinities are obvious, no relationship +whatever, either verbal or syntactical, exists between the Arawack and +the Maya of Yucatan, or the Chahta-Mvskoki of Florida and the northern +shore of the Gulf of Mexico. + +As it is thus rendered extremely probable that the Arawack is closely +connected with the great linguistic families of South America, it +becomes of prime importance to trace its extension northward, and to +determine if it is in any way affined to the tongues spoken on the West +India Islands, when these were first discovered. + +The Arawacks of to-day when asked concerning their origin point to the +north, and claim at some not very remote time to have lived at _Kairi_, +an island, by which generic name they mean Trinidad. This tradition is +in a measure proved correct by the narrative of Sir Walter Raleigh, who +found them living there in 1595,[10] and by the Belgian explorers who in +1598 collected a short vocabulary of their tongue. This oldest monument +of the language has sufficient interest to deserve copying and comparing +with the modern dialect. It is as follows: + + LATIN. ARAWACK, 1598. ARAWACK, 1800. + pater, pilplii, itti. + mater, saeckee, uju. + caput, wassijehe, waseye. + auris, wadycke, wadihy. + oculus, wackosije, wakusi. + nasus, wassyerii, wasiri. + os, dalerocke, daliroko. + dentes, darii, dari. + crura, dadane, dadaanah. + pedes, dackosye, dakuty. + arbor, hada, adda. + arcus, semarape, semaara-haaba. + sagittæ, symare, semaara. + luna, cattehel, katsi. + sol, adaly, hadalli. + +The syllables _wa_ our, and _da_ my, prefixed to the parts of the human +body, will readily be recognized. When it is remembered that the dialect +of Trinidad no doubt differed slightly from that on the mainland; that +the modern orthography is German and that of De Lact's[TN-4] list is +Dutch; and that two centuries intervened between the first and second, +it is really a matter of surprise to discover such a close similarity. +Father and mother, the only two words which are not identical, are +doubtless different expressions, relationship in this, as in most native +tongues, being indicated with excessive minuteness. + +The chain of islands which extend from Trinidad to Porto Rico were +called, from their inhabitants, the Caribby islands. The Caribs, +however, made no pretence to have occupied them for any great length of +time. They distinctly remembered that a generation or two back they had +reached them from the mainland, and had found them occupied by a +peaceful race, whom they styled _Ineri_ or _Igneri_. The males of this +race they slew or drove into the interior, but the women they seized for +their own use. Hence arose a marked difference between the languages of +the island Caribs and their women. The fragments of the language of the +latter show clearly that they were of Arawack lineage, and that the +so-called Igneri were members of that nation. It of course became more +or less corrupted by the introduction of Carib words and forms, so that +in 1674 the missionary De la Borde wrote, that "although there is some +difference between the dialects of the men and women, they readily +understand each other;"[11] and Father Breton in his Carib Grammar +(1665) gives the same forms for the declensions and conjugations of +both. + +As the traces of the "island Arawack," as the tongue of the Igneri may +be called, prove the extension of this tribe over all the Lesser +Antilles, it now remains to inquire whether they had pushed their +conquests still further, and had possessed themselves of the Great +Antilles, the Bahama islands, and any part of the adjacent coasts of +Yucatan or Florida. + +All ancient writers agree that on the Bahamas and Cuba the same speech +prevailed, except Gomara, who avers that on the Bahamas "great diversity +of language" was found.[12] But as Gomara wrote nearly half a century +after those islands were depopulated, and has exposed himself to just +censure for carelessness in his statements regarding the natives,[13] +his expression has no weight. Columbus repeatedly states that all the +islands had one language though differing, more or less, in words. The +natives he took with him from San Salvador understood the dialects in +both Cuba and Haiti. One of them on his second voyage served him as an +interpreter on the southern shore of Cuba.[14] + +In Haiti, there was a tongue current all over the island, called by the +Spaniards _la lengua universal_ and _la lengua cortesana_. This is +distinctly said by all the historians to have been but very slightly +different from that of Cuba, a mere dialectic variation in accent being +observed.[15] Many fragments of this tongue are preserved in the +narratives of the early explorers, and it has been the theme for some +strange and wild theorizing among would-be philologists. Rafinesque +christened it the "Taino" language, and discovered it to be closely akin +to the "Pelasgic" of Europe.[16] The Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg will +have it allied to the Maya, the old Norse or Scandinavian, the ancient +Coptic, and what not. Rafinesque and Jegor von Sivors[17] have made +vocabularies of it, but the former in so uncritical, and the latter in +so superficial a manner, that they are worse than useless. + +Although it is said there were in Haiti two other tongues in the small +contiguous provinces of Macorix de arriba and Macorix de abajo, entirely +dissimilar from the _lengua universal_ and from each other, we are +justified in assuming that the prevalent tongue throughout the whole of +the Great Antilles and the Bahamas, was that most common in Haiti. I +have, therefore, perused with care all the early authorities who throw +any light upon the construction and vocabulary of this language, and +gathered from their pages the scattered information they contain. The +most valuable of these authorities are Peter Martyr de Angleria, who +speaks from conversations with natives brought to Spain by Columbus, on +his first voyage,[18] and who was himself, a fine linguist, and +Bartolomé de las Casas. The latter came as a missionary to Haiti, a few +years after its discovery, was earnestly interested in the natives, and +to some extent acquainted with their language. Besides a few printed +works of small importance, Las Casas left two large and valuable works +in manuscript, the _Historia General de las Indias Occidentales_, and +the _Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentals_. A copy of these, +each in four large folio volumes, exists in the Library of Congress, +where I consulted them. They contain a vast amount of information +relating to the aborigines, especially the _Historia Apologetica_, +though much of the author's space is occupied with frivolous discussions +and idle comparisons. + +In later times, the scholar who has most carefully examined the relics +of this ancient tongue, is Señor Don Estevan Richardo, a native of +Haiti, but who for many years resided in Cuba. His views are contained +in the preface to his _Diccionario Provincial casi-razonado de Voces +Cubanas_, (Habana, 2da ed, 1849). He has found very many words of the +ancient language retained in the provincial Spanish of the island, but +of course in a corrupt form. In the vocabulary which I have prepared for +the purpose of comparison, I have omitted all such corrupted forms, and +nearly all names of plants and animals, as it is impossible to identify +these with certainty, and in order to obtain greater accuracy, have +used, when possible, the first edition of the authors quoted, and in +most instances, given under each word a reference to some original +authority. + +From the various sources which I have examined, the alphabet of the +_lengua universal_ appears to have been as follows: a, b, d, e, (rarely +used at the commencement of a word), g, j, (an aspirated guttural like +the Catalan j, or as Peter Martyr says, like the Arabic ch), i (rare), l +(rare), m, n, o (rare,) p, q, r, s, t, u, y. These letters, it will be +remembered, are as in Spanish. + +The Spanish sounds z, ce, ci (English th,) ll, and v, were entirely +unknown to the natives, and where they appear in indigenous words, were +falsely written for l and b. The Spaniards also frequently distorted the +native names by writing x for j, s, and z, by giving j the sound of the +Latin y, and by confounding h, j, and f, as the old writers frequently +employ the h to designate the _spiritus asper_, whereas in modern +Spanish it is mute.[19] + +Peter Martyr found that he could reduce all the words of their language +to writing, by means of the Latin letters without difficulty, except in +the single instance of the guttural j. He, and all others who heard it +spoken, describe it as "soft and not less liquid than the Latin," "rich +in vowels and pleasant to the ear," an idiom "simple, sweet, and +sonorous."[20] + +In the following vocabulary I have not altered in the least the Spanish +orthography of the words, and so that the analogy of many of them might +at once be preceived,[TN-5] I have inserted the corresponding Arawack +expression, which, it must be borne in mind, is to be pronounced by the +German alphabet. + + +VOCABULARY OF THE ANCIENT LANGUAGE OF THE GREAT ANTILLES. + +Aji, red pepper. Arawack, _achi_, red pepper. + +Aon, dog (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. I, c. 120). Island Ar. _ánli_, dog. + +Arcabuco, a wood, a spot covered with trees (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. de las +Indias, lib. VI, c,[TN-6] 8). Ar. _arragkaragkadin_ the swaying to and +fro of trees. + +Areito, a song chanted alternately by the priests and the people at +their feasts. (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V, c. 1.) Ar. _aririn_ to name, +rehearse. + +Bagua, the sea. Ar. _bara_, the sea. + +Bajaraque, a large house holding several hundred persons. From this +comes Sp. _barraca_, Eng. _barracks_. Ar. _bajü_, a house. + +Bajari, title applied to sub-chiefs ruling villages, (Las Casas, Hist. +Apol. cap. 120). Probably "house-ruler," from Ar. _bajü_, house. + +Barbacoa, a loft for drying maize, (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. VII, cap. +1). From this the English barbacue. Ar. _barrabakoa_, a place for +storing provisions. + +Batay, a ball-ground; bates, the ball; batey, the game. (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. c. 204). Ar. _battatan_, to be round, spherical.[21] + +Batea, a trough. (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. c. 241.) + +Bejique, a priest. Ar. _piaye_, a priest. + +Bixa, an ointment. (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 241.) + +Cai, cayo, or cayco, an island. From this the Sp. _cayo_, Eng. _key_, in +the "Florida keys." Ar. _kairi_, an island. + +Caiman, an alligator, Ar. _kaiman_, an alligator, lit. to be strong. + +Caona or cáuni, gold. (Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. 26, Ed. Colon, 1564). Ar. +_kaijaunan_, to be precious, costly. + +Caracol, a conch, a univalve shell. From this the Sp. _caracol_. +(Richardo, Dicc. Provin. s. v). Probably from Galibi _caracoulis_, +trifles, ornaments. (See Martius, Sprachenkunde, B. II, p. 332.) + +Caney or cansi, a house of conical shape. + +Canoa, a boat. From this Eng. _canoe_. Ar. _kannoa_, a boat. + +Casique, a chief. This word was afterwards applied by Spanish writers to +the native rulers throughout the New World. Ar. _kassiquan_ (from +_ussequa_, house), to have or own a house or houses; equivalent, +therefore, to the Eng. landlord. + +Cimu or simu, the front, forehead; a beginning. (Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. +302.) Ar. _eme_ or _uime_, the mouth of a river, _uimelian_, to be new. + +Coaibai, the abode of the dead. + +Cohóba, the native name of tobacco. + +Conuco, a cultivated field. (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. VII, cap. 2.) + +Duhos or duohos, low seats (unas baxas sillas, Las Casas, Hist. Gen. +lib. I, cap[TN-7] 96. Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V. cap. 1. Richardo, _sub +voce_, by a careless reading of Oviedo says it means images). Ar. +_dulluhu_ or _durruhu_, a seat, a bench. + +Goeiz, the spirit of the living (Pane, p. 444); probably a corruption of +_Guayzas_. Ar. _akkuyaha_, the spirit of a living animal. + +Gua, a very frequent prefix: Peter Martyr says, "Est apud eos articulus +et pauca sunt regum praecipue nominum quae non incipiant ab hoc articulo +_gua_." (Decad. p. 285.) Very many proper names in Cuba and Hayti still +retain it. The modern Cubans pronounce it like the English w with the +_spiritus lenis_. It is often written _oa_, _ua_, _oua_, and _hua_. It +is not an article, but corresponds to the _ah_ in the Maya, and the +_gue_ in the Tupi of Brazil, from which latter it is probably +derived.[22] + +Guaca, a vault for storing provisions. + +Guacabiua, provisions for a journey, supplies. + +Guacamayo, a species of parrot, macrocercus tricolor. + +Guanara, a retired stop. (Pane, p. 444); a species of dove, columba +zenaida (Richardo, S. V.)[TN-8] + +Guanin, an impure sort of gold. + +Guaoxeri, a term applied to the lowest class of the inhabitants (Las +Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 197.) Ar. _wakaijaru_, worthless, dirty, +_wakaijatti lihi_, a worthless fellow. + +Guatiao, friend, companion (Richardo). Ar. _ahati_, companion, playmate. + +Guayzas, masks or figures (Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap. 61). Ar. +_akkuyaha_, living beings. + +Haba, a basket (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. III, cap. 21). Ar. _habba_, a +basket. + +Haiti, stony, rocky, rough (Pet. Martyr, Decades). Ar. _aessi_ or +_aetti_, a stone. + +Hamaca, a bed, hammock. Ar. _hamaha_, a bed, hammock. + +Hico, a rope, ropes (Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. V, cap. 2). + +Hobin, gold, brass, any reddish metal. (Navarrete Viages, I, p. 134, +Pet. Martyr, Dec. p. 303). Ar. _hobin_, red. + +Huiho, height. (Pet. Martyr, p. 304). Ar. _aijumün_, above, high up. + +Huracan, a hurricane. From this Sp. _huracan_, Fr. _ouragan_, German +_Orkan_, Eng. _hurricane_. This word is given in the _Livre Sacré des +Quichès_ as the name of their highest divinity, but the resemblance may +be accidental. Father Ximenes, who translated the _Livre Sacrè_, derives +the name from the Quiché _hu rakan_, one foot. Father Thomas Coto, in +his Cakchiquel Dictionary, (MS. in the library of the Am. Phil. Soc.) +translates _diablo_ by _hurakan_, but as the equivalent of the Spanish +_huracan_, he gives _ratinchet_. + +Hyen, a poisonous liquor expressed from the cassava root. (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. cap. 2). + +Itabo, a lagoon, pond. (Richardo). + +Juanna, a serpent. (Pet. Martyr, p. 63). Ar. _joanna_, a lizard; +_jawanaria_, a serpent. + +Macana, a war club. (Navarrete, Viages.[TN-9] I, p. 135). + +Magua, a plain. (Las Casas, Breviss. Relat. p. 7). + +Maguey, a native drum. (Pet. Martyr, p. 280). + +Maisi, maize. From this Eng. _maize_, Sp. _mais_, Ar. _marisi_, maize. + +Matum, liberal, noble. (Pet. Martyr, p. 292). + +Matunheri, a title applied to the highest chiefs. (Las Casas, Hist. +Apol. cap. 197). + +Mayani, of no value, ("nihili," Pet. Martyr, p. 9). Ar. _ma_, no, not. + +Naborias, servants. (Las Casas, Hist. Gen. lib. III, cap. 32). + +Nacan, middle, center. Ar. _annakan_, center. + +Nagua, or enagua, the breech cloth made of cotton and worn around the +middle. Ar. _annaka_, the middle. + +Nitainos, the title applied to the petty chiefs, (regillos ò guiallos, +Las Casas, Hist. Apol. cap,[TN-10] 197); _tayno_ vir bonus, _taynos_ +nobiles, says Pet. Martyr, (Decad. p. 25). The latter truncated form of +the word was adopted by Rafinesque and others, as a general name for the +people and language of Hayti. There is not the slightest authority for +this, nor for supposing, with Von Martius, that the first syllable is a +pronominal prefix. The derivation is undoubtedly Ar. _nüddan_ to look +well, to stand firm, to do anything well or skilfully. + +Nucay or nozay, gold, used especially in Cuba and on the Bahamas. The +words _caona_ and _tuob_ were in vogue in Haiti (Navarrete, Viages, Tom. +1, pp. 45, 134). + +Operito, dead, and + +Opia, the spirit of the dead (Pane, pp. 443, 444). Ar. _aparrün_ to +kill, _apparahun_ dead, _lupparrükittoa_ he is dead. + +Quisquéia, a native name of Haiti; "vastitas et universus ac totus. Uti +Græci suum Panem," says Pet. Martyr (Decad. p. 279). "Madre de las +tierras," Valverde translates it (_Idea del valor de la Isla Espanola_, +Introd. p. xviii). The orthography is evidently very false. + +Sabana, a plain covered with grass without trees (terrano llano, Oviedo, +Hist. Gen. lib. vi. cap. 8). From this the Sp. _savana_, Eng. +_savannah_. Charlevoix, on the authority of Mariana, says it is an +ancient Gothic word (Histoire de l'Isle St. Domingue, i. p. 53). But it +is probably from the Ar. _sallaban_, smooth, level. + +Semi, the divinities worshipped by the natives ("Lo mismo que nosotros +llamamos Diablo," Oviedo, Hist. Gen. lib. v. cap. 1. Not evil spirits +only, but all spirits). Ar. _semeti_ sorcerers, diviners, priests. + +Siba, a stone. Ar. _siba_, a stone. + +Starei, shining, glowing (relucens, Pet. Martyr, Decad. p. 304). Ar. +_terén_ to be hot, glowing, _terehü_ heat. + +Tabaco, the pipe used in smoking the cohoba. This word has been applied +in all European languages to the plant nicotiana tabacum itself. + +Taita, father (Richardo). Ar. _itta_ father, _daitta_ or _datti_ my +father. + +Taguáguas, ornaments for the ears hammered from native gold (Las Casas, +Hist. Apol. cap. 199). + +Tuob, gold, probably akin to _hobin_, q. v. + +Turey, heaven. Idols were called "cosas de _turey_" (Navarrete, Viages, +Tom. i. p. 221). Probably akin to _starei_, q. v. + +The following numerals are given by Las Casas (Hist. Apol. cap. 204). + +1 hequeti. Ar. _hürketai_, that is one, from _hürkün_ to be single or +alone. + +2 yamosa. Ar. _biama_, two. + +3 canocum. Ar. _kannikún_, many, a large number, _kannikukade_, he has +many things. + +4 yamoncobre, evidently formed from yamosa, as Ar. _bibiti_, four, from +_biama_, two. + +The other numerals Las Casas had unfortunately forgotten, but he says +they counted by hands and feet, just as the Arawacks do to this day. + +Various compound words and phrases are found in different writers, some +of which are readily explained from the Arawack. Thus _tureigua hobin_, +which Peter Martyr translates "rex resplendens uti orichalcum,"[23] in +Arawack means "shining like something red." Oviedo says that at +marriages in Cuba it was customary for the bride to bestow her favors on +every man present of equal rank with her husband before the latter's +turn came. When all had thus enjoyed her, she ran through the crowd of +guests shouting _manícato, manícato_, "lauding herself, meaning that she +was strong, and brave, and equal to much."[24] This is evidently the Ar. +_manikade_, from _mân_, _manin_, and means I am unhurt, I am +unconquered. When the natives of Haiti were angry, says Las Casas,[25] +they would not strike each other, but apply such harmless epithets as +_buticaco_, you are blue-eyed (anda para zarco de los ojos), +_xeyticaco_, you are black-eyed (anda para negro de los ojos), or +_mahite_, you have lost a tooth, as the case might be. The termination +_aco_ in the first two of these expressions is clearly the Ar. _acou_, +or _akusi_, eyes, and the last mentioned is not unlike the Ar. +_márikata_, you have no teeth (_ma_ negative, _ari_ tooth). The same +writer gives for "I do not know," the word _ita_, in Ar. _daitta_.[26] + +Some of the words and phrases I have been unable to identify in the +Arawack. They are _duiheyniquen_, dives fluvius, _maguacochíos_ vestiti +homines, both in Peter Martyr, and the following conversation, which he +says took place between one of the Haitian chieftians[TN-11] and his +wife. + +She. Teítoca teítoca. Técheta cynáto guamechyna. Guaibbá. + +He. Cynáto machabuca guamechyna. + +These words he translated: _teitoca_ be quiet, _técheta_ much, _cynato_ +angry, _guamechyna_ the Lord, _guaibba_ go, _machabuca_ what is it to +me. But they are either very incorrectly spelled, or are not Arawack. + +The proper names of localities in Cuba, Hayti and the Bahamas, furnish +additional evidence that their original inhabitants were Arawacks. +Hayti, I have already shown has now the same meaning in Arawack which +Peter Martyr ascribed to it at the discovery. Cubanacan, a province in +the interior of Cuba, is compounded of _kuba_ and _annakan_, in the +center;[27] Baracoa, the name of province on the coast, is from Ar. +_bara_ sea, _koan_ to be there, "the sea is there;" in Barajagua the +_bara_ again appears; Guaymaya is Ar. _waya_ clay, _mara_ there is none; +Marien is from Ar. _maran_ to be small or poor; Guaniguanico, a province +on the narrow western extremity of the island, with the sea on either +side, is probably Ar. _wuini wuini koa_, water, water is there. The +names of tribes such as Siboneyes, Guantaneyes, owe their termination to +the island Arawack, _eyeri_ men, in the modern dialect _hiaeru_, +captives, slaves. The Siboneyes are said by Las Casas, to have been the +original inhabitants of Cuba.[28] The name is evidently from Ar. _siba_, +rock, _eyeri_ men, "men of the rocks." The rocky shores of Cuba gave +them this appellation. On the other hand the natives of the islets of +the Bahamas were called _lukku kairi_, abbreviated to _lukkairi_, and +_lucayos_, from _lukku_, man, _kairi_ an island, "men of the islands;" +and the archipelago itself was called by the first explorers "las islas +de los Lucayos," "isole delle Lucaí."[29] The province in the western +angle of Haiti was styled Guacaiarima, which Peter Martyr translates +"insulae podex;" dropping the article, _caiarima_ is sufficiently like +the Ar. _kairuina_, which signifies _podex_, Sp. _culata_, and is used +geographically in the same manner as the latter word. + +The word Maya frequently found in the names of places in Cuba and Haiti, +as Mayaba, Mayanabo, Mayajigua, Cajimaya, Jaimayabon, is doubtless the +Ar. negative _ma_, _mân_, _mara_. Some writers have thought it +indicative of the extension of the Maya language of Yucatan over the +Antilles. Prichard, Squier, Waitz, Brasseur de Bourbourg, Bastian and +other ethnologists have felt no hesitation in assigning a large portion +of Cuba and Haiti to the Mayas. It is true the first explorers heard in +Cuba and Jamaica, vague rumors of the Yucatecan peninsula, and found wax +and other products brought from there.[30] This shows that there was +some communication between the two races, but all authorities agree that +there was but one language over the whole of Cuba. The expressions which +would lead to a different opinion are found in Peter Martyr. He relates +that in one place on the southern shore of Cuba, the interpreter whom +Columbus had with him, a native of San Salvador, was at fault. But the +account of the occurrence given by Las Casas, indicates that the native +with whom the interpreter tried to converse simply refused to talk at +all.[31] Again, in Martyr's account of Grijalva's voyage to Yucatan in +1517, he relates that this captain took with him a native to serve as an +interpreter; and to explain how this could be, he adds that this +interpreter was one of the Cuban natives "quorum idioma, si non idem, +consanguineum tamen," to that of Yucatan. This is a mere fabrication, as +the chaplain of Grijalva on this expedition states explicitly in the +narrative of it which he wrote, that the interpreter was a native of +Yucatan, who had been captured a year before.[32] + +Not only is there a very great dissimilarity in sound, words, and +structure, between the Arawack and Maya, but the nations were also far +asunder in culture. The Mayas were the most civilized on the continent, +while the Arawacks possessed little besides the most primitive arts, and +precisely that tribe which lived on the extremity of Cuba nearest +Yucatan, the Guanataneyes, were the most barbarous on the island.[33] + +The natives of the greater Antilles and Bahamas differed little in +culture. They cultivated maize, manioc, yams, potatoes, corn, and +cotton. The latter they wove into what scanty apparel they required. +Their arms were bows with reed arrows, pointed with fish teeth or +stones, stone axes, spears, and a war club armed with sharp stones +called a _macana_. They were a simple hearted, peaceful, contented race, +"all of one language and all friends," says Columbus; "not given to +wandering, naked, and satisfied with little," says Peter Martyr; "a +people very poor in all things," says Las Casas. + +Yet they had some arts. Statues and masks in wood and stone were found, +some of them in the opinion of Bishop Las Casas, "very skilfully +carved." They hammered the native gold into ornaments, and their rude +sculptures on the face of the rocks are still visible in parts of Cuba +and Haiti. Their boats were formed of single trunks of trees often of +large size, and they managed them adroitly; their houses were of reeds +covered with palm leaves, and usually accommodated a large number of +families; and in their holy places, they set up rows of large stones +like the ancient cromlechs, one of which is still preserved in Hayti, +and is known as _la cercada de los Indios_. + +Physically they were undersized, less muscular than the Spaniards, light +in color, with thick hair and scanty beards. Their foreheads were +naturally low and retreating, and they artificially flattened the skull +by pressure on the forehead or the occiput.[34] + +Three social grades seem to have prevailed, the common herd, the petty +chiefs who ruled villages, and the independent chiefs who governed +provinces. Of the latter there were in Cuba twenty-nine; in Haiti five, +as near as can be now ascertained.[35] Some of those in Cuba had shortly +before the arrival of the Spaniards moved there from Haiti, and at the +conquest one of the principal chiefs of Haiti was a native of the +Lucayos.[36] + +The fate of these Indians is something terrible to contemplate. At the +discovery there were probably 150,000 on Cuba, Haiti, and the +Bahamas.[37] Those on the latter were carried as slaves to Haiti to work +in the mines, and all of the Lucayos exterminated in three or four years +(1508-1512).[38] The sufferings of the Haitians have been told in a +graphic manner by Las Casas in an oft-quoted work.[39] His statements +have frequently been condemned as grossly exaggerated, but the official +documents of the early history of Cuba prove but too conclusively that +the worthy missionary reports correctly what terrible cruelties the +Spaniards committed. Cuba was conquered in 1514, and was then quite +densely populated. Fourteen years afterwards we find the Governor, +Gonzalo de Guzman, complaining that while troops of hunters were +formerly traversing the island constantly, asking no other pay than the +right of keeping as slaves the natives whom they captured, he now has to +pay patrolmen, as the Indians are so scarce.[40] The next year (1529) +the treasurer, Lope de Hurtado, writes that the Indians are in such +despair that they are hanging themselves twenty and thirty at a +time.[41] In 1530 the king is petitioned to relinquish his royalty on +the produce of the mines, because nearly all the Indians on the island +are dead.[42] And in 1532 the licentiate, Vadillo, estimates the total +number of Indians on the island, including the large percentage brought +from the mainland by the slavers, at only 4,500.[43] + +As a specimen of what the treatment of the Indians was, we have an +accusation in 1522 against Vasco Porcallo, afterwards one of the +companions of Hernando de Soto. He captured several Indians, cut off +their genitals, and forced them to eat them, cramming them down their +throats when they could not swallow. When asked for his defence, +Porcallo replied that he did it to prevent his own Indians from +committing suicide, as he had already lost two-thirds of his slaves in +that way. The defence was apparently deemed valid, for he was +released![44] + +The myths and traditions of the Haitians have fortunately been +preserved, though not in so perfect a form as might be wished. When +Bartholomew Columbus left Rome for the Indies, he took with him a lay +brother of the order of the Hermits of St. Jerome, Ramon Pane by name, a +Catalan by birth, a worthy but credulous and ignorant man.[45] On +reaching Haiti brother Pane was first sent among the natives of the +small province called Macorix de abajo, which had a language peculiar to +itself, but he was subsequently transferred to the province of Guarinoex +on the southeastern part of the island where the _lengua universal_ +prevailed. He remained there two years, and at the request of Columbus +collected and wrote down the legends and beliefs of the natives. + +He is not a model authority. In the first place, being a Catalan he did +not write Spanish correctly; he was very imperfectly acquainted with the +native tongue; he wrote hastily, and had not enough paper to write in +full; he is not sure that he commences their legends at the right end. +Moreover his manuscript is lost, and the only means we have of knowing +anything about it is by a very incorrectly printed Italian version, +printed in 1571, and two early synopses, one in Latin in the Decades of +Peter Martyr, the other in Italian, by Messer Zuane de Strozi of +Ferrara, which has been quite recently published for the first time.[46] +By comparing these we can arrive at the meaning of Brother Pane with +considerable accuracy. + +His work contains fragments of two distinct cycles of legends, the one +describing the history of the gods, the other the history of the human +race. + +Earliest of creatures was the woman, Atabéira or Ataves, who also bore +the other names Mamóna, Guacarapíta, Iiélla, and Guimazóa. Her son was +the supreme ruler of all things, and chiefest of divinities. His names +were Yocaúna, Guamaónocon, and Yocahu-vaguaniao-vocoti. He had a brother +called Guaca, and a son Iaiael. The latter rebelled against his father, +and was exiled for four mouths and then killed. The legend goes on to +relate that his bones were placed in a calabash and hung up in his +father's house. Here they changed into fishes, and the calabash filled +with water. One day four brothers passed that way, who had all been born +at one time, and whose mother, Itaba tahuana, had died in bringing them +into the world. Seeing the calabash filled with fish the oldest of the +four, Caracaracol, the Scabby, lifted it down, and all commenced to eat. +While thus occupied, Yocaúna suddenly made his appearance, which so +terrified the brothers that they dropped the gourd and broke it into +pieces. From it ran all the waters of the world, and formed the oceans, +lakes, and rivers as they now are. + +At this time there were men but no women, and the men did not dare to +venture into the sunlight. Once, as they were out in the rain, they +perceived four creatures, swift as eagles and slippery as eels. The men +called to their aid Caracaracol and his brothers, who caught these +creatures and transformed them into women. In time, these became the +mothers of mankind. + +The earliest natives of Haiti came under the leadership of the hero-god, +Vaguoniona, a name applied by Las Casas to Yocahu, from an island to the +south called in the legend Matininó, which all the authors identify, I +know not why, with Martinique. They landed first on the banks of the +river Bahoboni in the western part of Haiti, and there erected the first +house, called Camotéia. This was ever after preserved and regarded with +respectful veneration. + +Such, in brief, were their national myths. Conspicuously marked in them +we note the sacred number four, the four brothers typifying the cardinal +points, whose mother, the Dawn, dies in giving them birth, just as in +the Algonkin myths. These brothers aid the men in their struggles for +life, and bring to them the four women, the rain-bringing winds. Here, +too, the first of existences is the woman, whose son is at once highest +of divinities and the guide and instructor of their nation. These +peculiarities I have elsewhere shown to be general throughout the +religions of America.[47] + +The myth of the thunder storm also appears among them in its triplicate +nature so common to the American mind. God of the storm was Guabancex, +whose statue was made of stones. When angry he sent before him as +messenger, Guatauva, to gather the winds, and accompanied by +Coatrischie, who collected the rain-clouds in the valleys of the +mountains, he swept down upon the plain, surrounded by the awful +paraphernalia of the thunder storm.[48] + +Let us place side by side with these ancient myths the national legend +of the Arawacks.[49] They tell of a supreme spiritual being Yauwahu or +Yauhahu. Pain and sickness are the invisible shafts he shoots at men, +_yauhahu simaira_ the arrows of Yauhahu, and he it is whom the priests +invoke in their incantations. Once upon a time, men lived without any +means to propitiate this unseen divinity; they knew not how to ward off +his anger or conciliate him. At that time the Arawacks did not live in +Guiana, but in an island to the north. One day a man named Arawanili +walked by the waters grieving over the ignorance and suffering of his +nation. Suddenly the spirit of the waters, the woman Orehu, rose from +the waves and addressed him. She taught him the mysteries of _semeci_, +the sorcery which pleases and controls Yauhahu, and presented him with +the _maraka_, the holy calabash containing white pebbles which they +rattle during their exorcisms, and the sound of which summons the beings +of the unseen world. Arawanili faithfully instructed his people in all +that Orehu had said, and thus rescued them from their wretchedness. When +after a life of wisdom and good deeds the hour of his departure came, he +"did not die, but went up." + +Orehu accompanied the Arawacks when they moved to the main, and still +dwells in a treeless, desolate spot, on the banks of the Pomeroon. The +negroes of the colony have learned of her, and call her in their broken +English, the "watra-mamma," the water-mother. + +The proper names which occur in these myths, date back to the earliest +existence of the Arawacks as an independent tribe, and are not readily +analyzed by the language as it now exists. The Haitian Yocauna seems +indeed identical with the modern Yauhahu. Atabes or Atabéira is probably +from _itabo_, lake, lagoon, and _era_, water, (the latter only in +composition, as _hurruru_, mountain, _era_, water, mountain-water, a +spring, a source), and in some of her actions corresponds with Orehu. +Caracaracol is translated by Brother Pane, as "the Scabby" or the one +having ulcers, and in this respect the myth presents a curious analogy +with many others in America. In modern Arawack _karrikala_ is a form, in +the third person singular, from _karrin_, to be sick, to be pregnant. +Arawanili, which one might be tempted to suppose gave the name Arawack +to the tribe, did not all writers derive this differently, may be a form +of _awawa_, father. In the old language, the termination _el_, is said +to have meant son. + +Of the two remaining languages said to have been spoken in the small +provinces of Macorix de arriba and Macorix de abajo, in Hayti, we have +no certain knowledge.[50] Las Casas gives one word from the former. It +is _bazca_, no, not. I cannot identify it. There is reason, however, to +suppose one of them was the Tupi or "lengua geral," of Brazil. Pane +gives at least two words which are pure Tupi, and not Arawack. They are +the names of two hideous idols supposed to be inimical to men. The one +was Bugi, in Tupi, _ugly_, the other Aiba, in Tupi, _bad_. It is +noteworthy, also, that Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan on his voyage +around the world, gives a number of words, ostensibly in the language of +the natives of Rio Janeiro, where the Tupi was spoken, which are +identical with those of Haiti, as _cacich_, chief, _boi_, house, +_hamac_, bed, _canoe_, boat. But Pigafetta acknowledges that he obtained +these words not from the natives themselves, but from the pilot Juan +Carvalhos, who had been for years sailing over the West Indian seas, and +had no doubt learned these words in the Antilles.[51] + +The remaining idiom may be supposed to have been Carib, although we have +actually no evidence that the Caribs had gained a permanent foothold on +any of the Great Antilles at the period of the discovery, some careless +assertions of the old authors to the contrary, notwithstanding. + +The investigation which I here close, shows that man in his migrations +on the Western Continent followed the lead of organic nature around him. +For it is well known that the flora and fauna of the Antilles are South +American in character, and also, that the geological structure of the +archipelago connects it with the southern mainland. So also its earliest +known human inhabitants were descended from an ancestry whose homes were +in the far south, and who by slow degrees moved from river to river, +island to island, until they came within a few miles of the northern +continent. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Since reading this article before the Society, Prof. S. S. Haldeman +has shown me a copy of a work with the title: "_Die Geschichte von der +Marterwoche, Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt unsers Herrn und Heilandes +Jesu Christi. Uebersetzt in die Aruwackische Sprache und erklärend +umschrieben. Philadelphia: Gedruckt bey Carl List, 1799_," 8vo. pages +213, then one blank leaf, then 40 pages of "Anmerkungen." There is also +a second title, in Arawack, and neither title page is included in the +pagination. The Arawack title begins: "_Wadaijahun Wüüssada-goanti, +Wappussida-goanti baddia Jesus Christus_," etc. The remarks at the end +are chiefly grammatical and critical, and contain many valuable hints to +the student of the language. I have no doubt this book is the Life of +Christ mentioned in the text. The name of the translator or editor is +nowhere mentioned, but I have no doubt Mr. Schultz wrote the +"Anmerkungen," and read the proof, as not only are his grammatical signs +and orthography adopted throughout, but also we know from other sources +that he was in Philadelphia at that time. + +[2] Brett, _The Indian Tribes of Guiana_, p. 117 (London, 1868). + +[3] _Etudes Philologiques sur quelquee[TN-12] Langues Sauvages de +l'Amerique_, p. 87 (Montreal, 1866). + +[4] _Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika's zumal +Brasiliens_, B. I., p. 705 (Leipzig, 1867). + +[5] De Laet. _Novus Orbis_, lib. xvii., cap. vi. + +[6] Martius, _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika's_, B. I., S. 687. + +[7] Antonio Julian, _La Perla de la America, la Provincia de Santa +Marta_, p. 149. + +[8] _Ethnographie, etc._, B. I., S. 714. + +[9] _The Myths of the New World; a Treatise on the Symbolism and +Mythology of the Red Race of America_, p. 32 (New York, 1868). + +[10] _The Discoverie of Guiana_, p[TN-13] 4 (Hackluyt, Soc., London, +1842). + +[11] _Relation de l'Origine, etc., des Caraibes_, p. 39 (Paris, 1674). + +[12] "Havia mas policia entre ellos [los Lucayos,] i mucha diversidad de +Lenguas." _Hist. de las Indias_, cap. 41. + +[13] Las Casas, in the _Historia General de las Indias Occid[TN-14]_, +lib. III, cap. 27, criticizes him severely. + +[14] Columbus says of the Bahamas and Cuba: "toda la lengua es una y +todos amigos" (Navarrete, _Viages_, Tomo I, p. 46.) The natives of +Guanahani conversed with those of Haiti "porque todos tenian una +lengua," (_ibid_, p. 86.) In the Bay of Samana a different dialect but +the same language was found (p. 135). + +[15] Gomara says the language of Cuba is "algo diversa," from that of +Espanola. (_Hist. de las Indias_, cap. 41.) Oviedo says that though the +natives of the two islands differ in many words, yet they readily +understand each other. (_Hist. de las Indias_, lib. XVII. cap. 4.) + +[16] The American Nations, chap. VII, (Philadelphia, 1836.) + +[17] _Cuba, die Perle der Antillen_, p. 72. (Leipzig, 1831.) The +vocabulary contains 33 words, "_aus dem Cubanischen_." Many are +incorrect both in spelling and pronunciation. + +[18] When Columbus returned from his first voyage, he brought with him +ten natives from the Bay of Samana in Haiti, and a few from Guanahani. + +[19] See the remarks of Richardo in the Prologo to his _Diccionario +Provincial_. + +[20] The remarks of Peter Martyr are; "posse omnium illarum linguam +nostris literis Latinis, sine ullo discrimine, scribi compertum est," +(_De Rebus Oceanicis et Novo Orbe_, Decades Tres, p. 9.) "Advertendum +est, nullam inesse adspirationem vocabulis corum, quae non habeat +effectum literae consonantis; immo gravius adspirationem proferunt, quam +nos f consonantem. Proferendumque est quicquid est adspiratum eodum +halitu quo f, sed minime admoto ad superiores dentes inferiore labello, +ore aut aperto ha, he hi, ho, hu, et concusso pectore. Hebraeos et +Arabicos eodem modo suas proferre adspirationes vides," (id. pp. 285, +286.) + +[21] There was a ball-ground in every village. It was "tres veces mas +luenga que ancha, cercada de unos lomillos de un palmo o dos de alto." +The ball was "como las de viento nuestras mas no cuanto al salto, que +era mayor que seis de las de viento." (Las Casas, _Historia +Apologetica_, caps. 46, 204.) Perhaps the ball was of India rubber. + +[22] "Gue ou Gui, signal de vocativo, mas so empregado pelos homems." +Dias _Diccionario da Lingua Tupy chamada Lingua Geral dos Indigenas do +Brazil_, p. 60 (Lipsia, 1858). + +[23] _De Rebus Oceanicis_, p. 303. + +[24] _Hist. de las Indias_, lib. xvii. cap. 4, Las Casas denies the +story, and says Oviedo told it in order to prejudice people against the +natives (_Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, lib. iii. cap. xxiv). It is, +however, probably true. + +[25] _Historia Apologetica_, cap. 198. + +[26] He compares the signification of _ita_ in Haytian to _ita_ in +Latin, and translates the former _ita_ by _no se_; this is plainly an +error of the transcriber for _yo se_ (_Hist. Apologetica_, cap. 241). + +[27] _Kuba_ in Arawack is the sign of past time and is used as a prefix +to nouns, as well as a suffix to verbs. _Kubakanan_ ancestors, those +passed away, those who lived in past times. + +[28] "Toda la mas de la gente de que estaba poblaba aquella isla [Cuba] +era passada y natural desta ysla Espanola, puesto que la mas antigua y +natural de aquella ysla era como la de los Lucayos de quien ablamos en +el primero y segundo libro ser como los seres que parecia no haber +pecado nuestro padre Adan en ellos, gente simplicissima, bonissima, +careciente de todos vicios, y beatissima. Esta era la natural y native +de aquella ysla, y llamabanse en su lengua, Ciboneyes, la penultima +silaba luenga; y los desta por grado o por fuerza se apodearon de +aquella ysla y gente della, y los tenian como sirvientes suyos." (Las +Casas _Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, MSS. lib. iii, cap. 21). Elsewhere +(cap. 23) he says this occurred "mayormente" after the Spaniards had +settled in Haiti. + +[29] "Lucayos o por mejor decir Yucayos" says Las Casas, (_Hist. Gen._ +lib. ii. cap. 44) and after him Herrera. But the correction which was +based apparently on some supposed connection of the word with _yuca_, +the Haitian name of an esculent plant, is superfluous, and Las Casas +himself never employs it, nor a single other writer. + +[30] Las Casas. _Hist. Gen. de las Indias_, lib. iv. cap. 48, MSS. Bees +were native to Yucatan long before the discovery, but not to the north +temperate zone. + +[31] "Varia enim esse idiomata in varils Cubae provinelis perpenderunt." +(Pet. Martyr, _De Rebus Oceanicis_, v. 42). Las Casas says that a sailor +told Columbus that he saw one Indian cacique in a long white tunic who +refused to speak, but stalked silently away. (_Hist. de las Indias_, +lib. I. cap. 95). Martyr says there were several. Peschel suggests they +were tall white flamingoes, that scared the adventurous tar out of his +wits. (_Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen_, p. 253). At any +rate the story gives no foundation at all for Peter Martyr's +philogical[TN-15] opinion. + +[32] Pet. Martyr, _De Insulis Nuper Inventis_, p. 335. "Traia consigo +Grisalva un Indio per lengua de los que de aquella tierra habian llevado +consigo a la ysla de Cuba Francisco Hernandez.[TN-16] Las Casas _Hist. +Gen. de las Indias_, lib. III, cap. 108, MSS. See also the chaplain's +account in Terneaux Compans, _Recueil de Pieces rel. a la Conquête de +Mexique_, p. 56. + +[33] Bernal Dias says the vicinity of cape San Antonio was inhabited by +the "Guanataneys que son unos Indias como salvages." He expressly adds +that their clothing differed from that of the Mayas, and that the Cuban +natives with him could not understand the Maya language. _Historia +Verdadera_, cap. II. + +[34] "Presso capite, fronte lata" (Nicolaus Syllacius, _De Insulis nuper +Inventis_, p. 86. Reprint, New York, 1859. This is the extremely rare +account of Columbus' second voyage). Six not very perfect skulls were +obtained in 1860, by Col. F. S. Heneken, from a cavern 15 miles +south-west from Porto Plata. They are all more or less distorted in a +discoidal manner, one by pressure over the frontal sinus, reducing the +calvaria to a disk. (J. Barnard Davis, _Thesaurus Craniorum_, p. 236, +London, 1867. Mr. Davis erroneously calls them Carib skulls). + +[35] The provinces of Cuba are laid down on the _Mapa de la Isla de Cuba +segun la division de los Naturales_, por D. Jose Maria de la Torre y de +la Torre, in the _Memorias de la Sociedad Patriotica de la Habana_, +1841. See also Felipe Poey, _Geografia de la Isla de Cuba_, Habana, +1853. _Apendice sobre la Geografia Antigua._ Las Casas gives the five +provinces of Hayti by the names of their chiefs, Guarinox, Guacanagari, +Behechio, Caonabo and Higuey. For their relative position see the map in +Charlevoix's _Histoire de l'Isle San Domingue_, Paris, 1740, and in +Baumgarten's _Geschichte von Amerika_, B. II. + +[36] This was Caonabo. Oviedo, and following him Charlevoix, say he was +a Carib, but Las Casas, who having lived twenty years in Haiti +immediately after the discovery, is infinitely the best authority, says: +"Era de nacion Lucayo, natural de las islas de los Lucayos, que se pasó +de ellas aca." (_Historia Apologetica_, cap. 179, MSS[TN-17]). + +[37] I put the figures very low. Peter Martyr, whose estimates are the +lowest of any writer, says there were more than 200,000 natives on Haiti +alone. (_De Rebus Oceanicis_, p. 295.) + +[38] More than 40,000 were brought to Haiti to enjoy the benefits of +Christian instruction, says Herrera, with what might pass as a ghastly +sarcasm. (_Historia General de las Indias_, Dec. I, lib. VIII. cap. 3). + +[39] _Brevissima Relacion de la Destruccion de las Indias Occidentales +par los Castellanos_, Sevilla, 1552. + +[40] Ramon de de[TN-18] la Sagra, _Historia de la Isla de Cuba_, Tom. II, +p. 381. + +[41] Ibid, p. 394. + +[42] Ibid, p. 396. + +[43] Ibid, p. 414. + +[44] Ibid, p. 385. These references to De la Sagra's work are all to the +original documents in his Appendix. + +[45] Las Casas knew Pane personally, and gives his name correctly (not +_Roman_, as all the printed authorities have it). He described him as +"hombre simple y de buena intencion;" "fuese Catalan de nacion y no +habla del todo bien nuestra lengua Castellana." Ramon came to Haiti four +or five years before Las Casas, and the latter speaks of him in a +disparaging tone. "Este Fray Ramon escudrino lo que pudó, segun lo que +alcanzo de las lenguas que fueron tres, las que habia en esta ysia: pero +no supo sino la una de una chica provincia, que arriba dejimos llamarse +Macaria de abajo, y aquella no perfectamente.[TN-19] (_Historia +Apologetica, MSS._[TN-20] cap. 120, see also cap. 162). This statement is +not quite true, as according to Las Casas' own admission Pane dwelt two +years in the province of Guarinoex, where the _lengua universal_ was +spoken, and _there_ collected these traditions. + +[46] Pane's account was first published in the _Historie del +Frenando[TN-21] Colombo_, Venetia, 1571, from which it has recently been +translated and published with notes by Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, +1864. The version of Zuane de Strozi is in the Appendix to Harrisse's +_Bibliotheca Primordia Americana_, p. 474. + +[47] _The myths of the New World_, (New York, 1868). + +[48] See the work last quoted, p. 156, for a number of similar myths of +the trinity of the storm. + +[49] I take these as they are related in Bretts, _Indian Tribes of +Guiana_, Part ii, chap. x. + +[50] The most trustworthy author is Las Casas. As his works are still in +manuscript, I give his words. "Tres lenguas habia en esta ysla distintas +que la una a la otra no se entendia. La una era de la gente que +llamabamos Macorix de abajo y la otra de los vecinos del Macorix de +arriba. La otra lengua fue la universal de toda la tierra, y esta era +mas elegante y mas copiosa de vocablos, y mas dulce al sonido. En esto +la de Xaragua en todo llevaba ventaja, y era mui mas prima." (_Historia +Apologetica_, cap. 197). "Es aqui de saber que un gran pedajo de esta +costa (that of the northern part of Haiti), bien mas de veinte y cinco o +treinta leguas y quince buenas y aun veinte de ancho hasta las sierras +que haren desta parte del norte la gran Vega inclusive, era poblado de +una gente que se llamaron Mazoriges, y otras Ciguayos, y tenian diversas +lenguas de la universal de todas las islas." (_Historia General_, lib. +I, cap. 77). "Llamaban Ciguayos porque trayan todos los cabellos mui +luengos como en Nueva Castilla las mujeres," (id. cap. 77). The cacique +of the Ciguayos was named Mayomanex or Mayobanex, (id. lib. I, cap. +120). They went almost naked, and had no arms, "eran Gallinas almenos +para con los uños, como no tuviesen armas," (id. cap. 120.) + +[51] Pigafetta, _Reise um die Welt_, so. 21, 26, 247, (Gotha, 1802; a +translation of the Italian original in the library at Milan). + + + + +Transcriber's Note + + +The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained. + + Page Error + TN-1 2 Mr. Shultz should read Schultz + TN-2 2 dipthongs should read diphthongs + TN-3 7 Second preterite should read Second preterite: + TN-4 9 Lact's should read Laet's + TN-5 11 preceived should read perceived + TN-6 11 VI, c, 8 should read VI, c. 8 + TN-7 12 lib. I, cap 96 should read lib. I, cap. 96 + TN-8 12 S. V.) should read S. V.). + TN-9 13 Navarrete, Viages. should read Navarrete, Viages, + TN-10 13 Apol. cap, should read Apol. cap. + TN-11 14 chieftians should read chieftains + TN-12 fn. 3 quelquee should read quelques + TN-13 fn. 10 p 4 should read p. 4 + TN-14 fn. 13 Indias Occid should read Indias Occid. + TN-15 fn. 31 philogical should read philological + TN-16 fn. 32 Hernandez. should read Hernandez." + TN-17 fn. 36 MSS should read MSS. + TN-18 fn. 40 Ramon de de should read Ramon de + TN-19 fn. 45 perfectamente. should read perfectamente." + TN-20 fn. 45 <i>MSS.</i> should read MSS. + TN-21 fn. 46 Frenando should read Fernando + +Other inconsistencies: + +The relative position of , and ) is not consistent. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arawack Language of Guiana in its +Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, by Daniel G. 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