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diff --git a/31277-0.txt b/31277-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ba3d0c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9560 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by +C. Alphonso Smith + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book + with Inflections, Syntax, Selections for Reading, and Glossary + +Author: C. Alphonso Smith + +Release Date: February 15, 2010 [EBook #31277] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +[Transcriber’s Note: + +This e-text includes characters that require UTF-8 (Unicode) file +encoding: + + Āā Ēē Īī Ōō Ūū; ȳ Ǣǣ (vowels with macron or “long” mark) + Ęę Ǫǫ (e and o with ogonek) + +If any of these characters do not display properly--in particular, if +the diacritic does not appear directly above the letter--or if the +apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, +make sure your text reader’s “character set” or “file encoding” is set +to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change the default font. +Depending on available fonts, some tables may not line up vertically. +As a last resort, use the Latin-1 version of the file instead. + +See the Poetry section (between V and VI in Part III, Readings) for +potential problems specific to that section. + +Italics are shown with _lines_. Boldface is shown with #hash marks#. +In the printed book, boldface was used for all Anglo-Saxon other than +exercises and reading passages; it has been omitted from the e-text +except when necessary for clarity. + +In references to numbered Sections, “Note” may mean either an inset Note +or a footnote. + +In the prose reading selections (pages 99-121), page numbers and line +breaks have been retained for use with the linenotes and Glossary. Page +numbers are shown in [[double brackets]]. In the verse selections, line +numbers in the notes have been replaced with line numbers from the +original texts, printed in brackets as shown. The distinction between +linenotes and numbered footnotes is in the original. + +Single brackets [] and asterisks * are in the original, as are the +symbols + = < >. Text in [[double brackets]] was added by the +transcriber.] + + + + + ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR + + AND EXERCISE BOOK + + + With Inflections, Syntax, Selections + for Reading, and Glossary + + + By + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH, Ph.D., LL.D. + + Late Professor of English in the + United States Naval Academy + + + + + ALLYN and BACON + Boston New York Chicago + Atlanta San Francisco + + + + + Copyright, 1896, by + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + + IAI + + + Norwood Press + J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith + Norwood Mass. U.S.A. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The scope of this book is indicated in § 5. It is intended for +beginners, and in writing it, these words of Sir Thomas Elyot have not +been forgotten: “Grammer, beinge but an introduction to the +understandinge of autors, if it be made to longe or exquisite to the +lerner, it in a maner mortifieth his corage: And by that time he cometh +to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde autors, the sparkes of +fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the burdone of grammer, +lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small +stickes.” --_The Governour_, Cap. X. + +Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, which is +planned more as a foundation for the study of Modern English grammar, of +historical English grammar, and of the principles of English etymology, +than as a general introduction to Germanic philology. + +The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish all the drill +necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and constructions +given in the various chapters. + +The Selections for Reading relate to the history and literature of King +Alfred’s day, and are sufficient to give the student a first-hand, +though brief, acquaintance with the native style and idiom of Early West +Saxon prose in its golden age. Most of the words and constructions +contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their +intentional employment in the Exercises. + +For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse has been had +chiefly to Sievers’ _Abriss der angelsächsischen Grammatik_ (1895). +Constant reference has been made also to the same author’s earlier and +larger _Angelsächsishe Grammatik_, translated by Cook. A more sparing +use has been made of Cosijn’s _Altwestsächsische Grammatik_. + +For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wülfing’s _Syntax in +den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I._ (Bonn, 1894) has proved +indispensable. Advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead +one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the +most important contribution to the study of English syntax that has yet +been made. Old English sentences have also been cited from Sweet’s +_Anglo-Saxon Reader_, Bright’s _Anglo-Saxon Reader_, and Cook’s _First +Book in Old English_. + +The short chapter on the Order of Words has been condensed from my +_Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose_ (Publications of the Modern +Language Association of America, New Series, Vol. I, No. 2). + +Though assuming sole responsibility for everything contained in this +book, I take pleasure in acknowledging the kind and efficient assistance +that has been so generously given me in its preparation. To none do I +owe more than to Dr. J. E. Wülfing, of the University of Bonn; Prof. +James A. Harrison, of the University of Virginia; Prof. W. S. Currell, +of Washington and Lee University; Prof. J. Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr +College; and Prof. L. M. Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have +each rendered material aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting +typographical errors in the proof-sheets, but by the valuable criticisms +and suggestions which they have made as this work was passing through +the press. + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + Louisiana State University, + Baton Rouge, September, 1896. + + + + +PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. + + +In preparing this enlarged edition, a few minor errors in the first +edition have been corrected and a few sentences added. The chief +difference between the two editions, however, consists in the +introduction of more reading matter and the consequent exposition of Old +English meter. Both changes have been made at the persistent request of +teachers and students of Old English. + +Uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved in the new +material and the old, the emphasis in both being placed on syntax and +upon the affinities that Old English shares with Modern English. + +Many obligations have been incurred in preparing this augmented edition. +I have again to thank Dr. J. E. Wülfing, Prof. James A. Harrison, Prof. +W. S. Currell, and Prof. J. Douglas Bruce. To the scholarly criticisms +also of Prof. J. M. Hart, of Cornell; Prof. Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., of +Williams College; and Prof. Frederick Tupper, Jr., of the University of +Vermont, I am indebted for aid as generously given as it is genuinely +appreciated. + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + August, 1898. + + + + +PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. + + +Among those who have kindly aided in making this edition free from +error, I wish to thank especially my friend Dr. John M. McBryde, Jr., of +Hollins Institute, Virginia. + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + University of North Carolina, + Chapel Hill, February, 1903. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +PART I.--INTRODUCTION. + +Chapters Pages + + I. History (§ 1-5) 1 + II. Sounds (§ 6-11) 4 + III. Inflections (§ 12-19) 10 + IV. Order of Words (§ 20-21) 18 + V. Practical Suggestions (§ 22-24) 21 + +PART II.--ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. + + VI. The a-Declension: Masculine a-Stems (§ 25-30) 27 + VII. Neuter a-Stems (§ 31-36) 30 + VIII. The ō-Declension (§ 37-42) 33 + IX. The i-Declension and the u-Declension (§ 43-55) 35 + X. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs (§ 56-62) 39 + XI. The Weak or n-Declension (§ 63-66) 44 + XII. Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions (§ 67-71) 47 + XIII. Pronouns (§ 72-77) 50 + XIV. Adjectives, Strong and Weak (§ 78-87) 53 + XV. Numerals (§ 88-92) 57 + XVI. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions (§ 93-95) 60 + XVII. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs (§ 96-100) 64 + XVIII. Strong Verbs: Class I, Syntax of Moods (§ 101-108) 68 + XIX. Classes II and III (§ 109-113) 74 + XX. Classes IV, V, VI, and VII; Contract Verbs (§ 114-121) 78 + XXI. Weak Verbs (§ 122-133) 82 + XXII. Remaining Verbs; Verb Phrases with #habban#, #bēon#, + and #weorðan# (§ 134-143) 90 + +PART III.--SELECTIONS FOR READING. + + PROSE. + + Introductory 98 + I. The Battle of Ashdown 99 + II. A Prayer of King Alfred 101 + III. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan 102 + Ohthere’s First Voyage 103 + Ohthere’s Second Voyage 106 + Wulfstan’s Voyage 107 + IV. The Story of Cædmon 111 + V. Alfred’s Preface to the Pastoral Care 116 + + POETRY. + + Introductory 122 + VI. Extracts from Beowulf 136 + VII. The Wanderer 148 + +GLOSSARIES. + + I. Old English--Modern English 155 + II. Modern English--Old English 190 + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + OLD ENGLISH + + GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES + + * * * * + * * * * * + + +OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND EXERCISE BOOK. + + + + +PART I. + +INTRODUCTION. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +HISTORY. + + +1. The history of the English language falls naturally into three +periods; but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too +much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which +scholars, chiefly for convenience of treatment, have assigned as their +limits. Our language, it is true, has undergone many and great changes; +but its continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has +never been lost. + + +2. The first of these periods is that of OLD ENGLISH, or ANGLO-SAXON,[1] +commonly known as the period of _full inflections_. _E.g._ #stān-as#, +_stones_; #car-u#, _care_; #will-a#, _will_; #bind-an#, _to bind_; +#help-að# (= #ath#), _they help_. + +It extends from the arrival of the English in Great Britain to about one +hundred years after the Norman Conquest,--from A.D. 449 to 1150; but +there are no literary remains of the earlier centuries of this period. +There were four[2] distinct dialects spoken at this time. These were the +Northumbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; the Mercian, spoken in +the midland region between the Humber and the Thames; the West Saxon, +spoken south and west of the Thames; and the Kentish, spoken in the +neighborhood of Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most +nearly akin to the Mercian; but the best known of them is the West +Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that King Alfred (849-901) wrote +and spoke. His writings belong to the period of Early West Saxon as +distinguished from the period of Late West Saxon, the latter being best +represented in the writings of Abbot Ælfric (955?-1025?). + + [Footnote 1: This unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term + _Angli Saxones_, which Latin writers used as a designation for + the English Saxons as distinguished from the continental or Old + Saxons. But Alfred and Ælfric both use the term _Englisc_, not + Anglo-Saxon. The Angles spread over Northumbria and Mercia, far + outnumbering the other tribes. Thus _Englisc_ (= _Angel_ + + _isc_) became the general name for the language spoken.] + + [Footnote 2: As small as England is, there are six distinct + dialects spoken in her borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire + dialect is, perhaps, the most peculiar. It preserves many + Northumbrian survivals. See Tennyson’s _Northern Farmer_.] + + +3. The second period is that of MIDDLE ENGLISH, or the period of +_leveled inflections_, the dominant vowel of the inflections being e. +_E.g._ #ston-es#, #car-e#, #will-e#, #bind-en# (or #bind-e#), +#help-eth#, each being, as in the earlier period, a dissyllable. + +The Middle English period extends from A.D. 1150 to 1500. Its greatest +representatives are Chaucer (1340-1400) in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384) +in prose. There were three prominent dialects during this period: the +Northern, corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the Midland (divided +into East Midland and West Midland), corresponding to the Mercian; and +the Southern, corresponding to the West Saxon and Kentish. London, +situated in East Midland territory, had become the dominant speech +center; and it was this East Midland dialect that both Chaucer and +Wiclif employed. + + NOTE.--It is a great mistake to think that Chaucer shaped our + language from crude materials. His influence was conservative, not + plastic. The popularity of his works tended to crystalize and thus + to perpetuate the forms of the East Midland dialect, but that + dialect was ready to his hand before he began to write. The speech + of London was, in Chaucer’s time, a mixture of Southern and + Midland forms, but the Southern forms (survivals of the West Saxon + dialect) had already begun to fall away; and this they continued + to do, so that “Chaucer’s language,” as Dr. Murray says, “is more + Southern than standard English eventually became.” See also + Morsbach, _Ueber den Ursprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache_ + (1888). + + +4. The last period is that of MODERN ENGLISH, or the period of _lost +inflections_. _E.g._ _stones_, _care_, _will_, _bind_, _help_, each +being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from A.D. 1500 to the +present time. It has witnessed comparatively few grammatical changes, +but the vocabulary of our language has been vastly increased by +additions from the classical languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their +values. + + +5. It is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of +Early West Saxon, that is, the language of King Alfred. With this +knowledge, it will not be difficult for the student to read Late West +Saxon, or any other dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge +will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of Middle +English and of Modern English, besides laying a secure foundation for +the scientific study of any other Germanic tongue. + + NOTE.--The Germanic, or Teutonic, languages constitute a branch of + the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic (known also as the + Indo-European) group. They are subdivided as follows: + + { North Germanic: Scandinavian, or Norse. + { + { { Old High German, + Germanic { East Germanic: Gothic. { (to A.D. 1100,) + { { + { { High German { Middle High German, + { { { (A.D. 1100-1500,) + { { { + { West Germanic { { New High German. + { { (A.D. 1500-.) + { + { Low German { Dutch, + { Old Saxon, + { Frisian, + { English. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +SOUNDS. + + +#Vowels and Diphthongs.# + +6. The long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the +macron (–). Vowel length should in every case be associated by the +student with each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distinguishes +words meaning wholly different things: #fōr#, _he went_, #for#, _for_; +#gōd#, _good_, #God#, _God_; #mān#, _crime_, #man#, _man_. + +Long vowels and diphthongs: + + ā as in f_a_ther: #stān#, _a stone_. + ǣ as in m_a_n (prolonged): #slǣpan#, _to sleep_. + ē as in th_e_y: #hēr#, _here_. + ī as in mach_i_ne: #mīn#, _mine_. + ō as in n_o_te (pure, not diphthongal): #bōc#, _book_. + ū as in r_u_le: #tūn#, _town_. + ȳ as in German gr_ü_n, or English gr_ee_n (with lips rounded):[1] + #brȳd#, _bride_. + +The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress upon the first vowel. +The second vowel is obscured, and represents approximately the sound of +_er_ in _sooner_, _faster_ (= _soon-uh_, _fast-uh_). The long diphthongs +(ǣ is not a diphthong proper) are ēo, īe, and ēa. The sound of ēo is +approximately reproduced in _mayor_ (= _mā-uh_); that of īe in the +dissyllabic pronunciation of _fear_ (= _fē-uh_). But ēa = _ǣ-uh_. This +diphthong is hardly to be distinguished from _ea_ in _pear_, _bear_, +etc., as pronounced in the southern section of the United States +(= _bæ-uh_, _pæ-uh_). + + +7. The short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs +shortened; but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that +Modern English _red_, for example, is the shortened form of _reed_, or +that _mat_ is the shortened form of _mate_. Pronounce these long sounds +with increasing rapidity, and _reed_ will approach _rid_, while _mate_ +will approach _met_. The Old English short vowel sounds are: + + a as in _a_rtistic: #habban#, _to have_. + æ as in m_a_nkind: #dæg#, _day_. + e, ę as in l_e_t: #stelan#, _to steal_, #sęttan#, _to set_. + i as in s_i_t: #hit#, _it_. + o as in br_oa_d (but shorter): #God#, _God_. + ǫ as in n_o_t: #lǫmb#, _lamb_. + u as in f_u_ll: #sunu#, _son_. + y as in m_i_ller (with lips rounded)[1]: #gylden#, _golden_. + + NOTE.--The symbol ę is known as _umlaut_-e (§ 58). It stands for + Germanic _a_, while e (without the cedilla) represents Germanic + _e_. The symbol ǫ is employed only before m and n. It, too, + represents Germanic _a_. But Alfred writes #manig# or #monig#, + _many_; #lamb# or #lomb#, _lamb_; #hand# or #hond#, _hand_, etc. + The cedilla is an etymological sign added by modern grammarians. + + [Transcriber’s Note: + The letters ę and ǫ were printed as shown in this e-text. The + diacritic is not a cedilla (open to the left) but an ogonek (open + to the right).] + + [Footnote 1: Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the + lip-opening is rounded; that is, when the lips are thrust out + and puckered as if preparing to pronounce _w_. Thus _o_ and _u_ + are round vowels: add _-ing_ to each, and phonetically you have + added _-wing_. _E.g. go^{w}ing_, _su^{w}ing_.] + + +#Consonants.# + +8. There is little difference between the values of Old English +consonants and those of Modern English. The following distinctions, +however, require notice: + +The digraph #th# is represented in Old English texts by ð and þ, no +consistent distinction being made between them. In the works of Alfred, +ð (capital, Ð) is the more common: #ðās#, _those_; #ðæt#, _that_; +#bindeð#, _he binds_. + +The consonant #c# had the hard sound of _k_, the latter symbol being +rare in West Saxon: #cyning#, _king_; #cwēn#, _queen_; #cūð#, _known_. +When followed by a palatal vowel sound,--_e_, _i_, _æ_, _ea_, _eo_, +long or short,--a vanishing _y_ sound was doubtless interposed (_cf._ +dialectic _k^{y}ind_ for _kind_). In Modern English the combination +has passed into _ch_: #cealc#, _chalk_; #cīdan#, _to chide_; #lǣce#, +_leech_; #cild#, _child_; #cēowan#, _to chew_. This change (_c_ > _ch_) +is known as Palatalization. The letter g, pronounced as in Modern +English _gun_, has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels +(_cf._ dialectic _g^{y}irl_ for _girl_). + +The combination #cg#, which frequently stands for #gg#, had probably the +sound of _dge_ in Modern English _edge_: #ęcg#, _edge_; #sęcgan#, _to +say_; #brycg#, _bridge_. Initial #h# is sounded as in Modern English: +#habban#, _to have_; #hālga#, _saint_. When closing a syllable it has +the sound of German _ch_: #slōh#, _he slew_; #hēah#, _high_; #ðurh#, +_through_. + + +9. An important distinction is that between voiced (or sonant) and +voiceless (or surd) consonants.[2] In Old English they are as follows: + + VOICED. VOICELESS. + + g h, c + d t + ð, þ (as in _th_ough) ð, þ (as in _th_in) + b p + f (= v) f + s (= z) s + +It is evident, therefore, that ð (þ), f, and s have double values in Old +English. If voiced, they are equivalent to _th_ (in _th_ough), _v_, and +_z_. Otherwise, they are pronounced as _th_ (in _th_in), _f_ (in _f_in), +and _s_ (in _s_in). The syllabic environment will usually compel the +student to give these letters their proper values. When occurring +between vowels, they are always voiced: #ōðer#, _other_; #ofer#, _over_; +#rīsan#, _to rise_. + + NOTE.--The general rule in Old English, as in Modern English, is, + that voiced consonants have a special affinity for other voiced + consonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This is the law of + Assimilation. Thus when _de_ is added to form the preterit of a + verb whose stem ends in a voiceless consonant, the d is unvoiced, + or assimilated, to t: #sęttan#, _to set_, #sętte# (but #tręddan#, + _to tread_, has #trędde#); #slǣpan#, _to sleep_, #slǣpte#; + #dręncan#, _to drench_, #dręncte#; #cyssan#, _to kiss_, #cyste#. + See § 126, Note 1. + + [Footnote 2: A little practice will enable the student to see + the appropriateness of calling these consonants voiced and + voiceless. Try to pronounce a voiced consonant,--_d_ in _den_, + for example, but without the assistance of _en_,--and there will + be heard a gurgle, or _vocal_ murmur. But in _t_, of _ten_, + there is no sound at all, but only a feeling of tension in the + organs.] + + +#Syllables.# + +10. A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or in combination with +consonants, uttered with a single impulse of stress; but certain +consonants may form syllables: _oven_ (= _ov-n_), _battle_ (= _bæt-l_); +(_cf._ also the vulgar pronunciation of _elm_). + +A syllable may be (1) weak or strong, (2) open or closed, (3) long or +short. + +(1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its vowel sound is often +different from that of the corresponding strong, or stressed, syllable. +_Cf._ weak and strong _my_ in “I want my lárge hat” and “I want mý hat.” + +(2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong: #dē-man#, _to deem_; +#ðū#, _thou_; #sca-can#, _to shake_; #dæ-ges#, _by day_. A closed +syllable ends in one or more consonants: #ðing#, _thing_; #gōd#, _good_; +#glæd#, _glad_. + +(3) A syllable is long (_a_) if it contains a long vowel or a long +diphthong: #drī-fan#, _to drive_; #lū-can#, _to lock_; #slǣ-pan#, _to +sleep_; #cēo-san#, _to choose_; (_b_) if its vowel or diphthong is +followed by more than one consonant:[3] #cræft#, _strength_; #heard#, +_hard_; #lib-ban#, _to live_; #feal-lan#, _to fall_. Otherwise, the +syllable is short: #ðe#, _which_; #be-ran#, _to bear_; #ðæt#, _that_; +#gie-fan#, _to give_. + + NOTE 1.--A single consonant belongs to the following syllable: + #hā-lig#, _holy_ (not #hāl-ig#); #wrī-tan#, _to write_; #fæ-der#, + _father_. + + NOTE 2.--The student will notice that the syllable may be long and + the vowel short; but the vowel cannot be long and the syllable + short. + + NOTE 3.--Old English short vowels, occurring in open syllables, + have regularly become long in Modern English: #we-fan#, _to + weave_; #e-tan#, _to eat_; #ma-cian#, _to make_; #na-cod#, + _naked_; #a-can#, _to ache_; #o-fer#, _over_. And Old English long + vowels, preceding two or more consonants, have generally been + shortened: #brēost#, _breast_; #hǣlð#, _health_; #slǣpte#, + _slept_; #lǣdde#, _led_. + + [Footnote 3: Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single + consonant is long. It may be said, therefore, that all closed + syllables are long; but in the natural flow of language, the + single final consonant of a syllable so often blends with a + following initial vowel, the syllable thus becoming open and + short, that such syllables are not recognized as prevailingly + long. _Cf._ Modern English _at all_ (= _a-tall_).] + + +#Accentuation.# + +11. The accent in Old English falls usually on the radical syllable, +never on the inflectional ending: #bríngan#, _to bring_; #stā́nas#, +_stones_; #bérende#, _bearing_; #ī́delnes#, _idleness_; #frḗondscipe#, +_friendship_. + +But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs the first +member of the compound (unless it be ge- or be-) receives the stronger +stress: #héofon-rīce#, _heaven-kingdom_; #ǫ́nd-giet#, _intelligence_; +#sṓð-fæst#, _truthful_; #gód-cund#, _divine_; #éall-unga#, _entirely_; +#blī́ðe-līce#, _blithely_. But #be-hā́t#, _promise_; #ge-béd#, _prayer_; +#ge-fḗalīc#, _joyous_; #be-sǫ́ne#, _immediately_. + +Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the radical syllable: +#for-gíefan#, _to forgive_; #of-línnan#, _to cease_; #ā-cnā́wan#, _to +know_; #wið-stǫ́ndan#, _to withstand_; #on-sácan#, _to resist_. + + NOTE.--The tendency of nouns to take the stress on the prefix, + while verbs retain it on the root, is exemplified in many Modern + English words: _préference_, _prefér_; _cóntract_ (noun), + _contráct_ (verb); _ábstinence_, _abstaín_; _pérfume_ (noun), + _perfúme_ (verb). + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +INFLECTIONS. + + +#Cases.# + +12. There are five cases in Old English: the nominative, the genitive, +the dative, the accusative, and the instrumental.[1] Each of them, +except the nominative, may be governed by prepositions. When used +without prepositions, they have, in general, the following functions: + +(_a_) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the case of the subject +of a finite verb. + +(_b_) The genitive (the possessive case of Modern English) is the case +of the possessor or source. It may be called the _of_ case. + +(_c_) The dative is the case of the indirect object. It may be called +the _to_ or _for_ case. + +(_d_) The accusative (the objective case of Modern English) is the case +of the direct object. + +(_e_) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the dative in form, is +the case of the means or the method. It may be called the _with_ or _by_ +case. + +The following paradigm of #mūð#, _the mouth_, illustrates the several +cases (the article being, for the present, gratuitously added in the +Modern English equivalents): + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + _N._ mūð = _the mouth._ mūð-as = _the mouths._ + + _G._ mūð-es[2] = _of the mouth_ mūð-a = _of the mouths_ + (= _the mouth’s_). (= _the mouths’_). + + _D._ mūð-e = _to_ or _for the mūð-um = _to_ or _for the mouths._ + mouth._ + + _A._ mūð = _the mouth._ mūð-as = _the mouths._ + + _I._ mūðe = _with_ or _by means mūð-um = _with_ or _by means + of the mouth._ of the mouths._ + + [Footnote 1: Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But + it seems best to consider the vocative as only a _function_ of + the nominative _form_.] + + [Footnote 2: Of course our “apostrophe and _s_” (= _’s_) comes + from the Old English genitive ending -es. The _e_ is preserved + in _Wednesday_ (= Old English #Wōdnes dæg#). But at a very early + period it was thought that _John’s book_, for example, was a + shortened form of _John his book_. Thus Addison (_Spectator_, + No. 135) declares _’s_ a survival of _his_. How, then, would he + explain the _s_ of _his_? And how would he dispose of _Mary’s + book_?] + + +#Gender.# + +13. The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that of Modern English, +depends partly on meaning and partly on form, or ending. Thus #mūð#, +_mouth_, is masculine; #tunge#, _tongue_, feminine; #ēage#, _eye_, +neuter. + +No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given; but the gender of +every noun should be learned with its meaning. Gender will be indicated +in the vocabularies by the different gender forms of the definite +article, #sē# for the masculine, #sēo# for the feminine, and #ðæt# for +the neuter: #sē mūð#, #sēo tunge#, #ðæt ēage# = _the mouth_, _the +tongue_, _the eye_. + +All nouns ending in #-dōm#, #-hād#, #-scipe#, or #-ere# are masculine +(_cf._ Modern English wis_dom_, child_hood_, friend_ship_, work_er_). +Masculine, also, are nouns ending in -a. + +Those ending in #-nes# or #-ung# are feminine (_cf._ Modern English +good_ness_, and gerundial forms in _-ing_: see_ing_ is believ_ing_). + +Thus #sē wīsdōm#, _wisdom_; #sē cildhād#, _childhood_; #sē frēondscipe#, +_friendship_; #sē fiscere#, _fisher(man)_; #sē hunta#, _hunter_; #sēo +gelīcnes#, _likeness_; #sēo leornung#, _learning_. + + +#Declensions.# + +14. There are two great systems of declension in Old English, the Vowel +Declension and the Consonant Declension. A noun is said to belong to the +Vowel Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, this +vowel being then known as the _stem-characteristic_; but if the +stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun belongs to the Consonant +Declension. There might have been, therefore, as many subdivisions of +the Vowel Declension in Old English as there were vowels, and as many +subdivisions of the Consonant Declension as there were consonants. All +Old English nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel Declension, ended +their stems originally in a, ō, i, or u. Hence there are but four +subdivisions of the Vowel Declension: a-stems, ō-stems, i-stems, and +u-stems. + +The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong Declension, and its +nouns Strong Nouns. + + NOTE.--The terms Strong and Weak were first used by Jacob Grimm + (1785-1863) in the terminology of verbs, and thence transferred to + nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm meant one that could + form its preterit out of its own resources; that is, without + calling in the aid of an additional syllable: Modern English + _run_, _ran_; _find_, _found_; but verbs of the Weak Conjugation + had to borrow, as it were, an inflectional syllable: _gain_, + _gained_; _help_, _helped_. + + +15. The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant Declension ended, +with but few exceptions, in the letter n (_cf._ Latin _homin-em_, +_ration-em_, Greek ποιμέν-α). They are called, therefore, n-stems, +the Declension itself being known as the n-Declension, or the Weak +Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns. + + +16. If every Old English noun had preserved the original Germanic +stem-characteristic (or final letter of the stem), there would be no +difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an a-stem, +ō-stem, i-stem, u-stem, or n-stem; but these final letters had, for the +most part, either been dropped, or fused with the case-endings, long +before the period of historic Old English. It is only, therefore, by a +rigid comparison of the Germanic languages with one another, and with +the other Aryan languages, that scholars are able to reconstruct a +single Germanic language, in which the original stem-characteristics may +be seen far better than in any one historic branch of the Germanic group +(§ 5, Note). + +This hypothetical language, which bears the same ancestral relation to +the historic Germanic dialects that Latin bears to the Romance tongues, +is known simply as _Germanic_ (Gmc.), or as _Primitive Germanic_. +Ability to reconstruct Germanic forms is not expected of the students of +this book, but the following table should be examined as illustrating +the basis of distinction among the several Old English declensions (O.E. += Old English, Mn.E. = Modern English): + + { {Gmc. _staina-z_, + {(1) a-stems {O.E. #stān#, + { {Mn.E. _stone_. + { + { {Gmc. _hallō_, + {(2) ō-stems {O.E. #heall#, + I. Strong or Vowel { {Mn.E. _hall_. + Declensions { + { {Gmc. _bōni-z_, + {(3) i-stems {O.E. #bēn#, + { {Mn.E. _boon_. + { + { {Gmc. _sunu-z_, + {(4) u-stems {O.E. #sunu#, + { {Mn.E. _son_. + + {(1) n-stems {Gmc. _tungōn-iz_, + { (Weak {O.E. #tung-an#, + { Declension) {Mn.E. _tongue-s_. + { + { { {Gmc. _fōt-iz_, + { {(_a_) {O.E. #fēt#, + II. Consonant {(2) Remnants { {Mn.E. _feet_. + Declensions { of other { + { Consonant { {Gmc. _frijōnd-iz_, + { Declensions {(_b_) {O.E. #frīend#, + { { {Mn.E. _friend-s_. + { { + { { {Gmc. _brōðr-iz_, + { {(_c_) {O.E. #brōðor#, + { { {Mn.E. _brother-s_. + + + NOTE.--“It will be seen that if Old English #ēage#, _eye_, is said + to be an n-stem, what is meant is this, that at some former period + the kernel of the word ended in -n, while, as far as the Old + English language proper is concerned, all that is implied is that + the word is inflected in a certain manner.” (Jespersen, _Progress + in Language_, § 109). + + This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant. + The division, therefore, into a-stems, ō-stems, etc., is made in + the interests of grammar as well as of philology. + + +#Conjugations.# + +17. There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation in Old English: the +Strong or Old Conjugation, and the Weak or New Conjugation. + +The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called Irregular Verbs of +Modern English) number about three hundred, of which not one hundred +remain in Modern English (§ 101, Note). They form their preterit and +frequently their past participle by changing the radical vowel of the +present stem. This vowel change or modification is called _ablaut_ +(pronounced _áhp-lowt_): Modern English _sing, sang, sung_; _rise, rose, +risen_. As the radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different +from that of the preterit singular, there are four _principal parts_ or +_tense stems_ in an Old English strong verb, instead of the three of +Modern English. The four principal parts in the conjugation of a strong +verb are (1) the present indicative, (2) the preterit indicative +singular, (3) the preterit indicative plural, and (4) the past +participle. + +Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in the following table: + + PRESENT. + PRET. SING. + PRET. PLUR. + PAST PARTICIPLE. + + I. Bītan, _to bite_: + + Ic bīt-e, _I bite_ or _shall bite_.[3] + Ic bāt, _I bit_. + Wē bit-on, _we bit_. + Ic hæbbe ge[4]-biten, _I have bitten_. + + II. Bēodan, _to bid_: + + Ic bēod-e, _I bid_ or _shall bid_. + Ic bēad, _I bade_. + Wē bud-on, _we bade_. + Ic hæbbe ge-boden, _I have bidden_. + + III. Bindan, _to bind_: + + Ic bind-e, _I bind_ or _shall bind_. + Ic bǫnd, _I bound_. + Wē bund-on, _we bound_. + Ic hæbbe ge-bund-en, _I have bound_. + + IV. Beran, _to bear_: + + Ic ber-e, _I bear_ or _shall bear_. + Ic bær, _I bore_. + Wē bǣr-on, _we bore_. + Ic hæbbe ge-bor-en, _I have borne_. + + V. Metan, _to measure_: + + Ic met-e, _I measure_ or _shall measure_. + Ic mæt, _I measured_. + Wē mǣt-on, _we measured_. + Ic hæbbe ge-met-en, _I have measured_. + + VI. Faran, _to go_: + + Ic far-e, _I go_ or _shall go_. + Ic fōr, _I went_. + Wē fōr-on, _we went_. + Ic eom[5] ge-far-en, _I have (am) gone_. + + VII. Feallan, _to fall_: + + Ic feall-e, _I fall_ or _shall fall_. + Ic fēoll, _I fell_. + Wē fēoll-on, _we fell_. + Ic eom[5] ge-feall-en, _I have (am) fallen_. + + [Footnote 3: Early West Saxon had no distinctive form for the + future. The present was used both as present proper and as + future. _Cf._ Modern English “I go home tomorrow,” or “I am + going home tomorrow” for “I shall go home tomorrow.”] + + [Footnote 4: The prefix ge- (Middle English _y-_), cognate with + Latin _co_ (_con_) and implying completeness of action, was not + always used. It never occurs in the past participles of compound + verbs: #oþ-feallan#, _to fall off_, past participle #oþ-feallen# + (not #oþ-gefeallen#). Milton errs in prefixing it to a present + participle: + + “What needs my Shakespeare, for his honour’d bones, + The labour of an age in piled stones? + Or that his hallow’d reliques should be hid + Under a star-_ypointing_ pyramid.” + --_Epitaph on William Shakespeare_. + + And Shakespeare misuses it in “Y-ravished,” a preterit + (_Pericles_ III, _Prologue_ l. 35). + + It survives in the archaic _y-clept_ (Old English #ge-clypod#, + called). It appears as _a_ in _aware_ (Old English #ge-wær#), + as _e_ in _enough_ (Old English #ge-nōh#), and as _i_ in + _handiwork_ (Old English #hand-ge-weorc#).] + + [Footnote 5: With intransitive verbs denoting _change of + condition_, the Old English auxiliary is usually some form of + _to be_ rather than _to have_. See § 139.] + + +18. The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called Regular Verbs of +Modern English) form their preterit and past participle by adding to the +present stem a suffix[6] with _d_ or _t_: Modern English _love_, +_loved_; _sleep_, _slept_. + +The stem of the preterit plural is never different from the stem of the +preterit singular; hence these verbs have only three distinctive +tense-stems, or principal parts: _viz._, (1) the present indicative, +(2) the preterit indicative, and (3) the past participle. + +Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in the following table: + + PRESENT. + PRETERIT. + PAST PARTICIPLE. + + I. Fręmman, _to perform_: + + Ic fręmm-e, _I perform_ or _shall perform_. + Ic fręm-ede, _I performed_. + Ic hæbbe ge-fręm-ed, _I have performed_. + + II. Bodian, _to proclaim_: + + Ic bodi-e, _I proclaim_ or _shall proclaim_. + Ic bod-ode, _I proclaimed_. + Ic hæbbe ge-bod-od, _I have proclaimed_. + + III. Habban, _to have_: + + Ic hæbbe, _I have_ or _shall have_. + Ic hæf-de, _I had_. + Ic hæbbe ge-hæf-d, _I have had_. + + [Footnote 6: The theory that _loved_, for example, is a fused + form of _love-did_ has been generally given up. The dental + ending was doubtless an Indo-Germanic suffix, which became + completely specialized only in the Teutonic languages.] + + +19. There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary Verbs of Modern +English) that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations +mentioned. The most important of them are, #Ic mæg# _I may_, #Ic mihte# +_I might_; #Ic cǫn# _I can_, #Ic cūðe# _I could_; #Ic mōt# _I must_, #Ic +mōste# _I must_; #Ic sceal# _I shall_, #Ic sceolde# _I should_; #Ic eom# +_I am_, #Ic wæs# _I was_; #Ic wille# _I will_, #Ic wolde# _I would_; #Ic +dō# _I do_, #Ic dyde# _I did_; #Ic gā# _I go_, #Ic ēode# _I went_. + +All but the last four of these are known as Preterit-Present Verbs. The +present tense of each of them is _in origin_ a preterit, _in function_ a +present. _Cf._ Modern English _ought_ (= _owed_). + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +ORDER OF WORDS. + + +20. The order of words in Old English is more like that of Modern German +than of Modern English. Yet it is only the Transposed order that the +student will feel to be at all un-English; and the Transposed order, +even before the period of the Norman Conquest, was fast yielding place +to the Normal order. + +The three divisions of order are (1) Normal, (2) Inverted, and +(3) Transposed. + +(1) Normal order = subject + predicate. In Old English, the Normal order +is found chiefly in independent clauses. The predicate is followed by +its modifiers: #Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa þonne ōðre hwalas#, _That whale +is much smaller than other whales_; #Ǫnd hē geseah twā scipu#, _And he +saw two ships_. + +(2) Inverted order = predicate + subject. This order occurs also in +independent clauses, and is employed (_a_) when some modifier of the +predicate precedes the predicate, the subject being thrown behind. The +words most frequently causing Inversion in Old English prose are #þā# +_then_, #þonne# _then_, and #þǣr# _there_: #Ðā fōr hē#, _Then went he_; +#Ðonne ærnað hȳ ealle tōweard þǣm fēo#, _Then gallop they all toward the +property_; #ac þǣr bið medo genōh#, _but there is mead enough_. + +Inversion is employed (_b_) in interrogative sentences: #Lufast ðū mē?# +_Lovest thou me?_ and (_c_) in imperative sentences: #Cume ðīn rīce#, +_Thy kingdom come_. + +(3) Transposed order = subject ... predicate. That is, the predicate +comes last in the sentence, being preceded by its modifiers. This is the +order observed in dependent clauses:[1] #Ðonne cymeð sē man sē þæt +swiftoste hors hafað#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse_ +(literally, _that the swiftest horse has_); #Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn +land, siþþan hē frǫm his āgnum hām fōr#, _Nor did he before find any +cultivated land, after he went from his own home_ (literally, _after he +from his own home went_). + + [Footnote 1: But in the _Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan_, in + which the style is apparently more that of oral than of written + discourse, the Normal is more frequent than the Transposed order + in dependent clauses. In his other writings Alfred manifests a + partiality for the Transposed order in dependent clauses, except + in the case of substantival clauses introduced by #þæt#. Such + clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their Normal _oratio + recta_ order. The norm thus set by the indirect affirmative + clause seems to have proved an important factor in the ultimate + disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The + influence of Norman French helped only to consummate forces that + were already busily at work.] + + +21. Two other peculiarities in the order of words require a brief +notice. + +(1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually precede the predicate: +#Hē hine oferwann#, _He overcame him_ (literally, _He him overcame_); +#Dryhten him andwyrde#, _The Lord answered him_. But substantival +datives and accusatives, as in Modern English, follow the predicate. The +following sentence illustrates both orders: #Hȳ genāmon Ioseph, ǫnd hine +gesealdon cīpemǫnnum, ǫnd hȳ hine gesealdon in Ēgypta lǫnd#, _They took +Joseph, and sold him to merchants, and they sold him into Egypt_ +(literally, _They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, and they him +sold into Egyptians’ land_). + + NOTE.--The same order prevails in the case of pronominal + nominatives used as predicate nouns: #Ic hit eom#, _It is I_ + (literally, _I it am_); #Ðū hit eart#, _It is thou_ (literally, + _Thou it art_). + +(2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship it expresses, +usually precedes the noun which it qualifies: #Breoton is gārsecges +īgland#, _Britain is an island of the ocean_ (literally, _ocean’s +island_); #Swilce hit is ēac berende on węcga ōrum#, _Likewise it is +also rich in ores of metals_ (literally, _metals’ ores_); #Cyninga +cyning#, _King of kings_ (literally, _Kings’ king_); #Gē witon Godes +rīces gerȳne#, _Ye know the mystery of the kingdom of God_ (literally, +_Ye know God’s kingdom’s mystery_). + +A preposition governing the word modified by the genitive, precedes the +genitive:[2] #On ealdra manna sægenum#, _In old men’s sayings_; #Æt ðǣra +strǣta ęndum#, _At the ends of the streets_ (literally, _At the streets’ +ends_); #For ealra ðīnra hālgena lufan#, _For all thy saints’ love_. +See, also, § 94, (5). + + [Footnote 2: The positions of the genitive are various. It + frequently follows its noun: #þā bearn þāra Aðeniensa#, _The + children of the Athenians_. It may separate an adjective and a + noun: #Ān lȳtel sǣs earm#, _A little arm of (the) sea_. The + genitive may here be construed as an adjective, or part of a + compound = _A little sea-arm_; #Mid mǫnegum Godes gifum#, _With + many God-gifts_ = _many divine gifts_.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. + + +22. In the study of Old English, the student must remember that he is +dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier +forms of his own mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and +stimulating in proportion as close and constant comparison is made of +the old with the new. The guiding principles in such a comparison are +reducible chiefly to two. These are (1) the regular operation of +phonetic laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, and +(2) the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by Analogy. + +(1) “The former of these is of physiological or _natural_ origin, and is +perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same period of the same +language; and even though different languages show different phonetic +habits and predilections, there is a strong general resemblance between +the changes induced in one language and in another; many of the +particular laws are true for many languages. + +(2) “The other principle is psychical, or mental, or _artificial_, +introducing various more or less capricious changes that are supposed to +be emendations; and its operation is, to some extent, uncertain and +fitful.”[1] + + [Footnote 1: Skeat, _Principles of English Etymology_, Second + Series, § 342. But Jespersen, with Collitz and others, stoutly + contests “the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between + them to explain everything in linguistic development.”] + + +(1) #Vowel-Shiftings.# + +23. It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and +vocabulary of Old English to note carefully the following shiftings that +have taken place in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system +into that of Modern English. + +(1) As stated in § 3, the Old English inflectional vowels, which were +all short and unaccented, weakened in early Middle English to _e_. This +_e_ in Modern English is frequently dropped: + + OLD ENGLISH. MIDDLE ENGLISH. MODERN ENGLISH. + stān-as ston-es stones + sun-u sun-e son + sun-a sun-e sons + ox-an ox-en oxen + swift-ra swift-er swifter + swift-ost swift-est swiftest + lōc-ode lok-ede looked + +(2) The Old English long vowels have shifted their phonetic values with +such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to +infer the Modern English sound; but our spelling is so chaotic that +while the student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always infer the +modern symbol representing the sound. + + OLD MODERN ENGLISH. + ENGLISH. + + ā _o_[2] { nā = _no_; stān = _stone_; bān = _bone_; + (as in _no_) { rād = _road_; āc = _oak_; hāl = _whole_; + { hām = _home_; sāwan = _to sow_; gāst = + { _ghost_. + + ē _e_ { hē = _he_; wē = _we_; ðē = _thee_; mē = + (as in _he_) { _me_; gē = _ye_; hēl = _heel_; wērig = + { _weary_; gelēfan = _to believe_; gēs = + { _geese_. + + ī (ȳ) _i_ (_y_) { mīn = _mine_; ðīn = _thine_; wīr = _wire_; + (as in _mine_) { mȳs = _mice_; rīm = _rime_ (wrongly spelt + { _rhyme_); lȳs = _lice_; bī = _by_; + { scīnan = _to shine_; stig-rāp = _sty-rope_ + { (shortened to _stirrup_, stīgan meaning + { _to mount_). + + ō _o_ { dō = _I do_; tō = _too, to_; gōs = _goose_; + (as in _do_) { tōð = _tooth_; mōna = _moon_; ðōm = + { _doom_; mōd = _mood_; wōgian = _to woo_; + { slōh = _I slew_. + + ū _ou_ (_ow_) { ðū = _thou_; fūl = _foul_; hūs = _house_; + (as in _thou_) { nū = _now_; hū = _how_; tūn = _town_; + { ūre = our; ūt = _out_; hlūd = _loud_; + { ðūsend = _thousand_. + + + ǣ, _ea_ { ǣ: sǣ = _sea_; mǣl = _meal_; dǣlan = + ēa, (as in _sea_) { _to deal_; clǣne = _clean_; grǣdig = + ēo { _greedy_. + { + { ēa: ēare = _ear_; ēast = _east_; drēam = + { _dream_; gēar = _year_; bēatan = + { _to beat_. + { + { ēo: ðrēo = _three_; drēorig = _dreary_; + { sēo = _she_, hrēod = _reed_; dēop = + { _deep_. + + [Footnote 2: But Old English ā preceded by w sometimes gives + Modern English _o_ as in _two_: #twā# = _two_; #hwā# = _who_; + #hwām# = _whom_.] + + +(2) #Analogy.# + +24. But more important than vowel shifting is the great law of Analogy, +for Analogy shapes not only words but constructions. It belongs, +therefore, to Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences both form and +function. By this law, minorities tend to pass over to the side of the +majorities. “The greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence +upon the smaller.”[3] The effect of Analogy is to simplify and to +regularize. “The main factor in getting rid of irregularities is +group-influence, or Analogy--the influence exercised by the members of +an association-group on one another.... Irregularity consists in partial +isolation from an association-group through some formal difference.”[4] + +Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions and conjugations have +been swept away, leaving in Modern English not a trace of their former +existence. There are in Old English, for example, five plural endings +for nouns, -as, -a, -e, -u, and -an. No one could well have predicted[5] +that -as (Middle English _-es_) would soon take the lead, and become the +norm to which the other endings would eventually conform, for there were +more an-plurals than as-plurals; but the as-plurals were doubtless more +often employed in everyday speech. _Oxen_ (Old English #oxan#) is the +sole pure survival of the hundreds of Old English an-plurals. No group +of feminine nouns in Old English had -es as the genitive singular +ending; but by the close of the Middle English period all feminines +formed their genitive singular in _-es_ (or _-s_, Modern English _’s_) +after the analogy of the Old English masculine and neuter nouns with +es-genitives. The weak preterits in -ode have all been leveled under the +ed-forms, and of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English more than +two hundred have become weak. + +These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted vowels): Modern +English _-s_ in _sons_, for example, could not possibly be derived from +Old English -a in #suna#, or Middle English _-e_ in _sune_ (§ 23, (1)). +They are cases of replacement by Analogy. + +A few minor examples will quicken the student’s appreciation of the +nature of the influence exercised by Analogy: + +(_a_) The intrusive _l_ in _could_ (Chaucer always wrote _coud_ or +_coude_) is due to association with _would_ and _should_, in each of +which _l_ belongs by etymological right. + +(_b_) _He need not_ (for _He needs not_) is due to the assimilative +influence of the auxiliaries _may_, _can_, etc., which have never added +_-s_ for their third person singular (§ 137). + +(_c_) _I am friends with him_, in which _friends_ is a crystalized form +for _on good terms_, may be traced to the influence of such expressions +as _He and I are friends_, _They are friends_, etc. + +(_d_) Such errors as are seen in _runned_, _seed_, _gooses_, _badder_, +_hisself_, _says I_ (usually coupled with _says he_) are all analogical +formations. Though not sanctioned by good usage, it is hardly right to +call these forms the products of “false analogy.” The grammar involved +is false, because unsupported by literary usages and traditions; but the +analogy on which these forms are built is no more false than the law of +gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit unconventionally. + + [Footnote 3: Whitney, _Life and Growth of Language_, Chap. IV.] + + [Footnote 4: Sweet, _A New English Grammar_, Part I., § 535.] + + [Footnote 5: As Skeat says (§ 22, (2)), Analogy is “fitful.” It + enables us to explain many linguistic phenomena, but not to + anticipate them. The multiplication of books tends to check its + influence by perpetuating the forms already in use. Thus Chaucer + employed nine _en-_plurals, and his influence served for a time + to check the further encroachment of the _es-_plurals. As soon + as there is an acknowledged standard in any language, the + operation of Analogy is fettered.] + + + + +PART II. + +ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. + + + + +THE STRONG OR VOWEL DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS. + +THE a-DECLENSION. + +CHAPTER VI. + + +(_a_) #Masculine _a_-Stems.# + +[O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. will henceforth be used for Old English, Middle +English, and Modern English. Other abbreviations employed are +self-explaining.] + +25. The a-Declension, corresponding to the Second or _o_-Declension of +Latin and Greek, contains only (_a_) masculine and (_b_) neuter nouns. +To this declension belong most of the O.E. masculine and neuter nouns of +the Strong Declension. At a very early period, many of the nouns +belonging properly to the i- and u-Declensions began to pass over to the +a-Declension. This declension may therefore be considered the _normal +declension_ for all masculine and neuter nouns belonging to the Strong +Declension. + + +26. Paradigms of #sē mūð#, _mouth_; #sē fiscere#, _fisherman_; #sē +hwæl#, _whale_; #sē mearh#, _horse_; #sē finger#, _finger_: + + _Sing. N.A._ mūð fiscer-e hwæl mearh finger + _G._ mūð-es fiscer-es hwæl-es mēar-es fingr-es + _D.I._ mūð-e fiscer-e hwæl-e mēar-e fingr-e + + _Plur. N.A._ mūð-as fiscer-as hwal-as mēar-as fingr-as + _G._ mūð-a fiscer-a hwal-a mēar-a fingr-a + _D.I._ mūð-um fiscer-um hwal-um mēar-um fingr-um + + NOTE.--For meanings of the cases, see § 12. The dative and + instrumental are alike in all nouns. + + +27. The student will observe (1) that nouns whose nominative ends in -e +(#fiscere#) drop this letter before adding the case endings; (2) that æ +before a consonant (#hwæl#) changes to a in the plural;[1] (3) that h, +preceded by r (#mearh#) or l (#seolh#, _seal_), is dropped before an +inflectional vowel, the stem diphthong being then lengthened by way of +compensation; (4) that dissyllables (#finger#) having the first syllable +long, usually syncopate the vowel of the second syllable before adding +the case endings.[2] + + [Footnote 1: Adjectives usually retain æ in closed syllables, + changing it to a in open syllables: #hwæt# (_active_), #glæd# + (_glad_), #wær# (_wary_) have G. #hwates#, #glades#, #wares#; D. + #hwatum#, #gladum#, #warum#; but A. #hwætne#, #glædne#, #wærne#. + Nouns, however, change to a only in open syllables followed by a + guttural vowel, a or u. The æ in the open syllables of the + singular is doubtless due to the analogy of the N.A. singular, + both being closed syllables.] + + [Footnote 2: _Cf._ Mn.E. _drizz’ling_, _rememb’ring_, _abysmal_ + (_abysm_ = _abiz^{u}m_), _sick’ning_, in which the principle of + syncopation is precisely the same.] + + +28. Paradigm of the Definite Article[3] #sē#, #sēo#, #ðæt# = _the_: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + + _Sing. N._ sē (se) sēo ðæt + _G._ ðæs ðǣre ðæs + _D._ ðǣm (ðām) ðǣre ðǣm (ðām) + _A._ ðone ðā ðæt + _I._ ðȳ, ðon ---- ðȳ, ðon + + _All Genders._ + + _Plur. N.A._ ðā + _G._ ðāra + _D._ ðǣm (ðām) + + [Footnote 3: This may mean four things: (1) _The_, (2) _That_ + (demonstrative), (3) _He_, _she_, _it_, (4) _Who_, _which_, + _that_ (relative pronoun). Mn.E. demonstrative _that_ is, of + course, the survival of O.E. neuter #ðæt# in its demonstrative + sense. Professor Victor Henry (_Comparative Grammar of English + and German_, § 160, 3) sees a survival of dative plural + demonstrative #ðǣm# in such an expression as _in them days_. It + seems more probable, however, that _them_ so used has followed + the lead of _this_ and _these_, _that_ and _those_, in their + double function of pronoun and adjective. There was doubtless + some such evolution as, _I saw them. Them what? Them boys._ + + An unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the + article is seen in the _-ter_ of _Atterbury_ (= #æt ðǣre byrig#, + _at the town_); and #ðǣm# survives in the _-ten_ of + _Attenborough_, the word _borough_ having become an uninflected + neuter. Skeat, _Principles_, First Series, § 185.] + + +29. VOCABULARY.[4] + + sē bōcere, _scribe_ [bōc]. + sē cyning, _king_. + sē dæg, _day_. + sē ęnde, _end_. + sē ęngel, _angel_ [angelus]. + sē frēodōm, _freedom_. + sē fugol (G. sometimes #fugles#), _bird_ [fowl]. + sē gār, _spear_ [gore, gar-fish]. + sē heofon, _heaven_. + sē hierde, _herdsman_ [shep-herd]. + ǫnd (and), _and_. + sē sęcg, _man, warrior_. + sē seolh, _seal_. + sē stān, _stone_. + sē wealh, _foreigner, Welshman_ [wal-nut]. + sē weall, _wall_. + sē wīsdōm, _wisdom_. + sē wulf, _wolf_. + + [Footnote 4: The brackets contain etymological hints that may + help the student to discern relationships otherwise overlooked. + The genitive is given only when not perfectly regular.] + + +30. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Ðāra wulfa mūðas. 2. Ðæs fisceres fingras. 3. Ðāra Wēala cyninge. +4. Ðǣm ęnglum ǫnd ðǣm hierdum. 5. Ðāra daga ęnde. 6. Ðǣm bōcerum ǫnd ðǣm +sęcgum ðæs cyninges. 7. Ðǣm sēole ǫnd ðǣm fuglum. 8. Ðā stānas ǫnd ðā +gāras. 9. Hwala ǫnd mēara. 10. Ðāra ęngla wīsdōm. 11. Ðæs cyninges +bōceres frēodōm. 12. Ðāra hierda fuglum. 13. Ðȳ stāne. 14. Ðǣm wealle. + +II. 1. For the horses and the seals. 2. For the Welshmen’s freedom. +3. Of the king’s birds. 4. By the wisdom of men and angels. 5. With the +spear and the stone. 6. The herdsman’s seal and the warriors’ spears. +7. To the king of heaven. 8. By means of the scribe’s wisdom. 9. The +whale’s mouth and the foreigner’s spear. 10. For the bird belonging to +(= of) the king’s scribe. 11. Of that finger. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +(_b_) #Neuter _a-_Stems.# + + +31. The neuter nouns of the a-Declension differ from the masculines only +in the N.A. plural. + + +32. Paradigms of #ðæt hof#, _court, dwelling_; #ðaet bearn#, _child_; +#ðæt bān#, _bone_; #ðæt rīce#, _kingdom_; #ðæt spere#, _spear_; #ðæt +werod#, _band of men_; #ðæt tungol#, _star_: + + _Sing. N.A._ hof bearn bān rīc-e + _G._ hof-es bearn-es bān-es rīc-es + _D.I._ hof-e bearn-e bān-e rīc-e + + _Plur. N.A._ hof-u bearn bān rīc-u + _G._ hof-a bearn-a bān-a rīc-a + _D.I._ hof-um bearn-um bān-um rīc-um + + _Sing. N.A._ sper-e werod tungol + _G._ sper-es werod-es tungl-es + _D.I._ sper-e werod-e tungl-e + + _Plur. N.A._ sper-u werod tungl-u + _G._ sper-a werod-a tungl-a + _D.I._ sper-um werod-um tungl-um + + +33. The paradigms show (1) that monosyllables with short stems (#hof#) +take -u in the N.A. plural; (2) that monosyllables with long stems +(#bearn#, #bān#) do not distinguish the N.A. plural from the N.A. +singular;[1] (3) that dissyllables in -e, whether the stem be long or +short (#rīce#, #spere#), have -u in the N.A. plural; (4) that +dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first syllable +short[2] (#werod#) do not usually distinguish the N.A. plural from the +N.A. singular; (5) that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having +the first syllable long (#tungol#) more frequently take -u in the N.A. +plural. + + NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in the masculine a-stems. See + § 27, (4). + + [Footnote 1: Note the many nouns in Mn.E. that are unchanged in + the plural. These are either survivals of O.E. long stems, + _swine_, _sheep_, _deer_, _folk_, or analogical forms, _fish_, + _trout_, _mackerel_, _salmon_, etc.] + + [Footnote 2: Dissyllables whose first syllable is a prefix are, + of course, excluded. They follow the declension of their last + member: #gebed#, _prayer_, #gebedu#, _prayers_; #gefeoht#, + _battle_, #gefeoht#, _battles_.] + + +34. Present and Preterit Indicative of #habban#, _to have_: + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hæbbe, _I have_, or _shall have_.[3] + 2. ðū hæfst (hafast), _thou hast_, or _wilt have_. + 3. hē, hēo, hit hæfð (hafað), + _he, she, it has_, or _will have_. + + _Plur._ 1. wē habbað, _we have_, or _shall have_. + 2. gē habbað, _ye have_, or _will have_. + 3. hīe habbað, _they have_, or _will have_. + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hæfde _I had_. + 2. ðū hæfdest, _thou hadst_. + 3. hē, hēo, hit hæfde, _he, she, it had_. + + _Plur._ 1. wē hæfdon, _we had_. + 2. gē hæfdon, _ye had_. + 3. hīe hæfdon, _they had_. + + NOTE.--The negative #ne#, _not_, which always precedes its verb, + contracts with all the forms of #habban#. The negative loses its + e, #habban# its h. #Ne# + #habban# = #nabban#; #Ic ne hæbbe = Ic + næbbe#; #Ic ne hæfde = Ic næfde#, etc. The negative forms may be + got, therefore, by simply substituting in each case n for h. + + [Footnote 3: See § 17, Note 1. Note that (as in #hwæl#, § 27, + (2)) æ changes to a when the following syllable contains a: + #hæbbe#, but #hafast#.] + + +35. VOCABULARY. + + ðæt dæl, _dale_. + ðæt dēor, _animal_ [deer[4]]. + ðæt dor, _door_. + ðæt fæt, _vessel_ [vat]. + ðæt fȳr, _fire_. + ðæt gēar, _year_. + ðæt geoc, _yoke_. + ðæt geset, _habitation_ [settlement]. + ðæt hēafod, _head_. + ðæt hūs, _house_. + ðæt līc, _body_ [lich-gate]. + ðæt lim, _limb_. + on (with dat.) _in_. + ðæt spor, _track_. + ðæt wǣpen, _weapon_. + ðæt wīf, _wife, woman_. + ðæt wīte, _punishment_. + ðæt word, _word_. + + [Footnote 4: The old meaning survives in Shakespeare’s “Rats and + mice and such small deer,” _King Lear_, III, iv, 144.] + + +36. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Hē hafað ðæs cyninges bearn. 2. Ðā Wēalas habbað ðā speru. 3. Ðā +wīf habbað ðāra sęcga wǣpnu. 4. Ðū hæfst ðone fugol ǫnd ðæt hūs ðæs +hierdes. 5. Hæfð[5] hēo ðā fatu[6]? 6. Hæfde hē ðæs wīfes līc on ðǣm +hofe? 7. Hē næfde ðæs wīfes līc; hē hæfde ðæs dēores hēafod. 8. Hæfð sē +cyning gesetu on ðǣm dæle? 9. Sē bōcere hæfð ðā sēolas on ðǣm hūse. +10. Gē habbað frēodōm. + +II. 1. They have yokes and spears. 2. We have not the vessels in the +house. 3. He had fire in the vessel. 4. Did the woman have (= Had the +woman) the children? 5. The animal has the body of the woman’s child. +6. I shall have the heads of the wolves. 7. He and she have the king’s +houses. 8. Have not (= #Nabbað#) the children the warrior’s weapons? + + [Footnote 5: See § 20, (2), (b).] + + [Footnote 6: See § 27, (2).] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE ō-DECLENSION. + + +37. The ō-Declension, corresponding to the First or _ā-_Declension of +Latin and Greek, contains only feminine nouns. Many feminine i-stems and +u-stems soon passed over to this Declension. The ō-Declension may, +therefore, be considered the _normal declension_ for all strong feminine +nouns. + + +38. Paradigms of #sēo giefu#, _gift_; #sēo wund#, _wound_; #sēo rōd#, +_cross_; #sēo leornung#, _learning_; #sēo sāwol#, _soul_: + + _Sing. N._ gief-u wund rōd leornung sāwol + _G._ gief-e wund-e rōd-e leornung-a (e) sāwl-e + _D.I._ gief-e wund-e rōd-e leornung-a (e) sāwl-e + _A._ gief-e wund-e rōd-e leornung-a (e) sāwl-e + + _Plur. N.A._ gief-a wund-a rōd-a leornung-a sāwl-a + _G._ gief-a wund-a rōd-a leornung-a sāwl-a + _D.I._ gief-um wund-um rōd-um leornung-um sāwl-um + + +39. Note (1) that monosyllables with short stems (#giefu#) take u in the +nominative singular; (2) that monosyllables with long stems (#wund#, +#rōd#) present the unchanged stem in the nominative singular; (3) that +dissyllables are declined as monosyllables, except that abstract nouns +in -ung prefer a to e in the singular. + + NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. See + § 27, (4). + + +40. Present and Preterit Indicative of #bēon# (#wesan#) _to be_: + + PRESENT (first form). PRESENT PRETERIT. + (second form). + + _Sing._ 1. Ic eom 1. Ic bēom 1. Ic wæs + 2. ðū eart 2. ðū bist 2. ðū wǣre + 3. hē is 3. hē bið 3. hē wæs + + _Plur._ 1. wē } 1. wē } 1. wē } + 2. gē } sind(on), sint 2. gē } bēoð 2. gē } wǣron + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + NOTE 1.--The forms #bēom#, #bist#, etc. are used chiefly as future + tenses in O.E. They survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry. + Farmer Dobson, for example, in Tennyson’s _Promise of May_, uses + _be_ for all persons of the present indicative, both singular and + plural; and _there be_ is frequent in Shakespeare for _there are_. + The Northern dialect employed #aron# as well as #sindon# and + #sind# for the present plural; hence Mn.E. _are_. + + NOTE 2.--Fusion with #ne# gives #neom#, #neart#, #nis# for the + present; #næs#, #nǣre#, #nǣron# for the preterit. + + NOTE 3.--The verb _to be_ is followed by the nominative case, as + in Mn.E.; but when the predicate noun is plural, and the subject a + neuter pronoun in the singular, the verb agrees in number with the + predicate noun. The neuter singular #ðæt# is frequently employed + in this construction: #Ðaet wǣron eall Finnas#, _They were all + Fins_; #Ðæt sind ęnglas#, _They are angels_; #Ðǣt wǣron ęngla + gāstas#, _They were angels’ spirits_. + + Notice, too, that O.E. writers do not say _It is I_, _It is thou_, + but _I it am_, _Thou it art_: #Ic hit eom#, #ðū hit eart#. See + § 21, (1), Note 1. + + +41. VOCABULARY. + + sēo brycg, _bridge_. + sēo costnung, _temptation_. + sēo cwalu, _death_ [quail, quell]. + sēo fōr, _journey_ [faran]. + sēo frōfor, _consolation, comfort_. + sēo geoguð, _youth_. + sēo glōf, _glove_. + sēo hālignes[1], _holiness_. + sēo heall, _hall_. + hēr, _here_. + hwā, _who_? + hwǣr, _where_? + sēo lufu, _love_. + sēo mearc, _boundary_ [mark, marches[2]]. + sēo mēd, _meed, reward_. + sēo mildheortnes, _mild-heartedness, mercy_. + sēo stōw, _place_ [stow away]. + ðǣr, _there_. + sēo ðearf, _need_. + sēo wylf, _she wolf_. + + [Footnote 1: All words ending in -nes double the -s before + adding the case endings.] + + [Footnote 2: As in _warden of the marches_.] + + +42. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Hwǣr is ðǣre brycge ęnde? 2. Hēr sind ðāra rīca mearca. 3. Hwā +hæfð þā glōfa? 4. Ðǣr bið ðǣm cyninge frōfre ðearf. 5. Sēo wund is on +ðǣre wylfe hēafde. 6. Wē habbað costnunga. 7. Hīe nǣron on ðǣre healle. +8. Ic hit neom. 9. Ðæt wǣron Wēalas. 10. Ðæt sind ðæs wīfes bearn. + +II. 1. We shall have the women’s gloves. 2. Where is the place? 3. He +will be in the hall. 4. Those (#Ðæt#) were not the boundaries of the +kingdom. 5. It was not I. 6. Ye are not the king’s scribes. 7. The +shepherd’s words are full (#full# + gen.) of wisdom and comfort. +8. Where are the bodies of the children? 9. The gifts are not here. +10. Who has the seals and the birds? + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +THE i-DECLENSION AND THE u-DECLENSION. + + +#The _i-_Declension.# (See § 58.) + +43. The i-Declension, corresponding to the group of _i-_stems in the +classical Third Declension, contains chiefly (_a_) masculine and (_b_) +feminine nouns. The N.A. plural of these nouns ended originally in -e +(from older i). + + +(_a_) #Masculine _i-_Stems.# + +44. These stems have almost completely gone over to the a-Declension, so +that -as is more common than -e as the N.A. plural ending, whether the +stem is long or short. The short stems all have -e in the N.A. singular. + + +45. Paradigms of #sē wyrm#, _worm_; #sē wine#, _friend_. + + _Sing. N.A._ wyrm win-e + _G._ wyrm-es win-es + _D.I._ wyrm-e win-e + + _Plur. N.A._ wyrm-as win-as (e) + _G._ wyrm-a win-a + _D.I._ wyrm-um win-um + + +#Names of Peoples.# + +46. The only i-stems that regularly retain -e of the N.A. plural are +certain names of tribes or peoples used only in the plural. + + +47. Paradigms of #ðā Ęngle#, _Angles_; #ðā Norðymbre#, _Northumbrians_; +#ðā lēode#, _people_: + + _Plur. N.A._ Ęngle Norðymbre lēode + _G._ Ęngla Norðymbra lēoda + _D.I._ Ęnglum Norðymbrum lēodum + + +(_b_) #Feminine _i-_Stems.# + +48. The short stems (#fręm-u#) conform entirely to the declension of +short ō-stems; long stems (#cwēn#, #wyrt#) differ from long ō-stems in +having no ending for the A. singular. They show, also, a preference for +-e rather than -a in the N.A. plural. + + +49. Paradigms of #sēo fręm-u#, _benefit_; #sēo cwēn#, _woman, queen_ +[quean]; #sēo wyrt#, _root_ [wort]: + + _Sing. N._ fręm-u cwēn wyrt + _G._ fręm-e cwēn-e wyrt-e + _D.I._ fręm-e cwēn-e wyrt-e + _A._ fręm-e cwēn wyrt + + _Plur. N.A._ fręm-a cwēn-e (a) wyrt-e (a) + _G._ fręm-a cwēn-a wyrt-a + _D.I._ fręm-um cwēn-um wyrt-um + + +#The _u-_Declension.# + +50. The u-Declension, corresponding to the group of u-stems in the +classical Third Declension, contains no neuters, and but few (_a_) +masculines and (_b_) feminines. The short-stemmed nouns of both genders +(#sun-u#, #dur-u#) retain the final u of the N.A. singular, while the +long stems (#feld#, #hǫnd#) drop it. The influence of the masculine +a-stems is most clearly seen in the long-stemmed masculines of the +u-Declension (#feld#, #feld-es#, etc.). + + NOTE.--Note the general aversion of all O.E. long stems to final + -u: _cf._ N.A. plural #hof-u#, but #bearn#, #bān#; N. singular + #gief-u#, but #wund#, #rōd#; N. singular #fręm-u#, but #cwēn#, + #wyrt#; N.A. singular #sun-u#, #dur-u#, but #feld#, #hǫnd#. + + +(_a_) #Masculine _u-_Stems.# + +51. Paradigms of #sē sun-u#, _son_; #sē feld#, _field_: + + _Sing. N.A._ sun-u feld + _G._ sun-a feld-a (es) + _D.I._ sun-a feld-a (e) + + _Plur. N.A._ sun-a feld-a (as) + _G._ sun-a feld-a + _D.I._ sun-um feld-um + + +(b) #Feminine _u-_Stems.# + +52. Paradigms of #sēo dur-u#, _door_; #sēo hǫnd#, _hand_: + + _Sing. N.A._ dur-u hǫnd + _G._ dur-a hǫnd-a + _D.I._ dur-a hǫnd-a + + _Plur. N.A._ dur-a hǫnd-a + _G._ dur-a hǫnd-a + _D.I._ dur-um hǫnd-um + + +53. Paradigm of the Third Personal Pronoun, #hē#, #hēo#, #hit# = _he_, +_she_, _it_: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ hē hēo hit + _G._ his hiere his + _D._ him hiere him + _A._ hine, hiene hīe hit + + _All Genders._ + _Plur. N.A._ hīe + _G._ hiera + _D._ him + + +54. VOCABULARY. + + (i-STEMS.) + + sē cierr, _turn, time_ [char, chare, chore]. + sēo dǣd, _deed_. + sē dǣl, _part_ [a great deal]. + ðā Dęne, _Danes_. + sē frēondscipe, _friendship_. + sēo hȳd, _skin, hide_. + ðā lǫndlēode, _natives_. + ðā Mierce, _Mercians_. + ðā Rōmware, _Romans_. + ðā Seaxe, _Saxons_. + sē stęde, _place_ [in-stead of]. + + (u-STEMS.) + + sēo flōr, _floor_. + sēo nosu, _nose_. + sē sumor (_G._ sumeres, _D._ sumera), _summer_. + sē winter (_G._ wintres, _D._ wintra), _winter_. + sē wudu, _wood, forest_. + + NOTE.--The numerous masculine nouns ending in -hād,--#cildhād# + (_childhood_), #wīfhād# (_womanhood_),--belong to the u-stems + historically; but they have all passed over to the a-Declension. + + +55. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Ðā Seaxe habbað ðæs dēores hȳd on ðǣm wuda. 2. Hwā hæfð ðā giefa? +3. Ðā Mierce hīe[1] habbað. 4. Hwǣr is ðæs Wēales fugol? 5. Ðā Dęne +hiene habbað. 6. Hwǣr sindon hiera winas? 7. Hīe sindon on ðæs cyninges +wuda. 8. Ðā Rōmware ǫnd ðā Seaxe hæfdon ðā gāras ǫnd ðā geocu. 9. Hēo is +on ðǣm hūse on wintra, ǫnd on ðǣm feldum on sumera. 10. Hwǣr is ðæs +hofes duru? 11. Hēo[2] (= sēo duru) nis hēr. + +II. 1. His friends have the bones of the seals and the bodies of the +Danes. 2. Art thou the king’s son? 3. Has she her[3] gifts in her[3] +hands? 4. Here are the fields of the natives. 5. Who had the bird? +6. I had it.[2] 7. The child had the worm in his[3] fingers. 8. The +Mercians were here during (the) summer (#on# + dat.). + + [Footnote 1: See § 21, (1).] + + [Footnote 2: Pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which + they stand. #Hit#, however, sometimes stands for inanimate + things of both masculine and feminine genders. See Wülfing + (_l.c._) I, § 238.] + + [Footnote 3: See § 76 (last sentence).] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +PRESENT INDICATIVE ENDINGS OF STRONG VERBS. + + +56. The unchanged stem of the present indicative may always be found by +dropping -an of the infinitive: #feall-an#, _to fall_; #cēos-an#, _to +choose_; #bīd-an#, _to abide_. + + +57. The personal endings are: + + _Sing._ 1. -e _Plur._ 1. } + 2. -est 2. } -að + 3. -eð 3. } + + +#_i-_Umlaut.# + +58. The 2d and 3d singular endings were originally not -est and -eð, but +-is and -ið; and the i of these older endings has left its traces upon +almost every page of Early West Saxon literature. This i, though +unaccented and soon displaced, exerted a powerful back influence upon +the vowel of the preceding accented syllable. This influence, a form of +regressive assimilation, is known as i-umlaut (pronounced _oóm-lowt_). +The vowel i or j (= _y_), being itself a palatal, succeeded in +palatalizing every guttural vowel that preceded it, and in imposing +still more of the i-quality upon diphthongs that were already +palatal.[1] The changes produced were these: + + a became ę (æ): męnn (< *mann-iz), _men_. + ā “ ǣ ǣnig (< *ān-ig), _any_. + u “ y wyllen (< *wull-in), _woollen_. + ū “ ȳ mȳs (< *mūs-iz), _mice_. + o “ ę dęhter (< *dohtr-i), _to_ or _for the daughter_. + ō “ ē fēt (< *fōt-iz), _feet_. + ea “ ie wiexð (< *weax-ið), _he grows_ (weaxan = _to grow_). + ēa “ īe hīewð (< *hēaw-ið), _he hews_ (hēawan = to _hew_). + eo “ ie wiercan (< *weorc-jan), _to work_. + ēo “ īe līehtan (< *lēoht-jan), _to light_. + + [Footnote 1: The _palatal_ vowels and diphthongs were long or + short æ, e, i, (ie), y, ea, eo; the _guttural_ vowels were long + or short a, o, u.] + + +#The Unchanged Present Indicative.# + +59. In the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects, as well as in the dialect +of Late West Saxon, the 2d and 3d singular endings were usually joined +to the present stem without modification either of the stem itself or of +the personal endings. The complete absence of umlauted forms in the +present indicative of Mn.E. is thus accounted for. + +In Early West Saxon, however, such forms as the following are +comparatively rare in the 2d and 3d singular: + + _Sing._ 1. Ic feall-e cēos-e bīd-e + (_I fall_) (_I choose_) (_I abide_) + 2. ðū feall-est cēos-est bīd-est + 3. hē feall-eð cēos-eð bīd-eð + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } feall-að cēos-að bīd-að + 3. hīe } + + +#The Present Indicative with i-Umlaut and Contraction.# + +60. The 2d and 3d persons singular are distinguished from the other +forms of the present indicative in Early West Saxon by (1) i-umlaut of +the vowel of the stem, (2) syncope of the vowel of the ending, giving +-st and -ð for -est and -eð, and (3) contraction of -st and -ð with the +final consonant or consonants of the stem. + + +#Contraction.# + +61. The changes produced by i-umlaut have been already discussed. By +these changes, therefore, the stems of the 2d and 3d singular indicative +of such verbs as (1) #stǫndan# (= #standan#), _to stand_, (2) #cuman#, +_to come_, (3) #grōwan#, _to grow_, (4) #brūcan#, _to enjoy_, +(5) #blāwan#, _to blow_, (6) #feallan#, _to fall_, (7) #hēawan#, _to +hew_, (8) #weorpan#, _to throw_, and (9) #cēosan#, _to choose_, become +respectively (1) #stęnd-#,[2] (2) #cym-#, (3) #grēw-#, (4) #brȳc-#, +(5) #blǣw-#, (6) #fiell-#, (7) #hīew-#, (8) #wierp-#, and (9) #cīes-#. + +If the unchanged stem contains the vowel e, this is changed in the 2d +and 3d singular to i (ie): #cweðan# _to say_, stem #cwið-#; #beran# _to +bear_, stem #bier-#. But this mutation[3] had taken place long before +the period of O.E., and belongs to the Germanic languages in general. It +is best, however, to class the change of e to i or ie with the changes +due to umlaut, since it occurs consistently in the 2d and 3d singular +stems of Early West Saxon, and outlasted almost all of the umlaut forms +proper. + +If, now, the syncopated endings -st and -ð are added directly to the +umlauted stem, there will frequently result such a massing of consonants +as almost to defy pronunciation: #cwið-st#, _thou sayest_; #stęnd-st#, +_thou standest_, etc. Some sort of contraction, therefore, is demanded +for the sake of euphony. The ear and eye will, by a little practice, +become a sure guide in these contractions. The following rules, however, +must be observed. They apply only to the 2d and 3d singular of the +present indicative: + +(1) If the stem ends in a double consonant, one of the consonants is +dropped: + + 1. feall-e (_I fall_) 1. winn-e (_I fight_) 1. swimm-e (_I swim_) + 2. fiel-st 2. win-st 2. swim-st + 3. fiel-ð 3. win-ð 3. swim-ð + +(2) If the stem ends in -ð, this is dropped: + + 1. cweð-e (_I say_) 1. weorð-e (_I become_) + 2. cwi-st 2. wier-st + 3. cwi-ð 3. wier-ð + +(3) If the stem ends in -d, this is changed to -t. The -ð of the ending +is then also changed to -t, and usually absorbed. Thus the stem of the +2d singular serves as stem and ending for the 3d singular: + + 1. stǫnd-e (= stand-e) (_I stand_) 1. bind-e (_I bind_) + 2. stęnt-st 2. bint-st + 3. stęnt 3. bint + + 1. bīd-e (_I abide_) 1. rīd-e (_I ride_) + 2. bīt-st 2. rīt-st + 3. bīt (-t) 3. rīt (-t) + +(4) If the stem ends already in -t, the endings are added as in (3), -ð +being again changed to -t and absorbed: + + 1. brēot-e (_I break_) 1. feoht-e (_I fight_) 1. bīt-e (_I bite_) + 2. brīet-st 2. fieht-st 2. bīt-st + 3. brīet (-t) 3. fieht 3. bīt (-t) + +(5) If the stem ends in -s, this is dropped before -st (to avoid -sst), +but is retained before -ð, the latter being changed to -t. Thus the 2d +and 3d singulars are identical:[4] + + 1. cēos-e (_I choose_) 1. rīs-e (_I rise_) + 2. cīe-st 2. rī-st + 3. cīes-t 3. rīs-t + + [Footnote 2: The more common form for stems with a is æ rather + than ę: #faran#, _to go_, 2d and 3d singular stem #fær-#; + #sacan#, _to contend_, stem #sæc-#. Indeed, a changes to ę _via_ + æ (Cosijn, _Altwestsächsische Grammatik_, I, § 32).] + + [Footnote 3: Umlaut is frequently called Mutation. Metaphony is + still another name for the same phenomenon. The term Metaphony + has the advantage of easy adjectival formation (metaphonic). It + was proposed by Professor Victor Henry (_Comparative Grammar of + English and German_, Paris, 1894), but has not been + naturalized.] + + [Footnote 4: This happens also when the infinitive stem ends + in #st#: + + 1. berst-e (_I burst_) + 2. bier-st + 3. bierst.] + + +62. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Sē cyning fielð. 2. Ðā wīf cēosað ðā giefa. 3. Ðū stęntst on ðǣm +hūse. 4. Hē wierpð ðæt wǣpen. 5. Sē sęcg hīewð ðā līc. 6. Ðæt sǣd grēwð +ǫnd wiexð (_Mark_ iv. 27). 7. Ic stǫnde hēr, ǫnd ðū stęntst ðǣr. 8. “Ic +hit eom,” cwið hē. 9. Hīe berað ðæs wulfes bān. 10. Hē hīe bint, ǫnd ic +hine binde. 11. Ne rītst ðū? + +II. 1. We shall bind him. 2. Who chooses the child’s gifts? 3. “He was +not here,” says she. 4. Wilt thou remain in the hall? 5. The wolves are +biting (= bite) the fishermen. 6. He enjoys[5] the love of his children. +7. Do you enjoy (= Enjoyest thou) the consolation and friendship of the +scribe? 8. Will he come? 9. I shall throw the spear, and thou wilt bear +the weapons. 10. The king’s son will become king. 11. The army (#werod#) +is breaking the doors and walls of the house. + + [Footnote 5: #Brūcan#, _to enjoy_, usually takes the genitive + case, not the accusative. It means “to have joy of any thing.”] + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE CONSONANT DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS. + + +#The Weak or _n-_Declension.# + +63. The n-Declension contains almost all of the O.E. nouns belonging to +the Consonant Declensions. The stem characteristic n has been preserved +in the oblique cases, so that there is no difficulty in distinguishing +n-stems from the preceding vowel stems. + +The n-Declension includes (_a_) masculines, (_b_) feminines, and (_c_) +neuters. The masculines far outnumber the feminines, and the neuters +contain only #ēage#, _eye_ and #ēare#, _ear_. The masculines end in -a, +the feminines and neuters in -e. + + +64. Paradigms of (_a_) #sē hunta#, _hunter_; (_b_) #sēo tunge#, +_tongue_; (_c_) #ðæt ēage#, _eye_: + + _Sing. N._ hunt-a tung-e ēag-e + _G.D.I._ hunt-an tung-an ēag-an + _A._ hunt-an tung-an ēag-e + + _Plur. N.A._ hunt-an tung-an ēag-an + _G._ hunt-ena tung-ena ēag-ena + _D.I._ hunt-um tung-um ēag-um + + +65. VOCABULARY. + + sē adesa, _hatchet, adze_. + sē ǣmetta, _leisure_ [empt-iness]. + sē bǫna (bana), _murderer_ [bane]. + sēo cirice, _church_ [Scotch kirk]. + sē cnapa (later, #cnafa#), _boy_ [knave]. + sē cuma, _stranger_ [comer]. + ðæt ēare, _ear_. + sēo eorðe, _earth_. + sē gefēra, _companion_ [co-farer]. + sē guma, _man_ [bride-groom[1]]. + sēo heorte, _heart_. + sē mōna, _moon_. + sēo nǣdre, _adder_ [a nadder > an adder[2]]. + sē oxa, _ox_. + sē scēowyrhta, _shoe-maker_ [shoe-wright]. + sēo sunne, _sun_. + sē tēona, _injury_ [teen]. + biddan (with dat. of person and gen. of thing[3]), _to request, ask +for_. + cwelan, _to die_ [quail]. + gescieppan, _to create_ [shape, land-scape, friend-ship]. + giefan (with dat. of indirect object), _to give_. + healdan, _to hold_. + helpan (with dat.), _to help_. + scęððan[4] (with dat.), _to injure_ [scathe]. + wiðstǫndan (-standan) (with dat.), _to withstand_. + wrītan, _to write_. + + [Footnote 1: The _r_ is intrusive in _-groom_, as it is in + _cart-r-idge_, _part-r-idge_, _vag-r-ant_, and _hoa-r-se_.] + + [Footnote 2: The _n_ has been appropriated by the article. Cf. + _an apron_ (< _a napron_), _an auger_ (< _a nauger_), _an + orange_ (< _a norange_), _an umpire_ (< _a numpire_).] + + [Footnote 3: In Mn.E. we say “I request a favor of you”; but in + O.E. it was “I request you (dative) of a favor” (genitive). Cf. + _Cymbeline_, III, vi, 92: “We’ll mannerly demand thee of thy + story.” See Franz’s _Shakespeare-Grammatik_, § 361 (1900).] + + [Footnote 4: #Scęððan# is conjugated through the present + indicative like #fręmman#. See § 129.] + + +66. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Sē scēowyrhta brȳcð his ǣmettan. 2. Ðā guman biddað ðǣm cnapan ðæs +adesan. 3. Hwā is sē cuma? 4. Hielpst ðū ðǣm bǫnan? 5. Ic him ne helpe. +6. Ðā bearn scęððað ðæs bǫnan ēagum ǫnd ēarum. 7. Sē cuma cwielð on ðǣre +cirican. 8. Sē hunta wiðstęnt ðǣm wulfum. 9. Ðā oxan berað ðæs cnapan +gefēran. 10. Sē mōna ǫnd ðā tunglu sind on ðǣm heofonum. 11. Ðā huntan +healdað ðǣre nǣdran tungan. 12. Hē hiere giefð ðā giefa. 13. Ðā werod +scęððað ðæs cyninges feldum. + +II. 1. Who will bind the mouths of the oxen? 2. Who gives him the +gifts? 3. Thou art helping him, and I am injuring him. 4. The boy’s +companion is dying. 5. His nephew does not enjoy his leisure. 6. The +adder’s tongue injures the king’s companion. 7. The sun is the day’s +eye. 8. She asks the strangers for the spears. 9. The men’s bodies are +not here. 10. Is he not (#Nis hē#) the child’s murderer? 11. Who creates +the bodies and the souls of men? 12. Thou withstandest her. 13. He is +not writing. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +#Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions.# + +67. The nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines and feminines. Their +stem ended in a consonant other than n. The most important of them may +be divided as follows: (1) The _foot_ Declension, (2) r-Stems, and +(3) nd-Stems. These declensions are all characterized by the prevalence, +wherever possible, of i-umlaut in certain cases, the case ending being +then dropped. + + +68. (1) The nouns belonging to the _foot_ Declension exhibit umlaut most +consistently in the N.A. plural. + + _Sing. N.A._ sē fōt sē mǫn sē tōð sēo cū + _Sing. N.A._ (_foot_) (_man_) (_tooth_) (_cow_) + _Plur. N.A._ fēt męn tēð cȳ + + NOTE.--The dative singular usually has the same form as the N.A. + plural. Here belong also #sēo bōc# (_book_), #sēo burg# + (_borough_), #sēo gōs# (_goose_), #sēo lūs# (_louse_), and #sēo + mūs# (_mouse_), all with umlauted plurals. Mn.E. preserves only + six of the _foot_ Declension plurals: _feet_, _men_, _teeth_, + _geese_, _lice_, and _mice_. The _c_ in the last two is an + artificial spelling, intended to preserve the sound of voiceless + _s_. Mn.E. _kine_ (= _cy-en_) is a double plural formed after the + analogy of weak stems; Burns in _The Twa Dogs_ uses _kye_. + + No umlaut is possible in #sēo niht# (_night_) and #sē mōnað# + (_month_), plural #niht# and #mōnað# (preserved in Mn.E. + _twelvemonth_ and _fortnight_). + +(2) The r-Stems contain nouns expressing kinship, and exhibit umlaut of +the dative singular. + + _Sing. N.A._ sē fæder sē brōðor sēo mōdor + (_father_) (_brother_) (_mother_) + _D._ fæder brēðer mēder + + _Sing. N.A._ sēo dohtor (_daughter_) sēo swuster (_sister_) + _D._ dęhter swyster + + NOTE.--The N.A. plural is usually the same as the N.A. singular. + These umlaut datives are all due to the presence of a former i. + Cf. Lat. dative singular _patri_, _frātri_, _mātri_, _sorori_ + (< _*sosori_), and Greek θυγατρί. + +(3) The nd-Stems show umlaut both in the N.A. plural and in the dative +singular: + + _Sing. N.A._ sē frēond (_friend_) sē fēond (_enemy_) + _D._ frīend fīend + + _Plur. N.A._ frīend fīend + + NOTE.--Mn.E. _friend_ and _fiend_ are interesting analogical + spellings. When s had been added by analogy to the O.E. plurals + #frīend# and #fīend#, thus giving the double plurals _friends_ and + _fiends_, a second singular was formed by dropping the s. Thus + _friend_ and _fiend_ displaced the old singulars _frend_ and + _fend_, both of which occur in the M.E. _Ormulum_, written about + the year 1200. + + +#Summary of O.E. Declensions.# + +69. A brief, working summary of the O.E. system of declensions may now +be made on the basis of gender. + +All O.E. nouns are (1) masculine, (2) feminine, or (3) neuter. + +(1) The masculines follow the declension of #mūð# (§ 26), except those +ending in -a, which are declined like #hunta# (§ 64): + + _Sing. N.A._ mūð _N._ hunta + _G._ mūðes _G.D.A._ huntan + _D.I._ mūðe _I._ huntan + + _Plur. N.A._ mūðas huntan + _G._ mūða huntena + _D.I._ mūðum huntum + +(2) The short-stemmed neuters follow the declension of #hof# (§ 32); the +long-stemmed, that of #bearn# (§ 32): + + _Sing. N.A._ hof bearn + _G._ hofes bearnes + _D.I._ hofe bearne + + _Plur. N.A._ hofu bearn + _G._ hofa bearna + _D.I._ hofum bearnum + +(3) The feminines follow the declensions of #giefu# and #wund# (§ 38) +(the only difference being in the N. singular), except those ending in +-e, which follow the declension of #tunge# (§ 64): + + _Sing. N._ giefu wund tunge + _G._ giefe wunde tungan + _D.I._ giefe wunde tungan + _A._ giefe wunde tungan + + _Plur. N.A._ giefa wunda tungan + _G._ giefa wunda tungena + _D.I._ giefum wundum tungum + + +70. VOCABULARY. + + ac, _but_. + būtan (with dat.), _except, but, without_. + sē Crīst, _Christ_. + sē eorl, _earl, alderman, warrior_. + ðæt Ęnglalǫnd, _England_ [Angles’ land]. + faran, _to go_ [fare]. + findan, _to find_. + sē God, _God_. + hātan, _to call, name_. + sē hlāford, _lord_ [#hlāf-weard#]. + mid (with dat.), _with_. + on (with acc.), _on, against, into_. + tō (with dat.), _to_. + uton (with infin.), _let us_. + + NOTE.--O.E. #mǫn# (#man#) is frequently used in an indefinite sense + for _one_, _people_, _they_. It thus takes the place of a passive + construction proper: #And man nam þā gebrotu þe þār belifon, twęlf + cȳpan fulle#, _And there were taken up of fragments that remained + there twelve baskets full_; but more literally, _And one_ (or + _they_) _took the fragments_, etc.; #Ǫnd Hæstenes wīf ǫnd hīs suna + twēgen mǫn brōhte tō ðǣm cyninge#, _And Hæsten’s wife and his two + sons were brought to the king_. + + +71. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Mōn hine hǣt Ælfred. 2. Uton faran on ðæt scip. 3. God is cyninga +cyning ǫnd hlāforda hlāford. 4. Sē eorl ne giefð giefa his fīend. 5. Ic +næs mid his frīend. 6. Sēo mōdor færð mid hiere dęhter on ðā burg. +7. Fintst ðū ðæs bōceres bēc? 8. Hē bint ealle (all) ðā dēor būtan ðǣm +wulfum. 9. Ðū eart Crīst, Godes sunu. 10. “Uton bindan ðæs bǫnan fēt,” +cwið hē. + +II. 1. Christ is the son of God. 2. Let us call him Cædmon. 3. He throws +his spear against the door. 4. Thou art not the earl’s brother. 5. He +will go with his father to England, but I shall remain (abide) here. +6. Gifts are not given to murderers. 7. Who will find the tracks of the +animals? 8. They ask their lord for his weapons (§ 65, Note 3). + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +PRONOUNS. + + +(1) #Personal Pronouns.# + +72. Paradigms of #ic#, _I_; #ðū#, _thou_. For #hē#, #hēo#, #hit#, see +§ 53. + + _Sing. N._ ic ðū + _G._ mīn ðīn + _D._ mē ðē + _A._ mē (mec) ðē (ðec) + + _Dual N._ wit (_we two_) git (_ye two_) + _G._ uncer (_of us two_) incer (_of you two_) + _D._ unc (_to_ or _for us two_) inc (_to_ or _for you two_) + _A._ unc (_us two_) inc (_you two_) + + _Plur. N._ wē gē + _G._ ūser (ūre) ēower + _D._ ūs ēow + _A._ ūs (ūsic) ēow (ēowic) + + NOTE 1.--The dual number was soon absorbed by the plural. No relic + of it now remains. But when two and only two are referred to, the + dual is consistently used in O.E. An example occurs in the case of + the two blind men (_Matthew_ ix. 27-31): #Gemiltsa unc, Davīdes + sunu!# _Pity us, (thou) Son of David!_ #Sīe inc æfter incrum + gelēafan#, _Be it unto you according to your faith._ + + NOTE 2.--Mn.E. _ye_ (< gē), the nominative proper, is fast being + displaced by _you_ (< #ēow#), the old objective. The distinction + is preserved in the King James’s version of the Bible: _Ye in me, + and I in you_ (_John_ xiv. 20); but not in Shakespeare and later + writers. + + +(2) #Demonstrative Pronouns.# + +73. Paradigm of #ðēs#, #ðēos#, #ðis#, _this_. For the Definite Article +as a demonstrative, meaning _that_, see § 28, Note 3. + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ ðēs ðēos ðis + _G._ ðisses ðisse ðisses + _D._ ðissum ðisse ðissum + _A._ ðisne ðās ðis + _I._ ðȳs ---- ðȳs + + _All Genders._ + _Plur. N.A._ ðās + _G._ ðissa + _D._ ðissum + + +(3) #The Interrogative Pronoun.# + +74. Paradigm of #hwā#, #hwæt#, _who_, _what?_ + + _Masculine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ hwā hwæt + _G._ hwæs hwæs + _D._ hwǣm hwǣm + _A._ hwone hwæt + _I._ ---- hwȳ + + NOTE 1.--The derivative interrogatives, #hwæðer# (< #*hwā-ðer#), + _which of two?_ and #hwilc# (< #*hwā-līc#), _which?_ are declined + as strong adjectives (§§ 79-82). + + NOTE 2.--The instrumental case of #hwā# survives in Mn.E. _why_ = + _on what account_; the instrumental of the definite article is + seen in the adverbial _the: The sooner, the better = by how much + sooner, by so much better._ + + NOTE 3.--How were the Mn.E. relative pronouns, _who_ and _which_, + evolved from the O.E. interrogatives? The change began in early + West Saxon with #hwæt# used in indirect questions (Wülfing, _l.c._ + § 310, β): #Nū ic wāt eall hwæt ðū woldest#, _Now I know all that + thou desiredst_. The direct question was, #Hwæt woldest ðū?# But + the presence of #eall# shows that in Alfred’s mind #hwæt# was, in + the indirect form, more relative than interrogative. + + +(4) #Relative Pronouns.# + +75. O.E. had no relative pronoun proper. It used instead (1) the +Indeclinable Particle #ðe#, _who_, _whom_, _which_, _that_, (2) the +Definite Article (§ 28), (3) the Definite Article with the Indeclinable +Particle, (4) the Indeclinable Particle with a Personal Pronoun. + +The Definite Article agrees in gender and number with the antecedent. +The case depends upon the construction. _The bird which I have_ may, +therefore, be:-- + + (1) #Sē fugol ðe ic hæbbe#; + (2) #Sē fugol ðone ic hæbbe#; + (3) #Sē fugol ðone ðe# (= _the which_) #ic hæbbe#; + (4) #Sē fugol ðe hine ic hæbbe#. + + NOTE.--O.E. #ðe# agrees closely in construction with Mn.E. + relative _that_: (1) Both are indeclinable. (2) Both refer to + animate or inanimate objects. (3) Both may be used with phrasal + value: #ðȳ ylcan dæge ðe hī hine tō ðǣm āde beran wyllað#, _On the + same day that_ (= _on which_) _they intend to bear him to the + funeral pile_. (4) Neither can be preceded by a preposition. + + +(5) #Possessive Pronouns.# + +76. The Possessive Pronouns are #mīn#, _mine_; #ðīn#, _thine_; #ūre#, +_our_; #ēower#, _your_; [#sīn#, _his_, _her_, _its_]; #uncer#, +_belonging to us two_; #incer#, _belonging to you two_. They are +declined as strong adjectives. The genitives of the Third Personal +Pronoun, #his#, _his_, #hiere#, _her_, #hiera#, _their_, are +indeclinable. + + +(6) #Indefinite Pronouns.# + +77. These are #ǣlc#, _each_, _every_; #ān#, _a_, _an_, _one_; #ǣnig# (< +#ān-ig#), _any_; #nǣnig# (< #ne-ǣnig#), _none_; #ōðer#, _other_; #sum#, +_one_, _a certain one_; #swilc#, _such_. They are declined as strong +adjectives. + + NOTE.--O.E. had three established methods of converting an + interrogative pronoun into an indefinite: (1) By prefixing #ge#, + (2) by prefixing #ǣg#, (3) by interposing the interrogative + between #swā ... swā#: (1) #gehwā#, _each_; #gehwæðer#, _either_; + #gehwilc#, _each_; (2) #ǣghwā#, _each_; #ǣghwæðer#, _each_; + #ǣghwilc#, _each_; (3) #swā hwā swā#, _whosoever_; #swā hwæðer + swā#, _whichsoever of two_; #swā hwilc swā#, _whosoever_. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +ADJECTIVES, STRONG AND WEAK. + + +78. The declension of adjectives conforms in general to the declension +of nouns, though a few pronominal inflections have influenced certain +cases. Adjectives belong either to (1) the Strong Declension or to +(2) the Weak Declension. The Weak Declension is employed when the +adjective is preceded by #sē# or #ðēs#, _the_, _that_, or _this_; +otherwise, the Strong Declension is employed: #ðā gōdan cyningas#, _the +good kings_; #ðēs gōda cyning#, _this good king_; but #gōde cyningas#, +_good kings_. + + NOTE.--The Weak Declension is also frequently used when the + adjective is employed in direct address, or preceded by a + possessive pronoun: #Dryhten, ælmihtiga God ... ic bidde ðē for + ðīnre miclan mildheortnesse#, _Lord, almighty God, I pray thee, + for thy great mercy_. + + +(1) #Strong Declension of Adjectives.# + +(a) _Monosyllables._ + +79. The strong adjectives are chiefly monosyllabic with long stems: +#gōd#, _good_; #eald#, _old_; #lǫng#, _long_; #swift#, _swift_. They are +declined as follows. + + +80. Paradigm of #gōd#, _good_: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + + _Sing. N._ gōd gōd gōd + _G._ gōdes gōdre gōdes + _D._ gōdum gōdre gōdum + _A._ gōdne gōde gōd + _I._ gōde ---- gōde + + _Plur. N.A._ gōde gōda gōd + _G._ gōdra gōdra gōdra + _D.I._ gōdum gōdum gōdum + + +81. If the stem is short, -u is retained as in #giefu# (§ 39, (1)) and +#hofu# (§ 33, (1)). Thus #glæd# (§ 27, Note 1), _glad_, and #til#, +_useful_, are inflected: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ { glæd gladu glæd + { til tilu til + + _Plur. N.A._ { glade glada gladu + { tile tila tilu + + +(b) _Polysyllables._ + +82. Polysyllables follow the declension of short monosyllables. The most +common terminations are #-en#, _-en_; #-fæst#, _-fast_; #-full#, _-ful_; +#-lēas#, _-less_; #-līc#, _-ly_; #-ig#, _-y_: #hǣð-en# (#hǣð# = +_heath_), _heathen_; #stęde-fæst# (#stęde# = _place_), _steadfast_; +#sorg-full# (#sorg# = _sorrow_), _sorrowful_; #cyst-lēas# (#cyst# = +_worth_), _worthless_; #eorð-līc# (#eorðe# = _earth_), _earthly_; +#blōd-ig# (#blōd# = _blood_), _bloody_. The present and past +participles, when inflected and not as weak adjectives, may be classed +with the polysyllabic adjectives, their inflection being the same. + +Syncopation occurs as in a-stems (§ 27, (4)). Thus #hālig#, _holy_, +#blīðe#, _blithe_, #berende#, _bearing_, #geboren#, _born_, are thus +inflected: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ { hālig hālgu hālig + { blīðe blīðu blīðe + { berende berendu berende + { geboren geborenu geboren + + _Plur. N.A._ { hālge hālga hālgu + { blīðe blīða blīðu + { berende berenda berendu + { geborene geborena geborenu + + +(2) #Weak Declension of Adjectives.# + +83. The Weak Declension of adjectives, whether monosyllabic or +polysyllabic, does not differ from the Weak Declension of nouns, except +that -ena of the genitive plural is usually replaced by -ra of the +strong adjectives. + + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ +84. _Sing. N._ gōda gōde gōde + _G._ gōdan gōdan gōdan + _D.I._ gōdan gōdan gōdan + _A._ gōdan gōdan gōde + + _All Genders._ + _Plur. N.A._ gōdan + _G._ gōdra (gōdena) + _D.I._ gōdum + + +85. RULE OF SYNTAX. + +_Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case; but +participles, when used predicatively, may remain uninflected_ (§ 139, +§ 140). + + +86. VOCABULARY. + + dēad, _dead_. + eall, _all_. + hāl,[1] _whole, hale_. + heard, _hard_. + ðæt hors, _horse_. + lēof, _dear_ [as lief]. + lȳtel, _little_. + micel, _great, large_. + mǫnig, _many_. + niman, _to take_ [nimble, numb]. + nīwe, _new_. + rīce, _rich, powerful_. + sōð, _true_ [sooth-sayer]. + stælwierðe,[2] _serviceable_ [stalwart]. + swīðe, _very_. + sē tūn, _town, village_. + sē ðegn, _servant, thane, warrior_. + ðæt ðing, _thing_. + sē weg, _way_. + wīs, _wise_. + wið (with acc.), _against_, in a hostile sense [with-stand]. + sē ilca, _the same_ [of that ilk]. + + [Footnote 1: #Hālig#, _holy_, contains, of course, the same + root. “I find,” says Carlyle, “that you could not get any better + definition of what ‘holy’ really is than ‘healthy--completely + healthy.’”] + + [Footnote 2: This word has been much discussed. The older + etymologists explained it as meaning _worth stealing_. A more + improbable conjecture is that it means _worth a stall_ or + _place_. It is used of ships in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_. As + applied to men, Skeat thinks it meant _good_ or _worthy at + stealing_; but the etymology is still unsettled.] + + +87. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Ðās scipu ne sind swīðe swift, ac hīe sind swīðe stælwierðu. +2. Sēo gōde cwēn giefð ǣlcum ðegne mǫniga giefa. 3. Ðēs wīsa cyning hæfð +mǫnige micele tūnas on his rīce. 4. Nǣnig mǫn is wīs on eallum ðingum. +5. Ðȳ ilcan dæge (§ 98, (2)) mǫn fǫnd (found) ðone ðegn ðe mīnes wines +bēc hæfde. 6. Ealle ðā sęcgas ðā ðe swift hors habbað rīdað wið ðone +bǫnan. 7. Ðīne fīend sind mīne frīend. 8. Sē micela stān ðone ðe ic on +mīnum hǫndum hæbbe is swīðe heard. 9. Hīe scęððað ðǣm ealdum horsum. +10. Uton niman ðās tilan giefa ǫnd hīe beran tō ūrum lēofum bearnum. + +II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the little children very +dear to the servants (dat. without #tō#)? 3. Gifts are not given (§ 70, +Note 1) to rich men. 4. All the horses that are in the king’s fields are +swift. 5. These stones are very large and hard. 6. He takes the dead +man’s spear and fights against the large army. 7. This new house has +many doors. 8. My ways are not your ways. 9. Whosoever chooses me, him I +also (#ēac#) choose. 10. Every man has many friends that are not wise. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +NUMERALS. + + +88. Numerals are either (_a_) Cardinal, expressing pure number, _one_, +_two_, _three_; or (_b_) Ordinal, expressing rank or succession, +_first_, _second_, _third_. + + +(_a_) #Cardinals.# + +89. The Cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups: + + GROUP I. + + 1. ān + 2. twēgen [twain] + 3. ðrīe + +These numerals are inflected adjectives. #Ān#, _one_, _an_, _a_, being a +long stemmed monosyllable, is declined like #gōd# (§ 80). The weak form, +#āna#, means _alone_. + +#Twēgen# and #ðrīe#, which have no singular, are thus declined: + + _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._ + _Plur. N.A._ twēgen twā twā (tū) ðrīe ðrēo ðrēo + _G._ twēgra twēgra twēgra ðrēora ðrēora ðrēora + _D._ { twǣm twǣm twǣm ðrīm ðrīm ðrīm + { (twām) (twām) (twām) + + +90. GROUP II. + + 4. fēower + 5. fīf + 6. siex + 7. seofon + 8. eahta + 9. nigon + 10. tīen + 11. ęndlefan + 12. twęlf + 13. ðrēotīene + 14. fēowertīene + 15. fīftīene + 16. siextīene + 17. seofontīene + 18. eahtatīene + 19. nigontīene + +These words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives: #on gewitscipe +ðrēora oþþe fēower bisceopa#, _on testimony of three or four bishops_; +#on siex dagum#, _in six days_; #ān nǣdre ðe hæfde nigon hēafdu#, _a +serpent which had nine heads_; #æðeling eahtatīene wintra#, _a prince of +eighteen winters_. + + +91. GROUP III. + + 20. twēntig + 21. ān ǫnd twēntig + 30. ðrītig + 40. fēowertig + 50. fīftig + 60. siextig + 70. hundseofontig + 80. hundeahtatig + 90. hundnigontig + 100. hund + 200. twā hund + 1000. ðūsend + 2000. twā ðūsend + +All these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns, and are +followed by the genitive plural: #Næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig +hrȳðera, and twēntig scēapa, and twēntig swȳna#, _He did not have, +however, more than twenty (of) cattle, and twenty (of) sheep, and twenty +(of) swine_; #Hīe hæfdon hundeahtatig scipa#, _They had eighty ships_; +#twā hund mīla brād#, _two hundred miles broad_; #ðǣr wǣron seofon hund +gūðfanena genumen#, _there were seven hundred standards captured_; #ān +ðūsend mǫnna#, _a thousand men_; #Hannibales folces wæs twā ðūsend +ofslagen#, _Of Hannibal’s men there were two thousand slain_; #Hīe +ācuron ęndlefan ðūsend mǫnna#, _They chose eleven thousand men_. + + NOTE 1.--Group III is rarely inflected. Almost the only + inflectional endings that are added are (1) -es, a genitive + singular termination for the numerals in #-tig#, and (2) -e, a + dative singular for #hund#. (1) The first is confined to + adjectives expressing extent of space or time, as, #eald#, _old_; + #brād#, _broad_; #hēah#, _high_; and #lǫng#, _long_: #ðæt is + ðrītiges mīla lǫng#, _that is thirty miles long_; #Hē wæs ðrītiges + gēara eald#, _He was thirty years old_. (2) The second is employed + after #mid#: #mid twǣm hunde scipa#, _with two hundred ships_; + #mid ðrīm hunde mǫnna#, _with three hundred men_; #Ðǣr wearð ... + Regulus gefangen mid V hunde mǫnna#, _There was Regulus captured + with five hundred men_. + + The statement made in nearly all the grammars that #hunde# occurs + as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation. + + NOTE 2.--Many numerals, otherwise indeclinable, are used in the + genitive plural with the indefinite pronoun #sum#, which then + means _one of_ a certain number. In this peculiar construction, + the numeral always precedes #sum#: #fēowera sum#, _one of four_ (= + _with three others_); #Hē sǣde þæt hē syxa sum ofslōge syxtig#, + _He said that he, with five others, slew sixty_ (_whales_); #Hē + wæs fēowertigra sum#, _He was one of forty_. + + NOTE 3.--These are the most common constructions with the + Cardinals. The forms in #-tig# have only recently been + investigated. A study of Wülfing’s citations shows that Alfred + occasionally uses the forms in #-tig# (1) as adjectives with + plural inflections: #mid XXXgum cyningum#, _with thirty kings_; + and (2) as nouns with plural inflections: #æfter siextigum daga#, + _after sixty days_. But both constructions are rare. + + +(b) #Ordinals.# + +92. The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed from the Cardinals. +They are: + + 1. forma, ǣresta, fyrsta + 2. ōðer, æfterra + 3. ðridda + 4. fēorða + 5. fīfta + 6. siexta + 7. seofoða + 8. eahtoða + 9. nigoða + 10. tēoða + 11. ęndlefta + 12. twęlfta + 13. ðrēotēoða + 14. fēowertēoða + 15. fīftēoða + etc. + 20. twēntigoða + 21. ān ǫnd twēntigoða + 30. ðrītigoða + etc. + + NOTE.--There are no Ordinals corresponding to #hund# and #ðūsend#. + +With the exception of #ōðer# (§ 77), all the Ordinals are declined as +Weak Adjectives; the article, however, as in Mn.E., is frequently +omitted: #Brūtus wæs sē forma consul#, _Brutus was the first consul_; +#Hēr ęndað sēo ǣreste bōc, ǫnd onginneð sēo ōðer#, _Here the first book +ends, and the second begins_; #ðȳ fīftan dæge#, _on the fifth day_; #on +ðǣm tēoðan gēare hiera gewinnes#, _in the tenth year of their strife_; +#Hēo wæs twęlfte#, _She was twelfth_; #Sē wæs fēorða frǫm Agusto#, _He +was fourth from Augustus_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS. + + +#Adverbs.# + +93. (1) Adverbs are formed by adding -e or #-līce# to the corresponding +adjectives: #sōð#, _true_; #sōðe# or #sōðlīce#, _truly_; #earmlīc#, +_wretched_; #earmlīce#, _wretchedly_; #wīd#, _wide_; #wīde#, _widely_; +#micel#, _great_; #micle# (#micele#), _greatly, much_. + +(2) The terminations -e and #-līce# are replaced in some adverbs by +#-(l)unga# or #-(l)inga#: #eallunga#, _entirely_; #fǣringa#, _suddenly_; +#grundlunga#, _from the ground, completely_. + + NOTE 1.--In Mn.E. _headlong_, _darkling_, and _groveling_, + originally adverbs, we have survivals of these endings. + +(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially: #sūðeweardes#, +_southwards_; #ealles#, _altogether, entirely_; #dæges#, _by day_; +#nihtes#, _by night_; #ðæs#, _from that time, afterwards_. _Cf._ #hys# +(= #his#) #weges# in #Ðonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges#, _Then rides each his +way_. + + NOTE 2.--The adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in Mn.E. + _Always_, _crossways_, _sideways_, _needs_ (= _necessarily_), + _sometimes_, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars. + The same construction is seen in _of course_, _of a truth_, _of an + evening_, _of old_, _of late_, and similar phrases. + +(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs: #hwīlum#, +_at times, sometimes_ [whilom]; #stundum# (#stund# = _period_), _from +time to time_; #miclum#, _greatly_. Especially common is the suffix +#-mǣlum# (#mǣl# = _time_, #measure# [meal]), preserved adverbially in +Mn.E. _piecemeal_: #dropmǣlum#, _drop by drop_; #styccemǣlum# (#stycce# += _piece_), _piecemeal, here and there_. + +(5) The suffix -an usually denotes motion from: + + hēr, _here_. hider, _hither_. heonan, _hence_. + ðǣr, _there_. ðider, _thither_. ðǫnan, _thence_. + hwǣr, _where?_ hwider, _whither?_ hwǫnan, _whence?_ + norðan, _from the north_. + ēastan, _from the east_. + hindan, _from behind_. + feorran, _from far_. + ūtan, _from without_. + +(6) The adverb #rihte# (#riht# = _right, straight_) denotes _motion +toward_ in #norðrihte#, _northward, due north_; #ēastrihte#, _due east_; +#sūðrihte#, _due south_; #westrihte#, _due west_. + + +#Prepositions.# + +94. The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a +preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most +frequently with prepositions. + +(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative are: + + æfter, _after_. + ǣt, _at_. + be (bī), _by, near, about_. + betwēonan (betuh), _between_. + būtan (būton), _except_. + for, _for_. + frǫm (fram), _from, by_. + mid, _with_. + of, _of, from_. + tō, _to_. + tōforan, _before_. + tōweard, _toward_. + +(2) The following prepositions require the accusative: + + geond, _throughout_ [be-yond]. + ofer, _over, upon_. + oð, _until, up to_. + ðurh, _through_. + ymbe, _about, around_ [um-while, ember-days]. + +(3) The preposition #on# (rarely #in#), meaning _into_, is usually +followed by the accusative; but meaning _in_, _on_, or _during_, it +takes the dative or instrumental. The preposition #wið#, meaning +_toward_, may be followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but +meaning _against_, and implying _motion_ or _hostility_, the accusative +is more common. + +(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the dative: + + be norðan, _north of_. + be ēastan, _east of_. + be sūðan, _south of._ + be westan, _west of_. + tō ēacan, _in addition to_. + on emnlange (efn-lang = _evenly long_), _along_. + tō emnes, _along_. + +(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they +introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in +front of the verb: #And him wæs mycel męnegu tō gegaderod#, _And there +was gathered unto him a great multitude_. In relative clauses introduced +by #ðe#, the preceding position is very common: #sēo scīr ... ðe hē on +būde#, _the district, ... which he dwelt in_ (= _which he in-habited_); +#Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm ǣhtum ðe hiera spēda on bēoð#, _He was a +very rich man in those possessions which their riches consist in_; +#nȳhst ðǣm tūne ðe sē dēada man on līð#, _nearest the town that the dead +man lies in_. + + +#Conjunctions.# + +95. (1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are: + + #ac, _but_. + ǣr, _before, ere_. + būtan (būton), _except that, unless_. + ēac, _also_ [eke]. + for ðǣm, } + for ðǣm ðe, } _because_. + for ðon, } + for ðon ðe, } + for ðȳ, _therefore_. + gif, _if_. + hwæðer, _whether_. + ǫnd (and), _and_. + oððe, _or_. + ðæt, _that, so that_. + ðēah, _though, however_. + +(2) The correlative conjunctions are: + + ǣgðer ge ... ge, _both ...... and_. + ǣgðer ...... ōðer } _either .... or_. + oððe ....... oððe } + nē ......... nē, _neither ... nor_. + sam ........ sam, _whether ... or_. + swā ........ swā { _the ....... the_. + { _as ........ as_. + ðā ......... ðā } _when ...... then_. + ðonne ...... ðonne } + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. + + +#Adjectives#. + +96. (1) Adjectives are regularly compared by adding -ra for the +comparative, and -ost (rarely -est) for the superlative: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + earm, _poor_ earmra earmost + rīce, _rich_ rīcra rīcost + smæl, _narrow_ smælra smalost + brād, _broad_ brādra (brǣdra) brādost + swift, _swift_ swiftra swiftost + +(2) Forms with i-umlaut usually have superlative in -est: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + eald, _old_ ieldra ieldest + lǫng, _long_ lęngra lęngest + strǫng, _strong_ stręngra stręngest + geong, _young_ giengra giengest + hēah, _high_ hīerra hīehst + +(3) The following adjectives are compared irregularly: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + gōd, _good_ bętra bętst + lȳtel, _little, small_ lǣssa lǣst + micel, _great, much_ māra mǣst + yfel, _bad_ wiersa wierst + +(4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + feor, _far_ fierra fierrest + nēah, _near_ nēarra nīehst + ǣr, _before_ ǣrra, _former_ ǣrest, _first_ + +(5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declension. The superlatives, +when preceded by the definite article, are weak; but when used +predicatively they are frequently strong: #sē lǣsta dǣl#, _the least +part_; #Ðonne cymeð sē man sē ðæt swiftoste hors hafað tō ðǣm ǣrestan +dǣle and tō ðǣm mǣstan#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse +to the first part and to the largest_. But, #ðæt bȳne land is ēasteweard +brādost# (not #brādoste#), _the cultivated land is broadest eastward_; +#and# (#hit#) #bið ealra wyrta mǣst#, _and it is largest of all herbs_; +#Ac hyra# (= #hiera#) #ār is mǣst on ðǣm gafole ðe ðā Finnas him +gyldað#, _But their income is greatest in the tribute that the Fins pay +them_. + +(6) The comparative is usually followed by #ðonne# and the nominative +case: #Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa ðonne ōðre hwalas#, _That whale is much +smaller than other whales_; #Ðā wunda ðæs mōdes bēoð dīgelran ðonne ðā +wunda ðæs līchaman#. _The wounds of the mind are more secret than the +wounds of the body_. + +But when #ðonne# is omitted, the comparative is followed by the dative: +#Ūre Ālīesend, ðe māra is ǫnd mǣrra eallum gesceaftum#, _Our Redeemer, +who is greater and more glorious than all created things_; #nē ongeat hē +nō hiene selfne bętran ōðrum gōdum mǫnnum#, _nor did he consider himself +better than other good men_. + + +#Adverbs.# + +97. (1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding -or for the comparative +and -ost (rarely -est) for the superlative: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + georne, _willingly_ geornor geornost + swīðe, _very, swīðor, _more_ swīðost, _most, chiefly_ + severely_ + ǣr, _before_ ǣror, _formerly_ ǣrest, _first_ + norð, _northwards_ norðor norðmest[1] + +(2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping -ra of +the corresponding adjective form: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + lǫnge, _long_ lęng lęngest + micle, _much_ mā mǣst + wel, _well_ bęt bętst + + [Footnote 1: This is really a double superlative, m being itself + an old superlative suffix. _Cf._ Latin _opti-m-us_. In Mn.E. + _northmost_ and _hindmost_, _-m-est_ has been confused with + _-most_, with which etymologically it has nothing to do.] + + +#Expressions of Time.# + +98. (1) Duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by +the accusative case: #Ealle ðā hwīle ðe ðæt līc bið inne#, _All the time +that the body is within_; #twēgen dagas#, _for two days_; #ealne weg#, +_all the way, always_. + +(2) Time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when no +preposition is used: #ðȳ ilcan dæge#, _the same day_; #ǣlce gēare#, +_each year_; #ðȳ gēare#, _that year_; #ǣlce dæge#, _each day_. + +(3) Time or space within which is expressed by #on# and the dative: #on +sumera#, _in summer_; #on wintra#, _in winter_; #on fīf dagum#, _in five +days_; #on fīf mīlum#, _in five miles_; #on ðissum gēare#, _in this +year_; #on ðǣm tīman#, _in those times_. Sometimes by the genitive +without a preceding preposition: #ðǣs gēares#, _in that year_. + + +99. VOCABULARY. + + ðæt gefylce [folc], _troop, division_. + ðæt lǫnd (land), _land_. + sēo mīl, _mile_. + ōðer ... ōðer, _the one ... the other_; _the former ... the latter_. + sē sige, _victory_. + sige[2] habban, _to win (the) victory_. + sprecan, _to speak_. + ðæt swīn (swȳn), _swine, hog_. + wēste, _waste_. + + [Footnote 2: #Sige# usually, but not invariably, precedes + #habban#.] + + +100. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Hē hæfð ðrēo swīðe swift hors. 2. Ic hæbbe nigontīene scēap ǫnd mā +ðonne twēntig swīna. 3. Sēo gōde cwēn cīest twā hund mǫnna. 4. Uton +feohtan wið ðā Dęne mid ðrīm hunde scipa. 5. Ǫnd hīe wǣron on twǣm +gefylcum: on ōðrum wæs[3] Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne ðā hǣðnan cyningas, ǫnd +on ōðrum wǣron ðā eorlas. 6. Ðū spricst sōðlīce. 7. Ðonne rīt ǣlc mǫn +his weges. 8. Æfter mǫnigum dagum, hæfde Ælfred cyning[4] sige. 9. Ðis +lǫnd is wēste styccemǣlum. 10. Ðēs feld is fīftiges mīla brād. +11. Ælfred cyning hæfde mǫnige frīend, for ðǣm ðe hē wæs ǣgðer ge wīs ge +gōd. 12. Ðā hwalas, ðe ðū ymbe spricst, sind micle lǣssan ōðrum hwalum. +13. Hēo is ieldre ðonne hiere swuster, ac mīn brōðor is ieldra ðonne +hēo. 14. Wē cumað tō ðǣm tūne ǣlce gēare. 15. Ðā męn ðe ðā swiftostan +hors hǣfdon wǣron mid ðǣm Dęnum fēower dagas. + +II. 1. Our army (#werod#) was in two divisions: one was large, the other +was small. 2. The richest men in the kingdom have more (#mā#) than +thirty ships. 3. He was much wiser than his brother. 4. He fights +against the Northumbrians with two ships. 5. After three years King +Alfred gained the victory. 6. Whosoever chooses these gifts, chooses +well. 7. This man’s son is both wiser and better than his father. +8. When the king rides, then ride his thanes also. 9. The richest men +are not always (ā) the wisest men. + + [Footnote 3: See p. 100, note on #gefeaht#.] [[Linenote 100.8]] + + [Footnote 4: The proper noun comes first in appositive + expressions: #Ælfred cyning#, #Sidroc eorl#, #Hēahmund + bisceop#.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +STRONG VERBS: CLASS I. (See § 17.) + + +#Syntax of Moods.# + +101. Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the O.E. Strong +Conjugation, it is estimated[1] that seventy-eight have preserved their +strong inflections in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have become weak, and +that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have entirely +disappeared, their places being taken in most cases by verbs of Latin +origin introduced through the Norman-French. + + NOTE.--Only the simple or primitive verbs, not the compound forms, + are here taken into consideration. The proportionate loss, + therefore, is really much greater. O.E. abounded in formative + prefixes. “Thus from the Anglo-Saxon #flōwan#, _to flow_, ten new + compounds were formed by the addition of various prefixes, of + which ten, only one, #oferflōwan#, _to overflow_, survives with + us. In a similar manner, from the verb #sittan#, _to sit_, + thirteen new verbs were formed, of which not a single one is to be + found to-day.” Lounsbury, _ib._ Part I, p. 107. + + [Footnote 1: Lounsbury, _English Language_, Part II, § 241.] + + +102. #Class I: The “Drive” Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: ī, ā, i, i. + + INFINITIVE. PRETERIT SING. PRETERIT PLUR. PAST PART. + + Drīf-an drāf drif-on gedrif-en, _to drive_. + + #Indicative.# #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic drīf-e _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū drīf-st (drīf-est) 2. ðū } drīf-e + 3. hē drīf-ð (drīf-eð) 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } (drīf-að) 2. gē } drīf-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic drāf _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū drif-e 2. ðū } drif-e + 3. hē drāf 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } drif-on 2. gē } drif-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. drīf drīf-an drīf-ende + _Plur._ 1. drīf-an + 2. drīf-að + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + tō drīf-anne (-enne) gedrif-en + + +#Tense Formation of Strong Verbs.# + +103. (1) It will be seen from the conjugation of #drīfan# that the +_present stem_ in all strong verbs is used throughout the present +indicative, the present subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the +gerund, and the present participle. More than half of the endings, +therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added directly to the present +stem. + +(2) That the _preterit singular stem_ is used in only two forms of the +verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular of the preterit indicative: #Ic +drāf#, #hē drāf#. + +(3) That the _preterit plural stem_ is used in the preterit plural +indicative, in the second person of the preterit singular indicative, +and in the singular and plural of the preterit subjunctive. + +(4) That the _stem of the past participle_ (#gedrif-#) is used for no +other form. + + +#Syntax of the Verb.# + +104. The Indicative Mood[2] represents the predicate _as a reality_. It +is used both in independent and in dependent clauses, its function in +O.E. corresponding with its function in Mn.E. + + [Footnote 2: Usage sanctions _mood_, but the better spelling + would be _mode_. It is from the Lat. _modus_, whereas _mood_ (= + _temper_) is O.E. _mōd_.] + + +105. The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate _as an idea_.[3] It +is of far more frequent occurrence in O.E. than in Mn.E. + +1. When used in independent clauses it denotes desire, command, or +entreaty, and usually precedes its subject: #Sīe ðīn nama gehālgod#, +_Hallowed be Thy name_; #Ne swęrigen gē#, _Do not swear_. + +2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possibility, or mere +futurity.[4] (_a_) Concessive clauses (introduced by #ðēah#, _though_) +and (_b_) temporal clauses (introduced by #ǣr#, #ǣr ðǣm ðe#, _before_) +are rarely found with any other mood than the subjunctive. The +subjunctive is also regularly used in Alfredian prose (_c_) after verbs +of saying, even when no suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the +narration.[5] “Whether the statement refer to a fact or not, whether the +subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter, as regards its objective +reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It simply represents a +statement as reported”[6]: #ðēah man āsętte twēgen fǣtels full ealað +oððe wæteres#, _though one set two vessels full of ale or water_; #ǣr +ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod wǣre#, _before it was all ravaged_; #Hē sǣde +ðæt Norðmanna land wǣre swȳðe lang and swȳðe smæl#, _He said that the +Norwegians’ land was very long and very narrow_. + + [Footnote 3: Gildersleeve’s _Latin Grammar_, § 255.] + + [Footnote 4: Thus when Alfred writes that an event took place + _before_ the founding of Rome, he uses the subjunctive: #ǣr ðǣm + ðe Rōmeburh getimbrod wǣre# = _before Rome were founded_; but, + #æfter ðǣm ðe Rōmeburh getimbrod wæs# = _after Rome was + founded_.] + + [Footnote 5: “By the time of Ælfric, however, the levelling + influence of the indicative [after verbs of saying] has made + considerable progress.”--Gorrell, _Indirect Discourse in + Anglo-Saxon_ (Dissertation, 1895), p. 101.] + + [Footnote 6: Hotz, _On the Use of the Subjunctive Mood in + Anglo-Saxon_ (Zürich, 1882).] + + +106. The Imperative is the mood of command or intercession: #Iōhannes, +cum tō mē#, _John, come to me_; #And forgyf ūs ūre gyltas#, _And forgive +us our trespasses_; #Ne drīf ūs fram ðē#, _Do not drive us from thee_. + + +107. (1) The Infinitive and Participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases +(§§ 138-141); but apart from this function, the Infinitive, being a +neuter noun, may serve as the subject or direct object of a verb. +#Hātan# (_to command, bid_), #lǣtan# (_to let, permit_), and onginnan +(_to begin_) are regularly followed by the Infinitive: #Hine rīdan +lyste#, _To ride pleased him_; #Hēt ðā bǣre sęttan#, _He bade set down +the bier_;[7] #Lǣtað ðā lȳtlingas tō mē cuman#, _Let the little ones +come to me_; #ðā ongann hē sprecan#, _then began he to speak_. + +(2) The Participles may be used independently in the dative absolute +construction (an imitation of the Latin ablative absolute), usually for +the expression of time:[8] #Him ðā gȳt sprecendum#, _While he was yet +speaking_; #gefylledum dagum#, _the days having been fulfilled_. + + [Footnote 7: Not, _He commanded the bier to be set down._ The + Mn.E. passive in such sentences is a loss both in force and + directness.] + + [Footnote 8: Callaway, _The Absolute Participle in Anglo-Saxon_ + (Dissertation, 1889), p. 19.] + + +108. The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used: + +(1) To express purpose: #Ūt ēode sē sāwere his sǣd tō sāwenne#, _Out +went the sower his seed to sow_. + +(2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective: #Sȳmōn, +ic hæbbe ðē tō sęcgenne sum ðing#, _Simon, I have something to say to +thee_; #Hit is scǫndlīc ymb swelc tō sprecanne#, _It is shameful to +speak about such things_. + +(3) After #bēon# (#wesan#) to denote duty or necessity: #Hwæt is nū mā +ymbe ðis tō sprecanne#, _What more is there now to say about this_? +#ðonne is tō geðęncenne hwaet Crīst self cwæð#, _then it behooves to +bethink what Christ himself said_. + + NOTE.--The Gerund is simply the dative case of the Infinitive + after #tō#. It began very early to supplant the simple Infinitive; + hence the use of _to_ with the Infinitive in Mn.E. As late as the + Elizabethan age the Gerund sometimes replaced the Infinitive even + after the auxiliary verbs: + + “Some pagan shore, + Where these two Christian armies _might combine_ + The blood of malice in a vein of league, + And not _to spend_ it so unneighbourly.” + _--King John_, V, ii, 39. + + When _to_ lost the meaning of purpose and came to be considered as + a merely formal prefix, _for_ was used to supplement the purpose + element: _What went ye out for to see_?[9] + + [Footnote 9: This is not the place to discuss the Gerund in + Mn.E., the so-called “infinitive in _-ing_.” The whole subject + has been befogged for the lack of an accepted nomenclature, one + that shall do violence neither to grammar nor to history.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +STRONG VERBS: CLASSES II AND III. + + +109. #Class II: The “Choose” Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: ēo, ēa, u, o. + + INFINITIVE.[1] PRET. SING. PRET. PLUR.[2] PAST PART.[2] + + cēos-an, cēas, cur-on gecor-en, _to choose_. + + #Indicative.# #Subjunctive#. + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic cēos-e _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū cīest (cēos-est) 2. ðū } cēos-e + 3. hē cīest (cēos-eð) 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } cēos-að 2. gē } cēos-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic cēas _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū cur-e 2. ðū } cur-e + 3. hē cēas 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } cur-on 2. gē } cur-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. cēos cēos-an cēos-ende + _Plur._ 1. cēos-an + 2. cēos-að + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + tō cēos-anne (-enne) gecor-en + + [Footnote 1: A few verbs of Class II have ū instead of ēo in the + infinitive: + + brūcan, brēac, brucon, gebrocen, _to enjoy_ [brook]. + būgan, bēag, bugon, gebogen, _to bend, bow_.] + + [Footnote 2: By a law known as Grammatical Change, final ð, s, + and h of strong verbs generally become d, r, and g, + respectively, in the preterit plural and past participle.] + + +110. #Class III: The “Bind” Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: {i,e}, a, u, {u,o}. + +The present stem ends in m, n, l, r, or h, + one or more consonants: + + m: belimp-an, { belǫmp }, belump-on, belump-en, _to belong_. + { belamp } + + n: bind-an, { bǫnd }, bund-on, gebund-en, _to bind_. + { band } + + l: help-an, healp, hulp-on, geholp-en, _to help_. + + r: weorð-an, wearð, wurd-on, geword-en, _to become_. + + h: gefeoht-an, gefeaht, gefuht-on, gefoht-en, _to fight_. + + NOTE 1.--If the present stem ends in a nasal (m, n) + a consonant, + the past participle retains the u of the pret. plur.; but if the + present stem ends in a liquid (l, r) or h, + a consonant, the past + participle has o instead of u. + + NOTE 2.--Why do we not find #*halp#, #*warð#, and #*faht# in the + pret. sing.? Because a before l, r, or h, + a consonant, underwent + “breaking” to ea. Breaking also changes every e followed by r or + h, + a consonant, to eo: #weorðan# (< #*werðan#), feohtan + (< #*fehtan#). + + +111. #Indicative.# #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic bind-e _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū bintst (bind-est) 2. ðū } bind-e + 3. hē bint (bind-eð) 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } bind-að 2. gē } bind-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic bǫnd _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū bund-e 2. ðū } bund-e + 3. hē bǫnd 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } bund-on 2. gē } bund-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. bind bind-an bind-ende + _Plur._ 1. bind-an + 2. bind-að + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + tō bind-anne (-enne) gebund-en + + +112. VOCABULARY. + + ðæt gefeoht, _fight, battle_. + sēo geręcednes, _narration_ [#ręccan#]. + ðæt gesceap, _creation_ [#scieppan#]. + sēo hęrgung (§ 39, (3)), _harrying, plundering_ [#hęrgian#]. + sē medu (medo) (§ 51), _mead_. + sēo meolc, _milk_. + sē middangeard, _world_ [middle-yard]. + sē munuc, _monk_ [monachus]. + sēo mȳre, mare [#mearh#]. + hē sǣde, _he said_. + hīe sǣdon, _they said_. + sēo spēd, _riches_ [speed]. + spēdig, _rich, prosperous_ [speedy]. + sēo tīd, _time_ [tide]. + unspēdig, _poor_. + sē westanwind, _west-wind_. + ðæt wīn, _wine_. + + ārīsan, ārās, ārison, ārisen, _to arise_. + bīdan, bād, bidon, gebiden, _to remain, expect_ + (with gen.) + drēogan,[3] drēag, drugon, gedrogen, _to endure, suffer_. + drincan, drǫnc, druncon, gedruncen, _to drink_. + findan, fǫnd, fundon, gefunden, _to find_. + geswīcan geswāc, geswicon, geswicen, _to cease, cease from_ + (with gen.) + iernan (yrnan), ǫrn, urnon, geurnen, _to run_. + onginnan, ongǫnn, ongunnon, ongunnen, _to begin_. + rīdan, rād, ridon, geriden, _to ride_. + singan, sǫng, sungon, gesungen, _to sing_. + wrītan, wrāt, writon, gewriten, _to write_. + + [Footnote 3: _Cf._ the Scotch “to _dree_ one’s weird” = _to + endure one’s fate_.] + + +113. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Æfter ðissum wordum, sē munuc wrāt ealle ðā geręcednesse on ānre +bēc. 2. Ðā eorlas ridon ūp ǣr ðǣm ðe ðā Dęne ðæs gefeohtes geswicen. +3. Cædmon sǫng ǣrest be middangeardes gesceape. 4. Sē cyning ǫnd ðā +rīcostan męn drincað mȳran meolc, ǫnd ðā unspēdigan drincað medu. 5. Ǫnd +hē ārās ǫnd sē wind geswāc. 6. Hīe sǣdon ðæt hīe ðǣr westwindes biden. +7. Hwæt is nū mā ymbe ðās ðing tō sprecanne? 8. Ðā sęcgas ongunnon +geswīcan ðǣre hęrgunga. 9. Ðā bēag ðæt lǫnd ðǣr ēastryhte, oððe sēo sǣ +in on ðæt lǫnd. 10. Ðās lǫnd belimpað tō, ðǣm Ęnglum. 11. Ðēah ðā Dęne +ealne dæg gefuhten, gīet hæfde Ælfred cyning sige. 12. Ǫnd ðæs +(afterwards) ymbe ānne mōnað gefeaht Ælfred cyning wið ealne ðone hęre +æt Wiltūne. + +II. 1. The most prosperous men drank mare’s milk and wine, but the poor +men drank mead. 2. I suffered many things before you began to help me +(dat.). 3. About two days afterwards (#Ðæs ymbe twēgen dagas#), the +plundering ceased. 4. The king said that he fought against all the army +(#hęre#). 5. Although the Danes remained one month (§ 98, (1)), they did +not begin to fight. 6. These gifts belonged to my brother. 7. The earls +were glad because their lord was (indicative) with them. 8. What did you +find? 9. Then wrote he about (#be#) the wise man’s deeds. 10. What more +is there to endure? + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +STRONG VERBS: CLASSES IV, V, VI, AND VII. + +CONTRACT VERBS. + +[The student can now complete the conjugation for himself (§ 103). Only +the principal parts will be given.] + + +114. #Class IV: The “Bear” Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: e, æ, ǣ, o. + +The present stem ends in l, r, or m, no consonant following: + + l: hel-an, hæl, hǣl-on, gehol-en, _to conceal_. + r: ber-an, bær, bǣr-on, gebor-en, _to bear_. + +The two following verbs are slightly irregular: + + m: { nim-an, nōm (nam), nōm-on (nām-on), genum-en, _to take_. + { cum-an, c(w)ōm, c(w)ōm-on, gecum-en, _to come_. + + +115. #Class V: The “Give” Conjugation.# + + Succession of Vowels: e (ie), æ, ǣ, e. + +The present stem ends in a single consonant, never a liquid or nasal: + + met-an, mæt, mǣton, gemet-en, _to measure, mete_. + gief-an, geaf, gēaf-on, gegief-en, _to give_. + + NOTE 1.--The palatal consonants, g, c, and sc, convert a following + e into ie, æ into ea, and ǣ into ēa. Hence #giefan# (< #*gefan#), + #geaf# (< #*gæf#), #gēafon# (< #*gǣfon#), #gegiefen# (< #*gegefen#). + This change is known as Palatalization. See § 8. + + NOTE 2.--The infinitives of the following important verbs are only + apparently exceptional: + + biddan, bæd, bǣd-on, gebed-en, _to ask for_ [bid]. + licgan, læg, lǣg-on, geleg-en, _to lie, extend_. + sittan, sæt, sǣt-on, geset-en, _to sit_. + +The original e reappears in the participial stems. It was changed to i +in the present stems on account of a former -jan in the infinitive +(#bid-jan#, etc.). See § 61. To the same cause is due the doubling of +consonants in the infinitive. All simple consonants in O.E., with the +exception of r, were doubled after a short vowel, when an original j +followed. + + +116. #Class VI: The “Shake” Conjugation.# + + Succession of Vowels: a, ō, ō, a. + + scac-an, scōc, scōc-on, gescac-en, _to shake_. + far-an, fōr, fōr-on, gefar-en, _to go_ [fare]. + + +117. #Class VII: The “Fall” Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: {ā,ǣ}, ē, ē, {ā,ǣ}; + or {ea,ēa,ō}, ēo, ēo, {ea,ēa,ō}. + + + (1) hāt-an, hēt, hēt-on, gehāt-en, _to call, name, + command_. + lǣt-an, lēt, lēt-on, gelǣt-en, _to let_. + + (2) feall-an, fēoll, fēoll-on, gefeall-en, _to fall_. + heald-an, hēold, hēold-on, geheald-en, _to hold_. + hēaw-an, hēow, hēow-on, gehēaw-en, _to hew_. + grōw-an, grēow, grēow-on, gegrōw-en, _to grow_. + + NOTE 1.--This class consists of the Reduplicating Verbs; that is, + those verbs that originally formed their preterits not by internal + vowel change (ablaut), but by prefixing to the present stem the + initial consonant + e (_cf._ Gk. λέ-λοιπα and Lat. _dĕ-di_). + Contraction then took place between the syllabic prefix and the + root, the fusion resulting in ē or ēo: #*he-hat# > #heht# > #hēt#. + + NOTE 2.--A peculiar interest attaches to #hātan#: the forms + #hātte# and #hātton# are the sole remains in O.E. of the original + Germanic passive. They are used both as presents and as preterits: + #hātte# = _I am_ or _was called_, _he is_ or _was called_. No + other verb in O.E. could have a passive sense without calling in + the aid of the verb _to be_ (§ 141). + + +#Contract Verbs.# + +118. The few Contract Verbs found in O.E. do not constitute a new class; +they fall under Classes I, II, V, VI, and VII, already treated. The +present stem ended originally in h. This was lost before -an of the +infinitive, contraction and compensatory lengthening being the result. +The following are the most important of these verbs: + + Classes. + + I. ðēon (< *ðīhan), ðāh, ðig-on, { geðig-en }, _to thrive_. + { geðung-en } + II. tēon (< *tēohan), tēah, tug-on, getog-en, _to draw, go_ + [tug]. + V. sēon (< *sehwan), seah, sāw-on, gesew-en, _to see_. + VI. slēan (< *slahan), slōh, slōg-on, geslæg-en, _to slay_. + VII. fōn (< *fōhan), fēng, fēng-on, gefǫng-en, _to seize_ + [fang]. + + +119. The Present Indicative of these verbs runs as follows (see rules of +i-umlaut, § 58): + + _Sing._ 1. Ic ðēo tēo sēo slēa fō + 2. ðū ðīhst tīehst siehst sliehst fēhst + 3. hē ðīhð tīehð siehð sliehð fēhð + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } ðēoð tēoð sēoð slēað fōð + 3. hīe } + +The other tenses and moods are regularly formed from the given stems. + + +120. VOCABULARY. + + sēo ǣht, _property, possession_ [#āgan#]. + aweg, _away_ [#on weg#]. + sēo fierd, _English army_ [#faran#]. + sē hęre, _Danish army_ [#hęrgian#]. + on gehwæðre hǫnd, _on both sides_. + sige niman (= sige habban), _to win (the) victory_. + sēo sprǣc, _speech, language_. + tō rīce fōn, _to come to the throne_.[1] + ðæt wæl [Val-halla] } _slaughter, carnage_. + sē wælsliht, } + sē weall, _wall, rampart_. + ðæt wildor, _wild beast, reindeer_. + sē wīngeard, _vineyard_. + + ābrecan,[2] ābræc, ābrǣcon, ābrocen, _to break down_. + cweðan, cwæð, cwǣdon, gecweden, _to say_ [quoth]. + gesēon, geseah, gesāwon, gesewen, _to see_. + grōwan, grēow, grēowon, gegrōwen, _to grow_. + ofslēan, ofslōh, ofslōgon, ofslægen, _to slay_. + sprecan, spræc, sprǣcon, gesprecen, _to speak_. + stelan, stæl, stǣlon, gestolen, _to steal_. + stǫndan, stōd, stōdon, gestǫnden, _to stand_. + weaxan, wēox, wēoxon, geweaxen, _to grow, increase_ [wax]. + + [Footnote 1: Literally, _to take to (the) kingdom_. _Cf._ + “Have you anything to take to?” (_Two Gentlemen of Verona_, + IV, i, 42).] + + [Footnote 2: #Brecan# belongs properly in Class V, but it has + been drawn into Class IV possibly through the influence of the r + in the root.] + + +121. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Æfter ðǣm sōðlīce (indeed) ealle męn sprǣcon āne (one) sprǣce. +2. Ǫnd hē cwæð: “Ðis is ān folc, ǫnd ealle hīe sprecað āne sprǣce.” +3. On sumum stōwum wīngeardas grōwað. 4. Hē hēt ðā nǣdran ofslēan. 5. Ðā +Ęngle ābrǣcon ðone lǫngan weall, ǫnd sige nōmon. 6. Ǫnd ðæt sǣd grēow +ǫnd wēox. 7. Ic ne geseah ðone mǫn sē ðe ðæs cnapan adesan stæl. 8. Hē +wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm ǣhtum ðe hiera spēda on[3] bēoð, ðæt is, on +wildrum. 9. Ǫnd ðǣr wearð (was) micel wælsliht on gehwæðre hǫnd. 10. Ǫnd +æfter ðissum gefeohte cōm Ælfred cyning mid his fierde, ǫnd gefeaht wið +ealne ðone hęre, ǫnd sige nōm. 11. Ðēos burg hātte[4] Æscesdūn +(Ashdown). 12. Ðǣre cwēne līc læg on ðǣm hūse. 13. Ǫnd sē dǣl ðe ðǣr +aweg cōm wæs swȳðe lȳtel. 14. Ǫnd ðæs ðrēotīene dagas Æðered tō rīce +fēng. + +II. 1. The men stood in the ships and fought against the Danes. +2. Before the thanes came, the king rode away. 3. They said (#sǣdon#) +that all the men spoke one language. 4. They bore the queen’s body to +Wilton. 5. Alfred gave many gifts to his army (dat. without #tō#) before +he went away. 6. These men are called earls. 7. God sees all things. +8. The boy held the reindeer with (#mid#) his hands. 9. About six months +afterwards, Alfred gained the victory, and came to the throne. 10. He +said that there was very great slaughter on both sides. + + [Footnote 3: See § 94, (5).] + + [Footnote 4: See § 117, Note 2.] + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +WEAK VERBS (§ 18). + + +122. The verbs belonging to the Weak Conjugation are generally of more +recent origin than the strong verbs, being frequently formed from the +roots of strong verbs. The Weak Conjugation was the growing conjugation +in O.E. as it is in Mn.E. We instinctively put our newly coined or +borrowed words into this conjugation (_telegraphed_, _boycotted_); and +children, by the analogy of weak verbs, say _runned_ for _ran_, _seed_ +for _saw_, _teared_ for _tore_, _drawed_ for _drew_, and _growed_ for +_grew_. So, for example, when Latin _dictāre_ and _breviāre_ came into +O.E., they came as weak verbs, #dihtian# and #brēfian#. + + +#The Three Classes of Weak Verbs.# + +123. There is no difficulty in telling, from the infinitive alone, to +which of the three classes a weak verb belongs. Class III has been so +invaded by Class II that but three important verbs remain to it: +#habban#, _to have_; #libban#, _to live_; and #sęcgan#, _to say_. +Distinction is to be made, therefore, only between Classes II and I. +Class II contains the verbs with infinitive in -ian not preceded +by r. Class I contains the remaining weak verbs; that is, those with +infinitive in #-r-ian# and those with infinitive in -an (not -ian). + + +#Class I.# + +124. The preterit singular and past participle of Class I end in -ede +and -ed, or -de and -ed respectively. + + NOTE.--The infinitives of this class ended originally in -jan (= + -ian). This accounts for the prevalence of i-umlaut in these + verbs, and also for the large number of short-voweled stems ending + in a double consonant (§ 115, Note 2). The weak verb is frequently + the causative of the corresponding strong verb. In such cases, the + root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit singular + of the strong verb: Mn.E. _drench_ (= _to make drink_), _lay_ (= + _to make lie_), _rear_ (= _to make rise_), and _set_ (= _to make + sit_), are the umlauted forms of #drǫnc# (preterit singular of + #drincan#), #læg# (preterit singular of #licgan#), #rās# (preterit + singular of #rīsan#), and #sæt# (preterit singular of #sittan#). + + +#Preterit and Past Participle in _-ede_ and _-ed_.# + +125. Verbs with infinitive in -an preceded by ri- or the double +consonants mm, nn, ss, bb, cg (= gg), add -ede for the preterit, and -ed +for the past participle, the double consonant being always made single: + + ri: nęri-an, nęr-ede, genęr-ed, _to save_. + mm: fręmm-an, fręm-ede, gefręm-ed, _to perform_ [frame]. + nn: ðęnn-an, ðęn-ede, geðęn-ed, _to extend_. + ss: cnyss-an, cnys-ede, gecnys-ed, _to beat_. + bb: swębb-an, swęf-ede, geswęf-ed, _to put to sleep_. + cg: węcg-an, węg-ede, gewęg-ed, _to agitate_. + + NOTE.--#Lęcgan#, _to lay_, is the only one of these verbs that + syncopates the e: #lęcgan#, #lęgde# (#lēde#), #gelęgd# (#gelēd#), + instead of #lęgede#, #gelęged#. + + +#Preterit and Past Participle in _-de_ and _-ed_.# + +126. All the other verbs belonging to Class I. add -de for the preterit +and -ed for the past participle. This division includes, therefore, all +stems long by nature (§ 10, (3), (_a_)): + + dǣl-an, dǣl-de, gedǣl-ed, _to deal out, divide_ [dǣl]. + dēm-an, dēm-de, gedēm-ed, _to judge_ [dōm]. + grēt-an, grēt-te, gegrēt-ed, _to greet_. + hīer-an, hīer-de, gehīer-ed, _to hear_. + lǣd-an, lǣd-de, gelǣd-ed, _to lead_. + + NOTE 1.--A preceding voiceless consonant (§ 9, Note) changes -de + into -te: #*grēt-de# > #grēt-te#; #*mēt-de# > #mēt-te#; #*īec-de# + > #īec-te#. Syncope and contraction are also frequent in the + participles: #gegrēt-ed# > #*gegrēt-d# > #gegrēt(t)#; #gelǣd-ed# > + #gelǣd(d)#. + + NOTE 2.--#Būan#, _to dwell, cultivate_, has an admixture of + strong forms in the past participle: #būan#, #būde#, #gebūd# + (#bȳn#, #gebūn#). The present participle survives in Mn.E. + _husband_ = _house-dweller_. + + +127. It includes, also, all stems long by position (§ 10, (3), (_b_)) +except those in mm, nn, ss, bb, and cg (§ 125): + + sęnd-an, sęnd-e, gesęnd-ed, _to send_. + sętt-an, sęt-te, gesęt-ed, _to set_ [sittan]. + sigl-an, sigl-de, gesigl-ed, _to sail_. + spęnd-an, spęnd-e, gespęnd-ed, _to spend_. + trędd-an, tręd-de, getręd-ed, _to tread_. + + NOTE.--The participles frequently undergo syncope and contraction: + #gesęnded# > #gesęnd#; #gesęted# > #gesęt(t)#; #gespęnded# > + #gespęnd#; #getręded# > #getręd(d)#. + + +#Irregular Verbs of Class I.# + +128. There are about twenty verbs belonging to Class I that are +irregular in having no umlaut in the preterit and past participle. The +preterit ends in -de, the past participle in -d; but, through the +influence of a preceding voiceless consonant (§ 9, Note), -ed is +generally unvoiced to -te, and -d to -t. The most important of these +verbs are as follows: + + bring-an, brōh-te, gebrōh-t, _to bring_. + byc-gan, boh-te, geboh-t, _to buy_. + sēc-an, sōh-te, gesōh-t, _to seek_. + sęll-an, seal-de, geseal-d, _to give, sell_ [hand-sel]. + tǣc-an, tǣh-te, getǣh-t, _to teach_. + tęll-an, teal-de, geteal-d, _to count_ [tell]. + ðęnc-an, ðōh-te, geðōh-t, _to think_. + ðync-an, ðūh-te, geðūh-t, _to seem_ [methinks]. + wyrc-an, worh-te, geworh-t, _to work_. + + NOTE.--Such of these verbs as have stems in c or g are frequently + written with an inserted e: #bycgean#, #sēcean#, #tǣcean#, etc. + This e indicates that c and g have palatal value; that is, are to + be followed with a vanishing y-sound. In such cases, O.E. c + usually passes into Mn.E. _ch_: #tǣc(e)an# > _to teach_; + #rǣc(e)an# > _to reach_; #stręcc(e)an# > _to stretch_. #Sēc(e)an# + gives _beseech_ as well as _seek_. See § 8. + + +#Conjugation of Class I.# + +129. Paradigms of #nęrian#, _to save_; #fręmman#, _to perform_; #dǣlan#, +_to divide_: + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic nęrie fręmme dǣle + 2. ðū nęrest fręmest dǣlst + 3. hē nęreð fręmeð dǣlð + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } nęriað fręmmað dǣlað + 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic nęrede fręmede dǣlde + 2. ðū nęredest fręmedest dǣldest + 3. hē nęrede fręmede dǣlde + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } nęredon fręmedon dǣldon + 3. hīe } + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } nęrie fręmme dǣle + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } nęrien fręmmen dǣlen + 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } nęrede fręmede dǣlde + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } nęreden fręmeden dǣlden + 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# + + _Sing._ 2. nęre fręme dǣl + + _Plur._ 1. nęrian fręmman dǣlan + 2. nęriað fręmmað dǣlað + + #Infinitive.# + + nęrian fręmman dǣlan + + #Gerund.# + + tō nęrianne (-enne) tō fręmmanne (-enne) tō dǣlanne (-enne) + + #Present Participle.# + + nęriende fręmmende dǣlende + + #Past Participle.# + + genęred gefręmed gedǣled + + NOTE.--The endings of the preterit present no difficulties; in the + 2d and 3d singular present, however, the student will observe + (_a_) that double consonants in the stem are made single: + #fręmest#, #fręmeð# (not #*freęmmest#, #*freęmmeð#); #ðęnest#, + #ðęneð#; #sętest# (#sętst#), #seęteð# (#sętt#); #fylst#, #fylð#, + from #fyllan#, _to fill_; (_b_) that syncope is the rule in stems + long by nature: #dǣlst# (< #dǣlest#), #dǣlð# (< #dǣleð#); #dēmst# + (< #dēmest#), #dēmð# (< #dēmeð#); #hīerst# (< #hīerest#), #hīerð# + (< #hīereð#). Double consonants are also made single in the + imperative 2d singular and in the past participle. Stems long by + nature take no final -e in the imperative: #dǣl#, #hīer#, #dēm#. + + +#Class II.# + +130. The infinitive of verbs belonging to this class ends in -ian (not +#-r-ian#), the preterit singular in -ode, the past participle in -od. +The preterit plural usually has #-edon#, however, instead of #-odon#: + + eard-ian, eard-ode, geeard-od, _to dwell_ [eorðe]. + luf-ian, luf-ode, geluf-od, _to love_ [lufu]. + rīcs-ian, rīcs-ode, gerīcs-od, _to rule_ [rīce]. + sealf-ian, sealf-ode, gesealf-od, _to anoint_ [salve]. + segl-ian, segl-ode, gesegl-od, _to sail_ [segel]. + + NOTE.--These verbs have no trace of original umlaut, since their + -ian was once #-ōjan#. Hence, the vowel of the stem was shielded + from the influence of the j (= i) by the interposition of ō. + + +#Conjugation of Class II.# + +131. Paradigm of #lufian#, _to love_: + + #Indicative.# #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic lufie _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðu lufast 2. ðū } lufie + 3. hē lufað 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } lufiað 2. gē } lufien + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic lufode _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū lufodest 2. ðū } lufode + 3. hē lufode 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } lufedon (-odon) 2. gē } lufeden (-oden) + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. lufa lufian lufiende + _Plur._ 1. lufian + 2. lufiað + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + tō lufianne (-enne) gelufod + + NOTE 1.--The -ie (-ien) occurring in the present must be + pronounced as a dissyllable. The y-sound thus interposed between + the i and e is frequently indicated by the letter g: #lufie#, or + #lufige#; #lufien#, or #lufigen#. So also for ia: #lufiað#, or + #lufigað#; #lufian#, or #lufig(e)an#. + + NOTE 2.--In the preterit singular, -ade, -ude, and -ede are not + infrequent for -ode. + + +#Class III.# + +132. The few verbs belonging here show a blending of Classes I and II. +Like certain verbs of Class I (§ 128), the preterit and past participle +are formed by adding -de and -d; like Class II, the 2d and 3d present +indicative singular end in -ast and -að, the imperative 2d singular in +-a: + + habb-an, hæf-de, gehæf-d, _to have_. + libb-an, lif-de, gelif-d, _to live_. + sęcg-an, sǣd-e (sæg-de), gesǣd (gesæg-d), _to say_. + + +#Conjugation of Class III.# + +133. Paradigms of #habban#, _to have_; #libban#, _to live_; #sęcgan#, +_to say_. + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hæbbe libbe sęcge + 2. ðū hæfst (hafast) lifast sægst (sagast) + 3. hē hæfð (hafað) lifað sægð (sagað) + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } habbað libbað sęcgað + 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hæfde lifde sǣde + 2. ðū hæfdest lifdest sǣdest + 3. hē hæfde lifde sǣde + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } hæfdon lifdon sǣdon + 3. hīe } + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } hæbbe libbe sęcge + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } hæbben libben sęcgen + 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } hæfde lifde sǣde + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } hæfden lifden sǣden + 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# + + _Sing._ 2. hafa lifa saga + _Plur._ 1. habban libban sęcgan + 2. habbað libbað sęcgað + + #Infinitive.# + + habban libban sęcgan + + #Gerund.# + + tō habbanne (-enne) tō libbanne (-enne) tō sęcganne (-enne) + + #Present Participle.# + + hæbbende libbende sęcgende + + #Past Participle.# + + gehæfd gelifd gesǣd + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +REMAINING VERBS; VERB-PHRASES WITH #habban#, #bēon#, AND #weorðan#. + + +#Anomalous Verbs.# (See § 19.) + +134. These are: + + bēon (wesan), wæs, wǣron, ----, _to be_. + willan, wolde, woldon, ----, _to will, intend_. + dōn, dyde, dydon, gedōn, _to do, cause_. + gān, ēode, ēodon, gegān, _to go_. + + NOTE.--In the original Indo-Germanic language, the first person + of the present indicative singular ended in (1) ō or (2) mi. + _Cf._ Gk. λύ-ω, εἰ-μί, Lat. _am-ō_, _su-m_. The Strong and Weak + Conjugations of O.E. are survivals of the ō-class. The four + Anomalous Verbs mentioned above are the sole remains in O.E. of + the mi-class. Note the surviving m in #eom# _I am_, and #dōm# _I + do_ (Northumbrian form). These mi-verbs are sometimes called + non-Thematic to distinguish them from the Thematic or ō-verbs. + + +#Conjugation of Anomalous Verbs.# + +135. Only the present indicative and subjunctive are at all irregular: + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic eom (bēom) wille dō gā + 2. ðū eart (bist) wilt dēst gǣst + 3. hē is (bið) wille dēð gǣð + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } sind(on) willað dōð gāð + 3. hīe } + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } sīe wille dō gā + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } sīen willen dōn gān + 3. hīe } + + NOTE.--The preterit subjunctive of #bēon# is formed, of course, + not from #wæs#, but from #wǣron#. See § 103, (3). + + +#Preterit-Present Verbs.# (See § 19.) + +136. These verbs are called Preterit-Present because the present tense +(indicative and subjunctive) of each of them is, in form, a strong +preterit, the old present having been displaced by the new. They all +have weak preterits. Most of the Mn.E. Auxiliary Verbs belong to this +class. + + witan, { wiste, } wiston, gewiten, _to know_ + { wisse, } [to wit, wot]. + āgan, āhte, āhton, āgen (adj.), _to possess_ [owe]. + cunnan, cūðe, cūðon, { gecunnen, } _to know_, _can_ + { cūð (adj.), } [uncouth, cunning]. + durran, dorste, dorston, ---- _to dare_. + sculan, sceolde, sceoldon, ---- _shall_. + magan, { meahte, meahton, } ---- _to be able_, _may_. + { mihte, mihton, } + mōtan, mōste, mōston, ---- _may_, _must_. + + NOTE.--The change in meaning from preterit to present, with + retention of the preterit form, is not uncommon in other + languages. Several examples are found in Latin and Greek + (cf. _nōvi_ and οἶδα, _I know_). Mn.E. has gone further still: + #āhte# and #mōste#, which had already suffered the loss of their + old preterits (#āh#, #mōt#), have been forced back again into the + present (_ought_, _must_). Having exhausted, therefore, the only + means of preterit formation known to Germanic, the strong and the + weak, it is not likely that either _ought_ or _must_ will ever + develop distinct preterit forms. + + +#Conjugation of Preterit-Present Verbs.# + +137. The irregularities occur in the present indicative and subjunctive: + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic wāt āh cǫn (can) + 2. ðū wāst āhst cǫnst (canst) + 3. hē wāt āh cǫn (can) + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } witon āgon cunnon + 3. hīe } + + _Sing._ 1. Ic dear sceal mæg mōt + 2. ðū dearst scealt meaht mōst + 3. hē dear sceal mæg mōt + + _Plur._ 1. wē + 2. gē durron sculon magon mōton + 3. hīe + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } wite āge cunne + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } witen āgen cunnen + 3. hīe } + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } durre scule (scyle) mæge mōte + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } durren sculen (scylen) mægen mōten + 3. hīe } + + NOTE 1.--#Willan# and #sculan# do not often connote simple + futurity in Early West Saxon, yet they were fast drifting that + way. The Mn.E. use of _shall_ only with the 1st person and _will_ + only with the 2d and 3d, to express simple futurity, was wholly + unknown even in Shakespeare’s day. The elaborate distinctions + drawn between these words by modern grammarians are not only + cumbersome and foreign to the genius of English, but equally + lacking in psychological basis. + + NOTE 2.--#Sculan# originally implied the idea of (1) _duty_, or + _compulsion_ (= _ought to_, or _must_), and this conception lurks + with more or less prominence in almost every function of #sculan# + in O.E.: #Dryhten bebēad Moyse hū hē sceolde beran ðā earce#, _The + Lord instructed Moses how he ought to bear the ark_; #Ǣlc mann + sceal be his andgietes mǣðe ... sprecan ðæt he spricð, and dōn ðæt + ðæt hē dēð#, _Every man must, according to the measure of his + intelligence, speak what he speaks, and do what he does_. Its next + most frequent use is to express (2) _custom_, the transition from + the obligatory to the customary being an easy one: #Sē byrdesta + sceall gyldan fīftȳne mearðes fell#, _The man of highest rank pays + fifteen marten skins_. + + NOTE 3.--#Willan# expressed originally (1) _pure volition_, and + this is its most frequent use in O.E. It may occur without the + infinitive: #Nylle ic ðæs synfullan dēað, ac ic wille ðæt hē + gecyrre and lybbe#, _I do not desire the sinner’s death, but I + desire that he return and live_. The wish being father to the + intention, #willan# soon came to express (2) _purpose_: #Hē sǣde + ðæt hē at sumum cirre wolde fandian hū longe ðæt land norðryhte + lǣge#, _He said that he intended, at some time, to investigate how + far that land extended northward_. + + +#Verb-Phrases with _habban_, _bēon_ (_wesan_), and _weorðan_.# + +_Verb-Phrases in the Active Voice._ + +138. The present and preterit of #habban#, combined with a past +participle, are used in O.E., as in Mn.E., to form the present perfect +and past perfect tenses: + + PRESENT PERFECT. PAST PERFECT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hæbbe gedrifen _Sing._ 1. Ic hæfde gedrifen + 2. ðū hæfst gedrifen 2. ðū hæfdest gedrifen + 3. hē hæfð gedrifen 3. hē hæfde gedrifen + + PRESENT PERFECT. PAST PERFECT. + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } habbað gedrifen 2. gē } hæfdon gedrifen + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + +The past participle is not usually inflected to agree with the direct +object: #Norðymbre ǫnd Ēastęngle hæfdon Ælfrede cyninge āðas geseald# +(not #gesealde#, § 82), _The Northumbrians and East Anglians had given +king Alfred oaths_; #ǫnd hæfdon miclne dǣl ðāra horsa freten# (not +#fretenne#), _and (they) had devoured a large part of the horses_. + + NOTE.--Many sentences might be quoted in which the participle does + agree with the direct object, but there seems to be no clear line + of demarcation between them and the sentences just cited. + Originally, the participle expressed a _resultant state_, and + belonged in sense more to the object than to #habban#; but in + Early West Saxon #habban# had already, in the majority of cases, + become a pure auxiliary when used with the past participle. This + is conclusively proved by the use of #habban# with intransitive + verbs. In such a clause, therefore, as #oð ðæt hīe hine ofslægenne + hæfdon#, there is no occasion to translate _until they had him + slain_ (= _resultant state_); the agreement here is more probably + due to the proximity of #ofslægenne# to #hine#. So also #ac hī + hæfdon þā hiera stemn gesętenne#, _but they had already served + out_ (_sat out_) _their military term_. + + +139. If the verb is intransitive, and denotes _a change of condition_, +_a departure or arrival_, #bēon# (#wesan#) usually replaces #habban#. +The past participle, in such cases, partakes of the nature of an +adjective, and generally agrees with the subject: #Mīne welan þe ic īo +hæfde syndon ealle gewitene ǫnd gedrorene#, _My possessions which I once +had are all departed and fallen away_; #wǣron þā męn uppe on lǫnde of +āgāne#, _the men had gone up ashore_; #ǫnd þā ōþre wǣron hungre +ācwolen#, _and the others had perished of hunger_; #ǫnd ēac sē micla +hęre wæs þā þǣr tō cumen#, _and also the large army had then arrived +there_. + + +140. A progressive present and preterit (not always, however, with +distinctively progressive meanings) are formed by combining a present +participle with the present and preterit of #bēon# (#wesan#). The +participle remains uninflected: #ǫnd hīe alle on ðone cyning wǣrun +feohtende#, _and they all were fighting against the king_; #Symle hē bið +lōciende, nē slǣpð hē nǣfre#, _He is always looking, nor does He ever +sleep_. + + NOTE.--In most sentences of this sort, the subject is masculine + (singular or plural); hence no inference can be made as to + agreement, since -e is the participial ending for both numbers of + the nominative masculine (§ 82). By analogy, therefore, the other + genders usually conform in inflection to the masculine: #wǣron þā + ealle þā dēoflu clypigende ānre stefne#, _then were all the devils + crying with one voice_. + + +_Verb-Phrases in the Passive Voice._ + +141. Passive constructions are formed by combining #bēon# (#wesan#) or +#weorðan# with a past participle. The participle agrees regularly with +the subject: #hīe wǣron benumene ǣgðer ge þæs cēapes ge þæs cornes#, +_they were deprived both of the cattle and the corn_; #hī bēoð āblęnde +mid ðǣm þīostrum heora scylda#, _they are blinded with the darkness of +their sins_; #and sē wælhrēowa Domiciānus on ðām ylcan gēare wearð +ācweald#, _and the murderous Domitian was killed in the same year_; #ǫnd +Æþelwulf aldormǫn wearð ofslægen#, _and Æthelwulf, alderman, was slain_. + + NOTE 1.--To express agency, Mn.E. employs _by_, rarely _of_; M.E. + _of_, rarely _by_; O.E. #frǫm# (#fram#), rarely #of#: #Sē ðe Godes + bebodu ne gecnǣwð, ne bið hē oncnāwen frǫm Gode#, _He who does not + recognise God’s commands, will not be recognized by God_; #Betwux + þǣm wearð ofslagen Ēadwine ... fram Brytta cyninge#, _Meanwhile, + Edwin was slain by the king of the Britons_. + + NOTE 2.--O.E. had no progressive forms for the passive, and could + not, therefore, distinguish between _He is being wounded_ and _He + is wounded_. It was not until more than a hundred years after + Shakespeare’s death that _being_ assumed this function. #Weorðan#, + which originally denoted _a passage from one state to another_, + was ultimately driven out by #bēon# (#wesan#), and survives now + only in _Woe worth_ (= _be to_). + + +142. VOCABULARY. + + ðā Beormas, _Permians_. + ðā Dęeniscan, _the Danish (men), Danes_. + ðā Finnas, _Fins_. + ðæt gewald, _control_ [#wealdan#]. + sēo sǣ, _sea_. + sēo scīr, _shire, district_. + sēo wælstōw, _battle-field_. + āgan wælstōwe gewald, _to maintain possession of the battle-field_. + sē wealdend, _ruler, wielder_. + + geflīeman, geflīemde, geflīemed, _to put to flight_. + gestaðelian, gestaðelode, gestaðelod, _to establish, restore_. + gewissian, gewissode, gewissod, _to guide, direct_. + wīcian, wīcode, gewīcod, _to dwell_ [wīc = village]. + + +143. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Ǫnd ðær wæs micel wæl geslægen on gehwæþre hǫnd, ǫnd Æþelwulf +ealdormǫn wearþ ofslægen; ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe gewald. 2. Ǫnd +þæs ymb ānne mōnaþ gefeaht Ælfred cyning wiþ ealne þone hęre ond hine +geflīemde. 3. Hē sǣde þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þǫnan. 4. Þā +Beormas hæfdon swīþe wel gebūd (§ 126, Note 2) hiera land. 5. Ohthęre +sǣde þæt sēo scīr hātte (§ 117, Note 2) Hālgoland, þe hē on (§ 94, (5)) +būde. 6. Þā Finnas wīcedon be þǣre sǣ. 7. Dryhten, ælmihtiga (§ 78, +Note) God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra gesceafta, ic bidde ðē for ðīnre +miclan mildheortnesse ðæt ðū mē gewissie tō ðīnum willan; and gestaðela +mīn mōd tō ðīnum willan and tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe. 8. Þā sceolde hē ðǣr +bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt land bēag þǣr sūðryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ +in on ðæt land, hē nysse hwæðer. 9. For ðȳ, mē ðyncð bętre, gif ēow swā +ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac ðās bēc on ðæt geðēode węnden ðe wē ealle gecnāwan +mægen. + +II. 1. When the king heard that, he went (= then went he) westward with +his army to Ashdown. 2. Lovest thou me more than these? 3. The men said +that the shire which they lived in was called Halgoland. 4. All things +were made (#wyrcan#) by God. 5. They were fighting for two days with +(= against) the Danes. 6. King Alfred fought with the Danes, and gained +the victory; but the Danes retained possession of the battle-field. +7. These men dwelt in England before they came hither. 8. I have not +seen the book of (#ymbe#) which you speak (#sprecan#). + + + + +PART III. + + +SELECTIONS FOR READING. + + + + +PROSE. + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +I. #The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.# + +This famous work, a series of progressive annals by unknown hands, +embraces a period extending from Cæsar’s invasion of England to 1154. It +is not known when or where these annals began to be recorded in +English. + +“The annals from the year 866--that of Ethelred’s ascent of the +throne--to the year 887 seem to be the work of one mind. Not a single +year is passed over, and to several is granted considerable space, +especially to the years 871, 878, and 885. The whole has gained a +certain roundness and fulness, because the events--nearly all of them +episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes--are taken in +their connection, and the thread dropped in one year is resumed in the +next. Not only is the style in itself concise; it has a sort of nervous +severity and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, and +suggests at times the freedom of poetry; though this purely historical +prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language.” (Ten Brink, +_Early Eng. Lit._, I.) + + +II. #The Translations of Alfred.# + +Alfred’s reign (871-901) may be divided into four periods. The _first_, +the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to 881; the _second_, +the period of comparative quiet, from 881 to 893; the _third_, the +period of renewed strife (beginning with the incursions of Hasting), +from 893 to 897; the _fourth_, the period of peace, from 897 to 901. His +literary work probably falls in the second period.[A] + +The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the vernacular were +(1) _Consolation of Philosophy_ (_De Consolatione Philosophiae_) by +Boëthius (475-525), (2) _Compendious History of the World_ (_Historiarum +Libri VII_) by Orosius (c. 418), (3) _Ecclesiastical History of the +English_ (_Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_) by Bede (672-735), +and (4) _Pastoral Care_ (_De Cura Pastorali_) by Pope Gregory the Great +(540-604). + + The chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. That + given is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and Pauli. + Wülker argues for an exact reversal of this order. According to + Ten Brink, the order was more probably (1) _Orosius_, (2) _Bede_, + (3) _Boëthius_, and (4) _Pastoral Care_. The most recent + contribution to the subject is from Wülfing, who contends for + (1) _Bede_, (2) _Orosius_, (3) _Pastoral Care_, and (4) _Boëthius_. + + [Footnote A: There is something inexpressibly touching in this + clause from the great king’s pen: gif wē ðā stilnesse habbað. He + is speaking of how much he hopes to do, by his translations, for + the enlightenment of his people.] + + +I. THE BATTLE OF ASHDOWN. + + [From the _Chronicle_, Parker MS. The event and date are + significant. The Danes had for the first time invaded Wessex. + Alfred’s older brother, Ethelred, was king; but to Alfred belongs + the glory of the victory at Ashdown (Berkshire). Asser (_Life of + Alfred_) tells us that for a long time Ethelred remained praying + in his tent, while Alfred and his followers went forth “like a + wild boar against the hounds.”] + +[[page 99]] + + 1 871. Hēr cuōm[1] sē hęre tō Rēadingum on Westseaxe, + 2 ǫnd þæs ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas ūp. Þa gemētte hīe + +[[page 100]] + + 1 Æþelwulf aldorman[2] on Ęnglafelda, ǫnd him þǣr wiþ gefeaht, + 2 ǫnd sige nam. Þæs ymb iiii niht Æþered cyning + 3 ǫnd Ælfred his brōþur[3] þǣr micle fierd tō Rēadingum + 4 gelǣddon, ǫnd wiþ þone hęre gefuhton; ǫnd þǣr wæs + 5 micel wæl geslægen on gehwæþre hǫnd, ǫnd Æþelwulf + 6 aldormǫn wearþ ofslægen; ǫnd þa Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe + 7 gewald. + + 8 Ǫnd þæs ymb iiii niht gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd + 9 Ælfred his brōþur wiþ alne[4] þone hęre on Æscesdūne. + 10 Ǫnd hīe wǣrun[5] on twǣm gefylcum: on ōþrum wæs + 11 Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne þā hǣþnan cyningas, ǫnd on + 12 ōþrum wǣron þā eorlas. Ǫnd þā gefeaht sē cyning + 13 Æþered wiþ þāra cyninga getruman, ǫnd þǣr wearþ sē + 14 cyning Bāgsęcg ofslægen; ǫnd Ælfred his brōþur wiþ + 15 þāra eorla getruman, ǫnd þǣr wearþ Sidroc eorl ofslægen + 16 sē alda,[6] ǫnd Sidroc eorl sē gioncga,[7] ǫnd Ōsbearn eorl, + 17 ǫnd Frǣna eorl, ǫnd Hareld eorl; ǫnd þā hęrgas[8] bēgen + 18 geflīemde, ǫnd fela þūsenda ofslægenra, ǫnd onfeohtende + 19 wǣron oþ niht. + + 20 Ǫnd þæs ymb xiiii niht gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd + 21 Ælfred his brōður wiþ þone hęre æt Basengum, ǫnd þǣr + 22 þa Dęniscan sige nāmon. + + 23 Ǫnd þæs ymb ii mōnaþ gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd + 24 Ælfred his brōþur wiþ þone hęre æt Męretūne, ǫnd hīe + 25 wǣrun on tuǣm[9] gefylcium, ǫnd hīe būtū geflīemdon, ǫnd + 26 lǫnge on dæg sige āhton; ǫnd þǣr wearþ micel wælsliht + 27 on gehwæþere hǫnd; ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe + +[[page 101]] + + 1 gewald; ǫnd þær wearþ Hēahmund bisceop ofslægen, + 2 ǫnd fela gōdra mǫnna. Ǫnd æfter þissum gefeohte cuōm[1] + 3 micel sumorlida. + + 4 Ǫnd þæs ofer Ēastron gefōr Æþered cyning; ǫnd hē + 5 rīcsode v gēar; ǫnd his līc līþ æt Wīnburnan. + + 6 Þā fēng Ælfred Æþelwulfing his brōþur tō Wesseaxna + 7 rīce. Ǫnd þæs ymb ānne mōnaþ gefeaht Ælfred cyning + 8 wiþ alne[4] þone hęre lȳtle werede[10] æt Wiltūne, ǫnd hine + 9 lǫnge on dæg geflīemde, ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe + 10 gewald. + + 11 Ǫnd þæs gēares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wiþ + 12 þone hęre on þȳ cynerīce be sūþan Tęmese, būtan þām þe + 13 him Ælfred þæs cyninges brōþur ǫnd ānlīpig aldormǫn[2] ǫnd + 14 cyninges þegnas oft rāde onridon þe mǫn nā ne rīmde; + 15 ǫnd þæs gēares wǣrun[5] ofslægene viiii eorlas ǫnd ān cyning. + 16 Ǫnd þȳ gēare nāmon Westseaxe friþ wiþ þone hęre. + +CONSULT GLOSSARY AND PARADIGMS UNDER FORMS GIVEN BELOW. + +No note is made of such variants as y (ȳ) or i (ī) for ie (īe). See +Glossary under ie (īe); occurrences, also, of #and# for #ǫnd#, #land# +for #lǫnd#, are found on almost every page of Early West Saxon. Such +words should be sought for under the more common forms, #ǫnd#, #lǫnd#. + + [1] = cwōm. + [2] = ealdormǫn. + [3] = brōþor. + [4] = ealne. + [5] = wǣron. + [6] = ealda. + [7] = geonga. + [8] = hęras. + [9] = twǣm. + [10] = werode. + + [Linenotes: + + 100.8. #gefeaht#. Notice that the singular is used. This is the + more common construction in O.E. when a compound subject, + composed of singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. _For + thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory_. See also + p. 107, note on #wæs#.] [[Linenote 107.14-15]] + + 100.18. #ǫnd fela þūsenda ofslægenra#, _and there were many + thousands of slain_ (§ 91). + + 101.12: #būtan þām þe#, etc., _besides which, Alfred ... made + raids against them_ (#him#), _which were not counted_. See § 70, + Note.] + + +II. A PRAYER OF KING ALFRED. + + [With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation + of Boëthius’s _Consolation of Philosophy_. Unfortunately, the only + extant MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. I follow, therefore, + Prof. A. S. Cook’s normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See + Cook’s _First Book in Old English_, p. 163.] + +[[page 102]] + + 1 Dryhten, ælmihtiga God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra + 2 gesceafta, ic bidde ðē for ðīnre miclan mildheortnesse, + 3 and for ðǣre hālgan rōde tācne, and for Sanctæ Marian + 4 mægðhāde, and for Sancti Michaeles gehīersumnesse, and + 5 for ealra ðīnra hālgena lufan and hīera earnungum, ðæt + 6 ðū mē gewissie bęt ðonne ic āworhte tō ðē; and gewissa + 7 mē tō ðīnum willan, and tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe, bęt ðonne + 8 ic self cunne; and gestaðela mīn mōd tō ðinum willan and + 9 tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe; and gestranga mē wið ðæs dēofles + 10 costnungum; and āfierr fram mē ðā fūlan gālnesse and + 11 ǣlce unrihtwīsnesse; and gescield mē wið mīnum wiðerwinnum, + 12 gesewenlīcum and ungesewenlīcum; and tǣc mē + 13 ðīnne willan tō wyrceanne; ðæt ic mæge ðē inweardlīce + 14 lufian tōforan eallum ðingum, mid clǣnum geðance and + 15 mid clǣnum līchaman. For ðon ðe ðū eart mīn Scieppend, + 16 and mīn Alīesend, mīn Fultum, mīn Frōfor, mīn Trēownes, + 17 and mīn Tōhopa. Sīe ðē lof and wuldor nū and + 18 ā ā ā, tō worulde būtan ǣghwilcum ęnde. Amen. + + [Linenotes: + + 3-4: #Marian ... Michaeles#. O.E. is inconsistent in the + treatment of foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and + sometimes retain in part their original inflections. #Marian#, + an original accusative, is here used as a genitive; while + #Michaeles# has the O.E. genitive ending. + + 17: #Sīe ðē lof#. See § 105, 1.] + + +III. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHERE AND WULFSTAN. + + [Lauderdale and Cottonian MSS. These voyages are an original + insertion by Alfred into his translation of Orosius’s _Compendious + History of the World_. + + “They consist,” says Ten Brink, “of a complete description of all + the countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred’s + time, and a full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which + the king wrote down from their own lips. One of these, a Norwegian + named Ohthere, had quite circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia + in his travels, and had even penetrated to the White Sea; the + other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from Schleswig to Frische Haff. + The geographical and ethnographical details of both accounts are + exceedingly interesting, and their style is attractive, clear, and + concrete.” + + Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the + western coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into + the White Sea, and entered the Dwina River (#ān micel ēa#). On his + second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of + Norway, entered the Skager Rack (#wīdsǣ#), passed through the + Cattegat, and anchored at the Danish port of Haddeby (#æt Hǣþum#), + modern Schleswig. + + Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days + from Schleswig brought him to Drausen (#Trūsō#) on the shore of + the Drausensea.] + + +[[page 103]] + +#Ohthere’s First Voyage.# + + 1 Ōthęre sǣde his hlāforde, Ælfrede cyninge, þæt hē + 2 ealra Norðmǫnna norþmest būde. Hē cwæð þæt hē būde + 3 on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsæ. Hē sǣde + 4 þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þonan; ac hit is + 5 eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum styccemælum wīciað + 6 Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra, ǫnd on sumera on fiscaþe + 7 be þǣre sǣ. Hē sǣde þæt hē æt sumum cirre wolde + 8 fandian hū lǫnge þæt land norþryhte lǣge, oþþe hwæðer + 9 ǣnig mǫn be norðan þǣm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē + 10 norþryhte be þǣm lande: lēt him ealne weg þæt wēste + 11 land on ðæt stēorbord, ǫnd þā wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord þrīe + 12 dagas. Þā wæs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwælhuntan + 13 firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā gīet norþryhte swā feor swā + 14 hē meahte on þǣm ōþrum þrīm dagum gesiglan. Þā bēag + 15 þæt land þǣr ēastryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt lǫnd, hē + 16 nysse hwæðer, būton hē wisse ðæt hē ðǣr bād westanwindes + 17 ǫnd hwōn norþan, ǫnd siglde ðā ēast be lande + 18 swā swā hē meahte on fēower dagum gesiglan. Þā + 19 sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt + 20 land bēag þǣr sūþryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē + 21 nysse hwæþer. Þā siglde hē þǫnan sūðryhte be lande + +[[page 104]] + + 1 swā swā hē męhte[1] on fīf dagum gesiglan. Ðā læg þǣr + 2 ān micel ēa ūp in on þæt land. Þā cirdon hīe ūp in on + 3 ðā ēa, for þǣm hīe ne dorston forþ bī þǣre ēa siglan for + 4 unfriþe; for þǣm ðæt land wæs eall gebūn on ōþre healfe + 5 þǣre ēas. Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē + 6 frǫm his āgnum hām fōr; ac him wæs ealne weg wēste + 7 land on þæt stēorbord, būtan fiscerum ǫnd fugelerum ōnd + 8 huntum, ǫnd þæt wǣron eall Finnas; ǫnd him wæs ā + 9 wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord. Þā Beormas hæfdon swīþe wel + 10 gebūd hira land: ac hīe ne dorston þǣr on cuman. Ac + 11 þāra Terfinna land wæs eal wēste, būton ðǣr huntan + 12 gewīcodon, oþþe fisceras, oþþe fugeleras. + + [1] = meahte, mihte. + + [Linenotes: + + 104.6: #frǫm his āgnum hām#. An adverbial dative singular + without an inflectional ending is found with #hām#, #dæg#, + #morgen#, and #ǣfen#. + + 104.8: #ǫnd þæt wǣron#. See § 40, Note 3.] + + 13 Fela spella him sǣdon þā Beormas ǣgþer ge of hiera + 14 āgnum lande ge of þǣm landum þe ymb hīe ūtan wǣron; + 15 ac hē nyste hwæt þæs sōþes wæs, for þǣm hē hit self ne + 16 geseah. Þā Finnas, him þūhte, ǫnd þā Beormas sprǣcon + 17 nēah ān geþēode. Swīþost hē fōr ðider, tō ēacan þæs + 18 landes scēawunge, for þǣm horshwælum, for ðǣm hīe + 19 habbað swīþe æþele bān on hiora[2] tōþum--þā tēð hīe brōhton + 20 sume þǣm cyninge--ǫnd hiora hȳd bið swīðe gōd tō + 21 sciprāpum. Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa þonne ōðre hwalas: + 22 ne bið hē lęngra ðonne syfan[3] ęlna lang; ac on his āgnum + 23 lande is sē bętsta hwælhuntað: þā bēoð eahta and fēowertiges + 24 ęlna lange, and þā mǣstan fīftiges ęlna lange; + 25 þāra hē sǣde þæt hē syxa sum ofslōge syxtig on twām + 26 dagum. + + [2] = hiera. + [3] = seofon. + + [Linenotes: + + 104.15: #hwæt þæs sōþes wæs#. Sweet errs in explaining #sōþes# + as attracted into the genitive by #þæs#. It is not a predicate + adjective, but a partitive genitive after #hwæt#. + + 104.25: #syxa sum#. See § 91, Note 2.] + +[[page 105]] + + 1 Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on þǣm ǣhtum þe heora[2] + 2 spēda on bēoð, þæt is, on wildrum. Hē hæfde þā gȳt, ðā + 3 hē þone cyningc[5] sōhte, tamra dēora unbebohtra syx hund. + 4 Þā dēor hī hātað ‘hrānas’; þāra wǣron syx stælhrānas; + 5 ðā bēoð swȳðe dȳre mid Finnum, for ðǣm hȳ fōð þā + 6 wildan hrānas mid. Hē wæs mid þǣm fyrstum mannum + 7 on þǣm lande: næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig hrȳðera, + 8 and twēntig scēapa, and twēntig swȳna; and þæt lȳtle + 9 þæt hē ęrede, hē ęrede mid horsan.[4] Ac hyra ār is mǣst + 10 on þǣm gafole þe ðā Finnas him gyldað. Þæt gafol bið + 11 on dēora fellum, and on fugela feðerum, and hwales bāne, + 12 and on þǣm sciprāpum þe bēoð of hwæles hȳde geworht + 13 and of sēoles. Ǣghwilc gylt be hys gebyrdum. Sē byrdesta + 14 sceall gyldan fīftȳne mearðes fell, and fīf hrānes, + 15 and ān beren fel, and tȳn ambra feðra, and berenne kyrtel + 16 oððe yterenne, and twēgen sciprāpas; ǣgþer sȳ syxtig + 17 ęlna lang, ōþer sȳ of hwæles hȳde geworht, ōþer of sīoles.[6] + + [2] = hiera. + [4] = horsum. + [5] = cyning. + [6] = sēoles. + + [Linenote: + + 105.2: #on bēoð#. See § 94, (5).] + + 18 Hē sǣde ðæt Norðmanna land wǣre swȳþe lang and + 19 swȳðe smæl. Eal þæt his man āðer oððe ęttan oððe ęrian + 20 mæg, þæt līð wið ðā sǣ; and þæt is þēah on sumum + 21 stōwum swȳðe clūdig; and licgað wilde mōras wið ēastan + 22 and wið ūpp on emnlange þǣm bȳnum lande. On þǣm + 23 mōrum eardiað Finnas. And þæt bȳne land is ēasteweard + 24 brādost, and symle swā norðor swā smælre. Ēastewęrd[7] + 25 hit mæg bīon[8] syxtig mīla brād, oþþe hwēne brǣdre; + 26 and middeweard þrītig oððe brādre; and norðeweard hē + 27 cwæð, þǣr hit smalost wǣre, þæt hit mihte bēon þrēora + 28 mīla brād tō þǣm mōre; and sē mōr syðþan,[9] on sumum + +[[page 106]] + + 1 stōwum, swā brād swā man mæg on twām wucum oferfēran; + 2 and on sumum stōwum swā brād swā man mæg + 3 on syx dagum oferfēran. + + [7] = -weard. + [8] = bēon. + [9] = siððan. + + [Linenote: + + 105.19: #Eal þæt his man#. Pronominal genitives are not always + possessive in O.E.; #his# is here the partitive genitive of + #hit#, the succeeding relative pronoun being omitted: _All that + (portion) of it that may, either-of-the-two, either be grazed or + plowed_, etc. (§ 70, Note).] + + 4 Ðonne is tōemnes þǣm lande sūðeweardum, on ōðre + 5 healfe þæs mōres, Swēoland, oþ þæt land norðeweard; + 6 and tōemnes þǣm lande norðeweardum, Cwēna land. Þā + 7 Cwēnas hęrgiað hwīlum on ðā Norðmęn ofer ðone mōr, + 8 hwīlum þā Norðmęn on hȳ. And þǣr sint swīðe micle + 9 męras fersce geond þā mōras; and berað þā Cwēnas hyra + 10 scypu ofer land on ðā męras, and þanon hęrgiað on ðā + 11 Norðmęn; hȳ habbað swȳðe lȳtle scypa and swȳðe + 12 leohte. + + [Linenote: + + 106.11-12: #scypa ... leohte#. These words exhibit inflections + more frequent in Late than in Early West Saxon. The normal forms + would be #scypu#, #leoht#; but in Late West Saxon the -u of + short-stemmed neuters is generally replaced by -a; and the + nominative accusative plural neuter of adjectives takes, by + analogy, the masculine endings; #hwate#, #gōde#, #hālge#, + instead of #hwatu#, #gōd#, #hālgu#.] + + +#Ohthere’s Second Voyage.# + + 13 Ōhthęre sǣde þæt sīo[1] scīr hātte Hālgoland, þe hē on + 14 būde. Hē cwæð þæt nān man ne būde be norðan him. + 15 Þonne is ān port on sūðeweardum þǣm lande, þone man + 16 hǣt Sciringeshēal. Þyder hē cwæð þæt man ne mihte + 17 geseglian on ānum mōnðe, gyf man on niht wīcode, and + 18 ǣlce dæge hæfde ambyrne wind; and ealle ðā hwīle hē + 19 sceal seglian be lande. And on þæt stēorbord him bið + 20 ǣrest Īraland, and þonne ðā īgland þe synd betux Īralande + 21 and þissum lande. Þonne is þis land, oð hē cymð + 22 tō Scirincgeshēale, and ealne weg on þæt bæcbord Norðweg. + +[[page 107]] + + 1 Wið sūðan þone Sciringeshēal fylð swȳðe mycel + 2 sǣ ūp in on ðæt land; sēo is brādre þonne ǣnig man ofer + 3 sēon mæge. And is Gotland on ōðre healfe ongēan, and + 4 siððan Sillęnde. Sēo sǣ līð mænig[2] hund mīla ūp in on + 5 þæt land. + + [1] = sēo. + [2] = mǫnig. + + 6 And of Sciringeshēale hē cwæð ðæt hē seglode on fīf + 7 dagan[3] tō þǣm porte þe mǫn hǣt æt Hǣþum; sē stęnt + 8 betuh Winedum, and Seaxum, and Angle, and hȳrð in + 9 on Dęne. Ðā hē þiderweard seglode fram Sciringeshēale, + 10 þā wæs him on þæt bæcbord Dęnamearc and on + 11 þæt stēorbord wīdsǣ þrȳ dagas; and þā, twēgen dagas ǣr + 12 hē tō Hǣþum cōme, him wæs on þæt stēorbord Gotland, + 13 and Sillęnde, and īglanda fela. On þǣm landum eardodon + 14 Ęngle, ǣr hī hider on land cōman.[4] And hym wæs + 15 ðā twēgen dagas on ðæt bæcbord þā īgland þe in on + 16 Dęnemearce hȳrað. + + [3] = dagum. + [4] = cōmen. + + [Linenotes: + + 107.7: #æt Hǣþum#. “This pleonastic use of _æt_ with names of + places occurs elsewhere in the older writings, as in the + Chronicle (552), ‘in þǣre stōwe þe is genęmned æt Searobyrg,’ + where the _æt_ has been erased by some later hand, showing that + the idiom had become obsolete. _Cp._ the German ‘Gasthaus zur + Krone,’ Stamboul = _es tān pólin_.” (Sweet.) See, also, + _Atterbury_, § 28, Note 3. + + 107.14-15: #wæs ... þā īgland#. The singular predicate is due + again to inversion (p. 100, note on #gefeaht# [[linenote + 100.8]]). The construction is comparatively rare in O.E., but + frequent in Shakespeare and in the popular speech of to-day. Cf. + _There is_, _Here is_, _There has been_, etc., with a (single) + plural subject following.] + + +#Wulfstan’s Voyage.# + + 17 Wulfstān sǣde þæt hē gefōre of Hǣðum, þæt hē wǣre + 18 on Trūsō on syfan dagum and nihtum, þæt þæt scip wæs + 19 ealne weg yrnende under segle. Weonoðland him wæs + +[[page 108]] + + 1 on stēorbord, and on bæcbord him wæs Langaland, and + 2 Lǣland, and Falster, and Scōnēg; and þās land eall + 3 hȳrað tō Dęnemearcan. And þonne Burgenda land wæs + 4 ūs on bæcbord, and þā habbað him sylfe[1] cyning. Þonne + 5 æfter Burgenda lande wǣron ūs þās land, þā synd hātene + 6 ǣrest Blēcinga-ēg, and Mēore, and Ēowland, and Gotland + 7 on bæcbord; and þās land hȳrað tō Swēom. And Weonodland + 8 wæs ūs ealne weg on stēorbord oð Wīslemūðan. + 9 Sēo Wīsle is swȳðe mycel ēa, and hīo[2] tōlīð Wītland and + 10 Weonodland; and þæt Wītland belimpeð tō Estum; and + 11 sēo Wīsle līð ūt of Weonodlande, and līð in Estmęre; + 12 and sē Estmęre is hūru fīftēne[3] mīla brād. Þonne cymeð + 13 Ilfing ēastan in Estmęre of ðām męre, ðe Trūsō standeð + 14 in stæðe; and cumað ūt samod in Estmęre, Ilfing ēastan + 15 of Estlande, and Wīsle sūðan of Winodlande. And + 16 þonne benimð Wīsle Ilfing hire naman, and ligeð of þǣm + 17 męre west and norð on sǣ; for ðȳ hit man hǣt + 18 Wīslemūða. + + [1] = selfe. + [2] = hēo. + [3] = fīftīene. + + [Linenote: + + 108.1-4: #him ... ūs#. Note the characteristic change of person, + the transition from _indirect_ to _direct discourse_.] + + 19 Þæt Estland is swȳðe mycel, and þǣr bið swȳðe manig + 20 burh, and on ǣlcere byrig bið cyning. And þǣr bið + 21 swȳðe mycel hunig, and fiscnað; and sē cyning and þā + 22 rīcostan męn drincað mȳran meolc, and þā unspēdigan + 23 and þā þēowan drincað medo.[4] Þǣr bið swȳðe mycel + 24 gewinn betwēonan him. And ne bið ðǣr nǣnig ealo[5] + 25 gebrowen mid Estum, ac þǣr bið medo genōh. And þǣr + 26 is mid Estum ðēaw, þonne þǣr bið man dēad, þæt hē līð + 27 inne unforbærned mid his māgum and frēondum mōnað, + 28 ge hwīlum twēgen; and þā cyningas, and þā ōðre hēahðungene + 29 męn, swā micle lęncg[6] swā hī māran spēda + 30 habbað, hwīlum healf gēar þæt hī bēoð unforbærned, and + +[[page 109]] + + 1 licgað bufan eorðan on hyra hūsum. And ealle þā hwīle + 2 þe þæt līc bið inne, þǣr sceal bēon gedrync and plega, + 3 oð ðone dæg þe hī hine forbærnað. Þonne þȳ ylcan dæge + 4 þe hī hine tō þǣm āde beran wyllað, þonne tōdǣlað hī + 5 his feoh, þæt þǣr tō lāfe bið æfter þǣm gedrynce and þǣm + 6 plegan, on fīf oððe syx, hwȳlum on mā, swā swā þæs fēos + 7 andēfn bið. Ālęcgað hit ðonne forhwæga on ānre mīle + 8 þone mǣstan dǣl fram þǣm tūne, þonne ōðerne, ðonne + 9 þone þriddan, oþ þe hyt eall ālēd bið on þǣre ānre mīle; + 10 and sceall bēon sē lǣsta dǣl nȳhst þǣm tūne ðe sē dēada + 11 man on lið. Ðonne sceolon[7] bēon gesamnode ealle ðā + 12 męnn ðe swyftoste hors habbað on þǣm lande, forhwæga + 13 on fīf mīlum oððe on syx mīlum fram þǣm fēo. Þonne + 14 ærnað hȳ ealle tōweard þǣm fēo: ðonne cymeð sē man + 15 sē þæt swiftoste hors hafað tō þǣm ǣrestan dǣle and tō + 16 þǣm mǣstan, and swā ǣlc æfter ōðrum, oþ hit bið eall + 17 genumen; and sē nimð þone lǣstan dǣl sē nȳhst þǣm + 18 tūne þæt feoh geærneð. And þonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges + 19 mid ðǣm fēo, and hyt mōtan[8] habban eall; and for ðȳ + 20 þǣr bēoð þā swiftan hors ungefōge dȳre. And þonne his + 21 gestrēon bēoð þus eall āspęnded, þonne byrð man hine ūt, + 22 and forbærneð mid his wǣpnum and hrægle; and swīðost + +[[page 110]] + + 1 ealle hys spēda hȳ forspęndað mid þǣm langan legere + 2 þæs dēadan mannes inne, and þæs þe hȳ be þǣm wegum + 3 ālęcgað, þe ðā fręmdan tō ærnað, and nimað. And þæt + 4 is mid Estum þēaw þæt þǣr sceal ǣlces geðēodes man + 5 bēon forbærned; and gyf þār[9] man ān bān findeð unforbærned, + 6 hī hit sceolan[7] miclum gebētan. And þǣr is mid + 7 Estum ān mǣgð þæt hī magon cyle gewyrcan; and þȳ + 8 þǣr licgað þā dēadan męn swā lange, and ne fūliað, þæt + 9 hȳ wyrcað þone cyle him on. And þēah man āsętte + 10 twēgen fǣtels full ealað oððe wæteres, hȳ gedōð þæt + 11 ǣgþer bið oferfroren, sam hit sȳ sumor sam winter. + + [4] = medu. + [5] = ealu. + [6] = lęng. + [7] = sculon. + [8] = mōton. + [9] = ðǣr. + + [Linenotes: + + 109.2: #sceal#. See § 137, Note 2 (2). + + 109.7: #Ālęcgað hit#. Bosworth illustrates thus: + + vi v iv iii ii i 1 2 3 4 5 6 + | | | | | | X + | | | | | | XX X X + | | | | | | XXX XX XX X X + ------------------------------- XXXX XXX XXX XX XX X + _e_ _d_ _c_ _b_ _a_ + Where the horsemen The six parts of the property + assemble. placed within one mile. + + “The horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property, at + _d_ or _e_, and run towards _c_; the man who has the swiftest + horse, coming first to 1 or _c_, takes the first and largest + part. The man who has the horse coming second takes part 2 or + _b_, and so, in succession, till the least part, 6 or _a_, is + taken.” + + 110.5-6: #man ... hī#. Here the plural #hī# refers to the + singular #man#. _Cf._ p. 109, ll. 18-19, #ǣlc ... mōtan#. In + _Exodus_ xxxii, 24, we find “_Whosoever_ hath any gold, let + _them_ break it off”; and Addison writes, “I do not mean that I + think _anyone_ to blame for taking due care of _their_ health.” + The construction, though outlawed now, has been common in all + periods of our language. Paul remarks (_Prinzipien der + Sprachgeschichte_, 3d ed., § 186) that “When a word is used as + an indefinite [one, man, somebody, etc.] it is, strictly + speaking, incapable of any distinction of number. Since, + however, in respect of the external form, a particular number + has to be chosen, it is a matter of indifference which this + is.... Hence a change of numbers is common in the different + languages.” Paul fails to observe that the change is always from + singular to plural, not from plural to singular. See _Note on + the Concord of Collectives and Indefinites_ (Anglia XI, 1901). + See p. 119, note on ll. 19-21.] + + +IV. THE STORY OF CÆDMON. + + [From the so-called Alfredian version of Bede’s _Ecclesiastical + History_. The text generally followed is that of MS. Bodley, + Tanner 10. Miller (_Early English Text Society_, No. 95, + _Introd._) argues, chiefly from the use of the prepositions, that + the original O.E. MS. was Mercian, composed possibly in Lichfield + (Staffordshire). At any rate, O.E. idiom is frequently sacrificed + to the Latin original. + + “Cædmon, as he is called, is the first Englishman whose name we + know who wrote poetry in our island of England; and the first to + embody in verse the new passions and ideas which Christianity had + brought into England.... Undisturbed by any previous making of + lighter poetry, he came fresh to the work of Christianising + English song. It was a great step to make. He built the chariot in + which all the new religious emotions of England could now drive + along.” (Brooke, _The History of Early English Literature_, + cap. XV.) There is no reason to doubt the historical existence of + Cædmon; for Bede, who relates the story, lived near Whitby, and + was seven years old when Cædmon died (A.D. 680)]. + +[[page 111]] + + 1 In ðysse abbudissan mynstre wæs sum brōðor syndriglīce + 2 mid godcundre gife gemǣred ǫnd geweorðad, for þon + 3 he gewunade gerisenlīce lēoð wyrcan, þā ðe tō ǣfęstnisse[1] + 4 ǫnd tō ārfæstnisse belumpon; swā ðætte swā hwæt swā + 5 hē of godcundum stafum þurh bōceras geleornode, þæt hē + 6 æfter medmiclum fæce in scopgereorde mid þā mǣstan + 7 swētnisse ǫnd inbryrdnisse geglęngde, ǫnd in Ęngliscgereorde + 8 wel geworht forþ brōhte. Ǫnd for his lēoþsǫngum + +[[page 112]] + + 1 mǫnigra mǫnna mōd oft to worulde forhogdnisse ǫnd tō + 2 geþēodnisse þæs heofonlīcan līfes onbærnde wǣron. Ǫnd + 3 ēac swelce[2] mǫnige ōðre æfter him in Ǫngelþēode ongunnon + 4 ǣfęste lēoð wyrcan, ac nǣnig hwæðre him þæt gelīce + 5 dōn ne meahte; for þon hē nālæs frǫm mǫnnum nē ðurh + 6 mǫn gelǣred wæs þæt hē ðone lēoðcræft leornade, ac hē + 7 wæs godcundlīce gefultumod, ǫnd þurh Godes gife þone + 8 sǫngcræft onfēng; ǫnd hē for ðon nǣfre nōht lēasunge, + 9 nē īdles lēoþes wyrcan ne meahte, ac efne þā ān ðā ðē tō + 10 ǣfęstnisse[1] belumpon ǫnd his þā ǣfęstan tungan gedafenode + 11 singan. + + [1] = ǣfæstnesse. + [2] = swilce. + + [Linenotes: + + 111.1: #ðysse abbudissan.# The abbess referred to is the famous + Hild, or Hilda, then living in the monastery at Streones-halh, + which, according to Bede, means “Bay of the Beacon.” The Danes + afterward gave it the name Whitby, or “White Town.” The + surroundings were eminently fitted to nurture England’s first + poet. “The natural scenery which surrounded him, the valley of + the Esk, on whose sides he probably lived, the great cliffs, the + billowy sea, the vast sky seen from the heights over the ocean, + played incessantly upon him.” (Brooke.) + + Note, also, in this connection, the numerous Latin words that + the introduction of Christianity (A.D. 597) brought into the + vocabulary of O.E.: #abbudisse#, #mynster#, #bisceop#, #Lǣden#, + #prēost#, #æstel#, #mancus#. + + 112.4-5: The more usual order of words would be #ac nǣnig, + hwæðre, ne meahte ðæt dōn gelīce him#. + + 112.10-11: #ǫnd his ... singan#, _and which it became his (the) + pious tongue to sing_.] + + 12 Wæs hē, sē mǫn, in weoruldhāde[3] gesęted oð þā tīde þe + 13 hē wæs gelȳfdre ylde, ǫnd nǣfre nǣnig lēoð geleornade. + 14 Ǫnd hē for þon oft in gebēorscipe, þonne þǣr wæs blisse + 15 intinga gedēmed, þæt hēo[4] ealle sceolden þurh ęndebyrdnesse + 16 be hearpan singan, þonne hē geseah þā hearpan him + 17 nēalēcan, þonne ārās hē for scǫme frǫm þǣm symble, + 18 ǫnd hām ēode tō his hūse. Þā hē þæt þā sumre tīde + 19 dyde, þæt hē forlēt þæt hūs þæs gebēorscipes, ǫnd ūt wæs + +[[page 113]] + + 1 gǫngende tō nēata scipene, þāra heord him wæs þǣre + 2 nihte beboden; þā hē ðā þǣr on gelimplīcre tīde his + 3 leomu[5] on ręste gesętte ǫnd onslēpte, þa stōd him sum + 4 mǫn æt þurh swefn, ǫnd hine hālette ǫnd grētte, ǫnd hine + 5 be his nǫman nęmnde: “Cædmǫn, sing mē hwæthwugu.” + 6 Þā ǫndswarede hē, ǫnd cwæð: “Ne cǫn ic nōht singan; + 7 ǫnd ic for þon of þyssum gebēorscipe ūt ēode ǫnd hider + 8 gewāt, for þon ic nāht singan ne cūðe.” Eft hē cwæð sē ðe + 9 wið hine sprecende wæs: “Hwæðre þū meaht mē singan.” + 10 Þā cwæð hē: “Hwæt sceal ic singan?” Cwæð hē: “Sing + 11 mē frumsceaft.” Þā hē ðā þās andsware onfēng, þā + 12 ongǫn hē sōna singan, in hęrenesse Godes Scyppendes, + 13 þā fers ǫnd þā word þe hē nǣfre ne gehȳrde, þāra ęndebyrdnes + 14 þis is: + + [3] = woruldhāde. + [4] = hīe. + [5] = limu. + + [Linenotes: + + 112.14-15: #blisse intinga#, _for the sake of joy_; but the + translator has confused _laetitiae causā_ (ablative) and + _laetitiae causa_ (nominative). The proper form would be #for + blisse# with omission of #intingan#, just as _for my sake_ is + usually #for mē#; _for his_ (_or their_) _sake_, #for him#. _Cf. + Mark_ vi, 26: “Yet _for his oath’s sake, and for their sakes + which sat with him_, he would not reject her,” #for ðǣm āðe, ǫnd + for ðǣm þe him mid sǣton#. _For his sake_ is frequently #for his + ðingon# (#ðingum#), rarely #for his intingan#. #Þingon# is + regularly used when the preceding genitive is a noun denoting a + person: _for my wife’s sake_, #for mīnes wīfes ðingon# + (_Genesis_ xx, 11), etc. + + 112.18-19: #þæt ... þæt hē forlēt#. The substantival clause + introduced by the second #þæt# amplifies by apposition the first + #þæt#: _When he then, at a certain time_ (instrumental case, + § 98, (2)), _did that, namely, when he left the house_. The + better Mn.E. would be _this ... that_: “Added yet _this_ above + all, _that_ he shut up John in prison” (_Luke_ iv, 20). + + 113.1-2: #þāra ... beboden#. This does not mean that Cædmon was + a herdsman, but that he served in turn as did the other secular + attendants at the monastery. + + 113.13-14: #þāra ęndebyrdnes þis is#. Bede writes _Hic est + sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum_, and gives in Latin prose + a translation of the hymn from the Northumbrian dialect, in + which Cædmon wrote. The O.E. version given above is, of course, + not the Northumbrian original (which, however, with some + variations is preserved in several of the Latin MSS. of Bede’s + _History_), but a West Saxon version made also from the + Northumbrian, not from the Latin.] + + 15 Nū sculon hęrigean[6] heofonrīces Weard, + 16 Metodes meahte ǫnd his mōdgeþanc, + 17 weorc Wuldorfæder, swā hē wundra gehwæs, + 18 ēce Drihten ōr onstealde. + +[[page 114]] + + 1 Hē ǣrest scēop eorðan bearnum + 2 heofon tō hrōfe, hālig Scyppend; + 3 þā middangeard mǫnncynnes Weard, + 4 ēce Drihten, æfter tēode + 5 fīrum foldan, Frēa ælmihtig. + + [6] = hęrian. + + [Linenotes: + + 113.15: #Nū sculon hęrigean#, _Now ought we to praise_. The + subject #wē# is omitted in the best MSS. Note the characteristic + use of synonyms, or epithets, in this bit of O.E. poetry. + Observe that it is not the _thought_ that is repeated, but + rather the _idea_, the _concept_, God. See p. 124. + [[Poetry: Structure]] + + 113.17: #wundra gehwæs#. See p. 140, note on #cēnra gehwylcum# + [[_Beowulf_ 769]].] + + 6 Þā ārās hē frǫm þǣm slǣpe, ǫnd eal þā þe hē slǣpende + 7 sǫng fæste in gemynde hæfde; ǫnd þǣm wordum sōna + 8 mǫnig word in þæt ilce gemet Gode wyrðes sǫnges + 9 tōgeþēodde. Þā cōm hē on morgenne tō þǣm tūngerēfan, + 10 sē þe his ealdormǫn wæs: sægde him hwylce gife hē + 11 onfēng; ǫnd hē hine sōna tō þǣre abbudissan gelǣdde, + 12 ǫnd hire þæt cȳðde ǫnd sægde. Þā heht hēo gesǫmnian + 13 ealle þā gelǣredestan męn ǫnd þā leorneras, ǫnd him + 14 ǫndweardum hēt sęcgan þæt swefn, ǫnd þæt lēoð singan, + 15 þæt ealra heora[7] dōme gecoren wǣre, hwæt oððe hwǫnan + 16 þæt cumen wǣre. Þā wæs him eallum gesewen, swā swā + 17 hit wæs, þæt him wǣre frǫm Drihtne sylfum heofonlīc + +[[page 115]] + + 1 gifu forgifen. Þā ręhton hęo[4] him ǫnd sægdon sum hālig + 2 spell ǫnd godcundre lāre word: bebudon him þā, gif hē + 3 meahte, þæt hē in swīnsunge lēoþsǫnges þæt gehwyrfde. + 4 Þā hē ðā hæfde þā wīsan onfǫngne, þā ēode hē hām tō + 5 his hūse, ǫnd cwōm eft on morgenne, ǫnd þȳ bętstan + 6 lēoðe geglęnged him āsǫng ǫnd āgeaf þæt him beboden + 7 wæs. + + [4] = hīe. + [7] = hiera. + + [Linenotes: + + 114.7-9: #ǫnd þǣm wordum ... tōgeþēodde#, _and to those words he + soon joined, in the same meter, many (other) words of song + worthy of God_. But the translator has not only blundered over + Bede’s Latin (_eis mox plura in eundem modum verba Deo digna + carminis adjunxit_), but sacrificed still more the idiom of + O.E. The predicate should not come at the end; #in# should be + followed by the dative; and for #Gode wyrðes sǫnges# the better + O.E. would be #sǫnges Godes wyrðes#. When used with the dative + #wyrð# (#weorð#) usually means _dear_ (= _of worth_) _to_. + + 114.16: #þā ... gesewen#. We should expect #frǫm him eallum#; + but the translator has again closely followed the Latin + (_visumque est omnibus_), as later (in the _Conversion of + Edwin_) he renders _Talis mihi videtur_ by #þyslīc mē is + gesewen#. _Talis_ (#þyslīc#) agreeing with a following _vita_ + (#līf#). Ælfric, however, with no Latin before him, writes that + John #wearð ðā him# [= #frǫm Drihtene#] #inweardlīce gelufod#. + It would seem that in proportion as a past participle has the + force of an adjective, the _to_ relation may supplant the _by_ + relation; just as we say _unknown to_ instead of _unknown by_, + _unknown_ being more adjectival than participial. #Gesewen#, + therefore, may here be translated _visible_, _evident_, _patent_ + (= #gesynelīc#, #sweotol#); and #gelufod#, _dear_ (= #weorð#, + #lēof#). + + A survival of adjectival #gesewen# is found in Wycliffe’s _New + Testament_ (1 _Cor._ xv, 5-8): “He was _seyn to_ Cephas, and + aftir these thingis _to_ enleuene; aftirward he was _seyn to_ mo + than fyue hundrid britheren togidere ... aftirward he was _seyn + to_ James, and aftirward _to_ alle the apostlis. And last of + alle he was _seyn to_ me, as _to_ a deed borun child.” The + construction is frequent in Chaucer.] + + 8 Ðā ongan sēo abbudisse clyppan ǫnd lufigean[8] þā Godes + 9 gife in þǣm męn, ǫnd hēo hine þā mǫnade ǫnd lǣrde + 10 þæt hē woruldhād forlēte ǫnd munuchād onfēnge: ǫnd + 11 hē þæt wel þafode. Ǫnd hēo hine in þæt mynster onfēng + 12 mid his gōdum, ǫnd hine geþēodde tō gesǫmnunge þāra + 13 Godes þēowa, ǫnd heht hine lǣran þæt getæl þæs hālgan + 14 stǣres ǫnd spelles. Ǫnd hē eal þā hē in gehȳrnesse + 15 geleornian meahte, mid hine gemyndgade, ǫnd swā swā + 16 clǣne nēten[9] eodorcende in þæt swēteste lēoð gehwyrfde. + 17 Ǫnd his sǫng ǫnd his lēoð wǣron swā wynsumu tō gehȳranne, + 18 þætte þā seolfan[10] his lārēowas æt his mūðe writon + 19 ǫnd leornodon. Sǫng hē ǣrest be middangeardes gesceape, + 20 ǫnd bī fruman mǫncynnes, ǫnd eal þæt stǣr Genesis (þæt + 21 is sēo ǣreste Moyses bōc); ǫnd eft bī ūtgǫnge Israhēla + 22 folces of Ǣgypta lǫnde, ǫnd bī ingǫnge þæs gehātlandes; + 23 ǫnd bī ōðrum mǫnegum spellum þæs hālgan gewrites + +[[page 116]] + + 1 canōnes bōca; ǫnd bī Crīstes męnniscnesse, ǫnd bī his + 2 þrōwunge, ǫnd bī his ūpāstīgnesse in heofonas; ǫnd bī + 3 þæs Hālgan Gāstes cyme, ǫnd þāra apostola lāre; ǫnd eft + 4 bī þǣm dæge þæs tōweardan dōmes, ǫnd bī fyrhtu þæs + 5 tintreglīcan wītes, ǫnd bī swētnesse þæs heofonlīcan rīces, + 6 hē monig lēoð geworhte; ǫnd swelce[2] ēac ōðer mǫnig be + 7 þǣm godcundan fręmsumnessum ǫnd dōmum hē geworhte. + 8 In eallum þǣm hē geornlīce gēmde[11] þæt hē męn ātuge + 9 frǫm synna lufan ǫnd māndǣda, ǫnd tō lufan ǫnd tō + 10 geornfulnesse āwęhte gōdra dǣda, for þon hē wæs, sē + 11 mǫn, swīþe ǣfęst ǫnd regollīcum þēodscipum ēaðmōdlīce + 12 underþēoded; ǫnd wið þǣm þā ðe in ōðre wīsan dōn woldon, + 13 hē wæs mid welme[12] micelre ęllenwōdnisse onbærned. + 14 Ǫnd hē for ðon fægre ęnde his līf betȳnde ǫnd geęndade. + + [2] = swilce. + [8] = lufian. + [9] = nīeten. + [10] = selfan. + [11] = gīemde. + [12] = wielme. + + [Linenotes: + + 115.9-10: #ǫnd hēo hine þā mǫnade ... munuchād onfēnge#. Hild’s + advice has in it the suggestion of a personal experience, for + she herself had lived half of her life (thirty-three years) + “before,” says Bede, “she dedicated the remaining half to our + Lord in a monastic life.” + + 116.6: #hē mǫnig lēoð geworhte#. The opinion is now gaining + ground that of these “many poems” only the short hymn, already + given, has come down to us. Of other poems claimed for Cædmon, + the strongest arguments are advanced in favor of a part of the + fragmentary poetical paraphrase of _Genesis_.] + + +V. ALFRED’S PREFACE TO THE PASTORAL CARE. + + [Based on the Hatton MS. Of the year 597, the _Chronicle_ says: + “In this year, Gregory the Pope sent into Britain Augustine with + very many monks, who gospelled [preached] God’s word to the + English folk.” Gregory I, surnamed “The Great,” has ever since + been considered the apostle of English Christianity, and his + _Pastoral Care_, which contains instruction in conduct and + doctrine for all bishops, was a work that Alfred could not afford + to leave untranslated. For this translation Alfred wrote a + _Preface_, the historical value of which it would be hard to + overrate. In it he describes vividly the intellectual ruin that + the Danes had wrought, and develops at the same time his plan for + repairing that ruin. + + This _Preface_ and the _Battle of Ashdown_ (p. 99) show the great + king in his twofold character of warrior and statesman, and + justify the inscription on the base of the statue erected to him + in 1877, at Wantage (Berkshire), his birth-place: “Ælfred found + Learning dead, and he restored it; Education neglected, and he + revived it; the laws powerless, and he gave them force; the Church + debased, and he raised it; the Land ravaged by a fearful Enemy, + from which he delivered it. Ælfred’s name will live as long as + mankind shall respect the Past.”] + +[[page 117]] + + 1 Ælfred kyning hāteð grētan Wærferð biscep[1] his wordum + 2 luflīce ǫnd frēondlīce; ǫnd ðē cȳðan hāte ðæt mē cōm + 3 swīðe oft on gemynd, hwelce[2] witan īu[3] wǣron giond[4] + 4 Angelcynn, ǣgðer ge godcundra hāda ge woruldcundra; + 5 ǫnd hū gesǣliglīca tīda ðā wǣron giond Angelcynn; ǫnd + 6 hū ðā kyningas ðe ðone onwald hæfdon ðæs folces on + 7 ðām dagum Gode ǫnd his ǣrendwrecum hērsumedon[5]; + 8 ǫnd hū hīe ǣgðer ge hiora sibbe ge hiora siodo[6] ge hiora + 9 onweald innanbordes gehīoldon,[4] ǫnd ēac ūt hiora ēðel + 10 gerȳmdon; ǫnd hū him ðā spēow ǣgðer ge mid wīge ge + 11 mid wīsdōme; ǫnd ēac ða godcundan hādas hū giorne + 12 hīe wǣron ǣgðer ge ymb lāre ge ymb liornunga, ge ymb + 13 ealle ðā ðīowotdōmas ðe hīe Gode dōn scoldon; ǫnd hū + 14 man ūtanbordes wīsdōm ǫnd lāre hieder on lǫnd sōhte, + 15 ǫnd hū wē hīe nū sceoldon ūte begietan, gif wē hīe habban + 16 sceoldon. Swǣ[7] clǣne hīo wæs oðfeallenu on Angelcynne + 17 ðæt swīðe fēawa wǣron behionan Humbre ðe hiora ðēninga + 18 cūðen understǫndan on Ęnglisc oððe furðum ān ǣrendgewrit + 19 of Lǣdene on Ęnglisc āręccean; ǫnd ic wēne ðætte + 20 nōht mǫnige begiondan Humbre nǣren. Swǣ[7] fēawa + 21 hiora wǣron ðæt ic furðum ānne ānlēpne[8] ne mæg geðencean + +[[page 118]] + + 1 be sūðan Tęmese, ðā ðā ic tō rīce fēng. Gode ælmihtegum + 2 sīe ðǫnc ðætte wē nū ǣnigne onstāl habbað + 3 lārēowa. Ǫnd for ðon ic ðē bebīode ðæt ðū dō swǣ[7] ic + 4 gelīefe ðæt ðū wille, ðæt ðū ðē ðissa woruldðinga tō ðǣm + 5 geǣmetige, swǣ ðū oftost mæge, ðæt ðū ðone wīsdōm ðe + 6 ðē God sealde ðǣr ðǣr ðū hiene befæstan mæge, befæste. + 7 Geðęnc hwelc[9] wītu ūs ðā becōmon for ðisse worulde, ðā + 8 ðā wē hit nōhwæðer nē selfe ne lufodon, nē ēac ōðrum + 9 mǫnnum ne lēfdon[10]: ðone naman ānne wē lufodon ðætte + 10 wē Crīstne wǣren, ǫnd swīðe fēawe ðā ðēawas. + + [1] = bisceop. + [2] = hwilce. + [3] = gīu. + [4] = For all words with _io_ (_īo_), consult Glossary under + _eo_ (_ēo_). + [5] = hīersumedon. + [6] = sidu (siodu). + [7] = swā. + [8] = ānlīpigne. + [9] = hwilc. + [10] = līefdon. + + [Linenotes: + + 117.1-2: #Ælfred kyning hāteð ... hāte#. Note the change from + the formal and official third person (#hāteð#) to the more + familiar first person (#hāte#). So Ælfric, in his _Preface to + Genesis_, writes #Ælfric munuc grēt Æðelwærd ealdormann + ēadmōdlīce. Þū bǣde mē, lēof, þæt ic#, etc.: _Ælfric, monk, + greets Æthelweard, alderman, humbly. Thou, beloved, didst bid me + that I_, etc. + + 118.5: Notice that #mæge# (l. 5) and #mæge# (l. 6) are not in + the subjunctive because the sense requires it, but because they + have been attracted by #gǣmetige# and #befæste#. #Sīen# (p. 119, + l. 15) and #hæbben# (p. 119, l. 20) illustrate the same + construction. + + 118.9-10: _We liked only the reputation of being Christians, + very few_ (_of us_) _the Christian virtues_.] + + 11 Ðā ic ðā ðis eall gemunde, ðā gemunde ic ēac hū ic + 12 geseah, ǣr ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod wǣre ǫnd forbærned, + 13 hū ðā ciricean giond eall Angelcynn stōdon + 14 māðma ǫnd bōca gefylda, ǫnd ēac micel męnigeo[11] Godes + 15 ðīowa; ǫnd ðā swīðe lȳtle fiorme ðāra bōca wiston, for + 16 ðǣm ðe hīe hiora nānwuht[12] ongietan ne meahton, for + 17 ðǣm ðe hīe nǣron on hiora āgen geðīode awritene. + 18 Swelce[13] hīe cwǣden: “Ure ieldran, ðā ðe ðās stōwa ǣr + 19 hīoldon, hīe lufodon wīsdōm, ǫnd ðurh ðone hīe begēaton + 20 welan, ǫnd ūs lǣfdon. Hēr mǫn mæg gīet gesīon hiora + 21 swæð, ac wē him ne cunnon æfter spyrigean,[14] ǫnd for + 22 ðǣm wē habbað nū ǣgðer forlǣten ge ðone welan ge ðone + 23 wīsdōm, for ðǣm ðe wē noldon tō ðǣm spore mid ūre + 24 mōde onlūtan.” + + [11] = męnigu. + [12] = nānwiht. + [13] = swilce. + [14] = spyrian. + + 25 Ðā ic ðā ðis eall gemunde, ðā wundrade ic swīðe swīðe + 26 ðāra gōdena wiotona[15] ðe gīu wǣron giond Angelcynn, ǫnd + 27 ðā bēc ealla be fullan geliornod hæfdon, ðæt hīe hiora ðā + +[[page 119]] + + 1 nǣnne dǣl noldon on hiora āgen geðīode węndan. Ac + 2 ic ðā sōna eft mē selfum andwyrde, ǫnd cwæð: “Hīe ne + 3 wēndon þætte ǣfre męnn sceolden swǣ[7] reccelēase weorðan, + 4 ǫnd sīo lār swǣ oðfeallan; for ðǣre wilnunga hīe + 5 hit forlēton, ǫnd woldon ðæt hēr ðȳ māra wīsdōm on + 6 lǫnde wǣre ðȳ wē mā geðēoda cūðon.” + + [7] = swā. + [15] = witena. + + 7 Ðā gemunde ic hū sīo ǣ wæs ǣrest on Ebrēisc geðīode + 8 funden, ǫnd eft, ðā hīe Crēacas geliornodon, ðā węndon + 9 hīe hīe on hiora āgen geðīode ealle, ǫnd ēac ealle ōðre + 10 bēc. Ǫnd eft Lǣdenware swǣ same, siððan hīe hīe geliornodon, + 11 hīe hīe węndon ealla ðurh wīse wealhstōdas + 12 on hiora āgen geðīode. Ǫnd ēac ealla ōðra Crīstena + 13 ðīoda sumne dǣl hiora on hiora āgen geðīode węndon. + 14 For ðȳ mē ðyncð bętre, gif īow swǣ ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac + 15 suma bēc, ðā ðe nīedbeðearfosta sīen eallum mǫnnum + 16 tō wiotonne,[16] ðæt wē ðā on ðæt geðīode węnden ðe wē + 17 ealle gecnāwan mægen, ǫnd gedōn swǣ wē swīðe ēaðe + 18 magon mid Godes fultume, gif wē ðā stilnesse habbað, + 19 ðætte eall sīo gioguð ðe nū is on Angelcynne friora + 20 mǫnna, ðāra ðe ðā spēda hæbben ðæt hīe ðǣm befēolan + 21 mægen, sīen tō liornunga oðfæste, ðā hwīle ðe hīe tō + +[[page 120]] + + 1 nānre ōðerre note ne mægen, oð ðone first ðe hīe wel + 2 cunnen Ęnglisc gewrit ārǣdan: lǣre mǫn siððan furður + 3 on Lǣdengeðīode ðā ðe mǫn furðor lǣran wille, ǫnd tō + 4 hīerran hāde dōn wille. Ðā ic ðā gemunde hū sīo lār + 5 Lǣdengeðīodes ǣr ðissum āfeallen wæs giond Angelcynn, + 6 ǫnd ðeah mǫnige cūðon Ęnglisc gewrit ārǣdan, ðā + 7 ongan ic ongemang oðrum mislīcum ǫnd manigfealdum + 8 bisgum ðisses kynerīces ðā bōc węndan on Ęnglisc ðe is + 9 genęmned on Lǣden “Pastoralis,” ǫnd on Ęnglisc “Hierdebōc,” + 10 hwīlum word be worde, hwīlum andgit of andgiete, + 11 swǣ swǣ ic hīe geliornode æt Plegmunde mīnum + 12 ærcebiscepe, ǫnd æt Assere mīnum biscepe, ǫnd æt Grimbolde + 13 mīnum mæsseprīoste, ǫnd æt Iōhanne mīnum mæsseprēoste. + 14 Siððan ic hīe ðā geliornod hæfde, swǣ swǣ + 15 ic hīe forstōd, ǫnd swǣ ic hīe andgitfullīcost āręccean + 16 meahte, ic hīe on Ęnglisc āwęnde; ǫnd tō ǣlcum biscepstōle + 17 on mīnum rīce wille āne onsęndan; ǫnd on ǣlcre + 18 bið ān æstel, sē bið on fīftegum mancessa. Ǫnd ic bebīode + 19 on Godes naman ðæt nān mǫn ðone æstel frǫm + 20 ðǣre bēc ne dō, nē ðā bōc frǫm ðǣm mynstre; uncūð hū + 21 lǫnge ðǣr swǣ gelǣrede biscepas sīen, swǣ swǣ nū, Gode + 22 ðonc, wel hwǣr siendon. For ðȳ ic wolde ðætte hīe ealneg + +[[page 121]] + + 1 æt ðǣre stōwe wǣren, būton sē biscep hīe mid him + 2 habban wille, oððe hīo hwǣr tō lǣne sīe, oððe hwā ōðre + 3 bī wrīte. + + [16] = witanne. + + [Linenotes: + + 119.14: Alfred is here addressing the bishops collectively, and + hence uses the plural #īow# (= #ēow#), not #þē#. + + 119.16: #ðæt wē ðā#. These three words are not necessary to the + sense. They constitute the figure known as epanalepsis, in which + “the same word or phrase is repeated after one or more + intervening words.” #Þā# is the pronominal substitute for #suma + bēc#. + + 119.17: #Gedōn# is the first person plural subjunctive (from + infinitive #gedōn#). It and #węnden# are in the same + construction. Two things seem “better” to Alfred: (1) _that we + translate_, etc., (2) _that we cause_, etc. + + 119.19-21: #sīo gioguð ... is ... hīe ... sīen#. Notice how the + collective noun, #gioguð#, singular at first both in form and + function, gradually loses its oneness before the close of the + sentence is reached, and becomes plural. The construction is + entirely legitimate in Mn.E. Spanish is the only modern language + known to me that condemns such an idiom: “Spanish ideas of + congruity do not permit a collective noun, though denoting a + plurality, to be accompanied by a plural verb or adjective in + the same clause” (Ramsey, _Text-Book of Modern Spanish_, + § 1452). + + 120.2: #lǣre mǫn#. See § 105, 1. + + 120.11-13: That none of these advisers of the king, except + Plegmond, a Mercian, were natives, bears out what Alfred says + about the scarcity of learned men in England when he began to + reign. Asser, to whose Latin _Life of Alfred_, in spite of its + mutilations, we owe almost all of our knowledge of the king, + came from St. David’s (in Wales), and was made Bishop of + Sherborne. + + 121.1: Translate #ǣt ðǣre stōwe# by _each in its place_. The + change from plural #hīe# (in #hīe ... wǣren#) to singular #hīe# + (in the clauses that follow) will thus be prepared for. + + 121.2-3: #oððe hwā ōðre bī wrīte#, _or unless some one wish to + copy a new one_ (_write thereby another_).] + + + + +POETRY. + +INTRODUCTORY. + +[Transcriber’s Note: + +In Section II., Structure, the stress markers ´ and ` are intended to +display above the macron – or breve ˘: + + –́ × –̀ + +Some computers will instead show them after (to the right of) the +macron. “Resolved stress” (two short syllables acting as one long) is +shown with a double breve below the syllables: + + ˘́͜× + +If your computer does not have this character, it will probably +display a box or question mark between the two syllables.] + + +I. HISTORY. + +(a) #Old English Poetry as a Whole.# + +Northumbria was the home of Old English poetry. Beginning with Cædmon +and his school A.D. 670, Northumbria maintained her poetical supremacy +till A.D. 800, seven years before which date the ravages of the Danes +had begun. When Alfred ascended the throne of Wessex (871), the Danes +had destroyed the seats of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria. +As Whitby had been “the cradle of English poetry,” Winchester (Alfred’s +capital) became now the cradle of English prose; and the older poems +that had survived the fire and sword of the Vikings were translated from +the original Northumbrian dialect into the West Saxon dialect. It is, +therefore, in the West Saxon dialect that these poems[1] have come down +to us. + +Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines; but +it includes epic, lyric, didactic, elegiac, and allegorical poems, +together with war-ballads, paraphrases, riddles, and charms. Of the five +elegiac poems (_Wanderer_, _Seafarer_, _Ruin_, _Wife’s Complaint_, and +_Husband’s Message_), the _Wanderer_ is the most artistic, and best +portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so +characteristic of the Old English lyric. + +Old English literature has no love poems. The central themes of its +poets are battle and bereavement, with a certain grim resignation on the +part of the hero to the issues of either. The movement of the thought is +usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of transitional +particles, or connectives, “which,” says Ten Brink, “are the cement of +sentence-structure.” + + +(b) #Beowulf.# + +The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, _Beowulf_.[2] It +consists of more than three thousand lines, and probably assumed +approximately its present form in Northumbria about A.D. 700. It is a +crystallization of continental myths; and, though nothing is said of +England, the story is an invaluable index to the social, political, and +ethical ideals of our Germanic ancestors before and after they settled +along the English coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony is +historically most valuable, in the character-portraits that it contains. +The fatalism that runs through it, instead of making the characters weak +and less human, serves at times rather to dignify and elevate them. +“Fate,” says Beowulf (l. 572), recounting his battle with the +sea-monsters, “often saves an undoomed man _if his courage hold out_.” + +“The ethical essence of this poetry,” says Ten Brink, “lies principally +in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the stoical +encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the readiness to +help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince toward his +thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they reward him.” + + NOTE 1.--Many different interpretations have been put upon the + story of _Beowulf_ (for argument of story, see texts). Thus + Müllenhoff sees in Grendel the giant-god of the storm-tossed + equinoctial sea, while Beowulf is the Scandinavian god Freyr, who + in the spring drives back the sea and restores the land. Laistner + finds the prototype of Grendel in the noxious exhalations that + rise from the Frisian coast-marshes during the summer months; + Beowulf is the wind-hero, the autumnal storm-god, who dissipates + the effluvia. + + [Footnote 1: This does not, of course, include the few short + poems in the _Chronicle_, or that portion of _Genesis_ + (_Genesis B_) supposed to have been put directly into West Saxon + from an Old Saxon original. There still remain in Northumbrian + the version of _Cædmon’s Hymn_, fragments of the _Ruthwell + Cross_, _Bede’s Death-Song_, and the _Leiden Riddle_.] + + [Footnote 2: The word _bēowulf_, says Grimm, meant originally + _bee-wolf_, or _bee-enemy_, one of the names of the woodpecker. + Sweet thinks the bear was meant. But the word is almost + certainly a compound of _Bēow_ (cf. O.E. #bēow# = grain), + a Danish demigod, and _wulf_ used as a mere suffix.] + + +II. STRUCTURE. + +(a) #Style.# + +In the structure of Old English poetry the most characteristic feature +is the constant repetition of the idea (sometimes of the thought) with a +corresponding variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for example, the +Queen passes into the banquet hall in _Beowulf_, she is designated at +first by her name, #Wealhþēow#; she is then described in turn as #cwēn +Hrōðgāres# (_Hrothgar’s queen_), #gold-hroden# (_the gold-adorned_), +#frēolīc wīf# (_the noble woman_), #ides Helminga# (_the Helmings’ +lady_), #bēag-hroden cwēn# (_the ring-adorned queen_), #mōde geþungen# +(_the high-spirited_), and #gold-hroden frēolīcu folc-cwēn# (_the +gold-adorned, noble folk-queen_). + +And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet’s verse, not content +with simple (uncompounded) words (such as #sǣ#, #lagu#, #holm#, +#strēam#, #męre#, etc.), he will use numerous other equivalents (phrases +or compounds), such as #waþema gebind# (_the commingling of waves_), +#lagu-flōd# (_the sea-flood_), #lagu-strǣt# (_the sea-street_), +#swan-rād# (_the swan-road_), etc. These compounds are usually nouns, or +adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive than +attributive. + +It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of compounds, or +periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in +varying language. It is to be observed, also, that the Old English poets +rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or +clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition of idea, rather than a +parallelism of structure. + + NOTE 1.--It is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous + expressions had already become stereotyped, and were used, like + many of the epithets in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, purely as + padding. When, for example, the poet tells us that at the most + critical moment Beowulf’s sword failed him, adding in the same + breath, #īren ǣr-gōd# (_matchless blade_), we conclude that the + bard is either nodding or parroting. + + +(b) #Meter.# + +[Re-read § 10, (3).] + +_Primary Stress._ + +Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered +combinations of accented and unaccented syllables. The accented syllable +(the arsis) is usually long, and will be indicated by the macron with +the acute accent over it (–́); when short, by the breve with the same +accent (˘́). The unaccented syllable or syllables (the thesis) may be +long or short, and will be indicated by the oblique cross (×). + +_Secondary Stress._ + +A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member of +compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be +indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress +falls on a long syllable (–̀); by the breve with the same accent, if the +secondary stress falls on a short syllable (˘̀). + +Nouns: + + Hrōðgāres (–́–̀×), fēondgrāpum (–́–̀×), frēomǣgum (–́–̀×), Ēast-Dęna (–́˘̀×), + Helminga (–́–̀×), Scyldinga (–́–̀×), ānhaga (–́˘̀×), Ecgþēowes (–́–̀×), + sinc-fato (–́˘̀×). + +Adjectives:[1] + + ǣghwylcne (–́–̀×), þrīsthȳdig (–́–̀×), gold-hroden (–́˘̀×), drēorigne (–́–̀×), + gyldenne (–́–̀×), ōðerne (–́–̀×), gǣstlīcum (–́–̀×), wynsume (–́˘̀×), + ǣnigne (–́–̀×). + +Adverbs:[2] + + unsōfte (–́–̀×), heardlīce (–́–̀×), sęmninga (–́–̀×). + +The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending of +present participles (#-ende#), and upon the penultimate of weak verbs of +the second class (§ 130), provided the root-syllable is long.[3] + +Present participles: + + slǣpendne (–́–̀×), wīs-hycgende (–́–́–̀×), flēotendra (–́–̀×), + hrēosende (–́–̀×). + +Weak verbs: + + swynsode (–́˘̀×), þancode (–́˘̀×), wānigean (–́˘̀×), scēawian (–́˘̀×), + scēawige (–́˘̀×), hlīfian (–́˘̀×). + + [Footnote 1: It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly + derivatives in -ig, -en, -er, -līc, and -sum.] + + [Footnote 2: Most of the adverbs belonging here end in #-līce#, + #-unga#, and #-inga#, § 93, (1), (2): such words as #æt-gǽdere#, + #on-gḗan#, #on-wég#, #tō-gḗanes#, #tō-míddes#, etc., are + invariably accented as here indicated.] + + [Footnote 3: It will save the student some trouble to remember + that this means long by nature (#līcodon#), or long by position + (#swynsode#), or long by resolution of stress (#maðelode#),--see + next paragraph.] + + +_Resolved Stress._ + +A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented +syllable (usually short also) is equivalent to one long accented +syllable (˘́× = –́). This is known as a resolved stress, and will be +indicated thus, ˘́͜×; + + hæleða (˘́͜͜××), guman (˘́͜×), Gode (˘́͜×), sęle-ful (˘́͜××), ides (˘́͜×), + fyrena (˘́͜××), maðelode (˘́͜ע̀×), hogode (˘́͜××), mægen-ęllen (˘́͜×–̀×), + hige-þihtigne (˘́͜×–́–̀×), Metudes (˘́͜××), lagulāde (˘́͜×–̀×), + unlyfigendes (–́˘́͜×–̀×), biforan (ע́͜×), forþolian (ע́͜××), baðian (˘́͜××), + worolde (˘́͜–×). + +Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses: + + sinc-fato (–́˘̀͜×), dryht-sęle (–́˘̀͜×), ferðloca (–́˘̀͜×), forðwege (–́˘̀͜×). + + +_The Normal Line._ + +Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two in +the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines +are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative +letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second +half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of +the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second +half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating +syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two +in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one +alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the +second. The following lines are given in the order of their frequency: + + (1) þǣr wæs _h_ǽleða _h_léahtor; _h_lýn swýnsode. + (2) _m_ṓde geþúngen, _m_édo-ful ætbǽr. + (3) sṓna þæt on_f_únde _f_ýrena hýrde. + +Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial +vowel or diphthong; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except +st, sp, and sc, each of which alliterates only with itself. + +Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may +begin with several unaccented syllables (these syllables being known in +types A, D, and E as the _anacrusis_), but that neither half-line can +end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at +once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be +found that the alliterative principle does not operate mechanically, but +that the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the words that +are really most important. Sound is made subservient to sense. + +When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to what +word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, and +then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the chief +burden of the poet’s thought. + + NOTE 1.--A few lines, rare or abnormal in their alliteration or + lack of alliteration, may here be noted. In the texts to be read, + there is one line with no alliteration: _Wanderer_ 58; three of + the type _a ··· b_ | _a ··· b_: _Beowulf_ 654, 830, 2746; one of + the type _a ··· a_ | _b ··· a_: _Beowulf_ 2744; one of the type _a + ··· a_ | _b ··· c_: _Beowulf_ 2718; and one of the type _a ··· b_ + | _c ··· a_: _Beowulf_ 2738. + + +_The Five Types._ + +By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old English +verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,[4] of the University of +Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or varieties, +employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpendicular line serving +to separate the so-called feet, or measures: + + 1. A –́ × | –́ × + + 2. B × –́ | × –́ + + 3. C × –́ | –́ × + + 4. D { D^1 –́ | –́ –̀ × + { D^2 –́ | –́ × –̀ + + 5. E { E^1 –́ –̀ × | –́ + { E^2 –́ × –̀ | –́ + +It will be seen (1) that each half-line contains two, and only two, +feet; (2) that each foot contains one, and only one, primary stress; +(3) that A is trochaic, B iambic; (4) that C is iambic-trochaic; +(5) that D and E consist of the same feet but in inverse order. + + [Footnote 4: Sievers’ two articles appeared in the _Beiträge zur + Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur_, Vols. X (1885) + and XII (1887). A brief summary, with slight modifications, is + found in the same author’s _Altgermanische Metrik_, pp. 120-144 + (1893). + + Before attempting to employ Sievers’ types, the student would do + well to read several pages of Old English poetry, taking care to + accentuate according to the principles already laid down. In + this way his ear will become accustomed to the rhythm of the + line, and he will see more clearly that Sievers’ work was one + primarily of systematization. Sievers himself says: “I had read + Old English poetry for years exactly as I now scan it, and long + before I had the slightest idea that what I did instinctively + could be formulated into a system of set rules.” + (_Altgermanische Metrik_, _Vorwort_, p. 10.)] + + +_The Five Types Illustrated._ + + [[Transcriber’s Note: In the printed book, all examples line up + vertically at the main |.]] + + [All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to + be read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second + half-line is cited. B = _Beowulf_; W = _Wanderer_.] + +1. TYPE A, –́ × | –́ × + +Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene between +the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If the thesis +in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, of course, +a secondary stress. + + (2) ful gesealde, B. 616, –́ × | –́ × + (1) wīdre gewindan, B. 764, –́ × × | –́ × + (1)[5] Gemunde þā sē gōda, B. 759 × | –́ × × × | –́ × + (1)[5] swylce hē on ealder-dagum, B. 758, × × × × | –́ × | ˘́ × + (1) ȳþde swā þisne eardgeard, W. 85, –́ × × × × | –́ –̀ + (1) wīs-fæst wordum, B. 627, –́ –̀ | –́ × + (1) gryre-lēoð galan, B. 787, ˘́͜× –̀ | ˘́ × + (2) sǫmod ætgædre, W. 39, ˘́͜× × | –́ × + (1) duguðe ǫnd geogoðe, B. 622, ˘́͜× × × | ˘́͜× × + (1) fǣger fold-bold, B. 774, –́ × | –́ –̀ + (1) atelīc ęgesa, B. 785, ˘́͜× –̀ | ˘́͜× × + (2) goldwine mīnne, W. 22, –́ ˘̀͜× | –́ × + (1) ęgesan þēon [> *þīhan: § 118], B. 2737, ˘́͜× × | –́ × + + NOTE.--Rare forms of A are –́ –̀ × | –́ × (does not occur in + texts), –́ –̀ × | –́ –̀ (occurs once, B. 781 (1)), and –́ × –̀ | + –́ × (once, B. 2743 (1)). + + [Footnote 5: The first perpendicular marks the limit of the + anacrusis.] + +2. TYPE B, × –́ | × –́ + +Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene between +the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is × × –́ | × –́. + + (1) ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf, B. 616, × × –́ | × –́ + (2) hē on lust geþeah, B. 619, × × –́ | × –́ + (2) þā se æðeling gīong, B. 2716, × × ˘́͜× | × –́ + (2) seah on ęnta geweorc, B. 2718, × × –́ | × × –́ + (1) ofer flōda genipu, B. 2809, × × –́ | × × ˘́͜× + (1) forþam mē wītan ne þearf, B. 2742, × × × –́ | × × –́ + (2) þaes þe hire se willa gelamp, B. 627, × × × × × –́ | × × –́ + (1) forþon ne mæg weorþan wīs, W. 64, × × × × –́ | × –́ + (1) Nǣfre ic ǣnegum [= ǣn’gum] męn, B. 656, × × × –́ | × –́ + + NOTE.--In the last half-line Sievers substitutes the older form + #ǣngum#, and supposes elision of the e in #Nǣfre# (= #Nǣfr-ic#: + ××–́ | ×–́). + +3. TYPE C, × –́ | –́ × + +The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and +derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is +frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in +B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than +one. + + (1) þæt hēo on ǣnigne, B. 628, × × × –́ | –́ × + (1) þæt ic ānunga, B. 635, × × –́ | –́ × + (2) ēode gold-hroden, B. 641, × × –́ | ˘́ × + (1) gemyne mǣrðo, B. 660, × ˘́͜× | –́ × + (1) on þisse meodu-healle, B. 639, × × × ˘́͜× | –́ × + (2) æt brimes nosan, B. 2804, × ˘́͜× | ˘́ × + (2) æt Wealhþéon [= -þēowan], B. 630, × –́ | –́ × + (1) geond lagulāde, W. 3, × ˘́͜× | –́ × + (1) Swā cwæð eardstapa, W. 6, × × –́ | ˘́ × + (2) ēalā byrnwiga, W. 94, × × –́ | ˘́ × + (2) nō þǣr fela bringeð, W. 54, × × ˘́͜× | –́ × + +4. TYPE D, { D^1 –́ | –́ –̀ × + { D^2 –́ | –́ × –̀ + +Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two primary +stresses (–́ × | –́ –̀ ×, –́ × | –́ × –̀). The secondary stress in D^1 +falls usually on the second syllable of a compound or derivative word, +and this syllable (as in C) is frequently short. + +(a) D^1 –́ | –́ –̀ × + + (1) cwēn Hrōðgāres, B. 614, –́ | –́ –̀ × + (2) dǣl ǣghwylcne, B. 622, –́ | –́ –̀ × + (1) Bēowulf maðelode, B. 632, –́ × | ˘́͜× ˘̀ × + (2) slāt unwearnum, B. 742, –́ | –́ –̀ × + (1) wrāþra wælsleahta, W. 7, –́ × | –́ –̀ × + (1) wōd wintercearig [= wint’rcearig], W. 24, –́ | –́ ˘̀ × + (1) sōhte sęle drēorig, W. 25, –́ × | ˘́͜× –̀ × + (1) ne sōhte searo-nīðas, B. 2739, × | –́ × | ˘́͜× –̀ × + + NOTE.--There is one instance in the texts (B. 613, (1)) of + apparent –́ × × | –́ ˘̀ ×: #word wǣron wynsume#. (The triple + alliteration has no significance. The sense, besides, precludes + our stressing #wǣron#.) The difficulty is avoided by bringing the + line under the A type: –́ × × | –́ ˘́͜×. + +(b) D^2 –́ | –́ × –̀ + + (2) Forð nēar ætstōp, B. 746, –́ | –́ × –̀ + (2) eorl furður stōp, B. 762, –́ | –́ × –̀ + (2) Dęnum eallum wearð, B. 768, ˘́͜× | –́ × –̀ + (1) grētte Gēata lēod, B. 626, –́ × | –́ × –̀ + (1) ǣnig yrfe-weard, B. 2732, –́ × | –́ × –̀ + (1) hrēosan hrīm and snāw, W. 48, –́ × | –́ × –̀ + (2) swimmað eft on weg, W. 53, –́ × | –́ × –̀ + +Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded. + + (2) þegn ungemete till, B. 2722, –́ | –́ × × × –̀ + (1) hrūsan heolster biwrāh, W. 23, –́ × | –́ × × –̀ + +5. TYPE E, {E^1 –́ –̀ × | –́ + {E^2 –́ × –̀ | –́ + +The secondary stress in E^1 falls frequently on a short syllable, as in +D^1. + +(a) E^1 –́ –̀ × | –́ + + (1) wyrmlīcum fāh, W. 98, –́ –̀ × | –́ + (2) medo-ful ætbær, B. 625, ˘́͜× ˘̀ × | –́ + (1) sǣ-bāt gesæt, B. 634, –́ –̀ × | –́ + (1) sige-folca swēg, B. 645, ˘́͜× –̀ × | –́ + (2) Norð-Dęnum stōd, B. 784, –́ ˘̀ × | –́ + (1) fēond-grāpum fæst, B. 637, –́ –̀ × | –́ + (2) wyn eal gedrēas, W. 36, –́ –̀ × | –́ + (2) feor oft gemǫn, W. 90, –́ –̀ × | –́ + +As in D^2, the thesis in the first foot is very rarely expanded. + + (1) wīn-ærnes geweald, B. 655, –́ –̀ × × | –́ + (1) Hafa nū ǫnd geheald, B. 659, ˘́͜× –̀ × × | –́ + (1) searo-þǫncum besmiðod, B. 776, ˘́͜× –̀ × × | ˘́͜× + + NOTE.--Our ignorance of Old English sentence-stress makes it + impossible for us to draw a hard-and-fast line in all cases + between D^2 and E^1. For example, in these half-lines (already + cited), + + wyn eal gedrēas + feor oft gemǫn + Forð nēar ætstōp + + if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their + verbs, the type is D^2. Lessen the stress on the adverbs and + increase it on the verbs, and we have E^1. The position of the + adverbs furnishes no clue; for the order of words in Old English + was governed not only by considerations of relative emphasis, but + by syntactic and euphonic considerations as well. + +(_b_) E^2 –́ × –̀ | –́ + +This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, there +being but one instance of this type (l. 2437 (2)), and that doubtful, in +the whole of _Beowulf_. + +_Abnormal Lines._ + +The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are +comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes, +(1) hypermetrical lines, and (2) defective lines. + +(1) HYPERMETRICAL LINES. + +Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving six +stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly in +groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether the +half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without +anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the _Wanderer_. +Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not hypermetrical. The +first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, a fusion of A and C, consisting +of (–́××ע́͜– | –́×). + +(2) DEFECTIVE LINES. + +The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second +half-line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be +scanned thus: + + rǣhte ongēan –́ × | × –́ + bealo-nīð wēoll ˘́͜× –̀ | –́ + +Sievers emends as follows: + + rǣhte tōgēanes –́ × × | –́ × = A + bealo-nīðe wēoll ˘́͜× –́ × | –́ = E^1 + +These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations found +on almost every page of Old English prose. That they occur so rarely in +poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence were needed, +in favor of the adequacy of Sievers’ five-fold classification. + + NOTE.--All the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty + to the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under + the different types. If these are mastered, the student will find + it an easy matter to scan the lines that remain. + + + + +SELECTIONS FOR READING. + + +VI. EXTRACTS FROM BEOWULF. + +THE BANQUET IN HEOROT. [Lines 612-662.] + + [The Heyne-Socin text has been closely followed. I have attempted + no original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin + edition in a few cases where the Grein-Wülker text seemed to give + the better reading. + + The argument preceding the first selection is as follows: + Hrothgar, king of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity, + builds a magnificent hall in which to feast his retainers; but a + monster, Grendel by name, issues from his fen-haunts, and night + after night carries off thane after thane from the banqueting + hall. For twelve years these ravages continue. At last Beowulf, + nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats (a people of South Sweden), + sails with fourteen chosen companions to Dane-land, and offers his + services to the aged Hrothgar. “Leave me alone in the hall + to-night,” says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf’s proffered aid, + and before the dread hour of visitation comes, the time is spent + in wassail. The banquet scene follows.] + + + Þǣr wæs hæleþa hleahtor, hlyn swynsode, + word wǣron wynsume. Ēode Wealhþēow forð, + cwēn Hrōðgāres, cynna gemyndig; + grētte gold-hroden guman on healle, [615] + ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf ful gesealde + ǣrest Ēast-Dęna ēþel-wearde, + bæd hine blīðne æt þǣre bēor-þęge, + lēodum lēofne; hē on lust geþeah + symbel ǫnd sęle-ful, sige-rōf kyning. [620] + Ymb-ēode þā ides Helminga + duguðe ǫnd geogoðe dǣl ǣghwylcne, + sinc-fato sealde, oð þæt sǣl ālamp + þæt hīo[1] Bēowulfe, bēag-hroden cwēn, + mōde geþungen, medo[2]-ful ætbær; [625] + grētte Gēata lēod, Gode þancode + wīs-fæst wordum, þæs þe hire se willa gelamp, + þæt hēo on ǣnigne eorl gelȳfde + fyrena frōfre. Hē þæt ful geþeah, + wæl-rēow wiga, æt Wealhþēon, [630] + ǫnd þā gyddode gūðe gefȳsed; + Bēowulf maðelode, bearn Ecgþēowes: + “Ic þæt hogode, þā ic on holm gestāh, + sǣ-bāt gesæt mid mīnra sęcga gedriht, + þæt ic ānunga ēowra lēoda [635] + willan geworhte, oððe on wæl crunge + fēond-grāpum fæst. Ic gefręmman sceal + eorlīc ęllen, oððe ęnde-dæg + on þisse meodu[2]-healle mīnne gebīdan.” + Þām wīfe þā word wel līcodon, [640] + gilp-cwide Gēates; ēode gold-hroden + frēolicu folc-cwēn tō hire frēan sittan. + Þā wæs eft swā ǣr inne on healle + þrȳð-word sprecen,[3] þēod on sǣlum, + sige-folca swēg, oþ þæt sęmninga [645] + sunu Healfdęnes sēcean wolde + ǣfen-ræste; wiste þǣm āhlǣcan[4] + tō þǣm hēah-sęle hilde geþinged, + siððan hīe sunnan lēoht gesēon _ne_ meahton + oððe nīpende niht ofer ealle, [650] + scadu-helma gesceapu scrīðan cwōman,[5] + wan under wolcnum. Werod eall ārās; + grētte þā _giddum_ guma ōðerne + Hrōðgār Bēowulf, ǫnd him hǣl ābēad, + wīn-ærnes geweald, ǫnd þæt word ācwæð: [655] + “Nǣfre ic ǣnegum[6] męn ǣr ālȳfde, + siððan ic hǫnd ǫnd rǫnd hębban mihte, + ðrȳþ-ærn Dęna būton þē nū þā. + Hafa nū ǫnd geheald hūsa sēlest, + gemyne mǣrþo,[7] mægen-ęllen cȳð, [660] + waca wið wrāðum. Ne bið þē wilna gād, + gif þū þæt ęllen-weorc aldre[8] gedīgest.” + + [1] = hēo. + [2] = medu-. + [3] = gesprecen. + [4] = āglǣcan. + [5] = cwōmon. + [6] = ǣnigum. + [7] = mǣrþe (acc. sing.). + [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.). + + [Linenotes: + + 623: #sinc-fato sealde#. Banning (_Die epischen Formeln im + Beowulf_) shows that the usual translation, _gave costly gifts_, + must be given up; or, at least, that the _costly gifts_ are + nothing more than _beakers of mead_. The expression is an epic + formula for _passing the cup_. + + 638-39: #ęnde-ðæg ... mīnne#. This unnatural separation of + noun and possessive is frequent in O.E. poetry, but almost + unknown in prose. + + 641-42: #ēode ... sittan#. The poet might have employed #tō + sittanne# (§ 108, (1)); but in poetry the infinitive is often + used for the gerund. Alfred himself uses the infinitive or the + gerund to express purpose after #gān#, #gǫngan#, #cuman#, and + #sęndan#. + + 647-51: #wiste ... cwōman#. A difficult passage, even with + Thorpe’s inserted #ne#; but there is no need of putting a period + after #geþinged#, or of translating #oððe# by _and_: _He + (Hrothgar) knew that battle was in store_ (#geþinged#) _for the + monster in the high hall, after_ [= _as soon as_] _they could no + longer see the sun’s light, or_ [= _that is_] _after night came + darkening over all, and shadowy figures stalking_. The subject + of #cwōman# [= #cwōmon#] is #niht# and #gesceapu#. + + The student will note that the infinitive (#scrīðan#) is here + employed as a present participle after a verb of motion + (#cwōman#). This construction with #cuman# is frequent in prose + and poetry. The infinitive expresses the kind of motion: #ic cōm + drīfan# = _I came driving_.] + + +THE FIGHT BETWEEN BEOWULF AND GRENDEL. [Lines 740-837.] + + [The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel + stealthily enters the hall. From his eyes gleams “a luster + unlovely, likest to fire.” The combat begins at once.] + + Ne þæt se āglǣca yldan þōhte, [740] + ac hē gefēng hraðe forman sīðe + slǣpendne rinc, slāt unwearnum, + bāt bān-locan, blōd ēdrum dranc, + syn-snǣdum swealh; sōna hæfde + unlyfigendes eal gefeormod [745] + fēt ǫnd folma. Forð nēar ætstōp, + nam þā mid handa hige-þihtigne + rinc on ræste; rǣhte ongēan + fēond mid folme; hē onfēng hraþe + inwit-þancum ǫnd wið earm gesæt. [750] + Sōna þæt onfunde fyrena hyrde, + þæt hē ne mētte middan-geardes, + eorðan scēatta, on ęlran męn + mund-gripe māran; hē on mōde wearð + forht, on ferhðe; nō þȳ ǣr fram meahte. [755] + Hyge wæs him hin-fūs, wolde on heolster flēon, + sēcan dēofla gedræg; ne wæs his drohtoð þǣr, + swylce hē on ealder[1]-dagum ǣr gemētte. + Gemunde þā se gōda mǣg Higelāces + ǣfen-sprǣce, ūp-lang āstōd [760] + ǫnd him fæste wiðfēng; fingras burston; + eoten wæs ūt-weard; eorl furþur stōp. + Mynte se mǣra, hwǣr hē meahte swā, + wīdre gewindan ǫnd on weg þanon + flēon on fęn-hopu; wiste his fingra geweald [765] + on grames grāpum. Þæt wæs gēocor sīð, + þæt se hearm-scaþa tō Heorute[2] ātēah. + Dryht-sęle dynede; Dęnum eallum wearð + ceaster-būendum, cēnra gehwylcum, + eorlum ealu-scerwen. Yrre wǣron bēgen [770] + rēþe rēn-weardas. Ręced hlynsode; + þā wæs wundor micel, þæt se wīn-sęle + wiðhæfde heaþo-dēorum, þæt hē on hrūsan ne fēol, + fǣger fold-bold; ac hē þæs fæste wæs + innan ǫnd ūtan īren-bęndum [775] + searo-þǫncum besmiðod. Þǣr fram sylle ābēag + medu-bęnc mǫnig, mīne gefrǣge, + golde geregnad, þǣr þā graman wunnon; + þæs ne wēndon ǣr witan Scyldinga, + þæt hit ā mid gemete manna ǣnig, [780] + betlīc ǫnd bān-fāg, tōbrecan meahte, + listum tōlūcan, nymþe līges fæðm + swulge on swaþule. Swēg ūp āstāg + nīwe geneahhe; Norð-Dęnum stōd + atelīc ęgesa, ānra gehwylcum, [785] + þāra þe of wealle wōp gehȳrdon, + gryre-lēoð galan Godes ǫndsacan, + sige-lēasne sang, sār wānigean + hęlle hæfton.[3] Hēold hine fæste, + sē þe manna wæs mægene stręngest [790] + on þǣm dæge þysses līfes. + Nolde eorla hlēo ǣnige þinga + þone cwealm-cuman cwicne forlǣtan, + nē his līf-dagas lēoda ǣnigum + nytte tealde. Þǣr genehost brǣgd [795] + eorl Bēowulfes ealde lāfe, + wolde frēa-drihtnes feorh ealgian, + mǣres þēodnes, ðǣr hīe meahton swā. + Hīe ðæt ne wiston, þā hīe gewin drugon, + heard-hicgende hilde-męcgas, [800] + ǫnd on healfa gehwone hēawan þōhton, + sāwle sēcan: þone syn-scaðan + ǣnig ofer eorðan īrenna cyst, + gūþ-billa nān, grētan nolde; + ac hē sige-wǣpnum forsworen hæfde, [805] + ęcga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldor[4]-gedāl + on ðǣm dæge þysses līfes + earmlīc wurðan[5] ǫnd se ęllor-gāst + on fēonda geweald feor sīðian. + Þā þæt onfunde, sē þe fela ǣror [810] + mōdes myrðe manna cynne + fyrene gefręmede (hē _wǣs_ fāg wið God), + þæt him se līc-hǫma lǣstan nolde, + ac hine se mōdega[6] mǣg Hygelāces + hæfde be hǫnda; wæs gehwæþer ōðrum [815] + lifigende lāð. Līc-sār gebād + atol ǣglǣca[7]; him on eaxle wearð + syn-dolh sweotol; seonowe onsprungon; + burston bān-locan. Bēowulfe wearð + gūð-hrēð gyfeðe. Scolde Gręndel þǫnan [820] + feorh-sēoc flēon under fęn-hleoðu,[8] + sēcean wyn-lēas wīc; wiste þē geornor, + þæt his aldres[9] wæs ęnde gegǫngen, + dōgera dæg-rīm. Dęnum eallum wearð + æfter þām wæl-rǣse willa gelumpen. [825] + Hæfde þā gefǣlsod, sē þe ǣr feorran cōm, + snotor ǫnd swȳð-ferhð, sęle Hrōðgāres, + genęred wið nīðe. Niht-weorce gefeh, + ęllen-mǣrþum; hæfde Ēast-Dęnum + Gēat-męcga lēod gilp gelǣsted; [830] + swylce oncȳððe ealle gebētte, + inwid-sorge, þe hīe ǣr drugon + ǫnd for þrēa-nȳdum þolian scoldon, + torn unlȳtel. Þæt wæs tācen sweotol, + syððan hilde-dēor hǫnd ālęgde, [835] + earm ǫnd eaxle (þǣr wæs eal geador + Gręndles grāpe) under gēapne hrōf. + + [1] = ealdor-. + [2] = Heorote. + [3] = hæftan. + [4] = ealdor-. + [5] = weorðan. + [6] = mōdiga. + [7] = āglǣca. + [8] = -hliðu. + [9] = ealdres. + + [Linenotes: + + 740: #þæt#, the direct object of #yldan#, refers to the + contest about to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was + wondering how it would result. + + 746: #ætstōp#. The subject of this verb and of #nam# is + Grendel; the subject of the three succeeding verbs (#rǣhte#, + #onfēng#, #gesæt#) is Beowulf. + + 751-52: The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of + stimulating interest by indirect methods of statement, by + suggesting more than they affirm. This device often appears in + their use of negatives (#ne#, l. 13; p. 140, l. 3; #nō#, p. 140, + l. 1 [[lines 752, 757, 755]]), and in the unexpected prominence + that they give to some minor detail usually suppressed because + understood; as where the narrator, wishing to describe the + terror produced by Grendel’s midnight visits to Heorot, says + (ll. 138-139), “Then was it easy to find one who elsewhere, more + commodiously, sought rest for himself.” It is hard to believe + that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view. + + 755: #nō ... meahte#, _none the sooner could he away_. The + omission of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries #magan, + mōtan, sculan#, and #willan# is very frequent. _Cf._ Beowulf’s + last utterance, p. 147, l. 17 [[line 2817]]. + + 768: The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit + of description by indication of effects. The two contestants are + withdrawn from our sight; but we hear the sound of the fray + crashing through the massive old hall, which trembles as in a + blast; we see the terror depicted on the faces of the Danes as + they listen to the strange sounds that issue from their former + banqueting hall; by these sounds we, too, measure the progress + and alternations of the combat. At last we hear only the + “terror-lay” of Grendel, “lay of the beaten,” and know that + Beowulf has made good his promise at the banquet (#gilp + gelǣsted#). + + 769: #cēnra gehwylcum#. The indefinite pronouns (§ 77) may be + used as adjectives, agreeing in case with their nouns; but they + frequently, as here, take a partitive genitive: #ānra + gehwylcum#, _to each one_ (= _to each of ones_); #ǣnige# + (instrumental) #þinga#, _for any thing_ (= _for any of things_); + #on healfa gehwone#, _into halves_ (= _into each of halves_); + #ealra dōgra gehwām#, _every day_ (= _on each of all days_); + #ūhtna gehwylce#, _every morning_ (= _on each of mornings_). + + 780: Notice that #hit#, the object of #tōbrecan#, stands for + #wīn-sęle#, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2 [[§ 55, 2]]. + #Manna# is genitive after #gemete#, not after #ǣnig#. + + 787-89: #gryre-lēoð ... hæfton# [= #hæftan#]. Note that verbs + of hearing and seeing, as in Mn.E., may be followed by the + infinitive. They heard _God’s adversary sing_ (#galan#) ... + _hell’s captive bewail_ (#wānigean#). Had the present participle + been used, the effect would have been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize + the agent (the subject of the infinitive) rather than the action + (the infinitive itself). + + 795-96: #þǣr ... lāfe#. Beowulf’s followers now seem to have + seized their swords and come to his aid, not knowing that + Grendel, having forsworn war-weapons himself, is proof against + the best of swords. _Then many an earl of Beowulf’s_ (= _an earl + of B. very often_) _brandished his sword._ That no definite earl + is meant is shown by the succeeding #hīe meahton# instead of #hē + meahte#. See p. 110, Note. [[Linenote 110.5-6] + + 799: _They did not know this_ (#ðæt#), _while they were + fighting_; but the first #Hīe# refers to the warriors who + proffered help; the second #hīe#, to the combatants, Beowulf and + Grendel. In apposition with #ðǣt#, stands the whole clause, + #þone synscaðan# (object of #grētan#) #... nolde#. The second, + or conjunctional, #ðæt# is here omitted before #þone#. See + p. 112, note on ll. 18-19. + + 837: #grāpe# = genitive singular, feminine, after #eal#.] + + +BEOWULF FATALLY WOUNDED. [Lines 2712-2752.] + + [Hrothgar, in his gratitude for the great victory, lavishes gifts + upon Beowulf; but Grendel’s mother must be reckoned with. Beowulf + finds her at the sea-bottom, and after a desperate struggle slays + her. Hrothgar again pours treasures into Beowulf’s lap. Beowulf, + having now accomplished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a + reign of fifty years, he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon + that is ravaging his kingdom. In the struggle Beowulf is fatally + wounded. Wiglaf, a loyal thane, is with him.] + + Þā sīo[1] wund ongǫn, + þe him se eorð-draca ǣr geworhte, + swēlan ǫnd swellan. Hē þǣt sōna onfand, + þǣt him on brēostum bealo-nīð wēoll [2715] + āttor on innan. Þā se æðeling gīong,[2] + þæt hē bī wealle, wīs-hycgende, + gesæt on sesse; seah on ęnta geweorc, + hū þā stān-bogan stapulum fæste + ēce eorð-ręced innan healde. [2720] + Hyne þā mid handa heoro-drēorigne, + þēoden mǣrne, þegn ungemete till, + wine-dryhten his wætere gelafede, + hilde-sædne, ǫnd his helm onspēon. + Bīowulf[3] maðelode; hē ofer bęnne spræc, [2725] + wunde wæl-blēate; wisse hē gearwe, + þæt hē dæg-hwīla gedrogen hæfde + eorðan wynne; þā wæs eall sceacen + dōgor-gerīmes, dēað ungemete nēah: + “Nū ic suna mīnum syllan wolde [2730] + gūð-gewǣdu, þǣr mē gifeðe swā + ǣnig yrfe-weard æfter wurde + līce gelęnge. Ic ðās lēode hēold + fīftig wintra; næs se folc-cyning + ymbe-sittendra ænig þāra, [2735] + þe mec gūð-winum grētan dorste, + ęgesan ðēon. Ic on earde bād + mǣl-gesceafta, hēold mīn tela, + nē sōhte searo-nīðas, nē mē swōr fela + āða on unriht. Ic ðæs ealles mæg, [2740] + feorh-bęnnum sēoc, gefēan habban; + for-þām mē wītan ne ðearf Waldend[4] fīra + morðor-bealo[5] māga, þonne mīn sceaceð + līf of līce. Nū ðū lungre geong[6] + hord scēawian under hārne stān, [2745] + Wīglāf lēofa, nū se wyrm ligeð, + swefeð sāre wund, since berēafod. + Bīo[7] nū on ofoste, þæt ic ǣr-welan, + gold-ǣht ongite, gearo scēawige + swegle searo-gimmas, þæt ic ðȳ sēft mæge [2750] + æfter māððum-welan mīn ālǣtan + līf ǫnd lēod-scipe, þone ic lǫnge hēold.” + + [Linenotes: + + 2716: #se æðeling# is Beowulf. + + 2718: #ęnta geweorc# is a stereotyped phrase for anything that + occasions wonder by its size or strangeness. + + 2720: #healde#. Heyne, following Ettmüller, reads #hēoldon#, + thus arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the + original. Either mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be + legitimate. As to the tense, the narrator is identifying himself + in time with the hero, whose wonder was “how the stone-arches + ... _sustain_ the ever-during earth-hall”: the construction is a + form of _oratio recta_, a sort of _miratio recta_. The singular + #healde#, instead of #healden#, has many parallels in the + dependent clauses of _Beowulf_, most of these being relative + clauses introduced by #þāra þe# (= _of those that ..._ + a + singular predicate). In the present instance, the predicate has + doubtless been influenced by the proximity of #eorð-ręced#, a + _quasi_-subject; and we have no more right to alter to #healden# + or #hēoldon# than we have to change Shakespeare’s _gives_ to + _give_ in + + “Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath _gives_.” + (_Macbeth_, II, i, 61.) + + 2722: The #þegn ungemete till# is Wiglaf, the bravest of + Beowulf’s retainers. + + 2725: #hē ofer bęnne spræc#. The editors and translators of + _Beowulf_ invariably render #ofer# in this passage by _about_; + but Beowulf says not a word about his wound. The context seems + to me to show plainly that #ofer# (cf. Latin _supra_) denotes + here opposition = _in spite of_. We read in _Genesis_, l. 594, + that Eve took the forbidden fruit #ofer Drihtenes word#. Beowulf + fears (l. 2331) that he may have ruled unjustly = #ofer ealde + riht#; and he goes forth (l. 2409) #ofer willan# to confront the + dragon. + + 2731-33: #þǣr mē ... gelęnge#, _if so be that_ (#þǣr ... swā#) + _any heir had afterwards been given me_ (#mē gifeðe ... æfter + wurde#) _belonging to my body_. + + 2744-45: #geong# [= #gǫng#] #... scēawian#. See note on #ēode + ... sittan#, p. 137, ll. 19-20 [[lines 641-42]]. In Mn.E. _Go + see, Go fetch_, etc., is the second verb imperative (coördinate + with the first), or subjunctive (_that you may see_), or + infinitive without _to_? + + 2751-52: #mīn ... līf#. See note on #ęnde-dæg ... mīnne#, + p. 137, ll. 16-17 [[lines 638-39]].] + + [1] = sēo. + [2] = gēong. + [3] = Bēowulf. + [4] = Wealdend. + [5] = morðor-bealu. + [6] = gǫng (gang). + [7] = Bēo. + + +BEOWULF’S LAST WORDS. [Lines 2793-2821.] + + [Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf’s triumph. + Beowulf, rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives + advice and final directions to Wiglaf.] + + _Bīowulf[1] maðelode_, + gǫmel on giohðe (gold scēawode): + “Ic þāra frætwa Frēan ealles ðanc, [2795] + Wuldur-cyninge, wordum sęcge + ęcum Dryhtne, þe ic hēr on starie, + þæs þe ic mōste mīnum lēodum + ǣr swylt-dæge swylc gestrȳnan. + Nū ic on māðma hord mīne bebohte [2800] + frōde feorh-lęge, fręmmað gē nū + lēoda þearfe; ne mæg ic hēr lęng wesan. + Hātað heaðo-mǣre hlǣw gewyrcean, + beorhtne æfter bǣle æt brimes nosan; + sē scel[2] tō gemyndum mīnum lēodum [2805] + hēah hlīfian on Hrǫnes næsse, + þæt hit sǣ-līðend syððan hātan[3] + Bīowulfes[1] biorh[1] þā þe brentingas + ofer flōda genipu feorran drīfað.” + Dyde him of healse hring gyldenne [2810] + þīoden[1] þrīst-hȳdig; þegne gesealde, + geongum gār-wigan, gold-fāhne helm, + bēah ǫnd byrnan, hēt hyne brūcan well. + “Þū eart ęnde-lāf ūsses cynnes, + Wǣgmundinga; ealle wyrd forswēop [2815] + mīne māgas tō metod-sceafte, + eorlas on ęlne; ic him æfter sceal.” + Þæt wæs þām gǫmelan gingeste word + brēost-gehygdum, ǣr hē bǣl cure, + hāte heaðo-wylmas; him of hreðre gewāt [2820] + sāwol sēcean sōð-fæstra dōm. + + [1] īo, io = ēo, eo. + [2] = sceal. + [3] = hāten. + + [Linenotes: + + 2795-99: The expression #sęcgan þanc# takes the same + construction as #þancian#; i.e., the dative of the person + (#Frēan#) and the genitive (a genitive of cause) of the thing + (#þāra frætwa#). Cf. note on #biddan#, p. 45 [[§ 65, 3]]. The + antecedent of #þe# is #frætwa#. For the position of #on#, see + § 94, (5). The clause introduced by #þæs þe# (_because_) is + parallel in construction with #frætwa#, both being causal + modifiers of #sęcge þanc#. The Christian coloring in these lines + betrays the influence of priestly transcribers. + + 2800: _Now that I, in exchange for_ (#on#) _a hoard of + treasures, have bartered_ (#bebohte#) _the laying down_ (#-lęge# + > #licgan#) _of my old life._ The ethical codes of the early + Germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments, or + life-barters. There seems to be here a suggestion of the + “wergild.” + + 2801: #fręmmað gē#. The plural imperative (as also in #Hātað#) + shows that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in + particular as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general,--to + his _comitatus_. + + 2806: The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent + expression in early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was + situated “high on a jutting headland over wide Hellespont that + it might be seen from off the sea.” Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury + him in the same way. Æneas places the ashes of Misenus beneath a + high mound on a headland of the sea. + + 2807: #hit = hlǣw#, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2 + [[§ 55, 2]]. + + 2810-11: #him ... þīoden#. The reference in both cases is to + Beowulf, who is disarming himself (#do-of# > _doff_) for the + last time; #þegne# = _to Wiglaf_. + + Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of the + dative instead of the more colorless possessive; #him of + healse#, not #of his healse#. + + 2817: #ic ... sceal#. See note on #nō ... meahte#, p. 140, + l. 1 [[line 755]]. + + 2820: #him of hreðre#. Cf. note on #him ... þīoden#, p. 147, + ll. 10-11 [[lines 2810-11]]. + + 2820-21: For construction of #gewāt ... sēcean#, see note on + #ēode ... sittan#, p. 137, ll. 19-20 [[lines 641-42]].] + + +VII. THE WANDERER. + + [Exeter MS. “The epic character of the ancient lyric appears + especially in this: that the song is less the utterance of a + momentary feeling than the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps + the reflection of an entire life, generally that of one isolated, + or bereft by death or exile of protectors and friends.” (Ten + Brink, _Early Eng. Lit._, I.) I adopt Brooke’s threefold division + (_Early Eng. Lit._, p. 356): “It opens with a Christian prologue, + and closes with a Christian epilogue, but the whole body of the + poem was written, it seems to me, by a person who thought more of + the goddess Wyrd than of God, whose life and way of thinking were + uninfluenced by any distinctive Christian doctrine.” + + The author is unknown.] + + +PROLOGUE. + + Oft him ānhaga āre gebīdeð, + Metudes[1] miltse, þēah þe hē mōdcearig + geond lagulāde lǫnge sceolde + hrēran mid hǫndum hrīmcealde sǣ, + wadan wræclǣstas: wyrd bið ful ārǣd! [5] + Swā cwæð eardstapa earfeþa[2] gemyndig, + wrāþra wælsleahta, winemǣga hryres: + +PLAINT OF THE WANDERER. + + “Oft ic sceolde āna ūhtna gehwylce + mīne ceare cwīþan; nis nū cwicra nān, + þe ic him mōdsefan mīnne durre [10] + sweotule[3] āsęcgan. Ic tō sōþe wāt + þæt biþ in eorle indryhten þēaw, + þæt hē his ferðlocan fæste binde, + healde his hordcofan, hycge swā hē wille; + ne mæg wērig mōd wyrde wiðstǫndan [15] + nē sē hrēo hyge helpe gefręmman: + for ðon dōmgeorne drēorigne oft + in hyra brēostcofan bindað fæste. + Swā ic mōdsefan mīnne sceolde + oft earmcearig ēðle bidǣled, [20] + frēomǣgum feor feterum sǣlan, + siþþan gēara iū goldwine mīnne + hrūsan heolster biwrāh, and ic hēan þǫnan + wōd wintercearig ofer waþema gebind, + sōhte sęle drēorig sinces bryttan, [25] + hwǣr ic feor oþþe nēah findan meahte + þone þe in meoduhealle[4] miltse wisse + oþþe mec frēondlēasne frēfran wolde, + węnian mid wynnum. Wāt sē þe cunnað + hū slīþen bið sorg tō gefēran [30] + þām þe him lȳt hafað lēofra geholena: + warað hine wræclāst, nāles wunden gold, + ferðloca frēorig, nālæs foldan blǣd; + gemǫn hē sęlesęcgas and sincþęge, + hū hine on geoguðe his goldwine [35] + węnede tō wiste: wyn eal gedrēas! + For þon wāt sē þe sceal his winedryhtnes + lēofes lārcwidum lǫnge forþolian, + ðonne sorg and slǣp sǫmod ætgædre + earmne ānhagan oft gebindað: [40] + þinceð him on mōde þæt hē his mǫndryhten + clyppe and cysse, and on cnēo lęcge + hǫnda and hēafod, swā hē hwīlum ǣr + in gēardagum giefstōles brēac; + ðonne onwæcneð eft winelēas guma, [45] + gesihð him biforan fealwe wǣgas, + baþian brimfuglas, brǣdan feþra, + hrēosan hrīm and snāw hagle gemęnged. + Þonne bēoð þȳ hęfigran heortan bęnne, + sāre æfter swǣsne; sorg bið genīwad; [50] + þonne māga gemynd mōd geondhweorfeð, + grēteð glīwstafum, georne geondscēawað. + Sęcga geseldan swimmað eft on weg; + flēotendra ferð[5] nō þǣr fela bringeð + cūðra cwidegiedda; cearo[6] bið genīwad [55] + þām þe sęndan sceal swīþe geneahhe + ofer waþema gebind wērigne sefan. + For þon ic geþęncan ne mæg geond þās woruld + for hwan mōdsefa mīn ne gesweorce, + þonne ic eorla līf eal geondþęnce, [60] + hū hī fǣrlīce flęt ofgēafon, + mōdge maguþegnas. Swā þēs middangeard + ealra dōgra gehwām drēoseð and fealleþ; + for þon ne mæg weorþan wīs wer, ǣr hē āge + wintra dǣl in woruldrīce. Wita sceal geþyldig, [65] + ne sceal nō tō hātheort nē tō hrædwyrde, + nē tō wāc wiga nē tō wanhȳdig, + nē tō forht nē tō fægen nē tō feohgīfre, + nē nǣfre gielpes tō georn, ǣr hē geare cunne. + Beorn sceal gebīdan, þonne hē bēot spriceð, [70] + oþ þæt collenferð cunne gearwe + hwider hreþra gehygd hweorfan wille. + Ongietan sceal glēaw hæle hū gǣstlīc bið, + þonne eall þisse worulde wela wēste stǫndeð, + swā nū missenlīce geond þisne middangeard [75] + winde biwāune[7] weallas stǫndaþ, + hrīme bihrorene,[8] hryðge þā ederas. + Wōriað þā wīnsalo,[9] waldend licgað + drēame bidrorene[10]; duguð eal gecrǫng + wlǫnc bī wealle: sume wīg fornōm, [80] + fęrede in forðwege; sumne fugel[11] oþbær + ofer hēanne holm; sumne sē hāra wulf + dēaðe gedǣlde; sumne drēorighlēor + in eorðscræfe eorl gehȳdde: + ȳþde swā þisne eardgeard ælda Scyppend, [85] + oþ þæt burgwara breahtma lēase + eald ęnta geweorc īdlu stōdon. + Sē þonne þisne wealsteal wīse geþōhte, + and þis deorce līf dēope geondþęnceð, + frōd in ferðe[12] feor oft gemǫn [90] + wælsleahta worn, and þās word ācwið: + ‘Hwǣr cwōm mearg? hwǣr cwōm mago[13]? hwǣr cwōm māþþumgyfa? + hwǣr cwōm symbla gesetu? hwǣr sindon sęledrēamas? + Ēalā beorht bune! ēalā byrnwiga! + ēalā þēodnes þrym! hū sēo þrāg gewāt, [95] + genāp under nihthelm, swā hēo nō wǣre! + Stǫndeð nū on lāste lēofre duguþe + weal wundrum hēah, wyrmlīcum fāh: + eorlas fornōmon asca þrȳþe, + wǣpen wælgīfru, wyrd sēo mǣre; [100] + and þās stānhleoþu[14] stormas cnyssað; + hrīð hrēosende hrūsan bindeð, + wintres wōma, þonne wǫn cymeð, + nīpeð nihtscūa, norþan onsęndeð + hrēo hæglfare hæleþum on andan. [105] + Eall is earfoðlīc eorþan rīce, + onwęndeð wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofonum: + hēr bið feoh lǣne, hēr bið frēond lǣne, + hēr bið mǫn lǣne, hēr bið mǣg lǣne; + eal þis eorþan gesteal īdel weorþeð!’” [110] + +EPILOGUE. + + Swā cwæð snottor on mōde, gesæt him sundor æt rune. + Til biþ sē þe his trēowe gehealdeð; + ne sceal nǣfre his torn tō rycene + beorn of his brēostum ācȳþan, nemþe hē ǣr þā bōte cunne; + eorl mid ęlne gefręmman. Wel bið þām þe him āre sēceð, + frōfre tō Fæder on heofonum, + þǣr ūs eal sēo fæstnung stǫndeð. [115] + + [1] = Metodes. + [2] = earfoþa. + [3] = sweotole. + [4] = medu-. + [5] = ferhð. + [6] = cearu. + [7] See bewāwan. + [8] See behrēosan. + [9] = wīnsalu. + [10] See bedrēosan. + [11] = fugol. + [12] = ferhðe. + [13] = magu. + [14] = -hliðu. + + [Linenotes: + + 7: The MS. reading is #hryre# (nominative), which is + meaningless. + + 8: For #ūhtna gehwylce#, see note on #cēnra gehwylcum#, + p. 140 [[_Beowulf_ 769]]. + + 10: #þe ... him#. See § 75 (4). Cf. _Merchant of Venice_, + II, v, 50-51. + + 27: For #mine# (MS. #in#), which does not satisfy metrical + requirements, I adopt Kluge’s plausible substitution of + #miltse#; #miltse witan# = _to show_ (_know, feel_), _pity_. The + #myne wisse# of _Beowulf_ (l. 169) is metrically admissible. + + 37: The object of #wāt# is #þinceð him on mōde#; but the + construction is unusual, inasmuch as both #þæt’s# (#þæt# + pronominal before #wāt# and #þæt# conjunctional before #þinceð#) + are omitted. See p. 112, ll. 18-19. + + 41: #þinceð him on mōde# (see note on #him ... þīoden#, p. 147 + [[_Beowulf_ 2810-11]]). “No more sympathetic picture has + been drawn by an Anglo-Saxon poet than where the wanderer in + exile falls asleep at his oar and dreams again of his dead lord + and the old hall and revelry and joy and gifts,--then wakes to + look once more upon the waste of ocean, snow and hail falling + all around him, and sea-birds dipping in the spray.” (Gummere, + _Germanic Origins_, p. 221.) + + 53-55: #Sęcga ... cwidegiedda# = _But these comrades of + warriors_ [= those seen in vision] _again swim away_ [= _fade + away_]; _the ghost of these fleeting ones brings not there many + familiar words_; i.e. he sees in dream and vision the old + familiar faces, but no voice is heard: they bring neither + greetings to him nor tidings of themselves. + + 65: #Wita sceal geþyldig#. Either #bēon# (#wesan#) is here + to be understood after #sceal#, or #sceal# alone means _ought to + be_. Neither construction is to be found in Alfredian prose, + though the omission of a verb of motion after #sculan# is common + in all periods of Old English. See note on #nō ... meahte#, + p. 140 [[_Beowulf_ 755]]. + + 75: #swā nū#. “The Old English lyrical feeling,” says Ten + Brink, citing the lines that immediately follow #swā nū#, “is + fond of the image of physical destruction”; but I do not think + these lines have a merely figurative import. The reference is to + a period of real devastation, antedating the Danish incursions. + “We might fairly find such a time in that parenthesis of bad + government and of national tumult which filled the years between + the death of Aldfrith in 705 and the renewed peace of + Northumbria under Ceolwulf in the years that followed 729.” + (Brooke, _Early Eng. Lit._, p. 355.) + + 93: #cwōm ... gesetu#. Ettmüller reads #cwōmon#; but see + p. 107, note on #wæs ... þā īgland# [[linenote 107.14-15]]. The + occurrence of #hwǣr cwōm# three times in the preceding line + tends also to hold #cwōm# in the singular when its plural + subject follows. Note the influence of a somewhat similar + structural parallelism in _seas hides_ of these lines (_Winter’s + Tale_, IV, iv, 500-502): + + “Not for ... all the _sun sees_ or + The close _earth wombs_ or the profound _seas hides_ + In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath.” + + 111: #gesæt ... rūne#, _sat apart to himself in silent + meditation_. + + 114: #eorl ... gefręmman#. Supply #sceal# after #eorl#.] + + + + +I. GLOSSARY. + +OLD ENGLISH--MODERN ENGLISH. + + +[The order of words is strictly alphabetical, except that ð follows t. +The combination æ follows ad. + +Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. (= masculine), f. +(= feminine), n. (= neuter). The usual abbreviations are employed for +the cases, nom., gen., dat., acc., and instr. Other abbreviations are +sing. (= singular), pl. (= plural), ind. (= indicative mood), sub. +(= subjunctive mood), pres. (= present tense), pret. (= preterit tense), +prep. (= preposition), adj. (= adjective), adv. (= adverb), part. +(= participle), conj. (= conjunction), pron. (= pronoun), intrans. +(= intransitive), trans. (= transitive). + +Figures not preceded by § refer to page and line of the texts.] + + [[Transcriber’s Note: + References to verse selections (pages 136-153) are followed by the + actual line number in [[double brackets]].] + + +#A.# + + ā, _ever, always, aye_. + abbudisse, f., _abbess_ [Lat. abbatissa]. + ābēodan (§ 109), _bid, offer_; + him hǣl ābēad 138, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 654]] = _bade him hail, wished him + health_. + ābrecan (§ 120, Note 2), _break down, destroy_. + ābūgan (§ 109, Note 1), _give way, start_ [bow away]. + ac, conj., _but_. + ācweðan (§ 115), _say, speak_. + ācȳðan (§ 126), _reveal, proclaim_ [cūð]. + ād, m., _funeral pile_. + adesa, m., _adze, hatchet_. + ǣ (ǣw), f., _law_. + ǣdre (ēdre), f., _stream, canal, vein_; + blōd ēdrum dranc 139, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 743]] = _drank blood in streams_ + (instr.). + ǣfæstnis, f., _piety_. + ǣfen-ræst, f., _evening rest_. + ǣfen-sprǣc, f., _evening speech_. + ǣfęst (ǣwfęst), _law-abiding, pious_. + ǣfęstnis, see ǣfæstnis. + ǣfre, _ever, always_. + ǣfter, prep. (§ 94, (1)), _after_; + ǣfter ðǣm, _after that, thereafter_; + æfter ðǣm ðe, conj., _after_. + æfter, adv., _after, afterwards_. + ǣghwā (§ 77, Note), _each, every_. + ǣghwilc (§ 77, Note), _each, any_. + ǣglǣca, see āglǣca. + ǣgðer (ǣghwæðer, āðer) (§ 77, Note), _each, either_; + ǣgðer ... ōðer ... ōðer, _either ... or ... or_; + ǣgðer ge ... ge (§ 95, (2)), _both ... and_; + ǣgðer ge ... ge ... ge, _both ... and ... and_. + ǣht, f., _property, possession_ [āgan]. + ǣlc (§ 77), _each_. + ælde (ielde) (§ 47), m. pl., _men_; gen. pl., ælda. + ælmihtig, _almighty_. + ǣmetta, m., _leisure_ [_empti_-ness]. + ǣnig (§ 77), _any_; + ǣnige ðinga 141, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 792]] = _for anything_. + (See 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note.) + ǣr, adv., _before, formerly, sooner_; + nō þȳ ǣr 140, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 755]] = _none the sooner_; + ǣror, comparative, _before, formerly_; + ǣrest, superlative, _first_. + ǣr, conj. (§ 105, 2), _ere, before_ = ǣr ðǣm ðe. + ǣr, prep, with dat., _before_ (time); + ǣr ðǣm ðe, conj. (§ 105, 2), _before_. + ærcebisceop, m., _archbishop_ [Lat. archiepiscopus]. + ǣrendgewrit, n., _message, letter_. + ǣrendwreca (-raca), m., _messenger_. + ǣrest, adj. (§ 96, (4)), _first_. + ærnan (§ 127), _ride, gallop_ [iernan]. + ǣrra, adj. (§ 96, (4)), _former_. + ǣrwela, m., _ancient wealth_. + æsc, m., _ash, spear_; gen. pl., asca. + Æscesdūn, f., _Ashdown_ (in Berkshire). + æstel, m., _book-mark_ [Lat. hastula]. + æt (§ 94, (1)), _at, in_; + with leornian, _to learn_, geðicgan, _to receive_, and other verbs + of similar import, + æt = _from_: 115, 18; 137, 8 [[_Beowulf_ 630]], etc. + ætberan (§ 114), _bear to, hand_. + ætgæd(e)re, adv., _together_. + ætsteppan (§ 116), _step up, advance_; pret. sing., ætstōp. + æðele, _noble, excellent_. + æðeling, m., _a noble, prince_. + Æðelwulfing, m., _son of Ethelwulf_. + Æðered, m., _Ethelred_. + āfeallan (§ 117), _fall_. + āfierran (§ 127), _remove_ [feor]. + āgan (§ 136), _to own, possess_. + āgen, adj.-part., _own_; dat. sing., āgnum [āgan]. + āgiefan (§ 115), _give back_. + āglǣca (ǣglǣca), m., _monster, champion_. + āhton, see āgan. + ālǣtan (§ 117), _let go, leave_. + aldor, see ealdor. + ālęcgan (§ 125, Note), _lay down_ [licgan]; past part., ālēd. + Ālīesend, m., _Redeemer_ [ālīesan = _release, ransom_]. + ālimpan (§ 110), _befall, occur_. + ālȳfan (§ 126), _entrust, permit_. + ambor, m., _measure_; gen. pl., ambra (§ 27, (4)). + ambyre, _favorable_. + ān (§ 89), _one_; + āna, _alone, only_; + ānra gehwylcum 141, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 785]] = _to each one_. + (See 140, 15, Note. [[_Beowulf_ 769]]) + anda, m., _zeal, injury, indignation_; + hæleðum on andan 153, 6 [[_Wanderer_ 105]] = _harmful to men_. + andēfn, f., _proportion, amount_. + andgiet (-git), n., _sense, meaning_. + andgitfullīce, _intelligibly_; + -gitfullīcost, _superlative_. + andswaru, f., _answer_. + andwyrdan (§ 127), _to answer_; pret., andwyrde. + Angel, n., _Anglen_ (in Denmark); dat. sing., Angle (§ 27 (4)). + Angelcynn, n., _English kin, English people, England_. + ānhaga (-hoga), m., _a solitary, wanderer_ [ān + hogian, + _to meditate_]. + ānlīpig, _single, individual_. + ānunga (§ 93, (2)), _once for all_ [ān]. + apostol, m., _apostle_ [Gr. ἀπόστολος]. + ār, f., _honor, property, favor_; + āre gebīdeð 148, 3 [[_Wanderer_ 1]] = _waits for divine favor_ + (gen.). + ārǣd, adj., _inexorable_. + ārǣdan (§ 126), _read_. + āręcc(e)an (§ 128), _translate, expound_. + ārfæstnis, f., _virtue_. + ārīsan (§ 102), _arise_. + asca, see aesc. + āsęcgan (§ 132), _say, relate_. + āsęttan (§ 127), _set, place_. + āsingan (§ 110), _sing_. + āspęndan (§ 127), _spend, expend_. + āstīgan (§ 102), _ascend, arise_. + āstǫndan (§ 116), _stand up_. + ātēah, see ātēon. + atelīc, _horrible, dire_. + ātēon (§ 118), _draw, draw away, take_ (as a journey). + atol, _horrible, dire_. + āttor, n., _poison_. + ātuge, see ātēon. + āð, m., _oath_. + āðer, see ǣgðer. + āwęccan (§ 128), _awake, arouse_; pret. sing., āweahte, āwęhte. + aweg, _away_. + āwęndan (§ 127), _turn, translate_. + āwrītan (§ 102), _write, compose_. + āwyrcan (§ 128), _work, do, perform_. + + +#B.# + + Bāchsęcg, m., _Bagsac_. + bæcbord, n., _larboard, left side of a ship_. + bǣl, n., _funeral fire, funeral pile_. + bān, n., _bone_. + bān-fāg, _adorned with bones_ or _antlers_. + bān-loca, m., _flesh_ [bone-locker]. + Basengas, m. pl., _Basing_ (in Hantshire). + be (bī) (§ 94, (1)), _by, about, concerning, near, along, + according to_; + be norðan þǣm wēstenne (§ 94, (4)), _north of the waste (desert)_; + be fullan, _fully, perfectly_. + bēag, see būgan. + bēag-hroden, _ring-adorned_. + bēah (bēag), m., _ring, bracelet, collar_ [būgan]. + bealo-nīð, m., _dire hatred, poison, venom_. + bearn, n., _child, son_ [bairn]. + bebēodan (§ 109), _command, bid, entrust_ (with dat.). + bebīo-, see bebēo-. + bebohte, see bebycgan. + bebycgan (§ 128), _sell_. + bēc, see bōc. + becuman (§ 114), _come, arrive, befall_. + bedǣlan (§ 126), _separate, deprive_. + bedrēosan (§ 109), _deprive_; past part. pl., bedrorene (bidrorene) + [dross, dreary]. + befǣstan (§ 127), _fasten, implant_. + befēolan (§ 110), _apply one’s self_; + ðāra ðe ðā spēda hæbben ðǣt hīe ðǣm befēolan mægen 119, 20 = + _of those who have the means by which they may apply themselves + to it_. + beforan, prep. with dat., _before_. + bēgen (declined like twēgen, § 89), _both_. + begeondan (begiondan), prep. with dat., _beyond_. + begietan (§ 115), _get, obtain, find_. + beginnan (§ 110), _begin_. + beheonan (behionan), prep. with dat., _on this side of_. + behreōsan (§ 109), _fall upon, cover_; past part. pl., behrorene + (bihrorene). + belimpan (§ 110), _pertain, belong_. + beniman (§ 114), _take, derive_. + bęnn, f., _wound_ [bana = _murderer_]. + bēon (bīon) (§ 134), _be, consist_. + beorh (beorg, biorh), m., _mound_ [barrow]. + beorht, _bright, glorious_. + Beormas, m. pl., _Permians_. + beorn, m., _man, hero, chief_. + bēor-þęgu, f., _beer-drinking_ [þicgan = _receive_]. + bēot, n., _boast_. + beran (§ 114), _bear_. + berēafian (§ 130), _bereave_; + since berēafod 145, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 2747]] = _bereft of treasure_. + beren, adj., _of a bear, bear_. + berstan (§ 110), _burst, crack_. + besmiðian (§ 130), _make hard_ (as at the forge of a smith). + bęt, see wel (§ 97, (2)). + bētan (§ 126), _make good, requite_; past part. pl., gebētte. + bętera (bętra), see gōd (§ 96, (3)). + betlīc, _excellent_. + bętsta, see gōd (§ 96, (3)). + betuh (betux) (§ 94, (1)), _between_. + betwēonan (§ 94, (1)), _between_. + betȳnan (§ 126), _close, end_ [tūn = _enclosure_]. + bewāwan (§ 117), _blow upon_; past part. pl., bewāune (biwāune, + bewāwene). + bewrēon (§ 118, 1), _enwrap_; pret. 3d sing., bewrāh (biwrāh). + bī, see be. + bi-, see be-. + bīdan (§ 102), _bide, await, expect, endure_ (with gen.). + biddan (§ 115, Note 2), _bid, pray, request_ (§ 65, Note 3); + bæd hine blīðne 136, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 618]] = _bade him be blithe_. + bindan (§ 110), _bind_. + bīo, see bēo (imperative sing.). + bisceop (biscep), m., _bishop_ [Lat. episcopus]. + bisceop-stōl, m., _episcopal seat, bishopric_. + bisigu, f., _business, occupation_; dat. pl., bisgum. + bītan (§ 102), _bite, cut_. + biwrāh, see bewrēon. + blǣd, m., _glory, prosperity_ [blāwan = _blow, inflate_]. + Blēcinga-ēg, f., _Blekingen_. + bliss, f., _bliss_ [blīðe]. + blīðe, _blithe, happy_. + blōd, n., _blood_. + bōc (§ 68, (1), Note 1), f., _book_. + bōcere, m., _scribe_ [bōc]. + bǫna (bana), m., _murderer_ [bane]. + bōt, f., _boot, remedy, help, compensation_. + brād (§ 96, (1)), _broad_. + brǣdan (§ 126), _extend, spread_ [brād]. + brǣdra, see brād. + brægd, see bregdan. + brēac, see brūcan. + breahtm, m., _noise, revelry_; + burgwara breahtma lēase 152, 10 [[_Wanderer_ 86]] = _bereft of the + revelries of citizens_. + bregdan (§ 110), _brandish, draw_ [braid]; pret. ind. 3d sing., brægd. + brenting, m., _high ship_. + brēost, n., _breast_ (the pl. has the same meaning as the sing.). + brēost-cofa, m., _breast-chamber, heart, mind_. + brēost-gehygd, n., _breast-thought, thought of the heart, emotion_. + brim, n., _sea, ocean_. + brimfugol, m., _sea-fowl_. + bringan (§ 128), _bring_. + brōhte, brōhton, see bringan. + brōðor (brōður) (§ 68, (2)), m., _brother_. + brūcan (§ 109, Note 1), _use, enjoy_ (§ 62, Note 1; but Alfred + frequently employs the acc. with brūcan). + brycg, f., _bridge_. + brȳcð, see brūcan. + brytta, m., _distributor, dispenser_ [brēotan = _break in pieces_]. + būan (§ 126, Note 2), _dwell, cultivate_ [bower]. + būde, see būan. + bufan, prep. with dat. and acc., _above_. + būgan (§ 109, Note 1), _bow, bend, turn_. + bune, f., _cup_. + burg (burh) (§ 68, (1), Note), f., _city, borough_; dat. sing., byrig. + Burgenda, m. gen. pl., _of the Burgundians_; + Burgenda land, _Bornholm_. + burgware (§ 47), m. pl., _burghers, citizens_. + burh, see burg. + būtan (būton), prep. (§ 94, (1)), _without, except, except for, but_. + būtan (būton), conj., _except that, unless_. + būtū, _both_ (= _both_--_two_. + The word is compounded of the combined neuters of bēgen and twēgen, + but is m. and f. as well as n.). + bȳn (§ 126, Note 2), _cultivated_. + byrde, adj., _of high rank, aristocratic_. + byrig, see burg. + byrne, f., _byrnie, corselet, coat of mail_. + byrnwiga, m., _byrnie-warrior, mailed soldier_. + byrð, see beran. + + +#C.# + + canōn, m., _sacred canon, Bible_ [Lat. canon, Gr. κανών]. + cearu (cearo), f., _care_. + ceaster-būend, m., _castle-dweller_. + cēne, _keen, bold, brave_. + cēosan (§ 109), _choose, accept, encounter_. + cild, n., _child_. + cirice, f., _church_; nom. pl., ciricean. + cirr (cierr), m., _turn, time, occasion_ [char, chore, ajar = on + char, on the turn]. + cirran (§ 127), _turn_. + clǣne, _clean, pure_. + clǣne, adv., _entirely _ [“clean out of the way,” Shaks.]. + clūdig, _rocky_ [having boulders or masses like _clouds_]. + clyppan (§ 127), _embrace, accept_ [clip = clasp for letters, papers, + etc.]. + cnapa, m., _boy_ [knave]. + cnēo (cnēow), n., _knee_; acc. pl., cnēo. + cniht, m., _knight, warrior_. + cnyssan (§ 125), _beat_. + collenferð (-ferhð), _proud-minded, fierce_. + costnung, f., _temptation_. + Crēcas (Crēacas), m. pl., _Greeks_. + cringan (§ 110), _cringe, fall_. + Crīst, m., _Christ_. + Crīsten, _Christian_; nom. pl. m., Crīstene, Crīstne. + cuma, m., _new-comer, stranger_. + cuman (§ 114), _come_. (See p. 138, Note on ll. 2-6.) + cunnan (§ 137), _know, can, understand_. + cunnian (§ 130), _make trial of, experience_ [cunnan]. + cure, see cēosan. + cūð, _well-known, familiar_ [past part. of cunnan: cf. uncouth]. + cūðe, cūðen, cūðon, see cunnan. + cwǣden, cwǣdon, see cweðan. + cwalu, f., _death, murder_ [cwelan]. + cwealm-cuma, m., _murderous comer_. + cwelan (§ 114), _die_ [to quail]. + cwēn, f., _queen_. + Cwēnas, m. pl., _a Finnish tribe_. + cweðan (§ 115), _say, speak_ [quoth, bequeath]. + cwic, _living, alive_ [quicksilver; the quick and the dead]. + cwidegiedd, n., _word, utterance_ [cweðan and gieddian, both meaning + _to speak_]. + cwīðan (§ 126), _bewail_ (trans.). + cwōm, see cuman. + cyle (ciele), m., _cold_ [chill]; + cyle gewyrcan 110, 7 = _produce cold, freeze_. + cyme, m., _coming_ [cuman]. + cyn(n), n., _kin, race_. + cyn(n), adj. (used only in pl.), _fitting things, etiquette, + proprieties, courtesies_; + cynna gemyndig 136, 3 [[_Beowulf_ 614]] = _mindful of courtesies_. + cynerīce, n., _kingdom_. + cyning, m., _king_. + cyssan (§ 125), _kiss_. + cyst, f., _the choice, the pick, the best_ [cēosan]. + cȳðan (§ 126), _make known, display_, [cūð]; + 2d sing. imperative, cȳð. + + +#D.# + + dǣd, f., _deed_. + dæg, m., _day_. + dæg-hwīl, f., _day-while, day_; + hē dæg-hwīla gedrogen hæfde eorðan wynne 145, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 2727]] = + _he had spent his days of earth’s joy_. + dæg-rīm, n., number of days [day-rime]; + dōgera daeg-rīm 143, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 824]] = _the number of his days_. + dæl, n., _dale_. + dǣl, m., _part, deal, division_. + dēad, _dead_. + dēað, m., _death_. + dēman (§ 126), _deem, judge_. + Dęnamearc, see Dęnemearc. + Dęne (§ 47), m. pl., _Danes_. + Dęnemearc (Dęnemearce), f., _Denmark_; dat. sing., Dęnemearce + (strong), Dęnemearcan (weak). + Dęnisc, _Danish_; + ðā Dęniscan, _the Danes_. + dēofol, m., n., _devil_; gen. sing., dēofles (§ 27, (4)). + dēope, _deeply, profoundly_ [dēop]. + dēor, n., _wild animal_ [deer]. + deorc, _dark, gloomy_. + dōgor, n., _day_; gen. pl., dōgora, dōgera, dōgra. + dōgor-gerīm, n., _number of days, lifetime_. + dōm, m., _doom, judgment, glory_. + dōmgeorn, adj., _eager for glory_ [_doom-yearning_]. + dōn (§ 135), _do, cause, place, promote, remove_. + dorste, dorston, see durran. + drēam, m., _joy, mirth_ [dream]. + drēogan (§ 109), _endure, enjoy, spend_ [Scotch dree]. + drēorig, _dreary, sad_. + drēorighlēor, adj., _with sad face_ [hlēor = _cheek, face, leer_]. + drēosan (§ 109), _fall, perish_ [dross]. + drīfan (§ 102), _drive_. + drihten, see dryhten. + drincan (§ 110), _drink_. + drohtoð (-að), m., _mode of living, occupation_ [drēogan]. + drugon, see drēogan. + dryhten (drihten), m., _lord, Lord_; dat. sing., dryhtne. + dryht-sęle, m., _lordly hall_. + duguð, f., _warrior-band, host, retainers_ [doughtiness]. + In duguð and geogoð, the higher (older) and lower (younger) ranks + are represented, the distinction corresponding roughly to the + mediæval distinction between knights and squires. + durran (§ 137), _dare_. + duru, f., _door_. + dyde, see dōn. + dynnan (§ 125), resound [din]. + dȳre (dīere, dēore, dīore), _dear, costly_. + + +#E.# + + ēa, f., _river_; gen. sing., ēas; dat. and acc. sing., ēa. + ēac, _also, likewise_ [a nickname = an eek-name. See § 65, Note 2]; + ēac swilce (swelce) 112, 3 = _also_. + ēaca, m., _addition_ [ēac]; + tō ēacan = _in addition to_ (§ 94, (4)). + ēage, n., _eye_. + eahta, _eight_. + ēalā, _oh!_ _alas!_ + ealað, see ealu. + eald (§ 96, (2)), _old_. + ealdor (aldor), n., _life_; + gif ðū ðæt ęllenweorc aldre gedīgest 138, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 662]] = _if + thou survivest that feat with thy life_ (instr.). + ealdor-dæg (aldor-, ealder-), m., _day of life_. + ealdor-gedāl (aldor-), n., _death_ [life-deal]. + ealdormǫn, m., _alderman, chief, magistrate_. + ealgian, (§ 130), _protect, defend_. + eall (eal), _all_; + ealne weg, _all the way_ (§ 98, (1)); + ealneg (< ealne weg), _always_; + ealles (§ 98, (3)), adv., _altogether, entirely_. + Eall (eal) is frequently used with partitive gen. = _all of_: + 143, 19 [[_Beowulf_ 836]]; 145, 3 [[_Beowulf_ 2728]]. + ealu (ealo) (§ 68), n., _ale_; gen. sing., ealað. + ealu-scerwen, f., _mortal panic_ [ale-spilling]. + eard, m., _country, home_ [eorðe]. + eardgeard, m. _earth_ [earth-yard]. + eardian (§ 130), _dwell_ [eard]. + eardstapa, m., _wanderer_ [earth-stepper]. + ēare, n., _ear_. + earfoð (earfeð), n. _hardship, toil_; gen. pl., earfeða. + earfoðlīc, adj., _full of hardship, arduous_. + earm, m., _arm_. + earm, adj., _poor, wretched_. + earmcearig, _wretched, miserable_. + earmlīc, _wretched, miserable_. + earnung, f., _merit_ [earning]. + ēast, _east_. + ēastan (§ 93, (5)), _from the east_. + Ēast-Dęne (§ 47), _East-Danes_. + ēasteweard, _eastward_. + ēastrihte (ēastryhte) (§ 93, (6)), _eastward_. + Ēastron, pl., _Easter_. + ēaðe, _easily_. + ēaðmōdlīce, _humbly_. + eaxl, f., _shoulder_ [axle]. + Ebrēisc, adj., _Hebrew_. + ēce, _eternal, everlasting_. + ęcg, f., _sword_ [edge]. + edor, m., _enclosure, dwelling_; nom. pl., ederas. + ēdrum, see ǣdre. + efne, adv., _just, only_ [evenly]. + eft, adv., _again, afterwards_ [aft]. + ęgesa, m., _fear, terror_ [awe]. + ęllen, n., _strength, courage_; + mid ęlne = _boldly_; + on ęlne 147, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 2817]] = _mightily, suddenly_, or _in + their (earls’) strength (prime)_. + ęllen-mǣrðu, f. _fame for strength, feat of strength_. + ęllen-weorc, n., _feat of strength_. + ęllenwōdnis, f., _zeal, fervor_. + ęllor-gāst, m., _inhuman monster_ [alien ghost]. + ęln, f., _ell_ [el-bow]. + ęlne, _see_ ęllen. + ęlra, adj. comparative, _another_ [*ęle cognate with Lat. alius]; + on ęlran męn 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in another man_. + emnlong (-lang), _equally long_; + on emnlange = _along_ (§ 94, (4)). + ęnde, m., _end_. + ęndebyrdnes, f., _order_. + ęnde-dæg, m., _end-day, day of death_. + ęnde-lāf, f., _last remnant_ [end-leaving]. + ęngel, m., _angel_ [Lat. angelus]. + Ęnglafeld (§ 51), m., _Englefield_ (in Berkshire). + Ęngle (§ 47), m. pl., _Angles_. + Ęnglisc, adj., _English_; + on Ęnglisc 117, 18 and 19 = _in English, into English_. + Ęngliscgereord, n., _English language_. + ęnt, m., _giant_. + ēode, see gān. + eodorcan (§ 130), _ruminate_. + eorl, m., _earl, warrior, chieftain_. + eorlīc, _earl-like, noble_. + eorð-draca, m., dragon [earth-drake]. + eorðe, f., _earth_. + eorð-ręced, n., _earth-hall_. + eorðscræf, n., _earth-cave, grave_. + eoten, m., _giant, monster_. + ēow, see ðū. + Ēowland, n., _Öland_ (an island in the Baltic Sea). + ęrian (§ 125), _plow_ [to ear]. + Estland, n., _land of the Estas_ (on the eastern coast of the Baltic + Sea). + Estmęre, m., _Frische Haff_. + Estum, dat. pl., _the Estas_. + etan (§ 115), _eat_ [ort]. + ęttan (§ 127), _graze_ [etan]. + ēðel, m., _territory, native land_ [allodial]. + ēðel-weard, m., _guardian of his country_. + + +#F.# + + fæc, n., _interval, space_. + fæder (§ 68, (2)), m., _father_. + fægen, _fain, glad, exultant_. + fæger (fǣger), _fair, beautiful_. + fǣlsian (§ 130), _cleanse_. + fǣrlīce, _suddenly_ [fǣr = _fear_]. + fæst, _fast, held fast_. + fæste, adv., _fast, firmly_. + fæstnung, f., _security, safety_. + fæt, n., _vessel_ [wine-fat, vat]. + fǣtels, m., _vessel_; acc. pl., fǣtels. + fæðm, m., _embrace, bosom_ [fathom = the space _embraced_ by the + extended arms]. + fāg (fāh), _hostile_; + hē wæs fāg wið God 142, 18 [[_Beowulf_ 812]] = _he was hostile to + God_. + fāh (fāg), _variegated, ornamented_. + Falster, _Falster_ (island in the Baltic Sea). + fandian (§ 130), _try, investigate_ [findan]. + faran (§ 116), _go_ [fare]. + feallan (§ 117), _fall, flow_. + fealu, _fallow, pale, dark_; nom. pl. m., fealwe. + fēawe (fēa, fēawa), pl., _few_. + fela (indeclinable), _much, many_ (with gen.). + feld (§ 51), m., _field_. + fell (fel), n., _fell, skin, hide_. + fēng, see fōn. + fęn-hlið, n., _fen-slope_. + fęn-hop, n., _fen-retreat_. + feoh, n., _cattle, property_ [fee]; gen. and dat. sing., fēos, fēo. + feohgīfre, _greedy of property, avaricious_. + feohtan (§ 110), _fight_. + fēol, see feallan. + fēond (§ 68, (3)), m., _enemy, fiend_. + fēond-grāp, f., _fiend-grip_. + feor (§ 96, (4)), adj., _far, far from_ (with dat.). + feor, adv., _far, far back_ (time). + feorh, m., n., _life_. + feorh-bęnn, f., _life-wound, mortal wound_. + feorh-lęgu, f., _laying down of life_. (See p. 146, Note on l. 13. + [[_Beowulf_ 2800]]) + feorh-sēoc, _life-sick, mortally wounded_. + feorm (fiorm), f., _use, benefit_ (_food, provisions_) [farm]. + feormian (§ 130), _eat, devour_. + feorran, _from afar_. + fēowertig, _forty_; gen., fēowertiges (§ 91, Note 1). + ferhð (ferð), m., _heart, mind, spirit_. + fęrian (§ 125), _carry, transport_ [to ferry]; + fęrede in forðwege 152, 5 [[_Wanderer_ 81]] = _carried away_. + fers, n., _verse_ [Lat. versus]. + fersc, _fresh_. + ferðloca (ferhð-), m., _heart, mind, spirit_ [heart-locker]. + fēt, see fōt. + fetor, f., _fetter_ [fōt]; instr. pl., feterum. + feðer, f., _feather_; acc. pl., feðra. + fierd, f., _English army_ [faran]. + fīf, _five_. + fīftīene, _fifteen_. + fīftig, _fifty_; gen. sing., fīftiges (§ 91, Note 1); dat. pl., + fīftegum (§ 91, Note 3). + findan (§ 110), _find_. + finger, m., _finger_. + Finnas, m. pl., _Fins_. + fiorm, see feorm. + fīras, m. pl., _men_ [feorh]; gen. pl., fīra; dat. pl., fīrum. + firrest (fierrest), see feor (§ 96, (4)). + first, m., _time, period_. + fiscað (fiscnað), m., _fishing_. + fiscere, m., _fisherman_. + fiscnað, see fiscað. + flēon (§ 118, II.), _flee_. + flēotan (§ 109), _float_. + flęt, n., _floor of the hall_. + flōd, m., _flood, wave_. + folc, n., _folk, people_. + folc-cwēn, f., _folk-queen_. + folc-cyning, m., _folk-king_. + folcgefeoht, n., _folk-fight, battle, general engagement_. + fold-bold, n., _earth-building, hall_. + folde, f., _earth, land, country_ [feld]. + folm, f., _hand_ [fēlan = _feel_]. + fōn (§ 118), _seize, capture, take_ [fang]; + tō rīce fōn = _come to (ascend) the throne_. + for (§ 94, (1)), _for, on account of_; + for ðǣm (ðe), for ðon (ðe), _because_; + for ðon, for ðȳ, for ðǣm (for-ðām), _therefore_. + fōr, see faran. + forbærnan (§ 127), _burn thoroughly_ [for is intensive, like Lat. + per]. + forgiefan (-gifan) (§ 115), _give, grant_. + forhęrgian (§ 130), _harry, lay waste_. + forhogdnis, f., _contempt_. + forht, _fearful, afraid_. + forhwæga, _about, at least_. + forlǣtan (§ 117), _abandon, leave_. + forlēt, forlēton, see forlǣtan. + forma, _first_; + forman sīðe, _the first time_ (instr.). + forniman (§ 114), _take off, destroy_. + forspęndan (§ 127), _spend, squander_. + forstǫndan (-standan) (§ 116), _understand_. + forswāpan (§ 117), _sweep away_; pret. 3d sing. indic., forswēop. + forswęrian (§ 116), _forswear_ (with dat.); past part., forsworen. + forð, _forth, forward_. + forðolian (§ 130), _miss, go without_ (with dat.) [not to _thole_ + or experience]. + forðweg, m., _way forth_; + in forðwege, _away_. + fōt (§ 68, (1)), m. _foot_. + Frǣna, m., _Frene_. + frætwe, f. pl., _fretted armor, jewels_ [fret]. + fram, see frǫm. + frēa, m., _lord, Lord_. + frēa-drihten, m., _lord, master_. + frēfran (§ 130), _console, cheer_ [frōfor]. + fręmde, _strange, foreign_; + ðā fręmdan, _the strangers_. + fręmman (§ 125), _accomplish, perform, support_ [to frame]. + fręmsumnes (-nis), f., _kindness, benefit_. + frēo (frīo), _free_; gen. pl., frēora (frīora). + frēodōm, m., _freedom_. + frēolīc, _noble_ [free-like]. + frēomǣg, m., _free kinsman_. + frēond (§ 68, (3)), m., _friend_. + frēondlēas, _friendless_. + frēondlīce, _in a friendly manner_. + frēorig, _cold, chill_ [frēoran]. + frīora, see frēo. + frið, m., n., _peace, security_ [bel-_fry_]. + frōd, _old, sage, prudent_. + frōfor, f., _comfort, consolation, alleviation_; + fyrena frōfre 137, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 629]] = _as an alleviation of + outrages_ (dat.). + frǫm (fram) (§ 94, (1)), _from, by_. + frǫm, adv., _away, forth_. + fruma, m., _origin, beginning_ [frǫm]. + frumsceaft, f., _creation_. + fugela, see fugol. + fugelere, m., _fowler_. + fugol (fugel), m., _fowl, bird_; gen. pl., fugela. + ful, n., _cup, beaker_. + fūl, _foul_. + fūlian (§ 130), _grow foul, decompose_. + full (ful), adj., _full_ (with gen.); + be fullan, _fully, perfectly_. + full (ful) adv., _fully, very_. + fultum, m., _help_. + furðor (furður), adv., _further_. + furðum, adv., _even_. + fylð, see feallan. + fyren (firen), f., _crime, violence, outrage_. + fyrhtu, f., _fright, terror_; dat. sing., fyrhtu. + fyrst, adj., superlative, _first, chief_. + fȳsan (§ 126), _make ready, prepare_ [fūs = _ready_]; + gūðe gefȳsed 137, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 631]] = _ready for battle_. + + +#G.# + + gād, n., _lack_. + gǣst, see gāst. + gafol, n., _tax, tribute_. + galan (§ 116), _sing_ [nightingale]. + gālnes, f., _lust, impurity_. + gān (§ 134), _go_. + gār, m., _spear_ [gore, gar-fish]. + gār-wiga, m., _spear-warrior_. + gāst (gǣst), m., _spirit, ghost_. + gāstlīc (gǣstlīc), _ghastly, terrible_. + ge, _and_; see ǣgðer. + gē, _ye_; see ðū. + geador, _together_. + geǣmetigian (§ 130), _disengage from_ (with acc. of person and gen. + of thing) [empty]. + geærnan (§ 127), _gain by running_ [iernan]. + gēap, _spacious_. + gēar, n., _year_; gen. pl., gēara, is used adverbially = _of yore, + formerly_. + gēardæg, m., _day of yore_. + geare (gearo, gearwe), _readily, well, clearly_ [yarely]. + Gēat, m., _a Geat, the Geat_ (i.e. Beowulf). + Gēatas, m. pl., _the Geats_ (a people of South Sweden). + Gēat-mecgas, m. pl., _Geat men_ (= the fourteen who accompanied + Beowulf to Heorot). + gebēorscipe, m., _banquet, entertainment_. + gebētan (§ 126), _make amends for_ [bōt]. + gebīdan (§ 102), _wait, bide one’s time_ (intrans.); _endure, + experience_ (trans., with acc.). + gebind, n., _commingling_. + gebindan (§ 110), _bind_. + gebrēowan (§ 109), _brew_. + gebrowen, see gebrēowan. + gebūd, gebūn, see būan (§ 126, Note 2). + gebyrd, n., _rank, social distinction_. + gecēosan (§ 109), _choose, decide_. + gecnāwan (§ 117), _know, understand_. + gecoren, see gecēosan. + gecringan (§ 110), _fall, die_ [cringe]. + gedǣlan (§ 126), _deal out, give_; + dēaðe gedǣlde 152, 7 [[_Wanderer_ 83]] = _apportioned to death_ + (dat.), or, _tore (?) in death_ (instr.). + gedafenian (§ 130), _become, befit, suit_ (impersonal, usually with + dat., but with acc. 112, 10). + gedīgan (§ 126), _endure, survive_. + gedōn (§ 135), _do, cause, effect_. + gedræg, n., _company_. + gedrēosan (§ 109), _fall, fail_. + gedriht (gedryht), n., _band, troop_. + gedrogen, see drēogan. + gedrync, n., _drinking_. + geęndian (§ 130), _end, finish_. + gefaran (§ 116), _go, die_. + gefēa, m., joy. + gefeaht, see gefeohtan. + gefeh, see gefēon. + gefēng, see gefōn. + gefeoht, n., _fight, battle_. + gefeohtan (§ 110), _fight_. + gefēon (§ 118, v.), _rejoice at_ (with dat.); pret. 3d sing., gefeah, + gefeh. + gefēra, m., _companion, comrade_ [co-farer]. + geflīeman (§ 126), _put to flight_ [flēon]. + gefohten, see gefeohtan. + gefōn (§ 118, vii.), _seize_. + gefōr, see gefaran. + gefrǣge, n., _hearsay, report_; + mīne gefrǣge (instr.) 141, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 777]] = _as I have heard + say, according to my information_. + gefręmman (§ 125), _perform, accomplish, effect_. + gefultumian (§ 130), _help_ [fultum]. + gefylce, n., _troop, division_ [folc]; dat. pl., gefylcum, gefylcium. + gefyllan (§ 127), _fill_ (with gen.); past part. pl., f., gefylda. + geglęngan (§ 127), _adorn_. + gehātland, n., _promised land_ [gehātan = _to promise_]. + gehealdan (§ 117), _hold, maintain_. + gehīeran (gehȳran) (§ 126), _hear_. + gehīersumnes, f., _obedience_. + gehola, m., _protector_ [helan]. + gehwā (§ 77, Note), _each_; + on healfa gehwone 142, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 801]] (see Note 140, 15 + [[_Beowulf_ 769]]. Observe that the pron. may, as here, be masc. + and the gen. fem.). + gehwæðer (§ 77, Note), _each, either, both_. + gehwylc (gehwilc) (§ 77, Note), _each_ (with gen. pl. See Note + 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]]). + gehwyrfan (§ 127), _convert, change_. + gehȳdan (§ 126), _hide, conceal, consign_. + gehygd, f., n., _thought, purpose_. + gehȳran, see gehīeran. + gehȳrnes, f., _hearing_; + eal ðā hē in gehȳrnesse geleornian meahte 115, 14 = _all things + that he could learn by hearing_. + gelǣdan (§ 126), _lead_. + gelǣred, part.-adj., _learned_; superlative, gelǣredest. + gelafian (§ 130), _lave_. + gelęnge, _along of, belonging to_ (with dat.). + geleornian (-liornian) (§ 130), _learn_. + gelīce, _likewise_; _in like manner to_ (with dat.). + gelīefan (gelȳfan) (§ 126), _believe_; + ðæt hēo on ǣnigne eorl gelȳfde 137, 6 [[_Beowulf_ 628]] = _that she + believed in any earl_. + gelimpan (§ 110), _happen, be fulfilled_. + gelimplīc, _proper, fitting_. + gelȳfan, see gelīefan. + gelȳfed, _weak, infirm_ [left (hand)]. + gēmde, see gīeman. + gemet, n., _meter, measure, ability_. + gemētan (§ 126), _meet_. + gemǫn, see gemunan. + gemunan (§ 136), _remember_; indic. pres. 1st and 3d sing., gemǫn; + pret. sing., gemunde. + gemynd, n., _memory, memorial_; + tō gemyndum 147, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2805]] = _as a memorial_. + gemyndgian (-mynian) (§ 130), _remember_; + mid hine gemyndgade 115, 15 = _he treasured in his memory_; + gemyne mǣrðo 138, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 660]] = _be mindful of glory_ + (imperative 2d sing.). + gemyndig, _mindful of_ (with gen.). + genāp, see genīpan. + geneahhe, _enough, often_; + genehost, superlative, _very often_. + genip, n., _mist, darkness_. + genīpan (§ 102), _grow dark_. + genīwian (§ 130), _renew_. + genōh, _enough_. + genumen, see niman. + geoc, n., _yoke_. + gēocor, _dire, sad_. + geogoð, f., _youth, young people, young warriors_. (See duguð.) + geond (giond) (§ 94, (2)), _throughout_ [yond]. + geondhweorfan (§ 110), _pass over, traverse, recall_; + ðonne māga gemynd mōd geondhweorfeð 150, 15 [[_Wanderer_ 51]] = + _then his mind recalls the memory of kinsmen_. + geondscēawian (§ 130), survey, review; + georne geondscēawað 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _eagerly surveys + them_. + geondðęnc(e)an (§ 128), _think over, consider_. + geong (§ 96, (2)), _young_; + giengest, (gingest), superlative, _youngest, latest, last_. + geong = gǫng, see gǫngan (imperative 2d sing.). + gēong (gīong), see gǫngan (pret. 3d sing.). + georn (giorn), _eager, desirous, zealous, sure_ [yearn]. + georne, _eagerly, certainly_; + wiste ðē geornor 143, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 822]] = _knew the more + certainly_. + geornfulnes, f., _eagerness, zeal_. + geornlīce, _eagerly, attentively_. + geornor, see georne. + geręcednes, f., _narration_ [ręccan]. + gerisenlīc, _suitable, becoming_. + gerȳman (§ 126), _extend_, (trans.) [rūm]. + gesǣliglīc, _happy, blessed_ [silly]. + gesamnode, see gesǫmnian. + gesceaft, f., _creature, creation, destiny_ [scieppan]. + gesceap, n., _shape, creation, destiny_ [scieppan]. + gescieldan (§ 127), _shield, defend_. + gesealde, see gesęllan. + geseglian (§ 130), _sail_. + geselda, m., _comrade_. + gesęllan (§ 128), _give_. + gesēon (gesīon) (§ 118), _see_, observe; pres. indic. 3d sing., + gesihð. + geset, n., _habitation, seat_. + gesęttan (§ 127), _set, place, establish_. + gesewen, see sēon, gesēon (past part.). + gesewenlīc, _seen, visible_ [seen-like]. + gesiglan (§ 127), _sail_. + gesihð, see gesēon. + gesittan (§ 115, Note 2), _sit_ (trans., as _to sit a horse, to sit + a boat_, etc.); _sit, sit down_ (intrans.). + geslægen, see slēan (§ 118). + gesǫmnian (§ 130), _assemble, collect_. + gesǫmnung, f., _collection, assembly_. + gestāh, see gestīgan. + gestaðelian (§ 130), _establish, restore_ [standan]. + gesteal, n., _establishment, foundation_ [stall]. + gestīgan (§ 102), _ascend, go_ [stile, stirrup, sty (= a _rising_ + on the eye)]. + gestrangian (§ 130), _strengthen_. + gestrēon, n., _property_. + gestrȳnan (§ 126), _obtain, acquire_ [gestrēon]. + gesweorcan (§ 110), _grow dark, become sad_; + For ðon ic geðęncan ne mæg geond ðās woruld for hwan mōdsefa mīn + ne gesweorce 151, 3-4 [[lines 58-59]] = _Therefore in this world + I may not understand wherefore my mind does not grow “black as + night.”_ (Brooke.) + geswīcan (§ 102), _cease, cease from_ (with gen.). + getæl, n., _something told, narrative_. + getruma, m., _troop, division_. + geðanc, m., n., _thought_. + geðeah, see geðicgan. + geðęnc(e)an (§ 128), _think, remember, understand, consider_. + geðēodan (§ 126), _join_. + geðēode (-ðīode), n., _language, tribe_. + geðēodnis, f., _association_; + but in 112, 2 this word is used to render the Lat. _appetitus_ = + _desire_. + geðicg(e)an (§ 115, Note 2), _take, receive_; pret. indic. 3d sing., + geðeah. + geðungen, part.-adj., _distinguished, excellent_ [ðēon, _to thrive_]. + geðyldig, _patient_ [ðolian]. + geweald (gewald), n., _control, possession, power_ [wield]. + geweorc, n., _work, labor_. + geweorðian (§ 130), _honor_ [to attribute _worth_ to]. + gewīcian (§ 130), _dwell_. + gewin(n), n., _strife, struggle_. + gewindan (§ 110), _flee_ [wend]. + gewissian (§ 130), _guide, direct_. + gewītan (§ 102), _go, depart_. + geworht, see gewyrcan. + gewrit, n., _writing, Scripture_. + gewunian (§ 130), _be accustomed, be wont_. + gewyrc(e)an (§ 128), _work, create, make, produce_. + gid(d), n., _word, speech_. + giefan (§ 115), _give_. + giefstōl, m., _gift-stool, throne_. + giefu (gifu), f., _gift_. + gielp (gilp), m., n., _boast_ [yelp]. + gīeman (gēman) (§ 126), _endeavor, strive_. + gīet (gīt, gȳt), _yet, still_. + gif (gyf), _if_ [not related to _give_]. + gifeðe (gyfeðe), _given, granted_. + gilp, see gielp. + gilp-cwide, m., _boasting speech_ [_yelp_-speech]. + gingest, see geong (adj.). + giohðo (gehðu), f., _care, sorrow, grief_. + giū (iū), _formerly, of old_. + glæd (glǣd), _glad_. + glēaw, _wise, prudent_. + glīwstæf, m., _glee, joy_; instr. pl. (used adverbially), + glīwstafum 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _joyfully_. + God, m., _God_. + gōd (§ 96, (3)), _good_; + mid his gōdum 115, 12 = _with his possessions (goods)_. + godcund, _divine_ [God]. + godcundlīce, _divinely_. + gold, n., _gold_. + gold-ǣht, f., _gold treasure_. + gold-fāh, _gold-adorned_. + gold-hroden, part.-adj., _gold-adorned_. + goldwine, m., _prince, giver of gold, lord_ [gold-friend]. + gomel (gomol), _old, old man_. + gǫngan (gangan) (§ 117), _go_ [gang]; imperative 2d sing., geong; + pret. sing., gēong, gīong, gēng; past part., gegǫngen, gegangen. + The most commonly used pret. is ēode, which belongs to gān (§ 134). + Gotland, n., _Jutland_ (in _Ohthere’s Second Voyage_), _Gothland_ + (in _Wulfstan’s Voyage_). + gram, _grim, angry, fierce, the angry one_. + grāp, f., _grasp, clutch, claw_. + grētan (§ 126), _greet, attack, touch_. + grōwan (§ 117, (2)), _grow_. + gryre-lēoð, n., _terrible song_ [grisly lay]. + guma, m., _man, hero_ [groom; see § 65, Note 1]. + gūð, f., _war, battle_. + gūð-bill, n., _sword_ [war-bill]. + gūð-gewǣde, n., _armor_ [war-weeds]. + gūð-hrēð, f., _war-fame_. + gūð-wine, m., _sword_ [war-friend]. + gyddian (§ 130), _speak formally_, chant [giddy; the original meaning + of _giddy_ was _mirthful_, as when one sings]. + gyf, see gif. + gyfeðe, see gifeðe. + gyldan (gieldan) (§ 110), _pay_; indic. 3d sing., gylt. + gylden, _golden_ [gold]. + + +#H.# + + habban (§ 133), _have_. + hād, m., _order, rank, office, degree_ [-hood, -head]. + hæfta, m., _captive_. + hægel (hagol), m., _hail_; instr. sing., hagle. + hæglfaru, f., _hail-storm_ [hail-faring]. + hæle, see hæleð. + hǣl, f., _hail, health, good luck_. + hæleð (hæle), m., _hero, warrior_. + hǣt, see hātan. + hǣðen, _heathen_. + Hǣðum (æt Hǣðum), _Haddeby_ (= _Schleswig_). + hāl, _hale, whole_. + hālettan (§ 127), _greet, salute_ [to hail]. + Halfdęne, _Halfdane_ (proper name). + hālga, m., _saint_. + Hālgoland, _Halgoland_ (in ancient Norway). + hālig, _holy_. + hālignes, f., _holiness_. + hām, m., _home_; dat. sing., hāme, hām (p. 104, Note); + used adverbially in hām ēode 112, 18 = _went home_. + hand, see hǫnd. + hār, _hoary, gray_. + hāt, _hot_. + hātan (§ 117, Note 2), _call, name, command_; pret. sing., heht, hēt. + hātheort, _hot-hearted_. + hātte, see hātan. + hē, hēo, hit (§ 53), _he, she, it_. + hēafod, n., _head_. + hēah (§ 96, (2)), _high_; acc. sing, m., hēanne. + hēah-sęle, m., _high hall_. + hēahðungen, _highly prosperous, aristocratic_ [hēah + past part. of + ðēon (§ 118)]. + healdan (§ 117), _hold, govern, possess_; + 144, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 2720]] = _hold up, sustain_. + healf, adj., _half_. + healf, f., _half, side, shore_. + heall, f., _hall_. + heals, m., _neck_. + hēan, _abject, miserable_. + hēanne, see hēah. + heard, _hard_. + heard-hicgende, _brave-minded_ [hard-thinking]. + hearm-scaða, m., _harmful foe_ [harm-scather]. + hearpe, f., _harp_. + heaðo-dēor, _battle-brave_. + heaðo-mǣre, _famous in battle_. + heaðo-wylm, m., _flame-surge, surging of fire_ [battle-welling]. + hēawan (§ 117), _hew, cut_. + hębban, hōf, hōfon, gehafen (§ 117), _heave, lift, raise_. + hęfig, _heavy, oppressive_. + heht, see hātan. + helan (§ 114), _conceal_. + hęll, f., _hell_. + helm, m., _helmet_. + Helmingas, m. pl., _Helmings_ (Wealtheow, Hrothgar’s queen, is a + Helming). + help, f., _help_. + helpan (§ 110), _help_ (with dat.). + heofon, m., _heaven_. + heofonlīc, _heavenly_. + heofonrīce, n., _kingdom of heaven_. + hēold, see healdan. + heolstor (-ster), n., _darkness, concealment, cover_ [holster]. + heora (hiera), see hē. + heord, f., care, guardianship [hoard]. + heoro-drēorig, _bloody_ [sword-dreary]. + Heorot, _Heorot, Hart_ (the famous hall which Hrothgar built). + heorte, f., _heart_. + hēr, _here, hither_; + in the _Chronicle_ the meaning frequently is _at this date, in this + year_: 99, 1. + hęre, m., _Danish army_. + hęrenis, f., _praise_. + hęrgian (§ 130), _raid, harry, ravage_ [hęre]. + hęrgung, f., _harrying, plundering_. + hęrian (hęrigean) (§ 125), _praise_. + hērsumedon, see hīersumian. + hēt, see hātan. + hider (hieder), _hither_. + hiera, see hē. + hīeran (hȳran) (§ 126), _hear, belong_. + hierde, m., _shepherd, instigator_ [keeper of a _herd_]. + hierdebōc, f., _pastoral treatise_ [shepherd-book, a translation of + Lat. _Cura Pastoralis_]. + hīerra, see hēah. + hīersumian (hȳr-, hēr-) (§ 130), _obey_ (with dat.). + hige (hyge), m., _mind, heart_. + hige-ðihtig, _bold-hearted_. + hild, f., _battle_. + hilde-dēor, _battle-brave_. + hilde-mecg, m., _warrior_. + hilde-sæd, _battle-sated_. + hin-fūs, _eager to be gone_ [hence-ready]. + hira, see hē. + hlǣw (hlāw), m., _mound, burial mound_ [Lud_low_ and other + place-names, _low_ meaning _hill_]. + hlāford, m., _lord, master_ [loaf-ward?]. + hleahtor, m., _laughter_. + hlēo, m., _refuge, protector_ [lee]. + hlīfian (§ 130), _rise, tower_. + hlyn, m., _din, noise_. + hlynsian (§ 130), _resound_. + hof, n., _court, abode_. + hogode, see hycgan. + holm, m., _sea, ocean_. + hǫnd (hand), f., _hand_; + on gehwæðre hǫnd, _on both sides_. + hord, m., n., _hoard, treasure_. + hordcofa, m., _breast, heart_ [hoard-chamber] + hors, n., _horse_. + horshwæl, m., _walrus_. + hrædwyrde, _hasty of speech_ [hræd = _quick_]. + hrægel, n., _garment_; dat. sing., hrægle. + hrān, m., _reindeer_. + hraðe, _quickly, soon_ [_rath_-er]. + hrēo (hrēoh), _rough, cruel, sad_. + hrēosan (§ 109), _fall_. + hrēran (§ 126), _stir_. + hreðer, m., n., _breast, purpose_; dat. sing., hreðre. + hrīm, m., _rime, hoarfrost_. + hrīmceald, _rime-cold_. + hring, m., _ring, ring-mail_. + hrīð, f. (?), _snow-storm_. + hrōf, m., _roof_. + Hrones næss, literally _Whale’s Ness, whale’s promontory_; + see næss. + hrūse, f., _earth_ [hrēosan: deposit]. + hryre, m., _fall, death_ [hrēosan]. + hrȳðer, n., _cattle_ [rinder-pest]. + hryðig, _ruined_ (?), _storm-beaten_; nom. pl. m., hryðge. + hū, _how_. + Humbre, f., _river Humber_. + hund, _hundred_. + hunig, n., _honey_. + hunta, m., _hunter_. + huntoð (-tað), m., _hunting_. + hūru, adv., _about_. + hūs, n., _house_. + hwā, hwæt (§ 74), _who?_ _what?_ swā hwæt swā (§ 77, Note), + _whatsoever_; + indefinite, _any one, anything_; + for hwan (instr.), _wherefore_. + hwæl, m., _whale_. + hwælhunta, m., _whale-hunter_. + hwælhuntað, m., _whale-fishing_. + hwǣr, _where?_ hwǣr ... swā, _wheresoever_; + wel hwǣr, _nearly everywhere_. + hwæthwugu, _something_. + hwæðer, _whether, which of two?_ + hwæðre, _however, nevertheless_. + hwēne, see hwōn. + hweorfan (§ 110), _turn, go_. + hwider, _whither_. + hwīl, f., _while, time_; + ealle ðā hwīle ðe, _all the while that_; + hwīlum (instr. pl.), _sometimes_. + hwilc (hwylc, hwelc) (§ 74, Note 1), _which?_ _what?_ + hwōn, n., _a trifle_; + hwēne (instr. sing.), _somewhat, a little_. + hwǫnan, _when_. + hȳ, see hīe. + hycgan (§ 132), _think, resolve_; pret. 3d sing., hogode. + hȳd, f., _hide, skin_. + hyge, see hige. + hyra (hiera), see hē. + hȳran, see hīeran. + hyrde, see hierde. + hys (his), see hē. + hyt (hit), see hē. + + +#I.# + + ic (§ 72), _I_. + īdel, _idle, useless, desolate_. + ides, f., _woman, lady_. + ieldra, adj., see eald. + ieldra, m., _an elder, parent, ancestor_. + iernan (yrnan) (§ 112), _run_. + īglǫnd (īgland), n., _island_. + ilca (ylca), _the same_ [of that ilk]. + Ilfing, _the Elbing_. + in, _in, into_ (with dat. and acc.); + in on, _in on, to, toward_. + inbryrdnis (-nes), f., _inspiration, ardor_. + indryhten, _very noble_. + ingǫng, m., _entrance_. + innan, adv., _within, inside_; + on innan, _within_. + innanbordes, adv.-gen., _within borders, at home_. + inne, adv., _within, inside_. + intinga, m., _cause, sake_. + inweardlīce, _inwardly, fervently_. + inwid-sorg (inwit-sorh), f., _sorrow caused by an enemy_. + inwit-ðanc, m., _hostile intent_. + Īraland, n., _Ireland_ (but in _Ohthere’s Second Voyage, Iceland_ is + probably meant). + īren, n., _iron, sword_; gen. pl., īrenna, īrena. + īren-bęnd, m., f., _iron-band_. + īu, see gīu. + + +#K.# + + kynerīce, see cynerīce. + kyning, see cyning. + kyrtel, m., _kirtle, coat_. + + +#L.# + + Lǣden, _Latin_. + Lǣdengeðēode (-ðīode), n., _Latin language_. + Lǣdenware (§ 47), m. pl., _Latin people, Romans_. + lǣfan (§ 126), _leave_. + lǣge, see licgan. + Lǣland, n., _Laaland_ (in Denmark). + lǣn, n., _loan_; + tō lǣne 121, 2 = _as a loan_. + lǣne, adj., _as a loan, transitory, perishable_. + lǣran (§ 126), _teach, advise, exhort_ [lār]. + lǣssa, lǣsta, see lȳtel. + lǣstan (§ 127), _last, hold out_ (intrans.); _perform, achieve_ + (trans.). + lǣtan (§ 117), _let, leave_. + lāf, f., _something left, remnant, heirloom_ (often a _sword_); + tō lāfe, _as a remnant, remaining_. + lagulād, f., _sea_ [lake-way, lād = _leading, direction, way_]. + land, see lǫnd. + lang, see lǫng. + Langaland, n., _Langeland_ (in Denmark). + lār, f., _lore, teaching_. + lārcwide, m., _precept, instruction_, [cwide < cweðan]. + lārēow, m., _teacher_ [lār + ðēow]. + lāst, m., _track, footprint_ [shoemaker’s last]; + on lāst(e), _in the track of, behind_ (with dat.). + lāð, _loathsome, hateful_. + lēas, _loose, free from, bereft of_ (with gen.). + lēasung, f., _leasing, deception, falsehood_. + lęcgan (§ 125, Note), _lay_. + lēfdon, see līefan. + leger, n., _lying in, illness_ [licgan]. + lęng, see lǫnge. + lęngra, see lǫng. + lēod, m., _prince, chief_. + lēod, f., _people, nation_ (the plural has the same meaning). + lēod-scipe, m., _nation_ [people-ship]. + lēof, _dear_ [lief]. + leoht, adj., _light_. + lēoht, n., _light, brightness_. + leornere, m., _learner, disciple_. + leornian (§ 130), _learn_. + leornung (liornung), f., _learning_. + lēoð, n., _song_ [lay?]. + lēoðcræft, m., _poetic skill_ [lay-craft]. + lēoðsǫng, n., _song, poem_. + lēt, see lǣtan. + libban (§ 133), _live_; pres. part., lifigende, _living, alive_. + līc, n., _body, corpse_ [lich-gate, Lichfield]. + licgan (§ 115, Note 2), _lie, extend, flow, lie dead_; 3d sing. + indic. pres., ligeð, līð. + līchama (-hǫma), m., _body_ [body-covering]. + līcian (§ 130), _please_ (with dat.) [like]. + līc-sār, n., _body-sore, wound in the body_. + līefan (lēfan) (§ 126), _permit, allow_ (with dat.) [grant _leave_ + to]. + līf, n., _life_. + līf-dagas, m. pl., _life-days_. + lifigende, see libban. + līg, m., _flame, fire_. + ligeð, see licgan. + lim, n., _limb_. + list, f., _cunning_; + dat. pl., listum, is used adverbially = _cunningly_. + līð, see licgan. + lof, m., _praise, glory_. + lǫnd (land), n., _land, country_. + lǫng (lang) (§ 96, (2)), _long_. + lǫnge (lange) (§ 97, (2)), _long_; + lǫnge on dæg, _late in the day_. + lufan, see lufu. + lufian (lufigean) (§ 131), _love_. + luflīce, _lovingly_. + lufu, f., _love_; dat. sing. (weak), lufan. + lungre, _quickly_. + lust, m., _joy_ [lust]; + on lust, _joyfully_. + lȳt, indeclinable, _little, few_ (with partitive gen.). + lȳtel (lītel) (§ 96, (2)), _little, small_. + + +#M.# + + mā, see micle (§ 97, (2)). + mæg, see magan. + mǣg, m., _kinsman_; nom. pl., māgas (§ 27, (2)). + mægen n., _strength, power_ [might and _main_]. + mægen-ęllen, n., _main strength, mighty courage_. + mǣgð, f., _tribe_. + mægðhād, m., _maidenhood, virginity_. + mǣl-gesceaft, f., _appointed time_ [mǣl = _meal, time_]. + mǣran (§ 126), _make famous, honor_. + mǣre, _famous, glorious, notorious_. + mǣrðo (mǣrðo, mǣrð), f., _glory, fame_. + mæsseprēost, m., _mass-priest_. + mǣst, see micel. + magan (§ 137), _be able, may_. + māgas, see mǣg. + magu (mago), m., _son, man_. + maguðegn, m., _vassal, retainer_. + man(n), see mǫn(n). + mancus, m., _mancus, half-crown_; gen. pl., mancessa. + māndǣd, f., _evil deed_. + manig, see mǫnig. + manigfeald, see mǫnigfeald. + māra, see micel. + maðelian (§ 130), _harangue, speak_. + māðum (māððum), m., _gift, treasure, jewel_; gen. pl., māðma. + māððumgyfa, m., _treasure-giver, lord_. + māððum-wela, m., _wealth of treasure_. + mē, see ic. + meaht, f., _might, power_. + meahte, see magan. + mearc, f., _boundary, limit_ [mark, march]. + mearg (mearh), m., _horse_; nom. pl., mēaras. + mearð, m., _marten_. + mec, see ic. + medmicel, _moderately large, short, brief_. + medu (medo), m., _mead_. + medu-bęnc, f., _mead-bench_. + medu-ful, n., _mead-cup_. + medu-heall, f., _mead-hall_. + męn, see mǫn(n). + męngan (§ 127), _mingle, mix_. + męnigu (męnigeo), f., _multitude_ [many]. + męnniscnes, f., _humanity, incarnation_ [man]. + meolc, f., _milk_. + Mēore, _Möre_ (in Sweden). + męre, m., _lake, mere, sea_ [mermaid]. + Meretūn, m., _Merton_ (in Surrey). + mētan (§ 126), _meet, find_. + Metod (Meotod, Metud), m., _Creator, God_. + metod-sceaft, f., _appointed doom, eternity_. + micel (§ 96, (3)), _great, mighty, strong, large_ [mickle]; + māra, _more, stronger, larger_. + micle (micele), _greatly, much_. + miclum, (§ 93, (4)), _greatly_. + mid, _with, amid, among_ (with dat. and acc.). + middangeard, m., _earth, world_ [middle-yard]. + middeweard, _midward, toward the middle_. + Mierce, m. pl., _Mercians_. + mihte, see _magan_. + mīl, f., _mile_ [Lat. mille]. + mildheortnes, f., _mild-heartedness, mercy_. + milts, f., _mildness, mercy_. + mīn (§ 76), _my, mine_. + mislīc, _various_. + missenlīc, _various_. + mōd, n., _mood, mind, courage_. + mōdcearig, _sorrowful of mind_. + mōdega, mōdga, see mōdig. + mōdgeðanc, m., _purpose of mind_. + mōdig, _moody, brave, proud_. + mōdor, f., _mother_. + mōdsefa, m., _mind, heart_. + mǫn(n) (man, mann) (§ 68; § 70, Note), m., _man, one, person, they_. + mōna, m., _moon_. + mōnað (§ 68, (1), Note), m., _month_ [mōna]; dat. sing., mōnðe. + mǫn(n)cynn, n., _mankind_. + mǫndryhten, m., _liege lord_. + mǫnian (manian) (§ 130), _admonish_. + mǫnig (manig, mǫneg, mænig), _many_. + mǫnigfeald (manig-), _manifold, various_. + mōnðe, see mōnað. + mōr, m., _moor_. + morgen, m., _morning_; dat. sing., morgen(n)e. + morðor-bealu (-bealo), n., _murder_ [murder-bale]; + see ðurfan. + mōste, see mōtan. + mōtan (§ 137), _may, be permitted, must_. + mund-gripe, m., _hand-grip_. + munuc, m., _monk_ [Lat. monachus]. + munuchād, m., _monkhood, monastic rank_. + mūð, m., _mouth_. + myntan (§ 127), _be minded, intend_; pret. indic. 3d sing., mynte. + mynster, n., _monastery_ [Lat. monasterium]; dat. sing., mynstre. + mȳre, f., _mare_ [mearh]. + myrð, f., _joy, mirth_; + mōdes myrðe 142, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 811]] = _with joy of heart_. + + +#N.# + + nā (nō), _not_ [ne ā = _n-ever_]; + nā ne, _not, not at all_. + nabban (p. 32, Note), _not to have_. + nǣdre, f., _serpent, adder_. + næfde, see nabban. + nǣfre, _never_. + nǣnig (§ 77), _no one, no, none_. + nǣre, nǣren, nǣron, see § 40, Note 2. + næs = ne wæs, see § 40, Note 2. + næss, m., _ness, headland_. + nāht, see nōht. + nālæs (nāles), _not at all_ [nā ealles]. + nam, see niman. + nama, see nǫma. + nāmon, see niman. + nān, _not one, no, none_ [ne ān]. + nānwuht, n., _nothing_ [no whit]. + ne, _not_. + nē, _nor_; + nē ... nē, _neither ... nor_. + nēah (§ 96, (4)), _near_. + nēah, adv., _nigh, near, nearly, almost_; comparative, nēar, _nearer_. + neaht, see niht. + nēalēcan (-lǣcan) (§ 126), _draw near to, approach_ (with dat.). + nēar, see nēah, adv. + nēat, n., _neat, cattle_. + nęmnan (§ 127), _name_. + nemðe, (nymðe), _except, unless_. + nęrian (§ 125), _save, preserve_. + nēten, see nīeten. + nīedbeðearf, _needful, necessary_. + nīehst, see nēah (§ 96, (4)). + nīeten (nēten), n., _neat, beast, cattle_. + nigontīene, _nineteen_. + niht (neaht) (§ 68, (1), Note), _night_. + nihthelm, m., _night-helm, shade of night_. + nihtscūa, m., _shadow of night_. + niht-weorc, n., _night-work_. + niman (§ 114), _take, gain_ [nimble, numb]. + nīpan (§ 102), _grow dark, darken_. + nis, see § 40, Note 2. + nīð, m., _malice, violence_. + nīwe, _new, novel, startling_. + nō, see nā. + nōht (nāht, nā-wiht), n., _not a whit, naught, nothing_; _not, not + at all_. + nōhwæðer (nāhwæðer), _neither_; + nōhwæðer nē ... ne ... nē ... ne 118, 8 = _neither ... nor_. + nolde, noldon = ne wolde, ne woldon, see willan. + nǫma (nama), m., _name_. + norð (§ 97, (1)), _north, in the north, northwards_. + norðan (§ 93, (5)), _from the north_; + be norðan, see § 94, (4). + Norð-Dęne, m. pl., _North-Danes_. + norðeweard, _northward_. + Norðhymbre, m. pl., _Northumbrians_. + Norðmanna, see Norðmǫn. + Norðmęn, see Norðmǫn. + norðmest, see norð. + Norðmǫn (-man) (§ 68, (1)), _Norwegian_. + norðor, see norð. + norðryhte, _northward_. + norðweard, _northward_. + Norðweg, _Norway_. + nose, f., _cape, naze_ [ness, nose]. + notu, f., _office, employment_. + nū, _now_; _now that, seeing that_; + nū ðā 138, 13 [[_Beowulf_ 658]] = _now then_. + nȳhst (nīehst), see nēah. + nymðe, see nemðe. + nysse, see nytan. + nyste, see nytan. + nyt(t), _useful, profitable_. + nytan (nitan < ne witan, § 136), _not to know_; 3d sing. pret., + nysse, nyste. + + +#O.# + + of (§ 94, (1)), _of, from, concerning_. + ofer (§ 94, (2)), _over, across, after, in spite of_ (see 144, 14 + [[_Beowulf_ 2725]]); + ofer eorðan 142, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 803]] = _on earth_. + ofer, adv., _over, across_. + oferfēran (§ 126), _go over, traverse_. + oferfrēosan (§ 109), _freeze over_. + oferfroren, see oferfrēosan. + ofgiefan (§ 115), _give up, relinquish_. + ofost, f., _haste_. + ofslægen, see ofslēan. + ofslēan (§ 118), _slay off, slay_. + ofslōge, see ofslēan. + oft, _oft, often_; superlative, oftost. + on (§ 94, (3)), _in, into, on, against, to, among, during_; + on fīf oððe syx 109, 6 = _into five or six parts_; + on weg 140, 10 [[_Beowulf_ 764]] = _away_; + on innan 144, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2716]] = _within_; + on unriht 145, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 2740]] = _falsely_. + onbærnan (§ 126), _kindle, inspire_. + oncȳðð, f., _distress, suffering_. + ǫnd (and), _and_. + ǫndsaca, m., _adversary_. + ǫndswarian (§ 130), _answer_. + ǫndweard, adj., _present_. + onfēng, see onfōn. + onfeohtan (§ 110), _fight_. + onfindan (§ 110), _find out, discover_; pret. indic. 3d sing., + onfunde. + onfōn (§ 118), _receive, seize violently_. + onfunde, see onfindan. + ongēan, prep., _against, towards_ (with dat. and acc.). + ongēan, adv., _just across, opposite_. + Ǫngelcynn (Angel-), n., _Angle kin, English people, England_. + Ǫngelðēod (Angel-), f., _the English people or nation_. + ongemang (-mǫng), _among_ (with dat.). + ongietan (-gitan) (§ 115), _perceive, see, understand_. + onginnan (§ 110), _begin, attempt_. + onlūtan (§ 109), _bow, incline_ (intrans.) [lout = a stooper]. + onrīdan (§ 102), _ride against, make a raid on_. + onsęndan (§ 127), _send_. + onslǣpan (onslēpan) (§ 126), _fall asleep, sleep_. + onspǫnnan (§ 117), _loosen_ [unspan]; pret. 3d sing. indic., onspēon. + onspringan (§ 110), _spring apart, unspring_. + onstāl, m., _institution, supply_. + onstęllan (§ 128), _establish_; pret. 3d sing. indic., onstealde. + onwæcnan (§ 127), _awake_ (intrans.). + onweald (-wald), m., _power, authority_ [wield]. + onwęndan (§ 127), _change, overturn_ [to wind]. + ōr, n., _beginning_. + oð (§ 94, (2)), _until, as far as_ (of time and place); + oð ðæt, oð ðe, _until_. + oðberan (§ 114), _bear away_. + ōðer, _other, second_; + ōðer ... ōðer, _the one ... the other_. + oðfæstan (§ 127), _set to_ (a task). + oðfeallan (§ 117) _fall off, decline_. + oððe, _or_; + oððe ... oððe, _either ... or_. + + +#P.# + + plega, m., _play, festivity_. + port, m., _port_ [Lat. portus]. + + +#R.# + + rād, f., _raid_. + rǣcan (§ 126), _reach_; pret. 3d sing., rǣhte. + ræst, see ręst. + Rēadingas, m. pl., _Reading_ (in Berkshire). + ręccan (§ 128), _narrate, tell_; pret. pl. indic., ręhton, reahton. + ręccelēas, _reckless, careless_. + ręced, n., _house, hall_. + regnian (rēnian) (§ 130), _adorn, prepare_; past part., geregnad. + regollīc (-lec), _according to rule, regular_. + rēn-weard, m., _mighty warden, guard, champion_. + ręst (ræst), f., _rest, resting-place, bed_. + rēðe, _fierce, furious_. + rīce, _rich, powerful, aristocratic_. + rīce, n., _realm, kingdom_ [bishopric]. + rīcsian (§ 130), _rule_. + rīdan (§ 102), _ride_. + rīman (§ 126), _count_ [rime]. + rinc, m., _man, warrior_. + rōd, f., _rood, cross_; + rōde tācen, _sign of the cross_. + Rōmware, m. pl., _Romans_. + rǫnd (rand), m., _shield_. + rūn, f., _rune, secret meditation_ [to round = to whisper]. + rycene (ricene), _quickly, rashly_. + ryhtnorðanwind, m., _straight north-wind_. + + +#S.# + + sǣ, f., _sea_. + sǣ-bāt, m., _sea-boat_. + sǣd, n., _seed_. + sǣde, see sęcgan. + sǣl, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly]; + on sǣlum 137, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 644]] = _joyous, merry_. + sǣlan (§ 126), _bind_. + sǣ-līðend (§ 68, (3)), m., _seafarer_ (nom. and acc. pl. same as + nom. and acc. sing.). + sam ... sam, _whether ... or_. + same, _similarly_; + swā same, _just the same, in like manner_. + samod, see sǫmod. + sanct, m., f., _saint_ [Lat. sanctus]; gen. sing., sanctæ, f., + sancti, m. + sang, see sǫng. + sār, f., n., _sore, pain, wound_. + sār, adj., _sore, grievous_. + sāre, _sorely_. + sāwan (§ 117,) _sow_. + sāwol, f., _soul_; oblique cases, sing., sāwle (§ 39, Note). + scacan (sceacan) (§ 116), _shake, go, depart_; past part., scacen, + sceacen. + scadu-helm, m., _cover of night, shadow-covering_ [shadow-helm]; + scadu-helma gesceapu, see Note on 138, 2-6 [[lines 647-51]]. + sceal, see sculan. + scēap, n., _sheep_. + scēat, m., _corner, region, quarter_ [sheet]; + eorðan scēatta 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in the regions of earth_ + (gen. used as locative). + scēawi(g)an (§ 130), _view, see_ [shew]. + scēawung, f., _seeing_. + sceolde, see sculan. + scēop (scōp), see scieppan. + scēowyrhta, m., _shoe-maker_. + scęððan (§ 116), _injure, scathe_ (with dat.). + scieppan (§ 116), _create_. + Scieppend, m., _Creator_. + scīnan (§ 102), _shine_. + scip (scyp), n., _ship_. + scipen, n., _stall_. + sciprāp, m., _ship-rope, cable_. + scīr, f., _shire, district_. + Sciringeshēal, m., _Sciringesheal_ (in Norway). + scolde, see sculan. + scǫmu, f., _shame, dishonor_. + Scōnēg, f., _Skaane_ (southern district of the Scandinavian + peninsula). + scopgereord, n., _poetic language_. + scrīðan (§ 102), _stride, stalk_. + sculan (§ 136; § 137, Note 2), _shall, have to, ought_. + Scyldingas, m. pl., _Scyldings, Danes_. + scyp, see scip. + Scyppend, see Scieppend. + sē, sēo, ðæt (§ 28; § 28, Note 3), _the_; _that_; _he, she, it_; + _who, which, that_; + ðæs, _from then, afterwards, therefore_; + ðæs ðe (p. 110, l. 2), _with what_; + ðȳ ... ðæt (p. 110, ll. 7-8), _for this reason ... because_; + tō ðǣm ... swā, _to such an extent ... as_; + ðy (ðē), _the_ (adverbial, with comparatives); + ðȳ ... ðȳ, _the ... the_. + seah, see sēon. + sealde, see sęllan. + searo-gimm, m., _artistic gem, jewel_. + searo-nīð, m., _cunning hatred, plot_. + searo-ðǫnc, m., _cunning thought, device_. + Seaxe, m. pl., _Saxons, Saxony_. + sēc(e)an (§ 128), _to seek, visit, meet_. + sęcg, m., _man, warrior_. + sęcgan (§ 132), _say, tell_. + sefa, m., _mind, spirit_. + sēfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sōfte). + segel, m., n., _sail_; dat. sing. = segle. + seglian (§ 130), _sail_. + sęle, m., _hall_. + sęledrēam, m., _hall joy, festivity_. + sęle-ful, n., _hall cup_. + sęlesęcg, m., _hall warrior, retainer_. + sēlest, _best_ (no positive). + self (sylf), _self, himself_ (declined as strong or weak adjective). + sęllan (syllan) (§ 128), _give_ [sell, han(d)sel]. + sęmninga, _forthwith, straightway_. + sęndan (§ 127), _send_. + sēo, see sē. + sēoc, _sick_. + seofon (syfan), _seven_. + seolh, m., _seal_; gen. sing. = sēoles (§ 27, (3)). + sēon (§ 118), _see, look_. + seonu, f., _sinew_; nom. pl., seonowe. + sess, m., _seat_. + sibb, f., _friendship, peace_ [gos_sip_]. + sidu (siodu), m., _custom, morality, good conduct_. + sīe, see bēon. + siex, _six_; + syxa (siexa) sum, see sum. + siextig, _sixty_. + sige, m., _victory_. + sige-folc, n., _victorious people_. + sige-lēas, _victory-less, of defeat_. + sige-rōf, victory-famed, _victorious_. + sige-wǣpen, n., _victory-weapon_. + siglan (§ 127), _sail_. + Sillende, _Zealand_. + sinc, n., _treasure, prize_. + sinc-fǣt, n., see 137, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 623]] [treasure-vat]. + sinc-ðęgu, f., _receiving of treasure_ [ðicgan]. + sind, sint, sindon, see bēon. + singan (§ 110), _sing_. + sittan (§ 115, Note 2), _sit, take position_. + sīð, m., _journey, time_; + forman sīðe 139, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 741]] = _the first time_ (instr. + sing.). + sīðian (§ 130), _journey_. + siððan, _after that, afterwards, after_. + slǣp, m., _sleep_. + slǣpan (§ 117), _sleep_. + slēan (§ 118), _slay_ [slow-worm]. + slītan (§ 102), _slit, tear to pieces_. + slīðen, _savage, perilous_. + smæl, _narrow_. + smalost, see smæl. + snāw, m., _snow_. + snot(t)or, _wise, prudent_. + sōhte, see sēcan. + sǫmod (samod), _together_. + sōna, _soon_. + sǫng, m., n., _song, poem_. + sǫngcræft, m., _art of song and poetry_. + sorg (sorh), f., _sorrow_. + sōð, _true_. + sōð, n., _truth_; + tō sōðe, _for a truth, truly, verily_. + sōð-fæst, _truthful, just_. + sōðlīce, _truly_. + spēd, f., _possessions, success, riches_ [speed]. + spēdig, _rich, prosperous_. + spell, n., _story, tale_ [gospel]. + spēow, see spōwan. + spere, n., _spear_. + spor, n., _track, footprint_. + spōwan (§ 117), _succeed_ (impersonal with dat.). + sprǣc, f., _speech, language_. + sprecan (§ 115), _speak_. + spyrian (spyrigean) (§ 130), _follow_ (intrans.) [spor]. + stæf, _staff, rod_; pl. = _literature, learning_. + stælhrān, m., _decoy-reindeer_. + stælwierðe, _serviceable_ (see p. 56, Note 2). + stǣr, n., _story, narrative_ [Lat. historia]. + stæð, n., _shore_. + stān, m., _stone, rock_. + stān-boga, m., _stone-arch_ [stone-bow]. + standan, see stǫndan. + stānhlið (-hleoð), n., _stone-cliff_. + stapol, m., _column_ [staple]. + starian (§ 125), _stare, gaze_. + stęde, m., _place_. + stelan (§ 114), _steal_. + stęnt, see stǫndan. + stēorbord, n., _starboard, right side of a ship_. + stęppan (§ 116), _step, advance_; pret. indic. 3d sing., stōp. + stilnes, f., _stillness, quiet_. + stǫndan (§ 116), _stand_. + stōp, see stęppan. + storm, m., _storm_. + stōw, f., _place_ [stow, and in names of places]. + strang, see strǫng. + stręngest, see strǫng. + strǫng (§ 96, (2)), _strong_. + styccemǣlum, _here and there_. + sum (§ 91, Note 2), _some, certain, a certain one_; + hē syxa sum 104, 25 = _he with five others_. + sumera, see sumor. + sumor, m., _summer_; dat. sing. = sumera. + sumorlida, m., _summer-army_. + sundor, _apart_. + sunne, f., _sun_. + sunu, m., _son_. + sūð, _south, southwards_. + sūðan (§ 93, (5)), _from the south_; + be sūðan, _south of_ (§ 94, (4)). + sūðeweard, _southward_. + sūðryhte, _southward_. + swā (swǣ), _so, as, how, as if_; + swā swā, _just as, as far as_; + swā ... swā, _the ... the, as ... as_; + swā hwæt swā, _whatsoever_ (§ 77, Note). + swǣs, _beloved, own_. + swæð, n., _track, footprint_ [swath]. + swaðul, m.? n.?, _smoke_. + swealh, see swelgan. + swefan (§ 115), _sleep, sleep the sleep of death_. + swefn, n., _sleep, dream_. + swēg, m., _sound, noise_. + swegle, _bright, clear_. + swēlan (§ 126), _burn_ [sweal]. + swelgan (§ 110), _swallow_; pret. indic. 3d sing., swealh; subj., + swulge. + swellan (§ 110), _swell_. + Swēoland, n., _Sweden_. + Swēom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_. + sweotol, _clear_. + sweotole, _clearly_. + swęrian (§ 116), _swear_. + swēte, _sweet_. + swētnes (-nis), f., _sweetness_. + swift (swyft), _swift_. + swilc (swylc) (§ 77), _such_. + swilce, _in such manner, as, likewise_; _as if, as though_ (with + subj.). + swimman (§ 110), _swim_. + swīn (swȳn), n., _swine, hog_. + swīnsung, f., _melody, harmony_. + swīðe (swȳðe), _very, exceedingly, greatly_. + swīðost, _chiefly, almost_. + swōr, see swęrian. + swulge, see swelgan. + swuster (§ 68, (2)), f., _sister_. + swylce (swelce), see swilce. + swȳn, see swīn. + swynsian (§ 130), _resound_. + swȳðe, see swīðe. + swȳð-ferhð, _strong-souled_. + sylf, see self. + syll, f., _sill, floor_. + syllan, see sęllan. + symbel, n., _feast, banquet_. + symle, _always_. + synd, see bēon. + syn-dolh, n., _ceaseless wound, incurable wound_. + syndriglīce, _specially_. + synn, f., _sin_. + syn-scaða, m., _ceaseless scather, perpetual foe_. + syn-snǣd, f., _huge bit_ [ceaseless bit]. + syððan, see siððan. + syx, see siex. + syxtig, see siextig. + + +#T.# + + tācen, n., _sign, token_; dat. sing., tācne (§ 33, Note). + tǣcan (§ 128), _teach_. + tam, _tame_. + tela, _properly, well_ [til]. + tęllan (§ 128), _count, deem_ [tell]; pret. 3d sing., tealde. + Tęmes, f., _the Thames_. + tēon, _arrange, create_; pret. sing., tēode. + Terfinna, m., gen. pl., _the Terfins_. + tēð, see tōð. + tīd, f., _tide, time, hour_. + tīen (tȳn), _ten_. + til(l), _good_. + tīma, m., _time_. + tintreglīc, _full of torment_. + tō (§ 94, (1)), _to, for, according to, as_; + tō hrōfe 114, 2 = _for (as) a roof_ [cf. Biblical _to wife_, + modern _to boot_]. + tō, adv., _too_. + tōbrecan (p. 81, Note 2), _break to pieces, knock about_. + tōdǣlan (§ 126), _divide_. + tōemnes (tō emnes) (§ 94, (4)), _along, alongside_. + tōforan (§ 94, (1)), _before_. + tōgeðēodan (§ 126), _join_. + tōhopa, m., _hope_. + tōlicgan (§ 115, Note 2), _separate, lie between_; 3d sing, indic. + = tōlīð. + tōlīð, see tōlicgan. + tolūcan (§ 109, Note 1), _destroy_ [the prefix tō reverses the + meaning of lūcan, _to lock_]. + torn, m., _anger, insult_. + tōð (§ 68, (1)), m., _tooth_. + tōweard (§ 94, (1)), _toward_. + tōweard, adj., _approaching, future_. + trēow, f., _pledge, troth_. + trēownes, f., _trust_. + Trūsō, _Drausen_ (a city on the Drausensea). + tūn, m., _town, village_. + tunge, f., _tongue_. + tūngerēfa, m., _bailiff_ [town-reeve; so sheriff = shire-reeve]. + tungol, n., _star_. + twā, see twēgen. + twēgen, (§ 89), _two, twain_. + twēntig, _twenty_. + tȳn, see tīen. + + +#Ð.# + + ðā, _then, when_; + ðā ... ðā, _when ... then_; + ðā ðā, _then when_ = _when_. + ðā, see sē. + ðǣr, _there, where_; + ðǣr ðǣr, _there where_ = _where_; + ðǣr ... swā 142, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 798]] = _wheresoever_; 145, 6 + [[_Beowulf_ 2731]] = _if so be that_. + ðæs, _afterwards, therefore, thus, because_; + see sē. + ðæt (ðætte = ðæt ðe), _that, so that_. + ðafian (§ 130), _consent to_. + ðanc, see ðǫnc. + ðancian (ðǫncian) (§ 130), _thank_. + ðanon, see ðǫnan. + ðās, see ðēs. + ðē, see sē (instr. sing.) and ðū. + ðe (§ 75), _who, whom, which, that_. + ðēah, _though, although_; + ðēah ðe, _though, although_. + ðearf, see ðurfan. + ðearf, f., _need, benefit_. + ðēaw, m., _habit, custom_ [thews]. + ðegn (ðegen), m., _servant, thane, warrior_. + ðęnc(e)an (§ 128), _think, intend_. + ðening (-ung), f., _service_; + the pl. may mean _book of service_ (117, 17). + ðēod, f., _people, nation_. + ðēoden, m., _prince, lord_. + ðēodscipe, m., _discipline_. + ðēon (ðȳwan) (§ 126), _oppress_ [ðēow]. + ðēow, m., _servant_. + ðēowa, m., _servant_. + ðēowotdōm (ðīowot-), m., _service_. + ðēs (§ 73), _this_. + ðider, _thither_. + ðiderweard, _thitherward_. + ðīn (§ 76), _thine_. + ðing, n., _thing_; + ǣnige ðinga, see 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note. + ðingan (§ 127), _arrange, appoint_. + ðis, see ðēs. + ðissum, see ðēs. + ðōhte, ðōhton, see ðęncean. + ðolian (§ 130), _endure_ [thole]. + ðǫnan, _thence_. + ðǫnc, m., _thanks_. + ðone, see sē. + ðonne, _than, then, when_; + ðonne ... ðonne, _when ... then_. + ðrāg, f., _time_. + ðrēa-nȳd, f., _compulsion, oppression, misery_ [throe-need]. + ðrēora, see ðrīe. + ðridda, _third_. + ðrie (ðrȳ) (§ 89), _three_. + ðrīm, see ðrīe. + ðrīst-hȳdig, _bold-minded_. + ðrītig, _thirty_. + ðrōwung, f., _suffering_. + ðrȳ, see ðrīe. + ðrym(m), m., _renown, glory, strength_. + ðrȳð, f., _power, multitude_ (pl. used in sense of sing.); + asca ðrȳðe 152, 23 [[_Wanderer_ 99]] = _the might of spears_. + ðrȳð-ærn, n., _mighty house, noble hall_. + ðrȳð-word, n., _mighty word, excellent discourse_. + ðū (§ 72), _thou_. + ðūhte, see ðyncan. + ðurfan (§ 136), _need_; pres. indic. 3d sing., ðearf; pret. 3d sing., + ðorfte; + for-ðām mē wītan ne ðearf Waldend fīra morðor-bealo māga 145, 17 + [[_Beowulf_ 2742]] = _therefore the Ruler of men need not charge + me with the murder of kinsmen_. + ðurh (§ 94, (2)), _through_. + ðus, _thus_. + ðūsend, _thousand_. + ðȳ, see sē. + ðyder, see ðider. + ðyncan (§ 128), _seem, appear_ (impersonal); + mē ðyncð, _methinks, it seems to me_; + him ðūhte, _it seemed to him_. + + +#U.# + + ūhta, m., _dawn_; gen. pl., ūhtna. + unbeboht, _unsold_ [bebycgan = _to sell_]. + uncūð, _unknown, uncertain_ [uncouth]. + under, _under_ (with dat. and acc.). + understǫndan (§ 116), _understand_. + underðēodan (-ðīedan) (§ 126), _subject to_; + past part. underðēoded = _subjected to, obedient to_ (with dat.). + unforbærned, _unburned_. + unfrið, m., _hostility_. + ungefōge, _excessively_. + ungemete, _immeasurably, very_. + ungesewenlīc, _invisible_ [past part. of sēon + līc]. + unlyfigend, _dead, dead man_ [unliving]. + unlȳtel, _no little, great_. + unriht, n., _wrong_; + on unriht, see on. + unrihtwīsnes, f., _unrighteousness_. + unspēdig, _poor_. + unwearnum, _unawares_. + ūp (ūpp), _up_. + ūpāstīgnes, f., _ascension_ [stīgan]. + ūp-lang, _upright_. + ūre (§ 76), _our_. + usses = gen. sing. neut. of ūser, see ic. + ūt, _out, outside_. + ūtan, _from without, outside_. + ūtanbordes, _abroad_. + ūtgǫng, m., _exodus_. + uton, _let us_ (with infin.) [literally _let us go_ with infin. of + purpose (see 137, 19-20, Note [[lines 641-42]]); uton = wuton, + corrupted form of 1st pl. subj. of wītan, _to go_]. + ūt-weard, _outward bound, moving outwards_. + + +#W.# + + wāc, _weak, insignificant_. + wacian (§ 130), _watch, be on guard_; imperative sing., waca. + wadan (§ 116), _go, tread_ [wade]. + wǣg, m., _wave_. + Wǣgmundigas, m. _Wægmundings_ (family to which Beowulf and Wiglaf + belonged). + wæl, n., _slaughter, the slain_. + wæl-blēat, _deadly_ [slaughter-pitiful]. + wælgīfre, _greedy for slaughter_. + wæl-rǣs, m., _mortal combat_ [slaughter-race]. + wæl-rēow, _fierce in strife_. + wælsliht (-sleaht), m., _slaughter_. + wælstōw, f., _battle-field_ [slaughter-place]; + wælstōwe gewald, _possession of the battle-field_. + wǣpen, n., _weapon_. + wǣre, see bēon. + wæs, see bēon. + wæter, n., _water_. + waldend, see _wealdend_. + wan (wǫn), _wan, dark_. + wanhȳdig, _heedless, rash_. + wānigean (wānian) (§ 130), _bewail, lament_ (trans.) [whine]. + warian (§ 130), _attend, accompany_. + wāt, see witan. + waðum, m., _wave_; gen. pl., waðema. + weal(l), m., _wall, rampart_. + wealdend (§ 68, (3)), _wielder, ruler, lord_. + wealh, m., _foreigner, Welshman_. + wealhstōd, m., _interpreter, translator_. + weallan (§ 117), _well up, boil, be agitated_; pret. 3d. sing. + indic., wēoll. + wealsteal(l), m., _wall-place, foundation_. + weard, m., _ward, keeper_. + wearð, see weorðan. + weaxan (§ 117), _wax, grow_. + weg, m., _way_; + hys weges, see § 93, (3); + on weg, see on. + wel(l), _well, readily_. + wela, m., _weal, prosperity, riches_. + welm, see wielm. + wēnan (§ 126), _ween, think, expect_. + węndan (§ 127), _change, translate_ [wend, windan]. + węnian (§ 130), _entertain_; + węnian mid wynnum 149, 20 [[_Wanderer_ 29]] = _entertain joyfully_; + węnede tō wiste 149, 27 [[_Wanderer_ 36]] = _feasted_ (trans.). + Weonodland (Weonoðland), n., _Wendland_. + weorc, n., _work, deed_. + weorold (weoruld), see woruld. + weorpan (§ 110), _throw_. + weorðan (§ 110), _be, become_. + wer, m., _man_ [werwulf]. + wērig, _weary, dejected_. + werod, n., _army, band_. + wesan, see bēon. + Wesseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons_; gen. pl. = Wesseaxna. + west, _west, westward_. + westanwind, m., _west wind_. + wēste, _waste_. + wēsten, n., _waste, desert_. + Westsǣ, f., _West Sea_ (west of Norway). + Westseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons, Wessex_. + wīc, n., _dwelling_ [bailiwick]. + wīcian (§ 130), _stop, lodge, sojourn_ [wīc]. + wīdre, adv., _farther, more widely_ (comparative of wīde). + wīdsǣ, f., _open sea_. + wielm (welm), m., _welling, surging flood_ [weallan]. + wīf, n., _wife, woman_. + wīg, m., n., _war, battle_. + wiga, m., _warrior_. + wild, _wild_. + wildor, n., _wild beast, reindeer_; dat. pl. = wildrum (§ 33, Note). + willa, m., _will, pleasure_; gen. pl., wilna (138, 16 [[_Beowulf_ + 661]]). + willan (§ 134; § 137, Note 3), _will, intend, desire_. + wilnung, f., _wish, desire_; + for ðǣre wilnunga 119, 4 = _purposely_. + Wiltūn, m., _Wilton_ (in Wiltshire). + wīn, n., _wine_. + wīn-ærn, n., _wine-hall_. + Wīnburne, f., _Wimborne_ (in Dorsetshire). + wind, m., _wind_. + wine, m., _friend_. + Winedas, m. pl., _the Wends, the Wend country_. + wine-dryhten, m., _friendly lord_. + winelēas, _friendless_. + winemǣg, m., _friendly kinsman_. + wīngeard, m., _vineyard_. + winnan (§ 110), _strive, fight_ [win]. + wīnsæl, n., _wine-hall_. + wīn-sęle, m., _wine-hall_. + winter, m., _winter_; dat. sing. = wintra. + wintercearig, _winter-sad, winter-worn_. + wīs, _wise_. + wīsdōm, m., _wisdom_. + wīse, _wisely_. + wīse, f., _manner, matter, affair_ [in this wise]. + wīs-fæst, _wise_ [wise-fast; cf. shame-faced = shamefast]. + wīs-hycgende, _wise-thinking_. + Wīsle, f., _the Vistula_. + Wīslemūða, m., _the mouth of the Vistula_. + wisse, see witan. + wist, f., _food, feast_. + wita, m., _wise man, councillor_. + witan (§ 136), _know, show, experience_. + wītan (§ 102), _reproach, blame_ (with acc. of thing, dat. of person). + wīte, n., _punishment_. + Wītland, n., _Witland_ (in Prussia). + wið (§ 94, (3)), _against, toward, with_; + wið ēastan and wið ūpp on emnlange ðǣm bȳnum lande, _toward the + east, and upwards along the cultivated land_; + wið earm gesæt 139, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 750]] = _supported himself on his + arm_; + genęred wið nīðe (dat.) 143, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 828]] = _had preserved + it from (against) violence_. + wiðerwinna, m., _adversary_. + wiðfōn (§ 118), _grapple with_ (with dat.). + wiðhabban (§ 133), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.). + wiðstǫndan (§ 116), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.). + wlǫnc, _proud_. + wōd, see wadan. + wolcen, n., _cloud_ [welkin]; dat. pl., wolcnum. + wolde, see willan. + wōma, m., _noise, alarm, terror_. + wǫn, see wan. + wōp, n., _weeping_. + word, n., _word_. + wōrian (§ 130), _totter, crumble_. + worn, m., _large number, multitude_. + woruld, f., _world_; + tō worulde būtan ǣghwilcum ęnde 102, 18 = _world without end_. + woruldcund, _worldly, secular_. + woruldhād, m., _secular life_ [world-hood]. + woruldrīce, n., _world-kingdom, world_. + woruldðing, n., _worldly affair_. + wræclāst, m., _track or path of an exile_. + wrāð, _wroth, angry_; _foe, enemy_. + wrītan (§ 102), _write_. + wucu, f., _week_. + wudu, m., _wood, forest_. + wuldor, n., _glory_. + Wuldorfæder (§ 68, (2)), m., _Father of glory_; gen. sing., + Wuldorfæder. + Wuldur-cyning, m., _King of glory_. + wulf, m., _wolf_. + wund, f., _wound_. + wund, _wounded_. + wunden, _twisted, woven, convolute_ (past part. of windan). + wundor, n., _wonder, marvel_. + wundrian (§ 130), _wonder at_ (with gen.). + wurdon, see weorðan. + wurðan, see weorðan. + wylf, f., _she wolf_. + wyllað, see willan. + wyn-lēas, _joyless_. + wynn, f., _joy, delight_. + wynsum, _winsome, delightful_. + wyrc(e)an (§ 128), _work, make, compose_. + wyrd, f., _weird, fate, destiny_. + wyrhta, m., _worker, creator_ [-wright]. + wyrm, m., _worm, dragon, serpent_. + wyrmlīca, m., _serpentine ornamentation_. + wyrð (weorð), _worthy_; see 114, 7-9, Note. + +#Y.# + + ylca, see ilca. + yldan (§ 127), _delay, postpone_ [eald]. + yldu, f., _age_ [eld]. + ymbe (ymb) (§ 94, (2)), _about, around, concerning_ [_um_while]; + ðæs ymb iii niht 99, 2 = _about three nights afterwards_. + ymb-ēode, see ymb-gān. + ymbe-sittend, _one who sits (dwells) round about another, neighbor_. + ymb-gān (§ 134), _go about, go around, circle_ (with acc.). + yrfe-weard, m., _heir_. + yrnan, see iernan. + yrre, _ireful, angry_. + yteren, _of an otter_ [_otor_]. + ȳðan (§ 126), _lay waste_ (as by a deluge) [ȳð = _wave_]. + + +II. GLOSSARY. + +MODERN ENGLISH--OLD ENGLISH. + + +#A.# + + a, _ān_ (§ 77). + abide, _bīdan_ (§ 102), _ābīdan_. + about, _be_ (§ 94, (1)), _ymbe_ (§ 94, (2)); + to write about, _wrītan be_; + to speak about (= of), _sprecan ymbe_; + about two days afterwards, _ðæs ymbe twēgen dagas_. + adder, _nǣdre_ (§ 64). + afterwards, _ðæs_ (§ 93, (3)). + against, _wið_ (§ 94, (3)), _on_ (§ 94, (3)). + Alfred, _Ælfred_ (§ 26). + all, _eall_ (§ 80). + also, _ēac_. + although, _ðēah_ (§ 105, 2). + always, _ā_; _ealne weg_ (§ 98, (1)). + am, _eom_ (§ 40). + an, see a. + and, _ǫnd_ (_and_). + angel, ęngel (§ 26). + animal, _dēor_ (§ 32). + are, _sind, sint, sindon_ (§ 40). + army, _werod_ (§ 32); + Danish army, _hęre_ (§ 26); + English army, _fierd_ (§ 38). + art, _eart_ (§ 40). + Ashdown, _Æscesdūn_ (§ 38). + ask, _biddan_ (§ 65, Note 3; § 115, Note 2). + away, _aweg_. + + +#B.# + + battle-field, _wælstōw_ (§ 38). + be, _bēon_ (§ 40); + not to be, see § 40, Note 2. + bear, _beran_ (§ 114). + because, _for ðǣm (ðe), for ðon (ðe)_. + become, _weorðan_ (§ 110). + before (temporal conjunction), _ǣr, ǣr ðǣm ðe_ (§ 105, 2). + begin, _onginnan_ (§ 107, (1); § 110). + belong to, _belimpan tō_ + dative (§ 110). + best, see good. + better, see good. + bind, _bindan_ (§ 110). + bird, _fugol_ (§ 26). + bite, _bītan_ (§ 102). + body, _līc_ (§ 32). + bone, _bān_ (§ 32). + book, _bōc_ (§ 68). + both ... and, _ǣgðer ge ... ge_. + boundary, _mearc_ (§ 38). + boy, _cnapa_ (§ 64). + break, _brēotan_ (§ 109), _brecan, ābrecan_ (§ 114). + brother, _brōðor_ (§ 68, (2)). + but, _ac_. + by, _frǫm_ (_fram_) (§ 94, (1); § 141, Note 1). + + +#C.# + + Cædmon, _Cædmǫn_ (§ 68, (1)). + call, _hātan_ (§ 117, (1)). + cease, cease from, _geswīcan_ (§ 102). + child, _bearn_ (§ 32). + choose, _cēosan_ (§ 109). + Christ, _Crīst_ (§ 26). + church, _cirice_ (§ 64). + come, _cuman_ (§ 114). + comfort, _frōfor_ (§ 38). + companion, _gefēra_ (§ 64). + consolation, _frōfor_ (§ 38). + create, _gescieppan_ (§ 116). + + +#D.# + + Danes, _Dęne_ (§ 47). + day, _dæg_ (§ 26). + dead, _dēad_ (§ 80). + dear (= beloved), _lēof_ (§ 80). + deed, _dǣd_ (§ 38). + die, _cwelan_ (§ 114). + division (of troops), _gefylce_ (§ 32), _getruma_ (§ 64). + do, _dōn_ (§ 134). + door, _dor_ (§ 32), _duru_ (§ 52). + drink, _drincan_ (§ 110). + during, _on_ (§ 94, (3)). See also § 98. + dwell in, _būan on_ (§ 126, Note 2). + +#E.# + + earl, _eorl_ (§ 26). + endure, _drēogan_ (§ 109). + England, _Ęnglalǫnd_ (§ 32). + enjoy, _brūcan_ (§ 62, Note 1; § 109, Note 1). + every, _ǣlc_ (§ 77). + eye, _ēage_ (§ 64). + + +#F.# + + father, _fæder_ (§ 68, (2)). + field, _feld_ (§ 51). + fight, _feohtan, gefeohtan_ (§ 110). + find, _findan_ (§ 110). + finger, _finger_ (§ 26). + fire, _fȳr_ (§ 32). + fisherman, _fiscere_ (§ 26). + foreigner, _wealh_ (§ 26). + freedom, _frēodōm_ (§ 26). + friend, _wine_ (§ 45), _frēond_ (§ 68, (3)). + friendship, _frēondscipe_ (§ 45). + full, _full_ (with genitive) (§ 80). + + +#G.# + + gain the victory, _sige habban, sige niman_. + gift, _giefu_ (§ 38). + give, _giefan_ (with dative of indirect object) (§ 115). + glad, _glæd_ (§ 81). + glove, _glōf_ (§ 38). + go, _gān_ (§ 134), _faran_ (§ 116). + God, _God_ (§ 26). + good, _gōd_ (§ 80). + + +#H.# + + Halgoland, _Hālgoland_ (§ 32). + hall, _heall_ (§ 38). + hand, _hǫnd_ (§ 52). + hard, _heard_ (§ 80). + have, _habban_ (§ 34); + not to have, _nabban_ (p. 32, Note). + he, _hē_ (§ 53). + head, _hēafod_ (§ 32). + hear, _hīeran_ (§ 126). + heaven, _heofon_ (§ 26). + help, _helpan_ (with dative) (§ 110). + herdsman, _hierde_ (§ 26). + here, _hēr_. + hither, _hider_. + hold, _healdan_ (§ 117, (2)). + holy, _hālig_ (§ 82). + horse, _mearh_ (§ 26), _hors_ (§ 32). + house, _hūs_ (§ 32). + + +#I.# + + I, _ic_ (§ 72). + in, _on_ (§ 94, (3)). + indeed, _sōðlīce_. + injure, _scęððan_ (with dative) (§ 116). + it, _hit_ (§ 53). + + +#K.# + + king, _cyning_ (§ 26). + kingdom, _rīce_ (§ 32), _cynerīce_ (§ 32). + + +#L.# + + land, _lǫnd_ (§ 32). + language, _sprǣc_ (§ 38), _geðēode_ (§ 32). + large, _micel_ (§ 82). + leisure, _ǣmetta_ (§ 64). + let us, _uton_ (with infinitive). + limb, _lim_ (§ 32). + little, _lytel_ (§ 82). + live in, _būan on_ (§ 126, Note 2). + lord, _hlāford_ (§ 26). + love, _lufian_ (§ 131). + love (noun), _lufu_ (§ 38). + + +#M.# + + make, _wyrcan_ (§ 128). + man, _sęcg_ (§ 26), _mǫn_ (§ 68, (1)). + many, _mǫnig_ (§ 82). + mare, _mȳre_ (§ 64). + mead, _medu_ (§ 51). + Mercians, _Mierce_ (§ 47). + milk, _meolc_ (§ 38). + month, _mōnað_ (§ 68, (1), Note 1). + mouth, _mūð_ (§ 26). + much, _micel_ (§ 96, (3)), _micle_ (§ 97, (2)). + murderer, _bǫna_ (§ 64). + my, _mīn_ (§ 76). + + +#N.# + + natives, _lǫndlēode_ (§ 47). + nephew, _nefa_ (§ 64). + new, _nīwe_ (§ 82). + Northumbrians, _Norðymbre_ (§ 47). + not, _ne_. + + +#O.# + + of, see about. + on, _on_ (§ 94, (3)), _ofer_ (§ 94, (2)). + one, _ān_ (§ 89); + the one ... the other, _ōðer ... ōðer_. + other, _ōðer_ (§ 77). + our, _ūre_ (§ 76). + ox, _oxa_ (§ 64). + + +#P.# + + place, _stōw_ (§ 38). + plundering, _hęrgung_ (§ 38). + poor, _earm_ (§ 80), _unspēdig_ (§ 82). + prosperous, _spēdig_ (§ 82). + + +#Q.# + + queen, _cwēn_ (§ 49). + + +#R.# + + reindeer, _hrān_ (§ 26). + remain, _bīdan_ (§ 102), _ābīdan_. + retain possession of the battle-field, _āgan wælstōwe gewald_. + rich, _rīce_ (§ 82), _spēdig_ (§ 82). + ride, _rīdan_ (§ 102). + + +#S.# + + say, _cweðan_ (§ 115), _sęcgan_ (§ 133). + scribe, _bōcere_ (§ 26). + seal, _seolh_ (§ 26). + see, _sēon_ (§ 118), _gesēon_. + serpent, _nǣdre_ (§ 64). + servant, _ðēowa_ (§ 64), _ðegn_ (§ 26). + shall, _sculan_ (§ 136; § 137, Note 2). + she, _hēo_ (§ 53). + shepherd, _hierde_ (§ 26). + ship, _scip_ (§ 32). + shire, _scīr_ (§ 38). + shoemaker, _scēowyrhta_ (§ 64). + side, on both sides, _on gehwæðre hǫnd_. + six, _siex_ (§ 90). + slaughter, _wæl_ (§ 32), _wælsliht_ (§ 45). + small, _lȳtel_ (§ 82). + son, _sunu_ (§ 51). + soul, _sāwol_ (§ 38). + speak, _sprecan_ (§ 115). + spear, _gār_ (§ 26), _spere_ (§ 32). + stand, _stǫndan_ (§ 116). + stone, _stān_ (§ 26). + stranger, _wealh_ (§ 26), _cuma_ (§ 64). + suffer, _drēogan_ (§ 109). + sun, _sunne_ (§ 64). + swift, _swift_ (§ 80). + + +#T.# + + take, _niman_ (§ 110). + than, _ðonne_ (§ 96, (6)). + thane, _ðegn_ (§ 26). + that (conjunction), _ðæt_. + that (demonstrative), _sē, sēo, ðæt_ (§ 28). + that (relative), _ðe_ (§ 75). + the, _se, sēo, ðæt_ (§ 28). + then, _ðā, ðonne_. + these, see this. + they, _hīe_ (§ 53). + thing, _ðing_ (§ 32). + thirty, _ðrītig_. + this, _ðēs, ðēos, ðis_ (§ 73). + those, see that (demonstrative). + thou, _ðū_ (§ 72). + though, _ðēah_ (§ 105, 2). + three, _ðrīe_ (§ 89). + throne, ascend the throne, _tō rīce fōn_. + throw, _weorpan_ (§ 110). + to, _tō_ (§ 94, (1)). + tongue, _tunge_ (§ 64). + track, _spor_ (§ 32). + true, _sōð_ (§ 80). + truly, _sōðlīce_. + two, _twēgen_ (§ 89). + + +#V.# + + very, _swīðe_. + vessel, _fæt_ (§ 32). + victory, _sige_ (§ 45). + +#W.# + + wall, _weall_ (§ 26). + warrior, _sęcg_ (§ 26), _eorl_ (§ 26). + way, _weg_ (§ 26). + weapon, _wǣpen_ (§ 32). + well, _wel_ (§ 97, (2)). + Welshman, _Wealh_ (§ 26). + went, see go. + westward, _west, westrihte_. + whale, _hwæl_ (§ 26). + what? _hwæt_ (§ 74). + when, _ðā, ðonne_. + where? _hwǣr_. + which, _ðe_ (§ 75). + who? _hwā_ (§ 74). + who (relative), _ðe_ (§ 75). + whosoever, _swā hwā swā_ (§ 77, Note). + will, _willan_ (§ 134; § 137, Note 3). + Wilton, _Wiltūn_ (§ 26). + win, see gain. + wine, _wīn_ (§ 32). + wisdom, _wīsdōm_ (§ 26). + wise, _wīs_ (§ 80). + with, _mid_ (§ 94, (1)); + to fight with (= against), _gefeohtan wið_ (§ 94, (3)). + withstand, _wiðstǫndan_ (with dative) (§ 116). + wolf, _wulf_ (§ 26), _wylf_ (§ 38). + woman, _wīf_ (§ 32). + word, _word_ (§ 32). + worm, _wyrm_ (§ 45). + + +#Y.# + + ye, _gē_ (§ 72). + year, _gēar_ (§ 32). + yoke, _geoc_ (§ 32). + you, _ðū_ (singular), _gē_ (plural) (§ 72). + your, _ðīn_ (singular), _ēower_ (plural) (§ 76). + + * * * * * + * * * * + * * * * * + +Errata + +The spelling “Fins” (translating “ðā Finnas”) is used consistently. +Errors were trivial, generally missing punctuation. Shakespeare +citations have been silently regularized to “I, ii, 3” form. The Old +English text was not checked for misprints. + + +Numbered Sections: + + 9 Note + to t.: #sęttan#, _to set_ [to t.] + 39 + NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. + [_final . missing_] + 41 + sēo hālignes[1], _holiness_. [_comma missing_] + 95 + for ðǣm, } [_comma missing_] + 104 + corresponding with its function in Mn.E. [_final . missing_] + 130 + eard-ian, eard-ode ... [_first comma missing_] + 131 + NOTE 1. [NOTE. 1.] + 132 + hæf-de, lif-de, sęcg-an, [_all commas missing_] + +Readings: + + Poetry: Structure: Meter: Type B: + The type of B most frequently occurring is × × –́ | × –́. + [_final . missing_] + + Beowulf: The Banquet in Heorot (page 138). + [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.). [_final . missing_] + +Glossary: + + ābūgan (§ 109, Note 1) [Note, 1] + dēofol, m., n., _devil_; [m. n.,] + intinga, m., _cause, sake_. [intinga.] + lagulād, f., _sea_ [lake-way, lād = _leading, direction, way_]. + [_closing bracket printed as parenthesis_] + norðan (§ 93, (5)), _from the north_; + [_second closing parenthesis missing_] + sǣl, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly]; [m. f.,] + sēfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sōfte). + [_closing parenthesis missing_] + Swēom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_. [_final . missing_] + tolūcan (§ 109, Note 1), _destroy_ ... [_section mark § missing_] + wið (§ 94, (3)), ... [_section mark § missing_] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by +C. 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