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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by
+C. Alphonso Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book
+       with Inflections, Syntax, Selections for Reading, and Glossary
+
+Author: C. Alphonso Smith
+
+Release Date: February 15, 2010 [EBook #31277]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+This text is intended for users whose text readers cannot use the "real"
+(Unicode/UTF-8) version of the file. Characters that could not be fully
+displayed are shown in alternative forms:
+
+  Ââ Ęę Îî Ôô Űű (circumflex in place of macron or "long" mark;
+    the circumflex in its own right does not occur)
+  y: Ć: ć: (long y and ć; the sequence "y:" does not occur in the
+    Old English material, and "ć:" does not occur at all)
+
+Characters with more than one diacritic (rare), and some less common
+combinations such as accented ć, are shown "top to bottom" in brackets:
+[´â] [´ć] (long a with accent, ć with accent). Greek words (also rare)
+have been transliterated and shown between +marks+; there should be no
+confusion between this and the + as printed.
+
+The short vowels e and o are sometimes shown with ogonek (reversed
+cedilla). In the introductory section on vowel sounds, and in the
+overall Glossary, these are shown as [E,] [e,] [O,] [o,]. Elsewhere the
+ogonek was simply omitted; there are no minimal pairs (different words
+distinguished only by this sign).
+
+See the Poetry section (between V and VI in Part III, Readings) for
+display of characters specific to that section.
+
+Italics are shown with _lines_. Boldface is shown with #hash marks#.
+In the printed book, boldface was used for all Anglo-Saxon other than
+exercises and reading passages; it has been omitted from the e-text
+except when necessary for clarity.
+
+In references to numbered Sections, "Note" may mean either an inset Note
+or a footnote.
+
+In the prose reading selections (pages 99-121), page numbers and line
+breaks have been retained for use with the linenotes and Glossary. Page
+numbers are shown in [[double brackets]]. In the verse selections, line
+numbers in the notes have been replaced with line numbers from the
+original texts, printed in brackets as shown. The distinction between
+linenotes and numbered footnotes is in the original.
+
+Single brackets [] and asterisks * are in the original, as are the
+symbols + = < >. Text in [[double brackets]] was added by the
+transcriber.]
+
+
+
+
+              ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR
+
+               AND EXERCISE BOOK
+
+
+      With Inflections, Syntax, Selections
+           for Reading, and Glossary
+
+
+                       By
+
+        C. ALPHONSO SMITH, Ph.D., LL.D.
+
+        Late Professor of English in the
+          United States Naval Academy
+
+
+
+
+                ALLYN and BACON
+          Boston   New York   Chicago
+            Atlanta   San Francisco
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1896, by
+  C. ALPHONSO SMITH.
+
+
+  IAI
+
+
+  Norwood Press
+  J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith
+  Norwood Mass. U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The scope of this book is indicated in § 5. It is intended for
+beginners, and in writing it, these words of Sir Thomas Elyot have not
+been forgotten: "Grammer, beinge but an introduction to the
+understandinge of autors, if it be made to longe or exquisite to the
+lerner, it in a maner mortifieth his corage: And by that time he cometh
+to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde autors, the sparkes of
+fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the burdone of grammer,
+lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small
+stickes." --_The Governour_, Cap. X.
+
+Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, which is
+planned more as a foundation for the study of Modern English grammar, of
+historical English grammar, and of the principles of English etymology,
+than as a general introduction to Germanic philology.
+
+The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish all the drill
+necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and constructions
+given in the various chapters.
+
+The Selections for Reading relate to the history and literature of King
+Alfred's day, and are sufficient to give the student a first-hand,
+though brief, acquaintance with the native style and idiom of Early West
+Saxon prose in its golden age. Most of the words and constructions
+contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their
+intentional employment in the Exercises.
+
+For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse has been had
+chiefly to Sievers' _Abriss der angelsächsischen Grammatik_ (1895).
+Constant reference has been made also to the same author's earlier and
+larger _Angelsächsishe Grammatik_, translated by Cook. A more sparing
+use has been made of Cosijn's _Altwestsächsische Grammatik_.
+
+For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wülfing's _Syntax in
+den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I._ (Bonn, 1894) has proved
+indispensable. Advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead
+one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the
+most important contribution to the study of English syntax that has yet
+been made. Old English sentences have also been cited from Sweet's
+_Anglo-Saxon Reader_, Bright's _Anglo-Saxon Reader_, and Cook's _First
+Book in Old English_.
+
+The short chapter on the Order of Words has been condensed from my
+_Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose_ (Publications of the Modern
+Language Association of America, New Series, Vol. I, No. 2).
+
+Though assuming sole responsibility for everything contained in this
+book, I take pleasure in acknowledging the kind and efficient assistance
+that has been so generously given me in its preparation. To none do I
+owe more than to Dr. J. E. Wülfing, of the University of Bonn; Prof.
+James A. Harrison, of the University of Virginia; Prof. W. S. Currell,
+of Washington and Lee University; Prof. J. Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr
+College; and Prof. L. M. Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have
+each rendered material aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting
+typographical errors in the proof-sheets, but by the valuable criticisms
+and suggestions which they have made as this work was passing through
+the press.
+
+    C. ALPHONSO SMITH.
+
+  Louisiana State University,
+  Baton Rouge, September, 1896.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
+
+
+In preparing this enlarged edition, a few minor errors in the first
+edition have been corrected and a few sentences added. The chief
+difference between the two editions, however, consists in the
+introduction of more reading matter and the consequent exposition of Old
+English meter. Both changes have been made at the persistent request of
+teachers and students of Old English.
+
+Uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved in the new
+material and the old, the emphasis in both being placed on syntax and
+upon the affinities that Old English shares with Modern English.
+
+Many obligations have been incurred in preparing this augmented edition.
+I have again to thank Dr. J. E. Wülfing, Prof. James A. Harrison, Prof.
+W. S. Currell, and Prof. J. Douglas Bruce. To the scholarly criticisms
+also of Prof. J. M. Hart, of Cornell; Prof. Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., of
+Williams College; and Prof. Frederick Tupper, Jr., of the University of
+Vermont, I am indebted for aid as generously given as it is genuinely
+appreciated.
+
+    C. ALPHONSO SMITH.
+
+  August, 1898.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
+
+
+Among those who have kindly aided in making this edition free from
+error, I wish to thank especially my friend Dr. John M. McBryde, Jr., of
+Hollins Institute, Virginia.
+
+    C. ALPHONSO SMITH.
+
+  University of North Carolina,
+  Chapel Hill, February, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+PART I.--INTRODUCTION.
+
+Chapters                                                       Pages
+
+      I. History (§ 1-5)                                           1
+     II. Sounds (§ 6-11)                                           4
+    III. Inflections (§ 12-19)                                    10
+     IV. Order of Words (§ 20-21)                                 18
+      V. Practical Suggestions (§ 22-24)                          21
+
+PART II.--ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
+
+     VI. The a-Declension: Masculine a-Stems (§ 25-30)            27
+    VII. Neuter a-Stems (§ 31-36)                                 30
+   VIII. The ô-Declension (§ 37-42)                               33
+     IX. The i-Declension and the u-Declension (§ 43-55)          35
+      X. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs (§ 56-62)     39
+     XI. The Weak or n-Declension (§ 63-66)                       44
+    XII. Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions (§ 67-71)        47
+   XIII. Pronouns (§ 72-77)                                       50
+    XIV. Adjectives, Strong and Weak (§ 78-87)                    53
+     XV. Numerals (§ 88-92)                                       57
+    XVI. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions (§ 93-95)        60
+   XVII. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs (§ 96-100)          64
+  XVIII. Strong Verbs: Class I, Syntax of Moods (§ 101-108)       68
+    XIX. Classes II and III (§ 109-113)                           74
+     XX. Classes IV, V, VI, and VII; Contract Verbs (§ 114-121)   78
+    XXI. Weak Verbs (§ 122-133)                                   82
+   XXII. Remaining Verbs; Verb Phrases with #habban#, #bęon#,
+           and #weorđan# (§ 134-143)                              90
+
+PART III.--SELECTIONS FOR READING.
+
+         PROSE.
+
+         Introductory                                             98
+      I. The Battle of Ashdown                                    99
+     II. A Prayer of King Alfred                                 101
+    III. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan                     102
+         Ohthere's First Voyage                                  103
+         Ohthere's Second Voyage                                 106
+         Wulfstan's Voyage                                       107
+     IV. The Story of Cćdmon                                     111
+      V. Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care                   116
+
+         POETRY.
+
+         Introductory                                            122
+     VI. Extracts from Beowulf                                   136
+    VII. The Wanderer                                            148
+
+GLOSSARIES.
+
+      I. Old English--Modern English                             155
+     II. Modern English--Old English                             190
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+                  OLD ENGLISH
+
+             GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES
+
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND EXERCISE BOOK.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+HISTORY.
+
+
+1. The history of the English language falls naturally into three
+periods; but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too
+much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which
+scholars, chiefly for convenience of treatment, have assigned as their
+limits. Our language, it is true, has undergone many and great changes;
+but its continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has
+never been lost.
+
+
+2. The first of these periods is that of OLD ENGLISH, or ANGLO-SAXON,[1]
+commonly known as the period of _full inflections_. _E.g._ #stân-as#,
+_stones_; #car-u#, _care_; #will-a#, _will_; #bind-an#, _to bind_;
+#help-ađ# (= #ath#), _they help_.
+
+It extends from the arrival of the English in Great Britain to about one
+hundred years after the Norman Conquest,--from A.D. 449 to 1150; but
+there are no literary remains of the earlier centuries of this period.
+There were four[2] distinct dialects spoken at this time. These were the
+Northumbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; the Mercian, spoken in
+the midland region between the Humber and the Thames; the West Saxon,
+spoken south and west of the Thames; and the Kentish, spoken in the
+neighborhood of Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most
+nearly akin to the Mercian; but the best known of them is the West
+Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that King Alfred (849-901) wrote
+and spoke. His writings belong to the period of Early West Saxon as
+distinguished from the period of Late West Saxon, the latter being best
+represented in the writings of Abbot Ćlfric (955?-1025?).
+
+    [Footnote 1: This unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term
+    _Angli Saxones_, which Latin writers used as a designation for
+    the English Saxons as distinguished from the continental or Old
+    Saxons. But Alfred and Ćlfric both use the term _Englisc_, not
+    Anglo-Saxon. The Angles spread over Northumbria and Mercia, far
+    outnumbering the other tribes. Thus _Englisc_ (= _Angel_ +
+    _isc_) became the general name for the language spoken.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: As small as England is, there are six distinct
+    dialects spoken in her borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire
+    dialect is, perhaps, the most peculiar. It preserves many
+    Northumbrian survivals. See Tennyson's _Northern Farmer_.]
+
+
+3. The second period is that of MIDDLE ENGLISH, or the period of
+_leveled inflections_, the dominant vowel of the inflections being e.
+_E.g._ #ston-es#, #car-e#, #will-e#, #bind-en# (or #bind-e#),
+#help-eth#, each being, as in the earlier period, a dissyllable.
+
+The Middle English period extends from A.D. 1150 to 1500. Its greatest
+representatives are Chaucer (1340-1400) in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384)
+in prose. There were three prominent dialects during this period: the
+Northern, corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the Midland (divided
+into East Midland and West Midland), corresponding to the Mercian; and
+the Southern, corresponding to the West Saxon and Kentish. London,
+situated in East Midland territory, had become the dominant speech
+center; and it was this East Midland dialect that both Chaucer and
+Wiclif employed.
+
+  NOTE.--It is a great mistake to think that Chaucer shaped our
+  language from crude materials. His influence was conservative, not
+  plastic. The popularity of his works tended to crystalize and thus
+  to perpetuate the forms of the East Midland dialect, but that
+  dialect was ready to his hand before he began to write. The speech
+  of London was, in Chaucer's time, a mixture of Southern and
+  Midland forms, but the Southern forms (survivals of the West Saxon
+  dialect) had already begun to fall away; and this they continued
+  to do, so that "Chaucer's language," as Dr. Murray says, "is more
+  Southern than standard English eventually became." See also
+  Morsbach, _Ueber den Ursprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache_
+  (1888).
+
+
+4. The last period is that of MODERN ENGLISH, or the period of _lost
+inflections_. _E.g._ _stones_, _care_, _will_, _bind_, _help_, each
+being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from A.D. 1500 to the
+present time. It has witnessed comparatively few grammatical changes,
+but the vocabulary of our language has been vastly increased by
+additions from the classical languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their
+values.
+
+
+5. It is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of
+Early West Saxon, that is, the language of King Alfred. With this
+knowledge, it will not be difficult for the student to read Late West
+Saxon, or any other dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge
+will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of Middle
+English and of Modern English, besides laying a secure foundation for
+the scientific study of any other Germanic tongue.
+
+  NOTE.--The Germanic, or Teutonic, languages constitute a branch of
+  the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic (known also as the
+  Indo-European) group. They are subdivided as follows:
+
+            { North Germanic: Scandinavian, or Norse.
+            {
+            {                               { Old High German,
+  Germanic  { East Germanic: Gothic.        { (to A.D. 1100,)
+            {                               {
+            {                 { High German { Middle High German,
+            {                 {             { (A.D. 1100-1500,)
+            {                 {             {
+            { West Germanic   {             { New High German.
+                              {             { (A.D. 1500-.)
+                              {
+                              { Low German  { Dutch,
+                                            { Old Saxon,
+                                            { Frisian,
+                                            { English.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SOUNDS.
+
+
+#Vowels and Diphthongs.#
+
+6. The long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the
+macron (Ż). Vowel length should in every case be associated by the
+student with each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distinguishes
+words meaning wholly different things: #fôr#, _he went_, #for#, _for_;
+#gôd#, _good_, #God#, _God_; #mân#, _crime_, #man#, _man_.
+
+Long vowels and diphthongs:
+
+  â as in f_a_ther: #stân#, _a stone_.
+  ć: as in m_a_n (prolonged): #slć:pan#, _to sleep_.
+  ę as in th_e_y: #hęr#, _here_.
+  î as in mach_i_ne: #mîn#, _mine_.
+  ô as in n_o_te (pure, not diphthongal): #bôc#, _book_.
+  ű as in r_u_le: #tűn#, _town_.
+  y: as in German gr_ü_n, or English gr_ee_n (with lips rounded):[1]
+      #bry:d#, _bride_.
+
+The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress upon the first vowel.
+The second vowel is obscured, and represents approximately the sound of
+_er_ in _sooner_, _faster_ (= _soon-uh_, _fast-uh_). The long diphthongs
+(ć: is not a diphthong proper) are ęo, îe, and ęa. The sound of ęo is
+approximately reproduced in _mayor_ (= _mâ-uh_); that of îe in the
+dissyllabic pronunciation of _fear_ (= _fę-uh_). But ęa = _ć:-uh_. This
+diphthong is hardly to be distinguished from _ea_ in _pear_, _bear_,
+etc., as pronounced in the southern section of the United States
+(= _bć-uh_, _pć-uh_).
+
+
+7. The short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs
+shortened; but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that
+Modern English _red_, for example, is the shortened form of _reed_, or
+that _mat_ is the shortened form of _mate_. Pronounce these long sounds
+with increasing rapidity, and _reed_ will approach _rid_, while _mate_
+will approach _met_. The Old English short vowel sounds are:
+
+  a as in _a_rtistic: #habban#, _to have_.
+  ć as in m_a_nkind: #dćg#, _day_.
+  e, [e,] as in l_e_t: #stelan#, _to steal_, #s[e,]ttan#, _to set_.
+  i as in s_i_t: #hit#, _it_.
+  o as in br_oa_d (but shorter): #God#, _God_.
+  [o,] as in n_o_t: #l[o,]mb#, _lamb_.
+  u as in f_u_ll: #sunu#, _son_.
+  y as in m_i_ller (with lips rounded)[1]: #gylden#, _golden_.
+
+  NOTE.--The symbol [e,] is known as _umlaut_-e (§ 58). It stands for
+  Germanic _a_, while e (without the cedilla) represents Germanic
+  _e_. The symbol [o,] is employed only before m and n. It, too,
+  represents Germanic _a_. But Alfred writes #manig# or #monig#,
+  _many_; #lamb# or #lomb#, _lamb_; #hand# or #hond#, _hand_, etc.
+  The cedilla is an etymological sign added by modern grammarians.
+
+  [Transcriber's Note:
+  The diacritic is not a cedilla (open to the left) but an ogonek (open
+  to the right).]
+
+    [Footnote 1: Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the
+    lip-opening is rounded; that is, when the lips are thrust out
+    and puckered as if preparing to pronounce _w_. Thus _o_ and _u_
+    are round vowels: add _-ing_ to each, and phonetically you have
+    added _-wing_. _E.g. go^{w}ing_, _su^{w}ing_.]
+
+
+#Consonants.#
+
+8. There is little difference between the values of Old English
+consonants and those of Modern English. The following distinctions,
+however, require notice:
+
+The digraph #th# is represented in Old English texts by đ and ţ, no
+consistent distinction being made between them. In the works of Alfred,
+đ (capital, Đ) is the more common: #đâs#, _those_; #đćt#, _that_;
+#bindeđ#, _he binds_.
+
+The consonant #c# had the hard sound of _k_, the latter symbol being
+rare in West Saxon: #cyning#, _king_; #cwęn#, _queen_; #cűđ#, _known_.
+When followed by a palatal vowel sound,--_e_, _i_, _ć_, _ea_, _eo_,
+long or short,--a vanishing _y_ sound was doubtless interposed (_cf._
+dialectic _k^{y}ind_ for _kind_). In Modern English the combination
+has passed into _ch_: #cealc#, _chalk_; #cîdan#, _to chide_; #lć:ce#,
+_leech_; #cild#, _child_; #cęowan#, _to chew_. This change (_c_ > _ch_)
+is known as Palatalization. The letter g, pronounced as in Modern
+English _gun_, has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels
+(_cf._ dialectic _g^{y}irl_ for _girl_).
+
+The combination #cg#, which frequently stands for #gg#, had probably the
+sound of _dge_ in Modern English _edge_: #ecg#, _edge_; #secgan#, _to
+say_; #brycg#, _bridge_. Initial #h# is sounded as in Modern English:
+#habban#, _to have_; #hâlga#, _saint_. When closing a syllable it has
+the sound of German _ch_: #slôh#, _he slew_; #hęah#, _high_; #đurh#,
+_through_.
+
+
+9. An important distinction is that between voiced (or sonant) and
+voiceless (or surd) consonants.[2] In Old English they are as follows:
+
+  VOICED.                    VOICELESS.
+
+    g                          h, c
+    d                          t
+    đ, ţ (as in _th_ough)      đ, ţ (as in _th_in)
+    b                          p
+    f (= v)                    f
+    s (= z)                    s
+
+It is evident, therefore, that đ (ţ), f, and s have double values in Old
+English. If voiced, they are equivalent to _th_ (in _th_ough), _v_, and
+_z_. Otherwise, they are pronounced as _th_ (in _th_in), _f_ (in _f_in),
+and _s_ (in _s_in). The syllabic environment will usually compel the
+student to give these letters their proper values. When occurring
+between vowels, they are always voiced: #ôđer#, _other_; #ofer#, _over_;
+#rîsan#, _to rise_.
+
+  NOTE.--The general rule in Old English, as in Modern English, is,
+  that voiced consonants have a special affinity for other voiced
+  consonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This is the law of
+  Assimilation. Thus when _de_ is added to form the preterit of a
+  verb whose stem ends in a voiceless consonant, the d is unvoiced,
+  or assimilated, to t: #settan#, _to set_, #sette# (but #treddan#,
+  _to tread_, has #tredde#); #slć:pan#, _to sleep_, #slć:pte#;
+  #drencan#, _to drench_, #drencte#; #cyssan#, _to kiss_, #cyste#.
+  See § 126, Note 1.
+
+    [Footnote 2: A little practice will enable the student to see
+    the appropriateness of calling these consonants voiced and
+    voiceless. Try to pronounce a voiced consonant,--_d_ in _den_,
+    for example, but without the assistance of _en_,--and there will
+    be heard a gurgle, or _vocal_ murmur. But in _t_, of _ten_,
+    there is no sound at all, but only a feeling of tension in the
+    organs.]
+
+
+#Syllables.#
+
+10. A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or in combination with
+consonants, uttered with a single impulse of stress; but certain
+consonants may form syllables: _oven_ (= _ov-n_), _battle_ (= _bćt-l_);
+(_cf._ also the vulgar pronunciation of _elm_).
+
+A syllable may be (1) weak or strong, (2) open or closed, (3) long or
+short.
+
+(1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its vowel sound is often
+different from that of the corresponding strong, or stressed, syllable.
+_Cf._ weak and strong _my_ in "I want my lárge hat" and "I want m[´y]
+hat."
+
+(2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong: #dę-man#, _to deem_;
+#đű#, _thou_; #sca-can#, _to shake_; #dć-ges#, _by day_. A closed
+syllable ends in one or more consonants: #đing#, _thing_; #gôd#, _good_;
+#glćd#, _glad_.
+
+(3) A syllable is long (_a_) if it contains a long vowel or a long
+diphthong: #drî-fan#, _to drive_; #lű-can#, _to lock_; #slć:-pan#, _to
+sleep_; #cęo-san#, _to choose_; (_b_) if its vowel or diphthong is
+followed by more than one consonant:[3] #crćft#, _strength_; #heard#,
+_hard_; #lib-ban#, _to live_; #feal-lan#, _to fall_. Otherwise, the
+syllable is short: #đe#, _which_; #be-ran#, _to bear_; #đćt#, _that_;
+#gie-fan#, _to give_.
+
+  NOTE 1.--A single consonant belongs to the following syllable:
+  #hâ-lig#, _holy_ (not #hâl-ig#); #wrî-tan#, _to write_; #fć-der#,
+  _father_.
+
+  NOTE 2.--The student will notice that the syllable may be long and
+  the vowel short; but the vowel cannot be long and the syllable
+  short.
+
+  NOTE 3.--Old English short vowels, occurring in open syllables,
+  have regularly become long in Modern English: #we-fan#, _to
+  weave_; #e-tan#, _to eat_; #ma-cian#, _to make_; #na-cod#,
+  _naked_; #a-can#, _to ache_; #o-fer#, _over_. And Old English long
+  vowels, preceding two or more consonants, have generally been
+  shortened: #bręost#, _breast_; #hć:lđ#, _health_; #slć:pte#,
+  _slept_; #lć:dde#, _led_.
+
+    [Footnote 3: Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single
+    consonant is long. It may be said, therefore, that all closed
+    syllables are long; but in the natural flow of language, the
+    single final consonant of a syllable so often blends with a
+    following initial vowel, the syllable thus becoming open and
+    short, that such syllables are not recognized as prevailingly
+    long. _Cf._ Modern English _at all_ (= _a-tall_).]
+
+
+#Accentuation.#
+
+11. The accent in Old English falls usually on the radical syllable,
+never on the inflectional ending: #bríngan#, _to bring_; #st[´â]nas#,
+_stones_; #bérende#, _bearing_; #[´î]delnes#, _idleness_;
+#fr[´ę]ondscipe#, _friendship_.
+
+But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs the first
+member of the compound (unless it be ge- or be-) receives the stronger
+stress: #héofon-rîce#, _heaven-kingdom_; #ónd-giet#, _intelligence_;
+#sôđ-fćst#, _truthful_; #gód-cund#, _divine_; #éall-unga#, _entirely_;
+#bl[´î]đe-lîce#, _blithely_. But #be-h[´â]t#, _promise_; #ge-béd#,
+_prayer_; #ge-f[´ę]alîc#, _joyous_; #be-sóne#, _immediately_.
+
+Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the radical syllable:
+#for-gíefan#, _to forgive_; #of-línnan#, _to cease_; #â-cn[´â]wan#, _to
+know_; #wiđ-stóndan#, _to withstand_; #on-sácan#, _to resist_.
+
+  NOTE.--The tendency of nouns to take the stress on the prefix,
+  while verbs retain it on the root, is exemplified in many Modern
+  English words: _préference_, _prefér_; _cóntract_ (noun),
+  _contráct_ (verb); _ábstinence_, _abstaín_; _pérfume_ (noun),
+  _perfúme_ (verb).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+INFLECTIONS.
+
+
+#Cases.#
+
+12. There are five cases in Old English: the nominative, the genitive,
+the dative, the accusative, and the instrumental.[1] Each of them,
+except the nominative, may be governed by prepositions. When used
+without prepositions, they have, in general, the following functions:
+
+(_a_) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the case of the subject
+of a finite verb.
+
+(_b_) The genitive (the possessive case of Modern English) is the case
+of the possessor or source. It may be called the _of_ case.
+
+(_c_) The dative is the case of the indirect object. It may be called
+the _to_ or _for_ case.
+
+(_d_) The accusative (the objective case of Modern English) is the case
+of the direct object.
+
+(_e_) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the dative in form, is
+the case of the means or the method. It may be called the _with_ or _by_
+case.
+
+The following paradigm of #műđ#, _the mouth_, illustrates the several
+cases (the article being, for the present, gratuitously added in the
+Modern English equivalents):
+
+       _Singular._                  _Plural._
+
+  _N._ műđ = _the mouth._           műđ-as = _the mouths._
+
+  _G._ műđ-es[2] = _of the mouth_   műđ-a = _of the mouths_
+         (= _the mouth's_).           (= _the mouths'_).
+
+  _D._ műđ-e = _to_ or _for the     műđ-um = _to_ or _for the mouths._
+         mouth._
+
+  _A._ műđ = _the mouth._           műđ-as = _the mouths._
+
+  _I._ műđe = _with_ or _by means   műđ-um = _with_ or _by means
+         of the mouth._               of the mouths._
+
+    [Footnote 1: Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But
+    it seems best to consider the vocative as only a _function_ of
+    the nominative _form_.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Of course our "apostrophe and _s_" (= _'s_) comes
+    from the Old English genitive ending -es. The _e_ is preserved
+    in _Wednesday_ (= Old English #Wôdnes dćg#). But at a very early
+    period it was thought that _John's book_, for example, was a
+    shortened form of _John his book_. Thus Addison (_Spectator_,
+    No. 135) declares _'s_ a survival of _his_. How, then, would he
+    explain the _s_ of _his_? And how would he dispose of _Mary's
+    book_?]
+
+
+#Gender.#
+
+13. The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that of Modern English,
+depends partly on meaning and partly on form, or ending. Thus #műđ#,
+_mouth_, is masculine; #tunge#, _tongue_, feminine; #ęage#, _eye_,
+neuter.
+
+No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given; but the gender of
+every noun should be learned with its meaning. Gender will be indicated
+in the vocabularies by the different gender forms of the definite
+article, #sę# for the masculine, #sęo# for the feminine, and #đćt# for
+the neuter: #sę műđ#, #sęo tunge#, #đćt ęage# = _the mouth_, _the
+tongue_, _the eye_.
+
+All nouns ending in #-dôm#, #-hâd#, #-scipe#, or #-ere# are masculine
+(_cf._ Modern English wis_dom_, child_hood_, friend_ship_, work_er_).
+Masculine, also, are nouns ending in -a.
+
+Those ending in #-nes# or #-ung# are feminine (_cf._ Modern English
+good_ness_, and gerundial forms in _-ing_: see_ing_ is believ_ing_).
+
+Thus #sę wîsdôm#, _wisdom_; #sę cildhâd#, _childhood_; #sę fręondscipe#,
+_friendship_; #sę fiscere#, _fisher(man)_; #sę hunta#, _hunter_; #sęo
+gelîcnes#, _likeness_; #sęo leornung#, _learning_.
+
+
+#Declensions.#
+
+14. There are two great systems of declension in Old English, the Vowel
+Declension and the Consonant Declension. A noun is said to belong to the
+Vowel Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, this
+vowel being then known as the _stem-characteristic_; but if the
+stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun belongs to the Consonant
+Declension. There might have been, therefore, as many subdivisions of
+the Vowel Declension in Old English as there were vowels, and as many
+subdivisions of the Consonant Declension as there were consonants. All
+Old English nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel Declension, ended
+their stems originally in a, ô, i, or u. Hence there are but four
+subdivisions of the Vowel Declension: a-stems, ô-stems, i-stems, and
+u-stems.
+
+The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong Declension, and its
+nouns Strong Nouns.
+
+  NOTE.--The terms Strong and Weak were first used by Jacob Grimm
+  (1785-1863) in the terminology of verbs, and thence transferred to
+  nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm meant one that could
+  form its preterit out of its own resources; that is, without
+  calling in the aid of an additional syllable: Modern English
+  _run_, _ran_; _find_, _found_; but verbs of the Weak Conjugation
+  had to borrow, as it were, an inflectional syllable: _gain_,
+  _gained_; _help_, _helped_.
+
+
+15. The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant Declension ended,
+with but few exceptions, in the letter n (_cf._ Latin _homin-em_,
+_ration-em_, Greek +poimen-a+). They are called, therefore, n-stems,
+the Declension itself being known as the n-Declension, or the Weak
+Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns.
+
+
+16. If every Old English noun had preserved the original Germanic
+stem-characteristic (or final letter of the stem), there would be no
+difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an a-stem,
+ô-stem, i-stem, u-stem, or n-stem; but these final letters had, for the
+most part, either been dropped, or fused with the case-endings, long
+before the period of historic Old English. It is only, therefore, by a
+rigid comparison of the Germanic languages with one another, and with
+the other Aryan languages, that scholars are able to reconstruct a
+single Germanic language, in which the original stem-characteristics may
+be seen far better than in any one historic branch of the Germanic group
+(§ 5, Note).
+
+This hypothetical language, which bears the same ancestral relation to
+the historic Germanic dialects that Latin bears to the Romance tongues,
+is known simply as _Germanic_ (Gmc.), or as _Primitive Germanic_.
+Ability to reconstruct Germanic forms is not expected of the students of
+this book, but the following table should be examined as illustrating
+the basis of distinction among the several Old English declensions (O.E.
+= Old English, Mn.E. = Modern English):
+
+                     {            {Gmc. _staina-z_,
+                     {(1) a-stems {O.E. #stân#,
+                     {            {Mn.E. _stone_.
+                     {
+                     {            {Gmc. _hallô_,
+                     {(2) ô-stems {O.E. #heall#,
+  I. Strong or Vowel {            {Mn.E. _hall_.
+     Declensions     {
+                     {            {Gmc. _bôni-z_,
+                     {(3) i-stems {O.E. #bęn#,
+                     {            {Mn.E. _boon_.
+                     {
+                     {            {Gmc. _sunu-z_,
+                     {(4) u-stems {O.E. #sunu#,
+                     {            {Mn.E. _son_.
+
+                     {(1) n-stems            {Gmc. _tungôn-iz_,
+                     {    (Weak              {O.E. #tung-an#,
+                     {    Declension)        {Mn.E. _tongue-s_.
+                     {
+                     {                {      {Gmc. _fôt-iz_,
+                     {                {(_a_) {O.E. #fęt#,
+  II. Consonant      {(2) Remnants    {      {Mn.E. _feet_.
+      Declensions    {    of other    {
+                     {    Consonant   {      {Gmc. _frijônd-iz_,
+                     {    Declensions {(_b_) {O.E. #frîend#,
+                     {                {      {Mn.E. _friend-s_.
+                     {                {
+                     {                {      {Gmc. _brôđr-iz_,
+                     {                {(_c_) {O.E. #brôđor#,
+                     {                {      {Mn.E. _brother-s_.
+
+
+  NOTE.--"It will be seen that if Old English #ęage#, _eye_, is said
+  to be an n-stem, what is meant is this, that at some former period
+  the kernel of the word ended in -n, while, as far as the Old
+  English language proper is concerned, all that is implied is that
+  the word is inflected in a certain manner." (Jespersen, _Progress
+  in Language_, § 109).
+
+  This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant.
+  The division, therefore, into a-stems, ô-stems, etc., is made in
+  the interests of grammar as well as of philology.
+
+
+#Conjugations.#
+
+17. There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation in Old English: the
+Strong or Old Conjugation, and the Weak or New Conjugation.
+
+The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called Irregular Verbs of
+Modern English) number about three hundred, of which not one hundred
+remain in Modern English (§ 101, Note). They form their preterit and
+frequently their past participle by changing the radical vowel of the
+present stem. This vowel change or modification is called _ablaut_
+(pronounced _áhp-lowt_): Modern English _sing, sang, sung_; _rise, rose,
+risen_. As the radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different
+from that of the preterit singular, there are four _principal parts_ or
+_tense stems_ in an Old English strong verb, instead of the three of
+Modern English. The four principal parts in the conjugation of a strong
+verb are (1) the present indicative, (2) the preterit indicative
+singular, (3) the preterit indicative plural, and (4) the past
+participle.
+
+Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in the following table:
+
+  PRESENT.
+    PRET. SING.
+      PRET. PLUR.
+        PAST PARTICIPLE.
+
+  I. Bîtan, _to bite_:
+
+  Ic bît-e, _I bite_ or _shall bite_.[3]
+    Ic bât, _I bit_.
+      Wę bit-on, _we bit_.
+        Ic hćbbe ge[4]-biten, _I have bitten_.
+
+  II. Bęodan, _to bid_:
+
+  Ic bęod-e, _I bid_ or _shall bid_.
+    Ic bęad, _I bade_.
+      Wę bud-on, _we bade_.
+        Ic hćbbe ge-boden, _I have bidden_.
+
+  III. Bindan, _to bind_:
+
+  Ic bind-e, _I bind_ or _shall bind_.
+    Ic bond, _I bound_.
+      Wę bund-on, _we bound_.
+        Ic hćbbe ge-bund-en, _I have bound_.
+
+  IV. Beran, _to bear_:
+
+  Ic ber-e, _I bear_ or _shall bear_.
+    Ic bćr, _I bore_.
+      Wę bć:r-on, _we bore_.
+        Ic hćbbe ge-bor-en, _I have borne_.
+
+  V. Metan, _to measure_:
+
+  Ic met-e, _I measure_ or _shall measure_.
+    Ic mćt, _I measured_.
+      Wę mć:t-on, _we measured_.
+        Ic hćbbe ge-met-en, _I have measured_.
+
+  VI. Faran, _to go_:
+
+  Ic far-e, _I go_ or _shall go_.
+    Ic fôr, _I went_.
+      Wę fôr-on, _we went_.
+        Ic eom[5] ge-far-en, _I have (am) gone_.
+
+  VII. Feallan, _to fall_:
+
+  Ic feall-e, _I fall_ or _shall fall_.
+    Ic fęoll, _I fell_.
+      Wę fęoll-on, _we fell_.
+        Ic eom[5] ge-feall-en, _I have (am) fallen_.
+
+    [Footnote 3: Early West Saxon had no distinctive form for the
+    future. The present was used both as present proper and as
+    future. _Cf._ Modern English "I go home tomorrow," or "I am
+    going home tomorrow" for "I shall go home tomorrow."]
+
+    [Footnote 4: The prefix ge- (Middle English _y-_), cognate with
+    Latin _co_ (_con_) and implying completeness of action, was not
+    always used. It never occurs in the past participles of compound
+    verbs: #oţ-feallan#, _to fall off_, past participle #oţ-feallen#
+    (not #oţ-gefeallen#). Milton errs in prefixing it to a present
+    participle:
+
+      "What needs my Shakespeare, for his honour'd bones,
+      The labour of an age in piled stones?
+      Or that his hallow'd reliques should be hid
+      Under a star-_ypointing_ pyramid."
+        --_Epitaph on William Shakespeare_.
+
+    And Shakespeare misuses it in "Y-ravished," a preterit
+    (_Pericles_ III, _Prologue_ l. 35).
+
+    It survives in the archaic _y-clept_ (Old English #ge-clypod#,
+    called). It appears as _a_ in _aware_ (Old English #ge-wćr#),
+    as _e_ in _enough_ (Old English #ge-nôh#), and as _i_ in
+    _handiwork_ (Old English #hand-ge-weorc#).]
+
+    [Footnote 5: With intransitive verbs denoting _change of
+    condition_, the Old English auxiliary is usually some form of
+    _to be_ rather than _to have_. See § 139.]
+
+
+18. The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called Regular Verbs of
+Modern English) form their preterit and past participle by adding to the
+present stem a suffix[6] with _d_ or _t_: Modern English _love_,
+_loved_; _sleep_, _slept_.
+
+The stem of the preterit plural is never different from the stem of the
+preterit singular; hence these verbs have only three distinctive
+tense-stems, or principal parts: _viz._, (1) the present indicative,
+(2) the preterit indicative, and (3) the past participle.
+
+Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in the following table:
+
+  PRESENT.
+    PRETERIT.
+      PAST PARTICIPLE.
+
+  I. Fremman, _to perform_:
+
+  Ic fremm-e, _I perform_ or _shall perform_.
+    Ic frem-ede, _I performed_.
+      Ic hćbbe ge-frem-ed, _I have performed_.
+
+  II. Bodian, _to proclaim_:
+
+  Ic bodi-e, _I proclaim_ or _shall proclaim_.
+    Ic bod-ode, _I proclaimed_.
+      Ic hćbbe ge-bod-od, _I have proclaimed_.
+
+  III. Habban, _to have_:
+
+  Ic hćbbe, _I have_ or _shall have_.
+    Ic hćf-de, _I had_.
+      Ic hćbbe ge-hćf-d, _I have had_.
+
+    [Footnote 6: The theory that _loved_, for example, is a fused
+    form of _love-did_ has been generally given up. The dental
+    ending was doubtless an Indo-Germanic suffix, which became
+    completely specialized only in the Teutonic languages.]
+
+
+19. There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary Verbs of Modern
+English) that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations
+mentioned. The most important of them are, #Ic mćg# _I may_, #Ic mihte#
+_I might_; #Ic con# _I can_, #Ic cűđe# _I could_; #Ic môt# _I must_, #Ic
+môste# _I must_; #Ic sceal# _I shall_, #Ic sceolde# _I should_; #Ic eom#
+_I am_, #Ic wćs# _I was_; #Ic wille# _I will_, #Ic wolde# _I would_; #Ic
+dô# _I do_, #Ic dyde# _I did_; #Ic gâ# _I go_, #Ic ęode# _I went_.
+
+All but the last four of these are known as Preterit-Present Verbs. The
+present tense of each of them is _in origin_ a preterit, _in function_ a
+present. _Cf._ Modern English _ought_ (= _owed_).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ORDER OF WORDS.
+
+
+20. The order of words in Old English is more like that of Modern German
+than of Modern English. Yet it is only the Transposed order that the
+student will feel to be at all un-English; and the Transposed order,
+even before the period of the Norman Conquest, was fast yielding place
+to the Normal order.
+
+The three divisions of order are (1) Normal, (2) Inverted, and
+(3) Transposed.
+
+(1) Normal order = subject + predicate. In Old English, the Normal order
+is found chiefly in independent clauses. The predicate is followed by
+its modifiers: #Sę hwćl biđ micle lć:ssa ţonne ôđre hwalas#, _That whale
+is much smaller than other whales_; #Ond hę geseah twâ scipu#, _And he
+saw two ships_.
+
+(2) Inverted order = predicate + subject. This order occurs also in
+independent clauses, and is employed (_a_) when some modifier of the
+predicate precedes the predicate, the subject being thrown behind. The
+words most frequently causing Inversion in Old English prose are #ţâ#
+_then_, #ţonne# _then_, and #ţć:r# _there_: #Đâ fôr hę#, _Then went he_;
+#Đonne ćrnađ hy: ealle tôweard ţć:m fęo#, _Then gallop they all toward
+the property_; #ac ţć:r biđ medo genôh#, _but there is mead enough_.
+
+Inversion is employed (_b_) in interrogative sentences: #Lufast đű mę?#
+_Lovest thou me?_ and (_c_) in imperative sentences: #Cume đîn rîce#,
+_Thy kingdom come_.
+
+(3) Transposed order = subject ... predicate. That is, the predicate
+comes last in the sentence, being preceded by its modifiers. This is the
+order observed in dependent clauses:[1] #Đonne cymeđ sę man sę ţćt
+swiftoste hors hafađ#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse_
+(literally, _that the swiftest horse has_); #Ne mętte hę ć:r nân gebűn
+land, siţţan hę from his âgnum hâm fôr#, _Nor did he before find any
+cultivated land, after he went from his own home_ (literally, _after he
+from his own home went_).
+
+    [Footnote 1: But in the _Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan_, in
+    which the style is apparently more that of oral than of written
+    discourse, the Normal is more frequent than the Transposed order
+    in dependent clauses. In his other writings Alfred manifests a
+    partiality for the Transposed order in dependent clauses, except
+    in the case of substantival clauses introduced by #ţćt#. Such
+    clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their Normal _oratio
+    recta_ order. The norm thus set by the indirect affirmative
+    clause seems to have proved an important factor in the ultimate
+    disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The
+    influence of Norman French helped only to consummate forces that
+    were already busily at work.]
+
+
+21. Two other peculiarities in the order of words require a brief
+notice.
+
+(1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually precede the predicate:
+#Hę hine oferwann#, _He overcame him_ (literally, _He him overcame_);
+#Dryhten him andwyrde#, _The Lord answered him_. But substantival
+datives and accusatives, as in Modern English, follow the predicate. The
+following sentence illustrates both orders: #Hy: genâmon Ioseph, ond
+hine gesealdon cîpemonnum, ond hy: hine gesealdon in Ęgypta lond#, _They
+took Joseph, and sold him to merchants, and they sold him into Egypt_
+(literally, _They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, and they him
+sold into Egyptians' land_).
+
+  NOTE.--The same order prevails in the case of pronominal
+  nominatives used as predicate nouns: #Ic hit eom#, _It is I_
+  (literally, _I it am_); #Đű hit eart#, _It is thou_ (literally,
+  _Thou it art_).
+
+(2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship it expresses,
+usually precedes the noun which it qualifies: #Breoton is gârsecges
+îgland#, _Britain is an island of the ocean_ (literally, _ocean's
+island_); #Swilce hit is ęac berende on wecga ôrum#, _Likewise it is
+also rich in ores of metals_ (literally, _metals' ores_); #Cyninga
+cyning#, _King of kings_ (literally, _Kings' king_); #Gę witon Godes
+rîces gery:ne#, _Ye know the mystery of the kingdom of God_ (literally,
+_Ye know God's kingdom's mystery_).
+
+A preposition governing the word modified by the genitive, precedes the
+genitive:[2] #On ealdra manna sćgenum#, _In old men's sayings_; #Ćt
+đć:ra strć:ta endum#, _At the ends of the streets_ (literally, _At the
+streets' ends_); #For ealra đînra hâlgena lufan#, _For all thy saints'
+love_. See, also, § 94, (5).
+
+    [Footnote 2: The positions of the genitive are various. It
+    frequently follows its noun: #ţâ bearn ţâra Ađeniensa#, _The
+    children of the Athenians_. It may separate an adjective and a
+    noun: #Ân ly:tel sć:s earm#, _A little arm of (the) sea_. The
+    genitive may here be construed as an adjective, or part of a
+    compound = _A little sea-arm_; #Mid monegum Godes gifum#, _With
+    many God-gifts_ = _many divine gifts_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS.
+
+
+22. In the study of Old English, the student must remember that he is
+dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier
+forms of his own mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and
+stimulating in proportion as close and constant comparison is made of
+the old with the new. The guiding principles in such a comparison are
+reducible chiefly to two. These are (1) the regular operation of
+phonetic laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, and
+(2) the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by Analogy.
+
+(1) "The former of these is of physiological or _natural_ origin, and is
+perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same period of the same
+language; and even though different languages show different phonetic
+habits and predilections, there is a strong general resemblance between
+the changes induced in one language and in another; many of the
+particular laws are true for many languages.
+
+(2) "The other principle is psychical, or mental, or _artificial_,
+introducing various more or less capricious changes that are supposed to
+be emendations; and its operation is, to some extent, uncertain and
+fitful."[1]
+
+    [Footnote 1: Skeat, _Principles of English Etymology_, Second
+    Series, § 342. But Jespersen, with Collitz and others, stoutly
+    contests "the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between
+    them to explain everything in linguistic development."]
+
+
+(1) #Vowel-Shiftings.#
+
+23. It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and
+vocabulary of Old English to note carefully the following shiftings that
+have taken place in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system
+into that of Modern English.
+
+(1) As stated in § 3, the Old English inflectional vowels, which were
+all short and unaccented, weakened in early Middle English to _e_. This
+_e_ in Modern English is frequently dropped:
+
+  OLD ENGLISH.      MIDDLE ENGLISH.     MODERN ENGLISH.
+    stân-as           ston-es             stones
+    sun-u             sun-e               son
+    sun-a             sun-e               sons
+    ox-an             ox-en               oxen
+    swift-ra          swift-er            swifter
+    swift-ost         swift-est           swiftest
+    lôc-ode           lok-ede             looked
+
+(2) The Old English long vowels have shifted their phonetic values with
+such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to
+infer the Modern English sound; but our spelling is so chaotic that
+while the student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always infer the
+modern symbol representing the sound.
+
+  OLD         MODERN ENGLISH.
+  ENGLISH.
+
+  â       _o_[2]           { nâ = _no_; stân = _stone_; bân = _bone_;
+           (as in _no_)    {   râd = _road_; âc = _oak_; hâl = _whole_;
+                           {   hâm = _home_; sâwan = _to sow_; gâst =
+                           {   _ghost_.
+
+  ę       _e_             { hę = _he_; wę = _we_; đę = _thee_; mę =
+           (as in _he_)   {   _me_; gę = _ye_; hęl = _heel_; węrig =
+                          {   _weary_; gelęfan = _to believe_; gęs =
+                          {   _geese_.
+
+  î (y:)   _i_ (_y_)       { mîn = _mine_; đîn = _thine_; wîr = _wire_;
+           (as in _mine_) {   my:s = _mice_; rîm = _rime_ (wrongly spelt
+                          {   _rhyme_); ly:s = _lice_; bî = _by_;
+                          {   scînan = _to shine_; stig-râp = _sty-rope_
+                          {   (shortened to _stirrup_, stîgan meaning
+                          {   _to mount_).
+
+  ô       _o_             { dô = _I do_; tô = _too, to_; gôs = _goose_;
+            (as in _do_)  {   tôđ = _tooth_; môna = _moon_; đôm =
+                          {   _doom_; môd = _mood_; wôgian = _to woo_;
+                          {   slôh = _I slew_.
+
+  ű       _ou_ (_ow_)     { đű = _thou_; fűl = _foul_; hűs = _house_;
+           (as in _thou_) {   nű = _now_; hű = _how_; tűn = _town_;
+                          {   űre = our; űt = _out_; hlűd = _loud_;
+                          {   đűsend = _thousand_.
+
+
+  ć:,      _ea_            { ć:: sć: = _sea_; mć:l = _meal_; dć:lan =
+   ęa,     (as in _sea_)  {   _to deal_; clć:ne = _clean_; grć:dig =
+   ęo                     {   _greedy_.
+                          {
+                          { ęa: ęare = _ear_; ęast = _east_; dręam =
+                          {   _dream_; gęar = _year_; bęatan =
+                          {   _to beat_.
+                          {
+                          { ęo: đręo = _three_; dręorig = _dreary_;
+                          {   sęo = _she_, hręod = _reed_; dęop =
+                          {   _deep_.
+
+    [Footnote 2: But Old English â preceded by w sometimes gives
+    Modern English _o_ as in _two_: #twâ# = _two_; #hwâ# = _who_;
+    #hwâm# = _whom_.]
+
+
+(2) #Analogy.#
+
+24. But more important than vowel shifting is the great law of Analogy,
+for Analogy shapes not only words but constructions. It belongs,
+therefore, to Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences both form and
+function. By this law, minorities tend to pass over to the side of the
+majorities. "The greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence
+upon the smaller."[3] The effect of Analogy is to simplify and to
+regularize. "The main factor in getting rid of irregularities is
+group-influence, or Analogy--the influence exercised by the members of
+an association-group on one another.... Irregularity consists in partial
+isolation from an association-group through some formal difference."[4]
+
+Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions and conjugations have
+been swept away, leaving in Modern English not a trace of their former
+existence. There are in Old English, for example, five plural endings
+for nouns, -as, -a, -e, -u, and -an. No one could well have predicted[5]
+that -as (Middle English _-es_) would soon take the lead, and become the
+norm to which the other endings would eventually conform, for there were
+more an-plurals than as-plurals; but the as-plurals were doubtless more
+often employed in everyday speech. _Oxen_ (Old English #oxan#) is the
+sole pure survival of the hundreds of Old English an-plurals. No group
+of feminine nouns in Old English had -es as the genitive singular
+ending; but by the close of the Middle English period all feminines
+formed their genitive singular in _-es_ (or _-s_, Modern English _'s_)
+after the analogy of the Old English masculine and neuter nouns with
+es-genitives. The weak preterits in -ode have all been leveled under the
+ed-forms, and of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English more than
+two hundred have become weak.
+
+These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted vowels): Modern
+English _-s_ in _sons_, for example, could not possibly be derived from
+Old English -a in #suna#, or Middle English _-e_ in _sune_ (§ 23, (1)).
+They are cases of replacement by Analogy.
+
+A few minor examples will quicken the student's appreciation of the
+nature of the influence exercised by Analogy:
+
+(_a_) The intrusive _l_ in _could_ (Chaucer always wrote _coud_ or
+_coude_) is due to association with _would_ and _should_, in each of
+which _l_ belongs by etymological right.
+
+(_b_) _He need not_ (for _He needs not_) is due to the assimilative
+influence of the auxiliaries _may_, _can_, etc., which have never added
+_-s_ for their third person singular (§ 137).
+
+(_c_) _I am friends with him_, in which _friends_ is a crystalized form
+for _on good terms_, may be traced to the influence of such expressions
+as _He and I are friends_, _They are friends_, etc.
+
+(_d_) Such errors as are seen in _runned_, _seed_, _gooses_, _badder_,
+_hisself_, _says I_ (usually coupled with _says he_) are all analogical
+formations. Though not sanctioned by good usage, it is hardly right to
+call these forms the products of "false analogy." The grammar involved
+is false, because unsupported by literary usages and traditions; but the
+analogy on which these forms are built is no more false than the law of
+gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit unconventionally.
+
+    [Footnote 3: Whitney, _Life and Growth of Language_, Chap. IV.]
+
+    [Footnote 4: Sweet, _A New English Grammar_, Part I., § 535.]
+
+    [Footnote 5: As Skeat says (§ 22, (2)), Analogy is "fitful." It
+    enables us to explain many linguistic phenomena, but not to
+    anticipate them. The multiplication of books tends to check its
+    influence by perpetuating the forms already in use. Thus Chaucer
+    employed nine _en-_plurals, and his influence served for a time
+    to check the further encroachment of the _es-_plurals. As soon
+    as there is an acknowledged standard in any language, the
+    operation of Analogy is fettered.]
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
+
+
+
+
+THE STRONG OR VOWEL DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS.
+
+THE a-DECLENSION.
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+
+(_a_) #Masculine _a_-Stems.#
+
+[O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. will henceforth be used for Old English, Middle
+English, and Modern English. Other abbreviations employed are
+self-explaining.]
+
+25. The a-Declension, corresponding to the Second or _o_-Declension of
+Latin and Greek, contains only (_a_) masculine and (_b_) neuter nouns.
+To this declension belong most of the O.E. masculine and neuter nouns of
+the Strong Declension. At a very early period, many of the nouns
+belonging properly to the i- and u-Declensions began to pass over to the
+a-Declension. This declension may therefore be considered the _normal
+declension_ for all masculine and neuter nouns belonging to the Strong
+Declension.
+
+
+26. Paradigms of #sę műđ#, _mouth_; #sę fiscere#, _fisherman_; #sę
+hwćl#, _whale_; #sę mearh#, _horse_; #sę finger#, _finger_:
+
+  _Sing. N.A._  műđ     fiscer-e   hwćl     mearh    finger
+          _G._  műđ-es  fiscer-es  hwćl-es  męar-es  fingr-es
+        _D.I._  műđ-e   fiscer-e   hwćl-e   męar-e   fingr-e
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  műđ-as  fiscer-as  hwal-as  męar-as  fingr-as
+          _G._  műđ-a   fiscer-a   hwal-a   męar-a   fingr-a
+        _D.I._  műđ-um  fiscer-um  hwal-um  męar-um  fingr-um
+
+  NOTE.--For meanings of the cases, see § 12. The dative and
+  instrumental are alike in all nouns.
+
+
+27. The student will observe (1) that nouns whose nominative ends in -e
+(#fiscere#) drop this letter before adding the case endings; (2) that ć
+before a consonant (#hwćl#) changes to a in the plural;[1] (3) that h,
+preceded by r (#mearh#) or l (#seolh#, _seal_), is dropped before an
+inflectional vowel, the stem diphthong being then lengthened by way of
+compensation; (4) that dissyllables (#finger#) having the first syllable
+long, usually syncopate the vowel of the second syllable before adding
+the case endings.[2]
+
+    [Footnote 1: Adjectives usually retain ć in closed syllables,
+    changing it to a in open syllables: #hwćt# (_active_), #glćd#
+    (_glad_), #wćr# (_wary_) have G. #hwates#, #glades#, #wares#; D.
+    #hwatum#, #gladum#, #warum#; but A. #hwćtne#, #glćdne#, #wćrne#.
+    Nouns, however, change to a only in open syllables followed by a
+    guttural vowel, a or u. The ć in the open syllables of the
+    singular is doubtless due to the analogy of the N.A. singular,
+    both being closed syllables.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: _Cf._ Mn.E. _drizz'ling_, _rememb'ring_, _abysmal_
+    (_abysm_ = _abiz^{u}m_), _sick'ning_, in which the principle of
+    syncopation is precisely the same.]
+
+
+28. Paradigm of the Definite Article[3] #sę#, #sęo#, #đćt# = _the_:
+
+               _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
+
+  _Sing. N._     sę (se)       sęo          đćt
+        _G._     đćs           đć:re         đćs
+        _D._     đć:m (đâm)     đć:re         đć:m (đâm)
+        _A._     đone          đâ           đćt
+        _I._     đy:, đon       ----         đy:, đon
+
+                             _All Genders._
+
+  _Plur. N.A._                 đâ
+        _G._                   đâra
+        _D._                   đć:m (đâm)
+
+    [Footnote 3: This may mean four things: (1) _The_, (2) _That_
+    (demonstrative), (3) _He_, _she_, _it_, (4) _Who_, _which_,
+    _that_ (relative pronoun). Mn.E. demonstrative _that_ is, of
+    course, the survival of O.E. neuter #đćt# in its demonstrative
+    sense. Professor Victor Henry (_Comparative Grammar of English
+    and German_, § 160, 3) sees a survival of dative plural
+    demonstrative #đć:m# in such an expression as _in them days_. It
+    seems more probable, however, that _them_ so used has followed
+    the lead of _this_ and _these_, _that_ and _those_, in their
+    double function of pronoun and adjective. There was doubtless
+    some such evolution as, _I saw them. Them what? Them boys._
+
+    An unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the
+    article is seen in the _-ter_ of _Atterbury_ (= #ćt đć:re byrig#,
+    _at the town_); and #đć:m# survives in the _-ten_ of
+    _Attenborough_, the word _borough_ having become an uninflected
+    neuter. Skeat, _Principles_, First Series, § 185.]
+
+
+29. VOCABULARY.[4]
+
+  sę bôcere, _scribe_ [bôc].
+  sę cyning, _king_.
+  sę dćg, _day_.
+  sę ende, _end_.
+  sę engel, _angel_ [angelus].
+  sę fręodôm, _freedom_.
+  sę fugol (G. sometimes #fugles#), _bird_ [fowl].
+  sę gâr, _spear_ [gore, gar-fish].
+  sę heofon, _heaven_.
+  sę hierde, _herdsman_ [shep-herd].
+  ond (and), _and_.
+  sę secg, _man, warrior_.
+  sę seolh, _seal_.
+  sę stân, _stone_.
+  sę wealh, _foreigner, Welshman_ [wal-nut].
+  sę weall, _wall_.
+  sę wîsdôm, _wisdom_.
+  sę wulf, _wolf_.
+
+    [Footnote 4: The brackets contain etymological hints that may
+    help the student to discern relationships otherwise overlooked.
+    The genitive is given only when not perfectly regular.]
+
+
+30. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Đâra wulfa műđas. 2. Đćs fisceres fingras. 3. Đâra Węala cyninge.
+4. Đć:m englum ond đć:m hierdum. 5. Đâra daga ende. 6. Đć:m bôcerum ond
+đć:m secgum đćs cyninges. 7. Đć:m sęole ond đć:m fuglum. 8. Đâ stânas
+ond đâ gâras. 9. Hwala ond męara. 10. Đâra engla wîsdôm. 11. Đćs
+cyninges bôceres fręodôm. 12. Đâra hierda fuglum. 13. Đy: stâne.
+14. Đć:m wealle.
+
+II. 1. For the horses and the seals. 2. For the Welshmen's freedom.
+3. Of the king's birds. 4. By the wisdom of men and angels. 5. With the
+spear and the stone. 6. The herdsman's seal and the warriors' spears.
+7. To the king of heaven. 8. By means of the scribe's wisdom. 9. The
+whale's mouth and the foreigner's spear. 10. For the bird belonging to
+(= of) the king's scribe. 11. Of that finger.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+(_b_) #Neuter _a-_Stems.#
+
+
+31. The neuter nouns of the a-Declension differ from the masculines only
+in the N.A. plural.
+
+
+32. Paradigms of #đćt hof#, _court, dwelling_; #đaet bearn#, _child_;
+#đćt bân#, _bone_; #đćt rîce#, _kingdom_; #đćt spere#, _spear_; #đćt
+werod#, _band of men_; #đćt tungol#, _star_:
+
+  _Sing. N.A._    hof       bearn       bân       rîc-e
+          _G._    hof-es    bearn-es    bân-es    rîc-es
+        _D.I._    hof-e     bearn-e     bân-e     rîc-e
+
+  _Plur. N.A._    hof-u     bearn       bân       rîc-u
+          _G._    hof-a     bearn-a     bân-a     rîc-a
+        _D.I._    hof-um    bearn-um    bân-um    rîc-um
+
+  _Sing. N.A._    sper-e     werod       tungol
+          _G._    sper-es    werod-es    tungl-es
+        _D.I._    sper-e     werod-e     tungl-e
+
+  _Plur. N.A._    sper-u     werod       tungl-u
+          _G._    sper-a     werod-a     tungl-a
+        _D.I._    sper-um    werod-um    tungl-um
+
+
+33. The paradigms show (1) that monosyllables with short stems (#hof#)
+take -u in the N.A. plural; (2) that monosyllables with long stems
+(#bearn#, #bân#) do not distinguish the N.A. plural from the N.A.
+singular;[1] (3) that dissyllables in -e, whether the stem be long or
+short (#rîce#, #spere#), have -u in the N.A. plural; (4) that
+dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first syllable
+short[2] (#werod#) do not usually distinguish the N.A. plural from the
+N.A. singular; (5) that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having
+the first syllable long (#tungol#) more frequently take -u in the N.A.
+plural.
+
+  NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in the masculine a-stems. See
+  § 27, (4).
+
+    [Footnote 1: Note the many nouns in Mn.E. that are unchanged in
+    the plural. These are either survivals of O.E. long stems,
+    _swine_, _sheep_, _deer_, _folk_, or analogical forms, _fish_,
+    _trout_, _mackerel_, _salmon_, etc.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Dissyllables whose first syllable is a prefix are,
+    of course, excluded. They follow the declension of their last
+    member: #gebed#, _prayer_, #gebedu#, _prayers_; #gefeoht#,
+    _battle_, #gefeoht#, _battles_.]
+
+
+34. Present and Preterit Indicative of #habban#, _to have_:
+
+          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic hćbbe, _I have_, or _shall have_.[3]
+          2. đű hćfst (hafast), _thou hast_, or _wilt have_.
+          3. hę, hęo, hit hćfđ (hafađ),
+               _he, she, it has_, or _will have_.
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę habbađ, _we have_, or _shall have_.
+          2. gę habbađ, _ye have_, or _will have_.
+          3. hîe habbađ, _they have_, or _will have_.
+
+          PRETERIT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic hćfde _I had_.
+          2. đű hćfdest, _thou hadst_.
+          3. hę, hęo, hit hćfde, _he, she, it had_.
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę hćfdon, _we had_.
+          2. gę hćfdon, _ye had_.
+          3. hîe hćfdon, _they had_.
+
+  NOTE.--The negative #ne#, _not_, which always precedes its verb,
+  contracts with all the forms of #habban#. The negative loses its
+  e, #habban# its h. #Ne# + #habban# = #nabban#; #Ic ne hćbbe = Ic
+  nćbbe#; #Ic ne hćfde = Ic nćfde#, etc. The negative forms may be
+  got, therefore, by simply substituting in each case n for h.
+
+    [Footnote 3: See § 17, Note 1. Note that (as in #hwćl#, § 27,
+    (2)) ć changes to a when the following syllable contains a:
+    #hćbbe#, but #hafast#.]
+
+
+35. VOCABULARY.
+
+  đćt dćl, _dale_.
+  đćt dęor, _animal_ [deer[4]].
+  đćt dor, _door_.
+  đćt fćt, _vessel_ [vat].
+  đćt fy:r, _fire_.
+  đćt gęar, _year_.
+  đćt geoc, _yoke_.
+  đćt geset, _habitation_ [settlement].
+  đćt hęafod, _head_.
+  đćt hűs, _house_.
+  đćt lîc, _body_ [lich-gate].
+  đćt lim, _limb_.
+  on (with dat.) _in_.
+  đćt spor, _track_.
+  đćt wć:pen, _weapon_.
+  đćt wîf, _wife, woman_.
+  đćt wîte, _punishment_.
+  đćt word, _word_.
+
+    [Footnote 4: The old meaning survives in Shakespeare's "Rats and
+    mice and such small deer," _King Lear_, III, iv, 144.]
+
+
+36. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Hę hafađ đćs cyninges bearn. 2. Đâ Węalas habbađ đâ speru. 3. Đâ
+wîf habbađ đâra secga wć:pnu. 4. Đű hćfst đone fugol ond đćt hűs đćs
+hierdes. 5. Hćfđ[5] hęo đâ fatu[6]? 6. Hćfde hę đćs wîfes lîc on đć:m
+hofe? 7. Hę nćfde đćs wîfes lîc; hę hćfde đćs dęores hęafod. 8. Hćfđ sę
+cyning gesetu on đć:m dćle? 9. Sę bôcere hćfđ đâ sęolas on đć:m hűse.
+10. Gę habbađ fręodôm.
+
+II. 1. They have yokes and spears. 2. We have not the vessels in the
+house. 3. He had fire in the vessel. 4. Did the woman have (= Had the
+woman) the children? 5. The animal has the body of the woman's child.
+6. I shall have the heads of the wolves. 7. He and she have the king's
+houses. 8. Have not (= #Nabbađ#) the children the warrior's weapons?
+
+    [Footnote 5: See § 20, (2), (b).]
+
+    [Footnote 6: See § 27, (2).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE ô-DECLENSION.
+
+
+37. The ô-Declension, corresponding to the First or _â-_Declension of
+Latin and Greek, contains only feminine nouns. Many feminine i-stems and
+u-stems soon passed over to this Declension. The ô-Declension may,
+therefore, be considered the _normal declension_ for all strong feminine
+nouns.
+
+
+38. Paradigms of #sęo giefu#, _gift_; #sęo wund#, _wound_; #sęo rôd#,
+_cross_; #sęo leornung#, _learning_; #sęo sâwol#, _soul_:
+
+    _Sing. N._  gief-u   wund     rôd     leornung        sâwol
+          _G._  gief-e   wund-e   rôd-e   leornung-a (e)  sâwl-e
+        _D.I._  gief-e   wund-e   rôd-e   leornung-a (e)  sâwl-e
+          _A._  gief-e   wund-e   rôd-e   leornung-a (e)  sâwl-e
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  gief-a   wund-a   rôd-a   leornung-a      sâwl-a
+          _G._  gief-a   wund-a   rôd-a   leornung-a      sâwl-a
+        _D.I._  gief-um  wund-um  rôd-um  leornung-um     sâwl-um
+
+
+39. Note (1) that monosyllables with short stems (#giefu#) take u in the
+nominative singular; (2) that monosyllables with long stems (#wund#,
+#rôd#) present the unchanged stem in the nominative singular; (3) that
+dissyllables are declined as monosyllables, except that abstract nouns
+in -ung prefer a to e in the singular.
+
+  NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. See
+  § 27, (4).
+
+
+40. Present and Preterit Indicative of #bęon# (#wesan#) _to be_:
+
+          PRESENT (first form).    PRESENT         PRETERIT.
+                                   (second form).
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic eom                1. Ic bęom      1. Ic wćs
+          2. đű eart               2. đű bist      2. đű wć:re
+          3. hę is                 3. hę biđ       3. hę wćs
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }                 1. wę  }        1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } sind(on), sint  2. gę  } bęođ   2. gę  } wć:ron
+          3. hîe }                 3. hîe }        3. hîe }
+
+  NOTE 1.--The forms #bęom#, #bist#, etc. are used chiefly as future
+  tenses in O.E. They survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry.
+  Farmer Dobson, for example, in Tennyson's _Promise of May_, uses
+  _be_ for all persons of the present indicative, both singular and
+  plural; and _there be_ is frequent in Shakespeare for _there are_.
+  The Northern dialect employed #aron# as well as #sindon# and
+  #sind# for the present plural; hence Mn.E. _are_.
+
+  NOTE 2.--Fusion with #ne# gives #neom#, #neart#, #nis# for the
+  present; #nćs#, #nć:re#, #nć:ron# for the preterit.
+
+  NOTE 3.--The verb _to be_ is followed by the nominative case, as
+  in Mn.E.; but when the predicate noun is plural, and the subject a
+  neuter pronoun in the singular, the verb agrees in number with the
+  predicate noun. The neuter singular #đćt# is frequently employed
+  in this construction: #Đaet wć:ron eall Finnas#, _They were all
+  Fins_; #Đćt sind englas#, _They are angels_; #Đć:t wć:ron engla
+  gâstas#, _They were angels' spirits_.
+
+  Notice, too, that O.E. writers do not say _It is I_, _It is thou_,
+  but _I it am_, _Thou it art_: #Ic hit eom#, #đű hit eart#. See
+  § 21, (1), Note 1.
+
+
+41. VOCABULARY.
+
+  sęo brycg, _bridge_.
+  sęo costnung, _temptation_.
+  sęo cwalu, _death_ [quail, quell].
+  sęo fôr, _journey_ [faran].
+  sęo frôfor, _consolation, comfort_.
+  sęo geoguđ, _youth_.
+  sęo glôf, _glove_.
+  sęo hâlignes[1], _holiness_.
+  sęo heall, _hall_.
+  hęr, _here_.
+  hwâ, _who_?
+  hwć:r, _where_?
+  sęo lufu, _love_.
+  sęo mearc, _boundary_ [mark, marches[2]].
+  sęo męd, _meed, reward_.
+  sęo mildheortnes, _mild-heartedness, mercy_.
+  sęo stôw, _place_ [stow away].
+  đć:r, _there_.
+  sęo đearf, _need_.
+  sęo wylf, _she wolf_.
+
+    [Footnote 1: All words ending in -nes double the -s before
+    adding the case endings.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: As in _warden of the marches_.]
+
+
+42. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Hwć:r is đć:re brycge ende? 2. Hęr sind đâra rîca mearca. 3. Hwâ
+hćfđ ţâ glôfa? 4. Đć:r biđ đć:m cyninge frôfre đearf. 5. Sęo wund is on
+đć:re wylfe hęafde. 6. Wę habbađ costnunga. 7. Hîe nć:ron on đć:re
+healle. 8. Ic hit neom. 9. Đćt wć:ron Węalas. 10. Đćt sind đćs wîfes
+bearn.
+
+II. 1. We shall have the women's gloves. 2. Where is the place? 3. He
+will be in the hall. 4. Those (#Đćt#) were not the boundaries of the
+kingdom. 5. It was not I. 6. Ye are not the king's scribes. 7. The
+shepherd's words are full (#full# + gen.) of wisdom and comfort.
+8. Where are the bodies of the children? 9. The gifts are not here.
+10. Who has the seals and the birds?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE i-DECLENSION AND THE u-DECLENSION.
+
+
+#The _i-_Declension.# (See § 58.)
+
+43. The i-Declension, corresponding to the group of _i-_stems in the
+classical Third Declension, contains chiefly (_a_) masculine and (_b_)
+feminine nouns. The N.A. plural of these nouns ended originally in -e
+(from older i).
+
+
+(_a_) #Masculine _i-_Stems.#
+
+44. These stems have almost completely gone over to the a-Declension, so
+that -as is more common than -e as the N.A. plural ending, whether the
+stem is long or short. The short stems all have -e in the N.A. singular.
+
+
+45. Paradigms of #sę wyrm#, _worm_; #sę wine#, _friend_.
+
+  _Sing. N.A._  wyrm        win-e
+          _G._  wyrm-es     win-es
+        _D.I._  wyrm-e      win-e
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  wyrm-as     win-as (e)
+          _G._  wyrm-a      win-a
+        _D.I._  wyrm-um     win-um
+
+
+#Names of Peoples.#
+
+46. The only i-stems that regularly retain -e of the N.A. plural are
+certain names of tribes or peoples used only in the plural.
+
+
+47. Paradigms of #đâ Engle#, _Angles_; #đâ Norđymbre#, _Northumbrians_;
+#đâ lęode#, _people_:
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  Engle     Norđymbre     lęode
+          _G._  Engla     Norđymbra     lęoda
+        _D.I._  Englum    Norđymbrum    lęodum
+
+
+(_b_) #Feminine _i-_Stems.#
+
+48. The short stems (#frem-u#) conform entirely to the declension of
+short ô-stems; long stems (#cwęn#, #wyrt#) differ from long ô-stems in
+having no ending for the A. singular. They show, also, a preference for
+-e rather than -a in the N.A. plural.
+
+
+49. Paradigms of #sęo frem-u#, _benefit_; #sęo cwęn#, _woman, queen_
+[quean]; #sęo wyrt#, _root_ [wort]:
+
+    _Sing. N._ frem-u     cwęn          wyrt
+          _G._ frem-e     cwęn-e        wyrt-e
+        _D.I._ frem-e     cwęn-e        wyrt-e
+          _A._ frem-e     cwęn          wyrt
+
+  _Plur. N.A._ frem-a     cwęn-e (a)    wyrt-e (a)
+          _G._ frem-a     cwęn-a        wyrt-a
+        _D.I._ frem-um    cwęn-um       wyrt-um
+
+
+#The _u-_Declension.#
+
+50. The u-Declension, corresponding to the group of u-stems in the
+classical Third Declension, contains no neuters, and but few (_a_)
+masculines and (_b_) feminines. The short-stemmed nouns of both genders
+(#sun-u#, #dur-u#) retain the final u of the N.A. singular, while the
+long stems (#feld#, #hond#) drop it. The influence of the masculine
+a-stems is most clearly seen in the long-stemmed masculines of the
+u-Declension (#feld#, #feld-es#, etc.).
+
+  NOTE.--Note the general aversion of all O.E. long stems to final
+  -u: _cf._ N.A. plural #hof-u#, but #bearn#, #bân#; N. singular
+  #gief-u#, but #wund#, #rôd#; N. singular #frem-u#, but #cwęn#,
+  #wyrt#; N.A. singular #sun-u#, #dur-u#, but #feld#, #hond#.
+
+
+(_a_) #Masculine _u-_Stems.#
+
+51. Paradigms of #sę sun-u#, _son_; #sę feld#, _field_:
+
+  _Sing. N.A._  sun-u     feld
+          _G._  sun-a     feld-a (es)
+        _D.I._  sun-a     feld-a (e)
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  sun-a     feld-a (as)
+          _G._  sun-a     feld-a
+        _D.I._  sun-um    feld-um
+
+
+(b) #Feminine _u-_Stems.#
+
+52. Paradigms of #sęo dur-u#, _door_; #sęo hond#, _hand_:
+
+  _Sing. N.A._  dur-u     hond
+          _G._  dur-a     hond-a
+        _D.I._  dur-a     hond-a
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  dur-a     hond-a
+          _G._  dur-a     hond-a
+        _D.I._  dur-um    hond-um
+
+
+53. Paradigm of the Third Personal Pronoun, #hę#, #hęo#, #hit# = _he_,
+_she_, _it_:
+
+            _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
+  _Sing. N._  hę            hęo          hit
+        _G._  his           hiere        his
+        _D._  him           hiere        him
+        _A._  hine, hiene   hîe          hit
+
+                      _All Genders._
+  _Plur. N.A._              hîe
+          _G._              hiera
+          _D._              him
+
+
+54. VOCABULARY.
+
+  (i-STEMS.)
+
+  sę cierr, _turn, time_ [char, chare, chore].
+  sęo dć:d, _deed_.
+  sę dć:l, _part_ [a great deal].
+  đâ Dene, _Danes_.
+  sę fręondscipe, _friendship_.
+  sęo hy:d, _skin, hide_.
+  đâ londlęode, _natives_.
+  đâ Mierce, _Mercians_.
+  đâ Rômware, _Romans_.
+  đâ Seaxe, _Saxons_.
+  sę stede, _place_ [in-stead of].
+
+  (u-STEMS.)
+
+  sęo flôr, _floor_.
+  sęo nosu, _nose_.
+  sę sumor (_G._ sumeres, _D._ sumera), _summer_.
+  sę winter (_G._ wintres, _D._ wintra), _winter_.
+  sę wudu, _wood, forest_.
+
+  NOTE.--The numerous masculine nouns ending in -hâd,--#cildhâd#
+  (_childhood_), #wîfhâd# (_womanhood_),--belong to the u-stems
+  historically; but they have all passed over to the a-Declension.
+
+
+55. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Đâ Seaxe habbađ đćs dęores hy:d on đć:m wuda. 2. Hwâ hćfđ đâ
+giefa? 3. Đâ Mierce hîe[1] habbađ. 4. Hwć:r is đćs Węales fugol? 5. Đâ
+Dene hiene habbađ. 6. Hwć:r sindon hiera winas? 7. Hîe sindon on đćs
+cyninges wuda. 8. Đâ Rômware ond đâ Seaxe hćfdon đâ gâras ond đâ geocu.
+9. Hęo is on đć:m hűse on wintra, ond on đć:m feldum on sumera.
+10. Hwć:r is đćs hofes duru?  11. Hęo[2] (= sęo duru) nis hęr.
+
+II. 1. His friends have the bones of the seals and the bodies of the
+Danes. 2. Art thou the king's son? 3. Has she her[3] gifts in her[3]
+hands? 4. Here are the fields of the natives. 5. Who had the bird?
+6. I had it.[2] 7. The child had the worm in his[3] fingers. 8. The
+Mercians were here during (the) summer (#on# + dat.).
+
+    [Footnote 1: See § 21, (1).]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which
+    they stand. #Hit#, however, sometimes stands for inanimate
+    things of both masculine and feminine genders. See Wülfing
+    (_l.c._) I, § 238.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: See § 76 (last sentence).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+PRESENT INDICATIVE ENDINGS OF STRONG VERBS.
+
+
+56. The unchanged stem of the present indicative may always be found by
+dropping -an of the infinitive: #feall-an#, _to fall_; #cęos-an#, _to
+choose_; #bîd-an#, _to abide_.
+
+
+57. The personal endings are:
+
+  _Sing._ 1. -e    _Plur._ 1. }
+          2. -est          2. } -ađ
+          3. -eđ           3. }
+
+
+#_i-_Umlaut.#
+
+58. The 2d and 3d singular endings were originally not -est and -eđ, but
+-is and -iđ; and the i of these older endings has left its traces upon
+almost every page of Early West Saxon literature. This i, though
+unaccented and soon displaced, exerted a powerful back influence upon
+the vowel of the preceding accented syllable. This influence, a form of
+regressive assimilation, is known as i-umlaut (pronounced _oóm-lowt_).
+The vowel i or j (= _y_), being itself a palatal, succeeded in
+palatalizing every guttural vowel that preceded it, and in imposing
+still more of the i-quality upon diphthongs that were already
+palatal.[1] The changes produced were these:
+
+  a became e (ć): menn (< *mann-iz), _men_.
+  â    "   ć:      ć:nig (< *ân-ig), _any_.
+  u    "   y      wyllen (< *wull-in), _woollen_.
+  ű    "   y:      my:s (< *műs-iz), _mice_.
+  o    "   e      dehter (< *dohtr-i), _to_ or _for the daughter_.
+  ô    "   ę      fęt (< *fôt-iz), _feet_.
+  ea   "   ie     wiexđ (< *weax-iđ), _he grows_ (weaxan = _to grow_).
+  ęa   "   îe     hîewđ (< *hęaw-iđ), _he hews_ (hęawan = to _hew_).
+  eo   "   ie     wiercan (< *weorc-jan), _to work_.
+  ęo   "   îe     lîehtan (< *lęoht-jan), _to light_.
+
+    [Footnote 1: The _palatal_ vowels and diphthongs were long or
+    short ć, e, i, (ie), y, ea, eo; the _guttural_ vowels were long
+    or short a, o, u.]
+
+
+#The Unchanged Present Indicative.#
+
+59. In the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects, as well as in the dialect
+of Late West Saxon, the 2d and 3d singular endings were usually joined
+to the present stem without modification either of the stem itself or of
+the personal endings. The complete absence of umlauted forms in the
+present indicative of Mn.E. is thus accounted for.
+
+In Early West Saxon, however, such forms as the following are
+comparatively rare in the 2d and 3d singular:
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic feall-e      cęos-e          bîd-e
+               (_I fall_)      (_I choose_)    (_I abide_)
+          2. đű feall-est    cęos-est        bîd-est
+          3. hę feall-eđ     cęos-eđ         bîd-eđ
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } feall-ađ  cęos-ađ         bîd-ađ
+          3. hîe }
+
+
+#The Present Indicative with i-Umlaut and Contraction.#
+
+60. The 2d and 3d persons singular are distinguished from the other
+forms of the present indicative in Early West Saxon by (1) i-umlaut of
+the vowel of the stem, (2) syncope of the vowel of the ending, giving
+-st and -đ for -est and -eđ, and (3) contraction of -st and -đ with the
+final consonant or consonants of the stem.
+
+
+#Contraction.#
+
+61. The changes produced by i-umlaut have been already discussed. By
+these changes, therefore, the stems of the 2d and 3d singular indicative
+of such verbs as (1) #stondan# (= #standan#), _to stand_, (2) #cuman#,
+_to come_, (3) #grôwan#, _to grow_, (4) #brűcan#, _to enjoy_,
+(5) #blâwan#, _to blow_, (6) #feallan#, _to fall_, (7) #hęawan#, _to
+hew_, (8) #weorpan#, _to throw_, and (9) #cęosan#, _to choose_, become
+respectively (1) #stend-#,[2] (2) #cym-#, (3) #gręw-#, (4) #bry:c-#,
+(5) #blć:w-#, (6) #fiell-#, (7) #hîew-#, (8) #wierp-#, and (9) #cîes-#.
+
+If the unchanged stem contains the vowel e, this is changed in the 2d
+and 3d singular to i (ie): #cweđan# _to say_, stem #cwiđ-#; #beran# _to
+bear_, stem #bier-#. But this mutation[3] had taken place long before
+the period of O.E., and belongs to the Germanic languages in general. It
+is best, however, to class the change of e to i or ie with the changes
+due to umlaut, since it occurs consistently in the 2d and 3d singular
+stems of Early West Saxon, and outlasted almost all of the umlaut forms
+proper.
+
+If, now, the syncopated endings -st and -đ are added directly to the
+umlauted stem, there will frequently result such a massing of consonants
+as almost to defy pronunciation: #cwiđ-st#, _thou sayest_; #stend-st#,
+_thou standest_, etc. Some sort of contraction, therefore, is demanded
+for the sake of euphony. The ear and eye will, by a little practice,
+become a sure guide in these contractions. The following rules, however,
+must be observed. They apply only to the 2d and 3d singular of the
+present indicative:
+
+(1) If the stem ends in a double consonant, one of the consonants is
+dropped:
+
+  1. feall-e (_I fall_)  1. winn-e (_I fight_)  1. swimm-e (_I swim_)
+  2. fiel-st             2. win-st              2. swim-st
+  3. fiel-đ              3. win-đ               3. swim-đ
+
+(2) If the stem ends in -đ, this is dropped:
+
+  1. cweđ-e (_I say_)  1. weorđ-e (_I become_)
+  2. cwi-st            2. wier-st
+  3. cwi-đ             3. wier-đ
+
+(3) If the stem ends in -d, this is changed to -t. The -đ of the ending
+is then also changed to -t, and usually absorbed. Thus the stem of the
+2d singular serves as stem and ending for the 3d singular:
+
+  1. stond-e (= stand-e) (_I stand_)  1. bind-e (_I bind_)
+  2. stent-st                         2. bint-st
+  3. stent                            3. bint
+
+  1. bîd-e (_I abide_)                1. rîd-e (_I ride_)
+  2. bît-st                           2. rît-st
+  3. bît (-t)                         3. rît (-t)
+
+(4) If the stem ends already in -t, the endings are added as in (3), -đ
+being again changed to -t and absorbed:
+
+  1. bręot-e (_I break_)  1. feoht-e (_I fight_)  1. bît-e (_I bite_)
+  2. brîet-st             2. fieht-st             2. bît-st
+  3. brîet (-t)           3. fieht                3. bît (-t)
+
+(5) If the stem ends in -s, this is dropped before -st (to avoid -sst),
+but is retained before -đ, the latter being changed to -t. Thus the 2d
+and 3d singulars are identical:[4]
+
+  1. cęos-e (_I choose_)  1. rîs-e (_I rise_)
+  2. cîe-st               2. rî-st
+  3. cîes-t               3. rîs-t
+
+    [Footnote 2: The more common form for stems with a is ć rather
+    than e: #faran#, _to go_, 2d and 3d singular stem #fćr-#;
+    #sacan#, _to contend_, stem #sćc-#. Indeed, a changes to e _via_
+    ć (Cosijn, _Altwestsächsische Grammatik_, I, § 32).]
+
+    [Footnote 3: Umlaut is frequently called Mutation. Metaphony is
+    still another name for the same phenomenon. The term Metaphony
+    has the advantage of easy adjectival formation (metaphonic). It
+    was proposed by Professor Victor Henry (_Comparative Grammar of
+    English and German_, Paris, 1894), but has not been
+    naturalized.]
+
+    [Footnote 4: This happens also when the infinitive stem ends
+    in #st#:
+
+      1. berst-e (_I burst_)
+      2. bier-st
+      3. bierst.]
+
+
+62. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Sę cyning fielđ. 2. Đâ wîf cęosađ đâ giefa. 3. Đű stentst on đć:m
+hűse. 4. Hę wierpđ đćt wć:pen. 5. Sę secg hîewđ đâ lîc. 6. Đćt sć:d
+gręwđ ond wiexđ (_Mark_ iv. 27). 7. Ic stonde hęr, ond đű stentst đć:r.
+8. "Ic hit eom," cwiđ hę. 9. Hîe berađ đćs wulfes bân. 10. Hę hîe bint,
+ond ic hine binde. 11. Ne rîtst đű?
+
+II. 1. We shall bind him. 2. Who chooses the child's gifts? 3. "He was
+not here," says she. 4. Wilt thou remain in the hall? 5. The wolves are
+biting (= bite) the fishermen. 6. He enjoys[5] the love of his children.
+7. Do you enjoy (= Enjoyest thou) the consolation and friendship of the
+scribe? 8. Will he come? 9. I shall throw the spear, and thou wilt bear
+the weapons. 10. The king's son will become king. 11. The army (#werod#)
+is breaking the doors and walls of the house.
+
+    [Footnote 5: #Brűcan#, _to enjoy_, usually takes the genitive
+    case, not the accusative. It means "to have joy of any thing."]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE CONSONANT DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS.
+
+
+#The Weak or _n-_Declension.#
+
+63. The n-Declension contains almost all of the O.E. nouns belonging to
+the Consonant Declensions. The stem characteristic n has been preserved
+in the oblique cases, so that there is no difficulty in distinguishing
+n-stems from the preceding vowel stems.
+
+The n-Declension includes (_a_) masculines, (_b_) feminines, and (_c_)
+neuters. The masculines far outnumber the feminines, and the neuters
+contain only #ęage#, _eye_ and #ęare#, _ear_. The masculines end in -a,
+the feminines and neuters in -e.
+
+
+64. Paradigms of (_a_) #sę hunta#, _hunter_; (_b_) #sęo tunge#,
+_tongue_; (_c_) #đćt ęage#, _eye_:
+
+    _Sing. N._  hunt-a      tung-e      ęag-e
+      _G.D.I._  hunt-an     tung-an     ęag-an
+          _A._  hunt-an     tung-an     ęag-e
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  hunt-an     tung-an     ęag-an
+          _G._  hunt-ena    tung-ena    ęag-ena
+        _D.I._  hunt-um     tung-um     ęag-um
+
+
+65. VOCABULARY.
+
+  sę adesa, _hatchet, adze_.
+  sę ć:metta, _leisure_ [empt-iness].
+  sę bona (bana), _murderer_ [bane].
+  sęo cirice, _church_ [Scotch kirk].
+  sę cnapa (later, #cnafa#), _boy_ [knave].
+  sę cuma, _stranger_ [comer].
+  đćt ęare, _ear_.
+  sęo eorđe, _earth_.
+  sę gefęra, _companion_ [co-farer].
+  sę guma, _man_ [bride-groom[1]].
+  sęo heorte, _heart_.
+  sę môna, _moon_.
+  sęo nć:dre, _adder_ [a nadder > an adder[2]].
+  sę oxa, _ox_.
+  sę scęowyrhta, _shoe-maker_ [shoe-wright].
+  sęo sunne, _sun_.
+  sę tęona, _injury_ [teen].
+  biddan (with dat. of person and gen. of thing[3]), _to request, ask
+for_.
+  cwelan, _to die_ [quail].
+  gescieppan, _to create_ [shape, land-scape, friend-ship].
+  giefan (with dat. of indirect object), _to give_.
+  healdan, _to hold_.
+  helpan (with dat.), _to help_.
+  sceđđan[4] (with dat.), _to injure_ [scathe].
+  wiđstondan (-standan) (with dat.), _to withstand_.
+  wrîtan, _to write_.
+
+    [Footnote 1: The _r_ is intrusive in _-groom_, as it is in
+    _cart-r-idge_, _part-r-idge_, _vag-r-ant_, and _hoa-r-se_.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: The _n_ has been appropriated by the article. Cf.
+    _an apron_ (< _a napron_), _an auger_ (< _a nauger_), _an
+    orange_ (< _a norange_), _an umpire_ (< _a numpire_).]
+
+    [Footnote 3: In Mn.E. we say "I request a favor of you"; but in
+    O.E. it was "I request you (dative) of a favor" (genitive). Cf.
+    _Cymbeline_, III, vi, 92: "We'll mannerly demand thee of thy
+    story." See Franz's _Shakespeare-Grammatik_, § 361 (1900).]
+
+    [Footnote 4: #Sceđđan# is conjugated through the present
+    indicative like #fremman#. See § 129.]
+
+
+66. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Sę scęowyrhta bry:cđ his ć:mettan. 2. Đâ guman biddađ đć:m cnapan
+đćs adesan. 3. Hwâ is sę cuma? 4. Hielpst đű đć:m bonan? 5. Ic him ne
+helpe. 6. Đâ bearn sceđđađ đćs bonan ęagum ond ęarum. 7. Sę cuma cwielđ
+on đć:re cirican. 8. Sę hunta wiđstent đć:m wulfum. 9. Đâ oxan berađ đćs
+cnapan gefęran. 10. Sę môna ond đâ tunglu sind on đć:m heofonum. 11. Đâ
+huntan healdađ đć:re nć:dran tungan. 12. Hę hiere giefđ đâ giefa. 13. Đâ
+werod sceđđađ đćs cyninges feldum.
+
+II. 1. Who will bind the mouths of the oxen? 2. Who gives him the
+gifts? 3. Thou art helping him, and I am injuring him. 4. The boy's
+companion is dying. 5. His nephew does not enjoy his leisure. 6. The
+adder's tongue injures the king's companion. 7. The sun is the day's
+eye. 8. She asks the strangers for the spears. 9. The men's bodies are
+not here. 10. Is he not (#Nis hę#) the child's murderer? 11. Who creates
+the bodies and the souls of men? 12. Thou withstandest her. 13. He is
+not writing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+
+#Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions.#
+
+67. The nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines and feminines. Their
+stem ended in a consonant other than n. The most important of them may
+be divided as follows: (1) The _foot_ Declension, (2) r-Stems, and
+(3) nd-Stems. These declensions are all characterized by the prevalence,
+wherever possible, of i-umlaut in certain cases, the case ending being
+then dropped.
+
+
+68. (1) The nouns belonging to the _foot_ Declension exhibit umlaut most
+consistently in the N.A. plural.
+
+  _Sing. N.A._  sę fôt     sę mon    sę tôđ      sęo cű
+  _Sing. N.A._   (_foot_)   (_man_)   (_tooth_)    (_cow_)
+  _Plur. N.A._  fęt        men       tęđ         cy:
+
+  NOTE.--The dative singular usually has the same form as the N.A.
+  plural. Here belong also #sęo bôc# (_book_), #sęo burg#
+  (_borough_), #sęo gôs# (_goose_), #sęo lűs# (_louse_), and #sęo
+  műs# (_mouse_), all with umlauted plurals. Mn.E. preserves only
+  six of the _foot_ Declension plurals: _feet_, _men_, _teeth_,
+  _geese_, _lice_, and _mice_. The _c_ in the last two is an
+  artificial spelling, intended to preserve the sound of voiceless
+  _s_. Mn.E. _kine_ (= _cy-en_) is a double plural formed after the
+  analogy of weak stems; Burns in _The Twa Dogs_ uses _kye_.
+
+  No umlaut is possible in #sęo niht# (_night_) and #sę mônađ#
+  (_month_), plural #niht# and #mônađ# (preserved in Mn.E.
+  _twelvemonth_ and _fortnight_).
+
+(2) The r-Stems contain nouns expressing kinship, and exhibit umlaut of
+the dative singular.
+
+  _Sing. N.A._  sę fćder     sę brôđor    sęo môdor
+                 (_father_)   (_brother_)   (_mother_)
+          _D._     fćder        bręđer        męder
+
+  _Sing. N.A._  sęo dohtor (_daughter_)  sęo swuster (_sister_)
+          _D._      dehter                   swyster
+
+  NOTE.--The N.A. plural is usually the same as the N.A. singular.
+  These umlaut datives are all due to the presence of a former i.
+  Cf. Lat. dative singular _patri_, _frâtri_, _mâtri_, _sorori_
+  (< _*sosori_), and Greek +thugatri+.
+
+(3) The nd-Stems show umlaut both in the N.A. plural and in the dative
+singular:
+
+  _Sing. N.A._  sę fręond (_friend_)  sę fęond (_enemy_)
+          _D._     frîend                fîend
+
+  _Plur. N.A._     frîend             fîend
+
+  NOTE.--Mn.E. _friend_ and _fiend_ are interesting analogical
+  spellings. When s had been added by analogy to the O.E. plurals
+  #frîend# and #fîend#, thus giving the double plurals _friends_ and
+  _fiends_, a second singular was formed by dropping the s. Thus
+  _friend_ and _fiend_ displaced the old singulars _frend_ and
+  _fend_, both of which occur in the M.E. _Ormulum_, written about
+  the year 1200.
+
+
+#Summary of O.E. Declensions.#
+
+69. A brief, working summary of the O.E. system of declensions may now
+be made on the basis of gender.
+
+All O.E. nouns are (1) masculine, (2) feminine, or (3) neuter.
+
+(1) The masculines follow the declension of #műđ# (§ 26), except those
+ending in -a, which are declined like #hunta# (§ 64):
+
+  _Sing. N.A._  műđ        _N._  hunta
+          _G._  műđes  _G.D.A._  huntan
+        _D.I._  műđe       _I._  huntan
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  műđas          huntan
+          _G._  műđa           huntena
+        _D.I._  műđum          huntum
+
+(2) The short-stemmed neuters follow the declension of #hof# (§ 32); the
+long-stemmed, that of #bearn# (§ 32):
+
+  _Sing. N.A._  hof      bearn
+          _G._  hofes    bearnes
+        _D.I._  hofe     bearne
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  hofu     bearn
+          _G._  hofa     bearna
+        _D.I._  hofum    bearnum
+
+(3) The feminines follow the declensions of #giefu# and #wund# (§ 38)
+(the only difference being in the N. singular), except those ending in
+-e, which follow the declension of #tunge# (§ 64):
+
+    _Sing. N._  giefu     wund      tunge
+          _G._  giefe     wunde     tungan
+        _D.I._  giefe     wunde     tungan
+          _A._  giefe     wunde     tungan
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  giefa     wunda     tungan
+          _G._  giefa     wunda     tungena
+        _D.I._  giefum    wundum    tungum
+
+
+70. VOCABULARY.
+
+  ac, _but_.
+  bűtan (with dat.), _except, but, without_.
+  sę Crîst, _Christ_.
+  sę eorl, _earl, alderman, warrior_.
+  đćt Englalond, _England_ [Angles' land].
+  faran, _to go_ [fare].
+  findan, _to find_.
+  sę God, _God_.
+  hâtan, _to call, name_.
+  sę hlâford, _lord_ [#hlâf-weard#].
+  mid (with dat.), _with_.
+  on (with acc.), _on, against, into_.
+  tô (with dat.), _to_.
+  uton (with infin.), _let us_.
+
+  NOTE.--O.E. #mon# (#man#) is frequently used in an indefinite sense
+  for _one_, _people_, _they_. It thus takes the place of a passive
+  construction proper: #And man nam ţâ gebrotu ţe ţâr belifon, twelf
+  cy:pan fulle#, _And there were taken up of fragments that remained
+  there twelve baskets full_; but more literally, _And one_ (or
+  _they_) _took the fragments_, etc.; #Ond Hćstenes wîf ond hîs suna
+  twęgen mon brôhte tô đć:m cyninge#, _And Hćsten's wife and his two
+  sons were brought to the king_.
+
+
+71. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Môn hine hć:t Ćlfred. 2. Uton faran on đćt scip. 3. God is cyninga
+cyning ond hlâforda hlâford. 4. Sę eorl ne giefđ giefa his fîend. 5. Ic
+nćs mid his frîend. 6. Sęo môdor fćrđ mid hiere dehter on đâ burg.
+7. Fintst đű đćs bôceres bęc? 8. Hę bint ealle (all) đâ dęor bűtan đć:m
+wulfum. 9. Đű eart Crîst, Godes sunu. 10. "Uton bindan đćs bonan fęt,"
+cwiđ hę.
+
+II. 1. Christ is the son of God. 2. Let us call him Cćdmon. 3. He throws
+his spear against the door. 4. Thou art not the earl's brother. 5. He
+will go with his father to England, but I shall remain (abide) here.
+6. Gifts are not given to murderers. 7. Who will find the tracks of the
+animals? 8. They ask their lord for his weapons (§ 65, Note 3).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+PRONOUNS.
+
+
+(1) #Personal Pronouns.#
+
+72. Paradigms of #ic#, _I_; #đű#, _thou_. For #hę#, #hęo#, #hit#, see
+§ 53.
+
+  _Sing. N._  ic                          đű
+        _G._  mîn                         đîn
+        _D._  mę                          đę
+        _A._  mę (mec)                    đę (đec)
+
+   _Dual N._  wit (_we two_)              git (_ye two_)
+        _G._  uncer (_of us two_)         incer (_of you two_)
+        _D._  unc (_to_ or _for us two_)  inc (_to_ or _for you two_)
+        _A._  unc (_us two_)              inc (_you two_)
+
+  _Plur. N._  wę                          gę
+        _G._  űser (űre)                  ęower
+        _D._  űs                          ęow
+        _A._  űs (űsic)                   ęow (ęowic)
+
+  NOTE 1.--The dual number was soon absorbed by the plural. No relic
+  of it now remains. But when two and only two are referred to, the
+  dual is consistently used in O.E. An example occurs in the case of
+  the two blind men (_Matthew_ ix. 27-31): #Gemiltsa unc, Davîdes
+  sunu!# _Pity us, (thou) Son of David!_ #Sîe inc ćfter incrum
+  gelęafan#, _Be it unto you according to your faith._
+
+  NOTE 2.--Mn.E. _ye_ (< gę), the nominative proper, is fast being
+  displaced by _you_ (< #ęow#), the old objective. The distinction
+  is preserved in the King James's version of the Bible: _Ye in me,
+  and I in you_ (_John_ xiv. 20); but not in Shakespeare and later
+  writers.
+
+
+(2) #Demonstrative Pronouns.#
+
+73. Paradigm of #đęs#, #đęos#, #đis#, _this_. For the Definite Article
+as a demonstrative, meaning _that_, see § 28, Note 3.
+
+               _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
+    _Sing. N._  đęs           đęos         đis
+          _G._  đisses        đisse        đisses
+          _D._  đissum        đisse        đissum
+          _A._  đisne         đâs          đis
+          _I._  đy:s           ----         đy:s
+
+                             _All Genders._
+  _Plur. N.A._                đâs
+          _G._                đissa
+          _D._                đissum
+
+
+(3) #The Interrogative Pronoun.#
+
+74. Paradigm of #hwâ#, #hwćt#, _who_, _what?_
+
+             _Masculine._  _Neuter._
+  _Sing. N._  hwâ           hwćt
+        _G._  hwćs          hwćs
+        _D._  hwć:m          hwć:m
+        _A._  hwone         hwćt
+        _I._  ----          hwy:
+
+  NOTE 1.--The derivative interrogatives, #hwćđer# (< #*hwâ-đer#),
+  _which of two?_ and #hwilc# (< #*hwâ-lîc#), _which?_ are declined
+  as strong adjectives (§§ 79-82).
+
+  NOTE 2.--The instrumental case of #hwâ# survives in Mn.E. _why_ =
+  _on what account_; the instrumental of the definite article is
+  seen in the adverbial _the: The sooner, the better = by how much
+  sooner, by so much better._
+
+  NOTE 3.--How were the Mn.E. relative pronouns, _who_ and _which_,
+  evolved from the O.E. interrogatives? The change began in early
+  West Saxon with #hwćt# used in indirect questions (Wülfing, _l.c._
+  § 310, [beta]): #Nű ic wât eall hwćt đű woldest#, _Now I know all
+  that thou desiredst_. The direct question was, #Hwćt woldest đű?# But
+  the presence of #eall# shows that in Alfred's mind #hwćt# was, in
+  the indirect form, more relative than interrogative.
+
+
+(4) #Relative Pronouns.#
+
+75. O.E. had no relative pronoun proper. It used instead (1) the
+Indeclinable Particle #đe#, _who_, _whom_, _which_, _that_, (2) the
+Definite Article (§ 28), (3) the Definite Article with the Indeclinable
+Particle, (4) the Indeclinable Particle with a Personal Pronoun.
+
+The Definite Article agrees in gender and number with the antecedent.
+The case depends upon the construction. _The bird which I have_ may,
+therefore, be:--
+
+  (1) #Sę fugol đe ic hćbbe#;
+  (2) #Sę fugol đone ic hćbbe#;
+  (3) #Sę fugol đone đe# (= _the which_) #ic hćbbe#;
+  (4) #Sę fugol đe hine ic hćbbe#.
+
+  NOTE.--O.E. #đe# agrees closely in construction with Mn.E.
+  relative _that_: (1) Both are indeclinable. (2) Both refer to
+  animate or inanimate objects. (3) Both may be used with phrasal
+  value: #đy: ylcan dćge đe hî hine tô đć:m âde beran wyllađ#, _On the
+  same day that_ (= _on which_) _they intend to bear him to the
+  funeral pile_. (4) Neither can be preceded by a preposition.
+
+
+(5) #Possessive Pronouns.#
+
+76. The Possessive Pronouns are #mîn#, _mine_; #đîn#, _thine_; #űre#,
+_our_; #ęower#, _your_; [#sîn#, _his_, _her_, _its_]; #uncer#,
+_belonging to us two_; #incer#, _belonging to you two_. They are
+declined as strong adjectives. The genitives of the Third Personal
+Pronoun, #his#, _his_, #hiere#, _her_, #hiera#, _their_, are
+indeclinable.
+
+
+(6) #Indefinite Pronouns.#
+
+77. These are #ć:lc#, _each_, _every_; #ân#, _a_, _an_, _one_; #ć:nig#
+(< #ân-ig#), _any_; #nć:nig# (< #ne-ć:nig#), _none_; #ôđer#, _other_;
+#sum#, _one_, _a certain one_; #swilc#, _such_. They are declined as
+strong adjectives.
+
+  NOTE.--O.E. had three established methods of converting an
+  interrogative pronoun into an indefinite: (1) By prefixing #ge#,
+  (2) by prefixing #ć:g#, (3) by interposing the interrogative
+  between #swâ ... swâ#: (1) #gehwâ#, _each_; #gehwćđer#, _either_;
+  #gehwilc#, _each_; (2) #ć:ghwâ#, _each_; #ć:ghwćđer#, _each_;
+  #ć:ghwilc#, _each_; (3) #swâ hwâ swâ#, _whosoever_; #swâ hwćđer
+  swâ#, _whichsoever of two_; #swâ hwilc swâ#, _whosoever_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+ADJECTIVES, STRONG AND WEAK.
+
+
+78. The declension of adjectives conforms in general to the declension
+of nouns, though a few pronominal inflections have influenced certain
+cases. Adjectives belong either to (1) the Strong Declension or to
+(2) the Weak Declension. The Weak Declension is employed when the
+adjective is preceded by #sę# or #đęs#, _the_, _that_, or _this_;
+otherwise, the Strong Declension is employed: #đâ gôdan cyningas#, _the
+good kings_; #đęs gôda cyning#, _this good king_; but #gôde cyningas#,
+_good kings_.
+
+  NOTE.--The Weak Declension is also frequently used when the
+  adjective is employed in direct address, or preceded by a
+  possessive pronoun: #Dryhten, ćlmihtiga God ... ic bidde đę for
+  đînre miclan mildheortnesse#, _Lord, almighty God, I pray thee,
+  for thy great mercy_.
+
+
+(1) #Strong Declension of Adjectives.#
+
+(a) _Monosyllables._
+
+79. The strong adjectives are chiefly monosyllabic with long stems:
+#gôd#, _good_; #eald#, _old_; #long#, _long_; #swift#, _swift_. They are
+declined as follows.
+
+
+80. Paradigm of #gôd#, _good_:
+
+               _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
+
+    _Sing. N._  gôd           gôd          gôd
+          _G._  gôdes         gôdre        gôdes
+          _D._  gôdum         gôdre        gôdum
+          _A._  gôdne         gôde         gôd
+          _I._  gôde          ----         gôde
+
+  _Plur. N.A._  gôde          gôda         gôd
+          _G._  gôdra         gôdra        gôdra
+        _D.I._  gôdum         gôdum        gôdum
+
+
+81. If the stem is short, -u is retained as in #giefu# (§ 39, (1)) and
+#hofu# (§ 33, (1)). Thus #glćd# (§ 27, Note 1), _glad_, and #til#,
+_useful_, are inflected:
+
+                _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
+    _Sing. N._ { glćd          gladu        glćd
+               { til           tilu         til
+
+  _Plur. N.A._ { glade         glada        gladu
+               { tile          tila         tilu
+
+
+(b) _Polysyllables._
+
+82. Polysyllables follow the declension of short monosyllables. The most
+common terminations are #-en#, _-en_; #-fćst#, _-fast_; #-full#, _-ful_;
+#-lęas#, _-less_; #-lîc#, _-ly_; #-ig#, _-y_: #hć:đ-en# (#hć:đ# =
+_heath_), _heathen_; #stede-fćst# (#stede# = _place_), _steadfast_;
+#sorg-full# (#sorg# = _sorrow_), _sorrowful_; #cyst-lęas# (#cyst# =
+_worth_), _worthless_; #eorđ-lîc# (#eorđe# = _earth_), _earthly_;
+#blôd-ig# (#blôd# = _blood_), _bloody_. The present and past
+participles, when inflected and not as weak adjectives, may be classed
+with the polysyllabic adjectives, their inflection being the same.
+
+Syncopation occurs as in a-stems (§ 27, (4)). Thus #hâlig#, _holy_,
+#blîđe#, _blithe_, #berende#, _bearing_, #geboren#, _born_, are thus
+inflected:
+
+                _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
+    _Sing. N._ { hâlig         hâlgu        hâlig
+               { blîđe         blîđu        blîđe
+               { berende       berendu      berende
+               { geboren       geborenu     geboren
+
+  _Plur. N.A._ { hâlge         hâlga        hâlgu
+               { blîđe         blîđa        blîđu
+               { berende       berenda      berendu
+               { geborene      geborena     geborenu
+
+
+(2) #Weak Declension of Adjectives.#
+
+83. The Weak Declension of adjectives, whether monosyllabic or
+polysyllabic, does not differ from the Weak Declension of nouns, except
+that -ena of the genitive plural is usually replaced by -ra of the
+strong adjectives.
+
+
+                _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
+84.  _Sing. N._  gôda          gôde         gôde
+           _G._  gôdan         gôdan        gôdan
+         _D.I._  gôdan         gôdan        gôdan
+           _A._  gôdan         gôdan        gôde
+
+                          _All Genders._
+                 _Plur. N.A._  gôdan
+                         _G._  gôdra (gôdena)
+                       _D.I._  gôdum
+
+
+85. RULE OF SYNTAX.
+
+_Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case; but
+participles, when used predicatively, may remain uninflected_ (§ 139,
+§ 140).
+
+
+86. VOCABULARY.
+
+  dęad, _dead_.
+  eall, _all_.
+  hâl,[1] _whole, hale_.
+  heard, _hard_.
+  đćt hors, _horse_.
+  lęof, _dear_ [as lief].
+  ly:tel, _little_.
+  micel, _great, large_.
+  monig, _many_.
+  niman, _to take_ [nimble, numb].
+  nîwe, _new_.
+  rîce, _rich, powerful_.
+  sôđ, _true_ [sooth-sayer].
+  stćlwierđe,[2] _serviceable_ [stalwart].
+  swîđe, _very_.
+  sę tűn, _town, village_.
+  sę đegn, _servant, thane, warrior_.
+  đćt đing, _thing_.
+  sę weg, _way_.
+  wîs, _wise_.
+  wiđ (with acc.), _against_, in a hostile sense [with-stand].
+  sę ilca, _the same_ [of that ilk].
+
+    [Footnote 1: #Hâlig#, _holy_, contains, of course, the same
+    root. "I find," says Carlyle, "that you could not get any better
+    definition of what 'holy' really is than 'healthy--completely
+    healthy.'"]
+
+    [Footnote 2: This word has been much discussed. The older
+    etymologists explained it as meaning _worth stealing_. A more
+    improbable conjecture is that it means _worth a stall_ or
+    _place_. It is used of ships in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_. As
+    applied to men, Skeat thinks it meant _good_ or _worthy at
+    stealing_; but the etymology is still unsettled.]
+
+
+87. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Đâs scipu ne sind swîđe swift, ac hîe sind swîđe stćlwierđu.
+2. Sęo gôde cwęn giefđ ć:lcum đegne moniga giefa. 3. Đęs wîsa cyning
+hćfđ monige micele tűnas on his rîce. 4. Nć:nig mon is wîs on eallum
+đingum. 5. Đy: ilcan dćge (§ 98, (2)) mon fond (found) đone đegn đe
+mînes wines bęc hćfde. 6. Ealle đâ secgas đâ đe swift hors habbađ rîdađ
+wiđ đone bonan. 7. Đîne fîend sind mîne frîend. 8. Sę micela stân đone
+đe ic on mînum hondum hćbbe is swîđe heard. 9. Hîe sceđđađ đć:m ealdum
+horsum. 10. Uton niman đâs tilan giefa ond hîe beran tô űrum lęofum
+bearnum.
+
+II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the little children very
+dear to the servants (dat. without #tô#)? 3. Gifts are not given (§ 70,
+Note 1) to rich men. 4. All the horses that are in the king's fields are
+swift. 5. These stones are very large and hard. 6. He takes the dead
+man's spear and fights against the large army. 7. This new house has
+many doors. 8. My ways are not your ways. 9. Whosoever chooses me, him I
+also (#ęac#) choose. 10. Every man has many friends that are not wise.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+NUMERALS.
+
+
+88. Numerals are either (_a_) Cardinal, expressing pure number, _one_,
+_two_, _three_; or (_b_) Ordinal, expressing rank or succession,
+_first_, _second_, _third_.
+
+
+(_a_) #Cardinals.#
+
+89. The Cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups:
+
+  GROUP I.
+
+  1. ân
+  2. twęgen [twain]
+  3. đrîe
+
+These numerals are inflected adjectives. #Ân#, _one_, _an_, _a_, being a
+long stemmed monosyllable, is declined like #gôd# (§ 80). The weak form,
+#âna#, means _alone_.
+
+#Twęgen# and #đrîe#, which have no singular, are thus declined:
+
+                _Masc._  _Fem._  _Neut._     _Masc._  _Fem._  _Neut._
+  _Plur. N.A._   twęgen   twâ     twâ (tű)    đrîe    đręo    đręo
+          _G._   twęgra   twęgra  twęgra      đręora  đręora  đręora
+          _D._ { twć:m     twć:m    twć:m        đrîm    đrîm    đrîm
+               { (twâm)   (twâm)  (twâm)
+
+
+90. GROUP II.
+
+   4. fęower
+   5. fîf
+   6. siex
+   7. seofon
+   8. eahta
+   9. nigon
+  10. tîen
+  11. endlefan
+  12. twelf
+  13. đręotîene
+  14. fęowertîene
+  15. fîftîene
+  16. siextîene
+  17. seofontîene
+  18. eahtatîene
+  19. nigontîene
+
+These words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives: #on gewitscipe
+đręora oţţe fęower bisceopa#, _on testimony of three or four bishops_;
+#on siex dagum#, _in six days_; #ân nć:dre đe hćfde nigon hęafdu#, _a
+serpent which had nine heads_; #ćđeling eahtatîene wintra#, _a prince of
+eighteen winters_.
+
+
+91. GROUP III.
+
+    20. twęntig
+    21. ân ond twęntig
+    30. đrîtig
+    40. fęowertig
+    50. fîftig
+    60. siextig
+    70. hundseofontig
+    80. hundeahtatig
+    90. hundnigontig
+   100. hund
+   200. twâ hund
+  1000. đűsend
+  2000. twâ đűsend
+
+All these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns, and are
+followed by the genitive plural: #Nćfde hę ţęah mâ đonne twęntig
+hry:đera, and twęntig scęapa, and twęntig swy:na#, _He did not have,
+however, more than twenty (of) cattle, and twenty (of) sheep, and twenty
+(of) swine_; #Hîe hćfdon hundeahtatig scipa#, _They had eighty ships_;
+#twâ hund mîla brâd#, _two hundred miles broad_; #đć:r wć:ron seofon
+hund gűđfanena genumen#, _there were seven hundred standards captured_;
+#ân đűsend monna#, _a thousand men_; #Hannibales folces wćs twâ đűsend
+ofslagen#, _Of Hannibal's men there were two thousand slain_; #Hîe
+âcuron endlefan đűsend monna#, _They chose eleven thousand men_.
+
+  NOTE 1.--Group III is rarely inflected. Almost the only
+  inflectional endings that are added are (1) -es, a genitive
+  singular termination for the numerals in #-tig#, and (2) -e, a
+  dative singular for #hund#. (1) The first is confined to
+  adjectives expressing extent of space or time, as, #eald#, _old_;
+  #brâd#, _broad_; #hęah#, _high_; and #long#, _long_: #đćt is
+  đrîtiges mîla long#, _that is thirty miles long_; #Hę wćs đrîtiges
+  gęara eald#, _He was thirty years old_. (2) The second is employed
+  after #mid#: #mid twć:m hunde scipa#, _with two hundred ships_;
+  #mid đrîm hunde monna#, _with three hundred men_; #Đć:r wearđ ...
+  Regulus gefangen mid V hunde monna#, _There was Regulus captured
+  with five hundred men_.
+
+  The statement made in nearly all the grammars that #hunde# occurs
+  as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation.
+
+  NOTE 2.--Many numerals, otherwise indeclinable, are used in the
+  genitive plural with the indefinite pronoun #sum#, which then
+  means _one of_ a certain number. In this peculiar construction,
+  the numeral always precedes #sum#: #fęowera sum#, _one of four_ (=
+  _with three others_); #Hę sć:de ţćt hę syxa sum ofslôge syxtig#,
+  _He said that he, with five others, slew sixty_ (_whales_); #Hę
+  wćs fęowertigra sum#, _He was one of forty_.
+
+  NOTE 3.--These are the most common constructions with the
+  Cardinals. The forms in #-tig# have only recently been
+  investigated. A study of Wülfing's citations shows that Alfred
+  occasionally uses the forms in #-tig# (1) as adjectives with
+  plural inflections: #mid XXXgum cyningum#, _with thirty kings_;
+  and (2) as nouns with plural inflections: #ćfter siextigum daga#,
+  _after sixty days_. But both constructions are rare.
+
+
+(b) #Ordinals.#
+
+92. The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed from the Cardinals.
+They are:
+
+   1. forma, ć:resta, fyrsta
+   2. ôđer, ćfterra
+   3. đridda
+   4. fęorđa
+   5. fîfta
+   6. siexta
+   7. seofođa
+   8. eahtođa
+   9. nigođa
+  10. tęođa
+  11. endlefta
+  12. twelfta
+  13. đręotęođa
+  14. fęowertęođa
+  15. fîftęođa
+        etc.
+  20. twęntigođa
+  21. ân ond twęntigođa
+  30. đrîtigođa
+        etc.
+
+  NOTE.--There are no Ordinals corresponding to #hund# and #đűsend#.
+
+With the exception of #ôđer# (§ 77), all the Ordinals are declined as
+Weak Adjectives; the article, however, as in Mn.E., is frequently
+omitted: #Brűtus wćs sę forma consul#, _Brutus was the first consul_;
+#Hęr endađ sęo ć:reste bôc, ond onginneđ sęo ôđer#, _Here the first book
+ends, and the second begins_; #đy: fîftan dćge#, _on the fifth day_; #on
+đć:m tęođan gęare hiera gewinnes#, _in the tenth year of their strife_;
+#Hęo wćs twelfte#, _She was twelfth_; #Sę wćs fęorđa from Agusto#, _He
+was fourth from Augustus_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS.
+
+
+#Adverbs.#
+
+93. (1) Adverbs are formed by adding -e or #-lîce# to the corresponding
+adjectives: #sôđ#, _true_; #sôđe# or #sôđlîce#, _truly_; #earmlîc#,
+_wretched_; #earmlîce#, _wretchedly_; #wîd#, _wide_; #wîde#, _widely_;
+#micel#, _great_; #micle# (#micele#), _greatly, much_.
+
+(2) The terminations -e and #-lîce# are replaced in some adverbs
+by #-(l)unga# or #-(l)inga#: #eallunga#, _entirely_; #fć:ringa#,
+_suddenly_; #grundlunga#, _from the ground, completely_.
+
+  NOTE 1.--In Mn.E. _headlong_, _darkling_, and _groveling_,
+  originally adverbs, we have survivals of these endings.
+
+(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially: #sűđeweardes#,
+_southwards_; #ealles#, _altogether, entirely_; #dćges#, _by day_;
+#nihtes#, _by night_; #đćs#, _from that time, afterwards_. _Cf._ #hys#
+(= #his#) #weges# in #Đonne rîdeđ ć:lc hys weges#, _Then rides each his
+way_.
+
+  NOTE 2.--The adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in Mn.E.
+  _Always_, _crossways_, _sideways_, _needs_ (= _necessarily_),
+  _sometimes_, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars.
+  The same construction is seen in _of course_, _of a truth_, _of an
+  evening_, _of old_, _of late_, and similar phrases.
+
+(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs: #hwîlum#,
+_at times, sometimes_ [whilom]; #stundum# (#stund# = _period_), _from
+time to time_; #miclum#, _greatly_. Especially common is the suffix
+#-mć:lum# (#mć:l# = _time_, #measure# [meal]), preserved adverbially in
+Mn.E. _piecemeal_: #dropmć:lum#, _drop by drop_; #styccemć:lum#
+(#stycce# = _piece_), _piecemeal, here and there_.
+
+(5) The suffix -an usually denotes motion from:
+
+  hęr, _here_.      hider, _hither_.      heonan, _hence_.
+  đć:r, _there_.     đider, _thither_.     đonan, _thence_.
+  hwć:r, _where?_    hwider, _whither?_    hwonan, _whence?_
+                                          norđan, _from the north_.
+                                          ęastan, _from the east_.
+                                          hindan, _from behind_.
+                                          feorran, _from far_.
+                                          űtan, _from without_.
+
+(6) The adverb #rihte# (#riht# = _right, straight_) denotes _motion
+toward_ in #norđrihte#, _northward, due north_; #ęastrihte#, _due east_;
+#sűđrihte#, _due south_; #westrihte#, _due west_.
+
+
+#Prepositions.#
+
+94. The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a
+preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most
+frequently with prepositions.
+
+(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative are:
+
+  ćfter, _after_.
+  ć:t, _at_.
+  be (bî), _by, near, about_.
+  betwęonan (betuh), _between_.
+  bűtan (bűton), _except_.
+  for, _for_.
+  from (fram), _from, by_.
+  mid, _with_.
+  of, _of, from_.
+  tô, _to_.
+  tôforan, _before_.
+  tôweard, _toward_.
+
+(2) The following prepositions require the accusative:
+
+  geond, _throughout_ [be-yond].
+  ofer, _over, upon_.
+  ođ, _until, up to_.
+  đurh, _through_.
+  ymbe, _about, around_ [um-while, ember-days].
+
+(3) The preposition #on# (rarely #in#), meaning _into_, is usually
+followed by the accusative; but meaning _in_, _on_, or _during_, it
+takes the dative or instrumental. The preposition #wiđ#, meaning
+_toward_, may be followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but
+meaning _against_, and implying _motion_ or _hostility_, the accusative
+is more common.
+
+(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the dative:
+
+  be norđan, _north of_.
+  be ęastan, _east of_.
+  be sűđan, _south of._
+  be westan, _west of_.
+  tô ęacan, _in addition to_.
+  on emnlange (efn-lang = _evenly long_), _along_.
+  tô emnes, _along_.
+
+(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they
+introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in
+front of the verb: #And him wćs mycel menegu tô gegaderod#, _And there
+was gathered unto him a great multitude_. In relative clauses introduced
+by #đe#, the preceding position is very common: #sęo scîr ... đe hę on
+bűde#, _the district, ... which he dwelt in_ (= _which he in-habited_);
+#Hę wćs swy:đe spędig man on đć:m ć:htum đe hiera spęda on bęođ#, _He
+was a very rich man in those possessions which their riches consist in_;
+#ny:hst đć:m tűne đe sę dęada man on lîđ#, _nearest the town that the
+dead man lies in_.
+
+
+#Conjunctions.#
+
+95. (1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are:
+
+  #ac, _but_.
+  ć:r, _before, ere_.
+  bűtan (bűton), _except that, unless_.
+  ęac, _also_ [eke].
+  for đć:m,    }
+  for đć:m đe, }  _because_.
+  for đon,    }
+  for đon đe, }
+  for đy:, _therefore_.
+  gif, _if_.
+  hwćđer, _whether_.
+  ond (and), _and_.
+  ođđe, _or_.
+  đćt, _that, so that_.
+  đęah, _though, however_.
+
+(2) The correlative conjunctions are:
+
+  ć:gđer ge ... ge,      _both ...... and_.
+  ć:gđer ...... ôđer }   _either .... or_.
+  ođđe ....... ođđe }
+  nę ......... nę,      _neither ... nor_.
+  sam ........ sam,     _whether ... or_.
+  swâ ........ swâ    { _the ....... the_.
+                      { _as ........ as_.
+  đâ ......... đâ    }  _when ...... then_.
+  đonne ...... đonne }
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.
+
+
+#Adjectives#.
+
+96. (1) Adjectives are regularly compared by adding -ra for the
+comparative, and -ost (rarely -est) for the superlative:
+
+  _Positive._       _Comparative._     _Superlative._
+  earm, _poor_      earmra             earmost
+  rîce, _rich_      rîcra              rîcost
+  smćl, _narrow_    smćlra             smalost
+  brâd, _broad_     brâdra (brć:dra)    brâdost
+  swift, _swift_    swiftra            swiftost
+
+(2) Forms with i-umlaut usually have superlative in -est:
+
+  _Positive._         _Comparative._  _Superlative._
+  eald, _old_         ieldra          ieldest
+  long, _long_        lengra          lengest
+  strong, _strong_    strengra        strengest
+  geong, _young_      giengra         giengest
+  hęah, _high_        hîerra          hîehst
+
+(3) The following adjectives are compared irregularly:
+
+  _Positive._               _Comparative._  _Superlative._
+  gôd, _good_               betra           betst
+  ly:tel, _little, small_    lć:ssa           lć:st
+  micel, _great, much_      mâra            mć:st
+  yfel, _bad_               wiersa          wierst
+
+(4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb:
+
+  _Positive._     _Comparative._    _Superlative._
+  feor, _far_     fierra            fierrest
+  nęah, _near_    nęarra            nîehst
+  ć:r, _before_    ć:rra, _former_    ć:rest, _first_
+
+(5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declension. The superlatives,
+when preceded by the definite article, are weak; but when used
+predicatively they are frequently strong: #sę lć:sta dć:l#, _the least
+part_; #Đonne cymeđ sę man sę đćt swiftoste hors hafađ tô đć:m ć:restan
+dć:le and tô đć:m mć:stan#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest
+horse to the first part and to the largest_. But, #đćt by:ne land is
+ęasteweard brâdost# (not #brâdoste#), _the cultivated land is broadest
+eastward_; #and# (#hit#) #biđ ealra wyrta mć:st#, _and it is largest of
+all herbs_; #Ac hyra# (= #hiera#) #âr is mć:st on đć:m gafole đe đâ
+Finnas him gyldađ#, _But their income is greatest in the tribute that
+the Fins pay them_.
+
+(6) The comparative is usually followed by #đonne# and the nominative
+case: #Sę hwćl biđ micle lć:ssa đonne ôđre hwalas#, _That whale is much
+smaller than other whales_; #Đâ wunda đćs môdes bęođ dîgelran đonne đâ
+wunda đćs lîchaman#. _The wounds of the mind are more secret than the
+wounds of the body_.
+
+But when #đonne# is omitted, the comparative is followed by the dative:
+#Űre Âlîesend, đe mâra is ond mć:rra eallum gesceaftum#, _Our Redeemer,
+who is greater and more glorious than all created things_; #nę ongeat hę
+nô hiene selfne betran ôđrum gôdum monnum#, _nor did he consider himself
+better than other good men_.
+
+
+#Adverbs.#
+
+97. (1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding -or for the comparative
+and -ost (rarely -est) for the superlative:
+
+  _Positive._          _Comparative._    _Superlative._
+  georne, _willingly_  geornor           geornost
+  swîđe, _very,        swîđor, _more_    swîđost, _most, chiefly_
+      severely_
+  ć:r, _before_         ć:ror, _formerly_  ć:rest, _first_
+  norđ, _northwards_   norđor            norđmest[1]
+
+(2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping -ra of
+the corresponding adjective form:
+
+  _Positive._      _Comparative._  _Superlative._
+  longe, _long_    leng            lengest
+  micle, _much_    mâ              mć:st
+  wel, _well_      bet             betst
+
+    [Footnote 1: This is really a double superlative, m being itself
+    an old superlative suffix. _Cf._ Latin _opti-m-us_. In Mn.E.
+    _northmost_ and _hindmost_, _-m-est_ has been confused with
+    _-most_, with which etymologically it has nothing to do.]
+
+
+#Expressions of Time.#
+
+98. (1) Duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by
+the accusative case: #Ealle đâ hwîle đe đćt lîc biđ inne#, _All the time
+that the body is within_; #twęgen dagas#, _for two days_; #ealne weg#,
+_all the way, always_.
+
+(2) Time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when no
+preposition is used: #đy: ilcan dćge#, _the same day_; #ć:lce gęare#,
+_each year_; #đy: gęare#, _that year_; #ć:lce dćge#, _each day_.
+
+(3) Time or space within which is expressed by #on# and the dative: #on
+sumera#, _in summer_; #on wintra#, _in winter_; #on fîf dagum#, _in five
+days_; #on fîf mîlum#, _in five miles_; #on đissum gęare#, _in this
+year_; #on đć:m tîman#, _in those times_. Sometimes by the genitive
+without a preceding preposition: #đć:s gęares#, _in that year_.
+
+
+99. VOCABULARY.
+
+  đćt gefylce [folc], _troop, division_.
+  đćt lond (land), _land_.
+  sęo mîl, _mile_.
+  ôđer ... ôđer, _the one ... the other_; _the former ... the latter_.
+  sę sige, _victory_.
+  sige[2] habban, _to win (the) victory_.
+  sprecan, _to speak_.
+  đćt swîn (swy:n), _swine, hog_.
+  węste, _waste_.
+
+    [Footnote 2: #Sige# usually, but not invariably, precedes
+    #habban#.]
+
+
+100. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Hę hćfđ đręo swîđe swift hors. 2. Ic hćbbe nigontîene scęap ond mâ
+đonne twęntig swîna. 3. Sęo gôde cwęn cîest twâ hund monna. 4. Uton
+feohtan wiđ đâ Dene mid đrîm hunde scipa. 5. Ond hîe wć:ron on twć:m
+gefylcum: on ôđrum wćs[3] Bâchsecg ond Halfdene đâ hć:đnan cyningas, ond
+on ôđrum wć:ron đâ eorlas. 6. Đű spricst sôđlîce. 7. Đonne rît ć:lc mon
+his weges. 8. Ćfter monigum dagum, hćfde Ćlfred cyning[4] sige. 9. Đis
+lond is węste styccemć:lum. 10. Đęs feld is fîftiges mîla brâd.
+11. Ćlfred cyning hćfde monige frîend, for đć:m đe hę wćs ć:gđer ge wîs
+ge gôd. 12. Đâ hwalas, đe đű ymbe spricst, sind micle lć:ssan ôđrum
+hwalum. 13. Hęo is ieldre đonne hiere swuster, ac mîn brôđor is ieldra
+đonne hęo. 14. Wę cumađ tô đć:m tűne ć:lce gęare. 15. Đâ men đe đâ
+swiftostan hors hć:fdon wć:ron mid đć:m Denum fęower dagas.
+
+II. 1. Our army (#werod#) was in two divisions: one was large, the other
+was small. 2. The richest men in the kingdom have more (#mâ#) than
+thirty ships. 3. He was much wiser than his brother. 4. He fights
+against the Northumbrians with two ships. 5. After three years King
+Alfred gained the victory. 6. Whosoever chooses these gifts, chooses
+well. 7. This man's son is both wiser and better than his father.
+8. When the king rides, then ride his thanes also. 9. The richest men
+are not always (â) the wisest men.
+
+    [Footnote 3: See p. 100, note on #gefeaht#.]  [[Linenote 100.8]]
+
+    [Footnote 4: The proper noun comes first in appositive
+    expressions: #Ćlfred cyning#, #Sidroc eorl#, #Hęahmund
+    bisceop#.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+STRONG VERBS: CLASS I. (See § 17.)
+
+
+#Syntax of Moods.#
+
+101. Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the O.E. Strong
+Conjugation, it is estimated[1] that seventy-eight have preserved their
+strong inflections in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have become weak, and
+that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have entirely
+disappeared, their places being taken in most cases by verbs of Latin
+origin introduced through the Norman-French.
+
+  NOTE.--Only the simple or primitive verbs, not the compound forms,
+  are here taken into consideration. The proportionate loss,
+  therefore, is really much greater. O.E. abounded in formative
+  prefixes. "Thus from the Anglo-Saxon #flôwan#, _to flow_, ten new
+  compounds were formed by the addition of various prefixes, of
+  which ten, only one, #oferflôwan#, _to overflow_, survives with
+  us. In a similar manner, from the verb #sittan#, _to sit_,
+  thirteen new verbs were formed, of which not a single one is to be
+  found to-day." Lounsbury, _ib._ Part I, p. 107.
+
+    [Footnote 1: Lounsbury, _English Language_, Part II, § 241.]
+
+
+102. #Class I: The "Drive" Conjugation.#
+
+  Vowel Succession: î, â, i, i.
+
+  INFINITIVE.  PRETERIT SING.  PRETERIT PLUR.  PAST PART.
+
+  Drîf-an      drâf            drif-on         gedrif-en, _to drive_.
+
+         #Indicative.#                     #Subjunctive.#
+
+          PRESENT.                          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic drîf-e              _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű drîf-st (drîf-est)          2. đű  } drîf-e
+          3. hę drîf-đ (drîf-eđ)            3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }                  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } (drîf-ađ)                2. gę  } drîf-en
+          3. hîe }                          3. hîe }
+
+          PRETERIT.                         PRETERIT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic drâf                _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű drif-e                      2. đű  } drif-e
+          3. hę drâf                        3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }                  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } drif-on                  2. gę  } drif-en
+          3. hîe }                          3. hîe }
+
+          #Imperative.#    #Infinitive.#  #Present Participle.#
+
+  _Sing._ 2. drîf          drîf-an        drîf-ende
+  _Plur._ 1. drîf-an
+          2. drîf-ađ
+
+                    #Gerund.#             #Past Participle.#
+
+                    tô drîf-anne (-enne)  gedrif-en
+
+
+#Tense Formation of Strong Verbs.#
+
+103. (1) It will be seen from the conjugation of #drîfan# that the
+_present stem_ in all strong verbs is used throughout the present
+indicative, the present subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the
+gerund, and the present participle. More than half of the endings,
+therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added directly to the present
+stem.
+
+(2) That the _preterit singular stem_ is used in only two forms of the
+verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular of the preterit indicative: #Ic
+drâf#, #hę drâf#.
+
+(3) That the _preterit plural stem_ is used in the preterit plural
+indicative, in the second person of the preterit singular indicative,
+and in the singular and plural of the preterit subjunctive.
+
+(4) That the _stem of the past participle_ (#gedrif-#) is used for no
+other form.
+
+
+#Syntax of the Verb.#
+
+104. The Indicative Mood[2] represents the predicate _as a reality_. It
+is used both in independent and in dependent clauses, its function in
+O.E. corresponding with its function in Mn.E.
+
+    [Footnote 2: Usage sanctions _mood_, but the better spelling
+    would be _mode_. It is from the Lat. _modus_, whereas _mood_ (=
+    _temper_) is O.E. _môd_.]
+
+
+105. The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate _as an idea_.[3] It
+is of far more frequent occurrence in O.E. than in Mn.E.
+
+1. When used in independent clauses it denotes desire, command, or
+entreaty, and usually precedes its subject: #Sîe đîn nama gehâlgod#,
+_Hallowed be Thy name_; #Ne swerigen gę#, _Do not swear_.
+
+2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possibility, or mere
+futurity.[4] (_a_) Concessive clauses (introduced by #đęah#, _though_)
+and (_b_) temporal clauses (introduced by #ć:r#, #ć:r đć:m đe#,
+_before_) are rarely found with any other mood than the subjunctive. The
+subjunctive is also regularly used in Alfredian prose (_c_) after verbs
+of saying, even when no suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the
+narration.[5] "Whether the statement refer to a fact or not, whether the
+subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter, as regards its objective
+reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It simply represents a
+statement as reported"[6]: #đęah man âsette twęgen fć:tels full ealađ
+ođđe wćteres#, _though one set two vessels full of ale or water_; #ć:r
+đć:m đe hit eall forhergod wć:re#, _before it was all ravaged_; #Hę
+sć:de đćt Norđmanna land wć:re swy:đe lang and swy:đe smćl#, _He said
+that the Norwegians' land was very long and very narrow_.
+
+    [Footnote 3: Gildersleeve's _Latin Grammar_, § 255.]
+
+    [Footnote 4: Thus when Alfred writes that an event took place
+    _before_ the founding of Rome, he uses the subjunctive: #ć:r đć:m
+    đe Rômeburh getimbrod wć:re# = _before Rome were founded_; but,
+    #ćfter đć:m đe Rômeburh getimbrod wćs# = _after Rome was
+    founded_.]
+
+    [Footnote 5: "By the time of Ćlfric, however, the levelling
+    influence of the indicative [after verbs of saying] has made
+    considerable progress."--Gorrell, _Indirect Discourse in
+    Anglo-Saxon_ (Dissertation, 1895), p. 101.]
+
+    [Footnote 6: Hotz, _On the Use of the Subjunctive Mood in
+    Anglo-Saxon_ (Zürich, 1882).]
+
+
+106. The Imperative is the mood of command or intercession: #Iôhannes,
+cum tô mę#, _John, come to me_; #And forgyf űs űre gyltas#, _And forgive
+us our trespasses_; #Ne drîf űs fram đę#, _Do not drive us from thee_.
+
+
+107. (1) The Infinitive and Participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases
+(§§ 138-141); but apart from this function, the Infinitive, being a
+neuter noun, may serve as the subject or direct object of a verb.
+#Hâtan# (_to command, bid_), #lć:tan# (_to let, permit_), and onginnan
+(_to begin_) are regularly followed by the Infinitive: #Hine rîdan
+lyste#, _To ride pleased him_; #Hęt đâ bć:re settan#, _He bade set down
+the bier_;[7] #Lć:tađ đâ ly:tlingas tô mę cuman#, _Let the little ones
+come to me_; #đâ ongann hę sprecan#, _then began he to speak_.
+
+(2) The Participles may be used independently in the dative absolute
+construction (an imitation of the Latin ablative absolute), usually for
+the expression of time:[8] #Him đâ gy:t sprecendum#, _While he was yet
+speaking_; #gefylledum dagum#, _the days having been fulfilled_.
+
+    [Footnote 7: Not, _He commanded the bier to be set down._ The
+    Mn.E. passive in such sentences is a loss both in force and
+    directness.]
+
+    [Footnote 8: Callaway, _The Absolute Participle in Anglo-Saxon_
+    (Dissertation, 1889), p. 19.]
+
+
+108. The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used:
+
+(1) To express purpose: #Űt ęode sę sâwere his sć:d tô sâwenne#, _Out
+went the sower his seed to sow_.
+
+(2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective: #Sy:môn,
+ic hćbbe đę tô secgenne sum đing#, _Simon, I have something to say to
+thee_; #Hit is scondlîc ymb swelc tô sprecanne#, _It is shameful to
+speak about such things_.
+
+(3) After #bęon# (#wesan#) to denote duty or necessity: #Hwćt is nű mâ
+ymbe đis tô sprecanne#, _What more is there now to say about this_?
+#đonne is tô geđencenne hwaet Crîst self cwćđ#, _then it behooves to
+bethink what Christ himself said_.
+
+  NOTE.--The Gerund is simply the dative case of the Infinitive
+  after #tô#. It began very early to supplant the simple Infinitive;
+  hence the use of _to_ with the Infinitive in Mn.E. As late as the
+  Elizabethan age the Gerund sometimes replaced the Infinitive even
+  after the auxiliary verbs:
+
+          "Some pagan shore,
+  Where these two Christian armies _might combine_
+  The blood of malice in a vein of league,
+  And not _to spend_ it so unneighbourly."
+                                _--King John_, V, ii, 39.
+
+  When _to_ lost the meaning of purpose and came to be considered as
+  a merely formal prefix, _for_ was used to supplement the purpose
+  element: _What went ye out for to see_?[9]
+
+    [Footnote 9: This is not the place to discuss the Gerund in
+    Mn.E., the so-called "infinitive in _-ing_." The whole subject
+    has been befogged for the lack of an accepted nomenclature, one
+    that shall do violence neither to grammar nor to history.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+STRONG VERBS: CLASSES II AND III.
+
+
+109. #Class II: The "Choose" Conjugation.#
+
+  Vowel Succession: ęo, ęa, u, o.
+
+  INFINITIVE.[1]  PRET. SING.  PRET. PLUR.[2]  PAST PART.[2]
+
+  cęos-an,        cęas,        cur-on          gecor-en, _to choose_.
+
+         #Indicative.#           #Subjunctive#.
+
+          PRESENT.                        PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic cęos-e            _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű cîest (cęos-est)          2. đű  } cęos-e
+          3. hę cîest (cęos-eđ)           3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }                _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } cęos-ađ                2. gę  } cęos-en
+          3. hîe }                        3. hîe }
+
+          PRETERIT.                       PRETERIT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic cęas              _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű cur-e                     2. đű  } cur-e
+          3. hę cęas                      3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }                _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } cur-on                 2. gę  } cur-en
+          3. hîe }                        3. hîe }
+
+          #Imperative.#    #Infinitive.#  #Present Participle.#
+
+  _Sing._ 2. cęos          cęos-an        cęos-ende
+  _Plur._ 1. cęos-an
+          2. cęos-ađ
+
+                    #Gerund.#             #Past Participle.#
+
+                    tô cęos-anne (-enne)  gecor-en
+
+    [Footnote 1: A few verbs of Class II have ű instead of ęo in the
+    infinitive:
+
+      brűcan, bręac, brucon, gebrocen, _to enjoy_ [brook].
+      bűgan, bęag, bugon, gebogen, _to bend, bow_.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: By a law known as Grammatical Change, final đ, s,
+    and h of strong verbs generally become d, r, and g,
+    respectively, in the preterit plural and past participle.]
+
+
+110. #Class III: The "Bind" Conjugation.#
+
+  Vowel Succession: {i,e}, a, u, {u,o}.
+
+The present stem ends in m, n, l, r, or h, + one or more consonants:
+
+  m: belimp-an, { belomp }, belump-on, belump-en, _to belong_.
+                { belamp }
+
+  n:  bind-an,  { bond },   bund-on,   gebund-en, _to bind_.
+                { band }
+
+  l:  help-an,    healp,    hulp-on,   geholp-en, _to help_.
+
+  r:  weorđ-an,   wearđ,    wurd-on,   geword-en, _to become_.
+
+  h:  gefeoht-an, gefeaht,  gefuht-on, gefoht-en, _to fight_.
+
+  NOTE 1.--If the present stem ends in a nasal (m, n) + a consonant,
+  the past participle retains the u of the pret. plur.; but if the
+  present stem ends in a liquid (l, r) or h, + a consonant, the past
+  participle has o instead of u.
+
+  NOTE 2.--Why do we not find #*halp#, #*warđ#, and #*faht# in the
+  pret. sing.? Because a before l, r, or h, + a consonant, underwent
+  "breaking" to ea. Breaking also changes every e followed by r or
+  h, + a consonant, to eo: #weorđan# (< #*werđan#), feohtan
+  (< #*fehtan#).
+
+
+111.     #Indicative.#            #Subjunctive.#
+
+          PRESENT.                         PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic bind-e             _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű bintst (bind-est)          2. đű  } bind-e
+          3. hę bint (bind-eđ)             3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }                 _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  }  bind-ađ                2. gę  } bind-en
+          3. hîe }                         3. hîe }
+
+          PRETERIT.                        PRETERIT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic bond               _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű bund-e                     2. đű  } bund-e
+          3. hę bond                       3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }                 _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } bund-on                 2. gę  } bund-en
+          3. hîe }                         3. hîe }
+
+          #Imperative.#    #Infinitive.#  #Present Participle.#
+
+  _Sing._ 2. bind          bind-an        bind-ende
+  _Plur._ 1. bind-an
+          2. bind-ađ
+
+                    #Gerund.#             #Past Participle.#
+
+                    tô bind-anne (-enne)  gebund-en
+
+
+112. VOCABULARY.
+
+  đćt gefeoht, _fight, battle_.
+  sęo gerecednes, _narration_ [#reccan#].
+  đćt gesceap, _creation_ [#scieppan#].
+  sęo hergung (§ 39, (3)), _harrying, plundering_ [#hergian#].
+  sę medu (medo) (§ 51), _mead_.
+  sęo meolc, _milk_.
+  sę middangeard, _world_ [middle-yard].
+  sę munuc, _monk_ [monachus].
+  sęo my:re, mare [#mearh#].
+  hę sć:de, _he said_.
+  hîe sć:don, _they said_.
+  sęo spęd, _riches_ [speed].
+  spędig, _rich, prosperous_ [speedy].
+  sęo tîd, _time_ [tide].
+  unspędig, _poor_.
+  sę westanwind, _west-wind_.
+  đćt wîn, _wine_.
+
+  ârîsan,         ârâs,    ârison,    ârisen,     _to arise_.
+  bîdan,          bâd,     bidon,     gebiden,    _to remain, expect_
+                                                    (with gen.)
+  dręogan,[3]     dręag,   drugon,    gedrogen,   _to endure, suffer_.
+  drincan,        dronc,   druncon,   gedruncen,  _to drink_.
+  findan,         fond,    fundon,    gefunden,   _to find_.
+  geswîcan        geswâc,  geswicon,  geswicen,   _to cease, cease from_
+                                                    (with gen.)
+  iernan (yrnan), orn,     urnon,     geurnen,    _to run_.
+  onginnan,       ongonn,  ongunnon,  ongunnen,   _to begin_.
+  rîdan,          râd,     ridon,     geriden,    _to ride_.
+  singan,         song,    sungon,    gesungen,   _to sing_.
+  wrîtan,         wrât,    writon,    gewriten,   _to write_.
+
+    [Footnote 3: _Cf._ the Scotch "to _dree_ one's weird" = _to
+    endure one's fate_.]
+
+
+113. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Ćfter đissum wordum, sę munuc wrât ealle đâ gerecednesse on ânre
+bęc. 2. Đâ eorlas ridon űp ć:r đć:m đe đâ Dene đćs gefeohtes geswicen.
+3. Cćdmon song ć:rest be middangeardes gesceape. 4. Sę cyning ond đâ
+rîcostan men drincađ my:ran meolc, ond đâ unspędigan drincađ medu.
+5. Ond hę ârâs ond sę wind geswâc. 6. Hîe sć:don đćt hîe đć:r westwindes
+biden. 7. Hwćt is nű mâ ymbe đâs đing tô sprecanne? 8. Đâ secgas
+ongunnon geswîcan đć:re hergunga. 9. Đâ bęag đćt lond đć:r ęastryhte,
+ođđe sęo sć: in on đćt lond. 10. Đâs lond belimpađ tô, đć:m Englum.
+11. Đęah đâ Dene ealne dćg gefuhten, gîet hćfde Ćlfred cyning sige.
+12. Ond đćs (afterwards) ymbe ânne mônađ gefeaht Ćlfred cyning wiđ ealne
+đone here ćt Wiltűne.
+
+II. 1. The most prosperous men drank mare's milk and wine, but the poor
+men drank mead. 2. I suffered many things before you began to help me
+(dat.). 3. About two days afterwards (#Đćs ymbe twęgen dagas#), the
+plundering ceased. 4. The king said that he fought against all the army
+(#here#). 5. Although the Danes remained one month (§ 98, (1)), they did
+not begin to fight. 6. These gifts belonged to my brother. 7. The earls
+were glad because their lord was (indicative) with them. 8. What did you
+find? 9. Then wrote he about (#be#) the wise man's deeds. 10. What more
+is there to endure?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+STRONG VERBS: CLASSES IV, V, VI, AND VII.
+
+CONTRACT VERBS.
+
+[The student can now complete the conjugation for himself (§ 103). Only
+the principal parts will be given.]
+
+
+114. #Class IV: The "Bear" Conjugation.#
+
+  Vowel Succession: e, ć, ć:, o.
+
+The present stem ends in l, r, or m, no consonant following:
+
+  l:   hel-an, hćl,       hć:l-on,          gehol-en, _to conceal_.
+  r:   ber-an, bćr,       bć:r-on,          gebor-en, _to bear_.
+
+The two following verbs are slightly irregular:
+
+  m: { nim-an, nôm (nam), nôm-on (nâm-on), genum-en, _to take_.
+     { cum-an, c(w)ôm,    c(w)ôm-on,       gecum-en, _to come_.
+
+
+115. #Class V: The "Give" Conjugation.#
+
+  Succession of Vowels: e (ie), ć, ć:, e.
+
+The present stem ends in a single consonant, never a liquid or nasal:
+
+  met-an,  mćt,  mć:ton,   gemet-en,  _to measure, mete_.
+  gief-an, geaf, gęaf-on, gegief-en, _to give_.
+
+  NOTE 1.--The palatal consonants, g, c, and sc, convert a following
+  e into ie, ć into ea, and ć: into ęa. Hence #giefan# (< #*gefan#),
+  #geaf# (< #*gćf#), #gęafon# (< #*gć:fon#), #gegiefen# (< #*gegefen#).
+  This change is known as Palatalization. See § 8.
+
+  NOTE 2.--The infinitives of the following important verbs are only
+  apparently exceptional:
+
+  biddan,  bćd,  bć:d-on,  gebed-en, _to ask for_ [bid].
+  licgan,  lćg,  lć:g-on,  geleg-en, _to lie, extend_.
+  sittan,  sćt,  sć:t-on,  geset-en, _to sit_.
+
+The original e reappears in the participial stems. It was changed to i
+in the present stems on account of a former -jan in the infinitive
+(#bid-jan#, etc.). See § 61. To the same cause is due the doubling of
+consonants in the infinitive. All simple consonants in O.E., with the
+exception of r, were doubled after a short vowel, when an original j
+followed.
+
+
+116. #Class VI: The "Shake" Conjugation.#
+
+  Succession of Vowels: a, ô, ô, a.
+
+  scac-an,  scôc,  scôc-on,  gescac-en,  _to shake_.
+  far-an,   fôr,   fôr-on,   gefar-en,   _to go_ [fare].
+
+
+117. #Class VII: The "Fall" Conjugation.#
+
+  Vowel Succession: {â,ć:}, ę, ę, {â,ć:};
+  or {ea,ęa,ô}, ęo, ęo, {ea,ęa,ô}.
+
+
+  (1)  hât-an,    hęt,    hęt-on,    gehât-en,    _to call, name,
+                                                    command_.
+       lć:t-an,    lęt,    lęt-on,    gelć:t-en,    _to let_.
+
+  (2)  feall-an,  fęoll,  fęoll-on,  gefeall-en,  _to fall_.
+       heald-an,  hęold,  hęold-on,  geheald-en,  _to hold_.
+       hęaw-an,   hęow,   hęow-on,   gehęaw-en,   _to hew_.
+       grôw-an,   gręow,  gręow-on,  gegrôw-en,   _to grow_.
+
+  NOTE 1.--This class consists of the Reduplicating Verbs; that is,
+  those verbs that originally formed their preterits not by internal
+  vowel change (ablaut), but by prefixing to the present stem the
+  initial consonant + e (_cf._ Gk. #le-loipa# and Lat. _d[)e]-di_).
+  Contraction then took place between the syllabic prefix and the
+  root, the fusion resulting in ę or ęo: #*he-hat# > #heht# > #hęt#.
+
+  NOTE 2.--A peculiar interest attaches to #hâtan#: the forms
+  #hâtte# and #hâtton# are the sole remains in O.E. of the original
+  Germanic passive. They are used both as presents and as preterits:
+  #hâtte# = _I am_ or _was called_, _he is_ or _was called_. No
+  other verb in O.E. could have a passive sense without calling in
+  the aid of the verb _to be_ (§ 141).
+
+
+#Contract Verbs.#
+
+118. The few Contract Verbs found in O.E. do not constitute a new class;
+they fall under Classes I, II, V, VI, and VII, already treated. The
+present stem ended originally in h. This was lost before -an of the
+infinitive, contraction and compensatory lengthening being the result.
+The following are the most important of these verbs:
+
+  Classes.
+
+    I. đęon  (< *đîhan),  đâh,  đig-on, { geđig-en  }, _to thrive_.
+                                        { geđung-en }
+   II. tęon  (< *tęohan), tęah, tug-on,   getog-en,    _to draw, go_
+                                                         [tug].
+    V. sęon  (< *sehwan), seah, sâw-on,   gesew-en,    _to see_.
+   VI. slęan (< *slahan), slôh, slôg-on,  geslćg-en,   _to slay_.
+  VII. fôn   (< *fôhan),  fęng, fęng-on,  gefong-en,   _to seize_
+                                                         [fang].
+
+
+119. The Present Indicative of these verbs runs as follows (see rules of
+i-umlaut, § 58):
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic đęo      tęo     sęo     slęa     fô
+          2. đű đîhst    tîehst  siehst  sliehst  fęhst
+          3. hę đîhđ     tîehđ   siehđ   sliehđ   fęhđ
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } đęođ  tęođ    sęođ    slęađ    fôđ
+          3. hîe }
+
+The other tenses and moods are regularly formed from the given stems.
+
+
+120. VOCABULARY.
+
+  sęo ć:ht, _property, possession_ [#âgan#].
+  aweg, _away_ [#on weg#].
+  sęo fierd, _English army_ [#faran#].
+  sę here, _Danish army_ [#hergian#].
+  on gehwćđre hond, _on both sides_.
+  sige niman (= sige habban), _to win (the) victory_.
+  sęo sprć:c, _speech, language_.
+  tô rîce fôn, _to come to the throne_.[1]
+  đćt wćl [Val-halla] } _slaughter, carnage_.
+  sę wćlsliht,        }
+  sę weall, _wall, rampart_.
+  đćt wildor, _wild beast, reindeer_.
+  sę wîngeard, _vineyard_.
+
+  âbrecan,[2] âbrćc,   âbrć:con,   âbrocen,   _to break down_.
+  cweđan,     cwćđ,    cwć:don,    gecweden,  _to say_ [quoth].
+  gesęon,     geseah,  gesâwon,   gesewen,   _to see_.
+  grôwan,     gręow,   gręowon,   gegrôwen,  _to grow_.
+  ofslęan,    ofslôh,  ofslôgon,  ofslćgen,  _to slay_.
+  sprecan,    sprćc,   sprć:con,   gesprecen, _to speak_.
+  stelan,     stćl,    stć:lon,    gestolen,  _to steal_.
+  stondan,    stôd,    stôdon,    gestonden, _to stand_.
+  weaxan,     węox,    węoxon,    geweaxen,  _to grow, increase_ [wax].
+
+    [Footnote 1: Literally, _to take to (the) kingdom_. _Cf._
+    "Have you anything to take to?" (_Two Gentlemen of Verona_,
+    IV, i, 42).]
+
+    [Footnote 2: #Brecan# belongs properly in Class V, but it has
+    been drawn into Class IV possibly through the influence of the r
+    in the root.]
+
+
+121. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Ćfter đć:m sôđlîce (indeed) ealle men sprć:con âne (one) sprć:ce.
+2. Ond hę cwćđ: "Đis is ân folc, ond ealle hîe sprecađ âne sprć:ce."
+3. On sumum stôwum wîngeardas grôwađ. 4. Hę hęt đâ nć:dran ofslęan.
+5. Đâ Engle âbrć:con đone longan weall, ond sige nômon. 6. Ond đćt sć:d
+gręow ond węox. 7. Ic ne geseah đone mon sę đe đćs cnapan adesan stćl.
+8. Hę wćs swy:đe spędig man on đć:m ć:htum đe hiera spęda on[3] bęođ,
+đćt is, on wildrum. 9. Ond đć:r wearđ (was) micel wćlsliht on gehwćđre
+hond. 10. Ond ćfter đissum gefeohte côm Ćlfred cyning mid his fierde,
+ond gefeaht wiđ ealne đone here, ond sige nôm. 11. Đęos burg hâtte[4]
+Ćscesdűn (Ashdown). 12. Đć:re cwęne lîc lćg on đć:m hűse. 13. Ond sę
+dć:l đe đć:r aweg côm wćs swy:đe ly:tel. 14. Ond đćs đręotîene dagas
+Ćđered tô rîce fęng.
+
+II. 1. The men stood in the ships and fought against the Danes.
+2. Before the thanes came, the king rode away. 3. They said (#sć:don#)
+that all the men spoke one language. 4. They bore the queen's body to
+Wilton. 5. Alfred gave many gifts to his army (dat. without #tô#) before
+he went away. 6. These men are called earls. 7. God sees all things.
+8. The boy held the reindeer with (#mid#) his hands. 9. About six months
+afterwards, Alfred gained the victory, and came to the throne. 10. He
+said that there was very great slaughter on both sides.
+
+    [Footnote 3: See § 94, (5).]
+
+    [Footnote 4: See § 117, Note 2.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+WEAK VERBS (§ 18).
+
+
+122. The verbs belonging to the Weak Conjugation are generally of more
+recent origin than the strong verbs, being frequently formed from the
+roots of strong verbs. The Weak Conjugation was the growing conjugation
+in O.E. as it is in Mn.E. We instinctively put our newly coined or
+borrowed words into this conjugation (_telegraphed_, _boycotted_); and
+children, by the analogy of weak verbs, say _runned_ for _ran_, _seed_
+for _saw_, _teared_ for _tore_, _drawed_ for _drew_, and _growed_ for
+_grew_. So, for example, when Latin _dictâre_ and _breviâre_ came into
+O.E., they came as weak verbs, #dihtian# and #bręfian#.
+
+
+#The Three Classes of Weak Verbs.#
+
+123. There is no difficulty in telling, from the infinitive alone, to
+which of the three classes a weak verb belongs. Class III has been so
+invaded by Class II that but three important verbs remain to it:
+#habban#, _to have_; #libban#, _to live_; and #secgan#, _to say_.
+Distinction is to be made, therefore, only between Classes II and I.
+Class II contains the verbs with infinitive in -ian not preceded
+by r. Class I contains the remaining weak verbs; that is, those with
+infinitive in #-r-ian# and those with infinitive in -an (not -ian).
+
+
+#Class I.#
+
+124. The preterit singular and past participle of Class I end in -ede
+and -ed, or -de and -ed respectively.
+
+  NOTE.--The infinitives of this class ended originally in -jan (=
+  -ian). This accounts for the prevalence of i-umlaut in these
+  verbs, and also for the large number of short-voweled stems ending
+  in a double consonant (§ 115, Note 2). The weak verb is frequently
+  the causative of the corresponding strong verb. In such cases, the
+  root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit singular
+  of the strong verb: Mn.E. _drench_ (= _to make drink_), _lay_ (=
+  _to make lie_), _rear_ (= _to make rise_), and _set_ (= _to make
+  sit_), are the umlauted forms of #dronc# (preterit singular of
+  #drincan#), #lćg# (preterit singular of #licgan#), #râs# (preterit
+  singular of #rîsan#), and #sćt# (preterit singular of #sittan#).
+
+
+#Preterit and Past Participle in _-ede_ and _-ed_.#
+
+125. Verbs with infinitive in -an preceded by ri- or the double
+consonants mm, nn, ss, bb, cg (= gg), add -ede for the preterit, and -ed
+for the past participle, the double consonant being always made single:
+
+  ri:  neri-an,   ner-ede,   gener-ed,   _to save_.
+  mm:  fremm-an,  frem-ede,  gefrem-ed,  _to perform_ [frame].
+  nn:  đenn-an,   đen-ede,   geđen-ed,   _to extend_.
+  ss:  cnyss-an,  cnys-ede,  gecnys-ed,  _to beat_.
+  bb:  swebb-an,  swef-ede,  geswef-ed,  _to put to sleep_.
+  cg:  wecg-an,   weg-ede,   geweg-ed,   _to agitate_.
+
+  NOTE.--#Lecgan#, _to lay_, is the only one of these verbs that
+  syncopates the e: #lecgan#, #legde# (#lęde#), #gelegd# (#gelęd#),
+  instead of #legede#, #geleged#.
+
+
+#Preterit and Past Participle in _-de_ and _-ed_.#
+
+126. All the other verbs belonging to Class I. add -de for the preterit
+and -ed for the past participle. This division includes, therefore, all
+stems long by nature (§ 10, (3), (_a_)):
+
+  dć:l-an,   dć:l-de,   gedć:l-ed,   _to deal out, divide_ [dć:l].
+  dęm-an,   dęm-de,   gedęm-ed,   _to judge_ [dôm].
+  gręt-an,  gręt-te,  gegręt-ed,  _to greet_.
+  hîer-an,  hîer-de,  gehîer-ed,  _to hear_.
+  lć:d-an,   lć:d-de,   gelć:d-ed,   _to lead_.
+
+  NOTE 1.--A preceding voiceless consonant (§ 9, Note) changes -de
+  into -te: #*gręt-de# > #gręt-te#; #*męt-de# > #męt-te#; #*îec-de#
+  > #îec-te#. Syncope and contraction are also frequent in the
+  participles: #gegręt-ed# > #*gegręt-d# > #gegręt(t)#; #gelć:d-ed# >
+  #gelć:d(d)#.
+
+  NOTE 2.--#Bűan#, _to dwell, cultivate_, has an admixture of
+  strong forms in the past participle: #bűan#, #bűde#, #gebűd#
+  (#by:n#, #gebűn#). The present participle survives in Mn.E.
+  _husband_ = _house-dweller_.
+
+
+127. It includes, also, all stems long by position (§ 10, (3), (_b_))
+except those in mm, nn, ss, bb, and cg (§ 125):
+
+  send-an,   send-e,   gesend-ed,   _to send_.
+  sett-an,   set-te,   geset-ed,    _to set_ [sittan].
+  sigl-an,   sigl-de,  gesigl-ed,   _to sail_.
+  spend-an,  spend-e,  gespend-ed,  _to spend_.
+  tredd-an,  tred-de,  getred-ed,   _to tread_.
+
+  NOTE.--The participles frequently undergo syncope and contraction:
+  #gesended# > #gesend#; #geseted# > #geset(t)#; #gespended# >
+  #gespend#; #getreded# > #getred(d)#.
+
+
+#Irregular Verbs of Class I.#
+
+128. There are about twenty verbs belonging to Class I that are
+irregular in having no umlaut in the preterit and past participle. The
+preterit ends in -de, the past participle in -d; but, through the
+influence of a preceding voiceless consonant (§ 9, Note), -ed is
+generally unvoiced to -te, and -d to -t. The most important of these
+verbs are as follows:
+
+  bring-an,  brôh-te,  gebrôh-t,  _to bring_.
+  byc-gan,   boh-te,   geboh-t,   _to buy_.
+  sęc-an,    sôh-te,   gesôh-t,   _to seek_.
+  sell-an,   seal-de,  geseal-d,  _to give, sell_ [hand-sel].
+  tć:c-an,    tć:h-te,   getć:h-t,   _to teach_.
+  tell-an,   teal-de,  geteal-d,  _to count_ [tell].
+  đenc-an,   đôh-te,   geđôh-t,   _to think_.
+  đync-an,   đűh-te,   geđűh-t,   _to seem_ [methinks].
+  wyrc-an,   worh-te,  geworh-t,  _to work_.
+
+  NOTE.--Such of these verbs as have stems in c or g are frequently
+  written with an inserted e: #bycgean#, #sęcean#, #tć:cean#, etc.
+  This e indicates that c and g have palatal value; that is, are to
+  be followed with a vanishing y-sound. In such cases, O.E. c
+  usually passes into Mn.E. _ch_: #tć:c(e)an# > _to teach_;
+  #rć:c(e)an# > _to reach_; #strecc(e)an# > _to stretch_. #Sęc(e)an#
+  gives _beseech_ as well as _seek_. See § 8.
+
+
+#Conjugation of Class I.#
+
+129. Paradigms of #nerian#, _to save_; #fremman#, _to perform_;
+#dć:lan#, _to divide_:
+
+        #Indicative.#
+
+          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic nerie       fremme     dć:le
+          2. đű nerest      fremest    dć:lst
+          3. hę neređ       fremeđ     dć:lđ
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } neriađ   fremmađ    dć:lađ
+          3. hîe }
+
+          PRETERIT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic nerede      fremede    dć:lde
+          2. đű neredest    fremedest  dć:ldest
+          3. hę nerede      fremede    dć:lde
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } neredon  fremedon   dć:ldon
+          3. hîe }
+
+         #Subjunctive.#
+
+          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű  } nerie    fremme     dć:le
+          3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  }  nerien  fremmen    dć:len
+          3. hîe }
+
+          PRETERIT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű  } nerede   fremede    dć:lde
+          3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } nereden  fremeden   dć:lden
+          3. hîe }
+
+         #Imperative.#
+
+  _Sing._ 2. nere           freme      dć:l
+
+  _Plur._ 1. nerian         fremman    dć:lan
+          2. neriađ         fremmađ    dć:lađ
+
+         #Infinitive.#
+
+             nerian         fremman    dć:lan
+
+  #Gerund.#
+
+  tô nerianne (-enne)    tô fremmanne (-enne)    tô dć:lanne (-enne)
+
+  #Present Participle.#
+
+             neriende       fremmende   dć:lende
+
+  #Past Participle.#
+
+             genered        gefremed    gedć:led
+
+  NOTE.--The endings of the preterit present no difficulties; in the
+  2d and 3d singular present, however, the student will observe
+  (_a_) that double consonants in the stem are made single:
+  #fremest#, #fremeđ# (not #*freemmest#, #*freemmeđ#); #đenest#,
+  #đeneđ#; #setest# (#setst#), #seeteđ# (#sett#); #fylst#, #fylđ#,
+  from #fyllan#, _to fill_; (_b_) that syncope is the rule in stems
+  long by nature: #dć:lst# (< #dć:lest#), #dć:lđ# (< #dć:leđ#); #dęmst#
+  (< #dęmest#), #dęmđ# (< #dęmeđ#); #hîerst# (< #hîerest#), #hîerđ#
+  (< #hîeređ#). Double consonants are also made single in the
+  imperative 2d singular and in the past participle. Stems long by
+  nature take no final -e in the imperative: #dć:l#, #hîer#, #dęm#.
+
+
+#Class II.#
+
+130. The infinitive of verbs belonging to this class ends in -ian (not
+#-r-ian#), the preterit singular in -ode, the past participle in -od.
+The preterit plural usually has #-edon#, however, instead of #-odon#:
+
+  eard-ian,   eard-ode,   geeard-od,   _to dwell_ [eorđe].
+  luf-ian,    luf-ode,    geluf-od,    _to love_ [lufu].
+  rîcs-ian,   rîcs-ode,   gerîcs-od,   _to rule_ [rîce].
+  sealf-ian,  sealf-ode,  gesealf-od,  _to anoint_ [salve].
+  segl-ian,   segl-ode,   gesegl-od,   _to sail_ [segel].
+
+  NOTE.--These verbs have no trace of original umlaut, since their
+  -ian was once #-ôjan#. Hence, the vowel of the stem was shielded
+  from the influence of the j (= i) by the interposition of ô.
+
+
+#Conjugation of Class II.#
+
+131. Paradigm of #lufian#, _to love_:
+
+          #Indicative.#                     #Subjunctive.#
+
+          PRESENT.                          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic lufie               _Sing._ 1. Ic     }
+          2. đu lufast                      2. đű  } lufie
+          3. hę lufađ                       3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }                  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } lufiađ                   2. gę  } lufien
+          3. hîe }                          3. hîe }
+
+          PRETERIT.                         PRETERIT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic lufode              _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű lufodest                    2. đű  } lufode
+          3. hę lufode                      3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }                  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } lufedon (-odon)          2. gę  } lufeden (-oden)
+          3. hîe }                          3. hîe }
+
+          #Imperative.#    #Infinitive.#  #Present Participle.#
+
+  _Sing._ 2. lufa          lufian         lufiende
+  _Plur._ 1. lufian
+          2. lufiađ
+
+                   #Gerund.#              #Past Participle.#
+
+                   tô lufianne (-enne)    gelufod
+
+  NOTE 1.--The -ie (-ien) occurring in the present must be
+  pronounced as a dissyllable. The y-sound thus interposed between
+  the i and e is frequently indicated by the letter g: #lufie#, or
+  #lufige#; #lufien#, or #lufigen#. So also for ia: #lufiađ#, or
+  #lufigađ#; #lufian#, or #lufig(e)an#.
+
+  NOTE 2.--In the preterit singular, -ade, -ude, and -ede are not
+  infrequent for -ode.
+
+
+#Class III.#
+
+132. The few verbs belonging here show a blending of Classes I and II.
+Like certain verbs of Class I (§ 128), the preterit and past participle
+are formed by adding -de and -d; like Class II, the 2d and 3d present
+indicative singular end in -ast and -ađ, the imperative 2d singular in
+-a:
+
+  habb-an,  hćf-de,          gehćf-d,          _to have_.
+  libb-an,  lif-de,          gelif-d,          _to live_.
+  secg-an,  sć:d-e (sćg-de),  gesć:d (gesćg-d),  _to say_.
+
+
+#Conjugation of Class III.#
+
+133. Paradigms of #habban#, _to have_; #libban#, _to live_; #secgan#,
+_to say_.
+
+        #Indicative.#
+
+          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic hćbbe           libbe      secge
+          2. đű hćfst (hafast)  lifast     sćgst (sagast)
+          3. hę hćfđ (hafađ)    lifađ      sćgđ (sagađ)
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } habbađ       libbađ     secgađ
+          3. hîe }
+
+          PRETERIT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic hćfde           lifde      sć:de
+          2. đű hćfdest         lifdest    sć:dest
+          3. hę hćfde           lifde      sć:de
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } hćfdon       lifdon     sć:don
+          3. hîe }
+
+         #Subjunctive.#
+
+          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű  } hćbbe        libbe      secge
+          3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } hćbben       libben     secgen
+          3. hîe }
+
+          PRETERIT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű  } hćfde        lifde      sć:de
+          3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } hćfden       lifden     sć:den
+          3. hîe }
+
+         #Imperative.#
+
+  _Sing._ 2. hafa               lifa       saga
+  _Plur._ 1. habban             libban     secgan
+          2. habbađ             libbađ     secgađ
+
+  #Infinitive.#
+
+             habban             libban     secgan
+
+  #Gerund.#
+
+  tô habbanne (-enne)    tô libbanne (-enne)    tô secganne (-enne)
+
+  #Present Participle.#
+
+             hćbbende           libbende   secgende
+
+  #Past Participle.#
+
+             gehćfd             gelifd     gesć:d
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+REMAINING VERBS; VERB-PHRASES WITH #habban#, #bęon#, AND #weorđan#.
+
+
+#Anomalous Verbs.# (See § 19.)
+
+134. These are:
+
+  bęon (wesan),  wćs,    wć:ron,   ----,   _to be_.
+  willan,        wolde,  woldon,  ----,   _to will, intend_.
+  dôn,           dyde,   dydon,   gedôn,  _to do, cause_.
+  gân,           ęode,   ęodon,   gegân,  _to go_.
+
+  NOTE.--In the original Indo-Germanic language, the first person
+  of the present indicative singular ended in (1) ô or (2) mi.
+  _Cf._ Gk. +lu-ô+, +ei-mi+, Lat. _am-ô_, _su-m_. The Strong and Weak
+  Conjugations of O.E. are survivals of the ô-class. The four
+  Anomalous Verbs mentioned above are the sole remains in O.E. of
+  the mi-class. Note the surviving m in #eom# _I am_, and #dôm# _I
+  do_ (Northumbrian form). These mi-verbs are sometimes called
+  non-Thematic to distinguish them from the Thematic or ô-verbs.
+
+
+#Conjugation of Anomalous Verbs.#
+
+135. Only the present indicative and subjunctive are at all irregular:
+
+         #Indicative.#
+
+          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic eom (bęom)     wille     dô      gâ
+          2. đű eart (bist)    wilt      dęst    gć:st
+          3. hę is (biđ)       wille     dęđ     gć:đ
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } sind(on)    willađ    dôđ     gâđ
+          3. hîe }
+
+         #Subjunctive.#
+
+          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű  } sîe         wille     dô      gâ
+          3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } sîen        willen    dôn     gân
+          3. hîe }
+
+  NOTE.--The preterit subjunctive of #bęon# is formed, of course,
+  not from #wćs#, but from #wć:ron#. See § 103, (3).
+
+
+#Preterit-Present Verbs.# (See § 19.)
+
+136. These verbs are called Preterit-Present because the present tense
+(indicative and subjunctive) of each of them is, in form, a strong
+preterit, the old present having been displaced by the new. They all
+have weak preterits. Most of the Mn.E. Auxiliary Verbs belong to this
+class.
+
+  witan,  { wiste, }  wiston,     gewiten,       _to know_
+          { wisse, }                               [to wit, wot].
+  âgan,     âhte,     âhton,      âgen (adj.),   _to possess_ [owe].
+  cunnan,   cűđe,     cűđon,    { gecunnen,   }  _to know_, _can_
+                                { cűđ (adj.), }    [uncouth, cunning].
+  durran,   dorste,   dorston,    ----           _to dare_.
+  sculan,   sceolde,  sceoldon,   ----           _shall_.
+  magan,  { meahte,   meahton, }  ----           _to be able_, _may_.
+          { mihte,    mihton,  }
+  môtan,    môste,    môston,     ----           _may_, _must_.
+
+  NOTE.--The change in meaning from preterit to present, with
+  retention of the preterit form, is not uncommon in other
+  languages. Several examples are found in Latin and Greek
+  (cf. _nôvi_ and +oida+, _I know_). Mn.E. has gone further still:
+  #âhte# and #môste#, which had already suffered the loss of their
+  old preterits (#âh#, #môt#), have been forced back again into the
+  present (_ought_, _must_). Having exhausted, therefore, the only
+  means of preterit formation known to Germanic, the strong and the
+  weak, it is not likely that either _ought_ or _must_ will ever
+  develop distinct preterit forms.
+
+
+#Conjugation of Preterit-Present Verbs.#
+
+137. The irregularities occur in the present indicative and subjunctive:
+
+         #Indicative.#
+
+          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic wât       âh    con (can)
+          2. đű wâst      âhst  const (canst)
+          3. hę wât       âh    con (can)
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } witon  âgon  cunnon
+          3. hîe }
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic dear    sceal   mćg    môt
+          2. đű dearst  scealt  meaht  môst
+          3. hę dear    sceal   mćg    môt
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę
+          2. gę durron  sculon  magon  môton
+          3. hîe
+
+         #Subjunctive.#
+
+          PRESENT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű  } wite   âge   cunne
+          3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } witen  âgen  cunnen
+          3. hîe }
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
+          2. đű  } durre   scule (scyle)    mćge   môte
+          3. hę  }
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } durren  sculen (scylen)  mćgen  môten
+          3. hîe }
+
+  NOTE 1.--#Willan# and #sculan# do not often connote simple
+  futurity in Early West Saxon, yet they were fast drifting that
+  way. The Mn.E. use of _shall_ only with the 1st person and _will_
+  only with the 2d and 3d, to express simple futurity, was wholly
+  unknown even in Shakespeare's day. The elaborate distinctions
+  drawn between these words by modern grammarians are not only
+  cumbersome and foreign to the genius of English, but equally
+  lacking in psychological basis.
+
+  NOTE 2.--#Sculan# originally implied the idea of (1) _duty_, or
+  _compulsion_ (= _ought to_, or _must_), and this conception lurks
+  with more or less prominence in almost every function of #sculan#
+  in O.E.: #Dryhten bebęad Moyse hű hę sceolde beran đâ earce#, _The
+  Lord instructed Moses how he ought to bear the ark_; #Ć:lc mann
+  sceal be his andgietes mć:đe ... sprecan đćt he spricđ, and dôn đćt
+  đćt hę dęđ#, _Every man must, according to the measure of his
+  intelligence, speak what he speaks, and do what he does_. Its next
+  most frequent use is to express (2) _custom_, the transition from
+  the obligatory to the customary being an easy one: #Sę byrdesta
+  sceall gyldan fîfty:ne mearđes fell#, _The man of highest rank pays
+  fifteen marten skins_.
+
+  NOTE 3.--#Willan# expressed originally (1) _pure volition_, and
+  this is its most frequent use in O.E. It may occur without the
+  infinitive: #Nylle ic đćs synfullan dęađ, ac ic wille đćt hę
+  gecyrre and lybbe#, _I do not desire the sinner's death, but I
+  desire that he return and live_. The wish being father to the
+  intention, #willan# soon came to express (2) _purpose_: #Hę sć:de
+  đćt hę at sumum cirre wolde fandian hű longe đćt land norđryhte
+  lć:ge#, _He said that he intended, at some time, to investigate how
+  far that land extended northward_.
+
+
+#Verb-Phrases with _habban_, _bęon_ (_wesan_), and _weorđan_.#
+
+_Verb-Phrases in the Active Voice._
+
+138. The present and preterit of #habban#, combined with a past
+participle, are used in O.E., as in Mn.E., to form the present perfect
+and past perfect tenses:
+
+          PRESENT PERFECT.                  PAST PERFECT.
+
+  _Sing._ 1. Ic hćbbe gedrifen      _Sing._ 1. Ic hćfde gedrifen
+          2. đű hćfst gedrifen              2. đű hćfdest gedrifen
+          3. hę hćfđ gedrifen               3. hę hćfde gedrifen
+
+          PRESENT PERFECT.                  PAST PERFECT.
+
+  _Plur._ 1. wę  }                  _Plur._ 1. wę  }
+          2. gę  } habbađ gedrifen          2. gę  } hćfdon gedrifen
+          3. hîe }                          3. hîe }
+
+The past participle is not usually inflected to agree with the direct
+object: #Norđymbre ond Ęastengle hćfdon Ćlfrede cyninge âđas geseald#
+(not #gesealde#, § 82), _The Northumbrians and East Anglians had given
+king Alfred oaths_; #ond hćfdon miclne dć:l đâra horsa freten# (not
+#fretenne#), _and (they) had devoured a large part of the horses_.
+
+  NOTE.--Many sentences might be quoted in which the participle does
+  agree with the direct object, but there seems to be no clear line
+  of demarcation between them and the sentences just cited.
+  Originally, the participle expressed a _resultant state_, and
+  belonged in sense more to the object than to #habban#; but in
+  Early West Saxon #habban# had already, in the majority of cases,
+  become a pure auxiliary when used with the past participle. This
+  is conclusively proved by the use of #habban# with intransitive
+  verbs. In such a clause, therefore, as #ođ đćt hîe hine ofslćgenne
+  hćfdon#, there is no occasion to translate _until they had him
+  slain_ (= _resultant state_); the agreement here is more probably
+  due to the proximity of #ofslćgenne# to #hine#. So also #ac hî
+  hćfdon ţâ hiera stemn gesetenne#, _but they had already served
+  out_ (_sat out_) _their military term_.
+
+
+139. If the verb is intransitive, and denotes _a change of condition_,
+_a departure or arrival_, #bęon# (#wesan#) usually replaces #habban#.
+The past participle, in such cases, partakes of the nature of an
+adjective, and generally agrees with the subject: #Mîne welan ţe ic îo
+hćfde syndon ealle gewitene ond gedrorene#, _My possessions which I once
+had are all departed and fallen away_; #wć:ron ţâ men uppe on londe of
+âgâne#, _the men had gone up ashore_; #ond ţâ ôţre wć:ron hungre
+âcwolen#, _and the others had perished of hunger_; #ond ęac sę micla
+here wćs ţâ ţć:r tô cumen#, _and also the large army had then arrived
+there_.
+
+
+140. A progressive present and preterit (not always, however, with
+distinctively progressive meanings) are formed by combining a present
+participle with the present and preterit of #bęon# (#wesan#). The
+participle remains uninflected: #ond hîe alle on đone cyning wć:run
+feohtende#, _and they all were fighting against the king_; #Symle hę biđ
+lôciende, nę slć:pđ hę nć:fre#, _He is always looking, nor does He ever
+sleep_.
+
+  NOTE.--In most sentences of this sort, the subject is masculine
+  (singular or plural); hence no inference can be made as to
+  agreement, since -e is the participial ending for both numbers of
+  the nominative masculine (§ 82). By analogy, therefore, the other
+  genders usually conform in inflection to the masculine: #wć:ron ţâ
+  ealle ţâ dęoflu clypigende ânre stefne#, _then were all the devils
+  crying with one voice_.
+
+
+_Verb-Phrases in the Passive Voice._
+
+141. Passive constructions are formed by combining #bęon# (#wesan#) or
+#weorđan# with a past participle. The participle agrees regularly with
+the subject: #hîe wć:ron benumene ć:gđer ge ţćs cęapes ge ţćs cornes#,
+_they were deprived both of the cattle and the corn_; #hî bęođ âblende
+mid đć:m ţîostrum heora scylda#, _they are blinded with the darkness of
+their sins_; #and sę wćlhręowa Domiciânus on đâm ylcan gęare wearđ
+âcweald#, _and the murderous Domitian was killed in the same year_; #ond
+Ćţelwulf aldormon wearđ ofslćgen#, _and Ćthelwulf, alderman, was slain_.
+
+  NOTE 1.--To express agency, Mn.E. employs _by_, rarely _of_; M.E.
+  _of_, rarely _by_; O.E. #from# (#fram#), rarely #of#: #Sę đe Godes
+  bebodu ne gecnć:wđ, ne biđ hę oncnâwen from Gode#, _He who does not
+  recognise God's commands, will not be recognized by God_; #Betwux
+  ţć:m wearđ ofslagen Ęadwine ... fram Brytta cyninge#, _Meanwhile,
+  Edwin was slain by the king of the Britons_.
+
+  NOTE 2.--O.E. had no progressive forms for the passive, and could
+  not, therefore, distinguish between _He is being wounded_ and _He
+  is wounded_. It was not until more than a hundred years after
+  Shakespeare's death that _being_ assumed this function. #Weorđan#,
+  which originally denoted _a passage from one state to another_,
+  was ultimately driven out by #bęon# (#wesan#), and survives now
+  only in _Woe worth_ (= _be to_).
+
+
+142. VOCABULARY.
+
+  đâ Beormas, _Permians_.
+  đâ Deeniscan, _the Danish (men), Danes_.
+  đâ Finnas, _Fins_.
+  đćt gewald, _control_ [#wealdan#].
+  sęo sć:, _sea_.
+  sęo scîr, _shire, district_.
+  sęo wćlstôw, _battle-field_.
+  âgan wćlstôwe gewald, _to maintain possession of the battle-field_.
+  sę wealdend, _ruler, wielder_.
+
+  geflîeman,    geflîemde,    geflîemed,   _to put to flight_.
+  gestađelian,  gestađelode,  gestađelod,  _to establish, restore_.
+  gewissian,    gewissode,    gewissod,    _to guide, direct_.
+  wîcian,       wîcode,       gewîcod,     _to dwell_ [wîc = village].
+
+
+143. EXERCISES.
+
+I. 1. Ond đćr wćs micel wćl geslćgen on gehwćţre hond, ond Ćţelwulf
+ealdormon wearţ ofslćgen; ond ţâ Deniscan âhton wćlstôwe gewald. 2. Ond
+ţćs ymb ânne mônaţ gefeaht Ćlfred cyning wiţ ealne ţone here ond hine
+geflîemde. 3. Hę sć:de ţęah ţćt ţćt land sîe swîţe lang norţ ţonan.
+4. Ţâ Beormas hćfdon swîţe wel gebűd (§ 126, Note 2) hiera land.
+5. Ohthere sć:de ţćt sęo scîr hâtte (§ 117, Note 2) Hâlgoland, ţe hę on
+(§ 94, (5)) bűde. 6. Ţâ Finnas wîcedon be ţć:re sć:. 7. Dryhten,
+ćlmihtiga (§ 78, Note) God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra gesceafta, ic
+bidde đę for đînre miclan mildheortnesse đćt đű mę gewissie tô đînum
+willan; and gestađela mîn môd tô đînum willan and tô mînre sâwle đearfe.
+8. Ţâ sceolde hę đć:r bîdan ryhtnorţanwindes, for đć:m ţćt land bęag
+ţć:r sűđryhte, oţţe sęo sć: in on đćt land, hę nysse hwćđer. 9. For đy:,
+mę đyncđ betre, gif ęow swâ đyncđ, đćt wę ęac đâs bęc on đćt geđęode
+wenden đe wę ealle gecnâwan mćgen.
+
+II. 1. When the king heard that, he went (= then went he) westward with
+his army to Ashdown. 2. Lovest thou me more than these? 3. The men said
+that the shire which they lived in was called Halgoland. 4. All things
+were made (#wyrcan#) by God. 5. They were fighting for two days with
+(= against) the Danes. 6. King Alfred fought with the Danes, and gained
+the victory; but the Danes retained possession of the battle-field.
+7. These men dwelt in England before they came hither. 8. I have not
+seen the book of (#ymbe#) which you speak (#sprecan#).
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+
+SELECTIONS FOR READING.
+
+
+
+
+PROSE.
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+I. #The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.#
+
+This famous work, a series of progressive annals by unknown hands,
+embraces a period extending from Cćsar's invasion of England to 1154. It
+is not known when or where these annals began to be recorded in
+English.
+
+"The annals from the year 866--that of Ethelred's ascent of the
+throne--to the year 887 seem to be the work of one mind. Not a single
+year is passed over, and to several is granted considerable space,
+especially to the years 871, 878, and 885. The whole has gained a
+certain roundness and fulness, because the events--nearly all of them
+episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes--are taken in
+their connection, and the thread dropped in one year is resumed in the
+next. Not only is the style in itself concise; it has a sort of nervous
+severity and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, and
+suggests at times the freedom of poetry; though this purely historical
+prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language." (Ten Brink,
+_Early Eng. Lit._, I.)
+
+
+II. #The Translations of Alfred.#
+
+Alfred's reign (871-901) may be divided into four periods. The _first_,
+the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to 881; the _second_,
+the period of comparative quiet, from 881 to 893; the _third_, the
+period of renewed strife (beginning with the incursions of Hasting),
+from 893 to 897; the _fourth_, the period of peace, from 897 to 901. His
+literary work probably falls in the second period.[A]
+
+The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the vernacular were
+(1) _Consolation of Philosophy_ (_De Consolatione Philosophiae_) by
+Boëthius (475-525), (2) _Compendious History of the World_ (_Historiarum
+Libri VII_) by Orosius (c. 418), (3) _Ecclesiastical History of the
+English_ (_Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_) by Bede (672-735),
+and (4) _Pastoral Care_ (_De Cura Pastorali_) by Pope Gregory the Great
+(540-604).
+
+  The chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. That
+  given is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and Pauli.
+  Wülker argues for an exact reversal of this order. According to
+  Ten Brink, the order was more probably (1) _Orosius_, (2) _Bede_,
+  (3) _Boëthius_, and (4) _Pastoral Care_. The most recent
+  contribution to the subject is from Wülfing, who contends for
+  (1) _Bede_, (2) _Orosius_, (3) _Pastoral Care_, and (4) _Boëthius_.
+
+    [Footnote A: There is something inexpressibly touching in this
+    clause from the great king's pen: gif wę đâ stilnesse habbađ. He
+    is speaking of how much he hopes to do, by his translations, for
+    the enlightenment of his people.]
+
+
+I. THE BATTLE OF ASHDOWN.
+
+  [From the _Chronicle_, Parker MS. The event and date are
+  significant. The Danes had for the first time invaded Wessex.
+  Alfred's older brother, Ethelred, was king; but to Alfred belongs
+  the glory of the victory at Ashdown (Berkshire). Asser (_Life of
+  Alfred_) tells us that for a long time Ethelred remained praying
+  in his tent, while Alfred and his followers went forth "like a
+  wild boar against the hounds."]
+
+[[page 99]]
+
+   1   871. Hęr cuôm[1] sę here tô Ręadingum on Westseaxe,
+   2 ond ţćs ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas űp. Ţa gemętte hîe
+
+[[page 100]]
+
+   1 Ćţelwulf aldorman[2] on Englafelda, ond him ţć:r wiţ gefeaht,
+   2 ond sige nam. Ţćs ymb iiii niht Ćţered cyning
+   3 ond Ćlfred his brôţur[3] ţć:r micle fierd tô Ręadingum
+   4 gelć:ddon, ond wiţ ţone here gefuhton; ond ţć:r wćs
+   5 micel wćl geslćgen on gehwćţre hond, ond Ćţelwulf
+   6 aldormon wearţ ofslćgen; ond ţa Deniscan âhton wćlstôwe
+   7 gewald.
+
+   8   Ond ţćs ymb iiii niht gefeaht Ćţered cyning ond
+   9 Ćlfred his brôţur wiţ alne[4] ţone here on Ćscesdűne.
+  10 Ond hîe wć:run[5] on twć:m gefylcum: on ôţrum wćs
+  11 Bâchsecg ond Halfdene ţâ hć:ţnan cyningas, ond on
+  12 ôţrum wć:ron ţâ eorlas. Ond ţâ gefeaht sę cyning
+  13 Ćţered wiţ ţâra cyninga getruman, ond ţć:r wearţ sę
+  14 cyning Bâgsecg ofslćgen; ond Ćlfred his brôţur wiţ
+  15 ţâra eorla getruman, ond ţć:r wearţ Sidroc eorl ofslćgen
+  16 sę alda,[6] ond Sidroc eorl sę gioncga,[7] ond Ôsbearn eorl,
+  17 ond Frć:na eorl, ond Hareld eorl; ond ţâ hergas[8] bęgen
+  18 geflîemde, ond fela ţűsenda ofslćgenra, ond onfeohtende
+  19 wć:ron oţ niht.
+
+  20   Ond ţćs ymb xiiii niht gefeaht Ćţered cyning ond
+  21 Ćlfred his brôđur wiţ ţone here ćt Basengum, ond ţć:r
+  22 ţa Deniscan sige nâmon.
+
+  23   Ond ţćs ymb ii mônaţ gefeaht Ćţered cyning ond
+  24 Ćlfred his brôţur wiţ ţone here ćt Meretűne, ond hîe
+  25 wć:run on tuć:m[9] gefylcium, ond hîe bűtű geflîemdon, ond
+  26 longe on dćg sige âhton; ond ţć:r wearţ micel wćlsliht
+  27 on gehwćţere hond; ond ţâ Deniscan âhton wćlstôwe
+
+[[page 101]]
+
+   1 gewald; ond ţćr wearţ Hęahmund bisceop ofslćgen,
+   2 ond fela gôdra monna. Ond ćfter ţissum gefeohte cuôm[1]
+   3 micel sumorlida.
+
+   4   Ond ţćs ofer Ęastron gefôr Ćţered cyning; ond hę
+   5 rîcsode v gęar; ond his lîc lîţ ćt Wînburnan.
+
+   6   Ţâ fęng Ćlfred Ćţelwulfing his brôţur tô Wesseaxna
+   7 rîce. Ond ţćs ymb ânne mônaţ gefeaht Ćlfred cyning
+   8 wiţ alne[4] ţone here ly:tle werede[10] ćt Wiltűne, ond hine
+   9 longe on dćg geflîemde, ond ţâ Deniscan âhton wćlstôwe
+  10 gewald.
+
+  11   Ond ţćs gęares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wiţ
+  12 ţone here on ţy: cynerîce be sűţan Temese, bűtan ţâm ţe
+  13 him Ćlfred ţćs cyninges brôţur ond ânlîpig aldormon[2] ond
+  14 cyninges ţegnas oft râde onridon ţe mon nâ ne rîmde;
+  15 ond ţćs gęares wć:run[5] ofslćgene viiii eorlas ond ân cyning.
+  16 Ond ţy: gęare nâmon Westseaxe friţ wiţ ţone here.
+
+CONSULT GLOSSARY AND PARADIGMS UNDER FORMS GIVEN BELOW.
+
+No note is made of such variants as y (y:) or i (î) for ie (îe). See
+Glossary under ie (îe); occurrences, also, of #and# for #ond#, #land#
+for #lond#, are found on almost every page of Early West Saxon. Such
+words should be sought for under the more common forms, #ond#, #lond#.
+
+    [1] = cwôm.
+    [2] = ealdormon.
+    [3] = brôţor.
+    [4] = ealne.
+    [5] = wć:ron.
+    [6] = ealda.
+    [7] = geonga.
+    [8] = heras.
+    [9] = twć:m.
+    [10] = werode.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    100.8. #gefeaht#. Notice that the singular is used. This is the
+    more common construction in O.E. when a compound subject,
+    composed of singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. _For
+    thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory_. See also
+    p. 107, note on #wćs#.]  [[Linenote 107.14-15]]
+
+    100.18. #ond fela ţűsenda ofslćgenra#, _and there were many
+    thousands of slain_ (§ 91).
+
+    101.12: #bűtan ţâm ţe#, etc., _besides which, Alfred ... made
+    raids against them_ (#him#), _which were not counted_. See § 70,
+    Note.]
+
+
+II. A PRAYER OF KING ALFRED.
+
+  [With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation
+  of Boëthius's _Consolation of Philosophy_. Unfortunately, the only
+  extant MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. I follow, therefore,
+  Prof. A. S. Cook's normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See
+  Cook's _First Book in Old English_, p. 163.]
+
+[[page 102]]
+
+   1   Dryhten, ćlmihtiga God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra
+   2 gesceafta, ic bidde đę for đînre miclan mildheortnesse,
+   3 and for đć:re hâlgan rôde tâcne, and for Sanctć Marian
+   4 mćgđhâde, and for Sancti Michaeles gehîersumnesse, and
+   5 for ealra đînra hâlgena lufan and hîera earnungum, đćt
+   6 đű mę gewissie bet đonne ic âworhte tô đę; and gewissa
+   7 mę tô đînum willan, and tô mînre sâwle đearfe, bet đonne
+   8 ic self cunne; and gestađela mîn môd tô đinum willan and
+   9 tô mînre sâwle đearfe; and gestranga mę wiđ đćs dęofles
+  10 costnungum; and âfierr fram mę đâ fűlan gâlnesse and
+  11 ć:lce unrihtwîsnesse; and gescield mę wiđ mînum wiđerwinnum,
+  12 gesewenlîcum and ungesewenlîcum; and tć:c mę
+  13 đînne willan tô wyrceanne; đćt ic mćge đę inweardlîce
+  14 lufian tôforan eallum đingum, mid clć:num geđance and
+  15 mid clć:num lîchaman. For đon đe đű eart mîn Scieppend,
+  16 and mîn Alîesend, mîn Fultum, mîn Frôfor, mîn Tręownes,
+  17 and mîn Tôhopa. Sîe đę lof and wuldor nű and
+  18 â â â, tô worulde bűtan ć:ghwilcum ende. Amen.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    3-4: #Marian ... Michaeles#. O.E. is inconsistent in the
+    treatment of foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and
+    sometimes retain in part their original inflections. #Marian#,
+    an original accusative, is here used as a genitive; while
+    #Michaeles# has the O.E. genitive ending.
+
+    17: #Sîe đę lof#. See § 105, 1.]
+
+
+III. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHERE AND WULFSTAN.
+
+  [Lauderdale and Cottonian MSS. These voyages are an original
+  insertion by Alfred into his translation of Orosius's _Compendious
+  History of the World_.
+
+  "They consist," says Ten Brink, "of a complete description of all
+  the countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred's
+  time, and a full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which
+  the king wrote down from their own lips. One of these, a Norwegian
+  named Ohthere, had quite circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia
+  in his travels, and had even penetrated to the White Sea; the
+  other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from Schleswig to Frische Haff.
+  The geographical and ethnographical details of both accounts are
+  exceedingly interesting, and their style is attractive, clear, and
+  concrete."
+
+  Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the
+  western coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into
+  the White Sea, and entered the Dwina River (#ân micel ęa#). On his
+  second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of
+  Norway, entered the Skager Rack (#wîdsć:#), passed through the
+  Cattegat, and anchored at the Danish port of Haddeby (#ćt Hć:ţum#),
+  modern Schleswig.
+
+  Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days
+  from Schleswig brought him to Drausen (#Trűsô#) on the shore of
+  the Drausensea.]
+
+
+[[page 103]]
+
+#Ohthere's First Voyage.#
+
+   1   Ôthere sć:de his hlâforde, Ćlfrede cyninge, ţćt hę
+   2 ealra Norđmonna norţmest bűde. Hę cwćđ ţćt hę bűde
+   3 on ţć:m lande norţweardum wiţ ţâ Westsć. Hę sć:de
+   4 ţęah ţćt ţćt land sîe swîţe lang norţ ţonan; ac hit is
+   5 eal węste, bűton on fęawum stôwum styccemćlum wîciađ
+   6 Finnas, on huntođe on wintra, ond on sumera on fiscaţe
+   7 be ţć:re sć:. Hę sć:de ţćt hę ćt sumum cirre wolde
+   8 fandian hű longe ţćt land norţryhte lć:ge, oţţe hwćđer
+   9 ć:nig mon be norđan ţć:m węstenne bűde. Ţâ fôr hę
+  10 norţryhte be ţć:m lande: lęt him ealne weg ţćt węste
+  11 land on đćt stęorbord, ond ţâ wîdsć: on đćt bćcbord ţrîe
+  12 dagas. Ţâ wćs hę swâ feor norţ swâ ţâ hwćlhuntan
+  13 firrest faraţ. Ţâ fôr hę ţâ gîet norţryhte swâ feor swâ
+  14 hę meahte on ţć:m ôţrum ţrîm dagum gesiglan. Ţâ bęag
+  15 ţćt land ţć:r ęastryhte, oţţe sęo sć: in on đćt lond, hę
+  16 nysse hwćđer, bűton hę wisse đćt hę đć:r bâd westanwindes
+  17 ond hwôn norţan, ond siglde đâ ęast be lande
+  18 swâ swâ hę meahte on fęower dagum gesiglan. Ţâ
+  19 sceolde hę đć:r bîdan ryhtnorţanwindes, for đć:m ţćt
+  20 land bęag ţć:r sűţryhte, oţţe sęo sć: in on đćt land, hę
+  21 nysse hwćţer. Ţâ siglde hę ţonan sűđryhte be lande
+
+[[page 104]]
+
+   1 swâ swâ hę mehte[1] on fîf dagum gesiglan. Đâ lćg ţć:r
+   2 ân micel ęa űp in on ţćt land. Ţâ cirdon hîe űp in on
+   3 đâ ęa, for ţć:m hîe ne dorston forţ bî ţć:re ęa siglan for
+   4 unfriţe; for ţć:m đćt land wćs eall gebűn on ôţre healfe
+   5 ţć:re ęas. Ne mętte hę ć:r nân gebűn land, siţţan hę
+   6 from his âgnum hâm fôr; ac him wćs ealne weg węste
+   7 land on ţćt stęorbord, bűtan fiscerum ond fugelerum ônd
+   8 huntum, ond ţćt wć:ron eall Finnas; ond him wćs â
+   9 wîdsć: on đćt bćcbord. Ţâ Beormas hćfdon swîţe wel
+  10 gebűd hira land: ac hîe ne dorston ţć:r on cuman. Ac
+  11 ţâra Terfinna land wćs eal węste, bűton đć:r huntan
+  12 gewîcodon, oţţe fisceras, oţţe fugeleras.
+
+    [1] = meahte, mihte.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    104.6: #from his âgnum hâm#. An adverbial dative singular
+    without an inflectional ending is found with #hâm#, #dćg#,
+    #morgen#, and #ć:fen#.
+
+    104.8: #ond ţćt wć:ron#. See § 40, Note 3.]
+
+  13   Fela spella him sć:don ţâ Beormas ć:gţer ge of hiera
+  14 âgnum lande ge of ţć:m landum ţe ymb hîe űtan wć:ron;
+  15 ac hę nyste hwćt ţćs sôţes wćs, for ţć:m hę hit self ne
+  16 geseah. Ţâ Finnas, him ţűhte, ond ţâ Beormas sprć:con
+  17 nęah ân geţęode. Swîţost hę fôr đider, tô ęacan ţćs
+  18 landes scęawunge, for ţć:m horshwćlum, for đć:m hîe
+  19 habbađ swîţe ćţele bân on hiora[2] tôţum--ţâ tęđ hîe brôhton
+  20 sume ţć:m cyninge--ond hiora hy:d biđ swîđe gôd tô
+  21 sciprâpum. Sę hwćl biđ micle lć:ssa ţonne ôđre hwalas:
+  22 ne biđ hę lengra đonne syfan[3] elna lang; ac on his âgnum
+  23 lande is sę betsta hwćlhuntađ: ţâ bęođ eahta and fęowertiges
+  24 elna lange, and ţâ mć:stan fîftiges elna lange;
+  25 ţâra hę sć:de ţćt hę syxa sum ofslôge syxtig on twâm
+  26 dagum.
+
+    [2] = hiera.
+    [3] = seofon.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    104.15: #hwćt ţćs sôţes wćs#. Sweet errs in explaining #sôţes#
+    as attracted into the genitive by #ţćs#. It is not a predicate
+    adjective, but a partitive genitive after #hwćt#.
+
+    104.25: #syxa sum#. See § 91, Note 2.]
+
+[[page 105]]
+
+   1   Hę wćs swy:đe spędig man on ţć:m ć:htum ţe heora[2]
+   2 spęda on bęođ, ţćt is, on wildrum. Hę hćfde ţâ gy:t, đâ
+   3 hę ţone cyningc[5] sôhte, tamra dęora unbebohtra syx hund.
+   4 Ţâ dęor hî hâtađ 'hrânas'; ţâra wć:ron syx stćlhrânas;
+   5 đâ bęođ swy:đe dy:re mid Finnum, for đć:m hy: fôđ ţâ
+   6 wildan hrânas mid. Hę wćs mid ţć:m fyrstum mannum
+   7 on ţć:m lande: nćfde hę ţęah mâ đonne twęntig hry:đera,
+   8 and twęntig scęapa, and twęntig swy:na; and ţćt ly:tle
+   9 ţćt hę erede, hę erede mid horsan.[4] Ac hyra âr is mć:st
+  10 on ţć:m gafole ţe đâ Finnas him gyldađ. Ţćt gafol biđ
+  11 on dęora fellum, and on fugela feđerum, and hwales bâne,
+  12 and on ţć:m sciprâpum ţe bęođ of hwćles hy:de geworht
+  13 and of sęoles. Ć:ghwilc gylt be hys gebyrdum. Sę byrdesta
+  14 sceall gyldan fîfty:ne mearđes fell, and fîf hrânes,
+  15 and ân beren fel, and ty:n ambra feđra, and berenne kyrtel
+  16 ođđe yterenne, and twęgen sciprâpas; ć:gţer sy: syxtig
+  17 elna lang, ôţer sy: of hwćles hy:de geworht, ôţer of sîoles.[6]
+
+    [2] = hiera.
+    [4] = horsum.
+    [5] = cyning.
+    [6] = sęoles.
+
+    [Linenote:
+
+    105.2: #on bęođ#. See § 94, (5).]
+
+  18   Hę sć:de đćt Norđmanna land wć:re swy:ţe lang and
+  19 swy:đe smćl. Eal ţćt his man âđer ođđe ettan ođđe erian
+  20 mćg, ţćt lîđ wiđ đâ sć:; and ţćt is ţęah on sumum
+  21 stôwum swy:đe clűdig; and licgađ wilde môras wiđ ęastan
+  22 and wiđ űpp on emnlange ţć:m by:num lande. On ţć:m
+  23 môrum eardiađ Finnas. And ţćt by:ne land is ęasteweard
+  24 brâdost, and symle swâ norđor swâ smćlre. Ęastewerd[7]
+  25 hit mćg bîon[8] syxtig mîla brâd, oţţe hwęne brć:dre;
+  26 and middeweard ţrîtig ođđe brâdre; and norđeweard hę
+  27 cwćđ, ţć:r hit smalost wć:re, ţćt hit mihte bęon ţręora
+  28 mîla brâd tô ţć:m môre; and sę môr syđţan,[9] on sumum
+
+[[page 106]]
+
+   1 stôwum, swâ brâd swâ man mćg on twâm wucum oferfęran;
+   2 and on sumum stôwum swâ brâd swâ man mćg
+   3 on syx dagum oferfęran.
+
+    [7] = -weard.
+    [8] = bęon.
+    [9] = siđđan.
+
+    [Linenote:
+
+    105.19: #Eal ţćt his man#. Pronominal genitives are not always
+    possessive in O.E.; #his# is here the partitive genitive of
+    #hit#, the succeeding relative pronoun being omitted: _All that
+    (portion) of it that may, either-of-the-two, either be grazed or
+    plowed_, etc. (§ 70, Note).]
+
+   4   Đonne is tôemnes ţć:m lande sűđeweardum, on ôđre
+   5 healfe ţćs môres, Swęoland, oţ ţćt land norđeweard;
+   6 and tôemnes ţć:m lande norđeweardum, Cwęna land. Ţâ
+   7 Cwęnas hergiađ hwîlum on đâ Norđmen ofer đone môr,
+   8 hwîlum ţâ Norđmen on hy:. And ţć:r sint swîđe micle
+   9 meras fersce geond ţâ môras; and berađ ţâ Cwęnas hyra
+  10 scypu ofer land on đâ meras, and ţanon hergiađ on đâ
+  11 Norđmen; hy: habbađ swy:đe ly:tle scypa and swy:đe
+  12 leohte.
+
+    [Linenote:
+
+    106.11-12: #scypa ... leohte#. These words exhibit inflections
+    more frequent in Late than in Early West Saxon. The normal forms
+    would be #scypu#, #leoht#; but in Late West Saxon the -u of
+    short-stemmed neuters is generally replaced by -a; and the
+    nominative accusative plural neuter of adjectives takes, by
+    analogy, the masculine endings; #hwate#, #gôde#, #hâlge#,
+    instead of #hwatu#, #gôd#, #hâlgu#.]
+
+
+#Ohthere's Second Voyage.#
+
+  13   Ôhthere sć:de ţćt sîo[1] scîr hâtte Hâlgoland, ţe hę on
+  14 bűde. Hę cwćđ ţćt nân man ne bűde be norđan him.
+  15 Ţonne is ân port on sűđeweardum ţć:m lande, ţone man
+  16 hć:t Sciringeshęal. Ţyder hę cwćđ ţćt man ne mihte
+  17 geseglian on ânum mônđe, gyf man on niht wîcode, and
+  18 ć:lce dćge hćfde ambyrne wind; and ealle đâ hwîle hę
+  19 sceal seglian be lande. And on ţćt stęorbord him biđ
+  20 ć:rest Îraland, and ţonne đâ îgland ţe synd betux Îralande
+  21 and ţissum lande. Ţonne is ţis land, ođ hę cymđ
+  22 tô Scirincgeshęale, and ealne weg on ţćt bćcbord Norđweg.
+
+[[page 107]]
+
+   1 Wiđ sűđan ţone Sciringeshęal fylđ swy:đe mycel
+   2 sć: űp in on đćt land; sęo is brâdre ţonne ć:nig man ofer
+   3 sęon mćge. And is Gotland on ôđre healfe ongęan, and
+   4 siđđan Sillende. Sęo sć: lîđ mćnig[2] hund mîla űp in on
+   5 ţćt land.
+
+    [1] = sęo.
+    [2] = monig.
+
+   6   And of Sciringeshęale hę cwćđ đćt hę seglode on fîf
+   7 dagan[3] tô ţć:m porte ţe mon hć:t ćt Hć:ţum; sę stent
+   8 betuh Winedum, and Seaxum, and Angle, and hy:rđ in
+   9 on Dene. Đâ hę ţiderweard seglode fram Sciringeshęale,
+  10 ţâ wćs him on ţćt bćcbord Denamearc and on
+  11 ţćt stęorbord wîdsć: ţry: dagas; and ţâ, twęgen dagas ć:r
+  12 hę tô Hć:ţum côme, him wćs on ţćt stęorbord Gotland,
+  13 and Sillende, and îglanda fela. On ţć:m landum eardodon
+  14 Engle, ć:r hî hider on land côman.[4] And hym wćs
+  15 đâ twęgen dagas on đćt bćcbord ţâ îgland ţe in on
+  16 Denemearce hy:rađ.
+
+    [3] = dagum.
+    [4] = cômen.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    107.7: #ćt Hć:ţum#. "This pleonastic use of _ćt_ with names of
+    places occurs elsewhere in the older writings, as in the
+    Chronicle (552), 'in ţć:re stôwe ţe is genemned ćt Searobyrg,'
+    where the _ćt_ has been erased by some later hand, showing that
+    the idiom had become obsolete. _Cp._ the German 'Gasthaus zur
+    Krone,' Stamboul = _es tân pólin_." (Sweet.) See, also,
+    _Atterbury_, § 28, Note 3.
+
+    107.14-15: #wćs ... ţâ îgland#. The singular predicate is due
+    again to inversion (p. 100, note on #gefeaht# [[linenote
+    100.8]]). The construction is comparatively rare in O.E., but
+    frequent in Shakespeare and in the popular speech of to-day. Cf.
+    _There is_, _Here is_, _There has been_, etc., with a (single)
+    plural subject following.]
+
+
+#Wulfstan's Voyage.#
+
+  17   Wulfstân sć:de ţćt hę gefôre of Hć:đum, ţćt hę wć:re
+  18 on Trűsô on syfan dagum and nihtum, ţćt ţćt scip wćs
+  19 ealne weg yrnende under segle. Weonođland him wćs
+
+[[page 108]]
+
+   1 on stęorbord, and on bćcbord him wćs Langaland, and
+   2 Lć:land, and Falster, and Scônęg; and ţâs land eall
+   3 hy:rađ tô Denemearcan. And ţonne Burgenda land wćs
+   4 űs on bćcbord, and ţâ habbađ him sylfe[1] cyning. Ţonne
+   5 ćfter Burgenda lande wć:ron űs ţâs land, ţâ synd hâtene
+   6 ć:rest Blęcinga-ęg, and Męore, and Ęowland, and Gotland
+   7 on bćcbord; and ţâs land hy:rađ tô Swęom. And Weonodland
+   8 wćs űs ealne weg on stęorbord ođ Wîsleműđan.
+   9 Sęo Wîsle is swy:đe mycel ęa, and hîo[2] tôlîđ Wîtland and
+  10 Weonodland; and ţćt Wîtland belimpeđ tô Estum; and
+  11 sęo Wîsle lîđ űt of Weonodlande, and lîđ in Estmere;
+  12 and sę Estmere is hűru fîftęne[3] mîla brâd. Ţonne cymeđ
+  13 Ilfing ęastan in Estmere of đâm mere, đe Trűsô standeđ
+  14 in stćđe; and cumađ űt samod in Estmere, Ilfing ęastan
+  15 of Estlande, and Wîsle sűđan of Winodlande. And
+  16 ţonne benimđ Wîsle Ilfing hire naman, and ligeđ of ţć:m
+  17 mere west and norđ on sć:; for đy: hit man hć:t
+  18 Wîsleműđa.
+
+    [1] = selfe.
+    [2] = hęo.
+    [3] = fîftîene.
+
+    [Linenote:
+
+    108.1-4: #him ... űs#. Note the characteristic change of person,
+    the transition from _indirect_ to _direct discourse_.]
+
+  19   Ţćt Estland is swy:đe mycel, and ţć:r biđ swy:đe manig
+  20 burh, and on ć:lcere byrig biđ cyning. And ţć:r biđ
+  21 swy:đe mycel hunig, and fiscnađ; and sę cyning and ţâ
+  22 rîcostan men drincađ my:ran meolc, and ţâ unspędigan
+  23 and ţâ ţęowan drincađ medo.[4] Ţć:r biđ swy:đe mycel
+  24 gewinn betwęonan him. And ne biđ đć:r nć:nig ealo[5]
+  25 gebrowen mid Estum, ac ţć:r biđ medo genôh. And ţć:r
+  26 is mid Estum đęaw, ţonne ţć:r biđ man dęad, ţćt hę lîđ
+  27 inne unforbćrned mid his mâgum and fręondum mônađ,
+  28 ge hwîlum twęgen; and ţâ cyningas, and ţâ ôđre hęahđungene
+  29 men, swâ micle lencg[6] swâ hî mâran spęda
+  30 habbađ, hwîlum healf gęar ţćt hî bęođ unforbćrned, and
+
+[[page 109]]
+
+   1 licgađ bufan eorđan on hyra hűsum. And ealle ţâ hwîle
+   2 ţe ţćt lîc biđ inne, ţć:r sceal bęon gedrync and plega,
+   3 ođ đone dćg ţe hî hine forbćrnađ. Ţonne ţy: ylcan dćge
+   4 ţe hî hine tô ţć:m âde beran wyllađ, ţonne tôdć:lađ hî
+   5 his feoh, ţćt ţć:r tô lâfe biđ ćfter ţć:m gedrynce and ţć:m
+   6 plegan, on fîf ođđe syx, hwy:lum on mâ, swâ swâ ţćs fęos
+   7 andęfn biđ. Âlecgađ hit đonne forhwćga on ânre mîle
+   8 ţone mć:stan dć:l fram ţć:m tűne, ţonne ôđerne, đonne
+   9 ţone ţriddan, oţ ţe hyt eall âlęd biđ on ţć:re ânre mîle;
+  10 and sceall bęon sę lć:sta dć:l ny:hst ţć:m tűne đe sę dęada
+  11 man on liđ. Đonne sceolon[7] bęon gesamnode ealle đâ
+  12 menn đe swyftoste hors habbađ on ţć:m lande, forhwćga
+  13 on fîf mîlum ođđe on syx mîlum fram ţć:m fęo. Ţonne
+  14 ćrnađ hy: ealle tôweard ţć:m fęo: đonne cymeđ sę man
+  15 sę ţćt swiftoste hors hafađ tô ţć:m ć:restan dć:le and tô
+  16 ţć:m mć:stan, and swâ ć:lc ćfter ôđrum, oţ hit biđ eall
+  17 genumen; and sę nimđ ţone lć:stan dć:l sę ny:hst ţć:m
+  18 tűne ţćt feoh gećrneđ. And ţonne rîdeđ ć:lc hys weges
+  19 mid đć:m fęo, and hyt môtan[8] habban eall; and for đy:
+  20 ţć:r bęođ ţâ swiftan hors ungefôge dy:re. And ţonne his
+  21 gestręon bęođ ţus eall âspended, ţonne byrđ man hine űt,
+  22 and forbćrneđ mid his wć:pnum and hrćgle; and swîđost
+
+[[page 110]]
+
+   1 ealle hys spęda hy: forspendađ mid ţć:m langan legere
+   2 ţćs dęadan mannes inne, and ţćs ţe hy: be ţć:m wegum
+   3 âlecgađ, ţe đâ fremdan tô ćrnađ, and nimađ. And ţćt
+   4 is mid Estum ţęaw ţćt ţć:r sceal ć:lces geđęodes man
+   5 bęon forbćrned; and gyf ţâr[9] man ân bân findeđ unforbćrned,
+   6 hî hit sceolan[7] miclum gebętan. And ţć:r is mid
+   7 Estum ân mć:gđ ţćt hî magon cyle gewyrcan; and ţy:
+   8 ţć:r licgađ ţâ dęadan men swâ lange, and ne fűliađ, ţćt
+   9 hy: wyrcađ ţone cyle him on. And ţęah man âsette
+  10 twęgen fć:tels full ealađ ođđe wćteres, hy: gedôđ ţćt
+  11 ć:gţer biđ oferfroren, sam hit sy: sumor sam winter.
+
+    [4] = medu.
+    [5] = ealu.
+    [6] = leng.
+    [7] = sculon.
+    [8] = môton.
+    [9] = đć:r.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    109.2: #sceal#. See § 137, Note 2 (2).
+
+    109.7: #Âlecgađ hit#. Bosworth illustrates thus:
+
+    vi    v     iv   iii    ii    i      1     2    3    4   5   6
+    |     |     |     |     |     |      X
+    |     |     |     |     |     |      XX    X    X
+    |     |     |     |     |     |      XXX   XX   XX   X   X
+    -------------------------------      XXXX  XXX  XXX  XX  XX  X
+    _e_  _d_                             _c_   _b_              _a_
+    Where the horsemen                 The six parts of the property
+      assemble.                          placed within one mile.
+
+    "The horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property, at
+    _d_ or _e_, and run towards _c_; the man who has the swiftest
+    horse, coming first to 1 or _c_, takes the first and largest
+    part. The man who has the horse coming second takes part 2 or
+    _b_, and so, in succession, till the least part, 6 or _a_, is
+    taken."
+
+    110.5-6: #man ... hî#. Here the plural #hî# refers to the
+    singular #man#. _Cf._ p. 109, ll. 18-19, #ć:lc ... môtan#. In
+    _Exodus_ xxxii, 24, we find "_Whosoever_ hath any gold, let
+    _them_ break it off"; and Addison writes, "I do not mean that I
+    think _anyone_ to blame for taking due care of _their_ health."
+    The construction, though outlawed now, has been common in all
+    periods of our language. Paul remarks (_Prinzipien der
+    Sprachgeschichte_, 3d ed., § 186) that "When a word is used as
+    an indefinite [one, man, somebody, etc.] it is, strictly
+    speaking, incapable of any distinction of number. Since,
+    however, in respect of the external form, a particular number
+    has to be chosen, it is a matter of indifference which this
+    is.... Hence a change of numbers is common in the different
+    languages." Paul fails to observe that the change is always from
+    singular to plural, not from plural to singular. See _Note on
+    the Concord of Collectives and Indefinites_ (Anglia XI, 1901).
+    See p. 119, note on ll. 19-21.]
+
+
+IV. THE STORY OF CĆDMON.
+
+  [From the so-called Alfredian version of Bede's _Ecclesiastical
+  History_. The text generally followed is that of MS. Bodley,
+  Tanner 10. Miller (_Early English Text Society_, No. 95,
+  _Introd._) argues, chiefly from the use of the prepositions, that
+  the original O.E. MS. was Mercian, composed possibly in Lichfield
+  (Staffordshire). At any rate, O.E. idiom is frequently sacrificed
+  to the Latin original.
+
+  "Cćdmon, as he is called, is the first Englishman whose name we
+  know who wrote poetry in our island of England; and the first to
+  embody in verse the new passions and ideas which Christianity had
+  brought into England.... Undisturbed by any previous making of
+  lighter poetry, he came fresh to the work of Christianising
+  English song. It was a great step to make. He built the chariot in
+  which all the new religious emotions of England could now drive
+  along." (Brooke, _The History of Early English Literature_,
+  cap. XV.) There is no reason to doubt the historical existence of
+  Cćdmon; for Bede, who relates the story, lived near Whitby, and
+  was seven years old when Cćdmon died (A.D. 680)].
+
+[[page 111]]
+
+   1   In đysse abbudissan mynstre wćs sum brôđor syndriglîce
+   2 mid godcundre gife gemć:red ond geweorđad, for ţon
+   3 he gewunade gerisenlîce lęođ wyrcan, ţâ đe tô ć:festnisse[1]
+   4 ond tô ârfćstnisse belumpon; swâ đćtte swâ hwćt swâ
+   5 hę of godcundum stafum ţurh bôceras geleornode, ţćt hę
+   6 ćfter medmiclum fćce in scopgereorde mid ţâ mć:stan
+   7 swętnisse ond inbryrdnisse geglengde, ond in Engliscgereorde
+   8 wel geworht forţ brôhte. Ond for his lęoţsongum
+
+[[page 112]]
+
+   1 monigra monna môd oft to worulde forhogdnisse ond tô
+   2 geţęodnisse ţćs heofonlîcan lîfes onbćrnde wć:ron. Ond
+   3 ęac swelce[2] monige ôđre ćfter him in Ongelţęode ongunnon
+   4 ć:feste lęođ wyrcan, ac nć:nig hwćđre him ţćt gelîce
+   5 dôn ne meahte; for ţon hę nâlćs from monnum nę đurh
+   6 mon gelć:red wćs ţćt hę đone lęođcrćft leornade, ac hę
+   7 wćs godcundlîce gefultumod, ond ţurh Godes gife ţone
+   8 songcrćft onfęng; ond hę for đon nć:fre nôht lęasunge,
+   9 nę îdles lęoţes wyrcan ne meahte, ac efne ţâ ân đâ đę tô
+  10 ć:festnisse[1] belumpon ond his ţâ ć:festan tungan gedafenode
+  11 singan.
+
+    [1] = ć:fćstnesse.
+    [2] = swilce.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    111.1: #đysse abbudissan.# The abbess referred to is the famous
+    Hild, or Hilda, then living in the monastery at Streones-halh,
+    which, according to Bede, means "Bay of the Beacon." The Danes
+    afterward gave it the name Whitby, or "White Town." The
+    surroundings were eminently fitted to nurture England's first
+    poet. "The natural scenery which surrounded him, the valley of
+    the Esk, on whose sides he probably lived, the great cliffs, the
+    billowy sea, the vast sky seen from the heights over the ocean,
+    played incessantly upon him." (Brooke.)
+
+    Note, also, in this connection, the numerous Latin words that
+    the introduction of Christianity (A.D. 597) brought into the
+    vocabulary of O.E.: #abbudisse#, #mynster#, #bisceop#, #Lć:den#,
+    #pręost#, #ćstel#, #mancus#.
+
+    112.4-5: The more usual order of words would be #ac nć:nig,
+    hwćđre, ne meahte đćt dôn gelîce him#.
+
+    112.10-11: #ond his ... singan#, _and which it became his (the)
+    pious tongue to sing_.]
+
+  12   Wćs hę, sę mon, in weoruldhâde[3] geseted ođ ţâ tîde ţe
+  13 hę wćs gely:fdre ylde, ond nć:fre nć:nig lęođ geleornade.
+  14 Ond hę for ţon oft in gebęorscipe, ţonne ţć:r wćs blisse
+  15 intinga gedęmed, ţćt hęo[4] ealle sceolden ţurh endebyrdnesse
+  16 be hearpan singan, ţonne hę geseah ţâ hearpan him
+  17 nęalęcan, ţonne ârâs hę for scome from ţć:m symble,
+  18 ond hâm ęode tô his hűse. Ţâ hę ţćt ţâ sumre tîde
+  19 dyde, ţćt hę forlęt ţćt hűs ţćs gebęorscipes, ond űt wćs
+
+[[page 113]]
+
+   1 gongende tô nęata scipene, ţâra heord him wćs ţć:re
+   2 nihte beboden; ţâ hę đâ ţć:r on gelimplîcre tîde his
+   3 leomu[5] on reste gesette ond onslępte, ţa stôd him sum
+   4 mon ćt ţurh swefn, ond hine hâlette ond grętte, ond hine
+   5 be his noman nemnde: "Cćdmon, sing mę hwćthwugu."
+   6 Ţâ ondswarede hę, ond cwćđ: "Ne con ic nôht singan;
+   7 ond ic for ţon of ţyssum gebęorscipe űt ęode ond hider
+   8 gewât, for ţon ic nâht singan ne cűđe." Eft hę cwćđ sę đe
+   9 wiđ hine sprecende wćs: "Hwćđre ţű meaht mę singan."
+  10 Ţâ cwćđ hę: "Hwćt sceal ic singan?" Cwćđ hę: "Sing
+  11 mę frumsceaft." Ţâ hę đâ ţâs andsware onfęng, ţâ
+  12 ongon hę sôna singan, in herenesse Godes Scyppendes,
+  13 ţâ fers ond ţâ word ţe hę nć:fre ne gehy:rde, ţâra endebyrdnes
+  14 ţis is:
+
+    [3] = woruldhâde.
+    [4] = hîe.
+    [5] = limu.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    112.14-15: #blisse intinga#, _for the sake of joy_; but the
+    translator has confused _laetitiae causâ_ (ablative) and
+    _laetitiae causa_ (nominative). The proper form would be #for
+    blisse# with omission of #intingan#, just as _for my sake_ is
+    usually #for mę#; _for his_ (_or their_) _sake_, #for him#. _Cf.
+    Mark_ vi, 26: "Yet _for his oath's sake, and for their sakes
+    which sat with him_, he would not reject her," #for đć:m âđe, ond
+    for đć:m ţe him mid sć:ton#. _For his sake_ is frequently #for his
+    đingon# (#đingum#), rarely #for his intingan#. #Ţingon# is
+    regularly used when the preceding genitive is a noun denoting a
+    person: _for my wife's sake_, #for mînes wîfes đingon#
+    (_Genesis_ xx, 11), etc.
+
+    112.18-19: #ţćt ... ţćt hę forlęt#. The substantival clause
+    introduced by the second #ţćt# amplifies by apposition the first
+    #ţćt#: _When he then, at a certain time_ (instrumental case,
+    § 98, (2)), _did that, namely, when he left the house_. The
+    better Mn.E. would be _this ... that_: "Added yet _this_ above
+    all, _that_ he shut up John in prison" (_Luke_ iv, 20).
+
+    113.1-2: #ţâra ... beboden#. This does not mean that Cćdmon was
+    a herdsman, but that he served in turn as did the other secular
+    attendants at the monastery.
+
+    113.13-14: #ţâra endebyrdnes ţis is#. Bede writes _Hic est
+    sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum_, and gives in Latin prose
+    a translation of the hymn from the Northumbrian dialect, in
+    which Cćdmon wrote. The O.E. version given above is, of course,
+    not the Northumbrian original (which, however, with some
+    variations is preserved in several of the Latin MSS. of Bede's
+    _History_), but a West Saxon version made also from the
+    Northumbrian, not from the Latin.]
+
+  15    Nű sculon herigean[6]   heofonrîces Weard,
+  16    Metodes meahte   ond his môdgeţanc,
+  17    weorc Wuldorfćder,   swâ hę wundra gehwćs,
+  18    ęce Drihten   ôr onstealde.
+
+[[page 114]]
+
+   1    Hę ć:rest scęop   eorđan bearnum
+   2    heofon tô hrôfe,   hâlig Scyppend;
+   3    ţâ middangeard   monncynnes Weard,
+   4    ęce Drihten,   ćfter tęode
+   5    fîrum foldan,   Fręa ćlmihtig.
+
+    [6] = herian.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    113.15: #Nű sculon herigean#, _Now ought we to praise_. The
+    subject #wę# is omitted in the best MSS. Note the characteristic
+    use of synonyms, or epithets, in this bit of O.E. poetry.
+    Observe that it is not the _thought_ that is repeated, but
+    rather the _idea_, the _concept_, God. See p. 124.
+    [[Poetry: Structure]]
+
+    113.17: #wundra gehwćs#. See p. 140, note on #cęnra gehwylcum#
+    [[_Beowulf_ 769]].]
+
+   6   Ţâ ârâs hę from ţć:m slć:pe, ond eal ţâ ţe hę slć:pende
+   7 song fćste in gemynde hćfde; ond ţć:m wordum sôna
+   8 monig word in ţćt ilce gemet Gode wyrđes songes
+   9 tôgeţęodde. Ţâ côm hę on morgenne tô ţć:m tűngeręfan,
+  10 sę ţe his ealdormon wćs: sćgde him hwylce gife hę
+  11 onfęng; ond hę hine sôna tô ţć:re abbudissan gelć:dde,
+  12 ond hire ţćt cy:đde ond sćgde. Ţâ heht hęo gesomnian
+  13 ealle ţâ gelć:redestan men ond ţâ leorneras, ond him
+  14 ondweardum hęt secgan ţćt swefn, ond ţćt lęođ singan,
+  15 ţćt ealra heora[7] dôme gecoren wć:re, hwćt ođđe hwonan
+  16 ţćt cumen wć:re. Ţâ wćs him eallum gesewen, swâ swâ
+  17 hit wćs, ţćt him wć:re from Drihtne sylfum heofonlîc
+
+[[page 115]]
+
+   1 gifu forgifen. Ţâ rehton heo[4] him ond sćgdon sum hâlig
+   2 spell ond godcundre lâre word: bebudon him ţâ, gif hę
+   3  meahte, ţćt hę in swînsunge lęoţsonges ţćt gehwyrfde.
+   4 Ţâ hę đâ hćfde ţâ wîsan onfongne, ţâ ęode hę hâm tô
+   5  his hűse, ond cwôm eft on morgenne, ond ţy: betstan
+   6 lęođe geglenged him âsong ond âgeaf ţćt him beboden
+   7 wćs.
+
+    [4] = hîe.
+    [7] = hiera.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    114.7-9: #ond ţć:m wordum ... tôgeţęodde#, _and to those words he
+    soon joined, in the same meter, many (other) words of song
+    worthy of God_. But the translator has not only blundered over
+    Bede's Latin (_eis mox plura in eundem modum verba Deo digna
+    carminis adjunxit_), but sacrificed still more the idiom of
+    O.E. The predicate should not come at the end; #in# should be
+    followed by the dative; and for #Gode wyrđes songes# the better
+    O.E. would be #songes Godes wyrđes#. When used with the dative
+    #wyrđ# (#weorđ#) usually means _dear_ (= _of worth_) _to_.
+
+    114.16: #ţâ ... gesewen#. We should expect #from him eallum#;
+    but the translator has again closely followed the Latin
+    (_visumque est omnibus_), as later (in the _Conversion of
+    Edwin_) he renders _Talis mihi videtur_ by #ţyslîc mę is
+    gesewen#. _Talis_ (#ţyslîc#) agreeing with a following _vita_
+    (#lîf#). Ćlfric, however, with no Latin before him, writes that
+    John #wearđ đâ him# [= #from Drihtene#] #inweardlîce gelufod#.
+    It would seem that in proportion as a past participle has the
+    force of an adjective, the _to_ relation may supplant the _by_
+    relation; just as we say _unknown to_ instead of _unknown by_,
+    _unknown_ being more adjectival than participial. #Gesewen#,
+    therefore, may here be translated _visible_, _evident_, _patent_
+    (= #gesynelîc#, #sweotol#); and #gelufod#, _dear_ (= #weorđ#,
+    #lęof#).
+
+    A survival of adjectival #gesewen# is found in Wycliffe's _New
+    Testament_ (1 _Cor._ xv, 5-8): "He was _seyn to_ Cephas, and
+    aftir these thingis _to_ enleuene; aftirward he was _seyn to_ mo
+    than fyue hundrid britheren togidere ... aftirward he was _seyn
+    to_ James, and aftirward _to_ alle the apostlis. And last of
+    alle he was _seyn to_ me, as _to_ a deed borun child." The
+    construction is frequent in Chaucer.]
+
+   8   Đâ ongan sęo abbudisse clyppan ond lufigean[8] ţâ Godes
+   9 gife in ţć:m men, ond hęo hine ţâ monade ond lć:rde
+  10 ţćt hę woruldhâd forlęte ond munuchâd onfęnge: ond
+  11 hę ţćt wel ţafode. Ond hęo hine in ţćt mynster onfęng
+  12 mid his gôdum, ond hine geţęodde tô gesomnunge ţâra
+  13 Godes ţęowa, ond heht hine lć:ran ţćt getćl ţćs hâlgan
+  14 stć:res ond spelles. Ond hę eal ţâ hę in gehy:rnesse
+  15 geleornian meahte, mid hine gemyndgade, ond swâ swâ
+  16 clć:ne nęten[9] eodorcende in ţćt swęteste lęođ gehwyrfde.
+  17 Ond his song ond his lęođ wć:ron swâ wynsumu tô gehy:ranne,
+  18 ţćtte ţâ seolfan[10] his lâręowas ćt his műđe writon
+  19 ond leornodon. Song hę ć:rest be middangeardes gesceape,
+  20 ond bî fruman moncynnes, ond eal ţćt stć:r Genesis (ţćt
+  21 is sęo ć:reste Moyses bôc); ond eft bî űtgonge Israhęla
+  22 folces of Ć:gypta londe, ond bî ingonge ţćs gehâtlandes;
+  23 ond bî ôđrum monegum spellum ţćs hâlgan gewrites
+
+[[page 116]]
+
+   1 canônes bôca; ond bî Crîstes menniscnesse, ond bî his
+   2 ţrôwunge, ond bî his űpâstîgnesse in heofonas; ond bî
+   3 ţćs Hâlgan Gâstes cyme, ond ţâra apostola lâre; ond eft
+   4 bî ţć:m dćge ţćs tôweardan dômes, ond bî fyrhtu ţćs
+   5 tintreglîcan wîtes, ond bî swętnesse ţćs heofonlîcan rîces,
+   6 hę monig lęođ geworhte; ond swelce[2] ęac ôđer monig be
+   7 ţć:m godcundan fremsumnessum ond dômum hę geworhte.
+   8 In eallum ţć:m hę geornlîce gęmde[11] ţćt hę men âtuge
+   9 from synna lufan ond mândć:da, ond tô lufan ond tô
+  10 geornfulnesse âwehte gôdra dć:da, for ţon hę wćs, sę
+  11 mon, swîţe ć:fest ond regollîcum ţęodscipum ęađmôdlîce
+  12 underţęoded; ond wiđ ţć:m ţâ đe in ôđre wîsan dôn woldon,
+  13 hę wćs mid welme[12] micelre ellenwôdnisse onbćrned.
+  14 Ond hę for đon fćgre ende his lîf bety:nde ond geendade.
+
+    [2] = swilce.
+    [8] = lufian.
+    [9] = nîeten.
+    [10] = selfan.
+    [11] = gîemde.
+    [12] = wielme.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    115.9-10: #ond hęo hine ţâ monade ... munuchâd onfęnge#. Hild's
+    advice has in it the suggestion of a personal experience, for
+    she herself had lived half of her life (thirty-three years)
+    "before," says Bede, "she dedicated the remaining half to our
+    Lord in a monastic life."
+
+    116.6: #hę monig lęođ geworhte#. The opinion is now gaining
+    ground that of these "many poems" only the short hymn, already
+    given, has come down to us. Of other poems claimed for Cćdmon,
+    the strongest arguments are advanced in favor of a part of the
+    fragmentary poetical paraphrase of _Genesis_.]
+
+
+V. ALFRED'S PREFACE TO THE PASTORAL CARE.
+
+  [Based on the Hatton MS. Of the year 597, the _Chronicle_ says:
+  "In this year, Gregory the Pope sent into Britain Augustine with
+  very many monks, who gospelled [preached] God's word to the
+  English folk." Gregory I, surnamed "The Great," has ever since
+  been considered the apostle of English Christianity, and his
+  _Pastoral Care_, which contains instruction in conduct and
+  doctrine for all bishops, was a work that Alfred could not afford
+  to leave untranslated. For this translation Alfred wrote a
+  _Preface_, the historical value of which it would be hard to
+  overrate. In it he describes vividly the intellectual ruin that
+  the Danes had wrought, and develops at the same time his plan for
+  repairing that ruin.
+
+  This _Preface_ and the _Battle of Ashdown_ (p. 99) show the great
+  king in his twofold character of warrior and statesman, and
+  justify the inscription on the base of the statue erected to him
+  in 1877, at Wantage (Berkshire), his birth-place: "Ćlfred found
+  Learning dead, and he restored it; Education neglected, and he
+  revived it; the laws powerless, and he gave them force; the Church
+  debased, and he raised it; the Land ravaged by a fearful Enemy,
+  from which he delivered it. Ćlfred's name will live as long as
+  mankind shall respect the Past."]
+
+[[page 117]]
+
+   1   Ćlfred kyning hâteđ grętan Wćrferđ biscep[1] his wordum
+   2 luflîce ond fręondlîce; ond đę cy:đan hâte đćt mę côm
+   3 swîđe oft on gemynd, hwelce[2] witan îu[3] wć:ron giond[4]
+   4 Angelcynn, ć:gđer ge godcundra hâda ge woruldcundra;
+   5 ond hű gesć:liglîca tîda đâ wć:ron giond Angelcynn; ond
+   6 hű đâ kyningas đe đone onwald hćfdon đćs folces on
+   7 đâm dagum Gode ond his ć:rendwrecum hęrsumedon[5];
+   8 ond hű hîe ć:gđer ge hiora sibbe ge hiora siodo[6] ge hiora
+   9 onweald innanbordes gehîoldon,[4] ond ęac űt hiora ęđel
+  10 gery:mdon; ond hű him đâ spęow ć:gđer ge mid wîge ge
+  11 mid wîsdôme; ond ęac đa godcundan hâdas hű giorne
+  12 hîe wć:ron ć:gđer ge ymb lâre ge ymb liornunga, ge ymb
+  13 ealle đâ đîowotdômas đe hîe Gode dôn scoldon; ond hű
+  14 man űtanbordes wîsdôm ond lâre hieder on lond sôhte,
+  15 ond hű wę hîe nű sceoldon űte begietan, gif wę hîe habban
+  16 sceoldon. Swć:[7] clć:ne hîo wćs ođfeallenu on Angelcynne
+  17 đćt swîđe fęawa wć:ron behionan Humbre đe hiora đęninga
+  18 cűđen understondan on Englisc ođđe furđum ân ć:rendgewrit
+  19 of Lć:dene on Englisc âreccean; ond ic węne đćtte
+  20 nôht monige begiondan Humbre nć:ren. Swć:[7] fęawa
+  21 hiora wć:ron đćt ic furđum ânne ânlępne[8] ne mćg geđencean
+
+[[page 118]]
+
+   1 be sűđan Temese, đâ đâ ic tô rîce fęng. Gode ćlmihtegum
+   2 sîe đonc đćtte wę nű ć:nigne onstâl habbađ
+   3 lâręowa. Ond for đon ic đę bebîode đćt đű dô swć:[7] ic
+   4 gelîefe đćt đű wille, đćt đű đę đissa woruldđinga tô đć:m
+   5  geć:metige, swć: đű oftost mćge, đćt đű đone wîsdôm đe
+   6 đę God sealde đć:r đć:r đű hiene befćstan mćge, befćste.
+   7 Geđenc hwelc[9] wîtu űs đâ becômon for đisse worulde, đâ
+   8 đâ wę hit nôhwćđer nę selfe ne lufodon, nę ęac ôđrum
+   9 monnum ne lęfdon[10]: đone naman ânne wę lufodon đćtte
+  10 wę Crîstne wć:ren, ond swîđe fęawe đâ đęawas.
+
+    [1] = bisceop.
+    [2] = hwilce.
+    [3] = gîu.
+    [4] = For all words with _io_ (_îo_), consult Glossary under
+          _eo_ (_ęo_).
+    [5] = hîersumedon.
+    [6] = sidu (siodu).
+    [7] = swâ.
+    [8] = ânlîpigne.
+    [9] = hwilc.
+    [10] = lîefdon.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    117.1-2: #Ćlfred kyning hâteđ ... hâte#. Note the change from
+    the formal and official third person (#hâteđ#) to the more
+    familiar first person (#hâte#). So Ćlfric, in his _Preface to
+    Genesis_, writes #Ćlfric munuc gręt Ćđelwćrd ealdormann
+    ęadmôdlîce. Ţű bć:de mę, lęof, ţćt ic#, etc.: _Ćlfric, monk,
+    greets Ćthelweard, alderman, humbly. Thou, beloved, didst bid me
+    that I_, etc.
+
+    118.5: Notice that #mćge# (l. 5) and #mćge# (l. 6) are not in
+    the subjunctive because the sense requires it, but because they
+    have been attracted by #gć:metige# and #befćste#. #Sîen# (p. 119,
+    l. 15) and #hćbben# (p. 119, l. 20) illustrate the same
+    construction.
+
+    118.9-10: _We liked only the reputation of being Christians,
+    very few_ (_of us_) _the Christian virtues_.]
+
+  11   Đâ ic đâ đis eall gemunde, đâ gemunde ic ęac hű ic
+  12 geseah, ć:r đć:m đe hit eall forhergod wć:re ond forbćrned,
+  13 hű đâ ciricean giond eall Angelcynn stôdon
+  14 mâđma ond bôca gefylda, ond ęac micel menigeo[11] Godes
+  15 đîowa; ond đâ swîđe ly:tle fiorme đâra bôca wiston, for
+  16 đć:m đe hîe hiora nânwuht[12] ongietan ne meahton, for
+  17 đć:m đe hîe nć:ron on hiora âgen geđîode awritene.
+  18 Swelce[13] hîe cwć:den: "Ure ieldran, đâ đe đâs stôwa ć:r
+  19 hîoldon, hîe lufodon wîsdôm, ond đurh đone hîe begęaton
+  20 welan, ond űs lć:fdon. Hęr mon mćg gîet gesîon hiora
+  21 swćđ, ac wę him ne cunnon ćfter spyrigean,[14] ond for
+  22 đć:m wę habbađ nű ć:gđer forlć:ten ge đone welan ge đone
+  23 wîsdôm, for đć:m đe wę noldon tô đć:m spore mid űre
+  24 môde onlűtan."
+
+    [11] = menigu.
+    [12] = nânwiht.
+    [13] = swilce.
+    [14] = spyrian.
+
+  25   Đâ ic đâ đis eall gemunde, đâ wundrade ic swîđe swîđe
+  26 đâra gôdena wiotona[15] đe gîu wć:ron giond Angelcynn, ond
+  27 đâ bęc ealla be fullan geliornod hćfdon, đćt hîe hiora đâ
+
+[[page 119]]
+
+   1 nć:nne dć:l noldon on hiora âgen geđîode wendan. Ac
+   2 ic đâ sôna eft mę selfum andwyrde, ond cwćđ: "Hîe ne
+   3 węndon ţćtte ć:fre menn sceolden swć:[7] reccelęase weorđan,
+   4 ond sîo lâr swć: ođfeallan; for đć:re wilnunga hîe
+   5 hit forlęton, ond woldon đćt hęr đy: mâra wîsdôm on
+   6 londe wć:re đy: wę mâ geđęoda cűđon."
+
+    [7] = swâ.
+    [15] = witena.
+
+   7   Đâ gemunde ic hű sîo ć: wćs ć:rest on Ebręisc geđîode
+   8 funden, ond eft, đâ hîe Cręacas geliornodon, đâ wendon
+   9 hîe hîe on hiora âgen geđîode ealle, ond ęac ealle ôđre
+  10 bęc. Ond eft Lć:denware swć: same, siđđan hîe hîe geliornodon,
+  11 hîe hîe wendon ealla đurh wîse wealhstôdas
+  12 on hiora âgen geđîode. Ond ęac ealla ôđra Crîstena
+  13 đîoda sumne dć:l hiora on hiora âgen geđîode wendon.
+  14 For đy: mę đyncđ betre, gif îow swć: đyncđ, đćt wę ęac
+  15 suma bęc, đâ đe nîedbeđearfosta sîen eallum monnum
+  16 tô wiotonne,[16] đćt wę đâ on đćt geđîode wenden đe wę
+  17 ealle gecnâwan mćgen, ond gedôn swć: wę swîđe ęađe
+  18 magon mid Godes fultume, gif wę đâ stilnesse habbađ,
+  19 đćtte eall sîo gioguđ đe nű is on Angelcynne friora
+  20 monna, đâra đe đâ spęda hćbben đćt hîe đć:m befęolan
+  21 mćgen, sîen tô liornunga ođfćste, đâ hwîle đe hîe tô
+
+[[page 120]]
+
+   1 nânre ôđerre note ne mćgen, ođ đone first đe hîe wel
+   2 cunnen Englisc gewrit ârć:dan: lć:re mon siđđan furđur
+   3 on Lć:dengeđîode đâ đe mon furđor lć:ran wille, ond tô
+   4 hîerran hâde dôn wille. Đâ ic đâ gemunde hű sîo lâr
+   5 Lć:dengeđîodes ć:r đissum âfeallen wćs giond Angelcynn,
+   6 ond đeah monige cűđon Englisc gewrit ârć:dan, đâ
+   7 ongan ic ongemang ođrum mislîcum ond manigfealdum
+   8 bisgum đisses kynerîces đâ bôc wendan on Englisc đe is
+   9 genemned on Lć:den "Pastoralis," ond on Englisc "Hierdebôc,"
+  10 hwîlum word be worde, hwîlum andgit of andgiete,
+  11 swć: swć: ic hîe geliornode ćt Plegmunde mînum
+  12 ćrcebiscepe, ond ćt Assere mînum biscepe, ond ćt Grimbolde
+  13 mînum mćsseprîoste, ond ćt Iôhanne mînum mćssepręoste.
+  14 Siđđan ic hîe đâ geliornod hćfde, swć: swć:
+  15 ic hîe forstôd, ond swć: ic hîe andgitfullîcost âreccean
+  16 meahte, ic hîe on Englisc âwende; ond tô ć:lcum biscepstôle
+  17 on mînum rîce wille âne onsendan; ond on ć:lcre
+  18 biđ ân ćstel, sę biđ on fîftegum mancessa. Ond ic bebîode
+  19 on Godes naman đćt nân mon đone ćstel from
+  20 đć:re bęc ne dô, nę đâ bôc from đć:m mynstre; uncűđ hű
+  21 longe đć:r swć: gelć:rede biscepas sîen, swć: swć: nű, Gode
+  22 đonc, wel hwć:r siendon. For đy: ic wolde đćtte hîe ealneg
+
+[[page 121]]
+
+  1 ćt đć:re stôwe wć:ren, bűton sę biscep hîe mid him
+  2 habban wille, ođđe hîo hwć:r tô lć:ne sîe, ođđe hwâ ôđre
+  3 bî wrîte.
+
+    [16] = witanne.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    119.14: Alfred is here addressing the bishops collectively, and
+    hence uses the plural #îow# (= #ęow#), not #ţę#.
+
+    119.16: #đćt wę đâ#. These three words are not necessary to the
+    sense. They constitute the figure known as epanalepsis, in which
+    "the same word or phrase is repeated after one or more
+    intervening words." #Ţâ# is the pronominal substitute for #suma
+    bęc#.
+
+    119.17: #Gedôn# is the first person plural subjunctive (from
+    infinitive #gedôn#). It and #wenden# are in the same
+    construction. Two things seem "better" to Alfred: (1) _that we
+    translate_, etc., (2) _that we cause_, etc.
+
+    119.19-21: #sîo gioguđ ... is ... hîe ... sîen#. Notice how the
+    collective noun, #gioguđ#, singular at first both in form and
+    function, gradually loses its oneness before the close of the
+    sentence is reached, and becomes plural. The construction is
+    entirely legitimate in Mn.E. Spanish is the only modern language
+    known to me that condemns such an idiom: "Spanish ideas of
+    congruity do not permit a collective noun, though denoting a
+    plurality, to be accompanied by a plural verb or adjective in
+    the same clause" (Ramsey, _Text-Book of Modern Spanish_,
+    § 1452).
+
+    120.2: #lć:re mon#. See § 105, 1.
+
+    120.11-13: That none of these advisers of the king, except
+    Plegmond, a Mercian, were natives, bears out what Alfred says
+    about the scarcity of learned men in England when he began to
+    reign. Asser, to whose Latin _Life of Alfred_, in spite of its
+    mutilations, we owe almost all of our knowledge of the king,
+    came from St. David's (in Wales), and was made Bishop of
+    Sherborne.
+
+    121.1: Translate #ć:t đć:re stôwe# by _each in its place_. The
+    change from plural #hîe# (in #hîe ... wć:ren#) to singular #hîe#
+    (in the clauses that follow) will thus be prepared for.
+
+    121.2-3: #ođđe hwâ ôđre bî wrîte#, _or unless some one wish to
+    copy a new one_ (_write thereby another_).]
+
+
+
+
+POETRY.
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+  [Transcriber's Note:
+
+  In Section II., Structure, the stress markers ´ and ` are intended
+  to display above the macron (Ż) or breve (u or [)]). In this
+  simplified Latin-1 text, they are shown before (to the left of) the
+  macron:
+
+    ´Ż × `Ż
+
+  "Resolved stress" (two short syllables acting as one long) is shown
+  with braces:
+
+    {´u ×}
+
+  Where there is no risk of ambiguity, the breve is shown as the
+  letter u; elsewhere it is shown in brackets as [)].]
+
+
+I. HISTORY.
+
+(a) #Old English Poetry as a Whole.#
+
+Northumbria was the home of Old English poetry. Beginning with Cćdmon
+and his school A.D. 670, Northumbria maintained her poetical supremacy
+till A.D. 800, seven years before which date the ravages of the Danes
+had begun. When Alfred ascended the throne of Wessex (871), the Danes
+had destroyed the seats of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria.
+As Whitby had been "the cradle of English poetry," Winchester (Alfred's
+capital) became now the cradle of English prose; and the older poems
+that had survived the fire and sword of the Vikings were translated from
+the original Northumbrian dialect into the West Saxon dialect. It is,
+therefore, in the West Saxon dialect that these poems[1] have come down
+to us.
+
+Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines; but
+it includes epic, lyric, didactic, elegiac, and allegorical poems,
+together with war-ballads, paraphrases, riddles, and charms. Of the five
+elegiac poems (_Wanderer_, _Seafarer_, _Ruin_, _Wife's Complaint_, and
+_Husband's Message_), the _Wanderer_ is the most artistic, and best
+portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so
+characteristic of the Old English lyric.
+
+Old English literature has no love poems. The central themes of its
+poets are battle and bereavement, with a certain grim resignation on the
+part of the hero to the issues of either. The movement of the thought is
+usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of transitional
+particles, or connectives, "which," says Ten Brink, "are the cement of
+sentence-structure."
+
+
+(b) #Beowulf.#
+
+The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, _Beowulf_.[2] It
+consists of more than three thousand lines, and probably assumed
+approximately its present form in Northumbria about A.D. 700. It is a
+crystallization of continental myths; and, though nothing is said of
+England, the story is an invaluable index to the social, political, and
+ethical ideals of our Germanic ancestors before and after they settled
+along the English coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony is
+historically most valuable, in the character-portraits that it contains.
+The fatalism that runs through it, instead of making the characters weak
+and less human, serves at times rather to dignify and elevate them.
+"Fate," says Beowulf (l. 572), recounting his battle with the
+sea-monsters, "often saves an undoomed man _if his courage hold out_."
+
+"The ethical essence of this poetry," says Ten Brink, "lies principally
+in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the stoical
+encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the readiness to
+help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince toward his
+thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they reward him."
+
+  NOTE 1.--Many different interpretations have been put upon the
+  story of _Beowulf_ (for argument of story, see texts). Thus
+  Müllenhoff sees in Grendel the giant-god of the storm-tossed
+  equinoctial sea, while Beowulf is the Scandinavian god Freyr, who
+  in the spring drives back the sea and restores the land. Laistner
+  finds the prototype of Grendel in the noxious exhalations that
+  rise from the Frisian coast-marshes during the summer months;
+  Beowulf is the wind-hero, the autumnal storm-god, who dissipates
+  the effluvia.
+
+    [Footnote 1: This does not, of course, include the few short
+    poems in the _Chronicle_, or that portion of _Genesis_
+    (_Genesis B_) supposed to have been put directly into West Saxon
+    from an Old Saxon original. There still remain in Northumbrian
+    the version of _Cćdmon's Hymn_, fragments of the _Ruthwell
+    Cross_, _Bede's Death-Song_, and the _Leiden Riddle_.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: The word _bęowulf_, says Grimm, meant originally
+    _bee-wolf_, or _bee-enemy_, one of the names of the woodpecker.
+    Sweet thinks the bear was meant. But the word is almost
+    certainly a compound of _Bęow_ (cf. O.E. #bęow# = grain),
+    a Danish demigod, and _wulf_ used as a mere suffix.]
+
+
+II. STRUCTURE.
+
+(a) #Style.#
+
+In the structure of Old English poetry the most characteristic feature
+is the constant repetition of the idea (sometimes of the thought) with a
+corresponding variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for example, the
+Queen passes into the banquet hall in _Beowulf_, she is designated at
+first by her name, #Wealhţęow#; she is then described in turn as #cwęn
+Hrôđgâres# (_Hrothgar's queen_), #gold-hroden# (_the gold-adorned_),
+#fręolîc wîf# (_the noble woman_), #ides Helminga# (_the Helmings'
+lady_), #bęag-hroden cwęn# (_the ring-adorned queen_), #môde geţungen#
+(_the high-spirited_), and #gold-hroden fręolîcu folc-cwęn# (_the
+gold-adorned, noble folk-queen_).
+
+And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet's verse, not content
+with simple (uncompounded) words (such as #sć:#, #lagu#, #holm#,
+#stręam#, #mere#, etc.), he will use numerous other equivalents (phrases
+or compounds), such as #waţema gebind# (_the commingling of waves_),
+#lagu-flôd# (_the sea-flood_), #lagu-strć:t# (_the sea-street_),
+#swan-râd# (_the swan-road_), etc. These compounds are usually nouns, or
+adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive than
+attributive.
+
+It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of compounds, or
+periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in
+varying language. It is to be observed, also, that the Old English poets
+rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or
+clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition of idea, rather than a
+parallelism of structure.
+
+  NOTE 1.--It is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous
+  expressions had already become stereotyped, and were used, like
+  many of the epithets in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, purely as
+  padding. When, for example, the poet tells us that at the most
+  critical moment Beowulf's sword failed him, adding in the same
+  breath, #îren ć:r-gôd# (_matchless blade_), we conclude that the
+  bard is either nodding or parroting.
+
+
+(b) #Meter.#
+
+[Re-read § 10, (3).]
+
+_Primary Stress._
+
+Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered
+combinations of accented and unaccented syllables. The accented syllable
+(the arsis) is usually long, and will be indicated by the macron with
+the acute accent over it (´Ż); when short, by the breve with the same
+accent (´u). The unaccented syllable or syllables (the thesis) may be
+long or short, and will be indicated by the oblique cross (×).
+
+_Secondary Stress._
+
+A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member of
+compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be
+indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress
+falls on a long syllable (`Ż); by the breve with the same accent, if the
+secondary stress falls on a short syllable (`u).
+
+Nouns:
+
+  Hrôđgâres (´Ż `Ż ×), fęondgrâpum (´Ż `Ż ×), fręomć:gum (´Ż `Ż ×),
+  Ęast-Dena (´Ż `u ×), Helminga (´Ż `Ż ×), Scyldinga (´Ż `Ż ×),
+  ânhaga (´Ż `u ×), Ecgţęowes (´Ż `Ż ×), sinc-fato (´Ż `u ×).
+
+Adjectives:[1]
+
+  ć:ghwylcne (´Ż `Ż ×), ţrîsthy:dig (´Ż `Ż ×), gold-hroden (´Ż `u ×),
+  dręorigne (´Ż `Ż ×), gyldenne (´Ż `Ż ×), ôđerne (´Ż `Ż ×),
+  gć:stlîcum (´Ż `Ż ×), wynsume (´Ż `u ×), ć:nigne (´Ż `Ż ×).
+
+Adverbs:[2]
+
+  unsôfte (´Ż `Ż ×), heardlîce (´Ż `Ż ×), semninga (´Ż `Ż ×).
+
+The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending of
+present participles (#-ende#), and upon the penultimate of weak verbs of
+the second class (§ 130), provided the root-syllable is long.[3]
+
+Present participles:
+
+  slć:pendne (´Ż `Ż ×), wîs-hycgende (´Ż ´Ż `Ż ×), flęotendra (´Ż `Ż ×),
+  hręosende (´Ż `Ż ×).
+
+Weak verbs:
+
+  swynsode (´Ż `u ×), ţancode (´Ż `u ×), wânigean (´Ż `u ×),
+  scęawian (´Ż `u ×), scęawige (´Ż `u ×), hlîfian (´Ż `u ×).
+
+    [Footnote 1: It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly
+    derivatives in -ig, -en, -er, -lîc, and -sum.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Most of the adverbs belonging here end in #-lîce#,
+    #-unga#, and #-inga#, § 93, (1), (2): such words as #ćt-g[´ć]dere#,
+    #on-g[´ę]an#, #on-wég#, #tô-g[´ę]anes#, #tô-míddes#, etc., are
+    invariably accented as here indicated.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: It will save the student some trouble to remember
+    that this means long by nature (#lîcodon#), or long by position
+    (#swynsode#), or long by resolution of stress (#mađelode#),--see
+    next paragraph.]
+
+
+_Resolved Stress._
+
+A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented
+syllable (usually short also) is equivalent to one long accented
+syllable (´u × = ´Ż). This is known as a resolved stress, and will be
+indicated thus, {´u ×};
+
+  hćleđa ({´u ×}×), guman ({´u ×}), Gode ({´u ×}), sele-ful ({´u ×}×),
+  ides ({´u ×}), fyrena ({´u ×}×), mađelode ({´u ×}`u ×),
+  hogode ({´u ×}×), mćgen-ellen ({´u ×}`Ż ×),
+  hige-ţihtigne ({´u ×}´Ż `Ż ×), Metudes ({´u ×}×),
+  lagulâde ({´u ×}`Ż ×), unlyfigendes (´Ż{´u ×}`Ż ×),
+  biforan (×{´u ×}), forţolian (×{´u ×}×), bađian ({´u ×}×),
+  worolde ({´u Ż} ×).
+
+Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses:
+
+  sinc-fato (´Ż {`u ×}), dryht-sele (´Ż {`u ×}), ferđloca (´Ż {`u ×}),
+  forđwege (´Ż {`u ×}).
+
+
+_The Normal Line._
+
+Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two in
+the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines
+are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative
+letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second
+half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of
+the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second
+half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating
+syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two
+in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one
+alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the
+second. The following lines are given in the order of their frequency:
+
+  (1) ţć:r wćs _h_[´ć]leđa _h_léahtor; _h_l[´y]n sw[´y]nsode.
+  (2) _m_[´ô]de geţúngen, _m_édo-ful ćtb[´ć]r.
+  (3) s[´ô]na ţćt on_f_únde _f_[´y]rena h[´y]rde.
+
+Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial
+vowel or diphthong; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except
+st, sp, and sc, each of which alliterates only with itself.
+
+Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may
+begin with several unaccented syllables (these syllables being known in
+types A, D, and E as the _anacrusis_), but that neither half-line can
+end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at
+once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be
+found that the alliterative principle does not operate mechanically, but
+that the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the words that
+are really most important. Sound is made subservient to sense.
+
+When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to what
+word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, and
+then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the chief
+burden of the poet's thought.
+
+  NOTE 1.--A few lines, rare or abnormal in their alliteration or
+  lack of alliteration, may here be noted. In the texts to be read,
+  there is one line with no alliteration: _Wanderer_ 58; three of
+  the type _a ··· b_ | _a ··· b_: _Beowulf_ 654, 830, 2746; one of
+  the type _a ··· a_ | _b ··· a_: _Beowulf_ 2744; one of the type _a
+  ··· a_ | _b ··· c_: _Beowulf_ 2718; and one of the type _a ··· b_
+  | _c ··· a_: _Beowulf_ 2738.
+
+
+_The Five Types._
+
+By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old English
+verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,[4] of the University of
+Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or varieties,
+employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpendicular line serving
+to separate the so-called feet, or measures:
+
+  1.  A  ´Ż × | ´Ż ×
+
+  2.  B  × ´Ż | × ´Ż
+
+  3.  C  × ´Ż | ´Ż ×
+
+  4.  D { D^1  ´Ż | ´Ż `Ż ×
+        { D^2  ´Ż | ´Ż × `Ż
+
+  5.  E { E^1  ´Ż `Ż × | ´Ż
+        { E^2  ´Ż × `Ż | ´Ż
+
+It will be seen (1) that each half-line contains two, and only two,
+feet; (2) that each foot contains one, and only one, primary stress;
+(3) that A is trochaic, B iambic; (4) that C is iambic-trochaic;
+(5) that D and E consist of the same feet but in inverse order.
+
+    [Footnote 4: Sievers' two articles appeared in the _Beiträge zur
+    Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur_, Vols. X (1885)
+    and XII (1887). A brief summary, with slight modifications, is
+    found in the same author's _Altgermanische Metrik_, pp. 120-144
+    (1893).
+
+    Before attempting to employ Sievers' types, the student would do
+    well to read several pages of Old English poetry, taking care to
+    accentuate according to the principles already laid down. In
+    this way his ear will become accustomed to the rhythm of the
+    line, and he will see more clearly that Sievers' work was one
+    primarily of systematization. Sievers himself says: "I had read
+    Old English poetry for years exactly as I now scan it, and long
+    before I had the slightest idea that what I did instinctively
+    could be formulated into a system of set rules."
+    (_Altgermanische Metrik_, _Vorwort_, p. 10.)]
+
+
+_The Five Types Illustrated._
+
+  [[Transcriber's Note: In the printed book, all examples line up
+  vertically at the main |.]]
+
+  [All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to
+  be read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second
+  half-line is cited. B = _Beowulf_; W = _Wanderer_.]
+
+1. TYPE A, ´Ż × | ´Ż ×
+
+Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene between
+the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If the thesis
+in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, of course,
+a secondary stress.
+
+  (2) ful gesealde, B. 616,                      ´Ż × | ´Ż ×
+  (1) wîdre gewindan, B. 764,                  ´Ż × × | ´Ż ×
+  (1)[5] Gemunde ţâ sę gôda, B. 759      × | ´Ż × × × | ´Ż ×
+  (1)[5] swylce hę on ealder-dagum, B. 758,  × × × × | ´Ż × | ´u ×
+  (1) y:ţde swâ ţisne eardgeard, W. 85,     ´Ż × × × × | ´Ż `Ż
+  (1) wîs-fćst wordum, B. 627,                   ´Ż `Ż | ´Ż ×
+  (1) gryre-lęođ galan, B. 787,                 {´u ×} `Ż | ´u ×
+  (2) somod ćtgćdre, W. 39,                     {´u ×} × | ´Ż ×
+  (1) duguđe ond geogođe, B. 622,            {´u ×} × × | {´u ×} ×
+  (1) fć:ger fold-bold, B. 774,                   ´Ż × | ´Ż `Ż
+  (1) atelîc egesa, B. 785,                     {´u ×} `Ż | {´u ×} ×
+  (2) goldwine mînne, W. 22,                    ´Ż {`u ×} | ´Ż ×
+  (1) egesan ţęon [> *ţîhan: § 118], B. 2737,   {´u ×} × | ´Ż ×
+
+  NOTE.--Rare forms of A are ´Ż `Ż × | ´Ż × (does not occur in
+  texts), ´Ż `Ż × | ´Ż `Ż (occurs once, B. 781 (1)), and ´Ż × `Ż |
+  ´Ż × (once, B. 2743 (1)).
+
+    [Footnote 5: The first perpendicular marks the limit of the
+    anacrusis.]
+
+2. TYPE B, × ´Ż | × ´Ż
+
+Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene between
+the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is × × ´Ż | × ´Ż.
+
+  (1) ond ţâ fręolîc wîf, B. 616,                  × × ´Ż | × ´Ż
+  (2) hę on lust geţeah, B. 619,                   × × ´Ż | × ´Ż
+  (2) ţâ se ćđeling gîong, B. 2716,              × × {´u ×} | × ´Ż
+  (2) seah on enta geweorc, B. 2718,               × × ´Ż | × × ´Ż
+  (1) ofer flôda genipu, B. 2809,                  × × ´Ż | × × {´u ×}
+  (1) forţam mę wîtan ne ţearf, B. 2742,         × × × ´Ż | × × ´Ż
+  (2) ţaes ţe hire se willa gelamp, B. 627,  × × × × × ´Ż | × × ´Ż
+  (1) forţon ne mćg weorţan wîs, W. 64,        × × × × ´Ż | × ´Ż
+  (1) Nć:fre ic ć:negum [= ć:n'gum] men, B. 656,    × × × ´Ż | × ´Ż
+
+  NOTE.--In the last half-line Sievers substitutes the older form
+  #ć:ngum#, and supposes elision of the e in #Nć:fre# (= #Nć:fr-ic#:
+  ××´Ż | ×´Ż).
+
+3. TYPE C, × ´Ż | ´Ż ×
+
+The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and
+derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is
+frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in
+B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than
+one.
+
+  (1) ţćt hęo on ć:nigne, B. 628,        × × × ´Ż | ´Ż ×
+  (1) ţćt ic ânunga, B. 635,              × × ´Ż | ´Ż ×
+  (2) ęode gold-hroden, B. 641,           × × ´Ż | ´u ×
+  (1) gemyne mć:rđo, B. 660,               × {´u ×} | ´Ż ×
+  (1) on ţisse meodu-healle, B. 639,  × × × {´u ×} | ´Ż ×
+  (2) ćt brimes nosan, B. 2804,           × {´u ×} | ´u ×
+  (2) ćt Wealhţéon [= -ţęowan], B. 630,     × ´Ż | ´Ż ×
+  (1) geond lagulâde, W. 3,               × {´u ×} | ´Ż ×
+  (1) Swâ cwćđ eardstapa, W. 6,           × × ´Ż | ´u ×
+  (2) ęalâ byrnwiga, W. 94,               × × ´Ż | ´u ×
+  (2) nô ţć:r fela bringeđ, W. 54,       × × {´u ×} | ´Ż ×
+
+4. TYPE D, { D^1 ´Ż | ´Ż `Ż ×
+           { D^2 ´Ż | ´Ż × `Ż
+
+Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two primary
+stresses (´Ż × | ´Ż `Ż ×, ´Ż × | ´Ż × `Ż). The secondary stress in D^1
+falls usually on the second syllable of a compound or derivative word,
+and this syllable (as in C) is frequently short.
+
+(a) D^1 ´Ż | ´Ż `Ż ×
+
+  (1) cwęn Hrôđgâres, B. 614,                    ´Ż | ´Ż `Ż ×
+  (2) dć:l ć:ghwylcne, B. 622,                     ´Ż | ´Ż `Ż ×
+  (1) Bęowulf mađelode, B. 632,                ´Ż × | {´u ×} `u ×
+  (2) slât unwearnum, B. 742,                    ´Ż | ´Ż `Ż ×
+  (1) wrâţra wćlsleahta, W. 7,                 ´Ż × | ´Ż `Ż ×
+  (1) wôd wintercearig [= wint'rcearig], W. 24,  ´Ż | ´Ż `u ×
+  (1) sôhte sele dręorig, W. 25,               ´Ż × | {´u ×} `Ż ×
+  (1) ne sôhte searo-nîđas, B. 2739,       × | ´Ż × | {´u ×} `Ż ×
+
+  NOTE.--There is one instance in the texts (B. 613, (1)) of
+  apparent ´Ż × × | ´Ż `u ×: #word wć:ron wynsume#. (The triple
+  alliteration has no significance. The sense, besides, precludes
+  our stressing #wć:ron#.) The difficulty is avoided by bringing the
+  line under the A type: ´Ż × × | ´Ż {´u ×}.
+
+(b) D^2 ´Ż | ´Ż × `Ż
+
+  (2) Forđ nęar ćtstôp, B. 746,        ´Ż | ´Ż × `Ż
+  (2) eorl furđur stôp, B. 762,        ´Ż | ´Ż × `Ż
+  (2) Denum eallum wearđ, B. 768,    {´u ×} | ´Ż × `Ż
+  (1) grętte Gęata lęod, B. 626,     ´Ż × | ´Ż × `Ż
+  (1) ć:nig yrfe-weard, B. 2732,      ´Ż × | ´Ż × `Ż
+  (1) hręosan hrîm and snâw, W. 48,  ´Ż × | ´Ż × `Ż
+  (2) swimmađ eft on weg, W. 53,     ´Ż × | ´Ż × `Ż
+
+Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded.
+
+  (2) ţegn ungemete till, B. 2722,      ´Ż | ´Ż × × × `Ż
+  (1) hrűsan heolster biwrâh, W. 23,  ´Ż × | ´Ż × × `Ż
+
+5. TYPE E, {E^1 ´Ż `Ż × | ´Ż
+           {E^2 ´Ż × `Ż | ´Ż
+
+The secondary stress in E^1 falls frequently on a short syllable, as in
+D^1.
+
+(a) E^1 ´Ż `Ż × | ´Ż
+
+  (1) wyrmlîcum fâh, W. 98,       ´Ż `Ż × | ´Ż
+  (2) medo-ful ćtbćr, B. 625,   {´u ×} `u × | ´Ż
+  (1) sć:-bât gesćt, B. 634,       ´Ż `Ż × | ´Ż
+  (1) sige-folca swęg, B. 645,  {´u ×} `Ż × | ´Ż
+  (2) Norđ-Denum stôd, B. 784,   ´Ż `u × | ´Ż
+  (1) fęond-grâpum fćst, B. 637,  ´Ż `Ż × | ´Ż
+  (2) wyn eal gedręas, W. 36,     ´Ż `Ż × | ´Ż
+  (2) feor oft gemon, W. 90,      ´Ż `Ż × | ´Ż
+
+As in D^2, the thesis in the first foot is very rarely expanded.
+
+  (1) wîn-ćrnes geweald, B. 655,        ´Ż `Ż × × | ´Ż
+  (1) Hafa nű ond geheald, B. 659,    {´u ×} `Ż × × | ´Ż
+  (1) searo-ţoncum besmiđod, B. 776,  {´u ×} `Ż × × | {´u ×}
+
+  NOTE.--Our ignorance of Old English sentence-stress makes it
+  impossible for us to draw a hard-and-fast line in all cases
+  between D^2 and E^1. For example, in these half-lines (already
+  cited),
+
+    wyn eal gedręas
+    feor oft gemon
+    Forđ nęar ćtstôp
+
+  if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their
+  verbs, the type is D^2. Lessen the stress on the adverbs and
+  increase it on the verbs, and we have E^1. The position of the
+  adverbs furnishes no clue; for the order of words in Old English
+  was governed not only by considerations of relative emphasis, but
+  by syntactic and euphonic considerations as well.
+
+(_b_) E^2 ´Ż × `Ż | ´Ż
+
+This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, there
+being but one instance of this type (l. 2437 (2)), and that doubtful, in
+the whole of _Beowulf_.
+
+_Abnormal Lines._
+
+The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are
+comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes,
+(1) hypermetrical lines, and (2) defective lines.
+
+(1) HYPERMETRICAL LINES.
+
+Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving six
+stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly in
+groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether the
+half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without
+anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the _Wanderer_.
+Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not hypermetrical. The
+first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, a fusion of A and C, consisting
+of (´Ż ××× {´u Ż} | ´Ż ×).
+
+(2) DEFECTIVE LINES.
+
+The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second
+half-line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be
+scanned thus:
+
+  rć:hte ongęan      ´Ż × | × ´Ż
+  bealo-nîđ węoll  {´u ×} `Ż | ´Ż
+
+Sievers emends as follows:
+
+  rć:hte tôgęanes     ´Ż × × | ´Ż ×  = A
+  bealo-nîđe węoll  {´u ×} ´Ż × | ´Ż    = E^1
+
+These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations found
+on almost every page of Old English prose. That they occur so rarely in
+poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence were needed,
+in favor of the adequacy of Sievers' five-fold classification.
+
+  NOTE.--All the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty
+  to the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under
+  the different types. If these are mastered, the student will find
+  it an easy matter to scan the lines that remain.
+
+
+
+
+SELECTIONS FOR READING.
+
+
+VI. EXTRACTS FROM BEOWULF.
+
+THE BANQUET IN HEOROT. [Lines 612-662.]
+
+  [The Heyne-Socin text has been closely followed. I have attempted
+  no original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin
+  edition in a few cases where the Grein-Wülker text seemed to give
+  the better reading.
+
+  The argument preceding the first selection is as follows:
+  Hrothgar, king of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity,
+  builds a magnificent hall in which to feast his retainers; but a
+  monster, Grendel by name, issues from his fen-haunts, and night
+  after night carries off thane after thane from the banqueting
+  hall. For twelve years these ravages continue. At last Beowulf,
+  nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats (a people of South Sweden),
+  sails with fourteen chosen companions to Dane-land, and offers his
+  services to the aged Hrothgar. "Leave me alone in the hall
+  to-night," says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf's proffered aid,
+  and before the dread hour of visitation comes, the time is spent
+  in wassail. The banquet scene follows.]
+
+
+  Ţć:r wćs hćleţa hleahtor,   hlyn swynsode,
+  word wć:ron wynsume.   Ęode Wealhţęow forđ,
+  cwęn Hrôđgâres,   cynna gemyndig;
+  grętte gold-hroden   guman on healle,                        [615]
+  ond ţâ fręolîc wîf   ful gesealde
+  ć:rest Ęast-Dena   ęţel-wearde,
+  bćd hine blîđne   ćt ţć:re bęor-ţege,
+  lęodum lęofne;   hę on lust geţeah
+  symbel ond sele-ful,   sige-rôf kyning.                      [620]
+  Ymb-ęode ţâ   ides Helminga
+  duguđe ond geogođe   dć:l ć:ghwylcne,
+  sinc-fato sealde,   ođ ţćt sć:l âlamp
+  ţćt hîo[1] Bęowulfe,   bęag-hroden cwęn,
+  môde geţungen,   medo[2]-ful ćtbćr;                          [625]
+  grętte Gęata lęod,   Gode ţancode
+  wîs-fćst wordum,   ţćs ţe hire se willa gelamp,
+  ţćt hęo on ć:nigne   eorl gely:fde
+  fyrena frôfre.   Hę ţćt ful geţeah,
+  wćl-ręow wiga,   ćt Wealhţęon,                               [630]
+  ond ţâ gyddode   gűđe gefy:sed;
+  Bęowulf mađelode,   bearn Ecgţęowes:
+  "Ic ţćt hogode,   ţâ ic on holm gestâh,
+  sć:-bât gesćt   mid mînra secga gedriht,
+  ţćt ic ânunga   ęowra lęoda                                  [635]
+  willan geworhte,   ođđe on wćl crunge
+  fęond-grâpum fćst.   Ic gefremman sceal
+  eorlîc ellen,   ođđe ende-dćg
+  on ţisse meodu[2]-healle   mînne gebîdan."
+  Ţâm wîfe ţâ word   wel lîcodon,                              [640]
+  gilp-cwide Gęates;   ęode gold-hroden
+  fręolicu folc-cwęn   tô hire fręan sittan.
+  Ţâ wćs eft swâ ć:r   inne on healle
+  ţry:đ-word sprecen,[3]   ţęod on sć:lum,
+  sige-folca swęg,    oţ ţćt semninga                          [645]
+  sunu Healfdenes   sęcean wolde
+  ć:fen-rćste;   wiste ţć:m âhlć:can[4]
+  tô ţć:m hęah-sele   hilde geţinged,
+  siđđan hîe sunnan lęoht   gesęon _ne_ meahton
+  ođđe nîpende   niht ofer ealle,                              [650]
+  scadu-helma gesceapu   scrîđan cwôman,[5]
+  wan under wolcnum.   Werod eall ârâs;
+  grętte ţâ _giddum_   guma ôđerne
+  Hrôđgâr Bęowulf,   ond him hć:l âbęad,
+  wîn-ćrnes geweald,   ond ţćt word âcwćđ:                     [655]
+  "Nć:fre ic ć:negum[6] men   ć:r âly:fde,
+  siđđan ic hond ond rond   hebban mihte,
+  đry:ţ-ćrn Dena   bűton ţę nű ţâ.
+  Hafa nű ond geheald   hűsa sęlest,
+  gemyne mć:rţo,[7]   mćgen-ellen cy:đ,                          [660]
+  waca wiđ wrâđum.   Ne biđ ţę wilna gâd,
+  gif ţű ţćt ellen-weorc   aldre[8] gedîgest."
+
+    [1] = hęo.
+    [2] = medu-.
+    [3] = gesprecen.
+    [4] = âglć:can.
+    [5] = cwômon.
+    [6] = ć:nigum.
+    [7] = mć:rţe (acc. sing.).
+    [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.).
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    623: #sinc-fato sealde#. Banning (_Die epischen Formeln im
+    Beowulf_) shows that the usual translation, _gave costly gifts_,
+    must be given up; or, at least, that the _costly gifts_ are
+    nothing more than _beakers of mead_. The expression is an epic
+    formula for _passing the cup_.
+
+    638-39: #ende-đćg ... mînne#. This unnatural separation of
+    noun and possessive is frequent in O.E. poetry, but almost
+    unknown in prose.
+
+    641-42: #ęode ... sittan#. The poet might have employed #tô
+    sittanne# (§ 108, (1)); but in poetry the infinitive is often
+    used for the gerund. Alfred himself uses the infinitive or the
+    gerund to express purpose after #gân#, #gongan#, #cuman#, and
+    #sendan#.
+
+    647-51: #wiste ... cwôman#. A difficult passage, even with
+    Thorpe's inserted #ne#; but there is no need of putting a period
+    after #geţinged#, or of translating #ođđe# by _and_: _He
+    (Hrothgar) knew that battle was in store_ (#geţinged#) _for the
+    monster in the high hall, after_ [= _as soon as_] _they could no
+    longer see the sun's light, or_ [= _that is_] _after night came
+    darkening over all, and shadowy figures stalking_. The subject
+    of #cwôman# [= #cwômon#] is #niht# and #gesceapu#.
+
+    The student will note that the infinitive (#scrîđan#) is here
+    employed as a present participle after a verb of motion
+    (#cwôman#). This construction with #cuman# is frequent in prose
+    and poetry. The infinitive expresses the kind of motion: #ic côm
+    drîfan# = _I came driving_.]
+
+
+THE FIGHT BETWEEN BEOWULF AND GRENDEL. [Lines 740-837.]
+
+  [The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel
+  stealthily enters the hall. From his eyes gleams "a luster
+  unlovely, likest to fire." The combat begins at once.]
+
+  Ne ţćt se âglć:ca   yldan ţôhte,                              [740]
+  ac hę gefęng hrađe   forman sîđe
+  slć:pendne rinc,   slât unwearnum,
+  bât bân-locan,   blôd ędrum dranc,
+  syn-snć:dum swealh;   sôna hćfde
+  unlyfigendes   eal gefeormod                                 [745]
+  fęt ond folma.   Forđ nęar ćtstôp,
+  nam ţâ mid handa   hige-ţihtigne
+  rinc on rćste;   rć:hte ongęan
+  fęond mid folme;   hę onfęng hraţe
+  inwit-ţancum   ond wiđ earm gesćt.                           [750]
+  Sôna ţćt onfunde   fyrena hyrde,
+  ţćt hę ne mętte   middan-geardes,
+  eorđan scęatta,   on elran men
+  mund-gripe mâran;   hę on môde wearđ
+  forht, on ferhđe;   nô ţy: ć:r fram meahte.                    [755]
+  Hyge wćs him hin-fűs,   wolde on heolster flęon,
+  sęcan dęofla gedrćg;   ne wćs his drohtođ ţć:r,
+  swylce hę on ealder[1]-dagum   ć:r gemętte.
+  Gemunde ţâ se gôda   mć:g Higelâces
+  ć:fen-sprć:ce,   űp-lang âstôd                                 [760]
+  ond him fćste wiđfęng;   fingras burston;
+  eoten wćs űt-weard;   eorl furţur stôp.
+  Mynte se mć:ra,   hwć:r hę meahte swâ,
+  wîdre gewindan   ond on weg ţanon
+  flęon on fen-hopu;   wiste his fingra geweald                [765]
+  on grames grâpum.   Ţćt wćs gęocor sîđ,
+  ţćt se hearm-scaţa   tô Heorute[2] âtęah.
+  Dryht-sele dynede;   Denum eallum wearđ
+  ceaster-bűendum,   cęnra gehwylcum,
+  eorlum ealu-scerwen.   Yrre wć:ron bęgen                      [770]
+  ręţe ręn-weardas.   Reced hlynsode;
+  ţâ wćs wundor micel,   ţćt se wîn-sele
+  wiđhćfde heaţo-dęorum,   ţćt hę on hrűsan ne fęol,
+  fć:ger fold-bold;   ac hę ţćs fćste wćs
+  innan ond űtan   îren-bendum                                 [775]
+  searo-ţoncum besmiđod.   Ţć:r fram sylle âbęag
+  medu-benc monig,   mîne gefrć:ge,
+  golde geregnad,   ţć:r ţâ graman wunnon;
+  ţćs ne węndon ć:r   witan Scyldinga,
+  ţćt hit â mid gemete   manna ć:nig,                           [780]
+  betlîc ond bân-fâg,   tôbrecan meahte,
+  listum tôlűcan,   nymţe lîges fćđm
+  swulge on swaţule.   Swęg űp âstâg
+  nîwe geneahhe;   Norđ-Denum stôd
+  atelîc egesa,   ânra gehwylcum,                              [785]
+  ţâra ţe of wealle   wôp gehy:rdon,
+  gryre-lęođ galan   Godes ondsacan,
+  sige-lęasne sang,   sâr wânigean
+  helle hćfton.[3]   Hęold hine fćste,
+  sę ţe manna wćs   mćgene strengest                           [790]
+  on ţć:m dćge   ţysses lîfes.
+  Nolde eorla hlęo   ć:nige ţinga
+  ţone cwealm-cuman   cwicne forlć:tan,
+  nę his lîf-dagas   lęoda ć:nigum
+  nytte tealde.   Ţć:r genehost brć:gd                           [795]
+  eorl Bęowulfes   ealde lâfe,
+  wolde fręa-drihtnes   feorh ealgian,
+  mć:res ţęodnes,   đć:r hîe meahton swâ.
+  Hîe đćt ne wiston,   ţâ hîe gewin drugon,
+  heard-hicgende   hilde-mecgas,                               [800]
+  ond on healfa gehwone   hęawan ţôhton,
+  sâwle sęcan:   ţone syn-scađan
+  ć:nig ofer eorđan   îrenna cyst,
+  gűţ-billa nân,   grętan nolde;
+  ac hę sige-wć:pnum   forsworen hćfde,                         [805]
+  ecga gehwylcre.   Scolde his aldor[4]-gedâl
+  on đć:m dćge   ţysses lîfes
+  earmlîc wurđan[5]   ond se ellor-gâst
+  on fęonda geweald   feor sîđian.
+  Ţâ ţćt onfunde,   sę ţe fela ć:ror                            [810]
+  môdes myrđe   manna cynne
+  fyrene gefremede   (hę _wć:s_ fâg wiđ God),
+  ţćt him se lîc-homa   lć:stan nolde,
+  ac hine se môdega[6]   mć:g Hygelâces
+  hćfde be honda;   wćs gehwćţer ôđrum                         [815]
+  lifigende lâđ.   Lîc-sâr gebâd
+  atol ć:glć:ca[7];   him on eaxle wearđ
+  syn-dolh sweotol;   seonowe onsprungon;
+  burston bân-locan.   Bęowulfe wearđ
+  gűđ-hręđ gyfeđe.   Scolde Grendel ţonan                      [820]
+  feorh-sęoc flęon   under fen-hleođu,[8]
+  sęcean wyn-lęas wîc;   wiste ţę geornor,
+  ţćt his aldres[9] wćs   ende gegongen,
+  dôgera dćg-rîm.   Denum eallum wearđ
+  ćfter ţâm wćl-rć:se   willa gelumpen.                         [825]
+  Hćfde ţâ gefć:lsod,   sę ţe ć:r feorran côm,
+  snotor ond swy:đ-ferhđ,   sele Hrôđgâres,
+  genered wiđ nîđe.   Niht-weorce gefeh,
+  ellen-mć:rţum;   hćfde Ęast-Denum
+  Gęat-mecga lęod   gilp gelć:sted;                             [830]
+  swylce oncy:đđe   ealle gebętte,
+  inwid-sorge,   ţe hîe ć:r drugon
+  ond for ţręa-ny:dum   ţolian scoldon,
+  torn unly:tel.   Ţćt wćs tâcen sweotol,
+  syđđan hilde-dęor   hond âlegde,                             [835]
+  earm ond eaxle   (ţć:r wćs eal geador
+  Grendles grâpe)   under gęapne hrôf.
+
+    [1] = ealdor-.
+    [2] = Heorote.
+    [3] = hćftan.
+    [4] = ealdor-.
+    [5] = weorđan.
+    [6] = môdiga.
+    [7] = âglć:ca.
+    [8] = -hliđu.
+    [9] = ealdres.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    740: #ţćt#, the direct object of #yldan#, refers to the
+    contest about to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was
+    wondering how it would result.
+
+    746: #ćtstôp#. The subject of this verb and of #nam# is
+    Grendel; the subject of the three succeeding verbs (#rć:hte#,
+    #onfęng#, #gesćt#) is Beowulf.
+
+    751-52: The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of
+    stimulating interest by indirect methods of statement, by
+    suggesting more than they affirm. This device often appears in
+    their use of negatives (#ne#, l. 13; p. 140, l. 3; #nô#, p. 140,
+    l. 1 [[lines 752, 757, 755]]), and in the unexpected prominence
+    that they give to some minor detail usually suppressed because
+    understood; as where the narrator, wishing to describe the
+    terror produced by Grendel's midnight visits to Heorot, says
+    (ll. 138-139), "Then was it easy to find one who elsewhere, more
+    commodiously, sought rest for himself." It is hard to believe
+    that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view.
+
+    755: #nô ... meahte#, _none the sooner could he away_. The
+    omission of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries #magan,
+    môtan, sculan#, and #willan# is very frequent. _Cf._ Beowulf's
+    last utterance, p. 147, l. 17 [[line 2817]].
+
+    768: The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit
+    of description by indication of effects. The two contestants are
+    withdrawn from our sight; but we hear the sound of the fray
+    crashing through the massive old hall, which trembles as in a
+    blast; we see the terror depicted on the faces of the Danes as
+    they listen to the strange sounds that issue from their former
+    banqueting hall; by these sounds we, too, measure the progress
+    and alternations of the combat. At last we hear only the
+    "terror-lay" of Grendel, "lay of the beaten," and know that
+    Beowulf has made good his promise at the banquet (#gilp
+    gelć:sted#).
+
+    769: #cęnra gehwylcum#. The indefinite pronouns (§ 77) may be
+    used as adjectives, agreeing in case with their nouns; but they
+    frequently, as here, take a partitive genitive: #ânra
+    gehwylcum#, _to each one_ (= _to each of ones_); #ć:nige#
+    (instrumental) #ţinga#, _for any thing_ (= _for any of things_);
+    #on healfa gehwone#, _into halves_ (= _into each of halves_);
+    #ealra dôgra gehwâm#, _every day_ (= _on each of all days_);
+    #űhtna gehwylce#, _every morning_ (= _on each of mornings_).
+
+    780: Notice that #hit#, the object of #tôbrecan#, stands for
+    #wîn-sele#, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2 [[§ 55, 2]].
+    #Manna# is genitive after #gemete#, not after #ć:nig#.
+
+    787-89: #gryre-lęođ ... hćfton# [= #hćftan#]. Note that verbs
+    of hearing and seeing, as in Mn.E., may be followed by the
+    infinitive. They heard _God's adversary sing_ (#galan#) ...
+    _hell's captive bewail_ (#wânigean#). Had the present participle
+    been used, the effect would have been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize
+    the agent (the subject of the infinitive) rather than the action
+    (the infinitive itself).
+
+    795-96: #ţć:r ... lâfe#. Beowulf's followers now seem to have
+    seized their swords and come to his aid, not knowing that
+    Grendel, having forsworn war-weapons himself, is proof against
+    the best of swords. _Then many an earl of Beowulf's_ (= _an earl
+    of B. very often_) _brandished his sword._ That no definite earl
+    is meant is shown by the succeeding #hîe meahton# instead of #hę
+    meahte#. See p. 110, Note.  [[Linenote 110.5-6]
+
+    799: _They did not know this_ (#đćt#), _while they were
+    fighting_; but the first #Hîe# refers to the warriors who
+    proffered help; the second #hîe#, to the combatants, Beowulf and
+    Grendel. In apposition with #đć:t#, stands the whole clause,
+    #ţone synscađan# (object of #grętan#) #... nolde#. The second,
+    or conjunctional, #đćt# is here omitted before #ţone#. See
+    p. 112, note on ll. 18-19.
+
+    837: #grâpe# = genitive singular, feminine, after #eal#.]
+
+
+BEOWULF FATALLY WOUNDED. [Lines 2712-2752.]
+
+  [Hrothgar, in his gratitude for the great victory, lavishes gifts
+  upon Beowulf; but Grendel's mother must be reckoned with. Beowulf
+  finds her at the sea-bottom, and after a desperate struggle slays
+  her. Hrothgar again pours treasures into Beowulf's lap. Beowulf,
+  having now accomplished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a
+  reign of fifty years, he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon
+  that is ravaging his kingdom. In the struggle Beowulf is fatally
+  wounded. Wiglaf, a loyal thane, is with him.]
+
+                    Ţâ sîo[1] wund ongon,
+  ţe him se eorđ-draca   ć:r geworhte,
+  swęlan ond swellan.   Hę ţć:t sôna onfand,
+  ţć:t him on bręostum   bealo-nîđ węoll                       [2715]
+  âttor on innan.   Ţâ se ćđeling gîong,[2]
+  ţćt hę bî wealle,   wîs-hycgende,
+  gesćt on sesse;   seah on enta geweorc,
+  hű ţâ stân-bogan   stapulum fćste
+  ęce eorđ-reced   innan healde.                              [2720]
+  Hyne ţâ mid handa   heoro-dręorigne,
+  ţęoden mć:rne,   ţegn ungemete till,
+  wine-dryhten his   wćtere gelafede,
+  hilde-sćdne,   ond his helm onspęon.
+  Bîowulf[3] mađelode;   hę ofer benne sprćc,                 [2725]
+  wunde wćl-blęate;   wisse hę gearwe,
+  ţćt hę dćg-hwîla   gedrogen hćfde
+  eorđan wynne;   ţâ wćs eall sceacen
+  dôgor-gerîmes,   dęađ ungemete nęah:
+  "Nű ic suna mînum   syllan wolde                            [2730]
+  gűđ-gewć:du,   ţć:r mę gifeđe swâ
+  ć:nig yrfe-weard   ćfter wurde
+  lîce gelenge.   Ic đâs lęode hęold
+  fîftig wintra;   nćs se folc-cyning
+  ymbe-sittendra   ćnig ţâra,                                 [2735]
+  ţe mec gűđ-winum   grętan dorste,
+  egesan đęon.   Ic on earde bâd
+  mć:l-gesceafta,   hęold mîn tela,
+  nę sôhte searo-nîđas,   nę mę swôr fela
+  âđa on unriht.   Ic đćs ealles mćg,                         [2740]
+  feorh-bennum sęoc,   gefęan habban;
+  for-ţâm mę wîtan ne đearf   Waldend[4] fîra
+  morđor-bealo[5] mâga,   ţonne mîn sceaceđ
+  lîf of lîce.   Nű đű lungre geong[6]
+  hord scęawian   under hârne stân,                           [2745]
+  Wîglâf lęofa,   nű se wyrm ligeđ,
+  swefeđ sâre wund,   since beręafod.
+  Bîo[7] nű on ofoste,   ţćt ic ć:r-welan,
+  gold-ć:ht ongite,   gearo scęawige
+  swegle searo-gimmas,   ţćt ic đy: sęft mćge                  [2750]
+  ćfter mâđđum-welan   mîn âlć:tan
+  lîf ond lęod-scipe,   ţone ic longe hęold."
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    2716: #se ćđeling# is Beowulf.
+
+    2718: #enta geweorc# is a stereotyped phrase for anything that
+    occasions wonder by its size or strangeness.
+
+    2720: #healde#. Heyne, following Ettmüller, reads #hęoldon#,
+    thus arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the
+    original. Either mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be
+    legitimate. As to the tense, the narrator is identifying himself
+    in time with the hero, whose wonder was "how the stone-arches
+    ... _sustain_ the ever-during earth-hall": the construction is a
+    form of _oratio recta_, a sort of _miratio recta_. The singular
+    #healde#, instead of #healden#, has many parallels in the
+    dependent clauses of _Beowulf_, most of these being relative
+    clauses introduced by #ţâra ţe# (= _of those that ..._ + a
+    singular predicate). In the present instance, the predicate has
+    doubtless been influenced by the proximity of #eorđ-reced#, a
+    _quasi_-subject; and we have no more right to alter to #healden#
+    or #hęoldon# than we have to change Shakespeare's _gives_ to
+    _give_ in
+
+        "Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath _gives_."
+          (_Macbeth_, II, i, 61.)
+
+    2722: The #ţegn ungemete till# is Wiglaf, the bravest of
+    Beowulf's retainers.
+
+    2725: #hę ofer benne sprćc#. The editors and translators of
+    _Beowulf_ invariably render #ofer# in this passage by _about_;
+    but Beowulf says not a word about his wound. The context seems
+    to me to show plainly that #ofer# (cf. Latin _supra_) denotes
+    here opposition = _in spite of_. We read in _Genesis_, l. 594,
+    that Eve took the forbidden fruit #ofer Drihtenes word#. Beowulf
+    fears (l. 2331) that he may have ruled unjustly = #ofer ealde
+    riht#; and he goes forth (l. 2409) #ofer willan# to confront the
+    dragon.
+
+    2731-33: #ţć:r mę ... gelenge#, _if so be that_ (#ţć:r ... swâ#)
+    _any heir had afterwards been given me_ (#mę gifeđe ... ćfter
+    wurde#) _belonging to my body_.
+
+    2744-45: #geong# [= #gong#] #... scęawian#. See note on #ęode
+    ... sittan#, p. 137, ll. 19-20 [[lines 641-42]]. In Mn.E. _Go
+    see, Go fetch_, etc., is the second verb imperative (coördinate
+    with the first), or subjunctive (_that you may see_), or
+    infinitive without _to_?
+
+    2751-52: #mîn ... lîf#. See note on #ende-dćg ... mînne#,
+    p. 137, ll. 16-17 [[lines 638-39]].]
+
+    [1] = sęo.
+    [2] = gęong.
+    [3] = Bęowulf.
+    [4] = Wealdend.
+    [5] = morđor-bealu.
+    [6] = gong (gang).
+    [7] = Bęo.
+
+
+BEOWULF'S LAST WORDS. [Lines 2793-2821.]
+
+  [Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf's triumph.
+  Beowulf, rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives
+  advice and final directions to Wiglaf.]
+
+                _Bîowulf[1] mađelode_,
+  gomel on giohđe   (gold scęawode):
+  "Ic ţâra frćtwa   Fręan ealles đanc,                        [2795]
+  Wuldur-cyninge,   wordum secge
+  ecum Dryhtne,   ţe ic hęr on starie,
+  ţćs ţe ic môste   mînum lęodum
+  ć:r swylt-dćge   swylc gestry:nan.
+  Nű ic on mâđma hord   mîne bebohte                          [2800]
+  frôde feorh-lege,   fremmađ gę nű
+  lęoda ţearfe;   ne mćg ic hęr leng wesan.
+  Hâtađ heađo-mć:re   hlć:w gewyrcean,
+  beorhtne ćfter bć:le   ćt brimes nosan;
+  sę scel[2] tô gemyndum   mînum lęodum                       [2805]
+  hęah hlîfian   on Hrones nćsse,
+  ţćt hit sć:-lîđend   syđđan hâtan[3]
+  Bîowulfes[1] biorh[1]   ţâ ţe brentingas
+  ofer flôda genipu   feorran drîfađ."
+  Dyde him of healse   hring gyldenne                         [2810]
+  ţîoden[1] ţrîst-hy:dig;   ţegne gesealde,
+  geongum gâr-wigan,   gold-fâhne helm,
+  bęah ond byrnan,   hęt hyne brűcan well.
+  "Ţű eart ende-lâf   űsses cynnes,
+  Wć:gmundinga;   ealle wyrd forswęop                          [2815]
+  mîne mâgas   tô metod-sceafte,
+  eorlas on elne;   ic him ćfter sceal."
+  Ţćt wćs ţâm gomelan   gingeste word
+  bręost-gehygdum,   ć:r hę bć:l cure,
+  hâte heađo-wylmas;   him of hređre gewât                    [2820]
+  sâwol sęcean   sôđ-fćstra dôm.
+
+  [1] îo, io = ęo, eo.
+  [2] = sceal.
+  [3] = hâten.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    2795-99: The expression #secgan ţanc# takes the same
+    construction as #ţancian#; i.e., the dative of the person
+    (#Fręan#) and the genitive (a genitive of cause) of the thing
+    (#ţâra frćtwa#). Cf. note on #biddan#, p. 45 [[§ 65, 3]]. The
+    antecedent of #ţe# is #frćtwa#. For the position of #on#, see
+    § 94, (5). The clause introduced by #ţćs ţe# (_because_) is
+    parallel in construction with #frćtwa#, both being causal
+    modifiers of #secge ţanc#. The Christian coloring in these lines
+    betrays the influence of priestly transcribers.
+
+    2800: _Now that I, in exchange for_ (#on#) _a hoard of
+    treasures, have bartered_ (#bebohte#) _the laying down_ (#-lege#
+    > #licgan#) _of my old life._ The ethical codes of the early
+    Germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments, or
+    life-barters. There seems to be here a suggestion of the
+    "wergild."
+
+    2801: #fremmađ gę#. The plural imperative (as also in #Hâtađ#)
+    shows that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in
+    particular as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general,--to
+    his _comitatus_.
+
+    2806: The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent
+    expression in early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was
+    situated "high on a jutting headland over wide Hellespont that
+    it might be seen from off the sea." Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury
+    him in the same way. Ćneas places the ashes of Misenus beneath a
+    high mound on a headland of the sea.
+
+    2807: #hit = hlć:w#, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2
+    [[§ 55, 2]].
+
+    2810-11: #him ... ţîoden#. The reference in both cases is to
+    Beowulf, who is disarming himself (#do-of# > _doff_) for the
+    last time; #ţegne# = _to Wiglaf_.
+
+    Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of the
+    dative instead of the more colorless possessive; #him of
+    healse#, not #of his healse#.
+
+    2817: #ic ... sceal#. See note on #nô ... meahte#, p. 140,
+    l. 1 [[line 755]].
+
+    2820: #him of hređre#. Cf. note on #him ... ţîoden#, p. 147,
+    ll. 10-11 [[lines 2810-11]].
+
+    2820-21: For construction of #gewât ... sęcean#, see note on
+    #ęode ... sittan#, p. 137, ll. 19-20 [[lines 641-42]].]
+
+
+VII. THE WANDERER.
+
+  [Exeter MS. "The epic character of the ancient lyric appears
+  especially in this: that the song is less the utterance of a
+  momentary feeling than the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps
+  the reflection of an entire life, generally that of one isolated,
+  or bereft by death or exile of protectors and friends." (Ten
+  Brink, _Early Eng. Lit._, I.) I adopt Brooke's threefold division
+  (_Early Eng. Lit._, p. 356): "It opens with a Christian prologue,
+  and closes with a Christian epilogue, but the whole body of the
+  poem was written, it seems to me, by a person who thought more of
+  the goddess Wyrd than of God, whose life and way of thinking were
+  uninfluenced by any distinctive Christian doctrine."
+
+  The author is unknown.]
+
+
+PROLOGUE.
+
+  Oft him ânhaga   âre gebîdeđ,
+  Metudes[1] miltse,   ţęah ţe hę môdcearig
+  geond lagulâde   longe sceolde
+  hręran mid hondum   hrîmcealde sć:,
+  wadan wrćclć:stas:   wyrd biđ ful ârć:d!                         [5]
+  Swâ cwćđ eardstapa   earfeţa[2] gemyndig,
+  wrâţra wćlsleahta,   winemć:ga hryres:
+
+PLAINT OF THE WANDERER.
+
+  "Oft ic sceolde âna   űhtna gehwylce
+  mîne ceare cwîţan;   nis nű cwicra nân,
+  ţe ic him môdsefan   mînne durre                              [10]
+  sweotule[3] âsecgan.   Ic tô sôţe wât
+  ţćt biţ in eorle   indryhten ţęaw,
+  ţćt hę his ferđlocan   fćste binde,
+  healde his hordcofan,   hycge swâ hę wille;
+  ne mćg węrig môd   wyrde wiđstondan                           [15]
+  nę sę hręo hyge   helpe gefremman:
+  for đon dômgeorne   dręorigne oft
+  in hyra bręostcofan   bindađ fćste.
+  Swâ ic môdsefan   mînne sceolde
+  oft earmcearig   ęđle bidć:led,                                [20]
+  fręomć:gum feor   feterum sć:lan,
+  siţţan gęara iű   goldwine mînne
+  hrűsan heolster biwrâh,   and ic hęan ţonan
+  wôd wintercearig   ofer waţema gebind,
+  sôhte sele dręorig   sinces bryttan,                          [25]
+  hwć:r ic feor oţţe nęah   findan meahte
+  ţone ţe in meoduhealle[4]   miltse wisse
+  oţţe mec fręondlęasne   fręfran wolde,
+  wenian mid wynnum.   Wât sę ţe cunnađ
+  hű slîţen biđ   sorg tô gefęran                               [30]
+  ţâm ţe him ly:t hafađ   lęofra geholena:
+  warađ hine wrćclâst,   nâles wunden gold,
+  ferđloca fręorig,   nâlćs foldan blć:d;
+  gemon hę selesecgas   and sincţege,
+  hű hine on geoguđe   his goldwine                             [35]
+  wenede tô wiste:   wyn eal gedręas!
+  For ţon wât sę ţe sceal   his winedryhtnes
+  lęofes lârcwidum   longe forţolian,
+  đonne sorg and slć:p   somod ćtgćdre
+  earmne ânhagan   oft gebindađ:                                [40]
+  ţinceđ him on môde   ţćt hę his mondryhten
+  clyppe and cysse,   and on cnęo lecge
+  honda and hęafod,   swâ hę hwîlum ć:r
+  in gęardagum   giefstôles bręac;
+  đonne onwćcneđ eft   winelęas guma,                           [45]
+  gesihđ him biforan   fealwe wć:gas,
+  baţian brimfuglas,   brć:dan feţra,
+  hręosan hrîm and snâw   hagle gemenged.
+  Ţonne bęođ ţy: hefigran   heortan benne,
+  sâre ćfter swć:sne;   sorg biđ genîwad;                        [50]
+  ţonne mâga gemynd   môd geondhweorfeđ,
+  gręteđ glîwstafum,   georne geondscęawađ.
+  Secga geseldan   swimmađ eft on weg;
+  flęotendra ferđ[5]   nô ţć:r fela bringeđ
+  cűđra cwidegiedda;   cearo[6] biđ genîwad                     [55]
+  ţâm ţe sendan sceal   swîţe geneahhe
+  ofer waţema gebind   węrigne sefan.
+  For ţon ic geţencan ne mćg   geond ţâs woruld
+  for hwan môdsefa   mîn ne gesweorce,
+  ţonne ic eorla lîf   eal geondţence,                          [60]
+  hű hî fć:rlîce   flet ofgęafon,
+  môdge maguţegnas.   Swâ ţęs middangeard
+  ealra dôgra gehwâm   dręoseđ and fealleţ;
+  for ţon ne mćg weorţan wîs   wer, ć:r hę âge
+  wintra dć:l in woruldrîce.   Wita sceal geţyldig,              [65]
+  ne sceal nô tô hâtheort   nę tô hrćdwyrde,
+  nę tô wâc wiga   nę tô wanhy:dig,
+  nę tô forht nę tô fćgen   nę tô feohgîfre,
+  nę nć:fre gielpes tô georn,   ć:r hę geare cunne.
+  Beorn sceal gebîdan,   ţonne hę bęot spriceđ,                 [70]
+  oţ ţćt collenferđ   cunne gearwe
+  hwider hreţra gehygd   hweorfan wille.
+  Ongietan sceal glęaw hćle   hű gć:stlîc biđ,
+  ţonne eall ţisse worulde wela   węste stondeđ,
+  swâ nű missenlîce   geond ţisne middangeard                   [75]
+  winde biwâune[7]   weallas stondaţ,
+  hrîme bihrorene,[8]   hryđge ţâ ederas.
+  Wôriađ ţâ wînsalo,[9]   waldend licgađ
+  dręame bidrorene[10];   duguđ eal gecrong
+  wlonc bî wealle:   sume wîg fornôm,                           [80]
+  ferede in forđwege;   sumne fugel[11] oţbćr
+  ofer hęanne holm;   sumne sę hâra wulf
+  dęađe gedć:lde;   sumne dręorighlęor
+  in eorđscrćfe   eorl gehy:dde:
+  y:ţde swâ ţisne eardgeard   ćlda Scyppend,                     [85]
+  oţ ţćt burgwara   breahtma lęase
+  eald enta geweorc   îdlu stôdon.
+  Sę ţonne ţisne wealsteal   wîse geţôhte,
+  and ţis deorce lîf   dęope geondţenceđ,
+  frôd in ferđe[12]   feor oft gemon                            [90]
+  wćlsleahta worn,   and ţâs word âcwiđ:
+  'Hwć:r cwôm mearg? hwć:r cwôm mago[13]? hwć:r cwôm mâţţumgyfa?
+  hwć:r cwôm symbla gesetu?    hwć:r sindon seledręamas?
+  Ęalâ beorht bune!   ęalâ byrnwiga!
+  ęalâ ţęodnes ţrym!   hű sęo ţrâg gewât,                       [95]
+  genâp under nihthelm,   swâ hęo nô wć:re!
+  Stondeđ nű on lâste   lęofre duguţe
+  weal wundrum hęah,   wyrmlîcum fâh:
+  eorlas fornômon   asca ţry:ţe,
+  wć:pen wćlgîfru,   wyrd sęo mć:re;                             [100]
+  and ţâs stânhleoţu[14]   stormas cnyssađ;
+  hrîđ hręosende   hrűsan bindeđ,
+  wintres wôma,   ţonne won cymeđ,
+  nîpeđ nihtscűa,   norţan onsendeđ
+  hręo hćglfare   hćleţum on andan.                            [105]
+  Eall is earfođlîc   eorţan rîce,
+  onwendeđ wyrda gesceaft   weoruld under heofonum:
+  hęr biđ feoh lć:ne,   hęr biđ fręond lć:ne,
+  hęr biđ mon lć:ne,   hęr biđ mć:g lć:ne;
+  eal ţis eorţan gesteal   îdel weorţeđ!'"                     [110]
+
+EPILOGUE.
+
+  Swâ cwćđ snottor on môde,   gesćt him sundor ćt rune.
+  Til biţ sę ţe his tręowe gehealdeđ;
+        ne sceal nć:fre his torn tô rycene
+  beorn of his bręostum âcy:ţan,   nemţe hę ć:r ţâ bôte cunne;
+  eorl mid elne gefremman.   Wel biđ ţâm ţe him âre sęceđ,
+  frôfre tô Fćder on heofonum,
+        ţć:r űs eal sęo fćstnung stondeđ.                       [115]
+
+    [1] = Metodes.
+    [2] = earfoţa.
+    [3] = sweotole.
+    [4] = medu-.
+    [5] = ferhđ.
+    [6] = cearu.
+    [7] See bewâwan.
+    [8] See behręosan.
+    [9] = wînsalu.
+    [10] See bedręosan.
+    [11] = fugol.
+    [12] = ferhđe.
+    [13] = magu.
+    [14] = -hliđu.
+
+    [Linenotes:
+
+    7: The MS. reading is #hryre# (nominative), which is
+    meaningless.
+
+    8: For #űhtna gehwylce#, see note on #cęnra gehwylcum#,
+    p. 140 [[_Beowulf_ 769]].
+
+    10: #ţe ... him#. See § 75 (4). Cf. _Merchant of Venice_,
+    II, v, 50-51.
+
+    27: For #mine# (MS. #in#), which does not satisfy metrical
+    requirements, I adopt Kluge's plausible substitution of
+    #miltse#; #miltse witan# = _to show_ (_know, feel_), _pity_. The
+    #myne wisse# of _Beowulf_ (l. 169) is metrically admissible.
+
+    37: The object of #wât# is #ţinceđ him on môde#; but the
+    construction is unusual, inasmuch as both #ţćt's# (#ţćt#
+    pronominal before #wât# and #ţćt# conjunctional before #ţinceđ#)
+    are omitted. See p. 112, ll. 18-19.
+
+    41: #ţinceđ him on môde# (see note on #him ... ţîoden#, p. 147
+    [[_Beowulf_ 2810-11]]). "No more sympathetic picture has
+    been drawn by an Anglo-Saxon poet than where the wanderer in
+    exile falls asleep at his oar and dreams again of his dead lord
+    and the old hall and revelry and joy and gifts,--then wakes to
+    look once more upon the waste of ocean, snow and hail falling
+    all around him, and sea-birds dipping in the spray." (Gummere,
+    _Germanic Origins_, p. 221.)
+
+    53-55: #Secga ... cwidegiedda# = _But these comrades of
+    warriors_ [= those seen in vision] _again swim away_ [= _fade
+    away_]; _the ghost of these fleeting ones brings not there many
+    familiar words_; i.e. he sees in dream and vision the old
+    familiar faces, but no voice is heard: they bring neither
+    greetings to him nor tidings of themselves.
+
+    65: #Wita sceal geţyldig#. Either #bęon# (#wesan#) is here
+    to be understood after #sceal#, or #sceal# alone means _ought to
+    be_. Neither construction is to be found in Alfredian prose,
+    though the omission of a verb of motion after #sculan# is common
+    in all periods of Old English. See note on #nô ... meahte#,
+    p. 140 [[_Beowulf_ 755]].
+
+    75: #swâ nű#. "The Old English lyrical feeling," says Ten
+    Brink, citing the lines that immediately follow #swâ nű#, "is
+    fond of the image of physical destruction"; but I do not think
+    these lines have a merely figurative import. The reference is to
+    a period of real devastation, antedating the Danish incursions.
+    "We might fairly find such a time in that parenthesis of bad
+    government and of national tumult which filled the years between
+    the death of Aldfrith in 705 and the renewed peace of
+    Northumbria under Ceolwulf in the years that followed 729."
+    (Brooke, _Early Eng. Lit._, p. 355.)
+
+    93: #cwôm ... gesetu#. Ettmüller reads #cwômon#; but see
+    p. 107, note on #wćs ... ţâ îgland# [[linenote 107.14-15]]. The
+    occurrence of #hwć:r cwôm# three times in the preceding line
+    tends also to hold #cwôm# in the singular when its plural
+    subject follows. Note the influence of a somewhat similar
+    structural parallelism in _seas hides_ of these lines (_Winter's
+    Tale_, IV, iv, 500-502):
+
+      "Not for ... all the _sun sees_ or
+      The close _earth wombs_ or the profound _seas hides_
+      In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath."
+
+    111: #gesćt ... rűne#, _sat apart to himself in silent
+    meditation_.
+
+    114: #eorl ... gefremman#. Supply #sceal# after #eorl#.]
+
+
+
+
+I. GLOSSARY.
+
+OLD ENGLISH--MODERN ENGLISH.
+
+
+[The order of words is strictly alphabetical, except that đ follows t.
+The combination ć follows ad.
+
+Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. (= masculine), f.
+(= feminine), n. (= neuter). The usual abbreviations are employed for
+the cases, nom., gen., dat., acc., and instr. Other abbreviations are
+sing. (= singular), pl. (= plural), ind. (= indicative mood), sub.
+(= subjunctive mood), pres. (= present tense), pret. (= preterit tense),
+prep. (= preposition), adj. (= adjective), adv. (= adverb), part.
+(= participle), conj. (= conjunction), pron. (= pronoun), intrans.
+(= intransitive), trans. (= transitive).
+
+Figures not preceded by § refer to page and line of the texts.]
+
+  [[Transcriber's Note:
+  References to verse selections (pages 136-153) are followed by the
+  actual line number in [[double brackets]].]
+
+
+#A.#
+
+  â, _ever, always, aye_.
+  abbudisse, f., _abbess_ [Lat. abbatissa].
+  âbęodan (§ 109), _bid, offer_;
+    him hć:l âbęad 138, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 654]] = _bade him hail, wished him
+      health_.
+  âbrecan (§ 120, Note 2), _break down, destroy_.
+  âbűgan (§ 109, Note 1), _give way, start_ [bow away].
+  ac, conj., _but_.
+  âcweđan (§ 115), _say, speak_.
+  âcy:đan (§ 126), _reveal, proclaim_ [cűđ].
+  âd, m., _funeral pile_.
+  adesa, m., _adze, hatchet_.
+  ć: (ć:w), f., _law_.
+  ć:dre (ędre), f., _stream, canal, vein_;
+    blôd ędrum dranc 139, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 743]] = _drank blood in streams_
+      (instr.).
+  ć:fćstnis, f., _piety_.
+  ć:fen-rćst, f., _evening rest_.
+  ć:fen-sprć:c, f., _evening speech_.
+  ć:f[e,]st (ć:wf[e,]st), _law-abiding, pious_.
+  ć:f[e,]stnis, see ć:fćstnis.
+  ć:fre, _ever, always_.
+  ć:fter, prep. (§ 94, (1)), _after_;
+    ć:fter đć:m, _after that, thereafter_;
+    ćfter đć:m đe, conj., _after_.
+  ćfter, adv., _after, afterwards_.
+  ć:ghwâ (§ 77, Note), _each, every_.
+  ć:ghwilc (§ 77, Note), _each, any_.
+  ć:glć:ca, see âglć:ca.
+  ć:gđer (ć:ghwćđer, âđer) (§ 77, Note), _each, either_;
+    ć:gđer ... ôđer ... ôđer, _either ... or ... or_;
+    ć:gđer ge ... ge (§ 95, (2)), _both ... and_;
+    ć:gđer ge ... ge ... ge, _both ... and ... and_.
+  ć:ht, f., _property, possession_ [âgan].
+  ć:lc (§ 77), _each_.
+  ćlde (ielde) (§ 47), m. pl., _men_; gen. pl., ćlda.
+  ćlmihtig, _almighty_.
+  ć:metta, m., _leisure_ [_empti_-ness].
+  ć:nig (§ 77), _any_;
+    ć:nige đinga 141, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 792]] = _for anything_.
+    (See 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note.)
+  ć:r, adv., _before, formerly, sooner_;
+    nô ţy: ć:r 140, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 755]] = _none the sooner_;
+    ć:ror, comparative, _before, formerly_;
+    ć:rest, superlative, _first_.
+  ć:r, conj. (§ 105, 2), _ere, before_ = ć:r đć:m đe.
+  ć:r, prep, with dat., _before_ (time);
+    ć:r đć:m đe, conj. (§ 105, 2), _before_.
+  ćrcebisceop, m., _archbishop_ [Lat. archiepiscopus].
+  ć:rendgewrit, n., _message, letter_.
+  ć:rendwreca (-raca), m., _messenger_.
+  ć:rest, adj. (§ 96, (4)), _first_.
+  ćrnan (§ 127), _ride, gallop_ [iernan].
+  ć:rra, adj. (§ 96, (4)), _former_.
+  ć:rwela, m., _ancient wealth_.
+  ćsc, m., _ash, spear_; gen. pl., asca.
+  Ćscesdűn, f., _Ashdown_ (in Berkshire).
+  ćstel, m., _book-mark_ [Lat. hastula].
+  ćt (§ 94, (1)), _at, in_;
+    with leornian, _to learn_, geđicgan, _to receive_, and other verbs
+      of similar import,
+    ćt = _from_: 115, 18; 137, 8 [[_Beowulf_ 630]], etc.
+  ćtberan (§ 114), _bear to, hand_.
+  ćtgćd(e)re, adv., _together_.
+  ćtsteppan (§ 116), _step up, advance_; pret. sing., ćtstôp.
+  ćđele, _noble, excellent_.
+  ćđeling, m., _a noble, prince_.
+  Ćđelwulfing, m., _son of Ethelwulf_.
+  Ćđered, m., _Ethelred_.
+  âfeallan (§ 117), _fall_.
+  âfierran (§ 127), _remove_ [feor].
+  âgan (§ 136), _to own, possess_.
+  âgen, adj.-part., _own_; dat. sing., âgnum [âgan].
+  âgiefan (§ 115), _give back_.
+  âglć:ca (ć:glć:ca), m., _monster, champion_.
+  âhton, see âgan.
+  âlć:tan (§ 117), _let go, leave_.
+  aldor, see ealdor.
+  âl[e,]cgan (§ 125, Note), _lay down_ [licgan]; past part., âlęd.
+  Âlîesend, m., _Redeemer_ [âlîesan = _release, ransom_].
+  âlimpan (§ 110), _befall, occur_.
+  âly:fan (§ 126), _entrust, permit_.
+  ambor, m., _measure_; gen. pl., ambra (§ 27, (4)).
+  ambyre, _favorable_.
+  ân (§ 89), _one_;
+    âna, _alone, only_;
+    ânra gehwylcum 141, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 785]] = _to each one_.
+    (See 140, 15, Note. [[_Beowulf_ 769]])
+  anda, m., _zeal, injury, indignation_;
+    hćleđum on andan 153, 6 [[_Wanderer_ 105]] = _harmful to men_.
+  andęfn, f., _proportion, amount_.
+  andgiet (-git), n., _sense, meaning_.
+  andgitfullîce, _intelligibly_;
+    -gitfullîcost, _superlative_.
+  andswaru, f., _answer_.
+  andwyrdan (§ 127), _to answer_; pret., andwyrde.
+  Angel, n., _Anglen_ (in Denmark); dat. sing., Angle (§ 27 (4)).
+  Angelcynn, n., _English kin, English people, England_.
+  ânhaga (-hoga), m., _a solitary, wanderer_ [ân + hogian,
+      _to meditate_].
+  ânlîpig, _single, individual_.
+  ânunga (§ 93, (2)), _once for all_ [ân].
+  apostol, m., _apostle_ [Gr. +apostolos+].
+  âr, f., _honor, property, favor_;
+    âre gebîdeđ 148, 3 [[_Wanderer_ 1]] = _waits for divine favor_
+      (gen.).
+  ârć:d, adj., _inexorable_.
+  ârć:dan (§ 126), _read_.
+  âr[e,]cc(e)an (§ 128), _translate, expound_.
+  ârfćstnis, f., _virtue_.
+  ârîsan (§ 102), _arise_.
+  asca, see aesc.
+  âs[e,]cgan (§ 132), _say, relate_.
+  âs[e,]ttan (§ 127), _set, place_.
+  âsingan (§ 110), _sing_.
+  âsp[e,]ndan (§ 127), _spend, expend_.
+  âstîgan (§ 102), _ascend, arise_.
+  âst[o,]ndan (§ 116), _stand up_.
+  âtęah, see âtęon.
+  atelîc, _horrible, dire_.
+  âtęon (§ 118), _draw, draw away, take_ (as a journey).
+  atol, _horrible, dire_.
+  âttor, n., _poison_.
+  âtuge, see âtęon.
+  âđ, m., _oath_.
+  âđer, see ć:gđer.
+  âw[e,]ccan (§ 128), _awake, arouse_; pret. sing., âweahte, âw[e,]hte.
+  aweg, _away_.
+  âw[e,]ndan (§ 127), _turn, translate_.
+  âwrîtan (§ 102), _write, compose_.
+  âwyrcan (§ 128), _work, do, perform_.
+
+
+#B.#
+
+  Bâchs[e,]cg, m., _Bagsac_.
+  bćcbord, n., _larboard, left side of a ship_.
+  bć:l, n., _funeral fire, funeral pile_.
+  bân, n., _bone_.
+  bân-fâg, _adorned with bones_ or _antlers_.
+  bân-loca, m., _flesh_ [bone-locker].
+  Basengas, m. pl., _Basing_ (in Hantshire).
+  be (bî) (§ 94, (1)), _by, about, concerning, near, along,
+      according to_;
+    be norđan ţć:m węstenne (§ 94, (4)), _north of the waste (desert)_;
+    be fullan, _fully, perfectly_.
+  bęag, see bűgan.
+  bęag-hroden, _ring-adorned_.
+  bęah (bęag), m., _ring, bracelet, collar_ [bűgan].
+  bealo-nîđ, m., _dire hatred, poison, venom_.
+  bearn, n., _child, son_ [bairn].
+  bebęodan (§ 109), _command, bid, entrust_ (with dat.).
+  bebîo-, see bebęo-.
+  bebohte, see bebycgan.
+  bebycgan (§ 128), _sell_.
+  bęc, see bôc.
+  becuman (§ 114), _come, arrive, befall_.
+  bedć:lan (§ 126), _separate, deprive_.
+  bedręosan (§ 109), _deprive_; past part. pl., bedrorene (bidrorene)
+      [dross, dreary].
+  befć:stan (§ 127), _fasten, implant_.
+  befęolan (§ 110), _apply one's self_;
+    đâra đe đâ spęda hćbben đć:t hîe đć:m befęolan mćgen 119, 20 =
+      _of those who have the means by which they may apply themselves
+      to it_.
+  beforan, prep. with dat., _before_.
+  bęgen (declined like twęgen, § 89), _both_.
+  begeondan (begiondan), prep. with dat., _beyond_.
+  begietan (§ 115), _get, obtain, find_.
+  beginnan (§ 110), _begin_.
+  beheonan (behionan), prep. with dat., _on this side of_.
+  behreôsan (§ 109), _fall upon, cover_; past part. pl., behrorene
+      (bihrorene).
+  belimpan (§ 110), _pertain, belong_.
+  beniman (§ 114), _take, derive_.
+  b[e,]nn, f., _wound_ [bana = _murderer_].
+  bęon (bîon) (§ 134), _be, consist_.
+  beorh (beorg, biorh), m., _mound_ [barrow].
+  beorht, _bright, glorious_.
+  Beormas, m. pl., _Permians_.
+  beorn, m., _man, hero, chief_.
+  bęor-ţ[e,]gu, f., _beer-drinking_ [ţicgan = _receive_].
+  bęot, n., _boast_.
+  beran (§ 114), _bear_.
+  beręafian (§ 130), _bereave_;
+    since beręafod 145, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 2747]] = _bereft of treasure_.
+  beren, adj., _of a bear, bear_.
+  berstan (§ 110), _burst, crack_.
+  besmiđian (§ 130), _make hard_ (as at the forge of a smith).
+  b[e,]t, see wel (§ 97, (2)).
+  bętan (§ 126), _make good, requite_; past part. pl., gebętte.
+  b[e,]tera (b[e,]tra), see gôd (§ 96, (3)).
+  betlîc, _excellent_.
+  b[e,]tsta, see gôd (§ 96, (3)).
+  betuh (betux) (§ 94, (1)), _between_.
+  betwęonan (§ 94, (1)), _between_.
+  bety:nan (§ 126), _close, end_ [tűn = _enclosure_].
+  bewâwan (§ 117), _blow upon_; past part. pl., bewâune (biwâune,
+      bewâwene).
+  bewręon (§ 118, 1), _enwrap_; pret. 3d sing., bewrâh (biwrâh).
+  bî, see be.
+  bi-, see be-.
+  bîdan (§ 102), _bide, await, expect, endure_ (with gen.).
+  biddan (§ 115, Note 2), _bid, pray, request_ (§ 65, Note 3);
+    bćd hine blîđne 136, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 618]] = _bade him be blithe_.
+  bindan (§ 110), _bind_.
+  bîo, see bęo (imperative sing.).
+  bisceop (biscep), m., _bishop_ [Lat. episcopus].
+  bisceop-stôl, m., _episcopal seat, bishopric_.
+  bisigu, f., _business, occupation_; dat. pl., bisgum.
+  bîtan (§ 102), _bite, cut_.
+  biwrâh, see bewręon.
+  blć:d, m., _glory, prosperity_ [blâwan = _blow, inflate_].
+  Blęcinga-ęg, f., _Blekingen_.
+  bliss, f., _bliss_ [blîđe].
+  blîđe, _blithe, happy_.
+  blôd, n., _blood_.
+  bôc (§ 68, (1), Note 1), f., _book_.
+  bôcere, m., _scribe_ [bôc].
+  b[o,]na (bana), m., _murderer_ [bane].
+  bôt, f., _boot, remedy, help, compensation_.
+  brâd (§ 96, (1)), _broad_.
+  brć:dan (§ 126), _extend, spread_ [brâd].
+  brć:dra, see brâd.
+  brćgd, see bregdan.
+  bręac, see brűcan.
+  breahtm, m., _noise, revelry_;
+    burgwara breahtma lęase 152, 10 [[_Wanderer_ 86]] = _bereft of the
+      revelries of citizens_.
+  bregdan (§ 110), _brandish, draw_ [braid]; pret. ind. 3d sing., brćgd.
+  brenting, m., _high ship_.
+  bręost, n., _breast_ (the pl. has the same meaning as the sing.).
+  bręost-cofa, m., _breast-chamber, heart, mind_.
+  bręost-gehygd, n., _breast-thought, thought of the heart, emotion_.
+  brim, n., _sea, ocean_.
+  brimfugol, m., _sea-fowl_.
+  bringan (§ 128), _bring_.
+  brôhte, brôhton, see bringan.
+  brôđor (brôđur) (§ 68, (2)), m., _brother_.
+  brűcan (§ 109, Note 1), _use, enjoy_ (§ 62, Note 1; but Alfred
+      frequently employs the acc. with brűcan).
+  brycg, f., _bridge_.
+  bry:cđ, see brűcan.
+  brytta, m., _distributor, dispenser_ [bręotan = _break in pieces_].
+  bűan (§ 126, Note 2), _dwell, cultivate_ [bower].
+  bűde, see bűan.
+  bufan, prep. with dat. and acc., _above_.
+  bűgan (§ 109, Note 1), _bow, bend, turn_.
+  bune, f., _cup_.
+  burg (burh) (§ 68, (1), Note), f., _city, borough_; dat. sing., byrig.
+  Burgenda, m. gen. pl., _of the Burgundians_;
+    Burgenda land, _Bornholm_.
+  burgware (§ 47), m. pl., _burghers, citizens_.
+  burh, see burg.
+  bűtan (bűton), prep. (§ 94, (1)), _without, except, except for, but_.
+  bűtan (bűton), conj., _except that, unless_.
+  bűtű, _both_ (= _both_--_two_.
+    The word is compounded of the combined neuters of bęgen and twęgen,
+      but is m. and f. as well as n.).
+  by:n (§ 126, Note 2), _cultivated_.
+  byrde, adj., _of high rank, aristocratic_.
+  byrig, see burg.
+  byrne, f., _byrnie, corselet, coat of mail_.
+  byrnwiga, m., _byrnie-warrior, mailed soldier_.
+  byrđ, see beran.
+
+
+#C.#
+
+  canôn, m., _sacred canon, Bible_ [Lat. canon, Gr. +kanôn+].
+  cearu (cearo), f., _care_.
+  ceaster-bűend, m., _castle-dweller_.
+  cęne, _keen, bold, brave_.
+  cęosan (§ 109), _choose, accept, encounter_.
+  cild, n., _child_.
+  cirice, f., _church_; nom. pl., ciricean.
+  cirr (cierr), m., _turn, time, occasion_ [char, chore, ajar = on
+      char, on the turn].
+  cirran (§ 127), _turn_.
+  clć:ne, _clean, pure_.
+  clć:ne, adv., _entirely _ ["clean out of the way," Shaks.].
+  clűdig, _rocky_ [having boulders or masses like _clouds_].
+  clyppan (§ 127), _embrace, accept_ [clip = clasp for letters, papers,
+      etc.].
+  cnapa, m., _boy_ [knave].
+  cnęo (cnęow), n., _knee_; acc. pl., cnęo.
+  cniht, m., _knight, warrior_.
+  cnyssan (§ 125), _beat_.
+  collenferđ (-ferhđ), _proud-minded, fierce_.
+  costnung, f., _temptation_.
+  Cręcas (Cręacas), m. pl., _Greeks_.
+  cringan (§ 110), _cringe, fall_.
+  Crîst, m., _Christ_.
+  Crîsten, _Christian_; nom. pl. m., Crîstene, Crîstne.
+  cuma, m., _new-comer, stranger_.
+  cuman (§ 114), _come_. (See p. 138, Note on ll. 2-6.)
+  cunnan (§ 137), _know, can, understand_.
+  cunnian (§ 130), _make trial of, experience_ [cunnan].
+  cure, see cęosan.
+  cűđ, _well-known, familiar_ [past part. of cunnan: cf. uncouth].
+  cűđe, cűđen, cűđon, see cunnan.
+  cwć:den, cwć:don, see cweđan.
+  cwalu, f., _death, murder_ [cwelan].
+  cwealm-cuma, m., _murderous comer_.
+  cwelan (§ 114), _die_ [to quail].
+  cwęn, f., _queen_.
+  Cwęnas, m. pl., _a Finnish tribe_.
+  cweđan (§ 115), _say, speak_ [quoth, bequeath].
+  cwic, _living, alive_ [quicksilver; the quick and the dead].
+  cwidegiedd, n., _word, utterance_ [cweđan and gieddian, both meaning
+      _to speak_].
+  cwîđan (§ 126), _bewail_ (trans.).
+  cwôm, see cuman.
+  cyle (ciele), m., _cold_ [chill];
+    cyle gewyrcan 110, 7 = _produce cold, freeze_.
+  cyme, m., _coming_ [cuman].
+  cyn(n), n., _kin, race_.
+  cyn(n), adj. (used only in pl.), _fitting things, etiquette,
+      proprieties, courtesies_;
+    cynna gemyndig 136, 3 [[_Beowulf_ 614]] = _mindful of courtesies_.
+  cynerîce, n., _kingdom_.
+  cyning, m., _king_.
+  cyssan (§ 125), _kiss_.
+  cyst, f., _the choice, the pick, the best_ [cęosan].
+  cy:đan (§ 126), _make known, display_, [cűđ];
+    2d sing. imperative, cy:đ.
+
+
+#D.#
+
+  dć:d, f., _deed_.
+  dćg, m., _day_.
+  dćg-hwîl, f., _day-while, day_;
+    hę dćg-hwîla gedrogen hćfde eorđan wynne 145, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 2727]] =
+      _he had spent his days of earth's joy_.
+  dćg-rîm, n., number of days [day-rime];
+    dôgera daeg-rîm 143, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 824]] = _the number of his days_.
+  dćl, n., _dale_.
+  dć:l, m., _part, deal, division_.
+  dęad, _dead_.
+  dęađ, m., _death_.
+  dęman (§ 126), _deem, judge_.
+  D[e,]namearc, see D[e,]nemearc.
+  D[e,]ne (§ 47), m. pl., _Danes_.
+  D[e,]nemearc (D[e,]nemearce), f., _Denmark_; dat. sing., D[e,]nemearce
+      (strong), D[e,]nemearcan (weak).
+  D[e,]nisc, _Danish_;
+    đâ D[e,]niscan, _the Danes_.
+  dęofol, m., n., _devil_; gen. sing., dęofles (§ 27, (4)).
+  dęope, _deeply, profoundly_ [dęop].
+  dęor, n., _wild animal_ [deer].
+  deorc, _dark, gloomy_.
+  dôgor, n., _day_; gen. pl., dôgora, dôgera, dôgra.
+  dôgor-gerîm, n., _number of days, lifetime_.
+  dôm, m., _doom, judgment, glory_.
+  dômgeorn, adj., _eager for glory_ [_doom-yearning_].
+  dôn (§ 135), _do, cause, place, promote, remove_.
+  dorste, dorston, see durran.
+  dręam, m., _joy, mirth_ [dream].
+  dręogan (§ 109), _endure, enjoy, spend_ [Scotch dree].
+  dręorig, _dreary, sad_.
+  dręorighlęor, adj., _with sad face_ [hlęor = _cheek, face, leer_].
+  dręosan (§ 109), _fall, perish_ [dross].
+  drîfan (§ 102), _drive_.
+  drihten, see dryhten.
+  drincan (§ 110), _drink_.
+  drohtođ (-ađ), m., _mode of living, occupation_ [dręogan].
+  drugon, see dręogan.
+  dryhten (drihten), m., _lord, Lord_; dat. sing., dryhtne.
+  dryht-s[e,]le, m., _lordly hall_.
+  duguđ, f., _warrior-band, host, retainers_ [doughtiness].
+    In duguđ and geogođ, the higher (older) and lower (younger) ranks
+      are represented, the distinction corresponding roughly to the
+      medićval distinction between knights and squires.
+  durran (§ 137), _dare_.
+  duru, f., _door_.
+  dyde, see dôn.
+  dynnan (§ 125), resound [din].
+  dy:re (dîere, dęore, dîore), _dear, costly_.
+
+
+#E.#
+
+  ęa, f., _river_; gen. sing., ęas; dat. and acc. sing., ęa.
+  ęac, _also, likewise_ [a nickname = an eek-name. See § 65, Note 2];
+    ęac swilce (swelce) 112, 3 = _also_.
+  ęaca, m., _addition_ [ęac];
+    tô ęacan = _in addition to_ (§ 94, (4)).
+  ęage, n., _eye_.
+  eahta, _eight_.
+  ęalâ, _oh!_ _alas!_
+  ealađ, see ealu.
+  eald (§ 96, (2)), _old_.
+  ealdor (aldor), n., _life_;
+    gif đű đćt [e,]llenweorc aldre gedîgest 138, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 662]]
+      = _if thou survivest that feat with thy life_ (instr.).
+  ealdor-dćg (aldor-, ealder-), m., _day of life_.
+  ealdor-gedâl (aldor-), n., _death_ [life-deal].
+  ealdorm[o,]n, m., _alderman, chief, magistrate_.
+  ealgian, (§ 130), _protect, defend_.
+  eall (eal), _all_;
+    ealne weg, _all the way_ (§ 98, (1));
+    ealneg (< ealne weg), _always_;
+    ealles (§ 98, (3)), adv., _altogether, entirely_.
+    Eall (eal) is frequently used with partitive gen. = _all of_:
+      143, 19 [[_Beowulf_ 836]]; 145, 3 [[_Beowulf_ 2728]].
+  ealu (ealo) (§ 68), n., _ale_; gen. sing., ealađ.
+  ealu-scerwen, f., _mortal panic_ [ale-spilling].
+  eard, m., _country, home_ [eorđe].
+  eardgeard, m. _earth_ [earth-yard].
+  eardian (§ 130), _dwell_ [eard].
+  eardstapa, m., _wanderer_ [earth-stepper].
+  ęare, n., _ear_.
+  earfođ (earfeđ), n. _hardship, toil_; gen. pl., earfeđa.
+  earfođlîc, adj., _full of hardship, arduous_.
+  earm, m., _arm_.
+  earm, adj., _poor, wretched_.
+  earmcearig, _wretched, miserable_.
+  earmlîc, _wretched, miserable_.
+  earnung, f., _merit_ [earning].
+  ęast, _east_.
+  ęastan (§ 93, (5)), _from the east_.
+  Ęast-D[e,]ne (§ 47), _East-Danes_.
+  ęasteweard, _eastward_.
+  ęastrihte (ęastryhte) (§ 93, (6)), _eastward_.
+  Ęastron, pl., _Easter_.
+  ęađe, _easily_.
+  ęađmôdlîce, _humbly_.
+  eaxl, f., _shoulder_ [axle].
+  Ebręisc, adj., _Hebrew_.
+  ęce, _eternal, everlasting_.
+  [e,]cg, f., _sword_ [edge].
+  edor, m., _enclosure, dwelling_; nom. pl., ederas.
+  ędrum, see ć:dre.
+  efne, adv., _just, only_ [evenly].
+  eft, adv., _again, afterwards_ [aft].
+  [e,]gesa, m., _fear, terror_ [awe].
+  [e,]llen, n., _strength, courage_;
+    mid [e,]lne = _boldly_;
+    on [e,]lne 147, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 2817]] = _mightily, suddenly_, or _in
+      their (earls') strength (prime)_.
+  [e,]llen-mć:rđu, f. _fame for strength, feat of strength_.
+  [e,]llen-weorc, n., _feat of strength_.
+  [e,]llenwôdnis, f., _zeal, fervor_.
+  [e,]llor-gâst, m., _inhuman monster_ [alien ghost].
+  [e,]ln, f., _ell_ [el-bow].
+  [e,]lne, _see_ [e,]llen.
+  [e,]lra, adj. comparative, _another_ [*[e,]le cognate with Lat.
+      alius];
+    on [e,]lran m[e,]n 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in another man_.
+  emnlong (-lang), _equally long_;
+    on emnlange = _along_ (§ 94, (4)).
+  [e,]nde, m., _end_.
+  [e,]ndebyrdnes, f., _order_.
+  [e,]nde-dćg, m., _end-day, day of death_.
+  [e,]nde-lâf, f., _last remnant_ [end-leaving].
+  [e,]ngel, m., _angel_ [Lat. angelus].
+  [E,]nglafeld (§ 51), m., _Englefield_ (in Berkshire).
+  [E,]ngle (§ 47), m. pl., _Angles_.
+  [E,]nglisc, adj., _English_;
+    on [E,]nglisc 117, 18 and 19 = _in English, into English_.
+  [E,]ngliscgereord, n., _English language_.
+  [e,]nt, m., _giant_.
+  ęode, see gân.
+  eodorcan (§ 130), _ruminate_.
+  eorl, m., _earl, warrior, chieftain_.
+  eorlîc, _earl-like, noble_.
+  eorđ-draca, m., dragon [earth-drake].
+  eorđe, f., _earth_.
+  eorđ-r[e,]ced, n., _earth-hall_.
+  eorđscrćf, n., _earth-cave, grave_.
+  eoten, m., _giant, monster_.
+  ęow, see đű.
+  Ęowland, n., _Öland_ (an island in the Baltic Sea).
+  [e,]rian (§ 125), _plow_ [to ear].
+  Estland, n., _land of the Estas_ (on the eastern coast of the Baltic
+      Sea).
+  Estm[e,]re, m., _Frische Haff_.
+  Estum, dat. pl., _the Estas_.
+  etan (§ 115), _eat_ [ort].
+  [e,]ttan (§ 127), _graze_ [etan].
+  ęđel, m., _territory, native land_ [allodial].
+  ęđel-weard, m., _guardian of his country_.
+
+
+#F.#
+
+  fćc, n., _interval, space_.
+  fćder (§ 68, (2)), m., _father_.
+  fćgen, _fain, glad, exultant_.
+  fćger (fć:ger), _fair, beautiful_.
+  fć:lsian (§ 130), _cleanse_.
+  fć:rlîce, _suddenly_ [fć:r = _fear_].
+  fćst, _fast, held fast_.
+  fćste, adv., _fast, firmly_.
+  fćstnung, f., _security, safety_.
+  fćt, n., _vessel_ [wine-fat, vat].
+  fć:tels, m., _vessel_; acc. pl., fć:tels.
+  fćđm, m., _embrace, bosom_ [fathom = the space _embraced_ by the
+      extended arms].
+  fâg (fâh), _hostile_;
+    hę wćs fâg wiđ God 142, 18 [[_Beowulf_ 812]] = _he was hostile to
+      God_.
+  fâh (fâg), _variegated, ornamented_.
+  Falster, _Falster_ (island in the Baltic Sea).
+  fandian (§ 130), _try, investigate_ [findan].
+  faran (§ 116), _go_ [fare].
+  feallan (§ 117), _fall, flow_.
+  fealu, _fallow, pale, dark_; nom. pl. m., fealwe.
+  fęawe (fęa, fęawa), pl., _few_.
+  fela (indeclinable), _much, many_ (with gen.).
+  feld (§ 51), m., _field_.
+  fell (fel), n., _fell, skin, hide_.
+  fęng, see fôn.
+  f[e,]n-hliđ, n., _fen-slope_.
+  f[e,]n-hop, n., _fen-retreat_.
+  feoh, n., _cattle, property_ [fee]; gen. and dat. sing., fęos, fęo.
+  feohgîfre, _greedy of property, avaricious_.
+  feohtan (§ 110), _fight_.
+  fęol, see feallan.
+  fęond (§ 68, (3)), m., _enemy, fiend_.
+  fęond-grâp, f., _fiend-grip_.
+  feor (§ 96, (4)), adj., _far, far from_ (with dat.).
+  feor, adv., _far, far back_ (time).
+  feorh, m., n., _life_.
+  feorh-b[e,]nn, f., _life-wound, mortal wound_.
+  feorh-l[e,]gu, f., _laying down of life_. (See p. 146, Note on l. 13.
+      [[_Beowulf_ 2800]])
+  feorh-sęoc, _life-sick, mortally wounded_.
+  feorm (fiorm), f., _use, benefit_ (_food, provisions_) [farm].
+  feormian (§ 130), _eat, devour_.
+  feorran, _from afar_.
+  fęowertig, _forty_; gen., fęowertiges (§ 91, Note 1).
+  ferhđ (ferđ), m., _heart, mind, spirit_.
+  f[e,]rian (§ 125), _carry, transport_ [to ferry];
+    f[e,]rede in forđwege 152, 5 [[_Wanderer_ 81]] = _carried away_.
+  fers, n., _verse_ [Lat. versus].
+  fersc, _fresh_.
+  ferđloca (ferhđ-), m., _heart, mind, spirit_ [heart-locker].
+  fęt, see fôt.
+  fetor, f., _fetter_ [fôt]; instr. pl., feterum.
+  feđer, f., _feather_; acc. pl., feđra.
+  fierd, f., _English army_ [faran].
+  fîf, _five_.
+  fîftîene, _fifteen_.
+  fîftig, _fifty_; gen. sing., fîftiges (§ 91, Note 1); dat. pl.,
+      fîftegum (§ 91, Note 3).
+  findan (§ 110), _find_.
+  finger, m., _finger_.
+  Finnas, m. pl., _Fins_.
+  fiorm, see feorm.
+  fîras, m. pl., _men_ [feorh]; gen. pl., fîra; dat. pl., fîrum.
+  firrest (fierrest), see feor (§ 96, (4)).
+  first, m., _time, period_.
+  fiscađ (fiscnađ), m., _fishing_.
+  fiscere, m., _fisherman_.
+  fiscnađ, see fiscađ.
+  flęon (§ 118, II.), _flee_.
+  flęotan (§ 109), _float_.
+  fl[e,]t, n., _floor of the hall_.
+  flôd, m., _flood, wave_.
+  folc, n., _folk, people_.
+  folc-cwęn, f., _folk-queen_.
+  folc-cyning, m., _folk-king_.
+  folcgefeoht, n., _folk-fight, battle, general engagement_.
+  fold-bold, n., _earth-building, hall_.
+  folde, f., _earth, land, country_ [feld].
+  folm, f., _hand_ [fęlan = _feel_].
+  fôn (§ 118), _seize, capture, take_ [fang];
+    tô rîce fôn = _come to (ascend) the throne_.
+  for (§ 94, (1)), _for, on account of_;
+    for đć:m (đe), for đon (đe), _because_;
+    for đon, for đy:, for đć:m (for-đâm), _therefore_.
+  fôr, see faran.
+  forbćrnan (§ 127), _burn thoroughly_ [for is intensive, like Lat.
+      per].
+  forgiefan (-gifan) (§ 115), _give, grant_.
+  forh[e,]rgian (§ 130), _harry, lay waste_.
+  forhogdnis, f., _contempt_.
+  forht, _fearful, afraid_.
+  forhwćga, _about, at least_.
+  forlć:tan (§ 117), _abandon, leave_.
+  forlęt, forlęton, see forlć:tan.
+  forma, _first_;
+    forman sîđe, _the first time_ (instr.).
+  forniman (§ 114), _take off, destroy_.
+  forsp[e,]ndan (§ 127), _spend, squander_.
+  forst[o,]ndan (-standan) (§ 116), _understand_.
+  forswâpan (§ 117), _sweep away_; pret. 3d sing. indic., forswęop.
+  forsw[e,]rian (§ 116), _forswear_ (with dat.); past part., forsworen.
+  forđ, _forth, forward_.
+  forđolian (§ 130), _miss, go without_ (with dat.) [not to _thole_
+      or experience].
+  forđweg, m., _way forth_;
+    in forđwege, _away_.
+  fôt (§ 68, (1)), m. _foot_.
+  Frć:na, m., _Frene_.
+  frćtwe, f. pl., _fretted armor, jewels_ [fret].
+  fram, see fr[o,]m.
+  fręa, m., _lord, Lord_.
+  fręa-drihten, m., _lord, master_.
+  fręfran (§ 130), _console, cheer_ [frôfor].
+  fr[e,]mde, _strange, foreign_;
+    đâ fr[e,]mdan, _the strangers_.
+  fr[e,]mman (§ 125), _accomplish, perform, support_ [to frame].
+  fr[e,]msumnes (-nis), f., _kindness, benefit_.
+  fręo (frîo), _free_; gen. pl., fręora (frîora).
+  fręodôm, m., _freedom_.
+  fręolîc, _noble_ [free-like].
+  fręomć:g, m., _free kinsman_.
+  fręond (§ 68, (3)), m., _friend_.
+  fręondlęas, _friendless_.
+  fręondlîce, _in a friendly manner_.
+  fręorig, _cold, chill_ [fręoran].
+  frîora, see fręo.
+  friđ, m., n., _peace, security_ [bel-_fry_].
+  frôd, _old, sage, prudent_.
+  frôfor, f., _comfort, consolation, alleviation_;
+    fyrena frôfre 137, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 629]] = _as an alleviation of
+      outrages_ (dat.).
+  fr[o,]m (fram) (§ 94, (1)), _from, by_.
+  fr[o,]m, adv., _away, forth_.
+  fruma, m., _origin, beginning_ [fr[o,]m].
+  frumsceaft, f., _creation_.
+  fugela, see fugol.
+  fugelere, m., _fowler_.
+  fugol (fugel), m., _fowl, bird_; gen. pl., fugela.
+  ful, n., _cup, beaker_.
+  fűl, _foul_.
+  fűlian (§ 130), _grow foul, decompose_.
+  full (ful), adj., _full_ (with gen.);
+    be fullan, _fully, perfectly_.
+  full (ful) adv., _fully, very_.
+  fultum, m., _help_.
+  furđor (furđur), adv., _further_.
+  furđum, adv., _even_.
+  fylđ, see feallan.
+  fyren (firen), f., _crime, violence, outrage_.
+  fyrhtu, f., _fright, terror_; dat. sing., fyrhtu.
+  fyrst, adj., superlative, _first, chief_.
+  fy:san (§ 126), _make ready, prepare_ [fűs = _ready_];
+    gűđe gefy:sed 137, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 631]] = _ready for battle_.
+
+
+#G.#
+
+  gâd, n., _lack_.
+  gć:st, see gâst.
+  gafol, n., _tax, tribute_.
+  galan (§ 116), _sing_ [nightingale].
+  gâlnes, f., _lust, impurity_.
+  gân (§ 134), _go_.
+  gâr, m., _spear_ [gore, gar-fish].
+  gâr-wiga, m., _spear-warrior_.
+  gâst (gć:st), m., _spirit, ghost_.
+  gâstlîc (gć:stlîc), _ghastly, terrible_.
+  ge, _and_; see ć:gđer.
+  gę, _ye_; see đű.
+  geador, _together_.
+  geć:metigian (§ 130), _disengage from_ (with acc. of person and gen.
+      of thing) [empty].
+  gećrnan (§ 127), _gain by running_ [iernan].
+  gęap, _spacious_.
+  gęar, n., _year_; gen. pl., gęara, is used adverbially = _of yore,
+      formerly_.
+  gęardćg, m., _day of yore_.
+  geare (gearo, gearwe), _readily, well, clearly_ [yarely].
+  Gęat, m., _a Geat, the Geat_ (i.e. Beowulf).
+  Gęatas, m. pl., _the Geats_ (a people of South Sweden).
+  Gęat-mecgas, m. pl., _Geat men_ (= the fourteen who accompanied
+      Beowulf to Heorot).
+  gebęorscipe, m., _banquet, entertainment_.
+  gebętan (§ 126), _make amends for_ [bôt].
+  gebîdan (§ 102), _wait, bide one's time_ (intrans.); _endure,
+      experience_ (trans., with acc.).
+  gebind, n., _commingling_.
+  gebindan (§ 110), _bind_.
+  gebręowan (§ 109), _brew_.
+  gebrowen, see gebręowan.
+  gebűd, gebűn, see bűan (§ 126, Note 2).
+  gebyrd, n., _rank, social distinction_.
+  gecęosan (§ 109), _choose, decide_.
+  gecnâwan (§ 117), _know, understand_.
+  gecoren, see gecęosan.
+  gecringan (§ 110), _fall, die_ [cringe].
+  gedć:lan (§ 126), _deal out, give_;
+    dęađe gedć:lde 152, 7 [[_Wanderer_ 83]] = _apportioned to death_
+      (dat.), or, _tore (?) in death_ (instr.).
+  gedafenian (§ 130), _become, befit, suit_ (impersonal, usually with
+      dat., but with acc. 112, 10).
+  gedîgan (§ 126), _endure, survive_.
+  gedôn (§ 135), _do, cause, effect_.
+  gedrćg, n., _company_.
+  gedręosan (§ 109), _fall, fail_.
+  gedriht (gedryht), n., _band, troop_.
+  gedrogen, see dręogan.
+  gedrync, n., _drinking_.
+  ge[e,]ndian (§ 130), _end, finish_.
+  gefaran (§ 116), _go, die_.
+  gefęa, m., joy.
+  gefeaht, see gefeohtan.
+  gefeh, see gefęon.
+  gefęng, see gefôn.
+  gefeoht, n., _fight, battle_.
+  gefeohtan (§ 110), _fight_.
+  gefęon (§ 118, v.), _rejoice at_ (with dat.); pret. 3d sing., gefeah,
+      gefeh.
+  gefęra, m., _companion, comrade_ [co-farer].
+  geflîeman (§ 126), _put to flight_ [flęon].
+  gefohten, see gefeohtan.
+  gefôn (§ 118, vii.), _seize_.
+  gefôr, see gefaran.
+  gefrć:ge, n., _hearsay, report_;
+    mîne gefrć:ge (instr.) 141, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 777]] = _as I have heard
+      say, according to my information_.
+  gefr[e,]mman (§ 125), _perform, accomplish, effect_.
+  gefultumian (§ 130), _help_ [fultum].
+  gefylce, n., _troop, division_ [folc]; dat. pl., gefylcum, gefylcium.
+  gefyllan (§ 127), _fill_ (with gen.); past part. pl., f., gefylda.
+  gegl[e,]ngan (§ 127), _adorn_.
+  gehâtland, n., _promised land_ [gehâtan = _to promise_].
+  gehealdan (§ 117), _hold, maintain_.
+  gehîeran (gehy:ran) (§ 126), _hear_.
+  gehîersumnes, f., _obedience_.
+  gehola, m., _protector_ [helan].
+  gehwâ (§ 77, Note), _each_;
+    on healfa gehwone 142, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 801]] (see Note 140, 15
+      [[_Beowulf_ 769]]. Observe that the pron. may, as here, be masc.
+      and the gen. fem.).
+  gehwćđer (§ 77, Note), _each, either, both_.
+  gehwylc (gehwilc) (§ 77, Note), _each_ (with gen. pl. See Note
+      140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]]).
+  gehwyrfan (§ 127), _convert, change_.
+  gehy:dan (§ 126), _hide, conceal, consign_.
+  gehygd, f., n., _thought, purpose_.
+  gehy:ran, see gehîeran.
+  gehy:rnes, f., _hearing_;
+    eal đâ hę in gehy:rnesse geleornian meahte 115, 14 = _all things
+      that he could learn by hearing_.
+  gelć:dan (§ 126), _lead_.
+  gelć:red, part.-adj., _learned_; superlative, gelć:redest.
+  gelafian (§ 130), _lave_.
+  gel[e,]nge, _along of, belonging to_ (with dat.).
+  geleornian (-liornian) (§ 130), _learn_.
+  gelîce, _likewise_; _in like manner to_ (with dat.).
+  gelîefan (gely:fan) (§ 126), _believe_;
+    đćt hęo on ć:nigne eorl gely:fde 137, 6 [[_Beowulf_ 628]] = _that
+      she believed in any earl_.
+  gelimpan (§ 110), _happen, be fulfilled_.
+  gelimplîc, _proper, fitting_.
+  gely:fan, see gelîefan.
+  gely:fed, _weak, infirm_ [left (hand)].
+  gęmde, see gîeman.
+  gemet, n., _meter, measure, ability_.
+  gemętan (§ 126), _meet_.
+  gem[o,]n, see gemunan.
+  gemunan (§ 136), _remember_; indic. pres. 1st and 3d sing., gem[o,]n;
+      pret. sing., gemunde.
+  gemynd, n., _memory, memorial_;
+    tô gemyndum 147, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2805]] = _as a memorial_.
+  gemyndgian (-mynian) (§ 130), _remember_;
+    mid hine gemyndgade 115, 15 = _he treasured in his memory_;
+    gemyne mć:rđo 138, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 660]] = _be mindful of glory_
+      (imperative 2d sing.).
+  gemyndig, _mindful of_ (with gen.).
+  genâp, see genîpan.
+  geneahhe, _enough, often_;
+    genehost, superlative, _very often_.
+  genip, n., _mist, darkness_.
+  genîpan (§ 102), _grow dark_.
+  genîwian (§ 130), _renew_.
+  genôh, _enough_.
+  genumen, see niman.
+  geoc, n., _yoke_.
+  gęocor, _dire, sad_.
+  geogođ, f., _youth, young people, young warriors_. (See duguđ.)
+  geond (giond) (§ 94, (2)), _throughout_ [yond].
+  geondhweorfan (§ 110), _pass over, traverse, recall_;
+    đonne mâga gemynd môd geondhweorfeđ 150, 15 [[_Wanderer_ 51]] =
+      _then his mind recalls the memory of kinsmen_.
+  geondscęawian (§ 130), survey, review;
+    georne geondscęawađ 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _eagerly surveys
+      them_.
+  geondđ[e,]nc(e)an (§ 128), _think over, consider_.
+  geong (§ 96, (2)), _young_;
+    giengest, (gingest), superlative, _youngest, latest, last_.
+  geong = g[o,]ng, see g[o,]ngan (imperative 2d sing.).
+  gęong (gîong), see g[o,]ngan (pret. 3d sing.).
+  georn (giorn), _eager, desirous, zealous, sure_ [yearn].
+  georne, _eagerly, certainly_;
+    wiste đę geornor 143, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 822]] = _knew the more
+      certainly_.
+  geornfulnes, f., _eagerness, zeal_.
+  geornlîce, _eagerly, attentively_.
+  geornor, see georne.
+  ger[e,]cednes, f., _narration_ [r[e,]ccan].
+  gerisenlîc, _suitable, becoming_.
+  gery:man (§ 126), _extend_, (trans.) [rűm].
+  gesć:liglîc, _happy, blessed_ [silly].
+  gesamnode, see ges[o,]mnian.
+  gesceaft, f., _creature, creation, destiny_ [scieppan].
+  gesceap, n., _shape, creation, destiny_ [scieppan].
+  gescieldan (§ 127), _shield, defend_.
+  gesealde, see ges[e,]llan.
+  geseglian (§ 130), _sail_.
+  geselda, m., _comrade_.
+  ges[e,]llan (§ 128), _give_.
+  gesęon (gesîon) (§ 118), _see_, observe; pres. indic. 3d sing.,
+      gesihđ.
+  geset, n., _habitation, seat_.
+  ges[e,]ttan (§ 127), _set, place, establish_.
+  gesewen, see sęon, gesęon (past part.).
+  gesewenlîc, _seen, visible_ [seen-like].
+  gesiglan (§ 127), _sail_.
+  gesihđ, see gesęon.
+  gesittan (§ 115, Note 2), _sit_ (trans., as _to sit a horse, to sit
+      a boat_, etc.); _sit, sit down_ (intrans.).
+  geslćgen, see slęan (§ 118).
+  ges[o,]mnian (§ 130), _assemble, collect_.
+  ges[o,]mnung, f., _collection, assembly_.
+  gestâh, see gestîgan.
+  gestađelian (§ 130), _establish, restore_ [standan].
+  gesteal, n., _establishment, foundation_ [stall].
+  gestîgan (§ 102), _ascend, go_ [stile, stirrup, sty (= a _rising_
+      on the eye)].
+  gestrangian (§ 130), _strengthen_.
+  gestręon, n., _property_.
+  gestry:nan (§ 126), _obtain, acquire_ [gestręon].
+  gesweorcan (§ 110), _grow dark, become sad_;
+    For đon ic geđ[e,]ncan ne mćg geond đâs woruld for hwan môdsefa mîn
+      ne gesweorce 151, 3-4 [[lines 58-59]] = _Therefore in this world
+      I may not understand wherefore my mind does not grow "black as
+      night."_ (Brooke.)
+  geswîcan (§ 102), _cease, cease from_ (with gen.).
+  getćl, n., _something told, narrative_.
+  getruma, m., _troop, division_.
+  geđanc, m., n., _thought_.
+  geđeah, see geđicgan.
+  geđ[e,]nc(e)an (§ 128), _think, remember, understand, consider_.
+  geđęodan (§ 126), _join_.
+  geđęode (-đîode), n., _language, tribe_.
+  geđęodnis, f., _association_;
+    but in 112, 2 this word is used to render the Lat. _appetitus_ =
+      _desire_.
+  geđicg(e)an (§ 115, Note 2), _take, receive_; pret. indic. 3d sing.,
+      geđeah.
+  geđungen, part.-adj., _distinguished, excellent_ [đęon, _to thrive_].
+  geđyldig, _patient_ [đolian].
+  geweald (gewald), n., _control, possession, power_ [wield].
+  geweorc, n., _work, labor_.
+  geweorđian (§ 130), _honor_ [to attribute _worth_ to].
+  gewîcian (§ 130), _dwell_.
+  gewin(n), n., _strife, struggle_.
+  gewindan (§ 110), _flee_ [wend].
+  gewissian (§ 130), _guide, direct_.
+  gewîtan (§ 102), _go, depart_.
+  geworht, see gewyrcan.
+  gewrit, n., _writing, Scripture_.
+  gewunian (§ 130), _be accustomed, be wont_.
+  gewyrc(e)an (§ 128), _work, create, make, produce_.
+  gid(d), n., _word, speech_.
+  giefan (§ 115), _give_.
+  giefstôl, m., _gift-stool, throne_.
+  giefu (gifu), f., _gift_.
+  gielp (gilp), m., n., _boast_ [yelp].
+  gîeman (gęman) (§ 126), _endeavor, strive_.
+  gîet (gît, gy:t), _yet, still_.
+  gif (gyf), _if_ [not related to _give_].
+  gifeđe (gyfeđe), _given, granted_.
+  gilp, see gielp.
+  gilp-cwide, m., _boasting speech_ [_yelp_-speech].
+  gingest, see geong (adj.).
+  giohđo (gehđu), f., _care, sorrow, grief_.
+  giű (iű), _formerly, of old_.
+  glćd (glć:d), _glad_.
+  glęaw, _wise, prudent_.
+  glîwstćf, m., _glee, joy_; instr. pl. (used adverbially),
+      glîwstafum 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _joyfully_.
+  God, m., _God_.
+  gôd (§ 96, (3)), _good_;
+    mid his gôdum 115, 12 = _with his possessions (goods)_.
+  godcund, _divine_ [God].
+  godcundlîce, _divinely_.
+  gold, n., _gold_.
+  gold-ć:ht, f., _gold treasure_.
+  gold-fâh, _gold-adorned_.
+  gold-hroden, part.-adj., _gold-adorned_.
+  goldwine, m., _prince, giver of gold, lord_ [gold-friend].
+  gomel (gomol), _old, old man_.
+  g[o,]ngan (gangan) (§ 117), _go_ [gang]; imperative 2d sing., geong;
+      pret. sing., gęong, gîong, gęng; past part., geg[o,]ngen,
+      gegangen.
+    The most commonly used pret. is ęode, which belongs to gân (§ 134).
+  Gotland, n., _Jutland_ (in _Ohthere's Second Voyage_), _Gothland_
+      (in _Wulfstan's Voyage_).
+  gram, _grim, angry, fierce, the angry one_.
+  grâp, f., _grasp, clutch, claw_.
+  grętan (§ 126), _greet, attack, touch_.
+  grôwan (§ 117, (2)), _grow_.
+  gryre-lęođ, n., _terrible song_ [grisly lay].
+  guma, m., _man, hero_ [groom; see § 65, Note 1].
+  gűđ, f., _war, battle_.
+  gűđ-bill, n., _sword_ [war-bill].
+  gűđ-gewć:de, n., _armor_ [war-weeds].
+  gűđ-hręđ, f., _war-fame_.
+  gűđ-wine, m., _sword_ [war-friend].
+  gyddian (§ 130), _speak formally_, chant [giddy; the original meaning
+      of _giddy_ was _mirthful_, as when one sings].
+  gyf, see gif.
+  gyfeđe, see gifeđe.
+  gyldan (gieldan) (§ 110), _pay_; indic. 3d sing., gylt.
+  gylden, _golden_ [gold].
+
+
+#H.#
+
+  habban (§ 133), _have_.
+  hâd, m., _order, rank, office, degree_ [-hood, -head].
+  hćfta, m., _captive_.
+  hćgel (hagol), m., _hail_; instr. sing., hagle.
+  hćglfaru, f., _hail-storm_ [hail-faring].
+  hćle, see hćleđ.
+  hć:l, f., _hail, health, good luck_.
+  hćleđ (hćle), m., _hero, warrior_.
+  hć:t, see hâtan.
+  hć:đen, _heathen_.
+  Hć:đum (ćt Hć:đum), _Haddeby_ (= _Schleswig_).
+  hâl, _hale, whole_.
+  hâlettan (§ 127), _greet, salute_ [to hail].
+  Halfd[e,]ne, _Halfdane_ (proper name).
+  hâlga, m., _saint_.
+  Hâlgoland, _Halgoland_ (in ancient Norway).
+  hâlig, _holy_.
+  hâlignes, f., _holiness_.
+  hâm, m., _home_; dat. sing., hâme, hâm (p. 104, Note);
+    used adverbially in hâm ęode 112, 18 = _went home_.
+  hand, see h[o,]nd.
+  hâr, _hoary, gray_.
+  hât, _hot_.
+  hâtan (§ 117, Note 2), _call, name, command_; pret. sing., heht, hęt.
+  hâtheort, _hot-hearted_.
+  hâtte, see hâtan.
+  hę, hęo, hit (§ 53), _he, she, it_.
+  hęafod, n., _head_.
+  hęah (§ 96, (2)), _high_; acc. sing, m., hęanne.
+  hęah-s[e,]le, m., _high hall_.
+  hęahđungen, _highly prosperous, aristocratic_ [hęah + past part. of
+      đęon (§ 118)].
+  healdan (§ 117), _hold, govern, possess_;
+    144, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 2720]] = _hold up, sustain_.
+  healf, adj., _half_.
+  healf, f., _half, side, shore_.
+  heall, f., _hall_.
+  heals, m., _neck_.
+  hęan, _abject, miserable_.
+  hęanne, see hęah.
+  heard, _hard_.
+  heard-hicgende, _brave-minded_ [hard-thinking].
+  hearm-scađa, m., _harmful foe_ [harm-scather].
+  hearpe, f., _harp_.
+  heađo-dęor, _battle-brave_.
+  heađo-mć:re, _famous in battle_.
+  heađo-wylm, m., _flame-surge, surging of fire_ [battle-welling].
+  hęawan (§ 117), _hew, cut_.
+  h[e,]bban, hôf, hôfon, gehafen (§ 117), _heave, lift, raise_.
+  h[e,]fig, _heavy, oppressive_.
+  heht, see hâtan.
+  helan (§ 114), _conceal_.
+  h[e,]ll, f., _hell_.
+  helm, m., _helmet_.
+  Helmingas, m. pl., _Helmings_ (Wealtheow, Hrothgar's queen, is a
+      Helming).
+  help, f., _help_.
+  helpan (§ 110), _help_ (with dat.).
+  heofon, m., _heaven_.
+  heofonlîc, _heavenly_.
+  heofonrîce, n., _kingdom of heaven_.
+  hęold, see healdan.
+  heolstor (-ster), n., _darkness, concealment, cover_ [holster].
+  heora (hiera), see hę.
+  heord, f., care, guardianship [hoard].
+  heoro-dręorig, _bloody_ [sword-dreary].
+  Heorot, _Heorot, Hart_ (the famous hall which Hrothgar built).
+  heorte, f., _heart_.
+  hęr, _here, hither_;
+    in the _Chronicle_ the meaning frequently is _at this date, in this
+      year_: 99, 1.
+  h[e,]re, m., _Danish army_.
+  h[e,]renis, f., _praise_.
+  h[e,]rgian (§ 130), _raid, harry, ravage_ [h[e,]re].
+  h[e,]rgung, f., _harrying, plundering_.
+  h[e,]rian (h[e,]rigean) (§ 125), _praise_.
+  hęrsumedon, see hîersumian.
+  hęt, see hâtan.
+  hider (hieder), _hither_.
+  hiera, see hę.
+  hîeran (hy:ran) (§ 126), _hear, belong_.
+  hierde, m., _shepherd, instigator_ [keeper of a _herd_].
+  hierdebôc, f., _pastoral treatise_ [shepherd-book, a translation of
+      Lat. _Cura Pastoralis_].
+  hîerra, see hęah.
+  hîersumian (hy:r-, hęr-) (§ 130), _obey_ (with dat.).
+  hige (hyge), m., _mind, heart_.
+  hige-đihtig, _bold-hearted_.
+  hild, f., _battle_.
+  hilde-dęor, _battle-brave_.
+  hilde-mecg, m., _warrior_.
+  hilde-sćd, _battle-sated_.
+  hin-fűs, _eager to be gone_ [hence-ready].
+  hira, see hę.
+  hlć:w (hlâw), m., _mound, burial mound_ [Lud_low_ and other
+      place-names, _low_ meaning _hill_].
+  hlâford, m., _lord, master_ [loaf-ward?].
+  hleahtor, m., _laughter_.
+  hlęo, m., _refuge, protector_ [lee].
+  hlîfian (§ 130), _rise, tower_.
+  hlyn, m., _din, noise_.
+  hlynsian (§ 130), _resound_.
+  hof, n., _court, abode_.
+  hogode, see hycgan.
+  holm, m., _sea, ocean_.
+  h[o,]nd (hand), f., _hand_;
+    on gehwćđre h[o,]nd, _on both sides_.
+  hord, m., n., _hoard, treasure_.
+  hordcofa, m., _breast, heart_ [hoard-chamber]
+  hors, n., _horse_.
+  horshwćl, m., _walrus_.
+  hrćdwyrde, _hasty of speech_ [hrćd = _quick_].
+  hrćgel, n., _garment_; dat. sing., hrćgle.
+  hrân, m., _reindeer_.
+  hrađe, _quickly, soon_ [_rath_-er].
+  hręo (hręoh), _rough, cruel, sad_.
+  hręosan (§ 109), _fall_.
+  hręran (§ 126), _stir_.
+  hređer, m., n., _breast, purpose_; dat. sing., hređre.
+  hrîm, m., _rime, hoarfrost_.
+  hrîmceald, _rime-cold_.
+  hring, m., _ring, ring-mail_.
+  hrîđ, f. (?), _snow-storm_.
+  hrôf, m., _roof_.
+  Hrones nćss, literally _Whale's Ness, whale's promontory_;
+    see nćss.
+  hrűse, f., _earth_ [hręosan: deposit].
+  hryre, m., _fall, death_ [hręosan].
+  hry:đer, n., _cattle_ [rinder-pest].
+  hryđig, _ruined_ (?), _storm-beaten_; nom. pl. m., hryđge.
+  hű, _how_.
+  Humbre, f., _river Humber_.
+  hund, _hundred_.
+  hunig, n., _honey_.
+  hunta, m., _hunter_.
+  huntođ (-tađ), m., _hunting_.
+  hűru, adv., _about_.
+  hűs, n., _house_.
+  hwâ, hwćt (§ 74), _who?_ _what?_ swâ hwćt swâ (§ 77, Note),
+      _whatsoever_;
+    indefinite, _any one, anything_;
+    for hwan (instr.), _wherefore_.
+  hwćl, m., _whale_.
+  hwćlhunta, m., _whale-hunter_.
+  hwćlhuntađ, m., _whale-fishing_.
+  hwć:r, _where?_ hwć:r ... swâ, _wheresoever_;
+    wel hwć:r, _nearly everywhere_.
+  hwćthwugu, _something_.
+  hwćđer, _whether, which of two?_
+  hwćđre, _however, nevertheless_.
+  hwęne, see hwôn.
+  hweorfan (§ 110), _turn, go_.
+  hwider, _whither_.
+  hwîl, f., _while, time_;
+    ealle đâ hwîle đe, _all the while that_;
+    hwîlum (instr. pl.), _sometimes_.
+  hwilc (hwylc, hwelc) (§ 74, Note 1), _which?_ _what?_
+  hwôn, n., _a trifle_;
+    hwęne (instr. sing.), _somewhat, a little_.
+  hw[o,]nan, _when_.
+  hy:, see hîe.
+  hycgan (§ 132), _think, resolve_; pret. 3d sing., hogode.
+  hy:d, f., _hide, skin_.
+  hyge, see hige.
+  hyra (hiera), see hę.
+  hy:ran, see hîeran.
+  hyrde, see hierde.
+  hys (his), see hę.
+  hyt (hit), see hę.
+
+
+#I.#
+
+  ic (§ 72), _I_.
+  îdel, _idle, useless, desolate_.
+  ides, f., _woman, lady_.
+  ieldra, adj., see eald.
+  ieldra, m., _an elder, parent, ancestor_.
+  iernan (yrnan) (§ 112), _run_.
+  îgl[o,]nd (îgland), n., _island_.
+  ilca (ylca), _the same_ [of that ilk].
+  Ilfing, _the Elbing_.
+  in, _in, into_ (with dat. and acc.);
+    in on, _in on, to, toward_.
+  inbryrdnis (-nes), f., _inspiration, ardor_.
+  indryhten, _very noble_.
+  ing[o,]ng, m., _entrance_.
+  innan, adv., _within, inside_;
+    on innan, _within_.
+  innanbordes, adv.-gen., _within borders, at home_.
+  inne, adv., _within, inside_.
+  intinga, m., _cause, sake_.
+  inweardlîce, _inwardly, fervently_.
+  inwid-sorg (inwit-sorh), f., _sorrow caused by an enemy_.
+  inwit-đanc, m., _hostile intent_.
+  Îraland, n., _Ireland_ (but in _Ohthere's Second Voyage, Iceland_ is
+      probably meant).
+  îren, n., _iron, sword_; gen. pl., îrenna, îrena.
+  îren-b[e,]nd, m., f., _iron-band_.
+  îu, see gîu.
+
+
+#K.#
+
+  kynerîce, see cynerîce.
+  kyning, see cyning.
+  kyrtel, m., _kirtle, coat_.
+
+
+#L.#
+
+  Lć:den, _Latin_.
+  Lć:dengeđęode (-đîode), n., _Latin language_.
+  Lć:denware (§ 47), m. pl., _Latin people, Romans_.
+  lć:fan (§ 126), _leave_.
+  lć:ge, see licgan.
+  Lć:land, n., _Laaland_ (in Denmark).
+  lć:n, n., _loan_;
+    tô lć:ne 121, 2 = _as a loan_.
+  lć:ne, adj., _as a loan, transitory, perishable_.
+  lć:ran (§ 126), _teach, advise, exhort_ [lâr].
+  lć:ssa, lć:sta, see ly:tel.
+  lć:stan (§ 127), _last, hold out_ (intrans.); _perform, achieve_
+      (trans.).
+  lć:tan (§ 117), _let, leave_.
+  lâf, f., _something left, remnant, heirloom_ (often a _sword_);
+    tô lâfe, _as a remnant, remaining_.
+  lagulâd, f., _sea_ [lake-way, lâd = _leading, direction, way_].
+  land, see l[o,]nd.
+  lang, see l[o,]ng.
+  Langaland, n., _Langeland_ (in Denmark).
+  lâr, f., _lore, teaching_.
+  lârcwide, m., _precept, instruction_, [cwide < cweđan].
+  lâręow, m., _teacher_ [lâr + đęow].
+  lâst, m., _track, footprint_ [shoemaker's last];
+    on lâst(e), _in the track of, behind_ (with dat.).
+  lâđ, _loathsome, hateful_.
+  lęas, _loose, free from, bereft of_ (with gen.).
+  lęasung, f., _leasing, deception, falsehood_.
+  l[e,]cgan (§ 125, Note), _lay_.
+  lęfdon, see lîefan.
+  leger, n., _lying in, illness_ [licgan].
+  l[e,]ng, see l[o,]nge.
+  l[e,]ngra, see l[o,]ng.
+  lęod, m., _prince, chief_.
+  lęod, f., _people, nation_ (the plural has the same meaning).
+  lęod-scipe, m., _nation_ [people-ship].
+  lęof, _dear_ [lief].
+  leoht, adj., _light_.
+  lęoht, n., _light, brightness_.
+  leornere, m., _learner, disciple_.
+  leornian (§ 130), _learn_.
+  leornung (liornung), f., _learning_.
+  lęođ, n., _song_ [lay?].
+  lęođcrćft, m., _poetic skill_ [lay-craft].
+  lęođs[o,]ng, n., _song, poem_.
+  lęt, see lć:tan.
+  libban (§ 133), _live_; pres. part., lifigende, _living, alive_.
+  lîc, n., _body, corpse_ [lich-gate, Lichfield].
+  licgan (§ 115, Note 2), _lie, extend, flow, lie dead_; 3d sing.
+      indic. pres., ligeđ, lîđ.
+  lîchama (-h[o,]ma), m., _body_ [body-covering].
+  lîcian (§ 130), _please_ (with dat.) [like].
+  lîc-sâr, n., _body-sore, wound in the body_.
+  lîefan (lęfan) (§ 126), _permit, allow_ (with dat.) [grant _leave_
+      to].
+  lîf, n., _life_.
+  lîf-dagas, m. pl., _life-days_.
+  lifigende, see libban.
+  lîg, m., _flame, fire_.
+  ligeđ, see licgan.
+  lim, n., _limb_.
+  list, f., _cunning_;
+    dat. pl., listum, is used adverbially = _cunningly_.
+  lîđ, see licgan.
+  lof, m., _praise, glory_.
+  l[o,]nd (land), n., _land, country_.
+  l[o,]ng (lang) (§ 96, (2)), _long_.
+  l[o,]nge (lange) (§ 97, (2)), _long_;
+    l[o,]nge on dćg, _late in the day_.
+  lufan, see lufu.
+  lufian (lufigean) (§ 131), _love_.
+  luflîce, _lovingly_.
+  lufu, f., _love_; dat. sing. (weak), lufan.
+  lungre, _quickly_.
+  lust, m., _joy_ [lust];
+    on lust, _joyfully_.
+  ly:t, indeclinable, _little, few_ (with partitive gen.).
+  ly:tel (lîtel) (§ 96, (2)), _little, small_.
+
+
+#M.#
+
+  mâ, see micle (§ 97, (2)).
+  mćg, see magan.
+  mć:g, m., _kinsman_; nom. pl., mâgas (§ 27, (2)).
+  mćgen n., _strength, power_ [might and _main_].
+  mćgen-[e,]llen, n., _main strength, mighty courage_.
+  mć:gđ, f., _tribe_.
+  mćgđhâd, m., _maidenhood, virginity_.
+  mć:l-gesceaft, f., _appointed time_ [mć:l = _meal, time_].
+  mć:ran (§ 126), _make famous, honor_.
+  mć:re, _famous, glorious, notorious_.
+  mć:rđo (mć:rđo, mć:rđ), f., _glory, fame_.
+  mćssepręost, m., _mass-priest_.
+  mć:st, see micel.
+  magan (§ 137), _be able, may_.
+  mâgas, see mć:g.
+  magu (mago), m., _son, man_.
+  maguđegn, m., _vassal, retainer_.
+  man(n), see m[o,]n(n).
+  mancus, m., _mancus, half-crown_; gen. pl., mancessa.
+  mândć:d, f., _evil deed_.
+  manig, see m[o,]nig.
+  manigfeald, see m[o,]nigfeald.
+  mâra, see micel.
+  mađelian (§ 130), _harangue, speak_.
+  mâđum (mâđđum), m., _gift, treasure, jewel_; gen. pl., mâđma.
+  mâđđumgyfa, m., _treasure-giver, lord_.
+  mâđđum-wela, m., _wealth of treasure_.
+  mę, see ic.
+  meaht, f., _might, power_.
+  meahte, see magan.
+  mearc, f., _boundary, limit_ [mark, march].
+  mearg (mearh), m., _horse_; nom. pl., męaras.
+  mearđ, m., _marten_.
+  mec, see ic.
+  medmicel, _moderately large, short, brief_.
+  medu (medo), m., _mead_.
+  medu-b[e,]nc, f., _mead-bench_.
+  medu-ful, n., _mead-cup_.
+  medu-heall, f., _mead-hall_.
+  m[e,]n, see m[o,]n(n).
+  m[e,]ngan (§ 127), _mingle, mix_.
+  m[e,]nigu (m[e,]nigeo), f., _multitude_ [many].
+  m[e,]nniscnes, f., _humanity, incarnation_ [man].
+  meolc, f., _milk_.
+  Męore, _Möre_ (in Sweden).
+  m[e,]re, m., _lake, mere, sea_ [mermaid].
+  Meretűn, m., _Merton_ (in Surrey).
+  mętan (§ 126), _meet, find_.
+  Metod (Meotod, Metud), m., _Creator, God_.
+  metod-sceaft, f., _appointed doom, eternity_.
+  micel (§ 96, (3)), _great, mighty, strong, large_ [mickle];
+    mâra, _more, stronger, larger_.
+  micle (micele), _greatly, much_.
+  miclum, (§ 93, (4)), _greatly_.
+  mid, _with, amid, among_ (with dat. and acc.).
+  middangeard, m., _earth, world_ [middle-yard].
+  middeweard, _midward, toward the middle_.
+  Mierce, m. pl., _Mercians_.
+  mihte, see _magan_.
+  mîl, f., _mile_ [Lat. mille].
+  mildheortnes, f., _mild-heartedness, mercy_.
+  milts, f., _mildness, mercy_.
+  mîn (§ 76), _my, mine_.
+  mislîc, _various_.
+  missenlîc, _various_.
+  môd, n., _mood, mind, courage_.
+  môdcearig, _sorrowful of mind_.
+  môdega, môdga, see môdig.
+  môdgeđanc, m., _purpose of mind_.
+  môdig, _moody, brave, proud_.
+  môdor, f., _mother_.
+  môdsefa, m., _mind, heart_.
+  m[o,]n(n) (man, mann) (§ 68; § 70, Note), m., _man, one, person,
+      they_.
+  môna, m., _moon_.
+  mônađ (§ 68, (1), Note), m., _month_ [môna]; dat. sing., mônđe.
+  m[o,]n(n)cynn, n., _mankind_.
+  m[o,]ndryhten, m., _liege lord_.
+  m[o,]nian (manian) (§ 130), _admonish_.
+  m[o,]nig (manig, m[o,]neg, mćnig), _many_.
+  m[o,]nigfeald (manig-), _manifold, various_.
+  mônđe, see mônađ.
+  môr, m., _moor_.
+  morgen, m., _morning_; dat. sing., morgen(n)e.
+  morđor-bealu (-bealo), n., _murder_ [murder-bale];
+    see đurfan.
+  môste, see môtan.
+  môtan (§ 137), _may, be permitted, must_.
+  mund-gripe, m., _hand-grip_.
+  munuc, m., _monk_ [Lat. monachus].
+  munuchâd, m., _monkhood, monastic rank_.
+  műđ, m., _mouth_.
+  myntan (§ 127), _be minded, intend_; pret. indic. 3d sing., mynte.
+  mynster, n., _monastery_ [Lat. monasterium]; dat. sing., mynstre.
+  my:re, f., _mare_ [mearh].
+  myrđ, f., _joy, mirth_;
+    môdes myrđe 142, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 811]] = _with joy of heart_.
+
+
+#N.#
+
+  nâ (nô), _not_ [ne â = _n-ever_];
+    nâ ne, _not, not at all_.
+  nabban (p. 32, Note), _not to have_.
+  nć:dre, f., _serpent, adder_.
+  nćfde, see nabban.
+  nć:fre, _never_.
+  nć:nig (§ 77), _no one, no, none_.
+  nć:re, nć:ren, nć:ron, see § 40, Note 2.
+  nćs = ne wćs, see § 40, Note 2.
+  nćss, m., _ness, headland_.
+  nâht, see nôht.
+  nâlćs (nâles), _not at all_ [nâ ealles].
+  nam, see niman.
+  nama, see n[o,]ma.
+  nâmon, see niman.
+  nân, _not one, no, none_ [ne ân].
+  nânwuht, n., _nothing_ [no whit].
+  ne, _not_.
+  nę, _nor_;
+    nę ... nę, _neither ... nor_.
+  nęah (§ 96, (4)), _near_.
+  nęah, adv., _nigh, near, nearly, almost_; comparative, nęar, _nearer_.
+  neaht, see niht.
+  nęalęcan (-lć:can) (§ 126), _draw near to, approach_ (with dat.).
+  nęar, see nęah, adv.
+  nęat, n., _neat, cattle_.
+  n[e,]mnan (§ 127), _name_.
+  nemđe, (nymđe), _except, unless_.
+  n[e,]rian (§ 125), _save, preserve_.
+  nęten, see nîeten.
+  nîedbeđearf, _needful, necessary_.
+  nîehst, see nęah (§ 96, (4)).
+  nîeten (nęten), n., _neat, beast, cattle_.
+  nigontîene, _nineteen_.
+  niht (neaht) (§ 68, (1), Note), _night_.
+  nihthelm, m., _night-helm, shade of night_.
+  nihtscűa, m., _shadow of night_.
+  niht-weorc, n., _night-work_.
+  niman (§ 114), _take, gain_ [nimble, numb].
+  nîpan (§ 102), _grow dark, darken_.
+  nis, see § 40, Note 2.
+  nîđ, m., _malice, violence_.
+  nîwe, _new, novel, startling_.
+  nô, see nâ.
+  nôht (nâht, nâ-wiht), n., _not a whit, naught, nothing_; _not, not
+      at all_.
+  nôhwćđer (nâhwćđer), _neither_;
+    nôhwćđer nę ... ne ... nę ... ne 118, 8 = _neither ... nor_.
+  nolde, noldon = ne wolde, ne woldon, see willan.
+  n[o,]ma (nama), m., _name_.
+  norđ (§ 97, (1)), _north, in the north, northwards_.
+  norđan (§ 93, (5)), _from the north_;
+    be norđan, see § 94, (4).
+  Norđ-D[e,]ne, m. pl., _North-Danes_.
+  norđeweard, _northward_.
+  Norđhymbre, m. pl., _Northumbrians_.
+  Norđmanna, see Norđm[o,]n.
+  Norđm[e,]n, see Norđm[o,]n.
+  norđmest, see norđ.
+  Norđm[o,]n (-man) (§ 68, (1)), _Norwegian_.
+  norđor, see norđ.
+  norđryhte, _northward_.
+  norđweard, _northward_.
+  Norđweg, _Norway_.
+  nose, f., _cape, naze_ [ness, nose].
+  notu, f., _office, employment_.
+  nű, _now_; _now that, seeing that_;
+    nű đâ 138, 13 [[_Beowulf_ 658]] = _now then_.
+  ny:hst (nîehst), see nęah.
+  nymđe, see nemđe.
+  nysse, see nytan.
+  nyste, see nytan.
+  nyt(t), _useful, profitable_.
+  nytan (nitan < ne witan, § 136), _not to know_; 3d sing. pret.,
+      nysse, nyste.
+
+
+#O.#
+
+  of (§ 94, (1)), _of, from, concerning_.
+  ofer (§ 94, (2)), _over, across, after, in spite of_ (see 144, 14
+      [[_Beowulf_ 2725]]);
+    ofer eorđan 142, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 803]] = _on earth_.
+  ofer, adv., _over, across_.
+  oferfęran (§ 126), _go over, traverse_.
+  oferfręosan (§ 109), _freeze over_.
+  oferfroren, see oferfręosan.
+  ofgiefan (§ 115), _give up, relinquish_.
+  ofost, f., _haste_.
+  ofslćgen, see ofslęan.
+  ofslęan (§ 118), _slay off, slay_.
+  ofslôge, see ofslęan.
+  oft, _oft, often_; superlative, oftost.
+  on (§ 94, (3)), _in, into, on, against, to, among, during_;
+    on fîf ođđe syx 109, 6 = _into five or six parts_;
+    on weg 140, 10 [[_Beowulf_ 764]] = _away_;
+    on innan 144, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2716]] = _within_;
+    on unriht 145, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 2740]] = _falsely_.
+  onbćrnan (§ 126), _kindle, inspire_.
+  oncy:đđ, f., _distress, suffering_.
+  [o,]nd (and), _and_.
+  [o,]ndsaca, m., _adversary_.
+  [o,]ndswarian (§ 130), _answer_.
+  [o,]ndweard, adj., _present_.
+  onfęng, see onfôn.
+  onfeohtan (§ 110), _fight_.
+  onfindan (§ 110), _find out, discover_; pret. indic. 3d sing.,
+      onfunde.
+  onfôn (§ 118), _receive, seize violently_.
+  onfunde, see onfindan.
+  ongęan, prep., _against, towards_ (with dat. and acc.).
+  ongęan, adv., _just across, opposite_.
+  [O,]ngelcynn (Angel-), n., _Angle kin, English people, England_.
+  [O,]ngelđęod (Angel-), f., _the English people or nation_.
+  ongemang (-m[o,]ng), _among_ (with dat.).
+  ongietan (-gitan) (§ 115), _perceive, see, understand_.
+  onginnan (§ 110), _begin, attempt_.
+  onlűtan (§ 109), _bow, incline_ (intrans.) [lout = a stooper].
+  onrîdan (§ 102), _ride against, make a raid on_.
+  ons[e,]ndan (§ 127), _send_.
+  onslć:pan (onslępan) (§ 126), _fall asleep, sleep_.
+  onsp[o,]nnan (§ 117), _loosen_ [unspan]; pret. 3d sing. indic.,
+      onspęon.
+  onspringan (§ 110), _spring apart, unspring_.
+  onstâl, m., _institution, supply_.
+  onst[e,]llan (§ 128), _establish_; pret. 3d sing. indic., onstealde.
+  onwćcnan (§ 127), _awake_ (intrans.).
+  onweald (-wald), m., _power, authority_ [wield].
+  onw[e,]ndan (§ 127), _change, overturn_ [to wind].
+  ôr, n., _beginning_.
+  ođ (§ 94, (2)), _until, as far as_ (of time and place);
+    ođ đćt, ođ đe, _until_.
+  ođberan (§ 114), _bear away_.
+  ôđer, _other, second_;
+    ôđer ... ôđer, _the one ... the other_.
+  ođfćstan (§ 127), _set to_ (a task).
+  ođfeallan (§ 117) _fall off, decline_.
+  ođđe, _or_;
+    ođđe ... ođđe, _either ... or_.
+
+
+#P.#
+
+  plega, m., _play, festivity_.
+  port, m., _port_ [Lat. portus].
+
+
+#R.#
+
+  râd, f., _raid_.
+  rć:can (§ 126), _reach_; pret. 3d sing., rć:hte.
+  rćst, see r[e,]st.
+  Ręadingas, m. pl., _Reading_ (in Berkshire).
+  r[e,]ccan (§ 128), _narrate, tell_; pret. pl. indic., r[e,]hton,
+      reahton.
+  r[e,]ccelęas, _reckless, careless_.
+  r[e,]ced, n., _house, hall_.
+  regnian (ręnian) (§ 130), _adorn, prepare_; past part., geregnad.
+  regollîc (-lec), _according to rule, regular_.
+  ręn-weard, m., _mighty warden, guard, champion_.
+  r[e,]st (rćst), f., _rest, resting-place, bed_.
+  ręđe, _fierce, furious_.
+  rîce, _rich, powerful, aristocratic_.
+  rîce, n., _realm, kingdom_ [bishopric].
+  rîcsian (§ 130), _rule_.
+  rîdan (§ 102), _ride_.
+  rîman (§ 126), _count_ [rime].
+  rinc, m., _man, warrior_.
+  rôd, f., _rood, cross_;
+    rôde tâcen, _sign of the cross_.
+  Rômware, m. pl., _Romans_.
+  r[o,]nd (rand), m., _shield_.
+  rűn, f., _rune, secret meditation_ [to round = to whisper].
+  rycene (ricene), _quickly, rashly_.
+  ryhtnorđanwind, m., _straight north-wind_.
+
+
+#S.#
+
+  sć:, f., _sea_.
+  sć:-bât, m., _sea-boat_.
+  sć:d, n., _seed_.
+  sć:de, see s[e,]cgan.
+  sć:l, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly];
+    on sć:lum 137, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 644]] = _joyous, merry_.
+  sć:lan (§ 126), _bind_.
+  sć:-lîđend (§ 68, (3)), m., _seafarer_ (nom. and acc. pl. same as
+      nom. and acc. sing.).
+  sam ... sam, _whether ... or_.
+  same, _similarly_;
+    swâ same, _just the same, in like manner_.
+  samod, see s[o,]mod.
+  sanct, m., f., _saint_ [Lat. sanctus]; gen. sing., sanctć, f.,
+      sancti, m.
+  sang, see s[o,]ng.
+  sâr, f., n., _sore, pain, wound_.
+  sâr, adj., _sore, grievous_.
+  sâre, _sorely_.
+  sâwan (§ 117,) _sow_.
+  sâwol, f., _soul_; oblique cases, sing., sâwle (§ 39, Note).
+  scacan (sceacan) (§ 116), _shake, go, depart_; past part., scacen,
+      sceacen.
+  scadu-helm, m., _cover of night, shadow-covering_ [shadow-helm];
+    scadu-helma gesceapu, see Note on 138, 2-6 [[lines 647-51]].
+  sceal, see sculan.
+  scęap, n., _sheep_.
+  scęat, m., _corner, region, quarter_ [sheet];
+    eorđan scęatta 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in the regions of earth_
+      (gen. used as locative).
+  scęawi(g)an (§ 130), _view, see_ [shew].
+  scęawung, f., _seeing_.
+  sceolde, see sculan.
+  scęop (scôp), see scieppan.
+  scęowyrhta, m., _shoe-maker_.
+  sc[e,]đđan (§ 116), _injure, scathe_ (with dat.).
+  scieppan (§ 116), _create_.
+  Scieppend, m., _Creator_.
+  scînan (§ 102), _shine_.
+  scip (scyp), n., _ship_.
+  scipen, n., _stall_.
+  sciprâp, m., _ship-rope, cable_.
+  scîr, f., _shire, district_.
+  Sciringeshęal, m., _Sciringesheal_ (in Norway).
+  scolde, see sculan.
+  sc[o,]mu, f., _shame, dishonor_.
+  Scônęg, f., _Skaane_ (southern district of the Scandinavian
+      peninsula).
+  scopgereord, n., _poetic language_.
+  scrîđan (§ 102), _stride, stalk_.
+  sculan (§ 136; § 137, Note 2), _shall, have to, ought_.
+  Scyldingas, m. pl., _Scyldings, Danes_.
+  scyp, see scip.
+  Scyppend, see Scieppend.
+  sę, sęo, đćt (§ 28; § 28, Note 3), _the_; _that_; _he, she, it_;
+      _who, which, that_;
+    đćs, _from then, afterwards, therefore_;
+    đćs đe (p. 110, l. 2), _with what_;
+    đy: ... đćt (p. 110, ll. 7-8), _for this reason ... because_;
+    tô đć:m ... swâ, _to such an extent ... as_;
+    đy (đę), _the_ (adverbial, with comparatives);
+    đy: ... đy:, _the ... the_.
+  seah, see sęon.
+  sealde, see s[e,]llan.
+  searo-gimm, m., _artistic gem, jewel_.
+  searo-nîđ, m., _cunning hatred, plot_.
+  searo-đ[o,]nc, m., _cunning thought, device_.
+  Seaxe, m. pl., _Saxons, Saxony_.
+  sęc(e)an (§ 128), _to seek, visit, meet_.
+  s[e,]cg, m., _man, warrior_.
+  s[e,]cgan (§ 132), _say, tell_.
+  sefa, m., _mind, spirit_.
+  sęfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sôfte).
+  segel, m., n., _sail_; dat. sing. = segle.
+  seglian (§ 130), _sail_.
+  s[e,]le, m., _hall_.
+  s[e,]ledręam, m., _hall joy, festivity_.
+  s[e,]le-ful, n., _hall cup_.
+  s[e,]les[e,]cg, m., _hall warrior, retainer_.
+  sęlest, _best_ (no positive).
+  self (sylf), _self, himself_ (declined as strong or weak adjective).
+  s[e,]llan (syllan) (§ 128), _give_ [sell, han(d)sel].
+  s[e,]mninga, _forthwith, straightway_.
+  s[e,]ndan (§ 127), _send_.
+  sęo, see sę.
+  sęoc, _sick_.
+  seofon (syfan), _seven_.
+  seolh, m., _seal_; gen. sing. = sęoles (§ 27, (3)).
+  sęon (§ 118), _see, look_.
+  seonu, f., _sinew_; nom. pl., seonowe.
+  sess, m., _seat_.
+  sibb, f., _friendship, peace_ [gos_sip_].
+  sidu (siodu), m., _custom, morality, good conduct_.
+  sîe, see bęon.
+  siex, _six_;
+    syxa (siexa) sum, see sum.
+  siextig, _sixty_.
+  sige, m., _victory_.
+  sige-folc, n., _victorious people_.
+  sige-lęas, _victory-less, of defeat_.
+  sige-rôf, victory-famed, _victorious_.
+  sige-wć:pen, n., _victory-weapon_.
+  siglan (§ 127), _sail_.
+  Sillende, _Zealand_.
+  sinc, n., _treasure, prize_.
+  sinc-fć:t, n., see 137, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 623]] [treasure-vat].
+  sinc-đ[e,]gu, f., _receiving of treasure_ [đicgan].
+  sind, sint, sindon, see bęon.
+  singan (§ 110), _sing_.
+  sittan (§ 115, Note 2), _sit, take position_.
+  sîđ, m., _journey, time_;
+    forman sîđe 139, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 741]] = _the first time_ (instr.
+      sing.).
+  sîđian (§ 130), _journey_.
+  siđđan, _after that, afterwards, after_.
+  slć:p, m., _sleep_.
+  slć:pan (§ 117), _sleep_.
+  slęan (§ 118), _slay_ [slow-worm].
+  slîtan (§ 102), _slit, tear to pieces_.
+  slîđen, _savage, perilous_.
+  smćl, _narrow_.
+  smalost, see smćl.
+  snâw, m., _snow_.
+  snot(t)or, _wise, prudent_.
+  sôhte, see sęcan.
+  s[o,]mod (samod), _together_.
+  sôna, _soon_.
+  s[o,]ng, m., n., _song, poem_.
+  s[o,]ngcrćft, m., _art of song and poetry_.
+  sorg (sorh), f., _sorrow_.
+  sôđ, _true_.
+  sôđ, n., _truth_;
+    tô sôđe, _for a truth, truly, verily_.
+  sôđ-fćst, _truthful, just_.
+  sôđlîce, _truly_.
+  spęd, f., _possessions, success, riches_ [speed].
+  spędig, _rich, prosperous_.
+  spell, n., _story, tale_ [gospel].
+  spęow, see spôwan.
+  spere, n., _spear_.
+  spor, n., _track, footprint_.
+  spôwan (§ 117), _succeed_ (impersonal with dat.).
+  sprć:c, f., _speech, language_.
+  sprecan (§ 115), _speak_.
+  spyrian (spyrigean) (§ 130), _follow_ (intrans.) [spor].
+  stćf, _staff, rod_; pl. = _literature, learning_.
+  stćlhrân, m., _decoy-reindeer_.
+  stćlwierđe, _serviceable_ (see p. 56, Note 2).
+  stć:r, n., _story, narrative_ [Lat. historia].
+  stćđ, n., _shore_.
+  stân, m., _stone, rock_.
+  stân-boga, m., _stone-arch_ [stone-bow].
+  standan, see st[o,]ndan.
+  stânhliđ (-hleođ), n., _stone-cliff_.
+  stapol, m., _column_ [staple].
+  starian (§ 125), _stare, gaze_.
+  st[e,]de, m., _place_.
+  stelan (§ 114), _steal_.
+  st[e,]nt, see st[o,]ndan.
+  stęorbord, n., _starboard, right side of a ship_.
+  st[e,]ppan (§ 116), _step, advance_; pret. indic. 3d sing., stôp.
+  stilnes, f., _stillness, quiet_.
+  st[o,]ndan (§ 116), _stand_.
+  stôp, see st[e,]ppan.
+  storm, m., _storm_.
+  stôw, f., _place_ [stow, and in names of places].
+  strang, see str[o,]ng.
+  str[e,]ngest, see str[o,]ng.
+  str[o,]ng (§ 96, (2)), _strong_.
+  styccemć:lum, _here and there_.
+  sum (§ 91, Note 2), _some, certain, a certain one_;
+    hę syxa sum 104, 25 = _he with five others_.
+  sumera, see sumor.
+  sumor, m., _summer_; dat. sing. = sumera.
+  sumorlida, m., _summer-army_.
+  sundor, _apart_.
+  sunne, f., _sun_.
+  sunu, m., _son_.
+  sűđ, _south, southwards_.
+  sűđan (§ 93, (5)), _from the south_;
+    be sűđan, _south of_ (§ 94, (4)).
+  sűđeweard, _southward_.
+  sűđryhte, _southward_.
+  swâ (swć:), _so, as, how, as if_;
+    swâ swâ, _just as, as far as_;
+    swâ ... swâ, _the ... the, as ... as_;
+    swâ hwćt swâ, _whatsoever_ (§ 77, Note).
+  swć:s, _beloved, own_.
+  swćđ, n., _track, footprint_ [swath].
+  swađul, m.? n.?, _smoke_.
+  swealh, see swelgan.
+  swefan (§ 115), _sleep, sleep the sleep of death_.
+  swefn, n., _sleep, dream_.
+  swęg, m., _sound, noise_.
+  swegle, _bright, clear_.
+  swęlan (§ 126), _burn_ [sweal].
+  swelgan (§ 110), _swallow_; pret. indic. 3d sing., swealh; subj.,
+      swulge.
+  swellan (§ 110), _swell_.
+  Swęoland, n., _Sweden_.
+  Swęom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_.
+  sweotol, _clear_.
+  sweotole, _clearly_.
+  sw[e,]rian (§ 116), _swear_.
+  swęte, _sweet_.
+  swętnes (-nis), f., _sweetness_.
+  swift (swyft), _swift_.
+  swilc (swylc) (§ 77), _such_.
+  swilce, _in such manner, as, likewise_; _as if, as though_ (with
+      subj.).
+  swimman (§ 110), _swim_.
+  swîn (swy:n), n., _swine, hog_.
+  swînsung, f., _melody, harmony_.
+  swîđe (swy:đe), _very, exceedingly, greatly_.
+  swîđost, _chiefly, almost_.
+  swôr, see sw[e,]rian.
+  swulge, see swelgan.
+  swuster (§ 68, (2)), f., _sister_.
+  swylce (swelce), see swilce.
+  swy:n, see swîn.
+  swynsian (§ 130), _resound_.
+  swy:đe, see swîđe.
+  swy:đ-ferhđ, _strong-souled_.
+  sylf, see self.
+  syll, f., _sill, floor_.
+  syllan, see s[e,]llan.
+  symbel, n., _feast, banquet_.
+  symle, _always_.
+  synd, see bęon.
+  syn-dolh, n., _ceaseless wound, incurable wound_.
+  syndriglîce, _specially_.
+  synn, f., _sin_.
+  syn-scađa, m., _ceaseless scather, perpetual foe_.
+  syn-snć:d, f., _huge bit_ [ceaseless bit].
+  syđđan, see siđđan.
+  syx, see siex.
+  syxtig, see siextig.
+
+
+#T.#
+
+  tâcen, n., _sign, token_; dat. sing., tâcne (§ 33, Note).
+  tć:can (§ 128), _teach_.
+  tam, _tame_.
+  tela, _properly, well_ [til].
+  t[e,]llan (§ 128), _count, deem_ [tell]; pret. 3d sing., tealde.
+  T[e,]mes, f., _the Thames_.
+  tęon, _arrange, create_; pret. sing., tęode.
+  Terfinna, m., gen. pl., _the Terfins_.
+  tęđ, see tôđ.
+  tîd, f., _tide, time, hour_.
+  tîen (ty:n), _ten_.
+  til(l), _good_.
+  tîma, m., _time_.
+  tintreglîc, _full of torment_.
+  tô (§ 94, (1)), _to, for, according to, as_;
+    tô hrôfe 114, 2 = _for (as) a roof_ [cf. Biblical _to wife_,
+      modern _to boot_].
+  tô, adv., _too_.
+  tôbrecan (p. 81, Note 2), _break to pieces, knock about_.
+  tôdć:lan (§ 126), _divide_.
+  tôemnes (tô emnes) (§ 94, (4)), _along, alongside_.
+  tôforan (§ 94, (1)), _before_.
+  tôgeđęodan (§ 126), _join_.
+  tôhopa, m., _hope_.
+  tôlicgan (§ 115, Note 2), _separate, lie between_; 3d sing, indic.
+      = tôlîđ.
+  tôlîđ, see tôlicgan.
+  tolűcan (§ 109, Note 1), _destroy_ [the prefix tô reverses the
+      meaning of lűcan, _to lock_].
+  torn, m., _anger, insult_.
+  tôđ (§ 68, (1)), m., _tooth_.
+  tôweard (§ 94, (1)), _toward_.
+  tôweard, adj., _approaching, future_.
+  tręow, f., _pledge, troth_.
+  tręownes, f., _trust_.
+  Trűsô, _Drausen_ (a city on the Drausensea).
+  tűn, m., _town, village_.
+  tunge, f., _tongue_.
+  tűngeręfa, m., _bailiff_ [town-reeve; so sheriff = shire-reeve].
+  tungol, n., _star_.
+  twâ, see twęgen.
+  twęgen, (§ 89), _two, twain_.
+  twęntig, _twenty_.
+  ty:n, see tîen.
+
+
+#Đ.#
+
+  đâ, _then, when_;
+    đâ ... đâ, _when ... then_;
+    đâ đâ, _then when_ = _when_.
+  đâ, see sę.
+  đć:r, _there, where_;
+    đć:r đć:r, _there where_ = _where_;
+    đć:r ... swâ 142, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 798]] = _wheresoever_; 145, 6
+      [[_Beowulf_ 2731]] = _if so be that_.
+  đćs, _afterwards, therefore, thus, because_;
+    see sę.
+  đćt (đćtte = đćt đe), _that, so that_.
+  đafian (§ 130), _consent to_.
+  đanc, see đ[o,]nc.
+  đancian (đ[o,]ncian) (§ 130), _thank_.
+  đanon, see đ[o,]nan.
+  đâs, see đęs.
+  đę, see sę (instr. sing.) and đű.
+  đe (§ 75), _who, whom, which, that_.
+  đęah, _though, although_;
+    đęah đe, _though, although_.
+  đearf, see đurfan.
+  đearf, f., _need, benefit_.
+  đęaw, m., _habit, custom_ [thews].
+  đegn (đegen), m., _servant, thane, warrior_.
+  đ[e,]nc(e)an (§ 128), _think, intend_.
+  đening (-ung), f., _service_;
+    the pl. may mean _book of service_ (117, 17).
+  đęod, f., _people, nation_.
+  đęoden, m., _prince, lord_.
+  đęodscipe, m., _discipline_.
+  đęon (đy:wan) (§ 126), _oppress_ [đęow].
+  đęow, m., _servant_.
+  đęowa, m., _servant_.
+  đęowotdôm (đîowot-), m., _service_.
+  đęs (§ 73), _this_.
+  đider, _thither_.
+  điderweard, _thitherward_.
+  đîn (§ 76), _thine_.
+  đing, n., _thing_;
+    ć:nige đinga, see 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note.
+  đingan (§ 127), _arrange, appoint_.
+  đis, see đęs.
+  đissum, see đęs.
+  đôhte, đôhton, see đ[e,]ncean.
+  đolian (§ 130), _endure_ [thole].
+  đ[o,]nan, _thence_.
+  đ[o,]nc, m., _thanks_.
+  đone, see sę.
+  đonne, _than, then, when_;
+    đonne ... đonne, _when ... then_.
+  đrâg, f., _time_.
+  đręa-ny:d, f., _compulsion, oppression, misery_ [throe-need].
+  đręora, see đrîe.
+  đridda, _third_.
+  đrie (đry:) (§ 89), _three_.
+  đrîm, see đrîe.
+  đrîst-hy:dig, _bold-minded_.
+  đrîtig, _thirty_.
+  đrôwung, f., _suffering_.
+  đry:, see đrîe.
+  đrym(m), m., _renown, glory, strength_.
+  đry:đ, f., _power, multitude_ (pl. used in sense of sing.);
+    asca đry:đe 152, 23 [[_Wanderer_ 99]] = _the might of spears_.
+  đry:đ-ćrn, n., _mighty house, noble hall_.
+  đry:đ-word, n., _mighty word, excellent discourse_.
+  đű (§ 72), _thou_.
+  đűhte, see đyncan.
+  đurfan (§ 136), _need_; pres. indic. 3d sing., đearf; pret. 3d sing.,
+      đorfte;
+    for-đâm mę wîtan ne đearf Waldend fîra morđor-bealo mâga 145, 17
+      [[_Beowulf_ 2742]] = _therefore the Ruler of men need not charge
+      me with the murder of kinsmen_.
+  đurh (§ 94, (2)), _through_.
+  đus, _thus_.
+  đűsend, _thousand_.
+  đy:, see sę.
+  đyder, see đider.
+  đyncan (§ 128), _seem, appear_ (impersonal);
+    mę đyncđ, _methinks, it seems to me_;
+    him đűhte, _it seemed to him_.
+
+
+#U.#
+
+  űhta, m., _dawn_; gen. pl., űhtna.
+  unbeboht, _unsold_ [bebycgan = _to sell_].
+  uncűđ, _unknown, uncertain_ [uncouth].
+  under, _under_ (with dat. and acc.).
+  underst[o,]ndan (§ 116), _understand_.
+  underđęodan (-đîedan) (§ 126), _subject to_;
+    past part. underđęoded = _subjected to, obedient to_ (with dat.).
+  unforbćrned, _unburned_.
+  unfriđ, m., _hostility_.
+  ungefôge, _excessively_.
+  ungemete, _immeasurably, very_.
+  ungesewenlîc, _invisible_ [past part. of sęon + lîc].
+  unlyfigend, _dead, dead man_ [unliving].
+  unly:tel, _no little, great_.
+  unriht, n., _wrong_;
+    on unriht, see on.
+  unrihtwîsnes, f., _unrighteousness_.
+  unspędig, _poor_.
+  unwearnum, _unawares_.
+  űp (űpp), _up_.
+  űpâstîgnes, f., _ascension_ [stîgan].
+  űp-lang, _upright_.
+  űre (§ 76), _our_.
+  usses = gen. sing. neut. of űser, see ic.
+  űt, _out, outside_.
+  űtan, _from without, outside_.
+  űtanbordes, _abroad_.
+  űtg[o,]ng, m., _exodus_.
+  uton, _let us_ (with infin.) [literally _let us go_ with infin. of
+      purpose (see 137, 19-20, Note [[lines 641-42]]); uton = wuton,
+      corrupted form of 1st pl. subj. of wîtan, _to go_].
+  űt-weard, _outward bound, moving outwards_.
+
+
+#W.#
+
+  wâc, _weak, insignificant_.
+  wacian (§ 130), _watch, be on guard_; imperative sing., waca.
+  wadan (§ 116), _go, tread_ [wade].
+  wć:g, m., _wave_.
+  Wć:gmundigas, m. _Wćgmundings_ (family to which Beowulf and Wiglaf
+      belonged).
+  wćl, n., _slaughter, the slain_.
+  wćl-blęat, _deadly_ [slaughter-pitiful].
+  wćlgîfre, _greedy for slaughter_.
+  wćl-rć:s, m., _mortal combat_ [slaughter-race].
+  wćl-ręow, _fierce in strife_.
+  wćlsliht (-sleaht), m., _slaughter_.
+  wćlstôw, f., _battle-field_ [slaughter-place];
+    wćlstôwe gewald, _possession of the battle-field_.
+  wć:pen, n., _weapon_.
+  wć:re, see bęon.
+  wćs, see bęon.
+  wćter, n., _water_.
+  waldend, see _wealdend_.
+  wan (w[o,]n), _wan, dark_.
+  wanhy:dig, _heedless, rash_.
+  wânigean (wânian) (§ 130), _bewail, lament_ (trans.) [whine].
+  warian (§ 130), _attend, accompany_.
+  wât, see witan.
+  wađum, m., _wave_; gen. pl., wađema.
+  weal(l), m., _wall, rampart_.
+  wealdend (§ 68, (3)), _wielder, ruler, lord_.
+  wealh, m., _foreigner, Welshman_.
+  wealhstôd, m., _interpreter, translator_.
+  weallan (§ 117), _well up, boil, be agitated_; pret. 3d. sing.
+      indic., węoll.
+  wealsteal(l), m., _wall-place, foundation_.
+  weard, m., _ward, keeper_.
+  wearđ, see weorđan.
+  weaxan (§ 117), _wax, grow_.
+  weg, m., _way_;
+    hys weges, see § 93, (3);
+    on weg, see on.
+  wel(l), _well, readily_.
+  wela, m., _weal, prosperity, riches_.
+  welm, see wielm.
+  węnan (§ 126), _ween, think, expect_.
+  w[e,]ndan (§ 127), _change, translate_ [wend, windan].
+  w[e,]nian (§ 130), _entertain_;
+    w[e,]nian mid wynnum 149, 20 [[_Wanderer_ 29]] = _entertain
+      joyfully_;
+    w[e,]nede tô wiste 149, 27 [[_Wanderer_ 36]] = _feasted_ (trans.).
+  Weonodland (Weonođland), n., _Wendland_.
+  weorc, n., _work, deed_.
+  weorold (weoruld), see woruld.
+  weorpan (§ 110), _throw_.
+  weorđan (§ 110), _be, become_.
+  wer, m., _man_ [werwulf].
+  węrig, _weary, dejected_.
+  werod, n., _army, band_.
+  wesan, see bęon.
+  Wesseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons_; gen. pl. = Wesseaxna.
+  west, _west, westward_.
+  westanwind, m., _west wind_.
+  węste, _waste_.
+  węsten, n., _waste, desert_.
+  Westsć:, f., _West Sea_ (west of Norway).
+  Westseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons, Wessex_.
+  wîc, n., _dwelling_ [bailiwick].
+  wîcian (§ 130), _stop, lodge, sojourn_ [wîc].
+  wîdre, adv., _farther, more widely_ (comparative of wîde).
+  wîdsć:, f., _open sea_.
+  wielm (welm), m., _welling, surging flood_ [weallan].
+  wîf, n., _wife, woman_.
+  wîg, m., n., _war, battle_.
+  wiga, m., _warrior_.
+  wild, _wild_.
+  wildor, n., _wild beast, reindeer_; dat. pl. = wildrum (§ 33, Note).
+  willa, m., _will, pleasure_; gen. pl., wilna (138, 16 [[_Beowulf_
+      661]]).
+  willan (§ 134; § 137, Note 3), _will, intend, desire_.
+  wilnung, f., _wish, desire_;
+    for đć:re wilnunga 119, 4 = _purposely_.
+  Wiltűn, m., _Wilton_ (in Wiltshire).
+  wîn, n., _wine_.
+  wîn-ćrn, n., _wine-hall_.
+  Wînburne, f., _Wimborne_ (in Dorsetshire).
+  wind, m., _wind_.
+  wine, m., _friend_.
+  Winedas, m. pl., _the Wends, the Wend country_.
+  wine-dryhten, m., _friendly lord_.
+  winelęas, _friendless_.
+  winemć:g, m., _friendly kinsman_.
+  wîngeard, m., _vineyard_.
+  winnan (§ 110), _strive, fight_ [win].
+  wînsćl, n., _wine-hall_.
+  wîn-s[e,]le, m., _wine-hall_.
+  winter, m., _winter_; dat. sing. = wintra.
+  wintercearig, _winter-sad, winter-worn_.
+  wîs, _wise_.
+  wîsdôm, m., _wisdom_.
+  wîse, _wisely_.
+  wîse, f., _manner, matter, affair_ [in this wise].
+  wîs-fćst, _wise_ [wise-fast; cf. shame-faced = shamefast].
+  wîs-hycgende, _wise-thinking_.
+  Wîsle, f., _the Vistula_.
+  Wîsleműđa, m., _the mouth of the Vistula_.
+  wisse, see witan.
+  wist, f., _food, feast_.
+  wita, m., _wise man, councillor_.
+  witan (§ 136), _know, show, experience_.
+  wîtan (§ 102), _reproach, blame_ (with acc. of thing, dat. of person).
+  wîte, n., _punishment_.
+  Wîtland, n., _Witland_ (in Prussia).
+  wiđ (§ 94, (3)), _against, toward, with_;
+    wiđ ęastan and wiđ űpp on emnlange đć:m by:num lande, _toward the
+      east, and upwards along the cultivated land_;
+    wiđ earm gesćt 139, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 750]] = _supported himself on his
+      arm_;
+    gen[e,]red wiđ nîđe (dat.) 143, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 828]] = _had
+      preserved it from (against) violence_.
+  wiđerwinna, m., _adversary_.
+  wiđfôn (§ 118), _grapple with_ (with dat.).
+  wiđhabban (§ 133), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.).
+  wiđst[o,]ndan (§ 116), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.).
+  wl[o,]nc, _proud_.
+  wôd, see wadan.
+  wolcen, n., _cloud_ [welkin]; dat. pl., wolcnum.
+  wolde, see willan.
+  wôma, m., _noise, alarm, terror_.
+  w[o,]n, see wan.
+  wôp, n., _weeping_.
+  word, n., _word_.
+  wôrian (§ 130), _totter, crumble_.
+  worn, m., _large number, multitude_.
+  woruld, f., _world_;
+    tô worulde bűtan ć:ghwilcum [e,]nde 102, 18 = _world without end_.
+  woruldcund, _worldly, secular_.
+  woruldhâd, m., _secular life_ [world-hood].
+  woruldrîce, n., _world-kingdom, world_.
+  woruldđing, n., _worldly affair_.
+  wrćclâst, m., _track or path of an exile_.
+  wrâđ, _wroth, angry_; _foe, enemy_.
+  wrîtan (§ 102), _write_.
+  wucu, f., _week_.
+  wudu, m., _wood, forest_.
+  wuldor, n., _glory_.
+  Wuldorfćder (§ 68, (2)), m., _Father of glory_; gen. sing.,
+      Wuldorfćder.
+  Wuldur-cyning, m., _King of glory_.
+  wulf, m., _wolf_.
+  wund, f., _wound_.
+  wund, _wounded_.
+  wunden, _twisted, woven, convolute_ (past part. of windan).
+  wundor, n., _wonder, marvel_.
+  wundrian (§ 130), _wonder at_ (with gen.).
+  wurdon, see weorđan.
+  wurđan, see weorđan.
+  wylf, f., _she wolf_.
+  wyllađ, see willan.
+  wyn-lęas, _joyless_.
+  wynn, f., _joy, delight_.
+  wynsum, _winsome, delightful_.
+  wyrc(e)an (§ 128), _work, make, compose_.
+  wyrd, f., _weird, fate, destiny_.
+  wyrhta, m., _worker, creator_ [-wright].
+  wyrm, m., _worm, dragon, serpent_.
+  wyrmlîca, m., _serpentine ornamentation_.
+  wyrđ (weorđ), _worthy_; see 114, 7-9, Note.
+
+#Y.#
+
+  ylca, see ilca.
+  yldan (§ 127), _delay, postpone_ [eald].
+  yldu, f., _age_ [eld].
+  ymbe (ymb) (§ 94, (2)), _about, around, concerning_ [_um_while];
+    đćs ymb iii niht 99, 2 = _about three nights afterwards_.
+  ymb-ęode, see ymb-gân.
+  ymbe-sittend, _one who sits (dwells) round about another, neighbor_.
+  ymb-gân (§ 134), _go about, go around, circle_ (with acc.).
+  yrfe-weard, m., _heir_.
+  yrnan, see iernan.
+  yrre, _ireful, angry_.
+  yteren, _of an otter_ [_otor_].
+  y:đan (§ 126), _lay waste_ (as by a deluge) [y:đ = _wave_].
+
+
+II. GLOSSARY.
+
+MODERN ENGLISH--OLD ENGLISH.
+
+
+#A.#
+
+  a, _ân_ (§ 77).
+  abide, _bîdan_ (§ 102), _âbîdan_.
+  about, _be_ (§ 94, (1)), _ymbe_ (§ 94, (2));
+    to write about, _wrîtan be_;
+    to speak about (= of), _sprecan ymbe_;
+    about two days afterwards, _đćs ymbe twęgen dagas_.
+  adder, _nć:dre_ (§ 64).
+  afterwards, _đćs_ (§ 93, (3)).
+  against, _wiđ_ (§ 94, (3)), _on_ (§ 94, (3)).
+  Alfred, _Ćlfred_ (§ 26).
+  all, _eall_ (§ 80).
+  also, _ęac_.
+  although, _đęah_ (§ 105, 2).
+  always, _â_; _ealne weg_ (§ 98, (1)).
+  am, _eom_ (§ 40).
+  an, see a.
+  and, _[o,]nd_ (_and_).
+  angel, [e,]ngel (§ 26).
+  animal, _dęor_ (§ 32).
+  are, _sind, sint, sindon_ (§ 40).
+  army, _werod_ (§ 32);
+    Danish army, _h[e,]re_ (§ 26);
+    English army, _fierd_ (§ 38).
+  art, _eart_ (§ 40).
+  Ashdown, _Ćscesdűn_ (§ 38).
+  ask, _biddan_ (§ 65, Note 3; § 115, Note 2).
+  away, _aweg_.
+
+
+#B.#
+
+  battle-field, _wćlstôw_ (§ 38).
+  be, _bęon_ (§ 40);
+    not to be, see § 40, Note 2.
+  bear, _beran_ (§ 114).
+  because, _for đć:m (đe), for đon (đe)_.
+  become, _weorđan_ (§ 110).
+  before (temporal conjunction), _ć:r, ć:r đć:m đe_ (§ 105, 2).
+  begin, _onginnan_ (§ 107, (1); § 110).
+  belong to, _belimpan tô_ + dative (§ 110).
+  best, see good.
+  better, see good.
+  bind, _bindan_ (§ 110).
+  bird, _fugol_ (§ 26).
+  bite, _bîtan_ (§ 102).
+  body, _lîc_ (§ 32).
+  bone, _bân_ (§ 32).
+  book, _bôc_ (§ 68).
+  both ... and, _ć:gđer ge ... ge_.
+  boundary, _mearc_ (§ 38).
+  boy, _cnapa_ (§ 64).
+  break, _bręotan_ (§ 109), _brecan, âbrecan_ (§ 114).
+  brother, _brôđor_ (§ 68, (2)).
+  but, _ac_.
+  by, _fr[o,]m_ (_fram_) (§ 94, (1); § 141, Note 1).
+
+
+#C.#
+
+  Cćdmon, _Cćdm[o,]n_ (§ 68, (1)).
+  call, _hâtan_ (§ 117, (1)).
+  cease, cease from, _geswîcan_ (§ 102).
+  child, _bearn_ (§ 32).
+  choose, _cęosan_ (§ 109).
+  Christ, _Crîst_ (§ 26).
+  church, _cirice_ (§ 64).
+  come, _cuman_ (§ 114).
+  comfort, _frôfor_ (§ 38).
+  companion, _gefęra_ (§ 64).
+  consolation, _frôfor_ (§ 38).
+  create, _gescieppan_ (§ 116).
+
+
+#D.#
+
+  Danes, _D[e,]ne_ (§ 47).
+  day, _dćg_ (§ 26).
+  dead, _dęad_ (§ 80).
+  dear (= beloved), _lęof_ (§ 80).
+  deed, _dć:d_ (§ 38).
+  die, _cwelan_ (§ 114).
+  division (of troops), _gefylce_ (§ 32), _getruma_ (§ 64).
+  do, _dôn_ (§ 134).
+  door, _dor_ (§ 32), _duru_ (§ 52).
+  drink, _drincan_ (§ 110).
+  during, _on_ (§ 94, (3)). See also § 98.
+  dwell in, _bűan on_ (§ 126, Note 2).
+
+#E.#
+
+  earl, _eorl_ (§ 26).
+  endure, _dręogan_ (§ 109).
+  England, _[E,]nglal[o,]nd_ (§ 32).
+  enjoy, _brűcan_ (§ 62, Note 1; § 109, Note 1).
+  every, _ć:lc_ (§ 77).
+  eye, _ęage_ (§ 64).
+
+
+#F.#
+
+  father, _fćder_ (§ 68, (2)).
+  field, _feld_ (§ 51).
+  fight, _feohtan, gefeohtan_ (§ 110).
+  find, _findan_ (§ 110).
+  finger, _finger_ (§ 26).
+  fire, _fy:r_ (§ 32).
+  fisherman, _fiscere_ (§ 26).
+  foreigner, _wealh_ (§ 26).
+  freedom, _fręodôm_ (§ 26).
+  friend, _wine_ (§ 45), _fręond_ (§ 68, (3)).
+  friendship, _fręondscipe_ (§ 45).
+  full, _full_ (with genitive) (§ 80).
+
+
+#G.#
+
+  gain the victory, _sige habban, sige niman_.
+  gift, _giefu_ (§ 38).
+  give, _giefan_ (with dative of indirect object) (§ 115).
+  glad, _glćd_ (§ 81).
+  glove, _glôf_ (§ 38).
+  go, _gân_ (§ 134), _faran_ (§ 116).
+  God, _God_ (§ 26).
+  good, _gôd_ (§ 80).
+
+
+#H.#
+
+  Halgoland, _Hâlgoland_ (§ 32).
+  hall, _heall_ (§ 38).
+  hand, _h[o,]nd_ (§ 52).
+  hard, _heard_ (§ 80).
+  have, _habban_ (§ 34);
+    not to have, _nabban_ (p. 32, Note).
+  he, _hę_ (§ 53).
+  head, _hęafod_ (§ 32).
+  hear, _hîeran_ (§ 126).
+  heaven, _heofon_ (§ 26).
+  help, _helpan_ (with dative) (§ 110).
+  herdsman, _hierde_ (§ 26).
+  here, _hęr_.
+  hither, _hider_.
+  hold, _healdan_ (§ 117, (2)).
+  holy, _hâlig_ (§ 82).
+  horse, _mearh_ (§ 26), _hors_ (§ 32).
+  house, _hűs_ (§ 32).
+
+
+#I.#
+
+  I, _ic_ (§ 72).
+  in, _on_ (§ 94, (3)).
+  indeed, _sôđlîce_.
+  injure, _sc[e,]đđan_ (with dative) (§ 116).
+  it, _hit_ (§ 53).
+
+
+#K.#
+
+  king, _cyning_ (§ 26).
+  kingdom, _rîce_ (§ 32), _cynerîce_ (§ 32).
+
+
+#L.#
+
+  land, _l[o,]nd_ (§ 32).
+  language, _sprć:c_ (§ 38), _geđęode_ (§ 32).
+  large, _micel_ (§ 82).
+  leisure, _ć:metta_ (§ 64).
+  let us, _uton_ (with infinitive).
+  limb, _lim_ (§ 32).
+  little, _lytel_ (§ 82).
+  live in, _bűan on_ (§ 126, Note 2).
+  lord, _hlâford_ (§ 26).
+  love, _lufian_ (§ 131).
+  love (noun), _lufu_ (§ 38).
+
+
+#M.#
+
+  make, _wyrcan_ (§ 128).
+  man, _s[e,]cg_ (§ 26), _m[o,]n_ (§ 68, (1)).
+  many, _m[o,]nig_ (§ 82).
+  mare, _my:re_ (§ 64).
+  mead, _medu_ (§ 51).
+  Mercians, _Mierce_ (§ 47).
+  milk, _meolc_ (§ 38).
+  month, _mônađ_ (§ 68, (1), Note 1).
+  mouth, _műđ_ (§ 26).
+  much, _micel_ (§ 96, (3)), _micle_ (§ 97, (2)).
+  murderer, _b[o,]na_ (§ 64).
+  my, _mîn_ (§ 76).
+
+
+#N.#
+
+  natives, _l[o,]ndlęode_ (§ 47).
+  nephew, _nefa_ (§ 64).
+  new, _nîwe_ (§ 82).
+  Northumbrians, _Norđymbre_ (§ 47).
+  not, _ne_.
+
+
+#O.#
+
+  of, see about.
+  on, _on_ (§ 94, (3)), _ofer_ (§ 94, (2)).
+  one, _ân_ (§ 89);
+    the one ... the other, _ôđer ... ôđer_.
+  other, _ôđer_ (§ 77).
+  our, _űre_ (§ 76).
+  ox, _oxa_ (§ 64).
+
+
+#P.#
+
+  place, _stôw_ (§ 38).
+  plundering, _h[e,]rgung_ (§ 38).
+  poor, _earm_ (§ 80), _unspędig_ (§ 82).
+  prosperous, _spędig_ (§ 82).
+
+
+#Q.#
+
+  queen, _cwęn_ (§ 49).
+
+
+#R.#
+
+  reindeer, _hrân_ (§ 26).
+  remain, _bîdan_ (§ 102), _âbîdan_.
+  retain possession of the battle-field, _âgan wćlstôwe gewald_.
+  rich, _rîce_ (§ 82), _spędig_ (§ 82).
+  ride, _rîdan_ (§ 102).
+
+
+#S.#
+
+  say, _cweđan_ (§ 115), _s[e,]cgan_ (§ 133).
+  scribe, _bôcere_ (§ 26).
+  seal, _seolh_ (§ 26).
+  see, _sęon_ (§ 118), _gesęon_.
+  serpent, _nć:dre_ (§ 64).
+  servant, _đęowa_ (§ 64), _đegn_ (§ 26).
+  shall, _sculan_ (§ 136; § 137, Note 2).
+  she, _hęo_ (§ 53).
+  shepherd, _hierde_ (§ 26).
+  ship, _scip_ (§ 32).
+  shire, _scîr_ (§ 38).
+  shoemaker, _scęowyrhta_ (§ 64).
+  side, on both sides, _on gehwćđre h[o,]nd_.
+  six, _siex_ (§ 90).
+  slaughter, _wćl_ (§ 32), _wćlsliht_ (§ 45).
+  small, _ly:tel_ (§ 82).
+  son, _sunu_ (§ 51).
+  soul, _sâwol_ (§ 38).
+  speak, _sprecan_ (§ 115).
+  spear, _gâr_ (§ 26), _spere_ (§ 32).
+  stand, _st[o,]ndan_ (§ 116).
+  stone, _stân_ (§ 26).
+  stranger, _wealh_ (§ 26), _cuma_ (§ 64).
+  suffer, _dręogan_ (§ 109).
+  sun, _sunne_ (§ 64).
+  swift, _swift_ (§ 80).
+
+
+#T.#
+
+  take, _niman_ (§ 110).
+  than, _đonne_ (§ 96, (6)).
+  thane, _đegn_ (§ 26).
+  that (conjunction), _đćt_.
+  that (demonstrative), _sę, sęo, đćt_ (§ 28).
+  that (relative), _đe_ (§ 75).
+  the, _se, sęo, đćt_ (§ 28).
+  then, _đâ, đonne_.
+  these, see this.
+  they, _hîe_ (§ 53).
+  thing, _đing_ (§ 32).
+  thirty, _đrîtig_.
+  this, _đęs, đęos, đis_ (§ 73).
+  those, see that (demonstrative).
+  thou, _đű_ (§ 72).
+  though, _đęah_ (§ 105, 2).
+  three, _đrîe_ (§ 89).
+  throne, ascend the throne, _tô rîce fôn_.
+  throw, _weorpan_ (§ 110).
+  to, _tô_ (§ 94, (1)).
+  tongue, _tunge_ (§ 64).
+  track, _spor_ (§ 32).
+  true, _sôđ_ (§ 80).
+  truly, _sôđlîce_.
+  two, _twęgen_ (§ 89).
+
+
+#V.#
+
+  very, _swîđe_.
+  vessel, _fćt_ (§ 32).
+  victory, _sige_ (§ 45).
+
+#W.#
+
+  wall, _weall_ (§ 26).
+  warrior, _s[e,]cg_ (§ 26), _eorl_ (§ 26).
+  way, _weg_ (§ 26).
+  weapon, _wć:pen_ (§ 32).
+  well, _wel_ (§ 97, (2)).
+  Welshman, _Wealh_ (§ 26).
+  went, see go.
+  westward, _west, westrihte_.
+  whale, _hwćl_ (§ 26).
+  what? _hwćt_ (§ 74).
+  when, _đâ, đonne_.
+  where? _hwć:r_.
+  which, _đe_ (§ 75).
+  who? _hwâ_ (§ 74).
+  who (relative), _đe_ (§ 75).
+  whosoever, _swâ hwâ swâ_ (§ 77, Note).
+  will, _willan_ (§ 134; § 137, Note 3).
+  Wilton, _Wiltűn_ (§ 26).
+  win, see gain.
+  wine, _wîn_ (§ 32).
+  wisdom, _wîsdôm_ (§ 26).
+  wise, _wîs_ (§ 80).
+  with, _mid_ (§ 94, (1));
+    to fight with (= against), _gefeohtan wiđ_ (§ 94, (3)).
+  withstand, _wiđst[o,]ndan_ (with dative) (§ 116).
+  wolf, _wulf_ (§ 26), _wylf_ (§ 38).
+  woman, _wîf_ (§ 32).
+  word, _word_ (§ 32).
+  worm, _wyrm_ (§ 45).
+
+
+#Y.#
+
+  ye, _gę_ (§ 72).
+  year, _gęar_ (§ 32).
+  yoke, _geoc_ (§ 32).
+  you, _đű_ (singular), _gę_ (plural) (§ 72).
+  your, _đîn_ (singular), _ęower_ (plural) (§ 76).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Errata
+
+The spelling "Fins" (translating "đâ Finnas") is used consistently.
+Errors were trivial, generally missing punctuation. Shakespeare
+citations have been silently regularized to "I, ii, 3" form. The Old
+English text was not checked for misprints.
+
+
+Numbered Sections:
+
+  9 Note
+    to t.: #settan#, _to set_  [to t.]
+  39
+    NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems.
+      [_final . missing_]
+  41
+    sęo hâlignes[1], _holiness_.  [_comma missing_]
+  95
+    for đć:m, }  [_comma missing_]
+  104
+    corresponding with its function in Mn.E. [_final . missing_]
+  130
+    eard-ian, eard-ode ...  [_first comma missing_]
+  131
+    NOTE 1.  [NOTE. 1.]
+  132
+    hćf-de, lif-de, secg-an,  [_all commas missing_]
+
+Readings:
+
+  Poetry: Structure: Meter: Type B:
+    The type of B most frequently occurring is × × ´Ż | × ´Ż.
+      [_final . missing_]
+
+  Beowulf: The Banquet in Heorot (page 138).
+    [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.).  [_final . missing_]
+
+Glossary:
+
+  âbűgan (§ 109, Note 1)  [Note, 1]
+  dęofol, m., n., _devil_;  [m. n.,]
+  intinga, m., _cause, sake_.  [intinga.]
+  lagulâd, f., _sea_ [lake-way, lâd = _leading, direction, way_].
+    [_closing bracket printed as parenthesis_]
+  norđan (§ 93, (5)), _from the north_;
+    [_second closing parenthesis missing_]
+  sć:l, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly];  [m. f.,]
+  sęfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sôfte).
+    [_closing parenthesis missing_]
+  Swęom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_.  [_final . missing_]
+  tolűcan (§ 109, Note 1), _destroy_ ...  [_section mark § missing_]
+  wiđ (§ 94, (3)), ...  [_section mark § missing_]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by
+C. Alphonso Smith
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